301 Art Discourse in Modern Fine Arts in Surabaya: An Analytical Historical Research Djuli Djatiprambudi1, Muchammad Bayu Tejo Sampurno2 1Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia 2Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia Submitted: 2023-07-28. Revised: 2023-09-20. Accepted: 2023-11-04 Abstract This research aims to understand the art discourse that is the foundation for developing modern fine arts in Surabaya. Art discourse represents the fundamental ideas behind the creation of art- works, which are developed and dialectically discussed within the context of the art ecosystem in Surabaya. The research design is based on an analytical, historical research method with a socio- historical approach. The findings reveal the existence of continuity and change in art discourse from the Aksera generation (Academy of Fine Arts Surabaya) in the 1970s to the post-Aksera generations, namely the 1980s and 1990s generations. Three bases of art discourse emerged as the core expressions of aesthetics in modern fine arts in Surabaya during the 1970s to 1990s: 1. The discourse of nationalism (identity) underlies the art discourse of the Aksera generation; 2. The discourse of the market (commodification of art) becomes the main concern of the 1980s gen- eration; 3. The social-political discourse serves as the platform for the art discourse of the 1990s generation. These three discourses demonstrate similarities and differences within the context of art discourse that evolved in modern fine arts in Indonesia. Keywords: art discourse; modern fine arts; nationalism discourse; market discourse; social- political discourse How to Cite: Djatiprambudi, D., & Sampurno, M. B. T. (2023). Art Discourse in Modern Fine Arts in Surabaya: An Analytical Historical Research. Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education, 23(2), 301-317 Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education 23 (2) (2023), 301-317 Available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/harmonia DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15294/harmonia.v23i2.46302 for instance, Holt (1967), Sudarmaji (1974), Yuliman (1976), Kusnadi et al. (1979), Ku- suma Atmadja et al. (1990), Wright (1994), Supangkat (1997), Miklouho-Maklai (1998 ), and Spanjaard (1998). These studies have not provided specific and adequate expla- nations regarding modern fine arts outside Jakarta, Bandung, Yogyakarta, and Bali. However, it is crucial not to interpret this trend as implying that modern fine arts solely flourish in these four regions or exclusively represent the development centers for modern fine arts in Indonesia. Instead, this phenomenon indicates that INTRODUCTION The study of modern fine arts in In- donesia until the present has been predo- minantly focused on Jakarta, Bandung, Yogyakarta, and Bali, which are conside- red the primary objects of research. These regions are recognized as Indonesia’s de- velopment centers for modern fine arts. Conversely, other areas such as Medan, Padang, Manado, Semarang, Solo, and Surabaya have yet to receive substantial at- tention as primary study subjects. Nume- rous studies have exhibited this tendency; Corresponding author: E-mail: djulidjatiprambudi@unesa.ac.id p-ISSN 2541-1683|e-ISSN 2541-2426 Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education 23 (2) (2023): 301-317302 the emergence and interpretation of mo- dern art in a particular region are closely related to the social-historical context and the growth of artistic infrastructure (Trafi- Prats, 2010). Sociologically, the foundations for developing modern fine arts are situated in urban areas. This association is linked to the modern infrastructure and superstruc- ture that collaboratively form the art world or art ecosystem, predominantly thriving and evolving in major cities (Becker, 1982, p.310). In the context of modern and con- temporary fine arts, the components of the art world include artists, art dealers, col- lectors, critics, art historians, art journal editors, museum directors, gallery owners, and curators (Sandler, 1996, p.214). Furt- hermore, modern fine arts emerged along- side the growth of capitalist society and culture centered in major cities as hubs for political, governmental, economic, educa- tional, and trade activities (Chua, 2011; Ro- main, 2016). Meanwhile, in the context of inter- preting art discourse in a particular regi- on, the components of the art world are typically examined based on their growth and roles in facilitating the emergence of art discourse (Codell, 2018; Romain, 2016; Taylor & Zitzewitz, 2018). This analysis fo- cuses on how discourse evolves and chan- ges in a specific area, with the functional relationship between the components of the art world seen as a critical factor in shaping the discourse. Suppose a region is dominant as a producer of discourse. In that case, it becomes the primary source of study in the field of fine arts and, conse- quently, in the writing of art history (histo- riography). This helps to explain why the spatial historiography of modern fine arts in Indonesia primarily revolves around Ja- karta, Bandung, Yogyakarta, and Bali. However, the issue with such a histo- riographic model is that it tends to be too macroscopic (Antoinette, 2020; Antoinette & Maravillas, 2020). In essence, the histo- riography of modern fine arts in Indone- sia focuses mainly on general tendencies occurring in these four regions. However, if the historiography is deconstructed and developed within the context of different regions, other variations of modern art in Indonesia may likely be discovered. This is because, from a socio-historical perspec- tive, each study area possesses unique cul- tural characteristics, intellectual bases, and differing conditions of the components of the art world (Chountasi et al., 2021)a field of contemporary art which still remains non-contextualized in a particular socio- political environment by art theoreticians in Greece. The present study explores the concept of newness in new media arts and provides an overview and a critical ref- lection on the role of the non-profit and non-governmental organizations (NPOs/ NGOs. Therefore, there is a need for rese- arch that analyzes discourse and changes in a specific region from a micro perspec- tive, aiming to provide a comprehensive overview of the development of modern fine arts in that area. Surabaya, as one of the entities of modernity in Indonesia, has historically demonstrated the growth of modern fine arts (Djatiprambudi, 2009, 2019). This de- velopment is in tandem with the growth of the city of Surabaya, which, since the co- lonial era, was designed as a trading and industrial city and a governmental center after Batavia (Jones, 2018). Surabaya beca- me a hub for asserting direct authority in the Eastern Indonesian region. Based on these grounds, the develop- ment of modern fine arts in Surabaya from the Aksera period to the emergence of al- ternative art forms reflects continuity and changes based on the evolving discourse during each period. These discourses serve as sources of ideas, subsequently elabora- ted in the practice of fine arts in Surabaya. In connection with the above ex- position, this research focuses on the art discourse within modern fine arts in Sura- baya, from establishing Aksera until the emergence of alternative art forms. The changes in discourse will be comprehen- sively analyzed, encompassing historical backgrounds, socio-cultural contexts, and aesthetic expressions during each decade Djuli Djatiprambudi et al., Art Discourse in Modern Fine Arts in Surabaya: An Analytical 303 (the 1970s to 1990s). This study will address the following research questions: (1) What are the social- historical backgrounds of the emergence of modern fine arts in Surabaya?; (2) How does the art discourse within modern fine arts in Surabaya from the 1970s to the 1990s relate to the discourses of identity, market, and social politics?; (3) How does this dis- course influence the creative process and aesthetic expression of Surabaya painters during the 1970s to 1990s? The temporal scope of this research, in the context of the chronology of the development of modern fine arts in Surabaya, is focused on the 1970s to the 1990s. The spatial limitation of this study is Surabaya itself, emphasi- zing the significance of historiographical studies within local contexts to enrich the understanding of the development of mo- dern fine arts in Indonesia. This conside- ration is based on the development of art discourse in modern fine arts in Surabaya exhibits unique and distinctive continuity and changes within the context of modern fine arts in Indonesia. METHOD This research is designed as an ana- lytical, historical study (Carretero et al., 2017). According to Kartodirdjo (2016), analytical history aims to explain the complex structure of phenomena from va- rious dimensions. Therefore, it requires a set of theories drawn from social sciences and operationalized within the research concepts. This approach allows for a his- torical explanation that not only considers the chronological development over time or periods but also proportional attention to social, cultural, economic, and political factors to sharpen the analysis of the multi- layered development of fine arts. Kartodirdjo (2016) and Burke (2003) introduced the paradigm of historical rese- arch utilizing social sciences. According to Kuntowijoyo (1994, pp.33-39, 1995, p.107), history and social sciences have a recipro- cal relationship, benefiting from each ot- her. As Burhan (Burhan, 2003, p.19) sug- gests, this paradigm has gradually been adopted in the research of fine arts history, which previously focused more on aesthe- tic tendencies that shaped styles within pe- riods or the uniqueness of personal styles. John House, as quoted by Burhan (2003, p.19), asserts that art studies take on social significance after directing their attention to the institutional context of society. Con- sequently, from a social perspective, the development of modern fine arts can be explained in multiple layers based on the surrounding social factors (Wolff, 1983). This research utilizes social theories, such as the theory of hegemony, social change theory, and capitalism theory (Ag- ger, 2003; Berger, 1990; Craib, 1984; Patria & Arief, 1999; Sampurno, 2023). These the- ories are employed to explain the active so- cial variables that correlate with the pheno- mena of modern fine arts in Surabaya. The research adopts a sociohistorical approach (Fernie, 1995; Hauser, 1985), aiming to ob- serve fine art phenomena through their en- compassing social dimensions. SOURCES OF DISCOURSE: Nationalism SOURCES OF DISCOURSE : Capitalism SOURCES OF DISCOURSE : Modernism SOCIAL- POLITICAL DISCOURSE MARKET DISCOURSE IDENTITY DISCOURSE POST AKSERA GENERATION 1990 POST AKSERA GENERATION 1980 AKSERA GENERATION 1970 ARTWORK Style Form Content ARTWORK Style Form Content ARTWORK Style Form Content Analysis social Historical Aesthetics -semiotics analysis Life History Analysis Discourse Analysis MODERN FINE ARTS IN SURABAYA Figure 1. Model of Analysis Artworks in this context are viewed as symbolic expressions of society, while society provides the social environment that enables the creation and support of Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education 23 (2) (2023): 301-317304 art. The analytical, historical research met- hod with a social-historical approach is de- picted as follows (Figure 1). RESULT AND DISCUSSION Modern Fine Arts in Surabaya According to Lombard (2008b, 2008a), Surabaya was designed as an entry point for Westernization alongside Batavia (Jakarta) within the context of modernity in Indonesia. From 1923 to 1935, modern cultural activities flourished in Suraba- ya, including modern fine arts. Under the leadership of the painter Maskan, an art community called Perkumpulan Seni Ra- den Saleh (Raden Saleh Art Association) was established. Some active artists then were Soepardi, Pik Gan, Slamet, and Djojo- wisastra (Isbandi, 1975). This was followed by the presence of a Dutch artist, Gerald P. Adolfs, who settled in Surabaya and worked on his art almost throughout the 1940s. His artistic activities and style in- fluenced several artists in Surabaya, such as Karjono, Kasenda, and Kentarjo. Adolf’s painting style had a strong impact, parti- cularly on the painter Koempoel, who had received direct instruction from Adolfs (Dermawan T, 1994). As a modern city in the 1950s, Sura- baya attracted many artists from vario- us regions in Indonesia and abroad to showcase their works. Pik Gan Art Galle- ry emerged as an important venue for art exhibitions during that decade. The gal- lery was owned by a Chinese descendant antique trader who had settled in Suraba- ya for a long time. Besides being an exhi- bition space, it also housed a collection of modern European paintings, classical Chi- nese paintings, and various artworks from Surabaya and other cities. Additionally, there was a group of artists under the name Keluarga Prabangkara (Prabangkara Family, 1950-1957), founded by artists Karyono Js., Bandarkoem, and Wiwiek Hidayat, and later, Sanggar Angin (Wind Studio) was established in 1957. The latter group con- sisted of young painters at the time, such as Tedja Suminar, Daryono, O.H. Supono, and Krishna Mustajab, among others. Sub- sequently, in 1961, the Kegiatan Kebudayaan Indonesia (KKI) (Indonesian Cultural Ac- tivities) was formed, with several artists actively participating, including Tedja Suminar, Boedi Sr, Ipe Ma’roef, and Hard- jono. In 1966, Kelompok (The Group) was formed, consisting mostly of artists who had previously been part of other artistic collectives (Isbandi, 1975). However, these successive groups of artists were sporadic or temporal, focusing mainly on organizing exhibitions rather than being ideologically-based movements that could create a distinctive artistic trend. As a result, their historical impact could have been clearer. None of these groups left a lasting impression as a major artistic movement with a particular style. Following the establishment of Pik Gan Art Gallery, collectors from various professions began to emerge, and their contributions played a significant role in promoting the growth of modern fine arts in Surabaya. These collectors included fi- gures such as Usman Naban (an Arab descendant book trader), Soedarmadi (a professor of dentistry at Airlangga Univer- sity), Soenarjo Umar Sidik (a civil servant in Surabaya), Sani (a fabric merchant), Pik Gan (the gallery owner), and Sampan (a garden supplies trader). Particularly, the role of Sunaryo Umar Sidik, a prestigious collector, served as a patron. He collected works by Surabaya artists and acquired paintings by prominent artists such as Af- fandi, Hendra Gunawan, S. Sudjojono, and Basoeki Abdullah. Sunaryo Umar Sidik’s extensive collection covered various styles representing the works of modern Indone- sian artists, making it a point of reference for other collectors and artists. Based on these facts, the social art scene for modern fine arts in Surabaya be- gan to take shape before the 1970s. This phenomenon was influenced by the dis- course of nationalistic fine arts, a sequence of the art discourse that formed the plat- form of the Persatuan Ahli Gambar Indo- nesia (Persagi) (The Association of Indo- nesian Drawing Experts). Additionally, art Djuli Djatiprambudi et al., Art Discourse in Modern Fine Arts in Surabaya: An Analytical 305 discourse affiliated with politics, influen- ced by the debates between the Manikebu and Lekra groups in the 1950s and 1960s, also played a central role in shaping the art discourse. The works of Surabaya artists during this period represented a tenden- cy to explore local cultural values and the spirit of populist nationalism as sources of inspiration to explore national aspirations or national identity (Burhan, 2008, 2013; Spanjaard, 2018). Art Discourse of the Aksera Generation The debate on nationalism in mo- dern fine arts in Surabaya continued until the 1970s. Nationalism was understood as a search for identity in fine arts, not in the context of the nation’s struggle against co- lonialism. This shift in understanding was influenced by Sudjojono’s statements con- cerning fine art with a national identity. During the transition from the Old Order regime to the New Order regime in the late 1960s, the debate on nationalism and identity remained strong due to sharp po- litical frictions, reflected in differing views among communist, religious, nationalist, and socialist groups. These frictions af- fected the diverse views on art ideology, forming the basis of art discourse. As a re- sult, nationalism was perceived as an ide- ology capable of reconciling these different perspectives (Resobowo, 2004; Spanjaard, 2018). Against the 1950s-1960s political backdrop, the Surabaya Academy of Fine Arts (Aksera) was established in 1967. Ak- sera was founded by a group of Suraba- ya artists who did not have sharply cont- rasting artistic ideologies. Among them were Gatot Kusumo, Amang Rahman, M. Daryono, M. Ruslan, and Krishna Musta- jab. They viewed art as a universal form of expression without burdening it with political context, although the discourse of national identity served as the primary platform for their artistic pursuits. Sociologically, Aksera emerged from a culture of camaraderie, making it egali- tarian. This allowed Aksera to be managed and developed with a free, bold, fearless character without a senior-junior dichoto- my. Its teaching activities resembled those of an art studio. Although a curriculum was present, other supporting elements were absent. The subjects taught inclu- ded Philosophy of Art, Sociology of Art, Psychology of Art, Art Criticism, History of Fine Arts, Knowledge of Tools and Ma- terials, Fine Arts (Painting and Sculpture), Advertising, and Decoration. Philosophy of Art was initially taught to students to shape their perspectives and sharpen their artistic vision. Thus, Aksera aimed to nur- ture artists with strong characters and a distinct sense of self. However, Aksera could not maintain its reputation as an art education instituti- on with an egalitarian studio model. With the establishment of the Dewan Kesenian Surabaya (Surabaya Arts Council) as a result of a convention of Surabaya artists and later ratified by the Mayor of Suraba- ya through Decree No. 678/K on Decem- ber 6, 1971, Aksera gradually faded away as an institution. Aksera only educated six cohorts of students from 1967 to 1972. Ne- vertheless, it successfully created a myth of artistic prowess that continues to in- fluence Surabaya’s modern fine arts scene. Several of its alums dominated the practice of modern fine arts in Surabaya, particu- larly during the 1970s and 1980s. Some of them, such as Makhfoed, Dwijo Sukatmo, Nunung Ws., Nuzurlis Koto, and Serudi Sera, achieved phenomenal recognition nationally (Djatiprambudi, 2009). One influential lecturer at Aksera was Gatot Kusumo (known as a figure of the Indonesian Socialist Party, a cultural scholar, and a film director), who taught the Philosophy of Art and successfully shaped the character and work ethic of Aksera’s students in the realm of fine arts. His words always provoked Aksera stu- dents: “Be yourself!” This teaching inspi- red students to explore their potential to produce unique aesthetic expressions. The search for personal identity (personal sty- le) was strongly emphasized at Aksera. Gatot Kusumo played a central role as a respected patron in shaping the ar- Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education 23 (2) (2023): 301-317306 tistic character of the 1970s-1980s. His thoughts encompassed two poles: the mo- dernist pole, which viewed art as a univer- sal phenomenon, and the nationalist pole, which regarded art as a local phenomenon related to the ideas of cultural identity. These principles were taught pragmatical- ly to form artistic perspectives and attitu- des that considered cultural values, social contexts, national ideologies, and national aspirations. This indicates that modern ideas coexisted with a strong Indonesian spirit. As an institution aspiring to educate aspiring artists or professionals in pain- ting, sculpture, and advertising, Aksera nurtured the tradition of modern fine arts. It introduced various Western aesthetic theories, art history, and a multitude of art knowledge, mostly from a Western perspective. However, students were also exposed to insights into Indonesian cultu- re, history, and multicultural society. During its early development, the artworks of the Aksera generation tended to lean toward Cubist, Abstract, and Ex- pressionist styles. This tendency was not only popular among Aksera students but was also prevalent outside the institution. For instance, the paintings of O.H. Soepo- no strongly exhibited a Cubist tendency in the 1960s, while Rudi Isbandi produced many abstract paintings. Daryono was known for his powerful expressionist sty- le, while Amang Rahman explored surrea- list elements. The expressive works of the- se artists showcased distinctive aesthetic expressions, resulting in a diverse range of styles and themes within the Aksera ge- neration. Although their works fell within certain stylistic frameworks, they could manifest strong personal characteristics in both neoplastic and physioplastic aspects. This is how Aksera ignited an artistic spirit that was total, independent, and individu- alistic (Djatiprambudi, 2019). From the perspective of modern fine arts in Indonesia, the spirit of searching for identity resulted from the significant cultu- ral debates of the 1930s. These debates be- came more prominent in the world of fine arts with the emergence of Persagi, which firmly advocated the birth of nationally distinctive fine arts. The spirit of Indone- sian-ness, the creed of Persagi, can also be understood as a process of modernity in Indonesian fine arts. The transformation of modern fine arts, emphasizing individual and universal elements that tended to be hegemonic, encountered a reaction in the context of the Persagi spirit. However, this reaction was not dialectical but instead occurred through osmosis. This indicates a transformation of modern Western art ideologies or principles by absorbing va- lues considered suitable and representati- ve of ideas, emotions, and cultural backg- rounds. In the context of the development of fine arts in Surabaya after the 1970s, several trends emerged in the search for artistic identity. These trends were percei- ved as manifestations of exploring unique aesthetics personally. The first trend involved absorbing the values of traditions close to the heart of each painter. Amang Rahman (1931- 2001), a painter of Arab descent, was born and raised in a devout Islamic cultural en- vironment and tended to embrace Islam’s cultural and ritualistic values. He interna- lized this tradition from a young age and deepened his understanding by reading various books on Islam, especially those related to Sufism and Islamic civilization. Besides being known as a painter, he was also a poet. For him, painting was like com- posing visual poetry, and poetry was like painting with verbal language. Thus, critic Rudi Isbandi described Amang Rahman’s paintings as visible poetry. While being a painter, his soul was that of a poet (Nurca- hyo & Mamannoor, 2001). O.H. Soepono (1937-1991) was wi- dely recognized for his strong talent in various fields of art (Figure 2). He was a creative painter, unbound by a single sty- le, technique, or theme. In the 1980s, he produced many paintings inspired by the relief sculptures of Rupadhatu at Borobu- dur (Figure 2). He had admired Borobudur for a long time, carefully studied every de- tail of the temple, understood its historical Djuli Djatiprambudi et al., Art Discourse in Modern Fine Arts in Surabaya: An Analytical 307 narratives, and appreciated its philosophi- cal values, eventually discovering its beau- ty (Figure 2). Figure 2. O.H. Soepono, Relief of Borobudur II, 1990, 100 x 90 cm, oil on canvas (Source: Catalog of the Surabaya Painter Grand Exhibi- tion). The search for identity by returning to traditional roots is also evident in the paintings of M. Ruslan (1931-1999) and Krishna Mustajab (1931-1987), who exp- lored wayang (shadow puppet) icons as their aesthetic idiom. They were artists with extensive knowledge of wayang kulit (leather puppet) art. Their interest in wa- yang kulit was shaped from childhood, as they were born into Javanese traditions firmly upheld in their family and commu- nity environments. Despite both focusing on the theme of wayang, their artistic works exhibit distinct aesthetic differences. This tendency differs from the ap- proach taken by Nunung WS, a student of Aksera from the 1967 cohort. Nunung WS was an abstract artist, and his name is sy- nonymous with his presence in the world of abstract painting in Indonesia. He be- lieved that abstraction was the most sui- table aesthetic language for expressing his identity, and he found himself in paintings with an abstract style. His use of color was straightforward, arranged in horizontal and vertical layers. Occasionally, a single line would appear as an accent while sug- gesting specific images. Such lines often brought a captivating charm to his pain- tings, making them appear more vibrant. In this context, Nunung WS understood the formalist movement that emerged in the United States in the early 20th centu- ry. Formalism advocated that paintings be freed from storytelling, narrative, or fairy- tale elements. Formalists focused solely on the beauty of visual structures. Another interesting tendency was the pointillist works of Serudi Sera, who belonged to the 1971 cohort of Aksera. From the beginning of his artistic explo- ration, he had a penchant for exploring points. Clusters of points could evoke ima- ges of something specific. These point clus- ters appeared as fundamental visual com- ponents and proved capable of leading the painter to explore symbols or metaphors. They formed configurations of shapes with particular meanings. Some shapes were presented, while others intentionally remained obscure and distant, existing in a horizon of imagery. These tendencies depict the absence of stylistic similarities among the Aksera generations in their expression. Each of them had a unique language of expression. Their paintings did not bear the influen- ce of a teacher (patron) on their students. This highlights how the styles of Amang Rahman, Daryono, Krishna Mustajab, and O.H. Soepono, who were considered pat- rons, were not “inherited” by their stu- dents, the Aksera students. This is because there was a strong tradition within Aksera of not becoming epigones of other painte- rs. Therefore, it is not surprising that artists of the caliber of Makhfoed, Nuzurlis Koto, Dwijo Sukatmo, and other Aksera painters displayed strong individual styles rooted in distinctive artistic discourses (Nurca- hyo, 1998, pp.24-27). The diverse group of painters discus- sed above from the 1970s and Aksera era collectively contributed to the intriguing tapestry of Indonesian art history (Table 1). Their individual identities were shaped by varying educational backgrounds, artistic Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education 23 (2) (2023): 301-317308 Table 1. Discourse Representation of Identity Generation 1970 and Aksera PAINTERS EDUCATION AESTHETICS Amang Rahman (1931-2001) Self-taught Amang Rahman’s paintings appear pictorially in a sur- realist style, but his creative consciousness is not based on surrealist painting techniques. His works are symbolic, with dark blue and dark green colors symbolizing celestial nature, dominantly evoking a serene, isolated, and mysti- cal atmosphere. His paintings exude a poetic quality akin to personified poems. In the mid-1970s, he ventured into painting Arab-Islamic calligraphy. M. Daryono (1933-1992) Self-taught Daryono steadfastly adhered to a realist-expressionistic style during his career as a painter. His paintings depicted themes drawn from everyday life in his surroundings. His brushstrokes left strong, expressive, and emotional imprints. When painting, he believed in the honesty of his inner vision. Objects merely served as stimuli to express the turmoil of his emotions and thoughts. O.H. Soepono (1937-1991) Akademi Kes- enian Sura- karta, 1958. O.H. Soepono was a restless painter. His paintings exhibit- ed changing forms of expression, ranging from cubist, sur- realist, expressionistic, and realistic styles to the Rupadhatu period. The diverse transitions in his style demonstrate a strong elan vital. His paintings always emerged with vital- ity and remarkable aesthetic achievement. Krishna Musta- jab (1931-1987) Self-taught Krishna Mustajab was an artist with many ideas, often building his paintings on scattered concepts. However, he possessed a strong symbolic sensitivity underpinned by abstract thinking. In his later period, he frequently em- ployed wayang (shadow puppet) as a symbolic language to convey his abstract thoughts. M. Ruslan (1931- 1999) Self-taught Ruslan’s paintings developed along two main tendencies: social realism and Javanese calligraphy. His works focused on portraying the lower-class society with all its daily ac- tivities, expressions of suffering, and simplicity. Anatomy and chiaroscuro were given little importance. The empha- sis lay on creating atmosphere and expressing the subjects’ body language. As a Javanese culture enthusiast, he also painted Javanese calligraphy symbolically. Koempoel (1912- 1987) Studying painting with Gerald P. Adolf Koempoel’s paintings, from the outset, displayed a ten- dency towards realism. He painted numerous corners of old Surabaya city, capturing buildings, traditional means of transportation, the bustling harbor, markets, and natu- ral landscapes with attention to light, object characteristics, and atmosphere. Djuli Djatiprambudi et al., Art Discourse in Modern Fine Arts in Surabaya: An Analytical 309 Nunung WS. (1948) Aksera, 1967 The label of abstract art has become synonymous with Nunung WS. His paintings tended to reveal calm and un- cluttered color strokes. The colors he used were simple in horizontal compositions, with rare explorations of texture. He seemed to believe in the suggestive power of colors, capable of evoking rich inner sentiments. Serudi Sera (1950) Aksera, 1971 He was an artist who strongly believed in the power of dots (points). Clusters of points dominated his composi- tion. These points appeared in different pressures and configurations, giving rise to specific forms. These forms then weaved together meanings. Although pictorially monotonous, his paintings offered many images resulting from the repetition of dots. Rudi Isbandi (1937) Sanggar Pe- lukis Rakyat, Yogyakarta (1950-1953) Abstraction is Rudi Isbandi’s most prominent expressive language. Before embracing abstraction, his works dis- played a tendency toward realism. In abstract art, he truly believed in the minimal use of colors to create specific images. Throughout his career, he went through different periods, including early realism, rhythm, Irian, nuances, collage, and installations. Rudi was an artist who constant- ly questioned and thought carefully about his art. Isbandi’s artistic journey from realism to abstraction and his exploration of various periods added depth to this discourse. To- gether, these artists encapsulate the comp- lex and multifaceted “Art Discourse of the Aksera Generation,” exemplifying the era’s artistic dynamism and its contributi- on to the rich tapestry of Indonesian fine arts history. Art Discourse of the Post-Aksera Genera- tion The painters of Surabaya from the 1980s were born into a situation marked by the prevailing surrealist style, which was practiced phenomenally, and the emergence of the art market as a result of the art boom. The significant influence of the art market led most painters to seek aesthetic expressions that resonated with the market’s demands. Consequently, this external factor triggered a shift in artistic philosophies, and aesthetics. In the context of the art discourse of the aksera generati- on, it’s evident that these artists showcased a remarkable spectrum of artistic expres- sions (Table 1). From Amang Rahman’s symbolic surrealism to Daryono’s emotio- nal realist-expressionism, each artist repre- sented a unique facet of this generation’s creative identity. O.H. Soepono’s transi- tions through cubism, surrealism, expres- sionism, and realism underscored a strong artistic vitality. Krishna Mustajab and M. Ruslan employed symbolism, with the for- mer using shadow puppetry as a language and the latter emphasizing social realism and Javanese calligraphy. Koempoel’s rea- listic portrayal of Surabaya’s urban life of- fered a different perspective. Meanwhile, Nunung WS. and Serudi Sera ventured into abstract art with distinct approaches - serene color strokes and point-based compositions, respectively. Lastly, Rudi Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education 23 (2) (2023): 301-317310 styles. The exploration of art discourse also experienced a shallowing of intellec- tual thought. During the 1980s, paintings tended to exhibit decorative and natura- listic elements with vibrant colors. The main subjects depicted were the under- water world, flowers, horses, landscapes, dancers, and masks. However, in certain instances, this phenomenon led to creative stagnation (Dermawan T, 2003; Djatipram- budi, 1994). The impact of the powerful art mar- ket was fueled by news of several Sura- baya painters achieving success through solo exhibitions in commercial art galleries in Jakarta. In 1989, Satya Budhi, an artist, sold all his artworks during his exhibition at Edwin’s Gallery in Jakarta. This success was followed by Asri Nugroho, a self- taught artist who succeeded in the same gallery. Such triumphs improved and drastically changed social-economic con- ditions for these painters (Djatiprambudi, 2009, 2019). This reality subsequently created a strong desire among other painters to ap- proach commercial galleries, participate in group exhibitions in Jakarta, and engage with painting collectors by holding exhibi- tions in hotel lobbies and plazas. All the- se efforts are aimed at achieving financial success. In this situation, they paid less at- tention to idealism and the exploration of personal authority, a characteristic of the Aksera generation. The creative process of the 1980s generation represented the do- minant relationship with the commodifica- tion of art. However, it is not to imply that no paintings carried the weight of aesthetic composition driven by personal authority, independent of market dictates. Such pain- tings can be seen in the works of Hening Purnamawati, Bilaningsih, Sugiarso Wido- do, and Satya Budhi. The boom in the art market also in- fluenced the activities of the Sanggar Sang- kakala, which was established in early 1979. This group consisted of young ar- tists, most still art students at IKIP Suraba- ya. They included Setyoko, Kris AW, Tiko Hamzah, Heri Suyanto, and Hanavi. These young artists represented the continuity of the Aksera generation’s tradition. Sanggar Sangkakala marked the transition between the Aksera generation and the post-Akse- ra generation. At its inception, this studio dominated the activities of young artists’ exhibitions until the late 1980s. However, with the increasing impact of the art boom, the studio’s activities gradually declined. Subsequently, its activities took the form of individual pursuits, with some joining in the euphoria of the art painting boom. Another notable impact was the emergence of several young artists forming a collective called “Himpunan Pelukis Surabaya” (Hipbaya). They were establis- hed in the early 1990s, with Ivan Hariyanto as its chairman, a graduate of STSRI Asri Yogyakarta. After organizing touring exhi- bitions in several cities in 1992, involving 30 painters, their activities became less vi- sible. One of the reasons for this was the divergence of views within Hipbaya, with some painters advocating for critical and reflective art discourse. In contrast, others tended to accommodate the market. The ambiguous stance of the 1980s generation raised concerns among senior artists about the development of modern art in Surabaya. According to Rudi Isbandi, this situation can be likened to a swinging pendulum moving from left to right. Even- tually, this situation will return to normal. In other words, the idealism of art, based on a critical and reflective art discourse, will continue to serve as a reference. The works of the 1980s generation co-opted by the art market are represented in Table 2. The artists of the 1980s found them- selves in a strong discourse of the art mar- ket. This presence resulted in the co-opta- tion of the artistic climate by market forces. The powerful art boom that began in the mid-1980s brought about several pheno- mena: (1) a shift in the concept of art, mar- ked by changes in style that were exoge- nously motivated (changed due to external influences), (2) an increase in exhibition activities driven by economic motivations, (3) a decline in the motivation to explore with creative and innovative spirit, (4) a Djuli Djatiprambudi et al., Art Discourse in Modern Fine Arts in Surabaya: An Analytical 311 Table 2. 1980s Generation Market Discourse Representation PAINTERS EDUCATION AESTHETICS Anang Timur (1955) Self-taught Anang’s paintings initially exhibited a surrealist style, but after the early 1990s, he shifted towards a decorative style. His themes varied, including reliefs, the underwa- ter world, and dancers. All these works were executed enthusiastically to achieve visual beauty, relying on soft, harmonious colors with minimal contrast. Salamun K. (1954) Seni Rupa IKIP Sura- baya and Yogyakarta In the early ‘80s, his paintings displayed a strong devel- opment in abstraction. In the “Rajah” period, he featured paintings sensitive to hatching, carrying the aesthetic weight that delved into traditional themes. Subsequently, after the early ‘90s, he extensively explored human themes with cheerful, light, and cohesive colors. His paintings exhibited careful contouring to accentuate the object’s gesture. Satya Budhi (1959) Self-taught Budhi’s paintings always portrayed elongated figures faced with blank expressions, slightly enlarged eyes, and narrow faces. They conveyed a sense of constraint and bitter life experiences. Pictorially, his works appeared surreal. The forms present always represented symbols of his intended thoughts. The colors tended to be dark, melancholic and often exuded a mystical aura. Bilaningsih (1960) STSRI “ASRI” Yogyakarta The world of children, full of innocence and fantasy, served as the main subject in Bilaningsih’s paintings. With lively, energetic lines and bright colors, her works leaned towards expressiveness, reflecting the dynamic movements of children. In her compositions, there was always a central figure drawing attention, while the rest surrounded it in mutually supportive fields. Rilantono (1960) STSRI “ASRI” Yogyakarta During the early period, Rilantono’s paintings explored the theme of wayang (shadow puppetry). Subsequently, he shifted to figures of dancers and reliefs from temples, all depicted with decorative imagery. Redundancy in lines, colors, and shapes became dominant features. He has transitioned to deforming figures, creating a sense of caricature. Setyoko (1955) Fine Arts IKIP Sura- baya In the early period, Setyoko’s paintings exhibited a sur- realist style, although only partially focused on it. The main themes revolved around humans and their prob- lems. Human figures could appear alone, with vacant gazes yet holding meaningful connotations. Alternative- ly, they appeared in groups, each with their character. The colors and forms did not intend to depict tangible reality. Instead, they served as metaphors, aiming to cap- ture the inner mood rather than presenting the figures as they are. Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education 23 (2) (2023): 301-317312 Heri Suyanto (1956) Fine Arts IKIP Sura- baya The decorative tendency has become a defining trait of Heri Suyanto’s paintings. His works primarily revolve around graceful female dancers captured with gentle body language. Repetitions of line patterns, colors, and fields combine in harmonious compositions. Cool and soft colors are regularly applied in successive layers to create a spatial effect. Contrasts are absent in his paint- ings; everything is integrated into harmony. Ivan Hariyanto (1955) STSRI “ASRI” Yogyakarta In the past, he experimented with Pop Art during his student days. Afterward, he inclined towards a surrealist artistic language, possibly influenced by the prevalent trend of surrealistic painting in Yogya at that time. To construct surrealistic imagery, he often incorporated wayang golek puppets, statues, books, people, horses, and masks as the central objects imbued with meaning. Mas Dibyo (1962) Fine Arts IKIP Surabaya His favorite objects in his paintings include roosters, cats, ti- gers, women with braids, flower vases, and Barong masks. His dynamic, expressive, and energetic line characters dominate the picture plane, highlighting the main objects in prominent proportions. Layered colors create a spatial effect. He is an extremely productive artist, and his aesthetic language leans towards expressiveness while also demonstrating a conscious effort to beautify objects with decorative patterns. Sugiarso W. (1960) Self-taught Mechanical elements resembling machine constructions with a metallic impression are visual elements creatively crafted by Sugiarso. Sometimes he includes metal pieces or circles to reinforce his aesthetic imagery. The imagery of machines and technology appears strongly in his works, intending to convey meaning about the culture of automatism, mechanization, prac- ticality, and logic prevalent in the contemporary era. gyakarta), Rumah Nusantara (Bandung), and Rumah Proses (Bandung). Exponents of the 1990s generation emerged from academic institutions, such as the School of Art Wilwatikta (STKW) Surabaya and the Surabaya Institute of Te- aching and Education (now Unesa). STKW aimed to educate future artists, and thus, its education pattern leaned towards en- couraging students to be independent by building networks with artists outside the city, particularly young artists in Yogya- karta and Bandung. Consequently, many STKW students became the new generati- on that drove alternative art after the gene- ration of Saiful, Agus Koecink, and Hary Prayitno. The early exposure of the alternati- ve art generation to contemporary art dis- course was due to their close association with Moeljono, a prominent figure in the dominance of explorations in the form of canvas paintings due to market demand turning art into a commodity. The art practices of the 1980s gene- ration, which tended to follow the fluctua- tions of the art boom, eventually faced cri- ticism from the subsequent generation, the 1990s generation. The emergence of this new generation was marked by the rise of alternative art in Surabaya. This phenome- non was evident in the exhibitions of Sai- ful Hadjar, Agus Koecink, Hary Prayitno, and Hadi Mas’ud, held between 1994 and 2000. During this period, contemporary art in Yogyakarta and Bandung experienced a phenomenal escalation of development. This was concurrent with the growth of the social art field, which supported the development of discourses and practices in contemporary art, exemplified by the emergence of institutions like Cemeti (Yo- Djuli Djatiprambudi et al., Art Discourse in Modern Fine Arts in Surabaya: An Analytical 313 art world. They actively participated in several art projects with Moeljono, which influenced contemporary art’s knowledge, paradigms, and practices. Moeljono was a noted educator at STKW during that time. Additionally, they often invited various artists from Yogyakarta to work together, forming workshops with their results pre- sented within the campus. Such a campus environment stimulated them to continue creating. Small discussions were frequent- ly held to study literature related to con- temporary art, and they actively accessed internet sites providing information on sources of contemporary art discourse. In the context of post-Aksera art de- velopment, alternative art represented an act of rebellion. Their discourse base dif- fered from the previous generation. The term “alternative” was understood as a form of real difference in discourse and practice. Their works often took the form of installations. While painting was still utilized as a medium of expression, its pre- sence leaned towards representing critical thoughts rather than merely questioning lyrical beauty. The group of young artists, most of whom were graduates of art schools, of- fered new and more progressive ideas, presenting what they considered new al- ternatives. They believed that art should originate from the context of societal issu- es. According to their beliefs, art should reflect the social restlessness experienced by society. They considered art as a means to express the complexities of social issu- es. The works of this alternative art group highlighted the concept of contextual aest- hetics, which resonated with the platform of contemporary art discourse that began to be debated since the emergence of the New Art Movement. Contemporary art possessed a para- digmatic nature that challenged and ques- tioned conventions. This trait often beca- me overly pronounced, overshadowing its artistic nature. The focus tended to be on its provocative aspect. Metaphors, sym- bolism, visual language, unique forms, and aesthetic expressions were sometimes overlooked. This phenomenon was evi- dent among Surabaya artists of the 1990s generation, whose birth coincided with the third tendency in post-Aksera art dis- course, which involved seeking alternative forms of aesthetic expression perceived as new and embracing multimedia and new media (Table 3). This quest for alternatives was driven by contemporary art discourse, which emphasized plurality and the synt- hesis of disciplinary boundaries. The artists of the 1990s generation as- pired to bring art into a field of meaning directly related to the social-political con- ditions of society (Table 3). Therefore, this generation vigorously explored social-po- litical themes with a new visual language, predominantly through installation art. They tended to depart from conventional visual languages, such as lyrical paintings that often lacked contextual relevance to their surroundings (Table 3). The painters of the 1990s generation, as detailed in Table 3, were integral to the socio-political discourse of their era, chan- neling their unique educational backg- rounds and aesthetics to offer insightful commentary. Adi Kaneko’s monochroma- tic depictions of individuals engaged in power struggles encapsulated his keenly observed social realities. Fibri Andrianto’s transition from conventional mediums to intricate collages and assemblages with found objects mirrored her evolving en- gagement with socio-political phenomena. Arifin Petruk’s innovative use of installati- on art and multimedia elements amplified her socio-political themes, creating im- mersive experiences for viewers. Jopram’s shift to spatial abstraction and pastel pa- lettes allowed her to explore the subtle intricacies of life within the socio-political context. Bambang BP.’s incorporation of found objects, clay, and fiberglass into her installation art portrayed displaced indivi- duals and rulers’ behaviors, all rooted in the socio-political climate. Martin’s embra- ce of electronic mediums like video art and installations breathed life into her socio- political concepts, infusing her work with imaginative depth. Suharman’s diverse Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education 23 (2) (2023): 301-317314 Table 3. Representation of Socio-Political Discourse of the 1990s Generation PAINTERS EDUCATION AESTHETICS Adi Kaneko (1966) Fine Arts IKIP Surabaya The figures with strange faces, some masked, wide-open eyes, and robust bodies, all engaged in wrestling-like interactions as if vying for something. They are often depicted in monochromatic colors, black-brown hues. There are emerging colors, but they still give a mini- mal and simplistic impression. This is the expressive language tendency of Edi Kaniko. Such depictions of humans represent the social reality he keenly observes. Everyone desires power. E.Y. Fibri Andrianto (1974) Sekolah Tinggi Kesenian Wilwatikta Surabaya Fibri is an artist who is not easily satisfied with conventional mediums. Her works often display a tendency for diverse tech- niques, ranging from regular painting techniques to collages and even intricate assemblages. Found objects frequently ap- pear in her works, seamlessly integrated into her creations. Her ideas are developed from a keen observation of socio-political phenomena. This differs from her earlier period, where she was inspired by cosmological issues and their relationship to her existence. Arifin Petruk (1965) Self-taught Initially known as a theater practitioner, she has more recently emerged with installation artworks. The ideas behind her works stem from socio-political themes. She extensively utilizes found objects, electronic assemblies, and video effects to sup- port her concepts. Besides manifesting in concrete forms, there are also auditory imageries to strengthen the atmosphere and spirit she conceives. Jopram (1975) Sekolah Menengah Seni Rupa (SMSR) Surabaya Her early period works reveal a preference for decorative patterns, fully relying on the power of lines. Subsequently, the repetitive imagery of lines in specific patterns shifted to spatial images that depended on layered divisions of the surface. The space appears illusory, non-real, and relatively abstract. The colors become soft and pastel, complementing the ideas related to her life. Bambang BP. (1980) Sekolah Tinggi Kesenian Wilwatikta Surabaya In addition to painting, she also engages in installation art. She not only relies on the technique of assembling found objects, but she also crafts these objects using clay and fiberglass, all originating from socio-political themes. Displaced people, pur- suits by authorities, and various behaviors of arrogant rulers emerge in her works. Martin (1975) Diskomvis Pe- tra Surabaya Her explorations into new mediums have become familiar to her. Her affinity with computers, videos, and various other electronic devices has led her to utilize these objects to visualize her concepts. Video art, video installations, and video perfor- mances have become her expressive language, believed to be rich in imagination. Suharman (1952) Fine Arts UNS Surakarta Her creative ventures are diverse, manifested in glass paint- ings, sculptures, and performance art. Her works are always infused with sarcastic humor to poke at human behavior. Social themes are her primary source of inspiration. The ‘wayang’ figures represent representations of human temperaments that she critiques. Djuli Djatiprambudi et al., Art Discourse in Modern Fine Arts in Surabaya: An Analytical 315 ed on lyricism, while the art discourse of the 1990s embraced non-lyricism. The dis- course of the 1980s was formed by the he- gemony of the market, which treated pain- tings as commodities. On the other hand, the discourse of the 1990s was shaped by the discourse of contemporary art, which raised issues of opposition to universal and linear modernism. The Aksera generation can be seen as a response to modernism by seeking personal identity based on nationalistic issues. In contrast, the post-Aksera gene- ration (especially the 1990s) responded to contemporary art discourse. Between these two poles, another point of deve- lopment responds to the phenomenon of the commodification of painting. Thus, the development of visual arts in Suraba- ya over three decades has passed through three phases of historical discourse as the foundation of modern art practices in the city. This phenomenon represents contin- uity and changes in historical discourses, demonstrating similarities and differences in the art discourses that underlie modern art growth in Jakarta, Bandung, Yogyakar- ta, and Bali. Historical research focused on art discourse with a sociohistorical approach was initially challenging for art historians to accept. They were accustomed to confi- ning art issues solely to artworks (formal analysis) and artists (historicism). This approach was criticized for being too fo- cused on social context and neglecting dis- cussions of artworks and their underlying discourses. Such critiques typically came from perceptual and formalist thinkers. In cont- rast, semiotic thinkers tended to remind that a formalist art discourse, or one so- lely focused on the physical form of the artwork, would be trapped in perceptual, reducing art to a matter of structure (artis- tic allure). Similarly, if art is solely viewed through a social context, it would be con- fined to pure social history. Meanwhile, the social-historical approach emphasizes the study of ideology as the source of art discourse. Therefore, in this research, an creative ventures, infused with sarcastic humor and ‘wayang’ symbolism, critical- ly examined human behavior within the socio-political framework. Collectively, these artists served as prominent voices in the “Representation of Socio-Political Dis- course of the 1990s Generation,” offering sharp and poignant commentary on their time’s complex social and political dyna- mics through the language of art. CONCLUSIONS The construction of art discourse in modern art in Surabaya over three de- cades (1970s-1990s) was initiated by the emergence of the Aksera generation in the 1970s. This generation was born from the discourse of nationalism, which pragmati- cally translated into the search for personal identity in their paintings. The belief in the importance of personal identity (personal style) in art stemmed from the discourse about national art or art with a national personality, which was the credo of Persa- gi. The modern art credo that positioned artists at the center of culture was transla- ted into the dialectic of seeking personal identity. Each artist was expected to create a uniquely expressive language or aesthe- tic idiom. This tendency was pursued in vario- us ways, including (1) returning to tradi- tional cultural roots, (2) exploring visual elements formally, and (3) exploring social reality. The artistic inclination to question personal identity resulted in the works of the Aksera generation lacking a direct con- nection to the realities of life. As an educa- tion aimed at nurturing future artists, Ak- sera succeeded in producing artists with strong stylistic originality. The post-Aksera generation, compri- sing the 1980s and 1990s, exhibited tenden- cies toward (1) decorative and surrealist paintings favored by the market, (2) a mar- ket discourse that reduced critical and ref- lective attitudes in aesthetic expressions, and (3) rebellious art as an antithesis to market-coopted art. The art discourse of the 1980s focus- Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education 23 (2) (2023): 301-317316 effort has been made to include two mo- dels of discussion: first, focusing on social context, and second, emphasizing the form of the artwork (form) and the signs, as well as the life history of the artists. The implications of this research are twofold. First, modern Indonesian art his- tory is still predominantly written using a linear historical model, limited to certain cities considered centers of modernity, and chronologically inclined towards so- cio-political events. Hence, there is a need to develop a form of historical explanation that sharpens the main focus, expands the areas of development, and diversifies the research models. Second, studying art discourse in modern art in Indonesia has been relative- ly scarce. Thus, the art discourse as a fra- mework for the debate in the development of art history needs to be comprehensively understood. Art discourse as a fundamen- tal historical framework will be deeply examined in various important domains of art history, such as ideas, will, actions, changes, networks, figures, and infrastruc- tures in a specific region. REFERENCES Agger, B. (2003). Teori Sosial Kritis (Terj. Nurhadi). Kreasi Wacana. Antoinette, M. (2020). Vanishing acts: re- membering 5th Passage in Singa- pore’s contemporary art history (a story about making art public). World Art, 10(2–3), 323–350. https://doi.or g/10.1080/21500894.2020.1810753 Antoinette, M., & Maravillas, F. (2020). Po- sitioning contemporary art worlds and art publics in Southeast Asia. World Art, 10(2–3), 161–189. https:// doi.org/10.1080/21500894.2020.182 1761 Becker, H. S. (1982). Art Worlds. University of California Press. Berger, P. L. (1990). Revolusi Kapitalis (Terj. Mohamad Oemar). LP3ES. Burhan, M. A. (2003). Seni Rupa Modern Indonesia: Tinjauan Sosiohistoris. In Aspek-aspek Seni Visual Indonesia, Politik dan Gender. Yayasan Seni Ce- meti. Burhan, M. A. (2008). Perkembangan Seni Lukis Mooi Indie sampai Persagi di Batavia 1900-1942. Galeri Nasional Indonesia. Burhan, M. A. (2013). Seni Lukis Indonesia Masa Jepang sampai Lekra. UNS Press. Burke, P. (2003). Sejarah dan Teori Sosial (Terj. Mestika Zed & Zulfami). Yayas- an Obor Indonesia. Carretero, M., Berger, S., & Grever, M. (Eds.). (2017). Palgrave Handbook of Research in Historical Culture and Edu- cation. Palgrave Macmillan. Chountasi, M., Dafiotis, P., & Sylaiou, S. (2021). Newness and openness in new media arts and digital perfor- mances: contextualizing Greece in the Balkan scene. International Journal of Performance Arts and Digital Media, 17(3), 316–335. https://doi.org/10.1 080/14794713.2020.1856552 Chua, K. (2011). On teaching modern and contemporary Southeast Asian art. Third Text, 25(4), 467–473. https:// doi.org/10.1080/09528822.2011.587 947 Codell, J. (2018). Private Collecting, Exhibi- tion and the Shaping of Art History in London: The Burlington Fine Arts Club, by Stacey J. Pierson. Visual Re- sources, 34(3–4), 440–445. https:// doi.org/10.1080/01973762.2018.143 2207 Craib, I. (1984). Teori-teori Sosial Modern dari Parsons sampai Habermas (Terj. Paul S. Baut dan T. Effendi). CV. Rajawali. Dermawan T, A. (1994). Galeri di Indone- sia, Antara Bisnis dan Apresiasi. In The Jakarta International Fine Arts Ex- hibition 1994. Yayasan Seni Rupa In- donesia. Dermawan T, A. (2003). Seni Rupa Indo- nesia dan Gelombang Ekonomi. In Aspek-Aspek Seni Visual Indonesia: Paradigma dan Pasar. Yayasan Seni Cemeti. Djatiprambudi, D. (1994). Terjebak Dalam Kondisi Steriotipe. Galeri DKS 26 De- sember 1994 – 4 Januari 1995. Djuli Djatiprambudi et al., Art Discourse in Modern Fine Arts in Surabaya: An Analytical 317 Djatiprambudi, D. (2009). Komodifikasi Seni Rupa Kontemporer Indonesia: Basis Sos- ial Historis, Struktur dan Implikasinya. Institut Teknologi Bandung. Djatiprambudi, D. (2019). Indonesia Paint- ing Market in Surabaya: Urban Life- style Perspektive. In D. Djatipram- budi (Ed.), Seni Rupa Indonesia dalam Titik Simpang (2nd ed.). SatuKata. Fernie, E. (1995). Art History and Its Meth- ods. Phaidon. Hauser, A. (1985). The Sociology of Art (Translated by Kenneth J. Northcott). The University of Chicago Press. Isbandi, R. (1975). Perkembangan Seni Lukis di Surabaya sampai 1975. Dewan Kes- enian Surabaya. Jones, T. (2018). International intangible cultural heritage policy in the neigh- bourhood: an assessment and case study of Indonesia. Journal of Cultur- al Geography, 35(3), 362–387. https:// doi.org/10.1080/08873631.2018.142 9351 Kartodirdjo, S. (2016). Pendekatan Ilmu Sos- ial dalam Metodologi Sejarah. Ombak. Kuntowijoyo. (1994). Metodologi Sejarah. PT Tiara Wacana. Kuntowijoyo. (1995). Pengantar Ilmu Seja- rah. Yayasan Bentang Budaya. Lombard, D. (2008a). Nusa Jawa: Silang Budaya (Batas-Batas Pembaratan). Gramedia Pustaka Utama. Lombard, D. (2008b). Nusa Jawa: Silang Bu- daya (Warisan Kerajaan-kerajaan Kon- sentris). Gramedia Pustaka Utama. Nurcahyo, H. (1998). Problematika Seni Lukis Kontemporer. Dinas P dan K Propinsi Jawa Timur. Nurcahyo, H., & Mamannoor. (2001). Am- bang Cakrawala Seni Lukis Amang Rah- man Jubair. Yayasan Kembang Jati. Patria, N., & Arief, A. (1999). Antonio Gramsci Negara dan Hegemoni. Pusta- ka Pelajar. Resobowo, B. (2004). Bercermin di Muka Kaca: Seniman, Seni, dan Masyarakat. Ombak. Romain, J. (2016). “All art is part of the same constellation”: A conversation on craft and artistic practice with heri dono. Journal of Modern Craft, 9(2), 183–191. https://doi.org/10.10 80/17496772.2016.1205282 Sampurno, M. B. T. (2023). Critics of the Tendency of Art Education for Au- tistic Children in Indonesia. ARTSE- DUCA, 35 SE-Experiencias Educativas, 121–133. https://doi.org/10.6035/ artseduca.7107 Sandler, I. (1996). Art of Postmodern Era, From the Late 1960s. Harper Collins Publisher Inc. Spanjaard, H. (2018). Cita-cita Seni Lukis Indonesia Modern 1900-1995: Sebuah Kreasi Identitas Kultural Nasional (Ter- jemahan Iswahyudi). Ombak. Taylor, N. A., & Zitzewitz, K. (2018). His- tory as Figure of Thought in Con- temporary Art in South and South- east Asia. Art Journal, 77(4), 46–48. https://doi.org/10.1080/00043249.2 018.1549875 Trafi-Prats, L. (2010). Art Historical Appro- priation in a Visual Culture-based Art Education. Studies in Art Educa- tion, 50(2), 152–166. Wolff, J. (1983). Aesthetics and The Sociology of Art. George Allen & Unwin Ltd.