., .: . . ) NEWSLETrER OF THE OPTa1ETRIC HIS'roRICAL SOCIE'IY (243 North Lindbergh Bool.evard, St. Loois, Missoori 63141, U.S.A.) Vol. 16 October, OPTOMHRY UBRAWf . ',. Number 4 Of public interest: DEC 031985 ~~'"'llt\~111 (IUili'Ci'll'l'l"!l That the history of s~ctacles is of Po£.>ular iht:~i~ l.i&;er Eric P. Muth, an cptician in Milford, Connectirut. The exhibit included frames from the last four centuries. AOO.lt 225 frames were loaned fran Muth' s personal collection plus another 125 from the American Optical Corp. This was not called to our attention until recently because the article lay buried those several years in Irving Bennett's office. He is presently cleaning out his files and thoughtfully forwarded the copy to us. Ostwald or Ostwalt? Two instances have been noted in recent publications where Ostwald arx1 Ostwalt have been confused. They were two different pecple, contenporaries but perhaps unknown to each other. Both made significant contriootions to visual science. More faoous was Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald, 1853-1932, who earned 14 pages in the 1978 Dictionary of Scientific Bi03raphy, Vol. 15. Born and reared in Latvia, he spent oost of his career in Leipzig, Germany, in the field of physical chemistry, was named a Nobel laureate, and did significant research in color science. Said one of his students, tlle American physical chemist Wilder Bancroft, ''We can distinguish three groups of scientists. In the first and very small group we have those who discover furrlarrental relations. In the second groop we have those who do rot make tlle great discovery rut who see the importance and bearing of it, and who preach the gospal to the heathens. Ostwald stands absolutely at the head of this groop. The last groop contains the rest of us, th:>se who have to have things explained to us." Franz Ostwalt, 1862-1937, on the other hand was a Paris oculist. He rated freq_uent reference in cphthalmic lens design. A portion of the Tscherning ellipse is identified as the Ostwalt branch of the curve. The Brewster-Wheatstone rivalry: Sir David Brewster (1781-1868) and Sir Charles Wheatstone (1802-1875) were the principal British visual scientists between about 1820 and 1860. Brewster's academic background was in religious studies and Wheatstone's in natural philosophy, but their scientific pursuits identify both primarily as physicists, Brewster's mainly cptical and Wheatstone's mainly electrical. Both were knighted for their scientific contrirutioos. They did indeed 54 maintain a civil respect for each other, rut a bit of rivalry existed, with each seeming to manifest occasional resentment for the other's acoonplishments and cognitions, especially in visual matters. Their papers on vision, especially binocular vision, shewed a similarity of investigated tcpics and frEquent differences of interpretation. Their involvenent in visual science was of ruch broader sccpe and significance than comnonly realized. So ooncluded Nicholas J. Wade of the Departnent of Psycholo:JY at the University of Dundee in the ecorse of his reading some early studies on subjective visual phenonena. Having drawn attention to this annng several of his colleagues he was urged to republish the pertinent Brewster and Wheatstone papers which he had collected. This was accanplished in a 1983 bc:x:k entitled "Bre.4ster and Wheatstone on Vision" edited by him and published for the Experinent.al Psydlology Society by Academic Press. The papers, or excerpts from papers, by each of the two scientists, are presented in chrooolQ3ical order in three categories. "Binocular Vision and Space Perception," ten by Bre.4ster, six by Wheatstone: "Inventions," two by eadl: arrl "Subjective Visual Phenonena," foorteen identified with Brewster and six with Wheatstone. Both autoors occasionally wrote aooiJ¥1DO.lsly. Brewster was by far the more prolific writer but Wheatstone excelled in clarity and style. The reproduced articles total approximately 250 pages. Aoother hurrlred pages include lengthy obituaries of h:>th, editor Wade's sununary, his commentary on the Brewster~eatstone controversies, same concluding remarks, a bibliography of allOClSt 250 references, a foor-page irrlex of nanes, and a foorteen page subject index. Included are several portraits of eadl of the t\0.0 subject authors, the runeroos original illustrations relevant to the reproduced articles, and a few annoyingly unidentified, inadequately credited or unrumbered, illustrations that are apparently presuned to be sufficiently self-explanatory. The boc::k has one serioos structural flaw, urrloobtedly attritutable to the publisher's staff editor. It is difficult on IOClSt pages to kl'lCM which person, Brewster, Wheatstone, or Wade, is the author of the paragrafils in view. Brewster and Wheatstone allOClSt invariably wrote in the third person so that a monentary lapse of the reader's attention often necessitated turning back several pages to reestablish which autoor one was reading. The sccpe of Brewster's and Wheatstone's interests in visual science is so extensive as -to make it inadequate to outline the coverage here. An isolated point of interest, hcwever, is Brewster's definition of "optics" as "the branch of kncwledge which treats of the prcperties of light and of vision, as perfoi'IOOd by the hurcan eye." This 19th century definition is inportant to keep in mind when we attenpt to conprehend the history of cptometry. More on Brewster and Wheatstone From the above review of Wade's book one might presune that both Brewster and Wheatstone are today well remembered for their original contritutions to science. Two recent articles indicate to the contrary. 55 In the June, 1984 issue of Science 84 magazine (Vol. 5, No. 5, p. 70) writer Noel Vietmeyer has reviewed Wheatst_one's career in an article titled 'Inventing Charles Wheatstone. ' Perhaps Vietmeyer' s most significant statements are "His [Wheatstone's] discoveries guided us to the age of canmunication, rut we have forgotten his name," am ''Wheatstone is essentially unkncwn today, except for the 'Wheatstone bridge, ' something he did oot invent." Along the same line, R. V. Jones began his review of a recent book on David Brewster in the New Scientist (May 30, 1985) by stating, "The develc:pment of modern optical dev1ces, and particularly of the laser, has given widespread currency to the Brewster angle - that angle at which irx::ident light, plane polarized perpendicular to a plane refracting surface, will pass throogh it wi thoot suffering any loss by reflection. As for its discoverer, David Brewster, most of those who exploit his angle prObably know little more tJruan his surname. The book Jones is reviewing is a collection of ten essays which were presented at a syrrposiurn at the Royal Scottish Museum on November 21, 1981. The authors, rost of whom are historians of science and museum keepers, present an excellent account of Brewster's varied careers which include scientist, editor, journalist, historian of science, administrator, educat_or and evangelist. In addition to the ten essays, numeroos appendices list Brewster's pUblished writings and also articles and books on Brewster. Appendix l(b) by George Duncan, Reader in Biqilysics, University of East Ahglia, details Brewster's investigations on the ocular lens. By devising a careful diffraction experiment using a piece of cod lens capsule Brewster was able to deronstrate tJhat the lens fibers did indeed interdigitate, settling once and for all a continuing delate aiiOng anatomists. Duncan summarizes Brewster's work on the lens. In summary, the advances he may be said to have made are as follc:ws: He developed ooninvasive techniques (in tJhis case c:ptical diffractioo) to resolve a dispute of fact arrl artifact. He made quantitative (in this case from Fraunhoefer' s Wave Theory, even thoogh he was a devoted advocate of Newton's corpuscular theory) • He checked these calrula tions by sirulating his observations with a defined nodel system. He understood tJhat the patterns he obtained were more a property of the order of the biological system than of tJhe substance of the system, thus substantially prefiguring the philosc:phical and practical foorrlations on which modern x-ray crystallography is based. He also urderstood the practical and medical consequences of his Observations and put forward suggestions concerning the nature and cure of cataract. That Brewster has received scant recognition for laying this firm foondation would have surprised him oot at all and is prd:>a.bly due to the'aphakik' view of science engerrlered by successive educational systems rather than any lack of lustre in tJhe illumination of science emanating from our elders. This well illustrated bcok (including two photographs of Brewster) is entitled 'Martyr of Science': Sir David Brewster 1781-1868, edited by A.D. ~rrison-I..od am J .R.R. Christie and published by tJhe Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh, 1984. 56 Abalt early pecple in cptics: D. J. Lovell is an cptical engineer whose initial interest in cptics was famed while ~rking with Arthur Hardy • s researdl groop at the Massadrusetts Institute of Technology during World War II. It has been a career-lorv:J hobby of his to collect interesting insights about pecple and events in the history of man • s investigations of the nature of light. His collection was published in 1981 by the SOciety of POOto-Optical Instrumentation Engineers, Bellingham, Washington, in a 16 7 page paperback entitled OPTICAL ANEXDJI'FS. Sorted into 36 chapters called anecdotes, with graphic illustrations accaopanying alnost all of them, the contents provide fascinating accoonts quite Chronologically from "Optics in Antigui ty" to "Holography-The New Phot.ogra}ily." Included are glinpses into the lives and personalities of dozens of persons such as Plato, Ibn al-Haitham, Tydlo Btahe, Galileo, Robert Hooke, Thaoas Yoong, and David Brewster, to :nane a few. Exanples of interesting details are Descartes • f:N>rd battle with a l::x:2t crew intending to slay him, Lippershey • s observing two Children playing wi t.h some lenses lined up in telesccpe fashion giving him the idea for his invention, Napoleon • s involvement in the support of science, and Euler • s letters to a German princess. A good irrlex and a valid bibliCXJraphy give credence to t.he reliability of Lovell's anecdotes. A bit of Helmholtz wit: Theo Aronson, in his 1971 bock entitled "The Kaisers," published by Carsell, I.DOOon, comments anusingly on Princess Victoria, daughter of England • s Queen Victoria and Prince Albert. In 1858 at age 17 after a two-year coortship, Princess Victoria married Prince Frederick of Prussia, son of Prince William who later became German Kaiser William I, initiator of the Second Reich. She was somewhat nrlely ootspc:Ken rut admittedly intelligent. Aggressively honest, her frankness coold be enbarrassing. "Think, think:, Madam," Professor Helniloltz once advised her, "rut don't tell t.he entire ~rld what yoo are thinking!" Norwegian cptometry history: If yoo ha~ to be able to read Norwegian yoo will enjoy perusing the 1945 Jubilee version of Optikeren connnenorating the 40th anniversary of the fCAllrling of Norges Optikerfor'&ilil, t.he Norwegian cpt..ometric association. Featured are articles on the history of the association itself, the educational develcpments including the Tinius Olsen sdlool in Korv:JSberg, the develcpment of a public relaticns organization, the role of the cptical industry, and many pre-organizational details dating back to 1911. The rumeroos photCXJra{ils add timely interest. Purkinje-Sanson images in 1531 If you happen to be one of the ten million pecple per year who visit the Shrine of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico City to look at the life-sized, 57 full-length image of tlle Virgin Mary legendarily formed by the Madonna herself on the cactus cloth cloak ( tilrra} of an .Aztec peasant in 1531 A.D. you will enjoy the book "The Image of Guadalupe: Myth or Miracle?" by Jody Brant Smith, a revised edition of which was published by Image Bocks, Garden City, New York, in 1984. You will enjoy even more Isabel Fletcher de T~llez's review of the same book of slightly different title, "The Guadalupe Madonna: Myth or Miracle?" published by Souvenir Press, Lorrlon, in 1983, in the May 11, 1985, issue of Optonetry Today, Vol. 25, No. 10, pp. 328 and 330. If you are optometricaly soph1st1cated you will particularly enjoy, or at least be amused by, Chapter VI of the bcx:K, "The Right Eye of the Virgin", in which are detailed the interpret~tions of ocular reflections by several consulted ophthalmologists as Purkinje-Sanson images of persons in tlle Madoma • s view. Both issues of the book include several phobos of the right eye and one of the left, including a section computer-magnified 2,500 times. Says reviewer de T~llez, "Plates of these computerized magnifications ..• may reveal more about the onlooker than anything else, like Rorschach ink blotsl" She adds, "Certainly they require informed skills of interpretation and a willingness to be convinced," both of which she claims to lack. The autoor of the books is an associate professor of philosophy and religion at Pensacola Junior College in Florida. The extensive research of the history of the Image of Guadalupe and of the original icon itself by author Smith and his principal co-investigator, an entonologist and biophysicist, put both of them, say Smith, "firmly in the ranks of toose who believe the Image was created supernaturally." On witJlessing histo~: In about 1948 Felix A. Koetting (1893-1983} wrote a paper entitled "The history of Optonetry in St. Louis, Missouri". It appears rot to have been published while he was living. It was fourrl in his file and published posthuiiO.lsly in the 2nd quarter, 1984, issue of the Journal of the Missouri aptometric Association, pp. 21-23. The article is truly documentary not only because Dr. Koetting was a meticulous writer rut also because he was personally involved in Missouri optometric history throughout his 90 years. In early childhood he and his brothers and sisters v.orked in his father • s store, which included watches, jewelry, spectacles, and various customer services. This was in the small tcwn of St. Genevieve, Missouri, about 80 kilometers from St. La.lis. It seems reasonably certain that his fatller, JOhn Koetting, rust have included some incidental sight-testing, the primitive cptometric service of the time in the rural areas of that region of the coontry. Felix • s fatller was born in Germany in 1856 and came to Missouri with his cwn father at age nine. Young Jolm soon became an artisan of several skills. His first savings were invested in a stock of jewelry to sell in his shoemaking shop. At the same time he sllh:;criberl to The Keystone a watchmaker's trade journal and earliest of American pUbhcahons to include articles of optometric interest. He opened his jewelry store in 1887 in St. Genevieve, Missouri, and advertised watches, clocks, and spect~cles. He had five children, the second oldest of whom was Felix. 58 Felix finished his study of optometry in 1912 and immediately toOk dharge of his father 1 s optical department in St. Genevieve where he practiced optometry for several years before opening practice in St. La.lis, Missoori. All of this points to the fact that Felix was steeped in optonEtry throughout his life, an indoctrination further enhanced by an optometrist brother and two opto~trist sons as well as his extensive involvement in a variety of optometric organizational projects. Who could have written a history of St. La.lis 1 optometry nore authorit.ati vely? His published history labels pre-1900 optometry as 11prehistoric, .. the first decade of the 20th century as the 11Birth of Optometry .. , the second decade as the 11Legislative Period11 I 1922-1935 as the 11Skeffington-Kehl Era .. , arrl 1936-1948 as t.he 11Present Era11 • Today we can loOk quite legitimately at t.hese labels as the provincial views of one who sinply could oot obtain the oroader outlook possible with the passage of years arrl the accumulation of documents. There is nothing so easily misinterpreted as history in the making and at firsthand view. His am perceptions might well have dlanged in the 1 80s from those he described in tne 140s. A single exanple can clarify tnis. Or. Koetting credited the driv~ to obtain an optometry law in Missoori to his assunption that, 110ptoretry became a\vare of its professional aspirations... Obvioosly he was unaware of the fact that in IIPSt of the 46 states that preceeded Missoori t.he cptometrists demanded a registration law to prevent possible registration under the previously established medical boards. The facts that Dr. Koetting reported speak for themselves and are undoobtedly accurate. This is what makes his paper a valuable document. His interpretations hONever require the leavening of time for the broader view. History is oot an easy science. Optometry in industry: On page 5 and 6 of the January 1983 issue of the NOHS, Vol. 14, No. 1, Dr. Goodlaw dated t.he 11 first Optometric Industrial Vision Program in Los Angeles: as 1922. In t.he files of the late Felix Koetting, O.D., was found a letter from Insurers Service COrporation of St. Lcuis, Missouri, dated May 4, 1928, to Eyesight Surv~ Corporation, 4196 Mandlester Ave., St. Lcuis, Missoori, thanking Dr. Koetting for a copy of a report of a screening survey of the F. BURKHARr MANUFACTURIOO 00. In the same file was an undated printed pronotional folder of the Eyesight Survey COrporation entitled 11 Industrial Plants Having Adopted Our Service .. shONing 11General offices .. at the St. La.lis address and 11Service offices .. at Alton, Illinois: Wilmington, Delaware: and Newark, New Jersey. It declares that 11The Eyesight Survey Corporation places at your service a force of Optometric practitioners and engineers, especially trained to care for the eyes of industry... over 400 caopanies in Missoori, Illinois, Indiana, IONa, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, West Virginia, and Georgia are listed. 59 Its stage of develcpnent suggests that the organization may have been functioning several years prior to the date of the 1928 letter, which would rrake it quite contemporary with the Los Angeles program. Is it possible that cptonetry' s role in industry was blooming nationwide in that era and perhaps got nipped b¥ the Great Depression? . .. W1Ihelm Peter Sdhnges, 1905-1985: "Leben and Wirken Einer Personlichkeit" is the subtitle of a triblte to sb'hnges in the May 20, 1985, issue of De.ltsche OJ?tikerzeitung, Vol. 40, No. 3, pp. 90-91, b¥ Jurgen Reinhard. Sohnges' career 1s traced from his appointnent as a branch manager of the long established Messter firm at age 21 follc:wed b¥ a brief study tour of Great Britain and North America, a long series of career episodes before and after World War II, his appointnent at age 60 by the state of Bavaria as a consulate for Honduras, the vigoroos pursuit of his seafaring hobbies in later life, and the acceptance of nunerous hooors from varioos sources. Antique and early: Hugh Orr, author and publisher of "Illustrated History of Early Antique Spectacles," has written to ask aboot nenbership in the O.H.S., and I resporrled promptly. He also enclosai an anna.mcenent of his book and a ccpy of a review of it in 'lhe sunaex Telegra~h, and I have recommended its acquisition by the Indiana Un1 versi ty library. According to an enclosed list of prior recipients of the book, a copy is already available at the International Library, Archives, and Museum of Optonetry, St. Louis, MisSk as a valuable resource for th:>se of us interested in the historical background of our cptometric concepts and adds, "It is amazing how little has really been addai in the intervening 372 years." Unorthodox eye therapy: Recently OHS member James Leeds, O.D., received an interesting letter from Olgierd Lindan, M.D., Ph.D., 1404 Dorsh Road, Cleveland, Ohio 44121, U.S.A. (Telephone 216-382-7113), whidh includes the following appeal: I presume you collect all types of books, including those dealing with "unorthodox" eye therapy. I know of the eye massaging devices, rut there is practically nothing aboot electro-therapy of the eye. The widely used violet-ray maChines had some specially designed glass electrodes, to be applied over eyes (eye-lids I presume). The booklets on violet ray maChines shows tlx>se eye electrodes, rut do not tell anything abcut the eye-problems to be treated. I would be grateful for any info on this subject. The healers of the past applied the faradic arrl galvanic currents to the deaf-ears. I have a couple of special devices used for this purpose. Did you ever cane across the application of electric currents to the eyes? I imagine that pecple with advanced cataract coold have experiences of light flashes if the cptic nerve were stinulated by electrical impulses, applied by a bold healer across the tenples. I am seeking contacts with other collectors interestai in medical arts. It's very interesting and stinulating. Dr. Leais sent Dr. Lindan the names of foor lxxiks on the subject, rut he suggests that other O.H.s. meliibers may have other items to mention. Collectors club internationalized: By means of a clipping from a recent issue of The Optician (London), OHS member Irving Bennett informs us that the word "International" is now included as part of the title of the Ophthalmic Antique Collectors Club, which was formed in 1982. Its manbership nCM totals nore than 125 from several oountries. Further details are available fro1n Richard BrONn, Treasurer, 18 Albion Street, Dunstable, Bedfordshire UJ6 lHX, England. Kepler's Birthday JOhannes Kepler (1571-1630) is a giant in the history of science, so to horor his 400th birthday synposia were held in eight cities across the globe in 1971. The proceaiings of these gatherings were published in 1975 by Perganon Press Ltd. in a single volume entitled K~ler (Vistas in Astronomy Volume 18). All of the papers published in the volume have been translated into English when needed and many have been condensed. The nunber of papers is a staggering 127. The sccpe of Kepler's \\Ork can be felt by scanning the Chapter titles in which the papers have been conveniently categorized. The 61 follo.ving is a sampling: Ch. 6 - Kepler and the Ne.-~ Astronomy, Ch. 8 - Mysticism, Astrology and Alchemy, Ch. 10 - Celestial Mechanics, Ch. 11 - Kepler as Hathernatician and Physicist. Of particular interest is chapter 14 - Optics and Crystallography in which nine papers on Kepler's achievements in q>tics and vision are presented. Paper 14.4 by Vasco Ronchi of the University of Florence is titled "Jchannes Kepler, Optician." In this paper Ronchi emphasizes Kepler's role in developing optics as we kno.v it today. The follo.ving excerpt from Ronchi 's paper begins by referring to the book Paralipomena ad Vitellionem published by Kepler in 1604. As indicated by the title, this work was intended as the continuation, or rather as an improvement of Vitelo's ~rk, that is to say of the ~rk of the Arab School. In reality this book is one of the nost marveloos masterpieces; it cont~ins scientific achievements of the greatest importance not only for the history of optics but also for the history of science in general, because in this ~rk are to be foond expam.ded for the first time concepts that still today form the foundations of entire branches of science. It is sufficient to recall that in it for the first time there is a description of the mechanism of vision which is even today considered to be correct; for the first time there is a construction of the retinal image; the explanation of the formation of images behind plane mirrors: the definition of the concept of optical images. The Arabs had demolished visual rays; Kepler demolishes also simulacra and gives birth to t.he optics of rays, that is to say, to present-day geometrical optics. It is one of the greatest contributions of a scholar to scientific progress. Five years later, Kepler intervened again in the history of optics with anot.her fundamental contrirution. He too, until 1610, had no faith in the "glass lentils" that had been on t.he market at an artisan level for three centuries, rut had been irrevocably condemned by all scientific circles as being deceptive and illusory tools. But in 1609 Galileo stated his faith in the telescope, after having greatly improved it technically; now it appeared as a virtually ne,..r instrument canpared to the one that, in 1604, Dutch artisans had attempted to put into circulation. Galileo' s statement provoked a most violent reaction in the scientific ~rld, which was still convinced of the correctness of the classical ideas with regard to lenses. Kepler -for a whole year- was very skeptical, rut in August 1610, after having carried rut accurate ob3ervations with Galileo's telescope, he was at once converted and wrote another great boc:k, even if not of the same great significance as his ~rk of 1604: in fact the Dioptrice, published in January 1611, contains a complete geometrical theory of the lenses and of the Galilean telescope, as well as a design of an astronomical telescope with a converging eyepiece. The concepts contained in this book are those on which modern geometrical optics is still based. Kepler's work was not understood by his contemporaries and was not appreciated. Soon it was completely forgotten. Abcut half a century later the ideas which he had expounded in these two books silently reappeared and conquered the world of science. But their contriver remained unknown, so that even today it is rather rare to find a scientist who kno.vs that modern optics is substantially Keplerian cptics. This has been the effect of a philosophical evolution from which cptics suffererl consequences not always in its favour. 62 It's A Cat's World The follcwing has been taken verbatim from p. 637 of The Optical Joornal, January, 1899 (Vol. IV, No. 11) • The "Philadelphia Times" is responsible for an article alleging tha.t a cat of that staid city new wears a pair of gold-rimmed spectacles. lts cwner, noticing the feline's grcwing inability to catch mice, concluded that "Thomas" was becoming mycpic, and up:m consultation with a local oculist, in view of the cat' s illiteracy, they hit upon the happy scheme of making an image of a ltlalse and placing it at varioos distances. "Thomas's,. punctum remotum was estimated at the furthest distance he could recognize the rooent, and by this means alone was he fitted to glasses. Very well illustrated: Occasionally while perusing library stacks one finds an unexpected gem. Such was the case several weeks ago as I roarood the physics section of Indiana University's main library. In front of me appeared a huge and pristine set of volumes entitled Handblch Zur Gesc:hic:hte Der Optik (Harxlbook to the History of Optics) by E. H. sdunitz. Since my German is poor, to say the least, I woold have normally quickly slipped throogh the books enjoying what pictures coold be foond and calling it quits, b.It this was different. \'htt I foond was a six volume pictorial goldmine. The six volumes trace the history of optics from antiquity (the first chapter is titled, 'In the beginning there was glass' ) to the drcpping of the atomic banbl To describe in any detail the content, even in terms of chapter headings, woold ra:JUire many pages, b.It suffice to say the sccpe is huge and includes many sections on the develcpment of spectacles and visual testing equipment, and even a small section on tne legislative origins of Optometry in America. The total page nunber for the six volumes is 2,572 with 4,633 fcx:>twtes. The number of illustrations, portraits, and photOCJra);ils wa.Ild also be several tln.Isand, b.It unfortunately I cannot be positive because they are rot numbered wr are they referenced to their original sources. This may all scund a bit tcx:> glcwing of a 'review' considering I can't read the text in detail, rut I guarantee the reader several hours of fascinating viewing. Hcpefully the publisher (Wayenl:x>rgh, Bonn) will ccme out with an English translation rut don't hold yoor breath, the six volumes were only recently published between 1981 and 1984. D.K.P. Scottish Scientific Instrument-Makers 1600-1900: In 1972 the Royal Scottish Museum (Ediriturgh) published a l::xxJklet with tne abcNe title aut..hored by D.J. Bryden. The purpose of this report as described in the foreword was to make available information on the rich collection of early scientific instruments held in the museum and, in addition, provide some historical sCholarship on the scientific instrument trade. So who were these instrument makers, what did they make, and for whom were they making tnese instruments? '!he first question concerning identity has been covered very well with a sixteen page alphabetical catalcgue listing 63 all knom Scottish scientific instrunent makers during the period 1600-1900. Each entry details kncwn street addresses, years of rosiness and what instruments they produced. Concerning clientele, an essay on p. 7 titlErl 'The Maker - CUstomer Relationship' categorizes the instrument maker's customers into three groups. The market served by the scientific instrument-maker may be classified into three broad groups of customers or varieties of dellBBi: the 'scientific', the 'professional' and the 'dilett4nte'. Serving the 'scientific' rustomer the instrument-makers• tedmical expertise was extended to satisfy an initially unique demand, or an existing skill was utilised in a way mt previously considered. The 'professional' user of scientific instruments, in contrast, required standard apparatus made to .. kncwn and accepted basic designs, or made to a new design using existing constructional techniques. Within this secorrl group S A Bedini has distinguished between the instruments and apparatus used for dem:nstration and teadling on the one hand, and the equipnent required by industry, connnerce and the nathenatical practitioners, an tlle other. For tlle third groop of customers, the 'dilettante', the instrument-maker was primarily supplying scientific toys with a modicum of educational value, and gincracks for customers wi tll at the worst no rore than a passing interest in and superficial knowledge of contercporary science. This classification into groupings of demand does not necessarily suppose rutually exclusive classes of rustomers, the individual might use the instrument-makers' services at all three levels. Equally, certain makers served a particular section of the market, concentrating their efforts on attracting and satisfying specific interests and demands. Many instrument-makers were more than simply competent artisans: teChnical expertise and meChanical prowess was, on occasions, backed by conprehension of the scientific principles underlying the work undertaken, thus assisting the interplay of ideas between the maker and his scientific and professional customers. As for what these instrument makers made which qualified tllem as scientific instrument makers is rnt so clear. This is illustrated by tlle guide to symbols which appears at the beginning of the directory list and is reproduced below. SYMB:>I.S IM = Instrunent-maker B = Barometer-(maker) C = Clock - Ch = Chemical - (instrument-maker) Cr = Chronometer - M = Mathenatical - N = Nautical - 0 =Optical - 0p = Optician Ph = Philoscphical - W =Watch Other trades given in full An optical, mathematical or philosophical instrument-maker was often described as an • optician • • An entry Op inplies a lack of infornatian as to whether the man was an instrunent-maker or solely an ophthalmic optician. Craftsmen trading solely as ophthalmic opticians are mt included. 64 Si11J>ly statErl, nany of the cphthalmic cpticians were instrunent makers, or vice versa if you like. The wares of the instrument maker were either directly oommdssioned or sold through general merchants. '!he advertisement s'hotm here originally appeared in the Glasow Courant September 22, 1755. JOHN CARLILE, at his Shop, the Entry into Bell's Wynd above the Crofs, Glafgow, at the Sign of the ROSE, fells Wholcfale or Retail, SILVER and China H:andled and other Kinds of" Table and Defert Knives and Forks, with ~h:~.­ green C:afes for Do. Silver Table Spoons, Te:1 Spoons and Tongs; Silver Shoc-Buckks, Stock-nuc~les, anJ Cl:lfps; Silver c:~nors, and S:llu, CorJ!s :and Gum· nicks, Silver Thimbles, Do. with Steel Bottoms, Silver Spurs, Silv<"r plated Buckles and Spurs; V:a· riety of L:ancet-Cafes, in Silver and green Skin ; Co­ ral Beads ; Shoe, Stock, Girdle, Stsy, and Iht Buckles, ofStones fet in Silver; Bro:atchcts fet in Gold and Silver; Sleeve Bottons of various Kinds: Complete Sets ofTe:a-China, Bre:akfa(l and Afternoon Cups and Saucers, Punch· Bowls, Sbb-Bowls, Suspr­ Difhes, Tc:a-Pots, and Milk-Pots: Fine Violin,, Germ:m and common Flutes of all Kinds, H:autboys, French-Horns, Violin-Strings new imported, Had­ ley's Q.u.ldrants, and common Q!!adrants, Gunt