From vision to transformation: integrating human rights courses in higher education in India

ISSN 2535-5406 http://doi.org/10.7577/hrer.4546

Date received: 13-08-2021 Date accepted: 10-05-2022 Peer reviewed article

© 2022 the author(s). This is an OpenAccess publication licensed under terms given in:
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (CC-BY 4.0). https://www.humanrer.org

Research articles

From vision to transformation:

integrating human rights courses in

higher education in India

Radhika Lakshminarayanan

American University of the Middle East, Kuwait, radlax123@gmail.com

Dolly Thomas

Stella Maris College, Chennai, India, dollythomas@stellamariscollege.edu.in

Abstract

Human Rights Education (HRE) is critical to human development and societal transformation.

In India, although HRE emerged in the 1980s, its incorporation in higher education has not yet

reached its full potential. Using the state of Tamil Nadu as our case study, this paper evaluates

the integration of courses on human rights in universities and colleges, using a descriptive

qualitative approach to analyse the nature and content of such courses, their compliance with

India’s apex institutional directives, and the challenges faced. The researchers conclude that

there is a disconnect between the vision of policy makers and actual implementation of HRE

in practice. It is suggested that wider holistic application of HRE in higher education is needed,

so that learning becomes a transformative force, empowering the young to develop attitudes

of solidarity, tolerance, and respect for social justice.

Keywords

Human rights, higher education, Tamil Nadu, India, inequality, learning outcomes

http://doi.org/10.7577/hrer.4546
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
https://www.humanrer.org/
mailto:radlax123@gmail.com
mailto:dollythomas@stellamariscollege.edu.in

Human Rights Education Review

Introduction

Ideally, human rights as a comprehensive value system should be the guiding force of

societies. However, millions of people all over the world continue to struggle for a dignified

existence. This is further intensified in a heterogenous society like India, with diversity in

language, region, race, caste, culture and religion (Kosir & Lakshminarayanan, 2021)

contributing to blatant discrimination. Considerably influenced by the Universal Declaration

of Human Rights (UN, 1948), the Indian constitution aims to safeguard the rights of all citizens.

It includes fundamental rights (Part III) that guarantee equality, freedom, rights against

discrimination, freedom of religion, cultural and educational rights, and the right to

constitutional remedies. A section on directive principles of state policy (Part IV) to ensure

socio-economic justice is also incorporated. Following the passing of the Protection of Human

Rights Act (National Human Rights Commission, 1993), the National Human Rights

Commission (NHRC) and State Human Rights Commissions (SHRC) were created to promote

and protect human rights. National commissions for protection of the rights of women,

children, minorities, ‘backward classes’, scheduled castes, and tribes were also established.

While the constitution and apex institutions provide a ‘stated vision’ for human rights practice

in India, the actual transformation of society to reflect this vision has been slow and

fragmented. Real social transformation requires the fundamental acceptance that all human

beings are entitled to a life of dignity and equal opportunity, which can only be achieved

through education that endows ‘human beings with the power to resist colonization of the

mind’ (Baxi, 1994, p. 23).

After independence, the Indian government provided considerable impetus for higher

education. The University Grants Commission (UGC) was established in 1956 for coordination

and standardisation within universities and delineation of national policies on education.

Recently, in consonance with the global agenda for sustainable development 2030- Goal 4

(UN, n.d.), the Indian government adopted the National Education Policy (NEP) (2020). It

aimed to build a ‘knowledge society’, in which equity and inclusion would be ensured through

sensitisation towards human values, empathy, tolerance, human rights, gender equality, and

community participation. The NEP envisages privatization of higher education, increased

governmental financing, and multidisciplinary universities with holistic, flexible, imaginative,

research-oriented curricula and active learning (Ministry of Human Resource Development,

2020). While the NEP aims at structural, operational and financial reforms to the Indian

educational structure, critics question the absence of clear strategies on state funding for

institutions and fear that privatization could further aggravate the socio-economic divide. The

greatest challenge is to translate these ‘2D plans onto the 3D world’ (Sarna, Puri & Kochar,

2020). Such restructuring requires effective integration of the stated vision of policy makers

with actual course content.

R. Lakshminarayanan & D. Thomas

Human Rights Education (HRE) enables skills of advocacy through negotiation, mediation, and

consensus building (Andrepoulos, 1997, pp. 265-267). It facilitates ending the vicious cycle of

‘humiliation of humans by humans’ (Mohanty, 2000, p. 64), by giving the oppressed an

understanding of their rights, and the oppressors a consciousness of their wrongs. It is here

that Tamil Nadu (TN), in South India, presents a dichotomy; despite many educational

institutions and high literacy rates, human rights abuses continue to prevail, implying a

disconnect between the vision of policy makers and the effective integration of HRE in

academic contexts.

Conceptual framework

Tamil Nadu, a leading educational hub in India, has many educational institutions with

programmes in technology, engineering, medicine, arts, sciences, and law. Since social

sciences aim to foster global citizenship and holistic values, HRE is incorporated in political

science, history, sociology, anthropology, economics, and law departments.

This paper seeks to evaluate the incorporation of HRE in arts and science institutions in TN.

Through comparison and correlation, the contents of these courses were analysed with

reference to their compliance with recommendations of the NHRC-2007 and the UGC, X and

XI plan guidelines for HRE. We asked the following research questions;

1. What is the nature of the human rights courses and the focus of their syllabus

content?

2. Are the human rights courses offered in major colleges and universities in TN

compliant with the recommendations of the NHRC and the UGC?

3. What are the challenges to the introduction and effective implementation of the

recommended human rights curricula, courses and pedagogies in TN?

Methodology

Through collecting information directly from faculty or from institutional websites, we studied

the syllabi of 11 universities and 158 arts and science colleges in TN. Of the arts and science

colleges, 27 were government or constituent colleges, 28 were government-aided and 103

were self-financing. These comprised some 20% of the existing arts and science colleges in TN.

In our study, the syllabi content was analysed and compared with the original curriculum

guidelines of the UGC and NHRC to make valid inferences regarding what was included or

excluded and put forth recommendations that correlate with the grassroot social realities. The

study used a qualitative, descriptive method to analyse the syllabi content and relevant

documents, after which interviews were conducted through personal communication with

select faculty members teaching human rights. Forty faculty members were interviewed, of

Human Rights Education Review

whom ten were male and thirty female. The interviewees had no hesitation in providing

informed consent to use their responses as personal communication and, wherever cited,

pseudonyms are used to maintain research confidentiality. The Miles and Huberman (1994, p.

11) model of data analysis was used, through the following stages: 1. Data reduction (to sort,

select, simplify, focus, and discard data so that final conclusions can be drawn); 2. Data display

(an organized, compressed, and meaningful assembly of information); 3. Conclusion drawing

and verification which involves stepping back to consider the meaning of the analysed data

and assess their implications for the research questions.

In qualitative inquiry and analysis, there is a crucial need for honesty and reflection on the

analytic process on the part of the researcher. This human factor is the methodology’s

greatest strength, as well as its fundamental weakness (Patton, 1990, p. 372). In this study,

the researchers began analysis in tandem with data collection, making regular field notes with

comments and interpretations, independently at first and later correlating through discussion,

which facilitated objective reflection and exchange. The most advantageous aspect of

qualitative enquiry was that it enabled us to smoothly move on from drawing conclusions to

making recommendations within the context of the study.

Human rights in India

Although the term ‘human rights’ originated in the west, conceptual rudiments of human

dignity can be traced to ancient Indian vedic texts which point to an ‘obligation-predicated

society’ that advocated ‘compassion towards the weak’ (Kumar & Choudhury, 2021; Baboo,

2016). Later, rigid caste protocols emerged, creating an exploitative system of stratification

wherein social status depended on caste (Rawat, 2014; Chakravarti, 1993; Deshpande, 2010)

and perpetuated unequal access to wealth and power (Cox, 1945). By the 19th century,

reformers like Raja Rammohan Roy, Gandhi, and Ambedkar criticised religious bigotry,

harassment of widows, and untouchability. However, caste, gender inequalities, and abuse of

power continue to this day.

Although caste inequalities may not be overtly observed in everyday interactions in modern

India and there is greater freedom of choice in education and careers (Velassery, 2005, pp. 7-

8), they are practiced in overt and nuanced contexts. In arranged marriages, caste adjustments

are often made, commensurate with education, career, and financial standing (Netting, 2010;

Rajadhyaksha & Bhatnagar, 2000), or counterbalanced through ‘bridegroom price’, a veiled

cash payment to the groom’s household (Caplan, 1984). Caste remains an ‘under-recognized

marker of inequalities’, witnessed in slum eviction (Ranganathan, 2021) and housing

discrimination (Bharathi et al., 2020). In rural India, overt discrimination is often seen in denied

access to public wells, punishments, and ‘honour killings’. The government has a policy of

R. Lakshminarayanan & D. Thomas

‘reservations’, which is intended to increase the representation of under-represented groups

in education, legislative assemblies, and employment (Laskar, 2010). This policy is aimed to

bring about socio-economic development. However, instead of privileged communities losing

influence, the list of reserved communities has consistently swelled.

Gender Inequalities: With rapid urbanisation, Indian women aspire to academic and career

advancement. However, they remain bound by societal constraints (Chaturvedi & Sahai, 2019)

and the World Bank (2020) estimates that female labour participation rate in India fell to

20.3% in 2019 from 26% in 2005. Restrictive norms, a gender wage gap, and the lack of safe

and flexible work choices impede the full realisation of Indian women’s potential.

Abuse of Power: Blatant police brutality and extrajudicial killings are recorded in India, mainly

in Jammu and Kashmir, the North Eastern states, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Haryana

(Human Rights Watch, 2021). Harassment of activists, social workers, lawyers, and journalists

through draconian sedition and counter-terrorism laws restrict free expression (Human Rights

Watch, 2019). The increasing polarization triggered by Hindutva politics has resulted in the

targeting of vulnerable minorities (The politics of Hindutva, 2020).

Human rights in Tamil Nadu

In classical Tamil Sangam society, social justice was the responsibility of rulers, as validated by

ancient texts. The Thirrukkural urged kings to remain impartial (Gautam, 2021). The

Tolkappiyam mentions a four-fold stratification of society: arasar (rulers), anthanar (priests),

vaniyar (merchants), and vellalar (agriculturists). However, this was largely an occupational

division (Kuppuswamy, 1978). Later, caste segregation and heredity norms elevated certain

professions while denigrating others (Dhanabal, 2018). Under the Chola rule, there existed

vadangai (right hand) and idangai (left hand) groups, and some idangai castes were deprived

of education, land rights, and temple entry (Hanumanthan, 1976). This segregation was

exploited by the British, who relegated natives to ‘black town’ in Chennai (Basu, 1993), where

areas were demarcated on the basis of caste (Srinivasachari, 1930).

In TN, there are references to competent queens like Lokamahadevi (Mukund, 1992) and Rani

Mangammal (Bes, 2018), as well as educated women like Andal (Soundaryarajan, 2019), but

this was rare. The devadasi system in Chola and Pallava times refers to talented women in

temple service, but when temples lost their economic status, devadasis were often forced into

prostitution (Singhal, 2015; Venkataraman, 2018). In the 20th century, the self-respect

movement gained momentum and reformists like Rettaimalai Srinivasan, Subramanya Bharti,

and M. C. Rajah advocated against upper caste hegemony and discrimination against women

(Rajan, 2020). However, caste, gender inequalities, and abuse of power still prevail in TN.

Human Rights Education Review

Caste Inequalities: TN has recorded atrocities against dalit castes, who constitute 21% of the

population (Prabhu, 2017; Kannaiah, 2021). There were 192 ‘honour killings’ in TN between

2014 and 2019 (Tamilarasu, 2019). The practice of the two-tumbler system (separate drinking

glasses) and dalits being denied access to public water tanks have also been reported in

villages (“We have separate tumbler”, 2019, June 16).

Gender Inequalities: TN has recently witnessed a declining female sex ratio, an increase in

domestic violence, and a decrease in female labour participation. There are records of female

foeticide, infanticide, and disappearance of female children (‘Female foeticide’, 2022, January

6). The National Family Health Survey (2021) reported that 38.1% of women in TN in the 18-

49 age group had experienced domestic violence. The female labour force participation rate

in TN declined to 35.1% (rural) and 23.6% (urban) in 2019, (IWWAGE, 2021), indicating major

socio-economic challenges.

Abuse of Power: According to the National Crime Records Bureau (2018), 70 custodial deaths

were reported in 2018, of which 12 were in TN. The recent custodial deaths of a father and

son in Sattankulam indicate grave violations by policepersons (Vijay Kumar & Sudhakar, 2020).

Thus, abuse of power, societal intolerance, and rising xenophobia remain major concerns in

TN.

Development of HRE in India

In a democracy where gender discrimination and caste-based atrocities continue despite

legislation, HRE is necessary to address the social, cultural and political factors that foster such

discrimination (Kapoor, 2007). However, in India a complex relationship exists between

religious beliefs, cultural norms, and human rights practice, which adversely impacts effective

HRE (Wahl, 2013). While there is considerable research on human rights violations in India

(Beer & Mitchell, 2006; D'cruz & Banerjee, 2020; Kamboj, 1994; Naik, 2018; Saini, 2013), there

is a limited focus on practices of HRE.

Addressing human rights teaching in schools, Panda (2001) and Bajaj (2011a) highlight the role

of teacher training and textbooks with contextualised content as prerequisites for effective

HRE in India. Bajaj (2011b) highlights different adaptive instructional practices of HRE in NGO

models. Studying the operation of HRE in 4,000 schools, Bajaj (2011c, pp. 28-49) suggests that

international mandates and grassroots activism should work together for successful

implementation of HRE in policy, pedagogy and practice. These studies highlight the need for

a rights-based approach based on collaboration between governmental and non-

governmental organizations (Ashifa, 2021), and the extension of HRE from the level of school

into higher education for a transformative convergence of human rights policy and discourse

(Bajaj, 2017, p. 161).

R. Lakshminarayanan & D. Thomas

Some researchers focus on students’ knowledge of human rights (Selvam, 2018) and reiterate

that governmental efforts have not yielded adequate results, thus validating the need to build

strong, inclusive systems (Kohama, 2012) through interdisciplinary education (Alam & Halder,

2018; Kaushik, Kaushik & Kaushik, 2006; Sharma, 2002). Nadkarni and Sinha (2016) have

studied curriculum design, research and field practice in social work departments and

advocate additional human rights perspectives. While HRE has largely been the monopoly of

social work and social science programmes, some academics question the very future of social

science (Benjamin, 2009) and social work courses (Nair, 2014, p. 253), since their sustainability

is impeded by lack of adequate career opportunities, funding, and quality research in India.

Kumar (2019) has undertaken a comprehensive study on the status of HRE in higher

educational institutions in India and recommended the need for increased financing, revision

of curricula, and updated training programmes. While most researchers emphasise the need

for HRE to redress abuses and there have been some studies on HRE in schools, the detailed

study of human rights courses in colleges and universities is limited, and there is a need for

wider empirical research that will assist the strategic planning and implementation of HRE,

especially in some states.

Indian HRE has been developed in tandem with the socio-political process of nation-building.

In 1985, the UGC-appointed Sikri Commission (2007) released a blueprint for teaching human

rights in colleges, universities, and adult educational centres. In the 1990s the Indian Institute

of Human Rights was launched to disseminate awareness, training, and research in human

rights and a national curriculum framework was recommended by NHRC to sensitise

individuals involved in NGOs, universities, and law enforcement sectors, through workshops

(National Human Rights Commission, 2008). In 1997, the UGC constituted the Simhadri

Committee to develop a conceptual framework for HRE in universities. This prompted many

universities to incorporate HRE. Jawaharlal Nehru University (n.d) started a Centre for Human

Rights Teaching and Research with elective courses at the PG level, Jamia Milia Islamia (n.d)

started an MA in Human Rights and Duties, Benaras Hindu University (n.d) incorporated

Human Rights in BA and MA law programmes, and Indira Gandhi National Open University

(n.d) established certificate courses in human rights. The UGC X plan guidelines (2002-2007)

introduced two courses: Human Rights and Duties Education, and Promotion of Ethics and

Values. The UGC XI plan extended this into three courses: Human Rights and Duties; Human

Rights and Values; and Human Rights and Human Development (University Grants

Commission, 2002; 2007). UGC guidelines also identified a number of courses (at foundation,

certificate, diploma, UG, and PG levels), workshops and publications for financial support.

(University Grants Commission, 2011, pp. 260-262)

Although universities initiated many such courses, possibly due to UGC funding, there were

Human Rights Education Review

wide disparities in their ideological and structural approaches (Bajaj, 2017, pp. 162-164),

particularly in their visions of critical pedagogy and the degree to which they emphasised

tolerance, mutual respect, problem-solving, and critical thinking skills (Cargas & Mitoma,

2019). Reviewing the syllabi, the NHRC observed that existing courses provided limited job

prospects, lacked research elements, and were ‘law-centric rather than society-oriented’, with

limited linkages with ground realities. It called for the inclusion of human rights courses across

various disciplines (Table 1) and provided a detailed curriculum (National Human Rights

Commission, 2007).

Table 1

NHRC and UGC Recommendations for HRE in Universities. Source: Adapted from

recommendations of National Human Rights Commission (2007, 27-75) and UGC guidelines

(University Grants Commission, 2002; 2017).

Programme suggestions Content Suggestions

UG Foundation Course: Human Rights 7 units: values, norms, implementation, field

work/project

Certificate/Diploma: Human Rights International and national issues

PG Diploma: Human Rights Human rights and duties, national and

international perspectives, field work

BA: Human Rights International dimensions, theoretical aspects,

norms and mechanisms, rights and duties,

field work, dissertation

MA: Human Rights Historical/philosophical, international/regional

perspectives, societal issues, duties-India,

research methodology, field work,

dissertation, viva voce

Optional: human rights: science & technology,

international obligations, trade, refugee laws,

self-determination, women, children, aged,

disabled, socially & economically

disadvantaged, working class, minorities,

criminal justice system, environment, social

movements

R. Lakshminarayanan & D. Thomas

Table 1 evidences that NHRC suggested a foundational course in human rights and values,

across all disciplines. Certificate and diploma courses were recommended for lawyers, police,

doctors, and teachers who could influence human rights practice. Recommendations were

also made to include theoretical and practical components in degree courses.

In 2018, the UGC also prepared a Learning Outcomes Curriculum Framework (LOCF) for

Human Rights (University Grants Commission, 2019, which advocated flexibility in learning

and teaching pedagogies to enable students to apply theory and practice, through research

and professional collaboration. It recommended a PG course in human rights, with an

emphasis on historical and philosophical perspectives, research-based human rights advocacy,

critical analysis, and digital literacy. Thus, there has been a growing momentum to develop a

long-term strategy for HRE.

Findings

Higher education in Tamil Nadu

A The TN Department of Higher Education aims to transform young people by fostering access,

equity, and global competencies through institutions of ‘innovation, excellence and

development’ (Government of Tamil Nadu, n.d.) (Table 2 and Table 3).

Table 2

Statistics of Higher Education Institutions. Data correlated from All India Survey on Higher

Education 2019-2020 (Ministry of Education, 2020).

Category All India In Tamil Nadu

Number of universities 1043 59

Number of colleges
(private and government)

42343 2610

Number of standalone
institutions

11779 914

Gross enrolment ratio (18-23
Years)

27.1%

Males: 26.9%

Females 27.3%

51.4%

Males: 51.8%

Females: 51%

Table 2 reflects the existence of many higher educational institutions in TN and indicates the

higher gross enrolment ratio and gender parity of enrolled students, compared to the national

level.

Human Rights Education Review

Table 3

Colleges per Population and Student Enrolment (2016-2020). Data correlated from All India

Survey on Higher Education 2019-2020 (Ministry of Education, 2020).

Year Total
colleges:
TN

Total
colleges:
India

Colleges
per
100,000
population:
TN

Colleges
per
100,000:
India

Average
enrolment
per college:
TN

Average
enrolment
per college:
India

2016-
2017

2368 40026 33 28 922 659

2017-
2018

2472 39050 35 28 919 698

2018-
2019

2466 39931 35 28 914 693

2019-
2020

2610 42343 38 30 872 680

Table 3 compares the number of colleges per head and average enrolment per college in TN

against the national level. Between 2016 and 2020 TN had a considerably higher number of

colleges per population of 100,000 as well as higher average enrolment per college than the

national average. This validated the greater impetus given to higher education in TN.

The TN Department of Higher Education is bifurcated: the Directorate of Collegiate Education

(n.d) aims to develop high-quality ethical professionals, while the Directorate of Technical

Education (n.d) seeks to produce ‘competent, dynamic and entrepreneurial technical

manpower’. In 1992, the Tamil Nadu State Council for Higher Education (n.d) (TANSCHE) was

established to coordinate between the UGC and state universities. Apart from institutions for

engineering, technology, teacher education and medical sciences, there are at present 784

arts and science colleges in TN, including 131 government and constituent colleges, 139

government-aided colleges and 514 self-financing ones (Directorate of Collegiate Education,

n.d), where HRE has been partially initiated.

Development of HRE in Tamil Nadu

In reaction to grave violations and abuses recorded by NGOs in Tamil Nadu, the Human Rights

Institute (Chennai) was formed in 1993. Its purpose was to link different groups: human rights

academics, activists, government administrators, and citizens (Human Rights Advocacy and

Research Foundation, n.d). In 1995, People’s Watch, (n.d), (Madurai) was established; this

organisation has engaged in direct action, legal support, and training and education against

abuse and discrimination.

In the 1990s, institutions like Stella Maris College (SMC) and Loyola College (Chennai), Holy

R. Lakshminarayanan & D. Thomas

Cross Convent (Trichy) and Government Arts College (Salem) introduced human rights at the

UG level. Human rights was included in the MA International Studies programme at SMC and

as an introductory course in the BA History programme at Women’s Christian College (WCC).

Subsequently, the social work departments at Loyola College and SMC introduced human

rights in their MA programmes. Ethiraj College was among the first institutions to initiate an

MA in Human Rights and Duties Education (Table 4).

Table 4

Colleges with Human Rights-Specific Programmes in TN in 2020-2021. Adapted from syllabi

collected from colleges in the case study.

College Government Arts College Ethiraj College for Women Pachaiyappa’s
College

UG
degree

NA NA NA

PG
degree

MA Human Rights

Historical development,
Indian constitution,
criminal justice
administration, women’s
rights, media, cyber
issues, biomedical ethics,
advocacy, grievances,
group rights, environment
project: dissertation and
viva voce

MA Human Rights

Historical perspectives,
constitution, legislation-India,
group rights, criminal justice
grievances, 4th estate,
women’s rights, research
methodology, gender, NGOs,
trends, biomedical ethics,
peace & security,
environment, cyber issues,
international obligations,
civil society, project, field
work

MA Human Rights
and Duties Education

Historical
development, UN
and human rights,
international bodies,
rights of minorities,
workers, children and
consumers, project,
field work

Human Rights Education Review

Table 5

Universities with Human Rights-Specific Programmes in TN in 2020-2021. Adapted from syllabi

collected from universities in the case study.

University Annamalai Univerity
(distance learning)

Tamil Nadu Open
University, (TNOU)
(distance learning)

University of Madras,
(distance learning)

UG
degree

BA Human Rights

Theories, societal
issues-India, judiciary,
media, culture,
religion,
protection, emerging
trends

BA Human Rights

Theories, social
movements, Indian
constitution, global
perspectives,
environment,
activism, NGOs, judiciary,
media,
trade, police, criminal
justice

PG degree MA Human Rights

Theories,
global/regional,
culture, religion
research
methodology, societal
trends, international
relations, judiciary,
media, peace, non-
violence

MA Human Rights

Theories, constitution-
India, global perspectives,
education, research
methodology, societal
problems, globalization,
themes & issues,
environment.
Specialization: science,
technology, marginalized,
working class or project
work

MA Human Rights &
Duties

Meaning, development,
theories, human rights in
Indian literature,
statutory bodies,
redressing violations,
business, Indian
constitution, labour
rights, cyber,
environment media,
research methodology,
contemporary issues

Table 5 indicates that two universities (Annamalai University and TN Open University) offer a

BA degree in Human Rights through distance learning and six institutions have introduced

MAs in Human Rights. Analysis of the course contents indicates that UG-level courses

contain no practical aspects. In three PG programmes (Government Arts College-Salem,

Ethiraj College-Chennai and Pachaiyappas College-Chennai) the project and field work

components are mandatory, whereas they remain optional in TNOU, and unspecified in

Annamalai and Madras universities, probably as these are distance learning programmes

(Table 4).

A few institutions also offer human rights as elective or core courses, in various degree

programmes (Table 6).

R. Lakshminarayanan & D. Thomas

Table 6

Elective and Core Human Rights Courses in TN. Adapted from syllabi collected from universities

and colleges in the case study.

Institution Major
Programme

Core/Elective Syllabus Content

LN Government
Arts College,
Ponneri

MA History Core Studies in Human Rights

Introduction, documents, India,
minority rights

Government Arts
College, Salem

MA Economics Elective Studies in Human Rights

Historical evolution,
civil/political/economic rights,
minorities, violation

Government Arts
College,
Rasipuram

MA History,
Political Science

Elective Human Rights

Definition, theories, international
organizations, national/state
commissions, minorities, challenges

Madurai Kamaraj
University

MA Political
Science

Core Human Rights

Definition, theories, UN documents,
rights of women, children,
consumers, minorities

MA Criminal
Justice and
Victimology

Core Human Rights

Police, judiciary, correctional
administration, victims, field visit

AM Jain College BA Tourism &
Travel
Management

Elective Human Rights and Tourism

Evolution , UN documents, tourism,
environment

MA Tourism &
Travel
Management

Elective Human Rights and Tourism

Evolution, UN documents, tourism,
environment

BA Defense &
Strategic Studies

Core Human Rights

Meaning, rights and abuses,
international norms, UN, NHRC

BA Criminology
& Police
Administration

Core Human Rights and Criminal Justice
Administration

Definition, agencies, violations,
custodial violence

University of
Madras

MA Women’s
Studies,
Sociology

Core Human Rights and Criminal Justice
Administration

Human Rights Education Review

Institution Major
Programme

Core/Elective Syllabus Content

MSc.
Criminology &
Criminal Justice

Definition, agencies, violations,
custodial violence

MA Political
science

Elective Human Rights in India

Theories, constitution, UDHR, NHRC,
SHRC, issues

University of
Madras

(Distance/Regular)

MA Public
Administration,
Public Policy,
Developmental
Administration

Core Human Rights Administration

Theories, constitution,
administration, issues, development

University of
Madras

(Distance)

BA Criminology
and Police
Administration

Elective Human rights and Criminal Justice
Administration

Definitions, legal instruments,
protection, enforcement

BA Historical
studies

Elective Introduction to Human rights

Definition, UN docs, international
organization, constitution

BA Political
Science

Core Human Rights in India

Origin, theories, constitution,
administration, issues

BA Public
Administration

Core Human Rights Administration

Meaning, theories, categories, legal
mechanisms, international
covenants

Bharti Women’s
College

MA Historical
Studies

Elective Human Rights

Definition, international documents,
India, issues

Ethiraj College for
Women

MA Tourism &
Travel
Management

Core Tourism and Human rights

Definitions, international covenants,
fundamental rights, tourism,
environment

Madras Christian
College

MA History Core Studies in Human Rights

Meaning, issues, India, women,
child rights, NGOs

MA Public
Administration

Elective Human rights Administration

International legal framework,
UDHR, NHRC and SHRC, rights –
women/children/refugees/prisoners,
NGOs, media and judiciary

R. Lakshminarayanan & D. Thomas

Institution Major
Programme

Core/Elective Syllabus Content

MA Political
Science

Core Human Rights

Concepts, covenants, challenges,
responses, case studies

Table 6 indicates that human rights are offered as elective or core courses in history, political

science, and public administration. Departments of Women’s Studies, Criminology, Police

Administration, Defence and Strategic Studies, and Travel and Tourism also offer human rights

courses, although their content is more attuned to their respective majors. While human

rights is offered in MA programmes as either core or electives, only a few BA programmes

offer it. The rationale for this is perhaps that human rights requires a level of critical thinking

more suited to the PG level.

Challenges for HRE in Tamil Nadu

HRE in Tamil Nadu is still at its nascent stage and faces immense challenges, as is evident from

interviews with faculty members teaching these courses.

Non-Majors and Electives: Although some institutions incorporated human rights courses in

history, sociology, and international studies programmes, these have remained non-major

electives and very few were mandated as core curriculum (E. P., personal communication,

January 15, 2021). Therefore, not all students will have been exposed to even basic human

rights concepts when they graduate.

Syllabus Restructure: The curriculum restructure mandated every three years by the

government has pressurised institutions to remove existing human rights courses, as they are

not ‘major core’ ones and therefore ‘expendable’ (R. V., personal communication, January 22,

2021; B. P., personal communication, January 22, 2021; K. V., personal communication,

January 23, 2021). At A. M. Jain College, the human rights course offered by the history

department was removed during syllabus revision (S. A., personal communication, February

3, 2021). Syllabus restructuring at Loyola College, MCC and Bharati Women’s College resulted

in a shelving of human rights to accommodate core history courses at the UG level. There was

pressure on government colleges to include courses listed under TANSCHE, which mandates

that 75% of courses should be from their core disciplines and that only 25% can be allied

courses such as human rights (B. P., personal communication, January 22, 2021; S. S., personal

communication, February 3, 2021; K. B., personal communication, January 21, 2021). These

shifts in the government’s curricular priorities adversely impacted private colleges; despite

their good intentions, they were forced to either reduce human rights courses or completely

abolish and replace them with ‘core relevant’ courses.

Human Rights Education Review

Funding and Supervision: UGC initially provided some financial funding for HRE. The

Government Arts College (Salem) received governmental funding for its MA in Human Rights

and Duties Education and this study, launched in 2018, is reportedly popular among students

(S. K., personal communication, January 23, 2021). The Holy Cross College initiated an MA in

Human Rights, collaborating with Henri Tiphange, a leading human rights advocate. Ethiraj

College and Holy Cross College received initial UGC funding for five years, after which they

became self-financing. This resulted in higher fees and a significant drop in student intake. In

Ethiraj College, since 2007, the average annual student intake for the human rights

programme has been only 15-16. (R.M., personal communication, January 15, 2021), while in

Holy Cross there has been very low to zero student enrolment in some years (M. V., personal

communication, January 16, 2021; K.D., personal communication, February 2, 2021). Thus,

although most institutions introduced new courses when initial funding was allotted, these

courses became unsustainable when funding ended. While the UGC had mandated six nodal

centres of excellence to oversee HRE, to date only two exist and there are none in TN. The

absence of adequate supervision and quality control, and the lack of funding, impede effective

HRE.

A Dearth of Trained Professionals: The UGC allotted some funding for seminars, symposiums,

workshops for curriculum development, training, and interdisciplinary programmes on human

rights. While few institutions organise such events, attendance is not mandatory and

therefore limited. It is seldom that specialised grassroot-level experts or researchers are at

these workshops, and so, apart from providing theoretical input, their impact is negligible. (R.

M., personal communication, November 20, 2021). The faculty teaching human rights are

drawn from history, sociology, political science or public administration departments, mainly

because these departments offer the courses. These faculty members lack practical field

experience and related skill competencies, which limits a broader understanding of the human

rights gamut.

Internship, Field Work and Case Studies: While a practical component is needed to ensure

grassroot-level awareness, the mandatory NGO internships and field visits to police stations

and detention centres were considered ‘too dangerous and unsuitable’ for girls by

stakeholders at Holy Cross College, which resulted in negligible enrolment for their Human

Rights MA (M.V., Personal Communication, January 15, 2021). Courses offered by the social

work department include an experiential dimension through collaboration with NGOs that

provides internships, and this exposure enables students to interact with marginalized

communities and victims of abuse (L. M., personal communication, January 10, 2021, A. N.,

personal communication, January 12, 2021). NGOs such as Peoples Watch and Community

Health Education Society (Chennai) provide internships for MA Human Rights students at

Ethiraj College. NGOs that provide internships for students in the social work department

R. Lakshminarayanan & D. Thomas

include the Information and Resource Centre for the Deprived Urban Communities, People’s

Union for Civil Liberties, the Human Rights and Advocacy Foundation, Thozhamai, the Human

Rights Foundation (Chennai), and the Society for Community Organisation Trust (Madurai).

Thus, human rights courses with a practical component have mainly been restricted to social

work programmes.

Discussion

The dearth of focussed implementation of HRE across higher education in TN presents a

paradox – although the state is a leading educational hub, very few institutions offer human

rights courses. This suggests that HRE is not prioritised in TN, despite indications of unjust

social practices and grave inequalities. It is this dichotomy that prompted this research on the

incorporation of HRE in colleges and universities in TN, and we have sought to address the

following research questions;

1. What is the nature of the human rights courses and the focus of their syllabus

content?

2. Are the human rights courses offered in major colleges and universities in TN

compliant with the recommendations of the NHRC and the UGC?

3. What are the challenges to the introduction and effective implementation of the

recommended human rights curricula, courses and pedagogies in TN?

If we address research question 1, it is observed that while TN has established many higher

educational institutions, HRE has a negligible presence in most campuses. In some colleges,

courses were initiated as per UGC requirement; however, they have since been removed.

While human rights-specific courses at the UG level are minimal, a few institutions have

introduced them at the PG level. In most institutions, human rights is taught as an elective or

core paper in the social science degree programmes. The syllabi focus of such courses is

limited to basic global and national perspectives concerning historical evolution,

constitutional rights, duties, and legislative safeguards.

When we consider research question 2, we see that although the NHRC recommended the

incorporation of human rights at various levels and the UGC advocated a learning-outcome

based approach, our study attests that very few universities in TN offer human rights-specific

courses and most of these are not adequately structured, indicating a discrepancy with

prescribed guidelines. Furthermore, human rights concepts are neither uniformly and

holistically addressed nor adequately represented. The syllabi content reveals a lack of

qualitative depth in terms of applicability and adaptability to contemporary contexts, as very

few courses have research components, internships, fieldwork, or training. The NHRC

guidelines mandate human rights as part of foundational value education (VE) programmes

Human Rights Education Review

across disciplines. However, this research reveals that the only institutions incorporating

human rights into their VE programmes were Bharatiyar University, with a unit on values and

human rights, Bharatidasan University, with a unit on human rights and organizations, AM Jain

College, with a unit on human rights, and SMC, with a unit on rights-issues and challenges.

Further, due to increasing demands to complete the core curriculum for mathematics and

sciences, the hours allotted for VE are often converted to tutorial hours, which undermines

the relevance of studying human rights.

When it comes to research question 3, there are innumerable challenges that impede the

effective integration of human rights curricula, courses and pedagogies in TN. Limited or

lapsed funding after initial grants has often resulted in increased fees and, subsequently, lower

enrolment. The mandatory syllabus restructuring has forced institutions to introduce newer

courses, thus devaluing the importance of HRE. While a few institutions introduced human

rights as a major degree programme, in most it was relegated to a non-major elective. The

practical component was mostly non-existent and in some cases where internships to juvenile

centres and prisons were mandated, student enrolment was negligible due to security

concerns.

Human rights are taught as core requirements in a few social science programmes at the PG

level, while mostly relegated to electives at the UG level. The UGC mandate to incorporate

human rights as VE has often been ignored. Thus, HRE is largely restricted to social sciences

and is not part of foundational requirements across all programmes, as envisaged by the policy

makers. Unless more universities introduce specialised courses in human rights that foster

greater awareness within socio-economic, political, constitutional and environmental

contexts, effective social transformation cannot take place.

A few institutions celebrate Human Rights Day and have human rights centres on campus;

Lady Doak College, Madurai has formed a Centre for Rights-Based Activities and in SMC the

‘UNICEF on Campus’ and ‘Girl Up Campaign’ promote human rights through creative and

engaging activities. However, such efforts are only viewed as frivolous government mandates

that detract from core courses. It is vital to expose students to HRE at the UG level, as students

in TN have a negligible awareness of human rights concepts or practice and, since most

students do not opt for master’s level education, it is only a small percentage of them that has

any knowledge of human rights.

It is also necessary to balance HRE content with employment prospects. Professional courses

like engineering and medicine are perceived as high value employment-generating courses,

and there is less focus on the social sciences in general and human rights in particular (Sharma

& Sharma, 2015). Therefore, students need orientation—effective academic and career

R. Lakshminarayanan & D. Thomas

counselling—to encourage them to register for human rights courses.

Conclusion

The Indian constitution provides fundamental rights for all, yet a plethora of human rights

abuses stem from inherent socio-economic inequality and prejudice. Sustaining a culture of

human rights requires systemic HRE, so that everyone becomes conscious not only of their

own rights but also their duty and responsibility to uphold the human rights of others. Within

the Indian ethos, such transformation is only possible if every human being is sensitized to

injustice. It is necessary to provide ‘structures of accountability’ (Sharma, 2002) to effectively

integrate and implement HRE, by linking stated objectives and guidelines to what is actually

taught.

This paper affirms that although the UGC and the NHRC have developed detailed guidelines,

TN has failed to effectuate meaningful and transformational HRE. A majority of students in TN

is poorly oriented about the dimensions of human rights, due to gaps in the effective

translation of government policies into actionable course content. A dearth of trained

professionals, lack of government funding, limited collaboration between academic

institutions and NGOs, periodical syllabi restructuring, and a lack of career opportunities

impede the sustainability of the human rights courses. These findings demonstrate the need

for inclusion of human rights courses that meet qualitative content and assessment standards,

across institutions. Further, diversified content needs to be explored, in terms of grassroot

functionality, career prospects, practical training through field work, incorporation of case

studies and project work in specific human rights areas. It is imperative to strategize how and

where HRE can be incorporated and devise a mechanism to oversee its actual implementation.

The researchers note the lacuna in academic research on the impact and challenges of HRE.

While this paper attempted to focus on the syllabi of human rights courses in arts and science

institutions in TN, courses in law colleges, engineering, medical and teachers training colleges

were not studied. In addition, prescribed textbooks and the content of teacher training

programmes in HRE lie beyond the scope of this paper. These related areas could be

investigated in the interest of better strategising and planning for HRE. Human rights should

be incorporated not only in social sciences but integrated in foundational interdisciplinary

courses across higher education. Only then can attitudes be transformed through a broader

understanding of what human rights means and how it impacts.

Human Rights Education Review

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From vision to transformation: integrating human rights courses in higher education in India
Abstract
Keywords
Introduction
Conceptual framework
Methodology
Human rights in India
Human rights in Tamil Nadu
Development of HRE in India
Findings
Higher education in Tamil Nadu
Development of HRE in Tamil Nadu

Challenges for HRE in Tamil Nadu
Discussion
Conclusion
References