





































Humanist Studies & the Digital Age, 5.1 (2017) 
ISSN: 2158-3846 (online) 
http://journals.oregondigital.org/hsda/ 
DOI: 10.7264/N379433B 

 

 
 

Visualizing the Fragmenta’s poetic systems 

Isabella Magni 

 

Abstract 

Digital tools offer new dimensions and additional contexts both in teaching and in researching 
Petrarch’s Rerum vulgarium fragmenta, providing users with visual insights into his carefully planned 
work. The features of the Petrarchive (www.petrarchive.org) emphasize intentionally the physical and 
visual properties of Petrarch's poetry while offering the user a comprehensive view of the structure 
and content of the collection of 366 poems. This essay investigates these interactive visual 
representations of the material and spatial systems of the Fragmenta as a means to better 
understanding historical shifts in genre and form as well as Petrarch's anxieties about the sequencing 
of the poems in the Fragmenta. In so doing, the author elucidates the deep interaction between the 
digital code created to build the Petrarchive’s visual indexes and remediate the original Medieval 
forms of the chartae on which the poems are written. The examples demonstrate that the interplay 
between the digital tool and Petrarch's poetic system offers rich meaning about thematic and 
figurative understandings of the Fragmenta. 

 

When talking about Petrarch’s Rerum vulgarium fragmenta, the connection between textual-material 
features of the handwritten manuscripts and its digital encoding exceeds the mere reproduction of 
the texts, allowing us to investigate the central role of the “indexicality” of its textual systems. 
Although they might seem like complete opposites, the physical materiality of the manuscript and 
the strip of digital code have a remarkably fertile interconnection. It is not surprising to talk about 
“code” both in terms of material literary production (codex) and in terms of the series of 
alphanumeric instructions used to represent a text on the web (code) (Magni 2016). Material 
philology and digital code share the basic issue of representation of texts, both on a theoretical and 
on a pragmatic basis: digital tools allow us not only to translate and display textual components, 
including scribal errors, erasures, marginalia and palimpsests, but also material and visual 
components, such as mise en page and mise en text, blank spaces and visual dynamics of the charte, both 
at a micro- and a macro-text level in order to represent features that have traditionally been 
overlooked by editors and to conduct searches for information and textual conditions that could 
otherwise not be retrieved. At times, the process of creating a digital code drives editors to re-think 
the dynamics of the texts themselves, as Marta Werner (2008) confesses about her work of digitally 
editing Emily Dickinson’s letters: “I have tried to restore as far as possible their material integrity 
and to give readers unmediated (or, rather, less mediated) access to Dickinson’s manuscripts as she 
left them. In so doing, Radical Scatters encourages new investigations into both the dynamics of 
Dickinson’s compositional process and the play of autonomy and intertextuality in her late work.” 
(30, emphasis added). This essay investigates the problem of space, genre and architecture of the 

http://journals.oregondigital.org/hsda/


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page in Petrarch’s songbook proposing new and “less mediated” digital solutions adopted in 
building visual indexes for the Petrarchive (Storey, Walsh and Magni), a new rich-text digital edition 
combining different levels of visualization of the text: facsimile high-quality images of Vat.Lat.3195, 
its diplomatic transcriptions and edited forms. 

The Rerum vulgarium fragmenta is an icon in the western literary tradition, yet it still presents 
problematic issues debated among scholars about its ‘final’ textual and material forms. Although we 
possess a partial holograph (Vaticano Latino 3195) in part transcribed by a copyist1 and in part by 
the poet himself, we need to keep in mind that the Fragmenta was not finished at the time of 
Petrarch’s death. Being the latest authorial witness of the songbook, Vaticano Latino 3195 is often 
erroneously considered the “original” and “final” form.2 Its unbound gatherings, though, were 
probably still open to further modifications and experimentations. It is critical, therefore, to reflect 
on Petrarch’s Fragmenta in terms of what it is and what it can still tell us after centuries of studies not 
only in terms of textual content (interpretation), but also in terms of the culture that produced it and 
the careful attention of the poet in the construction of the songbook as a book, and not just as a 
juxtaposition of 366 poems. As Storey noted:  

 

la tenace rivendicazione di Petrarca dell’integrità testuale e i suoi metodi editoriali 
innovativi ne fanno uno dei protagonisti militanti della riforma culturale e letteraria del 
tempo, paladino tanto della tutela della produzione ‘fisica’ dei manoscritti, quanto del 
miglioramento della comprensibilità della scrittura e del testo. […] la sua inesausta ricerca 
della ‘pagina perfetta’ derivava da un approccio all’oggetto-libro, materiale ed artistico 
insieme, fondato sull’armonia della carta e sull’armonia dell’intrecciarsi delle interrelazioni tra 
genere e forma, testo e mise en page” (131-2, emphasis added). 

 

The study of the materiality of texts is not a mere philological practice but it entails deep cultural and 
historical considerations: material products are always a compromise between two (or even three) 
cultures, the one in which the work is created and the one that produces (and then re-produces) it 
for its transmission. Manuscripts and printed books are not simple containers, but cultural artifacts 
that are prepared and are themselves products of a historical interpretation.  

 In the case of Petrarch’s Fragmenta, material and philological features are so authorially driven 
that we cannot disregard them while reading and interpreting its texts (Barolini 2007). It is certainly 
not a surprise to know how much the poet himself was involved in personally directing and then 
transcribing the songbook in its textual contents and in the material organization of the work as a 
whole. Main characteristics of his carefully structured poetics are 1) 31-line-per-charta canvas, strictly 
linked to the thematic integrity of each page; 2) multiple forms of indexicality and subsequent 

                                                      
1 In a recent publication Monica Berté doubts about the identity of the copyist of Vat.Lat.3195, 

proposing to separate the historical figure of young Malpaghini from that of Petrarch’s scribe: this 

recent theory suggests the urge to question with a more historical approach the figure of the 

Fragmenta’s copyist, an approach that can be addressed with the visual resources digital tools can offer. 
2 For a reflection on the implications of using the word “original” see Storey 2011. 



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simplicity of reading at each level of textual engagement; 3) transcriptional and organizational 
principles for the 31-canvas lines (first of all the four-sonnets-per-charta principle with sonnets 
transcribed over 7 transcriptional lines, two verses per line read horizontally, and second the sonnet-
sestina charta with its contrasting two-column reading strategies, horizontal for sonnet and vertical 
for sestina); and 4) pivotal functionality of space both at a micro-text and at a macro-text level. 
Through a careful digital reconstruction, it is now possible to bring to the surface Petrarch’s research 
of the “pagina perfetta” (“perfect page”) and keep Petrarch’s texts and their original cultural 
contexts at the center. 

There are many moments in the process of encoding Petrarch’s texts that pushed us to 
reflect upon and rethink the dynamics of the edition in the context of medieval manuscript 
production. The string of alphanumeric information used to build the digital code of Petrarch’s 
Fragmenta (XML-TEI) translates to the machine not only the textual content but also philological, 
material and visual information creating an indissoluble link between object and related markup. 
Here is a brief example of the beginning of charta 1recto: 

 

<pb n=”charta 1 verso” facs=”../images/vat-lat3195-f/vat-lat3195-f-001v.jpg” /> 

<lg xml :id=”rvf005” type=”sonnet” n=”5”> 

<lg type=”octave”> 

<lg type=”dblvrs” corresp=”#canvasline”> 

<l n=”1”><hi rendition=”#red #fs24pt”>Q</hi><hi rendition=”#small-caps”>u</ 

hi>ando io<choice><orig>mouo</orig><reg>movo</reg></choice> i sospiri a 
chiamar 

<choice><orig>uoi</orig><reg>voi</reg></choice><supplied>,</supplied></l> 

<l n=”2”><choice><orig>El</orig><reg>E’l</reg></choice> nome che nel cor mi 
scrisse 

<choice><orig>amore</orig><reg>Amore</reg></choice>&v2c ;</l> 

</lg>[…] 

 

In this basic strip of encoding, the tag <pb> indicates a page break including the facsimile image 
(facs=”../images/vat-lat3195-f/vat-lat3195-f-001v.jpg”) of charta 1verso (n=”charta 1 verso”) and is 
followed by the markup of the first line group (<lg>) transcribed on the same charta: sonnet Rvf 5 
(type=”sonnet” n=”5”). Every single tag of the alphanumeric strip of encoding refers to and 
translates one specific textual, prosodic or visual component of the medieval manuscript: the charta 
is divided into multiple <lg> (line group) units: the first is a “sonnet” line group (Rvf 5). This 
fourteen-verse line group is then subdivided into two subsequent <lg>: octave (lg type=“octave”), 



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the first four verses organized over four canvas lines (lg type=“dblvrs” correps=“#canvasline”); and 
sestet (lg type=“sestet”), the remaining six verses transcribed over two canvas lines (lg 
type=“dblvrs” correps=“#canvasline”). The result of the transformation of the encoding onto the 
web page is a more authentic representation of Petrarch’s editorial principles for which he worked 
restlessly for over a decade, supervising the copyist work first, and attempting to continue it later. 
The encoding, in fact, translates and renders the different levels of visualization and philologies of 
the text: photographic, diplomatic and edited, all visualized in their new digital form on the web 
page. Looking back at the actual encoding of charta 1verso, at a closer look it clearly signals the co-
presence of these levels of representation: the high-definition image (<pb>), the diplomatic 
transcription (<orig> which stands for ‘original’) and the edited text (<reg> which stands for 
regularized). A simple strip of encoding like  

<choice><orig>mouo</orig><reg>movo</reg></choice> 

is telling the machine and therefore the user that in this moment of the text (Rvf5 line1) the original 
text in diplomatic transcription present the verb “mouo” which has been normalized by the 
Petrarchive editors in the edited (and more modern) form “movo”. The advantages of this born-
digital approach are evident in both its simplicity and depth: transparency of encoding (ways of 
always tracing back the editorial decisions) and maintenance of medieval contexts, its material 
structures and a more modernized/accessible text. 

In the digital representation of the textual and visual components of the Fragmenta’s poetics, 
the different kinds of indexes and accesses to the texts proposed by the Petrarchive represent a clear 
example of how digital tools provide new ways of visualizing and investigating the dynamic 
relationships between genres and poems both at a micro- and at a macro-text level. The first and 
more ‘traditional’ way of accessing Petrarch’s 366 poems is the textual index. A careful encoding and 
a digital platform allow the presence of hyperlinks directly connecting to the textual transcriptions of 
individual chartae and individual poems inside each of those chartae: 

 

<body>  

      <tr>  

<td><a href="content/c001r.xml#rvf001">1</a></td>  

<td>1r</td>  

<td><a href="content/c001r.xml#rvf001">Voi ch’ascoltate in rime sparse 
il suono</a></td>  

<td>Sonnet</td> 

       </tr> 

</body> 

 



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In the html encoding above, digitally translating the first entry of the textual index (Rvf1), the html 
element <tr> signals the beginning and end of one line in which four child-elements <td> will be 
included: poem number (<tb>1</tb>), charta number (<tb>1r</tb>), first verse (<tb>Voi 
c’ascoltate…</tb>) and literary genre (<tb>Sonnet</tb>). Hyperlinks to the transcriptions of the 
specific poem (in this case the first sonnet, Rvf1) are embedded both in the poem number and in the 
first line (html element <a>), so that users can easily navigate between the index and the textual 
transcriptions.  

 

 

Figure 1. Portion of text index from Petrarchive: Voi ch’ascoltate in rime sparse il suono (Rfv1). 

 

The result on the screen is a traditional index allowing different points of navigation into the 
songbook. The encoding and flexibility of the digital medium also allow multiple reorientations of 
the index, sorting the 366 entries according to 1) poem number (corresponding to the material 
position of the poems in MS. Vat.Lat.3195), 2) first line (alphabetical order from A to Z and vice 
versa), 3) genre. But the true innovation of digital approaches is the possibility of new visual access 
to Petrarch’s work. The Petrarchive visual index offers indeed three ways of representation of the 
macrostructures of the 366 poems: 1) the whole manuscript in one single box (Fig.2); 2) all the 
chartae organized and visualized by charta, with the recto and verso side by side; 3) and organized by 
fascicles. In Fig. 2 below, the visual index shows the entirety of MS. Vat.Lat.3195 with its different 
layers of composition, its two hands of transcription – the copyist’s in brown and Petrarch’s in blue 
– its disposition of the different genres on the manuscript charta, and its distinctive use of space as a 
form of punctuation at multiple levels not only separating the potential never-completed collection 
in two parts, but also signaling crucial moments in the transcription: 

 

http://dcl.slis.indiana.edu/petrarchive/textindex.php


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Figure 2. Petrarchive’s visual index. 

 

Through the multiple views of Petrarchive’s visual indexes, the user can experience graphic 
visualizations of the different genres recognizable without the need for reading textual 
transcriptions. It is easy to recognize, for example, all of the four sonnet chartae or the pairings 
sonnet-sestina clearly distinguishable by their respective characteristic transcriptional principles and 
the subsequent “blank” space signaling, for example, the line separating the consistent 7-line-sonnets 
or empty lines in the right column of sestina. The disposition of the genres on the manuscript façade 
in Petrarch’s Fragmenta is, indeed, not accidental but it represents a carefully studied textual 
distribution on which the poet himself tirelessly worked for decades (Storey 1993, Brugnolo and 
Storey 2004). We possess a material proof of it in manuscript Vat.Lat.3196. An experimental 
workplace, Vat.Lat.3196 also contains drafts of poems with multiple authorial annotations and 
marginalia, revealing a constant process of revision, erasure and editing. For example, on c.07r the 
poet writes in the margin referring to sonnets Per mirar Policleto (Rvf77) and Quando giunse a Simon 
(Rvf78): “transcripti isti duo in ordine […]”. The spatial references, defined by the expression in 
ordine, refer to the groupings of poems that Petrarch will later transcribe “in order” in the partial 
holograph 3195. In both physical places (3196 and 3195), poems included in a single charta are 
virtually linked by their physical position and by thematic or stylistic recurrences and progressions. 
The two sonnets dedicated to painter Martini, not only are copied “in ordine” but they also form a 
close grouping both for position and content. The materiality of texts and in particular the treatment 
of literary genres leads us to rethink about the graphic dynamics within documents and their intrinsic 
visual-cultural contexts.  

http://dcl.slis.indiana.edu/petrarchive/images/Petrarchive__Visual_Index_to_Vat__lat__3195.jpg


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The perception of literary genres changes throughout different historical times, also 
modifying the perception of their visual structures. If we think about the treatment of sonnets in the 
Middle Ages, including the Fragmenta’s early manuscript tradition, we can immediately perceive the 
complex cultural connotations, especially if we compare them with the Renaissance treatment of the 
same genre. A dramatic symbol of the cultural transformation in the perception of literary genres in 
the transmission of Petrarch’s Fragmenta is ms.Riccardiano 1108. Until c.26v, the manuscript reflects 
the conventional two-verses-horizontal reading for all genres, except the sestina. In the middle of c. 
27r, in between the transcriptions of canzone Perché la vita è breve (Rvf71) and canzone Gentil mia donna 
io veggio (Rvf72), the copyist directly intervenes to signal his decision to switch to a more modern 
vertical reading transcription, as he signals in an annotation: “Non mi piace di piu seguire di scrivere 
nel modo che ò tenuto da quince a dietro, cioè di passare da l’uno colonnello all’altro; anzi intendo 
di seguire giu per lo cholonnello tanto che si compia la chançone o sonetto che sia.” The copyist 
declares himself tired of following the Medieval traditional two-column-horizontal transcription – 
which he clearly feels far from his own cultural contexts - and emphatically announces the sudden 
change of direction with the shift to a vertical orientation of texts. The often-quoted episode 
emphatically establishes the cultural shift in the reading and transmission of the Fragmenta: a 
tendency which will be established in Renaissance copies and will prevail in the tradition of 
Petrarchan studies until nowadays. 

In Petrarch’s carefully and authorially planned textual and visual structures, the depth and 
role of genre and spatial distribution of the façade of each page can quickly be appreciated and 
further analyzed under a new digital light. The graphic “image” files are in fact XML text files in the 
Scalable Vector Graphics format (SVG), which contain the information necessary for the Web 
browser to reproduce the image.3 The digital SVG images created to represent the façade of the 
manuscript chartae in the digital reconstruction are simple and direct representations of Petrarch’s 
material structures, with arrows signaling the directionality of the text distribution. On charta 3verso, 
for example, the user can easily distinguish the shift in directionality between the sonnet (horizontal) 
and the sestina (vertical): 

 

                                                      
3 Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) is an XML-based vector image format used to create two-

dimensional graphics with potential support for interactivity and animation. The SVG specification is 

an open standard developed by the World Wide Web Consortium.  

https://www.w3.org/Graphics/SVG/About.html


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Figure 3. SGV image of c.3v (sonnet Rvf 21 Mille fiate, o dolce mia 
guerriera and sestina Rvf 22 A qualunque animale alberga in terra). 

 

The visual index above (Fig.3) digitally reproduces fundamental features of the poetic systems of the 
page: alternating red and blue initials on the right of the text indentation signaling to the medieval 
reader (and now to the contemporary user) the beginning of new poems and functioning as a textual 
index; blank space serves as an additional punctuation device both in separating the two poems and 
in signaling the vertical reading strategy of the sestina with its partially blank right column (visible in 
light blue color in the graphic SVG images); and paragraph markers in the sestina offer additional 
visual indexicality indicating the vertical disposition of the text. The description of Petrarch’s visual 
poetics embedded in the text encoding is therefore also represented in the Petrarchive visual indexes. 
Even from a brief look at the visual index of the entire songbook (see Fig.2 above), the nine pairings 
of sonnet-sestina present in the collection are immediately recognizable: once again, even before 
reading the textual content of the poems, the Medieval reader – and now the digital user – can 
collect a series of cultural information related to the genres and their material and visual treatments.  

Petrarch’s systematic use of space to create both division and unity in his collection has 
often been translated – especially in print editions, from the Renaissance on – into a new 
modernized reorganization of the texts and their collocation on the page. Given their potentials in 
terms of visualization and simultaneity, digital representations allow users to skip the print filter and 
to create a bridge between the culture that produced the work and the digital interface. The 
construction of the digital codex also forces editors to rethink and conceptualize the role of blank 
space in Petrarch’s poetics. The poet’s pivotal and often overlooked use of space is not a mere 
aesthetic issue, but at times it provides the very role and meaning of poems themselves. The most 
obvious and evident example is the unruled charta 52v, a “stop space” signaling a break between 
sonnet Arbor victoriosa triumphale (Rvf 263) and canzone I' vo pensando (Rvf264).  



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Figures 4 and 5. SGV images of c.52v and 53r (canzone I'vo pensando -Rvf264). 

 

While the ‘space’ for the initial “I” has been added outside the ‘text block’ in the left margin of the 
charta, the blank space in the previous façade (c.52v) signals a stop and a new beginning in the 
collection. While the previous chartae (cc. 49v-52r) are blank and ruled, therefore functioning as 
potential space maybe (but we are here in pure conjectural interpretation) for future additional (but 
actually never added) poems, c.52v remains unruled and therefore assumes a very different role: that 
of marking a “full stop” in the collection, a pause before the beginning of a new section. A further 
example of divisional stop space is represented by the eight blank transcriptional lines at the bottom 
of c.22r, in which Malpaghini leaves blank space between the sonnet L'aspectata vertù (Rvf104) and 
canzone Mai non vo' più cantar com'io soleva (Rvf105) to indicate a pause in the macro-text: 

 



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Figures 6 and 7. SGV images c.22r-v: stop-space announcing the beginning of Rvf105. 

 

The stop space at the bottom of c.22r could have easily held the first 12 or even 14 verses of Rvf105. 
There are other instances in MS. Vat. lat. 3195, in fact, of a canzone’s transcription beginning at the 
end of a charta, just as c. 24v's final lines which carry the first 12 verses of canzone Una donna più 
bella assai che 'l sole (Rvf 119), following three sonnets: Pien di quella ineffabil dolcezza (Rvf116), Se ‘l sasso 
(Rvf117) and Rimasi a dietro il sestodecimo anno (Rvf118). The choice of leaving eight transcriptional lines 
blank, though, clearly signals a pause in the narrative and in the layout of the charta, a “full stop” 
transforming the following canzone into a poetic manifesto: the incipit and the content of Mai non 
vo’ più cantar com’io soleva (Never again do I want to sing [poetry] as I used to) can only confirm that 
this is a crucial editorial shift in the poetics of the Fragmenta.  

 Blank space can also function as placeholder for postponed decisions. Charta 37r, for 
example, in which Malpaghini leaves a blank space and later Petrarch transcribes sonnet Geri, quando 
talor meco s’adira (Rvf179). It is not, therefore, space created by an erasure but a placeholder, which 
leaves the macrotext open for potential future additions while at the same time establishing material 
spatial limitations on the poem to be potentially added (a limitation determined by the number of 
transcriptional lines available). The very nature of the visual index provides a new digital “space” in 
which to investigate even further the spatial dynamics established by Petrarch in decades of 
interrupted work in composing, transcribing, editing erasing and calculating “ideal” forms and 
spaces of his songbook. 

Visual indexes and digital representations also provide a new insight into the three temporal 
and spatial phases of preparation of Petrarch’s unfinished partial holograph. The first project is 
revealed by the rubricated chartae transcribed by the copyist, set aside in 1367 when he abruptly left 
his service (see the visual index of Fig. 2 in brown: five quaternions [cc.1r-40v] in Part I and two 



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fascicles, one quaternion and one binion, in Part II [cc.53r-60v, cc.61r-62v and 71r-72v]). Next, we 
see Petrarch’s continuation of the compilation process in an attempt of maintaining a fair copy 
(visual index in blue with colored initials: another quaternion [cc.41r-48v] in Part I and four more 
chartae [cc.59r-62v]) in Part II. Finally, the latest additions reveal what is by then a service and work 
copy (visual index in blue without colored initials: four chartae at the end of Part I [cc.49r-52v] and 
the last binion added [cc.69r-70v] with the transcription of canzone Quel’ antiquo mio dolce empio signore 
[Rvf356{revised360}]). The user can now clearly visualize these phases of Petrarch’s assembling of 
the “book” and therefore further investigate an area of Petrarchan studies still very problematic: that 
of the genesis of the work. The late insertion of two binions within the last fascicle (cc.63r-66v and 
cc.67r-70v), for example, offers an occasion to rethink also the genesis of the text in terms of space 
and not only in terms of time. These insertions in the middle of the final quaternion entail the 
incorporation of additional poems before the concluding canzone Vergine bella (Rvf366), in a place 
where Petrarch was potentially still working around the time of his death, given the small numbers in 
the margin reordering the last 31 poems.  

At the core of new digital methods is therefore a new orientation into Petrarch’s material 
and visual poetics that he personally and consistently used to construct the layout of the entire work. 
Ironically, the digital code, through its interactive and simultaneous visualizations, seems to be the 
most suitable to display the essential dynamics of the charta and the material codex. The virtual 
representation on the web page of the different aspects of the Fragmenta - its textual and graphic, 
temporal and spatial components - allows scholars to rebuild the structural and visual principles 
implemented by Petrarch himself at the level of single charta, fascicles and macro-structures and 
therefore to repropose the poet’s editorial choices, skipping the filter of print editions whose cultural 
mediations and interpretative variations have modified the way the text is visualized and therefore 
received and interpreted. 

  

Works cited: 

Storey, H. Wayne, John A.Walsh and Isabella Magni. Petrarchive: An edition of Petrarch’s songbook, Rerum 
vulgarium fragmenta. 2013-current. http://dcl.slis.indiana.edu/petrarchive/ 

 

Barolini, Teodolinda, “Introduction.” Petrarch and the Textual Origins of Interpretation. Brill, 2007. 

Berté, Monica. “Malpaghini copista di Petrarca?” CN lxxv, 2015, pp.205-16. 

Brugnolo, Furio. “Libro d’autore e forma-canzoniere: Implicazioni grafico-visive nell’originale dei 
Rerum vulgarium fragmenta.” Commentario all’edizione in fac-simile. Edited by Belloni, Brugnolo, 
Storey e Zamponi, 2004, pp.105–29.  

Magni, Isabella. “I codici paralleli dei Fragmenta.” Medioevo letterario d’Italia 12, 2015. 

Storey, H. Wayne Transcription and Visual Poetics in the Early Italian Lyric. Garland, 1993. 

———. “All’interno della poetica grafico-visiva del Petrarca.” Commentario all’edizione in fac-simile. 
Edited by Belloni, Brugnolo, Storey, and Zamponi 2004, pp.131–171. 

http://www.petrarchive.org/
http://dcl.slis.indiana.edu/petrarchive/


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———. “Petrarch’s ‘Original’ of the Fragmenta 1362-1558: From Boccaccio to Rovillo’s Third 
Printing.” Humanist Studies & the Digital Age 1.1, 2011, pp.28-49. 

Werner, Marta L. “Signals from a distance: editing, telepathy, elegy”. Textual Cultures 3.1, 2008, pp.3–
11. 


