







































 

   

 

Corresponding author(s)  

Xiao Liu, Tsinghua University, xl128@mail.tsinghua.edu.cn    

 

 

 

 

The Development and Application of Marine Meteorology in 

China: A Case Study of Dinghai Meteorological Station, 1930s-

1940s 

 

 

Xiao Liu 

 

 

 

 

 

Introduction 

To understand the history of meteorology during the era of the Republic of China 

(1912-1949), the significance of meteorological stations cannot be ignored, as they formed the 

indispensable infrastructure for meteorological progress. The Dinghai Meteorological Station 

(定海测候所 , hereafter DMS) was established in 1936 in the eastern coast of Zhejiang 

Province. Compared to previous studies,1 this article argues that the DMS case demonstrates 

how meteorology could be applied locally in a developing country and the challenges it faced. 

The inputs of Western scientific knowledge since the 16th century had catalysed myriad 

transformations across China, and the ocean concept was accordingly evolving. For instance, 

figures such as the politician Liang Qichao (梁启超, 1873-1929) and the industrialist Zhang 

Jian (张謇, 1853-1926) valued the role of the ocean, advocating for the advancement of the 

marine economy, protection of maritime rights, and the establishment of a Chinese navy.2 The 

emphasis on this aspect was closely related to the military failure of China in the late Qing 

Dynasty, and the attention of intellectuals to the issue of sea power had also led to multiple 

 

1 Kevin P. MacKeown, Early China Coast Meteorology: The Role of Hong Kong (Hong Kong University Press, 2010). Fiona 

Williamson, “Just Doing Their Job: The Hidden Meteorologists of Colonial Hong Kong c.1883–1914,” The British Journal 

for the History of Science 54, no. 3 (2021): 341-359. 

2 Peng Song 彭松, “梁启超与近代中国海洋意识的发展[Liang Qichao and the Development of Maritime Consciousness in 

Modern China],” Research on Chinese Literature (2019): 146-55. See also Lin Bin 林彬, “张謇海洋观的演变与内涵研究 
[Research on the Evolution and Connotation of Zhang Jian's Ocean Concept],” Maritime Education Research 39, no. 03 

(2021): 37-45. 

mailto:xl128@mail.tsinghua.edu.cn


 History of Meteorology 12 (2025) 

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related articles being published in Chinese journals in the early 20th century. 3  However, 

compared to military and commercial aspects, advancing these areas of oceanic activity 

required more in-depth scientific research and perspectives. Thus, this article chooses marine 

meteorology, ‘a subfield of meteorology, dealing with the weather and climate as well as the 

associated oceanographic conditions in marine, island, and coastal environments.’4 During the 

Republic of China period, the development of marine science included research on marine 

meteorology. Through harnessing insights garnered from meteorological observations to 

acquire marine knowledge, meteorological stations could bolster the advancement of fisheries 

and shipping industries. Therefore, the study of DMS explains the localization process of 

marine meteorology introduced from Western countries. 

Regarding meteorological history in China, extensive studies are underway concerning 

Chinese meteorological stations, with attention focused mainly towards those established by 

foreign nations, exemplified by the Zikawei Observatory (徐家汇观象台) in Shanghai and the 

Hong Kong Royal Observatory. For instance, in his examination of the Hong Kong Royal 

Observatory, Kevin MacKeown elucidated how meteorology, as a scientific discipline, evolved 

within the British colony to provide weather forecasts for local inhabitants and governing 

bodies.5 Lewis Pyenson has investigated the Zikawei Observatory illustrating how French 

scientific achievements enhanced French cultural influence in East Asia.6 Wu Yan employed 

the concept of ‘laboratory of the world’ to comprehend the role of Zikawei Observatory, 

elucidating that it gathers local meteorological data to contribute to the advancement of modern 

scientific knowledge systems in Europe.7 Nonetheless, scant detailed inquiries exist regarding 

the establishment of local meteorological stations under direct Chinese influence during the 

Republic of China. To some extent, this article argues that these local meteorological stations 

could also be viewed as laboratories for promoting domestic scientific development. Clark 

Alejandrino’s study recounted the establishment of an observatory in Canton in the 1930s, 

exploring its role in bolstering China’s sovereignty by providing local meteorological data and 

diminishing the influence of foreign meteorological observatories.8 Fu Gang paid attention to 

the Qingdao Observatory, meteorologists Jiang Bingran (蒋炳然) and Wang Binhua (王彬华
), explaining how they developed marine meteorology during the twentieth century.9 However, 

the story of Qingdao Observatory could not fully cover the history of marine meteorology 

 

3 Yuan Bo 袁博, “困境中前行:近代中国国民海洋观念的觉醒与深化 [Advancing amidst Difficulties: The Awakening and 

Deepening of Modern Chinese Citizens' Maritime Awareness],” Journal of Qiqihar University (Phi & Soc Sci) 01 (2022): 

126-130. 

4 L. Xie, B. Liu, “Marine Meteorology,” in Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences, Second Edition, ed. Gerald R. North, John 

Pyle and Fuqing Zhang (Academic Press, 2015), 287-292.  

5 MacKeown, Early China Coast Meteorology, 27-54. 

6 Lewis Pyenson, Civilizing Mission: Exact Sciences and French Overseas Expansion, 1830-1940 (Johns Hopkins University 

Press, 1993), 157-206. 

7 Wu Yan 吴燕, 科学、利益与欧洲扩张——近代欧洲科学地域扩张背景下的徐家汇观象台（1873-1950),[Science, 

Interest and Expansion of Europe: Zikawei Observatory (1873-1950) in the Context of the Territorial Expansion of European 

Modern Science] (Beijing: China Social Sciences Press, 2013).  

8 Clark L. Alejandrino, “Weathering History: Storms, State, and Society in South China since the Fifth Century CE” (PhD 

diss., Georgetown University, 2019), 166-74. 

9 Fu Gang 傅刚, “推动中国海洋气象学发展的两位大师——第Ⅰ部分：蒋丙然的故事 [Two Masters Who Promoted the 

Development of Marine Meteorology in China - Part I: The Story of Jiang Bingran],” Advances in Meteorological Science 

and Technology 14, no.2 (2024): 56-59. See also Fu Gang, “推动中国海洋气象学发展的两位大师——第 II 部分：王彬

华的故事 [Two Masters Who Promoted the Development of Marine Meteorology in China - Part II: The Story of Wang 

Binhua],” Advances in Meteorological Science and Technology 14, no. 3 (2024): 40-45. 



 History of Meteorology 12 (2025) 

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during the Republic of China, thus this article focuses on the DMS with emphasizing its 

application in the fishing industry.  

The first half of the 20th century saw accelerated advancements in meteorological 

research across Asia, a phenomenon driven primarily by growing social demands for weather 

services. This development manifested in region-specific initiatives: in South Asia, the Indian 

Meteorological Department applied statistical meteorological cartography for monsoon 

prediction in the early twentieth century, while the Manila Observatory in the Philippines 

maintained its typhoon warning service since late nineteenth century and actively sought 

collaboration with Hong Kong through telegraphic networks. 10  Accordingly, this study 

employs archival materials and newspapers to conduct a micro-historical examination of the 

Dinghai Meteorological Station, aiming to reconstruct comprehensively the process of its 

establishment and its operational functions. The creation of this station transcended the domain 

of pure meteorological advancement, highlighting the role that meteorology assumed in the 

development of multifaceted industrial sectors. Broadly, this article delineated the 

constituencies engaged in knowledge construction and the pragmatic application of acquired 

knowledge, whilst probing the instrumental role of scientific infrastructures in knowledge 

dissemination. 

Dealing with Typhoons 

During the early development of modern meteorology in China, investigations into 

marine meteorology were aimed at mitigating cyclonic systems, particularly typhoons, 

emanating from the Northwest Pacific. According to the information provided by World 

Meteorological Organization, a tropical cyclone, such as typhoon, ‘is a rapidly rotating storm 

that begins over tropical oceans, viewed as the second-most dangerous natural hazards, after 

earthquakes.’11 Owing to the profound repercussions of typhoons on coastal municipalities and 

maritime vessels along the southeastern coast, resilience against extreme weather phenomena 

emerged as a paramount impetus driving meteorological advancements in China at the turn of 

the twentieth century. In 1869, Chinese Maritime Customs initiated a plan to establish a 

meteorological network along coastal and riverine regions. This endeavour aimed to ensure the 

safety of maritime navigation by furnishing meteorological information and typhoon warnings 

to passing vessels.12 Meteorological observation was regarded as one of the five fundamental 

maritime services of the Chinese Maritime Customs. However, in 1879, Shanghai was struck 

by a typhoon, resulting in substantial economic losses to the shipping industry before the 

completion of the meteorological network.13 Subsequently, under the leadership of Robert 

Hart, Maritime Customs collaborated with the Zikawei Observatory to deliver marine 

meteorological services. The Zikawei Observatory was expanded into a two-story building, 

with the establishment of a navigation service department. Moreover, lighthouses and weather 

stations set up by Maritime Customs facilitated the collection of meteorological data, 

contributing to typhoon research at the Zikawei Observatory.14 Although these observational 

sites were mainly located in coastal areas, the meteorological indices they collected were not 

 

10 James Beattie, “Climate Change, Forest Conservation and Science: A Case Study of New Zealand, 1860s-1920,” History of 

Meteorology 5 (2009): 35-52. See also Marlon Zhu, “Media, Typhoons, and Contests over Meteorological Sovereignty in 

Nineteenth-Century East Asia,” History of Meteorology 9 (2020): 1-13. 

11 “Tropical Cyclone”, World Meteorological Organization, accessed January 3, 2025, https://wmo.int/topics/tropical-cyclone. 

12 Robert Bickers, “Throwing Light on Natural Laws: Meteorology on the China Coast, 1869–1912,” in Treaty Ports in 

Modern China: Law, Land and Power, ed. Robert Bickers and Isabella Jackson (Routledge, 2016), 180-94. 

13 Wu Zengxiang 吴增祥,中国近代气象台站 [Meteorological Stations in Modern China] (Qixiang Press, 2007), 24. 

14 Wang Hao 王皓, “徐家汇观象台与近代中国气象学[The Observatory of Zikawei and Meteorology in Modern China],” 

Academic Monthly 49, no. 9 (2017): 171-84. 



 History of Meteorology 12 (2025) 

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much different from inland meteorological stations, encompassing air pressure, air 

temperature, rainfall, wind direction, and weather conditions. The only ocean-related 

observation at the time pertained to oceanic wave types, which was further constrained by the 

absence of wave measurement equipment and relied on observers’ subjective discernment.15 

The Zikawei Observatory continue to make further strides in dealing with typhoons. 

On 1 September 1884, the Gutzlaff Signal Tower was officially established, providing 

timekeeping and meteorological signals to ships in the vicinity of Shanghai. Following the 

establishment of the Republic of China, in 1914 the Public Administration of the French 

Concession in Shanghai established a radio station to broaden its service spectrum by 

disseminating radio notifications of weather conditions. 16  In light of this, Chinese 

meteorologists also contributed to this field, aiming to demonstrate China’s domestic 

meteorological research capabilities. In 1925, Jiang Bingran, the director of Qingdao 

Observatory, published his article titled ‘A Record of Typhoons in the Shandong Peninsula (

山东半岛飓风记)’, which was regarded as the first article on typhoon research found in 

Chinese academic journal. 17  Nonetheless, research on extreme weather and marine 

meteorology should also be paid great attention to the target audience of its services, which 

varies across different coastal regions in China. 

Attention to Marine Meteorology 

With the establishment of the National Government by the Guomindang party in 1927, 

the Institute of Meteorology at the Academia Sinica (中央研究院气象研究所, hereafter 

IMAS) was established as China’s official meteorological institution. This institutionalisation 

underscored the nation’s heightened demand for meteorological information, including marine 

meteorology. In 1928, the Qingdao Observatory inaugurated the Department of Marine 

Science, marking China’s pioneering venture into specialised marine research. Song Chunfang 

(宋春舫 , 1892-1938), the head of the Department of Marine Science and a playwright, 

developed an interest in oceanography during his visit to France and subsequently began 

researching it. 18  Under his supervision, the department investigated on oceanic current 

exploration, seawater analysis, and marine product surveys, thus laying the foundation for 

marine research in China.19 Nevertheless, owing to a sovereignty dispute between China and 

Japan regarding the ownership of Qingdao Observatory, coupled with Qingdao’s geographical 

positioning, opportunities for further advancement in marine research along the south-eastern 

coast were not immediately taken.20  

The Chinese Naval Ministry also played an important role in developments. In 1929, 

the IMAS corresponded with the Department of Seaway Guard in the Naval Ministry (海军部

海道巡防处 , hereafter DSGNM). For the expediency of military operations, the Naval 

 

15 Wu Zengxiang, Meteorological Stations in Modern China, 34-36. 

16 Shu Jiaxin 束家鑫 and Jiang Delong 蒋德隆, eds., 上海气象志[Shanghai Meteorological Chronicles] (Shanghai Academy 

of Social Sciences Press, 1997). 

17 Fu Gang, “Two Masters Who Promoted the Development of Marine Meteorology in China - Part I: The Story of Jiang 

Bingran,” 58-59.  

18 Ren Haojie 任豪杰, “近代青岛观象台研究(1922—1937) [Research on Qingdao Observatory in Modern Times (1922—

1937)],” (Master diss., Qingdao University, 2024), 59-92. 

19  ‘为测验海洋增设海洋科造具预算书请鉴核的呈 [Application for Review about Budget for Adding Tools for 

Investigating the Ocean by the Department of Marine Science]’, 25 December 1928: Qingdao Municipal Archives, Qingdao, 

B0029-001-03903-0067. 

20 Xiao Liu, “Understanding sovereignty through meteorology: China, Japan, and the dispute over the Qingdao Observatory, 

1918–1931,” Annals of Science 81, no. 3 (2024), 420-439. 



 History of Meteorology 12 (2025) 

5 

 

 

Ministry established several meteorological stations under the auspices of the DSGNM. 

Consequently, the IMAS asked the DSGNM to transmit their observation records to facilitate 

the plotting of meteorological maps and provision of weather forecasts. Furthermore, historical 

records maintained by the DSGNM would be transcribed by the IMAS for research purposes. 

In response to the Naval Ministry’s directive, the DSGNM surveyed its subordinate stations, 

reporting “its management of the Pratas Observatory, in addition to warning stations in 

Xiamen, Kanmen, and Shengshan. The meteorological records from these stations would be 

transmitted to the IMAS via telegram.”21 Additionally, meteorological information pertaining 

to the Far East region received by the DSGNM would be relayed to the Pratas Observatory, 

which would then disseminate this information to nearby ships to ensure navigational safety.22 

However, the lack of specialised expertise in marine meteorology was an issue faced by both 

the Qingdao Observatory and the DSGNM in this period. 

The talent issue was partly resolved in the early 1930s with the emergence of Lü Jiong 

(吕炯), a distinguished meteorologist who played a pivotal role in marine meteorology during 

the Republic of China. After graduating from the Department of Geosciences of National 

Southeast University (国立东南大学 ), in the late 1920s Lü became one of the few 

meteorological personnel in China with a college background. It appears that Lü garnered 

recognition from his former teacher, meteorologist Zhu Kezhen (竺可桢) who held the position 

of director of the IMAS, leading to his appointment as a general researcher at the IMAS from 

1928.23 Nonetheless, mere attainment of a university education did not suffice for conducting 

high-level meteorological research. Therefore, Lü Jiong was dispatched to Germany for further 

academic pursuits. It seems that in the early twentieth century, dispatching meteorological 

personnel to Germany for learning advanced knowledge was valued by East Asian countries. 

Since 1911, the Japanese meteorologist Wasaburo Ooishi also worked for two years at the 

Lindenberg Aerological Observatory in Germany.24 Lü’s overseas study was fully funded by 

the IMAS, showing that the institute attached great importance to training meteorological 

researchers.25 Further, the areas of study pursued by Lü Jiong mirrored the wider aspirations 

for Chinese meteorological progress. From 1930 to 1934, Lü successively studied subjects 

including climatology, oceanography, geology and agricultural meteorology at Berlin 

University and Hamburg University. These were all areas which were weak links in Chinese 

meteorological expertise. Unlike his predecessors, who had autonomy in selecting their majors, 

Lü Jiong was directed to pursue studies abroad with a clear mandate to advance Chinese 

meteorology.26  

The importance of marine meteorological information could also be recognised in the 

competition for certain rights between different countries, such as in the field of 

telecommunications. When the Zikawei Observatory developed typhoon research and provided 

warning alerts to the surrounding area, French officials constructed a radio station in the 

 

21 Letter from Academia Sinica to the Department of Seaway Guard 海道巡防处, 2 March 1929: Archives of Institute of 

Modern History, Academia Sinica (hereafter ‘AIMHAS’), Taipei, 393/07/01/03/015. 

22 Letter from Academia Sinica to the Department of Seaway Guard 海道巡防处, 2 March 1929: AIMHAS, 393/07/01/03/015. 

23 Zhu Kezhen 竺可桢, 钦天山气象台落成纪念刊  [Qintianshan Meteorological Observatory Memorial] (Institute of 

Meteorology, Academia Sinica, 1929), 6. 

24  John M. Lewis, “Ooishi's Observation: Viewed in the Context of Jet Stream Discovery,” Bulletin of the American 

Meteorological Society 83, no. 3 (2003): 357-369. 

25 Letter from Zhou Bin 周斌 to the IMAS about Lü Jiong’s Assignment to Germany for Studying, 9 January 1934: The Second 

Historical Archives of China, (hereafter ‘SHAC’), Nanjing, 393/128. 

26 Letter from Zhou Bin to the IMAS about Lü Jiong’s Assignment to Germany for Studying, 9 January 1934: SHAC, 393/128. 



 History of Meteorology 12 (2025) 

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Shanghai concession to access meteorological data from the Zikawei Observatory and transmit 

it via telegram. In 1933, the Shanghai Coast Radio Station (hereafter SCRS) remarked that, 

…with the cessation of commercial telegram transmissions by the French radio station, the 

SCRS could assume a more prominent role than before. Efforts should be directed towards 

enhancing the broadcasting of weather information. Only thus can the French radio station’s 

reputation be challenged, leading ships from various nations to gradually shift their focus away 

from the station, ultimately enabling the SCRS to supplant it.27  

In response, the IMAS instructed its subordinate meteorological stations to provide timely daily 

observation records to the SCRS, whilst treating with caution the possibility of sharing this 

meteorological data with the Zikawei Observatory. In addition, the IMAS asserted its 

advantage in furnishing more precise and comprehensive meteorological information to the 

SCRS.28 Given the persistent demand for meteorological data, establishing a marine-oriented 

meteorological station emerged as a priority in China’s meteorological agenda, thus prompting 

the planning of the Dinghai Meteorological Station.  

The Plan for Constructing the Dinghai Meteorological Station 

In May 1934, the Zhejiang Provincial Government in eastern China convened a 

conference aimed at revitalising the rural economy, during which it was decided to establish a 

weather station in Dinghai County. To receive professional assistance, the Zhejiang Provincial 

Government contacted the IMAS and such planning was passed to Zhu Kehzen.29 In 1935, the 

IMAS proposed a plan to establish the Dinghai Meteorological Station to the Department of 

Construction of Zhejiang Province (浙江省建设厅，hereafter DCZP). According to the letter, 

the IMAS stressed that: “typhoons routinely sweep the coast of Zhejiang Province, causing 

significant losses to coastal fisheries. Hence, to safeguard fisheries development, it is 

imperative to establish meteorological stations to provide meteorological warnings.”30  

Drawing on this letter, it is apparent that the plan was for the DMS to serve the fishing 

industry. While the eastern region of China boasts a lengthy coastline, the foremost factor in 

selecting a site for a marine meteorological station may not solely hinge on scientific 

considerations but also on such economic factors. During the Republic of China era, the 

economic development of Zhejiang Province was relatively robust compared to other regions 

in the country.31 Renowned for its commercial tradition, Zhejiang Province boasted a thriving 

fishing industry, which constituted a vital economic sector. The Zhoushan Fishing Ground (舟

山渔场), located in Dinghai County, was the largest fishing ground in China. By 1931, nearly 

70% of the people in Dinghai were employed in fishing and salt production.32 Due to a vast 

coastline as well as an extensive river and lake system in China, fishing had long been an 

 

27 Letters from International Telecommunication Bureau 国际电信局 to the Academia Sinica, 22 September 1933: AIMHAS, 

393/07/01/03/014. 

28 Letters from IMAS to the Academia Sinica, 26 September 1933: AIMHAS, 393/07/01/03/014. 

29 Hu Ruiqi 胡瑞琪, “你们可知舟山普陀青龙山上“风雨表”的故事?[ Do you know the story of the barometer on Qinglong 

Mountain in Putuo, Zhoushan],” Zheli Zhoushan, accessed January 6, 2025, 

https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s?biz=MzI5NjAzNTc1MA==&mid=2650716539&idx=2&sn=c8124f42880041084d42da341e1a5

2ff&chksm=f4406db2c337e4a41e59441068e5e27ced89ad705e473a69014a54c65b6a909bb2d06ec7440b&scene=27. 

30 Letters from the Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan 中央研究院 [Academia Sinica] to the Zhejiangsheng Zhengfu 浙江省政府 
[Zhejiang Provincial Government], 11 February 1935: AIMHAS, 393/07/03/04/009. 

31  Jiang Hong 江宏 , “近代浙商与浙江经济的近代化 (1890-1930) [Zhejiang Merchants in Modern China and the 

Modernization of Zhejiang Economy (1890-1930)],” (PhD diss., Shanghai University of Finance and Economics, 2022), 211-

15. 

32 Lin Yanyi 林彦亦, Gong Minli 宫敏丽 and Lu Lijuan 芦立娟, “浅谈近代舟山海洋渔业的发展情况 [Discussion on the 

Development of Modern Zhoushan Marine Fishery],” Nongcun Jingji Yukeji 农村经济与科技 28, no. 13 (2017): 78-80. 



 History of Meteorology 12 (2025) 

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important economic activity and played a significant part in generating national taxes. 

Consequently, during the Republican era, the state accorded considerable importance to the 

development of fisheries to bolster tax revenues. 

Overseas-trained Chinese fisheries experts believed that reasonable and scientific 

management could improve the efficiency of resource development. These assumptions were 

based on the idea that applied science and technological expertise could maximise the utility 

of the environment. 33  However, such endeavours might entail significant environmental 

repercussions. Interventions in the environment to reap benefits necessitated grappling with 

environmental threats, including natural disasters, wherein meteorology assumed a pivotal role. 

It is noteworthy that the impact of natural disasters on fisheries extended beyond the disruption 

of fishery production and endangerment of fishermen’s lives to encompass the sustainable 

development of fisheries. Following natural disasters in the 1920s that ravaged Taizhou and 

Wenzhou in Zhejiang Province, affected communities transitioned from net fishing to cage 

fishing—a lucrative yet unsustainable technology—to supplement their income.34 As a result, 

applying meteorological insights to mitigate the impacts of disasters became a focal point for 

Zhejiang officials. Since 1880, pre-existing marine meteorological observations had been 

underway in Zhejiang Province, with Chinese Maritime Customs erecting four island 

lighthouses for weather monitoring, located at Mount Daji, Mount Huaniao, Mount Xiaomian, 

and Mount Beiyu. These observational outposts conducted rudimentary marine meteorological 

observations, including atmospheric pressure, temperature, wind direction and strength among 

other weather conditions. In addition to weather reporting, they also hoisted coastal typhoon 

warning signals and strong wind forecast signals. 35  However, the meteorological service 

quality rendered by these lighthouses was inadequate, and the Zhoushan Islands were often hit 

by typhoons in summer and autumn, causing huge losses to fishermen; a professional marine 

meteorological station was required. 

The establishment of the DMS was a collaborative effort involving the Zhejiang 

Province Water Conservancy Bureau (浙江省水利局，hereafter ZPWCB), the IMAS, the 

Dinghai County Government, and the fishing industry itself. It is noteworthy that both the local 

government and the populace assumed substantial financial burdens, a practice less common 

in scientific infrastructure development in Western nations. For instance, it was the US 

Weather Bureau, as the central meteorological agency, that spearheaded the establishment of a 

meteorological network to disseminate early tornado warnings,36 whereas the case of the DMS 

proved that construction required joint efforts. Following this joint establishment model, the 

IMAS assumed responsibility for instrument provision, while the ZPWCB furnished the 

requisite land. In order to maintain the normal operation of the station, the IMAS also agreed 

to contribute one-third of the regular fee of 300 yuan per month.37  

Despite this, funding emerged as a prevalent challenge in the construction of 

meteorological stations during the Republican era, which was mirrored at the DMS as well. 

According to the plan of DCZP, the total funds needed for preparing a meteorological station 

 

33 Micah S. Muscolino, Fishing Wars and Environmental Change in Late Imperial and Modern China (Harvard University 

Press, 2009), 8. 

34 Muscolino, Fishing Wars and Environmental Change in Late Imperial and Modern China, 148-49. 

35 Zhejiang Provincial Meteorological Bureau 浙江省气象局, “浙江近代的气象工作 [Meteorological affairs in Zhejiang 

Province in modern times],” in 中国近代气象史资料 [Resources for Meteorological History in China], ed. Editorial 

Committee of Modern Meteorological Resource in China 中国近代气象史资料编委会 (Qixiang Press, 1995), 117-18. 

36 Nancy Mathis, Storm Warning: The Story of a Killer Tornado (Touchstone, 2007), 40-59. 

37 Letters from Zhejiangsheng Jiansheting 浙江省建设厅 [DCZP] to the Academia Sinica, 11 March 1935: AIMHAS, 

393/07/03/04/009. 



 History of Meteorology 12 (2025) 

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amounted to approximately 20,000 yuan. Despite the IMAS’s commitment to equipment 

provision, an additional 10,000 yuan was still needed.38 Subsequently, for the DMS plan to 

work, the Zhejiang Provincial Government asked coastal county governments, alongside the 

fishing industry, to shoulder the financial burden. The ZPWCB even published investment and 

bidding advertisements for the construction of DMS housing in newspapers. It shows that: 

Experienced individuals involved in construction projects may remit a fee of two yuan to the 

Department of Factory Affairs within the Hangzhou Water Conservancy Bureau to obtain 

necessary charts and forms outlining bidding regulations. Following on-site assessments, a 

deposit of 400 yuan is requisite to the ZPWCB, enabling participation in the bidding process at 

the DCZP. The outcome will be publicly disclosed at the ZPWCB on 30 April at 2pm.39 

This endeavour seemingly failed to attract interest from potential bidders, prompting 

the ZPWCB to extend the bidding deadline. Ultimately, a Shanghai company named Wangsenji 

(汪森记) undertook the construction project at a cost of 8,900 yuan, significantly below the 

company’s initial offer of 15,000 yuan. 

Given that nearby county governments and the fishing community would be the direct 

beneficiaries of the DMS, it was deemed reasonable for them to bear some of the expenses. 

The fishermen in Zhejiang Province had a tradition of providing financial backing for official 

infrastructure projects. Seeking to bolster their influence, fishermen often established fishing 

lodge organisations to advocate for their interests in local politics and economics. These 

organisations facilitated dialogue between fishermen and officials regarding marine resource 

allocation, while also serving as channels for officials to access financial revenue from fishing 

enterprises. Consequently, funding government construction projects bolstered the legitimacy 

of fishing lodge organizations. 40  However, the feasibility of implementing this policy 

warranted scrutiny, as these organizations might be reluctant to shoulder the substantial 

expenses associated with modern scientific infrastructure, potentially hindering funding 

efforts. 

In the case of the DMS, it is plausible that the fishing industry could face pressure from 

local authorities, given that their fishing status necessitated official recognition. Furthermore, 

county governments might find themselves compelled to comply with the central government’s 

administrative directives, thereby obliging them to provide financial backing. Through 

negotiation, the local representative of the fishing enterprises, Liu Jiting (刘寄亭), acquired 

three steel-reinforced concrete bungalows and a hut near the proposed DMS site, serving as 

residences for the station builders. The local fishermen also contributed a budget of 1,000 yuan, 

comprised of two yuan levied from each large fishing boat, with the owner and tenant each 

paying half.41 In addition, the county government allocated 4,000 yuan from local construction 

funds to cover the expenses of radio sets and signals.42 However, several challenges impeded 

progress. Initially, the ZPWCB was tasked with covering 200 yuan of the 300-yuan monthly 

fee, but budget constraints rendered the ZPWCB unable to fulfil its obligation. Zhu Kezhen 

even asked Huang Shaohong (黄绍竑 ), the president of Zhejiang Province, to provide 

 

38 Letters from Zhejiangsheng Jiansheting 浙江省建设厅 [DCZP] to the Academia Sinica, 11 March 1935: AIMHAS, 

393/07/03/04/009. 

39 “浙江省水利局建筑定海测候所房屋工程继续招商投标广告[Advertisement on the Extending of Bidding for the 

Housing Project of Dinghai Meteorological Station by the ZPWCB]”, Xinwen Bao 新闻报, 17 April 1936, 3.  

40 Muscolino, Fishing Wars and Environmental Change in Late Imperial and Modern China, 61-62. 

41 Hu Ruiqi, “Do you know the story of the barometer on Qinglong Mountain in Putuo, Zhoushan”. 

42  Letters from Zhejiangsheng Jiansheting 浙江省建设厅  [DCZP] to the Academia Sinica, 12 April 1935: AIMHAS, 

393/07/03/04/009. 



 History of Meteorology 12 (2025) 

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assistance in funding, but it seems that the request was either rejected or just ignored by 

Shaohong.43 Moreover, funds raised from the fishing industry fell short. Consequently, the 

IMAS had to utilise interim funds to supplement the nine-month expenses from July 1935 to 

March 1936, ensuring the timely completion of construction.44  

As has been discussed, Lü Jiong’s role in promoting the DMS bears further analysis. 

As one of the few Chinese experts in marine meteorology at that time, Lü was dispatched to 

Dinghai to conduct on-site investigations during the site selection process. Based on his 

judgement, Heye Bay in Shenjiamen (Fig. 1) was chosen for its advantageous location atop 

high ground overlooking the sea, facilitating weather observation and communication with 

local fishing vessels.45 The piece of land for the station was purchased at Liu Jiting’s expense. 

More importantly, with Zhu Kezhen appointed as the president of Zhejiang University in 

March 1936, Lü Jiong took the position as the acting director of IMAS. Accordingly, Lü also 

participated in the appointment of personnel for the DMS, hence technical personnel from the 

disbanded Shanghai Meteorological Observatory were deployed, with Wang Guoai appointed 

as the director.46 

Fig. 1. Zhejiang Province and the DMS 

Source: Adapted from “Map of Zhejiang Province”, accessed January 20, 2025, 

http://bzdt.ch.mnr.gov.cn/browse.html?picId=%224o28b0625501ad13015501ad2bfc0229%2

2. 

 

43 “Letters from Zhu Kezhen to Huang Shaohong, 25 January 1936,” in 蔡元培论科学与技术[Cai Yuanpei’s Discussion of 

Science and Technology], ed. Gao Pingshu (Hebei Science & Technology Press, 1985), 287. 

44 “定海设立测候所[Meteorological Station Set up in Dinghai],” Shanghaishi Shuichan Jingji Yuekan 上海市水产经济月刊 

5, no. 3(1936): 8. 

45  Letters from the Academia Sinica to Zhejiangsheng Jiansheting 浙江省建设厅  [DCZP], 24 April 1935: AIMHAS, 

393/07/03/04/009. 

46 Zhejiang Provincial Meteorological Bureau, “Zhejiang Jindai de Qixiang Gongzuo,” 118. 



 History of Meteorology 12 (2025) 

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Upon the station’s establishment, the IMAS conducted project quality assessments. In 

October of 1936, the IMAS dispatched Jin Yongshen (金詠深), along with Xu Jiaxuan (徐家

谖) from the DCZP and technician Wu Pinfu (吴品福) of the Dinghai County Government to 

Shenjiamen to inspect the project. Following the investigation, it was determined that the 

project was not yet fully operational, necessitating the addition of three additional buildings 

behind the station to serve as service rooms, a kitchen, and a machinery room.47 Hence, after 

two months of construction work, the DMS was officially established and put into operation 

on New Year’s Day of 1937. Equipped with a shortwave radio station, the DMS could 

communicate with other radio stations such as Dinghai, Daishan, Qushan, Putuo, and Jintang 

to provide weather reports. Subsequently, meteorological services were provided to local 

fishermen during the day via flags and at night via light bulbs. Additionally, plans were made 

to establish a marine biology research institute adjacent to the station, to be undertaken by the 

Institute of Zoology and Botany of the Academia Sinica, however it failed to be established 

due to the Second World War.48 

In contrast to other meteorological stations, it appears that the DMS’s construction plan 

exhibited a more deliberate approach, with a focus on fostering the development of fisheries in 

Zhejiang Province. This inclination also reflects the evolving maturity of scientific institutions 

in the Republic of China regarding designated scientific planning. Later, for administrative 

efficiency, the responsibility for the DMS was transferred to the IMAS. Neither the IMAS nor 

the Zhejiang Provincial Government had previously established a dedicated meteorological 

alarm system for this region, rendering the DMS, to some extent, a proving ground for typhoon 

warning methodologies. 49  Moreover, to ensure the acquisition of precise marine 

meteorological data, observation standards were also regulated under the auspices of the IMAS. 

In 1937, Lü Jiong personally engaged with the Aviation Administration Department of the 

Ministry of Transportation to address this matter. At the time, ships did not accord significant 

importance to seawater thermometers or value the instruments provided by the IMAS. Hence, 

the observational instruments aboard ships operated by the China Merchants Steam Navigation 

Company (轮船招商局, hereafter CMSNC) were rudimentary and antiquated, necessitating 

the integration of new equipment such as marine-use mercury barometers. Additionally, the 

recorded values from these instruments were markedly inaccurate, with many remaining 

uncalibrated. Consequently, communications between the ships and the IMAS met with 

difficulties, thus each vessel was required to send meteorological information twice a day to 

the CMSNC, which then relayed it to the IMAS. The IMAS would also compile and distribute 

the “Marine Meteorological Observation Manual (海上气象观测说明书)” to each vessel. 

Given the generally low educational attainment among crew members, senior personnel such 

as chief officers, second officers, and third officers required training by the IMAS to ensure 

accurate recording of meteorological observations.50 These ships, to some extent, assisted the 

DMS in collecting meteorological data in the waters adjacent to China, thereby expanding its 

research scope. Through these efforts, it appears that the Republic of China was poised to invest 

in advancing marine meteorology. 

 

47 “定海测候所与海产研究所[Dinghai Meteorological Station and Institute of Marine Products],” Kexue 科学 20, no. 

12(1936): 1072. 

48 “定海测候所工程告竣[The Construction of Dinghai Meteorological Station Has Been Completed],” Shuichan Yuekan 水
产月刊 3, no. 11 (1936): 83. See also “Dinghai Meteorological Station and Institute of Marine Products”, 1072. 

49 Letters from the Academia Sinica to Zhejiangsheng Jiansheting 浙江省建设厅 [DCZP], 6 February 1935: AIMHAS, 

393/07/03/04/009. 

50 Letter from the IMAS to the Aviation Administration Department of the Ministry of Transportation 交通部航政司, 24 April 

1937: AIMHAS, 393/07/01/03/028. 



 History of Meteorology 12 (2025) 

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Rethinking the Development of Marine Meteorology 

Despite the comprehensive design of the DMS, its operations were interrupted because 

of the Second World War. In August of 1937, as the Japanese army attacked Shanghai, 

Zhejiang Province was threatened, and Wang Guoai (汪国瑷) resigned in the same month on 

the grounds of discord with staff, although he might have been greatly affected personally by 

the war. Afterwards, the DMS did not maintain basic observations for a long time until 

occupied by Japan in June 1939.51 Moreover, due to the delay caused by Wu Yonggeng (吴永

庚), the succeeding director of the DMS, the instruments could not be relocated to secured 

zones prior to the Japanese military occupation, leading to Zhu Kezhen's extreme 

dissatisfaction towards this issue.52 It seems that the National Government lost control over 

most coastal areas during the wartime, but the Chinese meteorological community had 

recognised the significance of marine meteorology and pondered its developmental trajectory. 

In July of 1942, the IMAS submitted several contingency plans to the Central Planning Board, 

the department responsible for national construction during wartime. Among these, Lü Jiong 

proposed a plan titled “the Establishment of Marine Observatory Basing on Oceans and 

National Defence.”53 

In this eleven-page plan, Lü underscored the importance of marine meteorology and 

outlined detailed strategies for its future development in China. It is evident that Lü acquired 

his marine meteorological knowledge primarily during his studies in Germany, and this 

experience influenced his subsequent actions. He endeavoured to develop marine meteorology 

in China based on the German model, as reflected in the institutional setup and the use of 

instruments. Primarily, Lü investigated the significance of meteorological stations from a 

wartime perspective. He contended that contemporary warfare transcended terrestrial 

boundaries, with maritime warfare relying heavily on naval and aerial operations, wherein 

meteorology played a crucial role in guiding air force flights and the navigation of warships. 

For instance, he highlighted that the Hamburg Ocean Observatory was under the jurisdiction 

of the German Navy.54 

In addition to wartime applications, Lü expounded on the relevance of marine 

meteorology to the fishing industry. Despite China’s coastal-dependent fishing industry, 

regulatory constraints and resistance to reform, coupled with fishermen’s limited knowledge, 

hindered its competitiveness with global peers. Japan, Europe, and the US had not only 

enhanced their fishing equipment and adopted more precise fishing techniques but were also 

studying other fishery-related factors. Investigations encompassed seabed depth, seawater 

temperature at various depths, salinity analysis, tidal variations, water flow direction and 

velocity, seawater transparency, and plankton distribution. Lü provided an example illustrating 

how seawater temperature influenced fish distribution, noting the prevalence of flying fish in 

the sea region between 40 degrees north and south in latitude due to the average summer 

temperature exceeding 20 degrees Celsius.55 

 

51 Wen Kegang 温克刚, ed.,中国气象史 [History of Meteorology in China] (Qixiang Press, 2003), 361. 

52 “Zhu Kezhen’s diary for 18 July 1939,” in 竺可桢全集 [the Collected Works of Zhu Kezhen], Vol. 7, Zhu Kezhen (Shanghai 

Scientific and Technological Education Publishing House, 2005), 125. 

53 Plan about ‘Establishment of Marine Observatory Basing on Oceans and National Defense’ sent by the IMAS to the Central 

Planning Board 中央设计局, July 1942: AIMHAS, 393/07/01/03/014, pp. 1. 

54 Plan about ‘Establishment of Marine Observatory Basing on Oceans and National Defense’ sent by the IMAS to the Central 

Planning Board, pp. 1. 

55 Plan about ‘Establishment of Marine Observatory Basing on Oceans and National Defense’ sent by the IMAS to the Central 

Planning Board, pp. 2. 



 History of Meteorology 12 (2025) 

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Emphasising the significance of marine meteorology in practical applications, Lü Jiong 

elucidated the interplay between meteorology and oceanography from an academic standpoint. 

With the atmosphere enveloping the sea surface, any alterations in atmospheric elements such 

as temperature, humidity, and weather could influence the sea surface, thereby inducing 

changes in temperature and salinity. Conversely, fluctuations in ocean temperature and salinity 

could reciprocally impact the atmosphere. Moreover, myriad meteorological issues often 

necessitated insights from oceanography to bolster research efforts. Given the substantial heat 

capacity of seawater, fluctuations in its temperature were poised to significantly influence 

terrestrial climates. Lü cited the research of B. Helland Hansen, F. Nansen, and A. Defant, who 

endeavoured to forecast crop yields in Western Europe based on atmospheric dynamics in the 

northern Atlantic Ocean. Having previously interned at esteemed institutions such as the Berlin 

Institute of Oceanography, the Ocean Museum, and the Hamburg Ocean Observatory each for 

one year, Lü was well-versed in marine sciences. Consequently, he provided an overview of 

the organization, equipment, and operational scope of marine observatories.56 

Lü Jiong advocated his vision for establishing marine observatories across China, 

proposing the establishment of five observatories spanning from south to north: Huludao, 

Qingdao, Shanghai, Fuzhou, and Guangzhou. he suggested that Shanghai be used as the central 

observatory, given its role in furnishing meteorological reports for naval and aerial 

deployments during wartime, further solidified its suitability. 57  Regarding personnel, Lü 

advocated for distinct groups within each observatory, including navigation, marine 

meteorology, astronomy, tides, oceanography, and marine aviation meteorology. Moreover, 

while the focus was predominantly on marine physics, Lü also proposed establishing marine 

biology and fisheries groups, helmed by respective experts, acknowledging the importance of 

incorporating biological expertise. Nevertheless, given the scarcity of meteorological 

personnel and fund in Republican China, Lü had to adjust the plan and recommended 

prioritizing the construction of infrastructure, followed by gradual expansion in tandem with 

economic and talent growth. In terms of the groups Lü listed, he underscored the establishment 

of marine meteorology and oceanography groups as top priorities. 58  Furthermore, Lü 

meticulously categorized instruments into eight classifications, detailing their names, prices, 

and manufacturers. While primarily designated for oceanographic and tidal groups, the 

cumulative cost of these instruments amounted to 70,000 German Marks. Lü advocated 

prioritizing offshore survey needs and estimated that allocating 20,000 to 30,000 yuan for 

marine instruments, alongside 10,000 yuan for meteorological instruments, could lay the 

foundation for a marine meteorological station. Accounting for furniture and ancillary 

expenses, he recommended an initial investment of approximately 100,000 yuan, with a 

monthly maintenance outlay of 5,000 yuan and staffing comprising 20 members.59 It appears 

that Lü meticulously planned for marine meteorology in China, yet there were doubts about 

the feasibility of implementing these plans, particularly in the post-war period. 

 

 

 

56 Plan about ‘Establishment of Marine Observatory Basing on Oceans and National Defense’ sent by the IMAS to the Central 

Planning Board, pp. 3-4. 

57 Plan about ‘Establishment of Marine Observatory Basing on Oceans and National Defense’ sent by the IMAS to the Central 

Planning Board, pp. 5. 

58 Plan about ‘Establishment of Marine Observatory Basing on Oceans and National Defense’ sent by the IMAS to the Central 

Planning Board, pp. 6-8. 

59 Plan about ‘Establishment of Marine Observatory Basing on Oceans and National Defense’ sent by the IMAS to the Central 

Planning Board, pp. 8-10. 



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The post-war period of the Dinghai Meteorological Station 

With Japan’s defeat in the Second World War, the National Government reclaimed a 

large number of meteorological stations that were controlled by Japan during the war, including 

the Qingdao Observatory and the DMS. Under the leadership of director Wang Binhua, the 

Qingdao Observatory continued to conduct research on marine meteorology, including the 

study of sea fog, which was an important academic contribution later on. The status of the 

Dinghai Meteorological Observatory has also received further attention.60 In the summer of 

1946, the Zhoushan Islands endured another devastating typhoon, inflicting severe losses on 

the fishing industry. Responding to this, the marine fishery department of the Jiangsu and 

Zhejiang regions under the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry resolved to establish a storm 

warning station in the area. Technician Feng Zikang (冯子康) was dispatched to assess 

conditions for a suitable location in the vicinity of the DMS.61 In June 1947, the DMS resumed 

operations, relocating to the Dinghai Fisheries School (定海水产学校). During the same 

month, when a typhoon struck the coastal regions of Zhejiang and Fujian Provinces, the Fishery 

Bureau of Zhejiang Province directed its subordinate stations to alert fishing groups and hoist 

typhoon signals for early warning.62 It appeared that the DMS promptly fulfilled its role. By 

the end of 1948, it was relocated to the Fire God Temple of Dinghai under the directorship of 

Xu Jianming (许鑑明), operating under the auspices of the Central Meteorological Bureau (中

央气象局, hereafter CMB).63  Moreover, Lü Jiong had been the leader of the CMB since 1944, 

and with his support, the CMB upgraded the DMS to a formal marine meteorological 

observatory, entailing a change in nomenclature and expanded functions. In addition to its prior 

duties of meteorological monitoring, the upgraded DMS served as an information 

dissemination hub, broadcasting weather updates to ten major seaports, including Shanghai, 

Xiamen, and Taipei.64 

However, solely relying on the DMS as the primary marine meteorological observatory 

for typhoon early warning might not suffice to meet coastal area demands. Similar issues also 

happened in developed countries. Alexander Hall pointed out that the devastating 1953 North 

Sea flood that ravaged Britain’s eastern coastline exposed critical flaws in early warning 

systems. This catastrophic event proved pivotal in shaping modern disaster governance, with 

the subsequent official inquiry into its causes and impacts laying the foundational framework 

for contemporary UK flood management strategies and emergency response protocols.65 While 

the Meteorological Office in Britain played a key role in the implementation of the warning 

system, its Chinese counterpart, the CMB, assumed a comparable responsibility. Recognizing 

the imperative of widespread meteorological information dissemination, the CMB made 

 

60 J. M. Lewis, D. Koracin and K. T. Redmond, “Sea fog research in the United Kingdom and United States (A Historical 

Essay Including Outlook),” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 85, no. 3 (2004): 395-408. 

61 “定海嵊泗列岛设暴风警报站[Setting up Storm Warning Stations on Shengsi Islands in Dinghai],” Minguo Ribao 民国日
报, 12 August 1946, 5. 

62 Zhejiang Provincial Meteorological Bureau, “Meteorological affairs in Zhejiang Province in modern times”, 120. See also 

Telegram sent by the Zhejiangsheng Yuye Ju 浙江省渔业局 [Zhejiang Provincial Fishery Bureau], 28 June 1947: AIMHAS, 

20/24/006/10. 

63 The Central Meteorological Bureau was founded in 1941 by the National Government, which replaced the IMAS in 

managing the national meteorological cause. Zhejiang Provincial Meteorological Bureau, “Meteorological affairs in Zhejiang 

Province in modern times,” 118. 

64 Letters from Zhongyang Qixiangju 中央气象局[Central Meteorological Bureau (CMB)] to Nonglinbu 农林部 [Ministry of 

Agriculture and Forestry (hereafter ‘MAF’)], 3 June 1947: AIMHAS, 20/24/006/18. 

65 Alexander Hall, “Plugging the Gaps: The North Sea Flood of 1953 and the Creation of a National Coastal Warning System,” 

Journal of Public Management & Social Policy 22, no. 2 (2015). 



 History of Meteorology 12 (2025) 

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further strides in areas under the DMS’s jurisdiction. In 1946, the Marine Fisheries Supervision 

Office of Jiangsu and Zhejiang Regions, a subordinate body of the Ministry of Agriculture and 

Forestry, proposed to set up a storm warning radio station to assist the DMS’s operations.66 

The efficacy of weather forecasts hinged largely on the timeliness of information 

dissemination. With the radio station’s support, fishermen could receive early weather 

warnings, affording them more time to prepare for weather-related disasters. Moreover, to 

enhance disaster response efficiency, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry stipulated in 

1947 that, “all fisheries-related entities, including coastal governments, fishing associations, 

and fishery companies, should procure radio receivers and transmitters within a specified 

timeframe to access daily weather reports and storm warnings.”67  

In addition, through collaboration with the National Resources Commission, which 

produced a large quantity of affordable radios, ordinary fishermen could purchase or rent radios 

to access weather broadcasts, enhancing their ability to cope with extreme weather.68 While 

the extent of implementation by other entities remains uncertain, the China Fisheries 

Corporation, a Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry subsidiary, indeed outfitted each ship with 

a radio station.69 

Another advantage of weather stations for fisheries was proximate timing. During the 

Republican era, ordinary fishermen often struggled to access timely meteorological 

information, resulting in forecast failures. Therefore, a time signal was issued daily at the 

Hangzhou Meteorological Station, then transmitted to each county by the radio station.70 In 

terms of the alarm time, the DMS and telecommunication bureau established explicit 

regulations. According to the international radio regulations, coastal meteorological stations 

and ship radio stations were required to pause operations and listen for distress signals at 15-

18 and 45-48 minutes past each hour. Additionally, a storm alarm would be broadcast every 

day at 12:50 and 18:50.71 Such frequent broadcasting aimed to ensure the prompt receipt of 

early warnings. In addition to broadcasting, the monthly weather report would be sent to the 

Fishery Bureau of Zhejiang Province, enabling analysis of oceanic conditions.72 It indicated 

that the progress in timeliness and early warning systems reflected the improvement in the 

fishing industry. 

More importantly, the establishment of the DMS not only provided meteorological 

services to fisheries, but also indirectly affected the significance of national sovereignty in 

fisheries. According to Zhang Jian, strengthening the country’s external borders required the 

expansion and consolidation of fishing rights. Exerting control over marine fisheries was vital 

for safeguarding national sovereignty and fostering national prosperity.73 What was worse, in 

 

66 Letters from the Jiangzhequ Haiyang Yuye Dudaochu 江浙区海洋渔业督导处 [Marine Fishery Supervision Office of 

Jiangsu and Zhejiang Regions] to Nonglinbu 农林部 [MAF], 16 December 1946: AIMHAS, 20/24/006/15. 

67 Letters from Zhonghua Shuichan Gongsi 中华水产公司 [China Fisheries Corporation] to Nonglinbu 农林部 [MAF], 18 

November 1947: AIMHAS, 20/24/006/12. 

68 Letters from Zhonghua Shuichan Gongsi 中华水产公司 [China Fisheries Corporation] to Nonglinbu 农林部 [MAF], 18 

November 1947: AIMHAS, 20/24/006/12. 

69中华水产公司电台证书[Radio Station Form of the China Fisheries Corporation], October 1947: AIMHAS, 20/24/006/12. 

70 Letters from the CMB to the Nonglinbu 农林部 [MAF], 3 June 1947: AIMHAS, 20/24/006/18. 

71定海测候所暴风警报广播时间表 [Broadcast schedule of storm warning for the DMS], 1 September 1947: AIMHAS, 

20/24/006/20. 

72 Telegram sent by the Zhejiangsheng Yuye Ju 浙江省渔业局 [Zhejiang Provincial Fishery Bureau], 28 June 1947: AIMHAS, 

20/24/006/10. 

73 Muscolino, Fishing Wars and Environmental Change in Late Imperial and Modern China, 76. 



 History of Meteorology 12 (2025) 

15 

 

 

the 1930s Japanese vessels, in violation of international law, encroached upon China’s 

territorial waters, imperilling China’s fishing interests and the livelihoods of Zhejiang 

fishermen.74 Thus, if the meteorological station could aid the normal operation of Zhejiang’s 

fishing industry, it would aid in controlling fisheries in Chinese waters, thereby bolstering the 

safety of China’s fishery resources and safeguarding territorial sea sovereignty. 

Functioning as a marine meteorological observatory, the DMS diligently recorded 

marine meteorological data that was previously overlooked. Through the monitoring of this 

data, the DMS gathered various metrics, including visibility, sea water temperature, and 

specific gravity. 75  Concerning meteorological record-keeping, it indicated an ongoing 

enhancement in the DMS’s professional calibre, especially the localization of Western 

meteorological standards. Due to the diverse Chinese characters used to describe the strength 

of wind, wind forces were recorded in Chinese characters rather than numbers by associating 

different Chinese terms with the Beaufort scale. For instance, the wei feng (微风, breeze) 

referred to level 3, while the he feng (和风, soft wind) referred to level 4.76 Compared to earlier 

records, these detailed entries facilitated the acquisition of more precise information. 

Nevertheless, challenges persisted in terminology, because thus they probably caused 

confusion for people who were not familiar with meteorological knowledge.  

Drawing upon data from the DMS and the Qingdao Observatory, China gradually 

established several meteorological stations along China’s coastline, marking the nascent 

emergence of a marine meteorological network in the late 1940s. Moreover, the observed data 

provided basis for carrying out certain research on natural disasters in Zhejiang. For example, 

research findings indicated that a discrepancy of over 20% between annual precipitation and 

the long-term average could precipitate floods or droughts. Geographically, western Zhejiang 

and the Qiantang River basins were identified as the most susceptible regions based on 

meteorological data. 77  The above conclusion shows that the collection of meteorological 

information really provided help for the response to natural disasters. 

However, the ramifications of political and social upheaval during the Republic of 

China era on science cannot be disregarded. At the end of 1947, the wind indicator ball at the 

DMS, crucial for issuing typhoon signals, was stolen. This incident resulted in the failure to 

hoist the typhoon signal on the evening of 20 February 1948 when a typhoon struck Zhoushan. 

Fortunately, the DMS had pre-emptively broadcast an alert through the Ningbo Radio Station 

the evening prior to the storm. Afterwards, the DMS urged the Fishery Bureau of Zhejiang 

Province to recreate the typhoon signal to avert such occurrences in the future.78 

Conclusion 

This article has centred focus on the establishment and utilisation of the Dinghai 

Meteorological Station, to some extent delineating the trajectory of marine meteorology 

development during the Republic of China era. From the Chinese Maritime Customs and 

Zikawei Observatory in the early twentieth century, to the Qingdao Observatory and 

 

74 Muscolino, Fishing Wars and Environmental Change in Late Imperial and Modern China, 114. 

75 定海气象及海洋状况记录表 [Record of meteorological and marine conditions of the DMS], January to March 1948: 

AIMHAS, 20/24/006/20. 

76 定海气象及海洋状况记录表 [Record of meteorological and marine conditions of the DMS], January to March 1948: 

AIMHAS, 20/24/006/20. 

77 Zhejiangsheng Shuiliju Cehousuo 浙江省水利局测候所, “浙江省气候观测 [Meteorological Observation in Zhejiang 

Province],” Qixiang Huibao 气象汇报 1, no. 1 (1946): 35. 

78 “定海测候所风球被窃 [Wind Indicator Ball Pilfered in the Dinghai Meteorological Station],” Qixiang Huibao 气象汇报 
2, no. 3 (1948): 12. 



 History of Meteorology 12 (2025) 

16 

 

 

subsequently to the DMS, this article explored the process of localisation in establishing better 

marine meteorological knowledge. It argued that meteorological stations were not merely 

facilities for acquiring and researching meteorological data, but their construction and 

operation were also shaped by this knowledge. Moreover, the construction of meteorological 

stations during the Republican era was not simply a political plan, but was influenced by factors 

such as the economy and society at that time. The demand from the fisheries sector emerged 

as a pivotal driver for marine meteorology advancement in the construction of DMS. Therefore, 

this article illustrates that in the construction plan of the DMS, different levels of government 

and local economic organisations were involved, which was different from the previous 

construction model of meteorological stations in the Republic of China. 

This article had expounded on how wartime heightened attention towards the 

development of marine meteorology, culminating in a more mature plan. This was exemplified, 

to some extent, in the post-war phase of the DMS. The establishment of a maritime 

meteorological network gradually took shape based on the DMS, yielding tangible outcomes 

in typhoon warnings and marine research. Nonetheless, it is imperative to acknowledge the 

political and social instability of the Republic of China, along with economic challenges, which 

impeded meteorological progress. The case of the DMS was considered a ‘laboratory’ for 

China’s development of marine meteorology, which proves that non-Western countries could 

also explore the development path of local science through the construction of scientific 

facilities. 

 

 

Acknowledgements 

This work was supported by the National Social Science Fund of China (grant number 

23CZS062) 


