1 The Forging of a “Singapore Sound” in Saxophone Compositions of Zechariah Goh Leslie Wong Kah Ho1, Rattanai Bampenyou2 1Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts, Singapore 2Mahidol University, Thailand Submitted: 2023-01-03. Revised: 2023-03-18. Accepted: 2023-04-10 Abstract The main objective of this study is to examine two of Goh’s saxophone works that demonstrate how the composer realized Singaporean identity through the synthesis of Western, Tibetan, and Indian musical elements. The research design of this qualitative case study is narrative research with data collection carried out by semi-structured questions, email interview with the composer and review of text, videos, and journal articles that relate to the government policies of racial in- tegration and multiculturalism in Singapore, followed by analysis of two of the recent works that evolved from the fusion of Eastern and Western styles. The two works for this qualitative study are Images of Tibet for Soprano Saxophone and Piano, and Confluence for Saxophone Ensemble and Mri- dangam. The findings show that 1) Images of Tibet uses Western formal structures, the technique of thematic development, and Tibetan musical idioms; and 2) Confluence for Saxophone Ensemble and Mridangam employs the Indian Tala, motivic modification technique used in the Fugues of Johann Sebastian Bach, and pandiatonicism as employed in Impressionistic works of Debussy and Ravel. This study reveals the two ways in which the composer uses to intertwine the East and West in his connection to his cultural roots. Keywords: Saxophone music; Singapore Sound, Singapore composition How to Cite: Ho, L. W. K. & Bampenyou, R. (2023). The Forging of a ”Singapore Sound” in Saxophone Compositions of Zechariah Goh. Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education, 23(1), 1-13 Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education 23 (1) (2023), 1-13 Available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/harmonia DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15294/harmonia.v23i1.41647 portunities in the Singapore Saxophone Symposium. This, in turn, allows young saxophonists of Singapore to experience firsthand the instrument’s virtuosic capa- bilities (which is not prevalent in the early stages of saxophone education in Singapo- re), encouraging them to pursue serious saxophone training. Regarding his artistic excellence in the field of composition, Goh received the Young Artist Award (Music) from the Na- tional Arts Council in September 2003. This award was presented to Zechariah Goh by the President of the Republic of Singapore INTRODUCTION Zechariah Goh Toh Chai is Senior Lecturer in Composition at the Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts (NAFA), where he hosts the Singapore Saxophone Symposi- um. It is an annual saxophone event that attracts both international and local ar- tists. His compositions for saxophone are also pivotal to the development of both saxophone music and its status as a solo instrument in Singapore. Goh’s works are usually premiered by renowned saxopho- nists whom he provided performance op- Corresponding author: E-mail: khwang@nafa.edu.sg p-ISSN 2541-1683|e-ISSN 2541-2426 Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education 23 (1) (2023): 1-132 at Istana (Music Education Global, 2021). Goh was awarded the Artistic Excellence Award from the Composers and Authors Society of Singapore in 2013 and the dis- tinguished Alumni Medal from NAFA in 2014 (Music Education Global, 2021). He has written over 60 choral works and was commissioned to write The Spirit Rejoices, the compulsory set piece for the final of the inaugural World Choral Conducting Com- petition that took place in Hong Kong in July 2019 (Music Education Global, 2021). To date, Goh has written six works for the saxophone: Concertino for Alto Sa- xophone and Wind Ensemble (2004), Suite for Alto Saxophone and Piano (2006, 2010-2011), Homage for Saxophone Quartet (2012), Con- certo for Alto Saxophone and Wind Ensemble (2013), Images of Tibet for Soprano Saxophone and Piano (2015) and Confluence for Saxopho- ne Ensemble and Mridangam (2018). Among his works, Concerto for Alto Saxophone and Wind Ensemble, Homage for Saxophone Quar- tet, and Images of Tibet for Soprano Saxopho- ne and Piano are performed regularly by saxophonists in Asia and the United Sta- tes, such as the recording of Homage for Saxophone Quartet by h2 Quartet in their album Infinity Mirror. His Suite for Alto Sa- xophone and Piano was also chosen as one of the choice pieces for the Second Asia Sa- xophone Congress Competition. In a video interview conducted by Project Idiom, a website supported by Yale-NUS that featured composers who write concert music in Singapore and ex- plores their preoccupations, motivations, stories, and music, Goh commented that it has become very helpful for him to think about music that is related to his roots and tradition (Project IDIOM, 2019). To the composer, folk music is a means of recon- necting with one’s heritage, especially as a citizen of an emerging country with a short history; however, it is just the starting point for this process, which Goh would decide what folk elements he would emp- loy in a particular composition, followed by treatment of the music with traditional Western composition techniques (Project IDIOM, 2019). In Goh’s saxophone music, his approach of inter-mingling of elements from both Western classical and tradi- tional Tibetan and Indian music into his composition, such as time signature and traditional elements is apparent in his two latest works for saxophone, Images of Tibet and Confluence for Saxophone Ensemble and Mridangam. Images of Tibet was written in 2015 as a request of Ao Kun, the saxophone professor of the Wuhan Conservatory of Music, who specifically requested Goh to compose a saxophone work incorporating Chinese folk elements, in which Tibetan elements were selected for this composi- tion (Wong, 2020, p. 51). Here, the compo- ser uses Western classical formal structu- res, but the music is filled with traditional Tibetan and Chinese folk music elements such as employing grace notes and “bis- bigliando” to mimic the production of the short drawl and “Shan” in traditional Ti- betan speech and Chinese music respecti- vely. Confluence for Saxophone Ensemble and Mridangam was composed for NAFA and Mahidol University students to perform to- gether at the 18th World Saxophone Cong- ress in Zagreb, Croatia (Wong, 2020, p. 56). The use of Carnatic material is interesting for this composition at this particular event as Southern India music is often viewed as having a close correlation to gaining new prominence due to the emerging presence of South Asia (Kalmanovitch, 2005, p. 136). This composition follows the formal struc- ture of a Tala (a metric cycle with a specific number of beats) and incorporates compo- sitional ideas from Indian Vedic literature. For example, Goh employs the elements of Yajur Veda (a collection of mantras and ver- ses that forms part of the ancient sacred lite- rature of India) in the construction of the se- cond thematic material by using the chant syllabus of four notes—two main notes and two accents as the source material of the second thematic material (Young, 1998, p. 6). More examples are provided in the following section regarding this compo- sition. The fusion of Eastern and Western styles that Goh employs can be seen as his Leslie Wong Kah Ho et al., The Forging of a “Singapore Sound” in Saxophone Composi- 3 embrace of multiculturalism in Singapore. This socio-political movement initiated by Singaporean government promotes liberal ideas such as tolerance and acceptance of diversity among Singaporean citizens, and it also influences the Singaporean concept of sound (Lizeray & Lum, 2019, p. 20). Born in 1970, Goh is one of the first generations of Singaporeans that was brought up in this imaginary national-building exercise conceived by the Singapore government to build an identity for its nation. The populations of modern-day Sin- gapore are mostly descendants of laborers recruited by the British from China, India, and Malaya (Ang & Stratton, 1995, p. 71). It is precisely this cultural hybridity that Sin- gapore finds itself neither East nor West (Ang & Stratton, 1995, p. 71). The national identity matter was of utmost importance to the Singaporean government after it left the Malaysia Federation in 1965 to begin its journey as a sovereign country (Ang & Stratton, 1995, p. 73). With no pre-colonial past, Singapore embraced its multicultura- lism as a form of inventing its nativity from a mish-mash of different groups of immi- grants (Ang & Stratton, 1995, p. 73). The validation of each group of immigrants is done through the celebration of the diffe- rent cultures that they bring from their res- pective homelands but in a delimited form that they can also experience in their new home in Singapore (Ang & Stratton, 1995, p. 78). It should be pointed out that the go- vernment policy was not to assimilate but to integrate each different community to build up common attributes such as one common working language, same loyal- ties, similar values, and attributes so as to make the different communities more co- hesive nation (Ang & Stratton, 1995, p. 79). The use of traditional Tibetan and In- dian elements in these two works is in line with Goh’s interview with Project Idiom SG. Here, he mentions his early attempt to channel the influences of traditional Wes- tern classical and traditional Chinese, In- dian, and Malay music, to which he was exposed in his childhood through televisi- on programs, in his compositional process over the past ten years (Project IDIOM, 2019). Despite the popularity of Goh’s works, there has been no scholarly work on his music for the saxophone. Much of his biographical information for this paper was gathered from his interviews with Pro- ject Idiom SG and Music Education Global. This study aims to provide insights into Goh’s fusion of Western music composi- tion techniques with traditional Tibetan and Indian music elements in two of his saxophone works: Images of Tibet for Sopra- no Saxophone and Piano, and Confluence for Saxophone Ensemble and Mridangam. Also, it discusses in detail how the Singapore- an composer realizes his own “Singapore sound,” which coincides with the national trend emerging out of the Singaporean government’s attempts to characterize a cohesive and overarching national identity after its independence in 1965. METHOD The research design of this qualitati- ve case study is narrative research to dis- cover the social constructivist that enabled an artist in Singapore to develop his own unique sound concepts and composition direction. Data collection methods employed were email interview employed with semi- structured questions with the composer to provide context for each of his musical works for the saxophone. Text, videos, and journal articles that relate to the policies of racial integration and multiculturalism by the government and its influence on the arts were also reviewed, followed by an analysis of two of the composer’s recent works that evolved from the fusion of Eas- tern and Western styles. RESULT AND DISCUSSION Scope and Context of Multiculturalism in Singapore This section deals with how the Sin- gapore government’s policies on promo- ting a multiracial society significantly im- Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education 23 (1) (2023): 1-134 pact the country’s fusion of Western and Eastern musical elements. As there is no published scholarly writing on Goh or his music, this study will serve as a pioneer study on the Singaporean composer and as a companion for future research on sa- xophone or other instrumental works by Singaporean composers. The scope of this paper would be li- mited to: Giving an overview of how the government’s policies since the founding of Singapore to modern- day Singapore in- fluenced the diversity of different races in Singapore; The study of two of Zechariah Goh’s latest two pieces of work: Images of Tibet for Soprano Saxophone and Piano, Confluence for Saxophone Ensemble and Mridangam and illustrated how his music is influenced by multiculturalism in Singa- pore, allowing him to have a perspective. The Context of Multiculturalism in Sin- gapore Singapore is a multicultural Southe- ast Asian nation with rich traditions, for- ged by complex processes of migration and settlement (Lizeray & Lum, 2019, p. 1). It is also a country that is rapidly changing. Its economic policies promote free trade and the free movements of capital have led to the high penetration rate of technologies and cultural influences from the rest of the world (Lizeray & Lum, 2019, p. 1). As a result of these historical processes, Sin- gapore is often taken to be at once to be hyper-globalized yet firmly grounded in Asian traditions (Lizeray & Lum, 2019, p. 1). These phenomena are characterized as two forces that pit themselves against one another, and the struggle to synthesize the two continues to preoccupy Singapore’s leaders in their attempt to form a cohesive and overarching national identity (Lizeray & Lum, 2019, p. 1). However, the coexis- tence of globalization and traditionalism has raised the important question of how Singaporeans and the Singapore art scenes can best experience and reconcile the dichotomy between the contemporary and the traditional in the construction of their identity (Lizeray & Lum, 2019, p. 1). Singapore invests enormously in the official validation of three separate reified cultures—Chinese, Malay, and Indian—as it is through these three “Asian high cultu- res” that Singapore aims to forge its unique and quintessential multiracial Asian-ness (Ang & Stratton, 1995, p. 78). As a result, ethnicity has been lifted out of the realm of un-self-conscious, lived culture and into the sphere of ideology. In the Singapore- an context, Chinese-ness, Malay-ness, and Indian-ness are constructed as sites of aut- hentic Asian-ness, designed to provide the national culture with substance and origi- nal solidity (Ang & Stratton, 1995, p. 78). This coexistence of culture began with the founding of modern Singapore by Sir Stamford Raffles, and music has always been an integral part of this heritage, as the British brought along Western music ente- red the island to join the indigenous Ma- lay musical traditions of the region (Dai- rianatha & Phan, 2005, p. 2). An influx of Chinese and Indian immigrants also cont- ributed their own musical heritage to an already rich multicultural mix of Western and Malay influences, as well as the survi- ving Portuguese traditions dating back to the pre-colonial occupation (Dairianatha & Phan, 2005, pp. 2-3). With the culmination of the rich diversity in cultures, Singapo- rean music developed into what today can broadly be divided into two categories: 1) “Traditional Singaporean Music,” which is comprised of Malay, Chinese, and Indi- an music, and 2) “Western-based musical compositions” by Singaporean composers (Dairianatha & Phan, 2005, p. 3). A government policy to foster mul- ticulturalism is the Ethnic Integration Po- licy (EIP), which was introduced in 1989 (Chan & Chong, 2021). As mentioned by the Minister for National Development of Singapore, when Singapore was still under British rule, the Raffles Town Plan, also known as the Jackson Plan, designated se- parate geographical zones to ethnically se- parate the living areas of Malays, Chinese, Indians, and Europeans (Chan & Chong, 2021). This segregation was not conducive to promoting interaction and integration Leslie Wong Kah Ho et al., The Forging of a “Singapore Sound” in Saxophone Composi- 5 between the races (Chan & Chong, 2021). When Singapore gained its indepen- dence in 1965, its founding fathers were determined to build a cohesive, multira- cial society that was based on the idea of one united people, regardless of race, lan- guage, or religion (Chan & Chong, 2021). The government encouraged this through its public housing policies (Chan & Chong, 2021). For instance, when new towns and estates were built to provide public hou- sing for Singaporeans, the government consciously allocated flats in such a way that every HDB block and precinct all over Singapore reflected the ethnic mix of the general population for new apart- ments. As a result of EIP, public housing estates remained inclusive and diverse, even beyond initial flat allocation (Chan & Chong, 2021). By the late 1980s, there was an increasing concentration of ethnic enc- laves in the resale market (Chan & Chong, 2021). As a result, it capped the proportion of flats in each government housing block and neighborhoods that can be owned by households of each ethnic group (Chan & Chong, 2021). While Singapore’s diversity lends itself to unique musical and artistic ex- pressions, that very diversity also poses a significant challenge for those who seek to define the music of Singapore (Dairianat- ha & Phan, 2005, p. 1). It also makes the challenge of chronicling the music of Sin- gapore a difficult one, as the writer must contend with the questions of where and how to begin as well as which type, genre, or tradition of music to feature (Dairianat- ha & Phan, 2005, p. 1). The confluence of past and present, of the traditional and the contemporary, and of local singularity is the direction that many Singaporean composers take in their creative route (Lizeray & Lum, 2019, p. 1). Goh’s recent compositions for saxophone also reflect this. When he was a child, the composer was highly influenced by music television programs featuring Indian, Chi- nese, and Malay traditional music (Project IDIOM, 2019). Such exposure allowed Goh to develop a “sound library” of sorts in his mind and also serves as a reference when composing music related to his roots and local traditions (Project IDIOM, 2019). He also stressed that thinking about natio- nal identity has facilitated him in develo- ping his composition process. Goh mainly employed Chinese elements in his compo- sitions in his earlier days, but over the past decade, the composer has increasingly used Malay and Indian music in his wri- ting (Project IDIOM, 2019). Notably, ob- vious components such as tunes or scales from traditional Malay and Indian music are not present in his works. Goh, rather, incorporates Carnatic ideas and rhythmic structures in his work Confluence for Sa- xophone Ensemble and Mridangam. Therefo- re, audiences might not be able to recogni- ze Malay and Indian musical influences in his works. (Project IDIOM, 2019). Images of Tibet for Soprano Saxophone and Piano Most of Goh’s saxophone compo- sitions include a fairly Western usage of formal structure and thematic material. However, in 2015, he began to employ elements of traditional Asian music in his writing. This new direction manifested in Images of Tibet for Soprano Saxophone and Pia- no. The work consists of four short move- ments based on Tibetan folk songs: “Song from the Prairie” (草原上的歌), “A Toast” (敬酒歌), “Lullaby” (催眠曲) and “Young Friends” (年轻的朋友) (Wong, 2020, p. 51). This is in line with Goh’s interview with Project Idiom SG; he discussed borrowing elements of traditional folk music and their formal structures and how he applies them to music he has written in the last ten years (Project IDIOM, 2019). The incorporation of traditional Tibe- tan elements by Goh into Images of Tibet is not haphazard and superficial. In each in- dividual movement, the composer strives to use Western structural organizations as platforms to showcase the elements of Tibetan folk music evident in Images of Tibet. Goh’s fusion of traditional Western elements and traditional Tibetan materi- als embodies this construct of the forging Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education 23 (1) (2023): 1-136 of his personal “Singapore sound.” For example, the four movements of Images of Tibet are governed by Western formal structures such as modified strophic Form, binary Form, through-composed Form, and bar Form respectively, as shown in Tables 1-4. Table 1. Overall Strophic formal structure of “Song from the Prairie” from Images of Tibet. Mea- sure 5-10 11-14 15-19 20- 22 23-27 27-35 Key F Maj Penta- tonic F Maj Penta- tonic F Ma- jor – C Major C Major C Major Sec- tion Verse 1 Verse 2 Verse 3 Verse 4 Verse 5 “Song from the Prairie” (草原上的歌) depicts a singing in the vast plain of the Ti- betan plateau. In this movement, Goh uses the modified strophic Form to evoke the sense of Romantic longing in many Ger- man lieder. This structure is also used in Schubert’s lieder such as Gute Nacht from Witerreise, Schwanengesang, Ständchen, and Die Forelle (Roman, 1996, 372). While the lied is considered to be a 19th century art form, strophic songs were long regarded as a native German genre, popular from at least the end of the 16th century (Del- lal, 2014, p. 363). This use of the modified strophic Form is an appropriate choice as it also represents the simplistic and poetic nature of the lied. Interestingly, Goh’s use the Form in a very flexible manner. The demarcation between each section is seam- less and one phrase follows after another, contributing to the reciting quality of the movement. The composer achieves the poetic quality of the lied by creating the main the- matic idea in “Song from the Prairie” from four elements: a long note followed by a short ascending melisma, a descending triplet gesture, an ascending pentatonic scale in sixteenth notes, and a final des- cending pentatonic motive, as presented in Figure 1. The use of feathered beaming effectively creates a sense of urgency while long notes the sense of space. The compo- ser uses all four elements throughout the movement, either repeating them literally or subjecting them to variations of range and direction. This main theme is used in both its entirety and short fragments throughout the movement. Figure 1. “Song from the Prairie” from Images of Tibet, mm. 6-10. This piece’s treatment of formal structure and thematic material is very much grounded in Western classical music tradition. The secular influences of these four short movements are extracted from different aspects of the Tibetan population and different regions and dialects; some of these songs have a ceremonial purpose, for use at weddings and other social occasions, while other songs have an occupational as- sociation, and others still are simply emoti- ve in character (Lhalungpa, 1969, p. 8). Tibetan folk songs provided enter- tainment for everyone who knew them (Lhalungpa, 1969, p. 8). They provided a feeling of company for those engaged in lonely journeys across the great plateau; they also brought consolation to those in sorrow and helped to lighten the burdens of a working life (Lhalungpa, 1969, p. 8). Thus, to effectively perform and appreciate Images of Tibet, both the performer and au- dience must have a slight understanding of the context of the music of Tibet, as the musical interpretation of this piece is very ethnic in nature. The music is written in a very simplistic and Western-notated way and there are many examples across the piece that evokes traditional Tibetan folk music. “Song from the Prairie” includes an example of polyrhythm in measure 13, with eighth, sixteenth, and sextuplet-six- teenth notes in the soprano saxophone part set against a quarter note triplet pattern in the piano part (Figure 2). In the context of this music, it is suggested to perform this measure as expansively as possible to port- Leslie Wong Kah Ho et al., The Forging of a “Singapore Sound” in Saxophone Composi- 7 ray an image of the vastness of a prairie. Figure 2. “Song from the Prairie” from Images of Tibet, mm. 13. Table 2. Overall binary formal structure of “A Toast” from Images of Tibet. Measure 36-46 47-58 59- 70 71-73 74- 85 86- 97 Section Introduc- tion A B Tran- sition A’ B’ In “A Toast” (敬酒歌), the song-like element depicts the performers as though they are singing in front of a bonfire in the middle of the Tibetan fields. The Form that “A Toast” follows is a binary form that fol- lows an ABAB structure. In “A Toast,” the saxophone entry in measure 47, serves as a basis for thematic development in the re- turn of the second A section, as illustrated in Figure 3. Goh then employs important compositional principles from European art music when developing thematic ma- terial in Images of Tibet (Frisch, 1982, 215). Variation of melodic elements is used to create musical variety and contrast (Frisch, 1982, 215). In order to create cohesion wit- hin his music, Goh mixes and matches dif- ferent motives and themes- setting one as melody and another as counter-melody, for example. He also uses Western techni- ques of augmentation and diminution to vary melodic ideas like rhythmically stret- ching or compressing them, respectively. The thematic material is developed by traditional Western composition techni- ques of augmentation, displacing the rhythms and employing embellishment in measures 51-54 as shown in Figure 4a. In the return to the A section in return of the A section in measure 78-81 as shown in Figure 4b, the same thematic material is augmented and fragmentized to provide variation. Figure 3. A Toast from Images of Tibet, mm. 47-50. Figure 4a. “A Toast” from Images of Tibet, mm. 51-54 (augmentation and embellishment). Figure 4b. “A Toast” from Images of Tibet, mm. 78-81 (augmentation and fragmentation). Although this is a contemporary, Westernized version of traditional folk tu- nes, there are many instances where the music mimics the authentic traditional performance practices of its source ma- terial (Yang yang et al., 2010, pp. 20-21). One example is the use of grace notes in “A Toast and Lullaby,” which is very re- miniscent of the short drawl, which is an extension and twisting of the vowel in Ti- betan speech and singing (Figure 5 and 6) (Cheng, 2014, p. 55). Figure 5. “A Toast” from Images of Tibet, mm. 53-54. Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education 23 (1) (2023): 1-138 Figure 6. “Lullaby” from Images of Tibet, mm. 104-105. “Lullaby” (催眠曲) is in contrast to the previous two movements, where it is quiet and more reflective, as though staring into the vast clear skies. “Lulla- by” consists of four phrases presented by the soprano saxophone, following a two- measure introduction or interjection from the piano. The first statement is an eight- measure lyrical phrase (Figure 7) and the second statement is a six-measure phrase (Figure 8). The third and final statement of this section is a six-measure phrase from (Figure 9). Although simplistic in nature, there are many exchanges of rhythm bet- ween the soprano saxophone and piano, as seen in Figures 8 and 9 to produce a rhyth- mic call and response. Table 3. Overall Through-composed Form of “Lullaby” from Images of Tibet. Mea- sure 98-99 100- 105 106-107 108-111 Key Eb Eb Eb F Major Section Piano Intro- duction Phrase 1 Piano Break Phrase 2 Mea- sure 112-113 114- 117 118-119 120--132 Key Section Eb Dorian Piano Break Eb Phrase 3 Eb Piano Break (Recapitul- ation) Eb Phrase 4 Figure 7. “Lullaby” from Images of Tibet, mm. 98-105. Figure 8. “Lullaby” from Images of Tibet, mm. 106-111. Figure 9. “Lullaby” from Images of Tibet, mm. 112-117. The final “Lullaby” measure has a timbral trill that decrescendos to niente (Fi- gure 10). Timbral trills are often indicated by the term “bisbigliando,” which refers to a trill using two or more alternate fingerings (Weiss & Netti, 2015, p. 35). The difficulty in executing this measure lies in creating the aural sense of an echo, similar to the production of “Shan” in traditional Chine- se music (Yang Yang et al., 2010, p. 16). Figure 10. “Lullaby” from Images of Tibet, mm. 132. Table 4. Overall Bar form of Young Friends from Images of Tibet. Measure 133-154 155-176 177-198 199-211 Section A1 A2 B Coda “Young Friends” (年轻的朋友) is the concluding movement and begins with a robust and chirpy style which becomes more chaotic before finally settling down in a three-measure cadenza that ends off resoundingly potraying the musical depic- tion of friends engaging in vibrant conver- sation. The structure of “Young Friends” is a AAB+Coda form which is known as the Bar form, a term in musicology denoting this particular Form (Brunner, 2001). The Leslie Wong Kah Ho et al., The Forging of a “Singapore Sound” in Saxophone Composi- 9 origins of the usage of the term can be tra- ced to the 15th to 18th centuries by Ger- man Meistersinger (Brunner, 2001). These forms are taken from medieval German song, but are also generally applicable and could be found in the early Middle Ages as Gregorian chant repertories and later in many hymns (Brunner, 2001). In a more expanded form, it became particularly important in the songs of the Provençal troubadours, the northern French trouvè- res, and the German Minnesinger, Sangs- pruchdichter and Meistersinger (Brunner, 2001). In more history of German songs, it saw a significant revival in the songs of Schubert, Schumann, and Brahms (Brun- ner, 2001). “Young Friends” follows the struc- ture religiously. In the first A section, it is broken up into three phrases, respectively from measure 133-136 (Figure 11), 137-143 (Figure 12), 144-153 (Figure 13), and tran- sition in measure 154. The second A sec- tion sees the composer developing from the first A section with variations on the melodies, ornamentations, and the use of canonic texture for distinguishing the two A sections (Figure 14). Figure 11. “Young Friends” from Images of Tibet, mm. 133-136. Figure 12. “Young Friends” from Images of Tibet, mm. 137-143. Figure 13. “Young Friends” from Images of Tibet, mm. 144-153. Figure 14. “Young Friends” from Images of Tibet, mm. 155-176. Confluence for Saxophone Ensemble and Mridangam Traditional Indian music is divi- ded between the Hindustani (northern) and Carnatic (southern) schools (Young, 1998, p. 8). In Indian classical music, Raga is the basis of melody and Tala is the basis of rhythm (Pudaruth, 2016, pp. 2-3). In the past, Hindustani music has dominated the Western concept of Indian music (Kalma- novitch, 2005, p. 136). This reflects the in- fluence of 14th century Muslim rulers and the traffic in culture and materials along the Silk Road (Kalmanovitch, 2005, p. 136). Therefore, it is not surprising that the ta- bla and sitar of Hindustani music, and not the mridangam and vina of Carnatic mu- sic, have underscored Western fantasies of an exotic India (Kalmanovitch, 2005, p. 136). This has seen a change as the South Asian diasporic presence has emerged worldwide, allowing Carnatic music to Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education 23 (1) (2023): 1-1310 assume new prominence (Kalmanovitch, 2005, p. 136). This fact is attested by the widespread presence of South Indians as a main influence for Indian musical practi- ce in Singapore (Dairianatha & Phan, 2005, p. 204). Classical traditions and music, by implication, appear in the early films of the 20th century in the form of folk and Hindu mythology and are also prevalent in temp- le grounds and in rituals throughout the year (Dairianatha & Phan, 2005, p. 204). Confluence for Saxophone Ensemble and Mridangam was composed based on Carna- tic (Konokol) rhythm, with an improvised part by the ethnic instrument the mridan- gam (Wong, 2020, pp. 77-78). The mridan- gam is perhaps the most highly developed and ancient of all percussion instruments and an indispensable accompaniment to vocal and instrumental music in Carnatic music (Krishnaswami, 1971, pp. 36-37). The drum is hollowed out of a block of wood almost cylindrical in shape and 1.5- 2 feet in length, with the right head of the mridangam covered with three concentric layers of calf and sheepskin and the left side with two layers of buffalo and sheeps- kin (Krishnaswami, 1971, pp. 36-37). In Confluence for Saxophone Ensemble and Mridangam, the formal structure is go- verned by a Tala of 8 cycles of 12 measu- res in 5/4 time with its thematic material, tempo, and rhythmic structure derived from elements of Vedic literature (Figure 5). The Tala is important in this composi- tion, as Goh employs the strict Tala struc- ture of Carnatic music in cyclic patterns (Pudaruth, 2016, p. 3). The use of Carnatic material is interesting because it mirrors Kalmanovitch’s (2005) argument that the Carnatic music of South India is becoming increasingly interesting to musicians due to its comparatively more elaborate rhyth- mic (Tala) system (136). The specific utility of Carnatic rhythmic systems for Western professional musical education now provi- des musicians with a clear framework and specific tools to incorporate Carnatic ele- ments into their improvisation and com- position (Kalmanovitch, 2005, p. 136). Table 5. Tala formal structure of Confluence for Saxophone Ensemble and Mridangam. Measure 1-12 13-24 25-36 37-48 Cycle/Tala 1 2 3 4 Section Theme 1 + 2 Theme 1 + Theme 2 Augmen- tation Theme 3 Theme 3 + Theme 1 Fragments + Staccato Gesture Measure 49-60 61-72 73-84 85-95 Cycle/Tala 5 6 7 8 Section Theme 3 + Stac- cato Ges- ture Melodic Staccato+ Theme 2 fragments + 16th notes Theme 2 + Theme 1 Conclu- sion In the analysis of this composition, it is clear that Goh uses the ideas of Indi- an Carnatic music and infuses them with Western ideas of thematic development. In confluence, there are some references to Vedic literature which can be traced back to the four Vedas, an ancient compilati- on of sacred and religious texts, prayers, hymns, chants, and rituals dedicated to various gods (Young, 1998, p. 6). One characteristic of Vedic literature is the use of percussion and the use of odd and even meters (Young, 1998, p. 6). The use of the mridangam in this composition and the use of the meter in 5/4 conform to these points. Another characteristics of Vedic literature are usually first recited as a monotone and then later developed into three notes—a main tone with one tone higher and one below—which can be seen in the first thematic material (Figure 15) (Young, 1998, p. 6). In the Yajur Veda, the chants develop into four notes—two main notes and two accents—which is also rep- resented in the second thematic material (Figure 16) (Young, 1998, p. 6). Leslie Wong Kah Ho et al., The Forging of a “Singapore Sound” in Saxophone Composi- 11 Figure 15. Confluence for Saxophone Ensemble and Mridangam, mm. 1-3. Figure 16. Confluence for Saxophone Ensemble and Mridangam, mm. 9-11. The tempo of Confluence for Saxopho- ne Ensemble and Mridangam are also bor- rowed from the Samagana, a part of the Sama Vedas, with importance given to tem- po using Druta (fast), Laghu (short), Guru (long), and Pluta (lengthen) (Young, 1998, p. 6). Each of these characteristics is repre- sented in the piece, with the quarter note = 150 tempo, the staccato gestures throug- hout, the augmentation of theme 2 and the long phrase of theme 3, and finally, the ex- tension of the thematic material from me- asures 73-97 respectively corresponding to these characteristics of the Samagana. Some Western elements we can ob- serve from confluence are the Johann Se- bastian Bach influence. We can see the thematic material being imitated by cano- nic texture often seen in Johann Sebastian Bach’s fugues and adding a perfect fourth skip in the middle of the motives (Figure 17, 18). Secondly, we can observe the use of pandiatonicism to create a texture that is reminiscent of impressionistic works such as Debussy’s La Mer, Maurice Ravel’s Pièce en forme de Habanera, Aaron Copland’s Ap- palachian Spring, Bela Bartok Mikrokosmos, among others (Figure 19). Figure 17. Confluence for Saxophone Ensemble and Mridangam, mm. 22-24. Figure 18. Confluence for Saxophone Ensemble and Mridangam, mm. 12-14. Figure 19. Confluence for Saxophone Ensemble and Mridangam, mm.25-28. CONCLUSIONS Since the founding of modern Singa- pore by Sir Stamford Raffles, the British, preexisting Malay, Chinese, and Indian immigrant populations, and their respec- tive musical traditions have always coe- xisted like was the norm since it began its standing as a free trading port. After Singapore broke away from Malaysia to become an independent country on Au- gust 9, 1965, the country tried very hard to maintain the cultural balance between the three major races of Chinese, Malay, and Indian but, at the same time, presented itself as one Singapore. This resulted in a significant challenge for those who seek to define the music of Singapore, and the re- sult is the confluence of past and present, of tradition and the contemporary, and of local singularity as the direction that many Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education 23 (1) (2023): 1-1312 Singaporean composers take in their crea- tive route in their merging of the traditio- nal and the contemporary. The saxophone is also a young instrument that is very deeply rooted in the tradition of French repertoire written in the 1900s, but at the same time, it is also highly involved in avant-garde music. This also sees the instrument taking the creative route of merging traditional and contemporary. 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