Official Publication of the Optometric Historical Society Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History publishes material on the history of optometry and related topics. As the official publication of the Optometric Historical Society, Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History supports the purposes and functions of the Optometric Historical Society. The purposes of the Optometric Historical Society are: ● to encourage the collection and preservation of materials relating to the history of optometry, ● to assist in securing and documenting the recollections of those who participated in the development of optometry, ● to encourage and assist in the care of archives of optometric interest, ● to identify and mark sites, landmarks, monuments, and structures of significance in optometric development, and ● to shed honor and recognition on persons, groups, and agencies making notable contributions toward the goals of the society. Officers and members of the Optometric Historical Society Advisory Committee with their email addresses and years of expiration of their terms on the committee in parentheses: President: John F. Amos (2015); eyedoc@uab.edu Vice-President: Ronald Ferrucci (2017); rferrucci@juno.com Secretary-Treasurer: Chuck Haine (2016); chaine@hainews.com Irving Bennett (2016), email address: irvbennett23@gmail.com Morton Greenspoon (2015); drmort@mac.com Alden Norm Haffner (2018); anhaffner@msn.com Bill Sharpton (2017); sharpton@windstream.net Karla Zadnik (2018); Zadnik4@osu.edu OHS Administrative Support: Kirsten Pourroy Hébert, Heritage Services Specialist, The Archives and Museum of Optometry, khebert@aoa.rg Rebecca Hildebrand, Development Officer, Optometry Cares (AOA Foundation), RAHildebrand@aoa.org The official publication of the Optometric Historical Society, published quarterly since its beginning, was previously titled: Newsletter of the Optometric Historical Society, 1970-1991 (volumes 1-22), and Hindsight: Newsletter of the Optometric Historical Society, 1992-2006 (volumes 23-37). Use of the current title, Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History, began in 2007 with volume 38, number 1. Volumes 1-42 are available online at: https://scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/hindsight/issue/archive. OHS website: http://www.aoafoundation.org/ohs/ On the cover: An illustration from the monograph Patient Control, by Harry Pine. If you can identify the instruments, please write the editor at dgoss@indiana.edu and your identifications will be published in a future issue of Hindsight. Tentative identifications of two of the instruments are given in the article on Harry Pine. mailto:eyedoc@uab.edu mailto:khebert@aoa.rg mailto:RAHildebrand@aoa.org mailto:dgoss@indiana.edu Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History….July, 2015, volume 46, number 3, page 37 HINDSIGHT: Journal of Optometry History July, 2015 Volume 46, Number 3 Editor: David A. Goss, School of Optometry, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, dgoss@indiana.edu Contributing Editor: Irving Bennett, 5551 Dunrobin Drive, #4208, Sarasota, FL 34238 TABLE OF CONTENTS OHS News……………………………………………………………………………………...38 A Brief Biographical Sketch of Harry E. Pine, Jr. (1890-1965), Optometric Leader ..…42 Changes in Optometric Education in the 1970s……………………………………………46 Changing Nature of the Optometry Student Body: Compilations of Illustrative Data Across Several Decades……..……………………………………………………………....51 1961 Conference on Graduate Training for Research in Vision………………………….56 Book Review: Vision Realized: A History of the MCO……………………………….........59 Three Prominent OHS Members Remembered…………………………………………....61 Instructions to Authors……………………………………………………………………..…63 Journal subscriptions are registered by joining the Optometric Historical Society. The cost of an institutional or library subscription is the same as for personal membership. Manuscripts submitted for publication should be sent to the Editor at the email or postal address above. A Word document attached to an email message is the preferred means of submission. Paper copy submissions sent by postal service will also be considered. mailto:dgoss@indiana.edu Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History….July, 2015, volume 46, number 3, page 38 OHS News From John F. Amos, OHS Advisory Committee President BRIEF SUMMARY OPTOMETRY HISTORICAL SOCIETY Business Meeting – Seattle Sheraton June 25, 2015 The OHS Annual Business Meeting was called to order by President John Amos. The members of the OHS Advisory Committee were introduced as were staff members in attendance. It was not necessary to appoint a recorder of minutes since the entire meeting was being audio recorded. The minutes of last year’s meeting were read and approved by those in attendance. The Treasurer’s report was read by Dr. Amos at the request of Dr. Haine since he was unable to attend the meeting. At this time the amount in the account is slightly decreased over that amount from last year, but with the increase in members and the amount of dues to be collected with the rolling membership, it is projected there will be an increase in funds by the end of the fiscal year. The Membership Report finds that the OHS has 97 members, including 87 individuals and 10 libraries. New Business included the Acknowledgement of the passing of two well-known optometric leaders – Dr. Alfred A. Rosenbloom and Dr. Melvin D. Wolfberg. Brief biographies of the accomplishments of Drs. Rosenbloom and Wolfberg were read. Each of these optometrists contributed significantly to the growth of the profession as well as serving as long-term board members of the OHS. They also contributed papers to Hindsight: The Journal of Optometry History. A draft of the charter for the new Advisory Committee was distributed. This charter will be discussed at a later time by the Advisory Committee. Ms. Kirsten Hebert, an archivist, heritage services and museum specialist, with AOA Heritage Services was called on to discuss several items of business. Among these were the genesis of the new banner, lapel pin, and graphic symbol of the OHS. The new banner was displayed for the first time at this meeting. Kirsten also presented an overview of the Archives and Museum of Optometry including the Appraisal Subcommittee regarding the museum collection, the newly resurrected Oral History Program and the National Register of Historic Places/National Trust. She also briefly mentioned the AOA Reception Story Wall Timeline. Dr. Amos requested that all those in attendance please provide the names of possible new committee members to serve on the Advisory Committee as well as names for a speaker at Optometry’s Meeting 2016 in Boston. The names of potential new OHS members are always welcomed. Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History….July, 2015, volume 46, number 3, page 39 Following the adjournment of the Business Meeting and a brief break, Dr. Lester Caplan this year’s speaker for the “Blast from the Past” was introduced. Dr. Caplan’s topic was “The Early Years of Optometry in the Indian Health Services” (1968-1989). Dr. Caplan’s talk was most interesting and provided great detail as to those optometrists who served in the early years of optometry in the IHS. His presentation provided greater detail than that covered during his recent oral history of the same topic. Top photograph: Lester Caplan making his “Blast from the Past” presentation. Bottom photograph: OHS president John F. Amos leading the 2015 business meeting. Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History….July, 2015, volume 46, number 3, page 40 From Kirsten Hébert, OHS Administrative Support and Heritage Services Specialist, Archives and Museum of Optometry The Archives & Museum of Optometry Move In July 2016, The Archives & Museum of Optometry collections are moving off- site to secure, climate-controlled storage in preparation for the renovation of the AOA St. Louis Headquarters. Moving collections such as ours is challenging because many of the objects are at once fragile, heavy and awkward to move. Furthermore, our unseasonably wet weather requires us to modify our schedules and our packing methods and materials. However, the risk of damage to material from vibrations, contamination and deterioration from environmental pollutants during construction is much greater for collections stored on-site. Since we will be unable to readily access our material, reference services will be suspended during the course of the next year. While this poses an inconvenience to researchers in the short run, this “down time” gives us an opportunity to gain greater intellectual control over our collection by conducting a survey of our holdings. Additionally, it will provide us with time and space to process donations that have been languishing in storage since the 1980s, and to conduct conservation and preservation treatments on materials such as our rolled, panoramic photographs and our motion picture collection. In the long term, this will improve access to our materials by opening up many new objects and archival materials to researchers. We look forward to sharing our progress with you in the coming months! Preparing for the Archives and Museum of Optometry move, Heritage Services Specialist Kirsten Hébert prepares the new storage space with Nilfisk Museum Vacuum and HEPA filter. Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History….July, 2015, volume 46, number 3, page 41 More photographs showing preparations for the Archives and Museum of Optometry move: Top: Student volunteer Christopher Murphy unloading museum objects. Middle left: Objects at the new site awaiting the construction of baked-enamel shelving. Middle right: University of Missouri Museum Studies Intern, Sarah Budai, returns from shrink- wrapping boxes to protect them from unusual July rain in St. Louis, Missouri. Bottom: Ophthalmic instrument removed from its stand and packed for moving and temporary storage. Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History….July, 2015, volume 46, number 3, page 42 A Brief Biographical Sketch of Harry E. Pine, Jr. (1890- 1965), Optometric Leader David A. Goss, O.D., Ph.D. School of Optometry, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, dgoss@indiana.edu Harry E. Pine, Jr. (1890-1965) was the son of an optometrist. His father was one of many trained in optics while employed by the James Queen Company in the late nineteenth century.1 Harry E. Pine, Jr. graduated from Northern Illinois College of Optometry in 1923.2 A profile indicated that he had B.S. and D.O.S. degrees,2 the latter usually being an honorary designation. Pine was a first Lieutenant in the United States Army in World War I and served in France. He continued with the Army Reserves until he retired in 1955 with the rank of Major.2 He practiced optometry in Chicago, and was president of the Illinois Optometric Association for six years. He was the twenty-fourth president of the American Optometric Association, serving in the years 1936-38. It was observed that “his influence extended far beyond his official optometric offices.”2 He was characterized as an idealist and he worked to advance a positive image of professional optometry.2 Pine published many articles in the Journal of the American Optometric Association over a more than twenty year period, primarily on topics of professionalism in optometry. In 1934, he published a paper in the American Journal of Optometry entitled “Amblyopic treatment technics.” Pine also published two small books, Patient Control: Applied Psychology for the Optometrist and State Board Questions and Answers. Patient Control (64 pages) was a fold and staple soft cover monograph published in 1939 by Professional Press in Chicago. Pine gave advice on how to understand and manage patients, how to make a favorable impression, and how to achieve financial success while maintaining a professional practice. In the foreword, Pine noted that the successful optometrist “must understand people and human nature, and be able to approach and influence them. The ability to do so is just as much, and as important, a part of his professional service as the technical ability to diagnose and treat their physical defects.” (p. 5) In Patient Control Pine emphasized a good looking office with up-to-date equipment, an immaculately clean examination room, and a thorough and impressive examination. He suggested that orthoptic training should be advised when indicated, not only because it can eliminate the patient’s visual fatigue, but also because it is a good practice builder. Pine stressed listening carefully to patients and trying to understand their needs. He noted that patient welfare must come first, but the optometrist should confidently charge fees that will be profitable. mailto:dgoss@indiana.edu Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History….July, 2015, volume 46, number 3, page 43 Throughout the book Pine gave examples of how he handled various patient encounters. For example, when the optometrist who examined the patient previously is mentioned by the patient, it is best to be complimentary concerning that optometrist or say nothing. Pine noted that “whenever an optometrist is lowered in public esteem we all suffer.” (p. 25) A review of Pine’s Patient Control stated: “Much importance is given to minute detail and many of the object lessons stressed could be used to advantage by a large majority of practitioners.”3 The book included seven black and white illustrations of office rooms. Two of those illustrations are reproduced here (Figures 1 and 2). Figure 1. This photograph of an examination room from Shuron Optical Company was in Pine’s Patient Control (page 24). Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History….July, 2015, volume 46, number 3, page 44 Figure 2. This drawing from American Optical Company was in Pine’s Patient Control (page 26). This room appears to be an orthoptics and special tests room. The instrument on the left next to the margin of the drawing appears to be a rotoscope, which was a stereoscope arrangement in which the object viewed could be rotated and convergence could be varied. The instrument on the right may be a stereocampimeter for examination of central fields. Can anyone confirm those identifications and/or identify the instrument in the foreground or the instrument just to the left of the door? Pine’s State Board Questions and Answers (136 pages) was published in hardcover in 1950 by Professional Press of Chicago. Pine compiled questions and answers from the licensure examinations of several unidentified states. They were grouped into categories of ocular pathology, geometric optics, theoretic optometry, physiological optics, practical optometry, practical optics, and ocular anatomy. The material was compiled to assist those who were preparing to take state board examinations. Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History….July, 2015, volume 46, number 3, page 45 In an introduction to State Board Questions and Answers, Pine noted that some errors in the answers given by the State Boards were corrected so that those preparing for board examinations would not be confused. Some answers were followed by editorial notes which pointed out problems with the questions or the answers provided by the Boards. Pine stated that this was done partly to help examiners improve their questions. A review of the book observed that it would be helpful to persons taking state board examinations in showing them the type of questions they were likely to face and the answers that might be expected.4 The review also suggested that the book made clear a shortcoming of board examinations. Not only were some esoteric questions included, but they also had answers that extended over multiple pages. The review concluded by stating: “The author has served his profession better by giving such questions and answers wider distribution than he has with the presentation of all the good ones that make up the greater part of the book. Let us hope the full scope of his labors will be appreciated and that it will bring about a long overdue reform.”4 References 1. Cox ME. Optometry, The Profession: Its Antecedents, Birth, and Development, rev. ed. Philadelphia: Chilton, 1957:16. 2. Babcock FD. Personalities in optometry: Harry E. Pine – 1890-1965. J Am Optom Assoc 1965;36:310. 3. Ryer EL, Hotaling EE. Book review: Patient Control. J Am Optom Assoc 1940;11:279. 4. Ryer EL. Book review: State Board Questions and Answers. J Am Optom Assoc 1950;22:294-295. Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History….July, 2015, volume 46, number 3, page 46 Changes in Optometric Education in the 1970s David A. Goss, O.D., Ph.D. School of Optometry, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, dgoss@indiana.edu Optometric education underwent significant change in the 1970s. This article gives an overview of some of those changes. The Havighurst Report In the early 1970s, the American Optometric Association made a $90,000 grant to the National Commission on Accrediting to make a study of optometric education. Twelve persons, including four practicing optometrists, and staff and officers of the optometrists, were appointed to the Commission on the Study of Optometric Education. Robert J. Havighurst, Professor of Education and Human Development at the University of Chicago, was named study director. Between June, 1971 and December, 1972, Havighurst met with members of the Commission, students and faculty at all optometry schools in the United States and one in Canada, presidents or deans of optometry schools, and staff and officers of the AOA. The results of study were summarized in a 128 page soft-cover book.1 Among the recommendations coming from the study were the following: (1) Practitioners should be required to take continuing education courses to maintain licensure. (2) All schools should have some faculty with both O.D. and Ph.D. degrees. (3) Optometry faculty salary scales should approximate those of other health science schools, such as dentistry. (4) Optometry faculty should have time available for research and service activities. The amount of time should approximate one-third of a full-time faculty member’s time. (5) There should be more opportunities for graduate training and research. (6) The optometry school curriculum should give greater emphasis to ocular disease and pharmacology, public and community health, social and behavioral sciences related to vision, and optometry practice specialty areas. (7) Standards for vision science libraries should be developed. (8) Optometry schools should cooperate with organizations which provide continuing education. (9) Several new optometry schools associated with universities or health science centers should be established. (10) The optometric profession should continue to study itself so that it can make a wise plan for the future. Within the following decades these recommendations would largely be met. Four New Schools Open Between 1971 and 1980 In April of 1971, New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller signed bills authorizing the establishment of the State University of New York (SUNY) College of Optometry. Classes started in September, 1971. The founding president was Alden N. Haffner, who was the executive director of the Optometric Center of New York, a nonprofit institution. Haffner served terms as the SUNY College of Optometry president from mailto:dgoss@indiana.edu Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History….July, 2015, volume 46, number 3, page 47 1971 to 1979 and from 1987 to 2005, with time in between as the vice chancellor for research, graduate studies and professional programs for the SUNY system. At first the College of Optometry occupied space where the Optometric Center of New York had operated a clinic, but soon the college rented additional space and then in 1976 consolidated facilities in one 130,000 square foot location where it remained for the next quarter century.2 The College of Optometry at Ferris State College (now Ferris State University Michigan College of Optometry) entered 21 students in September of 1975. This was the culmination of efforts of the Michigan Optometric Association, although they had originally envisioned the school at one of Michigan’s larger universities. Ferris State president Robert Ewigleben was successful in arguing that the optometry school would be a natural fit with Ferris State’s Opticianry and Optometric Technician programs.3 The College of Optometry’s first dean was Jack W. Bennett, who served in that role until 1988, when he became dean at Indiana University School of Optometry. The faculty members during the school’s first two years were Robert L. Carter, Michael Keating, and Vincent King.3 The next optometry school to open was at Northeastern Oklahoma State University in Tahlequah, Oklahoma, where 24 students started classes in the fall of 1979. One of the attributes of that location that made an optometry school feasible was that Tahlequah was the capitol of the Cherokee Nation and the site of an Indian Health Service U.S. Public Health Service hospital where an optometry clinic could be incorporated.4,5 The first dean of the college was Chester H. Pheiffer, who had previously been dean at the University of Houston College of Optometry. The faculty in the first year of the program were Hank G. Van Veen, Lesley L. Walls, and M. Gary Wickham. David A. Goss joined the faculty in August of 1980 and Harry O. House in January of 1981. The College of Optometry at the University of Missouri St. Louis started classes in the fall of 1980. Efforts to establish the school began in 1967 when the Missouri Optometric Association appointed Jerry Franzel chairman of a task force for that purpose.6,7 The founding dean was Jerry L. Christensen. Faculty who started at UMSL in the first few years of the optometry school and subsequently taught there for 25 or more years include G.A. Franzel, Ralph Garzia, William Long, and Carol Peck.8 Curricular Additions Related to Pathology and Pharmacology in the 1970s The 1970s saw increases in coursework in ocular and systemic disease and pharmacology at all optometry schools, corresponding to the expansion in scope of practice occurring in many states. For example, required courses in this area in the optometry curriculum at Indiana University listed in the 1969-70 Bulletin were 4 semester hours in general and ocular pathology, 8 semester hours of applied ocular pathology, and 1 semester hour of ocular pharmacology. In contrast, required disease- related coursework in the 1979-80 Bulletin included 4 semester hours of medical and ocular microbiology, 4 semester hours of general pathology, 3 semester hours of ocular physiology and biochemistry, 6 semester hours of ocular disease, 6 semester hours of Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History….July, 2015, volume 46, number 3, page 48 general and ocular pharmacology, and 3 semester hours of physical diagnosis. Other related changes from 1969-70 to 1979-80 at Indiana University were the increase in credits for ocular anatomy from 3 to 4 and addition of courses in optometric histology and neuroanatomy. Implementation of ocular disease management in the teaching clinics was a challenge but was aided at many schools by external rotations. Accelerated Optometry Program for Ph.D.s In 1972, the Massachusetts College of Optometry (later named New England College of Optometry) established a program in which students with earned Ph.D. degrees in the sciences could obtain and O.D. in an accelerated two year program. Similar two year programs were already in existence in some medical and dental schools. The program made extensive use of seminars and independent study. By 1976, the program had graduated 22 Doctors of Optometry.9 One of the motivating factors in establishing the program was a shortage of optometric educators, and many of the graduates did take faculty positions at optometry schools. For example, in the summers of 1981 and 1982 when Northeastern State University in Oklahoma was expanding its optometry faculty in the third and fourth years of the existence of its optometry school, three of the ten faculty they hired were graduates of the accelerated O.D. program at New England College of Optometry (Lynn Cyert, George Fulk, and Roger West). Changes in Numbers of Optometry School Applicants in the 1970s From 1969-70 to 1974-75, the number of persons submitting applications to optometry schools increased from 1,400 to 3,622, the total number of applications from 1,744 to 8,328, and thus the number of applications per applicant also showed an increase (from 1.2 to 2.3).10 Explanations for the increased number of applicants could include increase in numbers of female applicants to optometry school, increasing recognition of optometry, high regard for health care workers by the public at this time, and possible deferment from military service during the Vietnam War. The number of applicants who matriculated at an optometry school increased from 783 in 1969-70 to 1,000 in 1974-75. Thus the percentage of applicants who were admitted to an optometry school decreased from 55.9% in 1969-70 to 27.6% in 1974- 75.10 The numbers of applicants to medical and dental school also showed increases from 1969-70 to 1974-75. At the time, there were ten times as many medical schools as optometry schools and five times as many dental schools as optometry schools. So in terms of numbers of persons, the increases were greater for medicine and dentistry, but on a percentage basis the increases for optometry were greater. From 1969-70 to 1974-75, the number of persons applying to dental schools increased by 45%, to medical schools by 73%, and to optometry schools by 159%.10 The number of applicants per acceptance at optometry schools increased in the years between 1969-70 to 1974-75 from 1.8 to 3.6, at medical schools from 2.3 to 2.9, Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History….July, 2015, volume 46, number 3, page 49 and at dental schools from 2.4 to 2.6. Thus the applicant to acceptance ratio was lower for optometry than for dentistry and medicine in 1969-70 but higher in 1974-75.10 The number of optometry school applications increased again from 8,328 in 1974-75 to 9,164 in 1975-76, but after the startling increases in numbers of optometry school applications from 1969-70 to 1975-76, the numbers of applications decreased each year in the rest of the 1970s.11 The number of applications decreased to 6,185 in 1979-80.11 The First Year Long Residencies The first year long residency in optometry was one in vision therapy at the State University of New York. It started in 1974 with four residents: Stanley Appelbaum, Harvey Estren, Kenneth Koslowe, and Robert Sanet.12,13 A residency started at the Veterans Administration hospital in Kansas City in 1975 became the first residency accredited by the Council on Optometric Education.14 The first resident in that program was Thomas Stelmack.14 By 1979, there were 18 residency programs offered by ten optometry schools.15 Areas of emphasis of those residencies included general optometry, ocular disease, low vision, vision therapy, pediatric optometry, and contact lenses.15 References 1. Havighurst RJ. Optometry: Education for the Profession – Report of the National Study of Optometric Education. Washington, DC: National Commission on Accreditation, 1973. 2. State University of New York College of Optometry. History and Mission. www.suny.opt.edu/about/history_and_mission. Accessed June 11, 2015. 3. Saladin JJ, Carter RL. Vision Realized: A History of the MCO. Big Rapids, MI: Ferris State University, 2012. 4. Frankovic JG. Northeastern Oklahoma State University College of Optometry: Its Conception and Establishment, 1973-1979. Seminar paper presented in Hist 5433, Northeastern State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the M.A. degree, 2008. 5. Eger MJ. Optometry’s new college in Oklahoma. J Am Optom Assoc 1983;54:467- 470. 6. Brechler F. Formation of the School of Optometry at the University of Missouri-St. Louis. Optom Vis Sci 1994;71:584-589. 7. UMSL College of Optometry. Founding History. http://optometry.umsl.edu/About Us/history.html. Accessed June 16, 2015. 8. UMSL College of Optometry EyeWire newsletters, 2005-2008. www.umsl.edu/~optometry/Alumni and Friends/EyeWire Archives.html. Accessed June 16, 2015. 9. Butterfield P. The second time around: a look at MCO’s accelerated program for Ph.D.’s. J Optometric Education 1976;2:17-20. 10. Levine NR, Levine L. A study of applicants to colleges of optometry in the U.S. J Am Optom Assoc 1976;47:616-623. 11. Boucher JA. Optometric education. J Am Optom Assoc 1980;51:359-363. http://www.suny.opt.edu/about/history_and_mission http://optometry.umsl.edu/About%20Us/history.html http://optometry.umsl.edu/About%20Us/history.html http://www.umsl.edu/~optometry/Alumni%20and%20Friends/EyeWire%20Archives.html Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History….July, 2015, volume 46, number 3, page 50 12. Suchoff I. The first year-long optometric residency education program. Hindsight: J Optom Hist 2010;41:122-125. 13. Estren H. Recollections of participation in the first year-long optometric residency program. Hindsight: J Optom Hist 2010;41:126-128. 14. Amos JF. A brief history of optometric residency education. J Am Optom Assoc 1987;58:374-376. 15. Bleything WB. The optometric residency: its bloom. J Optometric Education 1979;5:16-21. Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History….July, 2015, volume 46, number 3, page 51 Changing Nature of the Optometry Student Body: Compilations of Illustrative Data Across Several Decades David A. Goss, O.D., Ph.D. School of Optometry, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, dgoss@indiana.edu This article contains three tables of data which illustrate ways in which the optometry student body changed in the twentieth century and into the twenty-first century. Data were collected from a variety of sources, and there are some years for which data do not seem to be readily available. Levels of College Training Before Entering Optometry School At the beginning of the twentieth century, there were generally no academic requirements for admission to optometry school.1 In 1944, only 19% of practicing optometrists had attended college before optometry school.1 Optometry school entrance requirements were gradually added, and by the early 1940s, they were increasing to a minimum of one year of college credit. This has incrementally increased to the present standard of four years of pre-optometry college work, although some students with exceptional academic records can gain admittance after three years of college. Each year from 1999 to 2012, at least 90% of students had a Bachelor’s degree or higher entering optometry school. Of course, there have always been a number of students who exceeded the minimum requirements for admittance. In each of the years from 1999 to 2012, one to three percent of entering students had a Master’s or Doctorate degree. Table 1. Percent of United States optometry students with college training and college degrees before entering optometry school. Year Percent with college training Percent having Bachelor’s degree or higher Source 1924 3 <1 Estimated from Figs. 18 & 19 in Hofstetter1 1925 14 1 Estimated from Figs. 18 & 19 in Hofstetter1 1926 15 <1 Estimated from Figs. 18 & 19 in Hofstetter1 1927 13 1 Estimated from Figs. 18 & 19 in Hofstetter1 1928 10 <1 Estimated from Figs. 18 & 19 in Hofstetter1 1929 13 2 Estimated from Figs. 18 & 19 in Hofstetter1 1930 12 1 Estimated from Figs. 18 & 19 in Hofstetter1 1931 15 2 Estimated from Figs. 18 & 19 in Hofstetter1 1932 15 3 Estimated from Figs. 18 & 19 in Hofstetter1 1933 20 3 Estimated from Figs. 18 & 19 in Hofstetter1 mailto:dgoss@indiana.edu Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History….July, 2015, volume 46, number 3, page 52 1934 19 3 Estimated from Figs. 18 & 19 in Hofstetter1 1935 10 2 Estimated from Figs. 18 & 19 in Hofstetter1 1936 15 2 Estimated from Figs. 18 & 19 in Hofstetter1 1937 18 2 Estimated from Figs. 18 & 19 in Hofstetter1 1938 22 4 Estimated from Figs. 18 & 19 in Hofstetter1 1939 24 4 Estimated from Figs. 18 & 19 in Hofstetter1 1940 35 6 Estimated from Figs. 18 & 19 in Hofstetter1 1941 39 7 Estimated from Figs. 18 & 19 in Hofstetter1 1970 100 41 Seger2 1973 100 49 Seger3 1977 100 64 J Optometric Education4 1978 100 64 J Optometric Education5 1979 100 65 J Optometric Education6 1980 100 66 J Optometric Education7 1981 100 63 J Optometric Education8 1982 100 62 J Optometric Education9 1983 100 61 J Optometric Education10 1984 100 64 J Optometric Education11 1987 100 62 Data provided by ASCO12 1989 100 76 ASCO Survey13 1990 100 67 ASCO Survey14 1991 100 71 ASCO Survey15 1999 100 92 Data provided by ASCO12 2000 100 90 Data provided by ASCO12 2001 100 90 Data provided by ASCO12 2002 100 90 Data provided by ASCO12 2003 100 91 Data provided by ASCO12 2004 100 91 Data provided by ASCO12 2005 100 92 Data provided by ASCO12 2006 100 92 Data provided by ASCO12 2007 100 93 Data provided by ASCO12 2008 100 94 ASCO website16 2009 100 93 ASCO website16 2010 100 94 ASCO website16 2011 100 96 ASCO website16 2012 100 97 ASCO website16 ASCO = Association of Schools and Colleges of Optometry Pre-Optometry Grade Point Averages Not only have the years of pre-optometry training increased, but available data (Table 2) indicate an increase in pre-optometry grade point averages since the 1960s. Some of this increase can be attributed to grade inflation which has been estimated at an average increase in GPA of about 0.1 per decade.17 Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History….July, 2015, volume 46, number 3, page 53 Table 2. Mean pre-optometry grade point averages (GPA). For some years, the available data were the overall mean GPAs for all entering optometry students, and for some years the data available were mean GPAs for entering students at each of the ASCO member schools. In the latter case, the table below gives the range from the school with the lowest mean entering GPA to the school with the highest mean entering GPA. Year Overall Mean GPA Range of Mean GPAs for ASCO Member Schools Source 1965 2.46 Seger3 1966 2.50 Seger3 1967 2.56 Seger3 1968 2.62 Seger3 1969 2.59 Seger3 1970 2.67 Seger3 1971 2.80 Seger3 1972 2.91 Seger3 1973 3.00 Seger3 1975 3.27 Boucher18 1976 3.25 Boucher18 1977 3.29 2.89 – 3.53 J Optometric Education4 1978 3.30 2.91 – 3.53 J Optometric Education5 1979 3.31 2.90 – 3.58 J Optometric Education6 1980 3.28 2.87 – 3.48 J Optometric Education7 1981 3.19 2.80 – 3.40 J Optometric Education8 1982 2.86 – 3.38 J Optometric Education9 1983 2.91 – 3.40 J Optometric Education10 1984 2.70 – 3.40 J Optometric Education11 2009 3.03 – 3.57 ASCO website16 2010 3.33 – 3.87 ASCO website16 2011 3.28 – 3.92 ASCO website16 2012 3.03 – 3.73 ASCO website16 2013 3.02 – 3.65 ASCO website16 Percentages of Women Among Applicants and Entering Students A survey conducted by the American Optometric Association in 1944 found that about 3% of practicing optometrists were women.20 The pattern of few women in optometry persisted until the 1970s. The percentage of optometry school applicants who were women increased from 5% in 1971 to 19% in 1977.21 The proportion of women among optometry students throughout the last quarter of the twentieth century increased until they reached a majority. These trends are shown in Table 3. Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History….July, 2015, volume 46, number 3, page 54 Table 3. Percentages of women among optometry school applicants and among entering optometry students. Year Percentage among applicants Percentage among entering students Source 1971 5 Levine21 1972 7 Levine21 1973 9 Levine21 1974 13 Levine21 1975 14 Levine21 1976 18 Levine21 1977 19 20 Levine21; J Optometric Education4 1978 20 J Optometric Education5 1979 23 J Optometric Education6 1980 25 J Optometric Education7 1981 27 J Optometric Education8 1982 29 J Optometric Education9 1983 34 J Optometric Education10 1984 35 J Optometric Education11 1989 50 ASCO Survey13 1990 51 ASCO Survey14 1991 53 ASCO Survey15 1992 55 Trends in Optometric Education22 2008 65 ASCO website16 2009 62 ASCO website16 2010 64 ASCO website16 2011 66 ASCO website16 2012 63 ASCO website16 2013 65 ASCO website16 References 1. Hofstetter HW. Optometry: Professional, Economic, and Legal Aspects. St. Louis: Mosby, 1948:297-307. 2. Seger CE. A year of educational activity. J Am Optom Assoc 1971;42:331-336. 3. Seger CE, Report to AOA House of Delegates – Optometric education 1974. J Am Optom Assoc 1974;45:918-925. 4. American Optometric Association Council on Optometric Education. Annual Survey of Optometric Educational Institutions 1977-78. J Optometric Education 1978;4(2):27-30. 5. American Optometric Association Council on Optometric Education. Annual Survey of Optometric Educational Institutions 1978-79. J Optometric Education 1980;5(4):27-31. 6. American Optometric Association Council on Optometric Education. Annual Survey of Optometric Educational Institutions 1979-80. J Optometric Education 1980;6(2):23-28. 7. American Optometric Association Council on Optometric Education. Annual Survey of Optometric Educational Institutions 1980-81. J Optometric Education 1982;7(3):22-27. 8. American Optometric Association Council on Optometric Education. Annual Survey of Optometric Educational Institutions 1981-82. J Optometric Education 1982;8(2):24-29. Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History….July, 2015, volume 46, number 3, page 55 9. American Optometric Association Council on Optometric Education. Annual Survey of Optometric Educational Institutions 1982-83. J Optometric Education 1984;9(3):24-29. 10. American Optometric Association Council on Optometric Education. Annual Survey of Optometric Educational Institutions 1983-84. J Optometric Education 1985;10(3):26- 30. 11. American Optometric Association Council on Optometric Education. Annual Survey of Optometric Educational Institutions 1984-85. J Optometric Education 1986;11(3):26- 30. 12. Data from Association of Schools and Colleges of Optometry in email from Joanne Zuckerman. 13. Association of Schools and Colleges of Optometry. Annual Survey of Optometric Educational Institutions: Survey Results July, 1989-June, 1990. On file in Indiana University Optometry Library. 14. Association of Schools and Colleges of Optometry. Annual Survey of Optometric Educational Institutions: Survey Results July, 1990-June, 1991. On file in Indiana University Optometry Library. 15. Association of Schools and Colleges of Optometry. Annual Survey of Optometric Educational Institutions: Survey Results July, 1991-June, 1992. On file in Indiana University Optometry Library. 16. Website of the Association of Schools and Colleges of Optometry. www.opted.org/past-student-data-reports/. Accessed March 25, 2015. 17. Rojstaczer S, Healy C. Grading in American colleges and universities. Teachers College Record, 2010. www.tcrecord.org. Accessed April 8, 2015. 18. Boucher JA. Optometric education. J Am Optom Assoc 1980;51:359-363. 19. Website of the Association of Schools and Colleges of Optometry. www.opted.org/about-optometric-education/professional-o-d- programs/optomcas/optomcas-website. Accessed April 8, 2015. 20. Hofstetter HW. Optometry: Professional, Economic, and Legal Aspects. St. Louis: Mosby, 1948:313-314. 21. Levine NR. Characteristics of applicants to schools and colleges of optometry – 1971-72 to 1977-78: changes, lack of changes, trends. J Optometric Education 1978;4(2):8-14. 22. Association of Schools and Colleges of Optometry. Trends in Optometric Education 1989-90 to 1992-93. On file in Indiana University Optometry Library. http://www.opted.org/past-student-data-reports/ http://www.tcrecord.org/ http://www.opted.org/about-optometric-education/professional-o-d-programs/optomcas/optomcas-website http://www.opted.org/about-optometric-education/professional-o-d-programs/optomcas/optomcas-website Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History….July, 2015, volume 46, number 3, page 56 1961 Conference on Graduate Training for Research in Vision David A. Goss, O.D., Ph.D. School of Optometry, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, dgoss@indiana.edu Knowing my interest in optometry history, Indiana University retired professor Graeme Wilson gave me a notebook with material from the Rochester Conference on Graduate Training for Research in Vision, held August 13 to 19, 1961 at the University of Rochester in Rochester, New York. He had not attended the meeting and could not recall how he obtained the notebook. The notebook contained pre-conference information for the participants, biographical information on the participants, some hand written and typewritten notes on discussions at the conference, and a group photograph of scientists who attended the conference. The stated purpose of the meeting was “to provide an opportunity for scientists working in the field of vision to discuss problems of educational philosophy, goals and content for graduate programs in the various disciplines contributing to research in vision.” It was attended by scientists from industry, government laboratories, and university departments and schools of biophysics, engineering, ophthalmology, optics, optometry, physics, psychology, and zoology. The vast majority of participants were from the United States, but the conference was also attended by scientists from England, France, Germany, Spain, and Sweden. The meeting was funded by the National Science Foundation. The planning committee for the conference consisted of: Robert M. Boynton, Jean S. Cameron, Norma D. Miller, and G. Richard Wendt, all of the University of Rochester; Glenn Fry of The Ohio State University; and Oscar Richards of American Optical Company. Five days of the conference were devoted to one topic of discussion each and participants were split into three groups for elaboration on those topics. There were also plenary sessions and opportunities for sightseeing and tours of Bausch & Lomb, Eastman Kodak, and Corning Glass Works. The topics of discussion and some of the thoughts that were expressed were: (1) For what roles should we educate visual scientists? Roles include teaching, research, engineering, clinical practice, and propagation of visual science. The multiplicity of roles implies a multiplicity of programs. (2) What is common in the training of all scientists working in the field of vision? The fact that people entering the field of vision science come from many different disciplines is healthy and should continue. However, it would be useful in training programs to have survey courses providing some basic level of understanding in areas of knowledge of vision science. (3) Has the field of vision reached the level of a separate discipline? mailto:dgoss@indiana.edu Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History….July, 2015, volume 46, number 3, page 57 It appears that most discussants thought the answer to this question was no, and the contemplation of this question led to discussions of the formation of an organization of vision scientists. (4) What can be done to facilitate communications between the different disciplines contributing to knowledge about vision? It was noted that a survey of vision scientists, 175 respondents named 104 different journals as the preferred periodical for submission of their papers. It was suggested that abstract volumes be published or an annual review of visual science similar to the Annual Review of Psychology. The publication of review papers which include all relevant literature was encouraged. The Dictionary of Visual Science by Schapero, Cline, and Hofstetter was recommended as a basis for consistency in terminology. A directory of vision scientists compiled by Norma Miller and Glenn Fry was thought to be a useful resource for identification of scientists working in vision. (5) What specialized equipment and techniques used in individual disciplines could be profitably applied to other disciplines? Many different types of equipment were discussed. Courses in methodology should be included in training programs. Of particular interest in this notebook of material was a group photograph of meeting participants (Figure 1). Well-known optometrists such as Jay Enoch, Glenn Fry, Henry Hofstetter, Meredith Morgan, and Donald Pitts can be seen in the picture. I also noted two of my former teachers at Pacific University College of Optometry in the early 1970s, Niles Roth, who was at UCLA at the time of the conference, and Oscar Richards, who worked at American Optical Company at the time of the conference. The biographical material in the notebook included portrait photos of many of the meeting participants, so I was able to identify most of the persons in the group picture that I was not able to otherwise recognize. Four persons remain unidentified. Can any readers identify them? Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History….July, 2015, volume 46, number 3, page 58 Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History….July, 2015, volume 46, number 3, page 59 Book Review: Vision Realized: A History of the MCO Vision Realized: A History of the MCO. J. James Saladin and Robert L. Carter. Big Rapids, MI: Ferris State University, 2012. 68 pages. ISBN 978-1-300-13910-2. Softcover. $25 at www.Lulu.com. David A. Goss, O.D., Ph.D. School of Optometry, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, dgoss@indiana.edu This book tells the story of the Ferris State University Michigan College of Optometry. In 1967 the Michigan Optometric Association formed a committee to promote the idea of an optometry school in Michigan, and within a few years they were lobbying the state legislature to establish one. During the 1973-74 legislative session, it appeared that this could become a reality. The Michigan Optometric Association favored establishing the school at Michigan State University, but their priority was to start a new law school. Ferris State College President Robert Ewigleben lobbied the legislature for the establishment of the optometry school at Ferris State, where there was already an existing opticianry program and newly formed optometric technician program. In July of 1974, a bill which authorized an optometry school at Ferris State was passed by votes of 35-0 in the Michigan Senate and 91-6 in the House. In early 1975, Jack W. Bennett, then a faculty member at Indiana University, was named Dean. Over 350 applications for the first class were received and a class of 21 was accepted for classes beginning in September of 1975. The initial optometry faculty members were Robert Carter, O.D., Michael Keating, Ph.D., and Vincent King, O.D. Soon after classes started in September, 1975, the Michigan governor vetoed the budget for health programs at Ferris because it included funding for the College of Optometry. The school year proceeded as legislative support for a veto override grew. The threat of an override led to compromises in June of 1976 and the College of Optometry was able to admit 22 more students to start in September, 1976. By then it was too late to hire additional faculty, so the faculty that taught the first year classes in 1975-76 had to teach first and second year classes in 1976-77. Five new faculty members were hired in the summer of 1977 and five more faculty in the summer of 1978. From the beginning in 1975, the Ferris State curriculum involved having all classroom and laboratory work in the first three years of school and having the fourth year devoted solely to clinic work. Because of the limited population base in the area, the fourth year was divided into three 14-week rotations, only one of which was conducted on the Ferris State campus. The late 1970s and early 1980s saw curricular changes due to optometric expansion in scope, adaptation to changes in testing and http://www.lulu.com/ mailto:dgoss@indiana.edu Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History….July, 2015, volume 46, number 3, page 60 management technologies, increase in class sizes to 32, expansion of the optometry library collection, and increase in number of sites for fourth year rotations. When Jack Bennett left Ferris in 1988 to become dean of the optometry school at Indiana University, Michael Keating served as interim dean. After Kenneth J. Myers served as dean for a few months, Keating once assumed the role of interim dean. In December, 1991, Alan L. Lewis took over as dean. Subsequent deans have been C. Allyn Uniacke (interim, 1999-2000), Kevin Alexander (2000-2008), Nancy Peterson- Klein (interim, 2008-2009), and Michael T. Cron (2009- ). The College of Optometry started its first affiliated residency program in 1988-89 at the Battle Creek VA Hospital. By 2011, it had ten different residency positions at seven locations. In January, 2011, the College of Optometry assumed occupancy of a new optometry building. Since 1977 the college had been located in a building which originally was a dormitory and its limitations had been obvious for some time. In 2001, a new Ferris Library for Information, Technology, and Education, incorporating the main optometry collection, was dedicated. An optometry reading room had been maintained within the optometry building since the early years of the college and its smaller duplicate collection was included in the new optometry building in 2011. By 2010-2011, the three fourth year rotations were 16 weeks long and about 70% of students were doing all three rotations off campus. By 2010, the curriculum had also expanded to the point that there were required classes between the second and third years. The two year optician program at Ferris, which had started in 1959, was discontinued in 2002. The optometric technician program operated from 1973 to 1997, averaging 15 students per class over those years. The book also covers student life and organizations, clinics, faculty hirings, and some humorous anecdotes. It is well illustrated with numerous black and white as well as color photographs. Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History….July, 2015, volume 46, number 3, page 61 Three Prominent OHS Members Remembered Alfred A. Rosenbloom, Jr. (1921-2015) Alfred A. Rosenbloom, born and raised in Pittsburgh, received a B.A. degree from Pennsylvania State University in 1942.1,2 He joined the United States Army during World War II and served as a master sergeant for a medical unit on an Army base in Georgia. Being inspired by optometrists in that unit, he enrolled in Northern Illinois College of Optometry after his military service.3 Rosenbloom went to work at Northern Illinois College of Optometry after his graduation in 1948. Rosenbloom received an M.A. degree from the University of Chicago in 1954. His thesis was entitled Aniseikonia Among Good and Poor Readers. Rosenbloom was Dean of Illinois College of Optometry from 1955 to 1972 and president of ICO from 1972 to 1982.4 Rosenbloom was recognized as an expert in low vision. He was a diplomate of the Low Vision Section of the American Academy of Optometry. He helped found the Low Vision Clinic at the Chicago Lighthouse, and he was on the board of directors of the American Foundation for the Blind.1 Rosenbloom was co-editor with Meredith Morgan of two books: Principles and Practice of Pediatric Optometry (1990) and Vision and Aging (1986, 1993, 2007). Rosenbloom received many awards and recognitions, including an honorary D.O.S. degree from Northern Illinois College of Optometry in 1954, William Feinbloom Award from the American Academy of Optometry in 1995, Carel C. Koch Medal from the American Academy of Optometry in 1999, VOSH International Humantarian of the Year in 2007, Distinguished Service Award from the American Optometric Association, Migel Medal from the American Foundation for the Blind, and election to the National Optometry Hall of Fame in 2010. Rosenbloom served on the Optometric Historical Society Board of Trustees for several years. John N. Schoen (1918-2014) John Schoen was the son of an Owatonna, Minnesota jeweler.5 After his graduation from Northern Illinois College of Optometry in 1939, he returned to his hometown where he practiced optometry for 50 years. He was very active in his community in various service organizations, musical groups, and other activities. Schoen was assistant secretary of the American Academy of Optometry from 1967 to 1973 and then secretary-treasurer from 1973 to 1982.6 He participated in many optometry humanitarian mission trips. Schoen was a charter member of the Optometric Historical Society, and in his later years he contributed letters to the editor to Hindsight. Melvin D. Wolfberg (1926-2015) Melvin Wolfberg was born in Altoona, Pennsylvania. He served in the U.S. Army Infantry in Europe during World War II and received Purple Heat and Silver Star medals.4 After military service he attended Pennsylvania State University and Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History….July, 2015, volume 46, number 3, page 62 Pennsylvania College of Optometry.7 After completing optometry school in 1951, he practiced in Selinsgrove, Pennsylvania. Wolfberg served in numerous leadership roles in optometry. He was president of the American Optometric Association in 1969-70, president of the American Academy of Optometry in 1985 and 1986, and president of the Pennsylvania College of Optometry from 1979 to 1989. He also served as a vice president at Bausch & Lomb for two years before retiring.8 Among the awards he received were the Distinguished Service Award from the American Optometric Association in 1994 and the Eminent Service award from the American Academy of Optometry in 2005. Wolfberg was president of the Optometric Historical Society in 2007 and 2008. References 1. Kates JG. Dr. Alfred Rosenbloom, esteemed optometrist, dies at 94. Chicago Tribune. April 21, 2015. www.chicagotribune.com/news. Accessed May 27, 2015. 2. American Optometric Association. Directory of the American Optometric Association. St. Louis: American Optometric Association, 1972: 297. 3. Commentary: Optometric community mourns loss of Rosenbloom. Primary Care Optometry News 2015;20(5):4. 4. Remembering extraordinary members. American Optometric Association Focus 2015;2(5):10. 5. Jackson J. Owatonna optometrist Dr. John Schoen dies at age 95. www.southernminn.com/owatonna_peoples_press. Accessed May 27, 2015. 6. Gregg JR. History of the American Academy of Optometry 1922-1986. Washington, DC: American Academy of Optometry, 1987:91,114,183. 7. American Optometric Association. Directory of the American Optometric Association. St. Louis: American Optometric Association, 1972: 385. 8. www.legacy.com/obituaries/tcpalm. Accessed May 27, 2015. http://www.chicagotribune.com/news http://www.southernminn.com/owatonna_peoples_press http://www.legacy.com/obituaries/tcpalm Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History….July, 2015, volume 46, number 3, page 63 Instructions to Authors Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History is the official publication of the Optometric Historical Society (OHS), and, as such, supports and complements the purposes and functions of OHS. The journal publishes historical research, articles, reports, book reviews, letters to the editor, and article reviews. The topics of material published in the journal include: history of optometry; history of eye and vision care; history of spectacles, contact lenses, and other corrective devices; history of vision therapy, low vision care, and other vision care modalities; history of vision science; history of optometric education; biographical sketches of persons who have worked in or influenced optometry and/or vision science; recollections or oral histories of optometrists and persons who have worked in optometry and optometry-related fields; and related topics. Material submitted for publication should be sent to the editor: David A. Goss, School of Optometry, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405; dgoss@indiana.edu. Material may be submitted by postal service or by email, although the preferred mode of reception of submissions is a Word document in an email attachment. Authors who wish to use direct quotations of substantial length, tables, figures, or illustrations from copyrighted material must obtain written permission from the publisher or copyright owner. Short quotations may be acknowledged by quotation marks and a reference citation. Submissions should include a title, the names, degrees, postal addresses, and email addresses of the authors. Abstracts are not recommended for short articles. Abstracts and key words are recommended but not necessary for longer articles. Tables and figures should be numbered sequentially in the order that the mention of them appears in the text, e.g., Table 1, Table 2, Figure 1, Figure 2. Each table and figure should have mention or discussion of it in the text of the article. Each table and figure should be accompanied by an explanatory figure legend or table legend. Any article containing tables should be submitted as a Word document attachment to an email message with the tables produced through the table creating function of Word (as opposed to an Excel or comparable spreadsheet). Extensive use of uncommon abbreviations, symbols, and acronyms is discouraged. Common abbreviations, such as D for diopters or cm for centimeters, may be used. Common symbols, such as Δ for prism diopters, may be used when the context for their use is clear. The first use of acronyms should be accompanied by the name or phrase spelled out followed by the acronym in parentheses, as for example: The Optometric Historical Society (OHS) has produced a quarterly publication since 1970. Acknowledgments should be placed between the text of the article and the reference section. Sources of support, such as grant funding or other significant mailto:dgoss@indiana.edu Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History….July, 2015, volume 46, number 3, page 64 assistance, should be acknowledged. The assistance of persons who contributed to the work may also be acknowledged. References should be placed after the acknowledgments, and for most papers will be the last section of the paper. References should be numbered in order of their citation in the body of the article. Citations should be identified in the text by superscript numbers. Authors are responsible for ensuring that reference listings are correct. Reference format should be as follows: Journal articles: Calvo M, Enoch JM. Early use of corrective lenses in Spanish colonies of the Americas including parts of the future United States: reference to Viceroy Luis de Velasco (the son). Optom Vis Sci 2003;80:681-689. Section in a single author book: Hofstetter HW. Optometry: Professional, Economic, and Legal Aspects. St. Louis: Mosby, 1948:17-35. Chapter in a multi-author volume: Penisten DK. Eyes and vision in North American Indiana cultures: An historical perspective on traditional medicine and mythology. In: Goss DA, Edmondson LL, eds. Eye and Vision Conditions in the American Indian. Yukon, OK; Pueblo Publishing, 1990:186-190. Citations to articles in Hindsight: Journal of Optometry History should be given as follows: Bennett I. The story behind Optometric Management magazine. Hindsight: J Optom Hist 2007;38:17-22. If footnotes or notes on additional (minor) details are used, they should be marked in the text with superscript lower case letters starting with a and continuing in alphabetical order. The notes themselves should be the last section of the paper. The heading for the section should be Notes. OHSfrontcover46-3 Hindsight46-3