375 The Role of Parents in Their Children’s Artistic Education: The Effect of Parental Involvement in the Transgenerational Process Tímea Szűcs, Judit Váradi, Henrietta Kelemen, Zsófia Miklódi-Simon, Gabriella Pusztai University of Debrecen, Hungary Submitted: 2023-02-06. Revised: 2023-05-08. Accepted: 2023-08-12 Abstract Little is known about the methods and effects of parental involvement in art education. The aim of our systematic literature review is to explore the types of parental involvement in four branches of art (music, dance, visual arts, and theatre). We conducted our research with the help of the EBSCO database, using the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) procedure. We found that the share of the different artistic fields is highly disproportionate in the literature on parental involvement. Compared to music, theatre, dance, and visual arts, coverage is negligible. During our study, we managed to classify types of paren- tal involvement and found that it showed variety across different branches of art. Keywords: parental involvement; artistic education; music education How to Cite: Szűcs, T., Váradi, J., Kelemen, H., Miklódi-Simon, Z. & Pusztai, G. (2023). The Role of Parents in Their Children’s Artistic Education: The Effect of Parental Involvement in the Transgenerational Process. Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education, 23(2), 375-386 Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education 23 (2) (2023), 375-386 Available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/harmonia DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15294/harmonia.v23i2.42547 rental volunteering, parental involvement in home learning, school decision-making, and school-community partnerships. Grol- nick and Slowiacek’s (1994) three-factor model consists of behavioural factors, cognitive-intellectual factors and personal factors. Hoover-Demsey et al. (2001) mo- del of parental involvement discusses the causes and realisation of parental involve- ment and the question to which aspects of parental involvement are the most influen- tial. Keith et al. (1993) categorise parental involvement into four components, which include parental expectations, school in- volvement, providing structure at home (home involvement), and parent-child communication about school (personal support). Parental involvement (PI) impacts INTRODUCTION Parents are important and indispen- sable actors in children’s artistic learning, providing them with financial, technical, and emotional support. The literature (Epstein, 1994; Grolnick & Slowiacek, 1994; Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2001; Keith et al., 1993; Nyitrai et al., 2019; Zdzinski, 2013) abounds in well-constructed models that describe different levels of parental invol- vement, the most significant of which are highlighted below. One of the best-known models of pa- rental involvement was created by Epstein (1994), who formulated a six-factor struc- ture of school-based parental involvement. This includes assisting parents in child re- aring, school-parent communication, pa- Corresponding author: E-mail: szucstimea77@gmail.com p-ISSN 2541-1683|e-ISSN 2541-2426 Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education 23 (2) (2023): 375-386376 school success, and because of that this re- search area is the focus of educational rese- arch, but art-education is a neglected topic. In this systematic review, we want to exp- lore how this topic (PI) appears in drama-, dance-, visual arts- and music education. METHODS This systematic literature review was prepared based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta- Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines (see Figure 1). Figure 1. Preferred Reporting Items for Sys- tematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRIS- MA) diagram Eligibility criteria The following criteria were formula- ted for the systematic review. The studies to be included (1) reported original rese- arch published in a peer-reviewed journal; (2) were written in English; (3) were pub- lished in academic journals with their full text; (4) contained the selected keywords in their abstracts; (5) belonged to the dis- cipline of education; (6) examined the re- lationship between the families of children in art education and the school. Search Strategy Before the search, we consulted a research librarian from the University of Debrecen about our searching strategy. We performed the search on 8th December, 2021 in EBSCO Discovery Service Search Engine, which included 85 databases. During the search, we considered it important that the keywords cover all four fields of art (music, dance, visual arts, theatre). For this purpose, we used the terms that occurred most frequently in the international literature. The keywords were: 1. parent involvement OR parent participation OR parent engagement OR family involvement OR family engage- ment 2. music education OR music lear- ning OR music teaching OR music class OR visual art education OR visual arts learning OR visual arts teaching OR visu- al arts class OR dance education OR dan- ce learning OR dance teaching OR dance class OR creative dramatics education OR creative dramatics learning OR creative dramatics teaching OR creative dramatics class OR creative art education OR creative arts learning OR creative arts teaching OR creative arts class OR theatre education OR theatre learning OR theatre teaching OR theatre class OR artistic activity. Ove- rall, our systematic searches resulted 108 records. After double filtering, we exclu- ded 23 records. Study Selection After removing duplicate studies, we performed a multi-step screening process to select the studies that met the inclusion criteria. Stage 1, screening of titles and abstracts. Filtering both titles and abstracts, each author created their list independent- ly. Comparing these, if two authors found a study to be eligible, they moved on to the Tímea Szűcs et al., The Role of Parents in Their Children’s Artistic Education: The Effect of 377 next item. Stage 2, screening of full texts. We divided the studies selected in the previo- us section for further analysis. Then, after reading the full text, each author explained why they would include or exclude that study. We then checked each other’s work in pairs, and if there was agreement, the study was included in the review. The characteristics of the selected studies are shown in Tables 2 and 3. Table 2. Distribution of the selected studies by year of publication before 2000 2000-2010 2011-2020 1 10 11 Table 3. Studies selected for analysis by loca- tion Journal Journal metrics Region Number of stud- ies British Journal of Music Edu- cation Scopus Q1 United Kingdom 3 Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education United States 2 Zbornik Instituta za pedagoska istrazivanja Scopus Q4 Serbia 1 Early Childhood Education Journal Scopus Q2 Nether- lands 2 Canadian Journal of Education Scopus Q4 Canada 1 New Ho- rizons in Education Scopus Q4 China 1 The Journal of Negro Education Scopus Q2 United States 1 General Music To- day United States 1 Internation- al Journal of Educa- tion & the Arts Scopus Q1 United States 1 Internation- al Journal of Art & Design Education Scopus Q1 United Kingdom 1 Journal of Research in Music Education Scopus Q1 United States 4 Music Educators Journal United States 1 Australian Journal of Music Edu- cation Australia 1 Asia-Pacific Education Researcher Scopus Q2 Singapore 1 New Waves Educational Research & Develop- ment United States 1 The fourth table shows the distributi- on of studies among branches of art. It is clear that more than 80% of the studies are in the field of music and only 1-2 studies are related to the other fields of art. Table 4. Distribution of branches of art in the studies Distribution of branches of art Music Dance Visual art Theatre 17 2 1 1 The authors used the following terms to express parental involvement: parental involvement, parental engagement, pa- rental support, parental influence, family and community partnerships, cooperation between schools and the parents, music Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education 23 (2) (2023): 375-386378 activities in the home, direct adult invol- vement, parental role, involvement of pa- rents, direct adult involvement. The proportion of research methods in the studies was 50% quantitative met- hod (questionnaire), 25% qualitative met- hod (interview), and 25% mixed methodo- logy. Regarding the geographical distri- bution of the target groups, most of the re- search took place in the USA (9). Two stu- dies were written in England and China, respectively. In addition, studies were con- ducted in Canada, Africa, Europe, Austra- lia, Malaysia and South Korea. RESULT AND DISCUSSION Research on the motivational power of music at home Our results show that several rese- archers have investigated the impact of children’s musical environment at home and the decisive role of parents in sensiti- sing their children to the arts. This is a key area because early childhood music educa- tion can determine both a lifelong relation- ship with music and, later, intergeneratio- nal transmission by the next generation of parents. Samuel’s (2014) research looked at transgenerational effects. He looked for vo- lunteer families in Boston where children had no previous art education and there were no professional musicians in the fa- mily. The families, which were selected randomly, were pre-assessed on the pa- rents’ prior art education and experience. Each week during the children’s educati- on, parents were asked about musical acti- vities at home, changes in the frequency of those activities, and any non-musical areas of interest. The research confirmed that pa- rents’ childhood musical experiences were incorporated into childrearing, but only in the area of singing at home; this relation- ship did not apply to music education. The frequency of parents’ early singing experiences significantly correlated with the frequency of singing at home. Thus, the predictive effect of parents’ childhood musical experiences on their later musical parenting behaviour may be significantly larger than previously reported. In fact, participation in music lessons did not in- crease the time spent playing music to- gether at home. At the same time, parents perceived music lessons to provide vario- us cognitive benefits in areas unrelated to musical development. Custodero (2006) also investigated singing at home as an artistic activity sha- red by parents and children. By resear- ching the practices of ten families of three- year-old children, she explored the types of musical activities parents engaged in at home. The first was singing in relation to daily activities such as meals, naps, bat- hing, and falling asleep. Some participants reported singing to accompany these acti- vities to make them special and to incor- porate the songs into daily life. Families found the use of music important to pay tribute to generational culture, maintain and adapt old traditions, and create new ones. Some participants carried on the in- fluence of their own parents. Both the re- searchers and the parents in the study ob- served a number of singing practices that took place during play. These songs fell into three categories: learnt, adapted or in- vented. Learnt songs – clearly recognisab- le songs from the cultural heritage – were present in all families. Adaptations of the- se learnt songs were also common, usually accompanied by repetitive fragments and wordplay. All families reported the use of spontaneously invented singing and was also recorded in the researchers’ field no- tes and in parental diary entries. McDowell (2008) shows the strong impact of cultural transfer. Her research found that singing at home was parents’ main musical activity. They had already enjoyed it as children and now wanted to pass on the love of singing to their own offspring. The author believes that a child who is read to is more likely to become a reader, and the same is true for a child who is sung to. In her opinion, music is somet- hing children will not outgrow, but somet- hing they will grow into and will stay with them for the rest of their lives. Tímea Szűcs et al., The Role of Parents in Their Children’s Artistic Education: The Effect of 379 Anderson and Barton-Wales (2019) confirm that parental values shape and de- termine the contexts within which musical experiences are created. Koops (2012) examines music educa- tion in school and out-of-school contexts, focusing on the extent to which parents influence and participate in the process of learning music and related activities. The results show that parents’ encouragement of musical activities has a long-term im- pact on families’ joint musical activities. Parents perceived that music education had the most powerful impact on their children’s creativity. Zdzinski’s (2013) study used factor analysis to examine the multifaceted struc- ture of the home environment in music. In order to provide music education resear- chers with a common definition of paren- tal involvement, he created a scale that ref- lects this structure, thus creating the home environment in music (PI-HEM) construct. The results of the analysis showed that the data fitted a seven-factor model best. The seven factors were identified as (1) home musical structure, (2) attitudes toward music, (3) home musical environment, (4) music programme support, (5) parental expectations, (6) family musical participa- tion, and (7) family musical background. It was found that parents’ education and socioeconomic status influence their musi- cal tastes; thus, the influence of the home environment is significant. It was conclu- ded that parental involvement in music is not a uniform construct. Although the ty- pes of PI-HE in general education are very similar, they are not identical to those in a musical context. Music-specific forms may go beyond the strategies proposed in the literature on general education. Involving parents to be active in their children’s music education The special system of teaching through art education is demonstrated by the fact that many researchers recom- mend the active involvement of parents as a major motivator for their children to be successful. This is the phenomenon on which Suzuki grounded his method. Considering parental example to be a key factor in musical activity, his philosophy bases the structure of music education on parental involvement. Preschool-age children attend instrumental lessons with their parents, where the parent must also be actively involved in the instruction. The Suzuki method is seen as effective because parental involvement motivates the child, and setting an example makes the activity attractive to them. In addition to suppor- ting the child, parental involvement can help build deeper relationships between family members (Fagan et al., 1992). Fagan et al. (1992) presented a study of educators’ efforts to encourage parents to actively participate in musical produc- tions to increase parental involvement. Joint parent orchestras, rehearsals, and individual preparation and practice sho- wed children that musical activity was not only a short-term but a lifelong opportu- nity. At the same time, it was a great op- portunity for teachers to get to know the parents better and utilize music’s commu- nity-building effect. The experiment had a double outcome; on the one hand, seeing their parents playing music motivated the children, and on the other hand, parents were shown how to spend their free time in a useful way. Marjanovic-Shane (2006), exami- ning the Project Learn School Communi- ty teaching method, found that education through the arts is given a prominent role in education which is built on the system of cooperation. Parental involvement mani- fests itself in all aspects of school life, from teaching to school management. Children are particularly affected by their parents’ extra effort, making them feel more res- ponsible and motivated to achieve good results. Bugeja (2009) studied parental invol- vement in music education systems using Suzuki’s and traditional methods. She exp- lored how the teacher can facilitate paren- tal involvement through ongoing commu- nication, highlighting the role of parents in music lessons, what their tasks are and Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education 23 (2) (2023): 375-386380 how they can help their children. There were also negative experiences showing that the teacher completely excluded the mother from the child’s musical education due to a lack of communication. Bugeja’s research fully supported the view that the key to musical success is the collaboration between the student, parent, and teacher. Having examined the relevant similarities and differences, Bugeja also found that no generalizations could be made about pa- rents, because it is not only different edu- cational systems that determine behaviour and involvement, but probably also diffe- rent personality traits. Koops’ (2012) study also showed that the role of parents is prominent in music education. Parents’ active involvement changed preschool children’s behavior and activity during music sessions. In a later phase, music teachers tried to redu- ce parents’ role and distance them from their children. Many children experienced a prolonged process of separation, while children who had already let go of their parents were disturbed by the presence of other parents. Koops concluded that children behave differently in the presence of a parent. At the same time, she pointed out that encouraging parents to be active in music activities has a long-term effect on the joint musical activities of families. Harris and Graves (2010), examining African American boys, found that cultu- ral capital from family backgrounds was not evident in music studies. The role of parents through transgenerational media- tion positively influenced reading achieve- ment in the study sample, but involvement in art classes and music education did not yield any benefits. McMillan’s (2004) study highlights an important point. The extent of parental involvement is not the same in teachers’, students’, and parents’ perceptions. How much and to what extent parents help with home practice is perceived very differently by each party. A survey of parents’ par- ticipation in music lessons revealed that parents perceived themselves as more pas- sive participants in their children’s music lessons and were motivated to participate by a desire to conform rather than help their children. The survey revealed that parents’ participation was most encoura- ged by experienced teachers. One of the key findings was that children who re- ceived help from their parents accepted it with pleasure. Parental attention to support and encour- age children One of the most influential factors in music education is parents’ attention, encouragement and support. The views emphasising the importance of parental involvement (both spiritual and physical) in music education are not new (Bugeja, 2009). Throughout history, renowned mu- sicians such as Mozart benefited from pa- rental guidance and support in their musi- cal activities (Wagnes, 1998). Prerequisites for extra-curricular ac- tivities such as music education include spiritual and financial support from pa- rents (Xu, 2017). Spiritual support is ma- nifested in parents’ positive attitudes towards music education. The effects of parental support and pressure on partici- pation in extracurricular activities were in- vestigated by Anderson, Funk, Elliott, and Smith (2003) among parents of elementary school children aged 9-11 years in Ohio (Cleveland) and Toledo in the USA. The results of their research show that parental support and encouragement are strong- ly associated with children’s participati- on in extracurricular activities. Research by Davidson et al. (1996) found that the most successful children in learning music were those whose parents had been invol- ved and supportive from an early stage of learning. The study involved 257 children between the ages of 8 and 18 learning to play an instrument and their parents, with whom the researchers conducted indivi- dual interviews. A key finding of the rese- arch was that “overall, the most musically talented children received the highest le- vels of parental support”. Denny’s (2007) research looked at factors influencing musical education Tímea Szűcs et al., The Role of Parents in Their Children’s Artistic Education: The Effect of 381 among 80 children aged 11-12 in England. She found that parental pressure did not influence how much a child enjoyed play- ing music, or how much they played, and that parental expectations did not influen- ce musical participation. The only positive influencing factor was parental enthusi- asm. MacMillan’s (2004) study reports on a detailed qualitative survey examining teachers’, pupils’ and parents’ attitudes towards parental involvement, the extent and nature of participation and the resul- ting positive effects on pupils. The study involved 10 music teachers, 20 children in primary school grades 1-6 and their mot- hers. In the interviews and questionnaires, the teachers reported on the extent of pa- rental involvement and on encouraging parents to invite their children to practise and to help them if the children requested it. Bugeja (2009) explores the key simi- larities and differences in parental invol- vement between Australia’s music edu- cation systems, Suzuki and “traditional”. The research involved the mothers of two children learning to play an instrument. The interviews revealed that they both highly valued providing a suitable home environment and ongoing support and en- couragement. Koops (2012) examines music educa- tion in and out of school in terms of paren- tal involvement. She analysed the attitudes of 19 families towards music education through a detailed qualitative survey. First, parents participated in an online music les- son and then recorded their observations online, on a platform accessible to other parents. Koops’ results show that while most parents support their children’s mu- sical participation, there is an underlying problem, a generational gap in musical taste. Ashbourne and Andres (2015) in- vestigated the impact of parents on their children’s extracurricular activities. Ori- ginally, fifty-one Canadian subjects were involved in the study. Next, 24 intervie- wees participated in seven waves of inter- views between 1990 and 2010. Finally, the accounts of 14 interviewees who became parents during this period were analysed. After evaluating the results, the resear- chers distinguished three types of parental involvement: the enforcer – who is motiva- ted by their own conviction that their child should participate in some extracurricu- lar activity; the facilitator – who lets their child choose an extracurricular activity based on their own interests; and finally, the encourager – who has an idea of what activity would be beneficial for their child, yet does not force them to participate, but rather encourages them to do so. The ma- jority of parents fell into the last category. Another study reveals that many Hong Kong parents want their children to learn music outside school. Choi et al. (2005) used a questionnaire survey to in- vestigate the explanatory factors for this phenomenon among 97 Hong Kong pa- rents (90% of them mothers). The parents in the study were willing to devote 10% of their monthly earnings to extracurricular activities and were able to devote time to this, indicating that they considered music studies important for their children’s de- velopment. Youm’s (2013) research explored South Korean mothers’ desires, knowled- ge and practices regarding music educati- on. Although the research questions were not primarily focused on parental support and encouragement issues, the author mentions an indirect finding in the results formulated after an analysis of qualitati- ve data (interviews and diary entries by mothers). The author found a strong wil- lingness among the mothers to learn more about the process of music education and to support their children. McDowell (2008) investigated pa- rents’ motivations to enroll their children in a 5-day music camp. The study invol- ved 16 parents (with children aged 1.5 to 7 years) and found that one of the most com- mon motivations for parents was to help their children develop their skills. Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education 23 (2) (2023): 375-386382 Other branches of art Another big branch of artistic deve- lopment is collaboration with the help of dance. Looking at case studies, we can find examples where both parents and children have had problems developing and sustai- ning personal relationships. As interacting with other people is inevitable in life, these people, despite having many good experi- ences, have overwhelmingly bad ones. An interaction that goes wrong can traumatise its participant, which can generate lifelong problems and lead to the loss of the ability to engage in interpersonal relationships. Such people are helped by targeted dance programmes that use the desire to bond and the general human need to develop interpersonal relationships and relational engagement in order to promote partici- pants’ progress. The case study also shows that parental involvement is maximised and plays a prominent role in dance deve- lopment, as it enables parent and children to achieve the desired goals together. As a result, a major role is given to fostering relationships, building interpersonal trust and developing social interactions at dan- ce classes (Lorenzo-Lasa et al., 2007). In their study, Lorenzo-Lasa et al. (2007) described their experiences in their dance program over three years. They mainly observed relational engagement in dancing. In community spaces or houses, they organised dancing sessions where families from any background could visit and participate in classes in an enjoyab- le and liberated way. Many participants also had problems communicating with their children, but the programme helped them start interacting. After the end of the project, there were several measurab- le outcomes including short-, medium- and long-term effects. The results showed that parents had a better insight into their children’s development and that their own skills had also reached higher levels. In ad- dition to improving cognitive, social and physical skills and strengthening cohesion within their families, parents experienced improving relationships with their family members (Lorenzo-Lasa et al., 2007). We can also find examples of using the potentials of another major artistic field, the visual arts. Similarly to dance, the focus was on children and their parents. However, it is important to note that the role of a gallery as a formal mediator of art needed to be completely transformed. The Liverpool Tate Gallery targeted disadvan- taged and immigrant families. For them, it was inherently difficult to integrate into a culture which was not their own, let alo- ne understand art and consume a different culture. The involvement of parents was also very important in the programme, as they were the ones who took the children to the gallery. One of the innovations of the project was to organise interesting and safe exhibitions for children. However, the aims of the programme were more far-reaching. Parents were not only invol- ved as observers but also played a part in passing on knowledge, thereby develo- ping their own skills. This was only the first step in the programme, however, as it was necessary not only to attract disad- vantaged families to the gallery but also to keep the interest and motivation of those once involved alive. This was to be achie- ved through well-defined activities and community-building tools. Indeed, foste- ring a sense of belonging to a community can provide the important missing bonds for an immigrant family that has already left its roots. In summary, the Liverpool Tate Gallery’s programme uses visual arts sessions to introduce art to children and parents, without them even leaving their comfort zone. Once the community is es- tablished, the exhibitions or events will no longer be the only motivators in the lives of families, but the community will also act as a pull factor. This suggests that this type of engagement in visual arts can be a chance for families to connect to the com- munity and develop and improve their re- lationship with art (Wright 2020). The third major category is theatre arts development, which is described by Reinking et al. (2017) in a study that pro- vides a number of good practices. Theatre is perhaps the artistic field that everyone Tímea Szűcs et al., The Role of Parents in Their Children’s Artistic Education: The Effect of 383 encounters at least once in their life. The event presented in the study familiarised entire families with this form of the perfor- ming arts. Involving parents and children alike allowed them to develop not only in their understanding of art, but also in ot- her areas. Theatre and puppetry provided opportunities for those involved in the event to develop STEM and other cogni- tive areas through the performance. The performance was a particularly important moment in the process, as they allowed all members of the family to get involved, so that parents were actively engaged. Fa- milies reported that they really enjoyed it when their children could try their hand on stage. In summary, unlike in the field of music, where all three types of parental involvement are present, the studies desc- ribing theatre, visual arts, and dance deve- lopment mainly focus on parents as active participants. It is also shown that playful activities and projects can provide children and their parents with skills they have not had before. CONCLUSIONS One of the aims of our research was to explore studies on parental involve- ment in different artistic fields (music, dance, visual arts, drama, and puppetry) using a systematic review method. Syste- matic literature review is a methodology that examines all published studies in or- der to avoid the bias that may result from the fact that a researcher of a field of study may attach greater importance to a parti- cular area of research. We have found that research is highly disproportionate across the different branches of art. Compared to the high profile of music education in the studies, the amount of research published on theatre, dance and visual arts is negli- gible. We firmly believe it is important that research is also carried out in these bran- ches of art, as these are in fact unexplored areas. Our research also fills a gap because it highlights this deficiency in educational research. Using the PRISMA procedure, 21 out of 108 studies were selected, all but one published after 2000. The studies were re- viewed to study the impact of parents on their children’s art education. We lay spe- cial emphasis on the factors affecting the development of taste. Overall, several stu- dies confirmed the influence of cultural ca- pital, i.e. parents’ previous musical or cul- tural experiences as a determinant of their children’s upbringing. The most common musical activity done together was singing at home, which can be realized easily and accompanies one during a lifetime. Singing together helps to build and nurture interpersonal relation- ships, which is why interiorisation is so important, making the activity natural. Several researchers recommend the active involvement of parents in their children’s musical studies, which, in addi- tion to setting an example and providing a useful way to spend leisure time, also st- rengthens family cohesion. The key to ef- fective music education is teacher, parent and child collaboration. At the same time, one should not overlook MacMillan’s rese- arch findings, which have shown that the degree of parental involvement is subjec- tive from the point of view of each actor concerned in the process, who experiences, perceive, and evaluate the same situation differently. Nevertheless, parental attenti- on and support is a significant stimulus for their children’s artistic studies. Our research aimed to identify simi- larities and differences in types of parental involvement across artistic fields. Paren- tal involvement in art education can take two dimensions: passive – parents act as observers, or active – they engage in the activity itself. The study found differences between the involvement of parent groups in each branch of art. For children learning music, three groups were distinguished: 1. Active parental involvement in the child’s musical education; 2. Parental attention, mainly with the purpose of encourage- ment and support; 3. The motivating po- wer of musical activity at home. There was no evidence of joint activity at home in the Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education 23 (2) (2023): 375-386384 other three arts. Overall, it can be concluded that the involvement of parents in their children’s artistic education is of paramount im- portance both for the development of the children and for the strengthening of fami- ly ties. 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