




































Humanitas: Indonesian Psychological Journal  

Vol. 19 (1), February 2022, 79-86 
ISSN:  2598-6368(online); 1693-7236(print)                                                                 

        humanitas@psy.uad.ac.id  http://dx.doi.org/10.26555/humanitas.v19i1.19 

Determinant factors of family welfare among Bogor online riders on 
pandemic COVID-19 

Nikmatul Khoiriyah, Euis Sunarti, Melly Latifah 

Department of Family and Consumer Science, IPB University, Indonesia 
Corresponding Author: n.khoiri28@gmail.com   
 

 

Introduction 

In Early 2020 World Health Organization (WHO) declared Corona Virus Disease 19 
(COVID-19) as a pandemic and was considered a Public Health Emergency that Concerned 
the World (Dong et al., 2020). The virus attacks the lungs with a high transmission rate 
originated from Wuhan, China (Yuliana, 2020) and then spread globally, including in 
Indonesia. The quick spreading of the virus has made the number of positive patients in 
Indonesia continue to increase. Therefore the Indonesian government has begun to implement 
physical restriction regulations to minimize interaction between communities by limiting the 
distance of one meter for each individual to reduce the spread of the virus.  

This physical restriction policy affects people who use online motorbike transportation 
(Hapsari et al., 2021). This policy impacts declining community activity and mobilization in 
Jabodetabek and big cities, resulting in the declining number of passengers on various 
transportation modes such as airplanes, commuter trains, buses, public transportation, taxis, 
online taxis, and online motorbikes (Hadiwardoyo, 2020). Large-scale area restrictions in 
several areas caused by the pandemic COVID-19 make the passenger shuttle feature in the 
online motorbike application temporarily deactivated. Although other services such as food 
and beverages delivery are still in place, the number of customers decreases, reducing the 
income of online motorbike drivers and harming their family welfare. A study conducted by 

ART ICLE  INFO  

 

AB ST R ACT  

 

Article history 

Received June 18, 2020 

Revised July 27, 2021 

Accepted February 22, 2022 

 COVID-19 pandemic impacted economic activity, including a 
decrease in the number of online motorcycle taxi passengers due to 
large-scale social restrictions. This study aimed to analyze the effect of 
determinant factors: work source of stress, self-efficacy, coping 
strategies, and symptoms of stress on the family welfare among online 
motorcycle taxi drivers. This study also analyzed the differences of all 
research variables according to years of service (less or more than two 
years). A cross-sectional design involving 120 online drivers in Bogor 
who were selected by convenience sampling was applied in this study. 
All research instruments used in data collection have good reliability. 
Data was collected by filling out a structured questionnaire shared with 
a google form, considering the pandemic conditions. Data was 
analyzed inferentially using SPSS and Smart PLS. Different test results 
showed that drivers who worked less than two years had lower 
earnings before and during the pandemic but performed higher coping 
strategies than those who worked more than two years. Self-efficacy 
positively affects online motorcycle taxi drivers' family welfare during 
the pandemic, objectively and subjectively. While work source of 
stress negatively affects subjective family welfare only. 

 

    

 

Keywords 

coping strategy;   

family welfare;  

online riders; 

pandemic COVID-19; 

self-efficacy. 

 

 

mailto:humanitas@psy.uad.ac.id
http://dx.doi.org/10.26555/humanitas.v19i1.7
mailto:n.khoiri28@gmail.com


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Khoiriyah et al. (Determinant factors of family welfare among Bogor online riders on pandemic COVID-19) 

Sunarti et al. (2020) showed that the psychological well-being of the family affects family 
resilience to deal with the COVID-19 pandemic. 

This study explored the determinant factors of family welfare, including work source 
of stress, self-efficacy, coping strategy, and stress symptoms. Stress is a person's response to 
an imbalance between external and internal events in the face of demands (Richardson & 
Rothstein, 2008). The high work demands trigger a person to feel depressed and anxious, but 
everyone reacts differently to work pressure. Workload includes work itself, conflicts 
between family and work, career development, organizational style, interpersonal 
relationships, and job roles (Wu et al., 2018). Riggio (2003) states that work stress is a 
physiological or psychological reaction to an event that individuals perceive as a threat.  

A person's confidence in his ability to control situations and produce something 
beneficial is called self-efficacy. Zhao et al. (2015) also stated the importance of self-efficacy 
to reduce stress and build effective coping strategies. Effective coping depends on self-
efficacy because it plays an important role in behavior transformation.  

Generally, the coping strategies used in dealing with stress in the workplace focus on 
problems and emotions. Coping strategies that focus on problems are efforts to minimize the 
pressure by overcoming the problems faced and the environment around the triggers of the 
pressure. Emotional focus coping is applied to cope with stressful situations by regulating 
their emotions (Zakowski et al., 2001). 

Working as an online motorcycle taxi may cause stress in the workplace, affecting the 
stability of the driver's mind and performance. The stress felt by online motorcycle taxi 
drivers is thought to affect the welfare of their families because it is directly related to meeting 
family needs and satisfaction. Online motorcycle taxi drivers are workers in non-formal 
fields. Families with unstable (informal) jobs have higher economic pressure, low physical 
security, welfare, and limited-time managing family resources (Sunarti, 2013). Therefore, this 
study aimed to analyze differences and influence of determinant factors including driver 
characteristics, family characteristics, job characteristics, work source of stress, self-efficacy, 
coping strategies, and symptoms of stress on family welfare among online motorcycle taxi 
drivers in the face of the COVID-19 pandemic. 

Method 

Research Design 

This study used a cross-sectional design, known as a survey with data collection techniques 
through field surveys at a certain point and time (Notoatmodjo, 2007). The research location 
was chosen purposively in Bogor, West Java because it has a large population and has 
experienced quite high developments in the online transportation sector. The total population 
of Bogor by District is 5.4 million people in 2020 (Badan Pusat Statistik, 2020) and is a 
support area for Capital City.  

Participants 

The sample of the study is 120 online motorbike drivers in Bogor. The average age of online 
motorbike drivers who became respondents in this study was in the early adult phase, with an 
average age of 32.46 years.  

Procedure 

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the current situation, we need to reduce outside activities 
and restrictions on physical contact. Data on family characteristics, online motorbike job 
characteristics, sources of stress, self-efficacy, coping strategies, stress levels, and family 
welfare were collected from respondents by filling in online structured questionnaires 
distributed by social media and carried out from May to June 2020.  



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                      Khoiriyah et al. (Determinant factors of family welfare among Bogor online riders on pandemic COVID-19)  

Instruments 

Family welfare in this study is divided into objective and subjective and is measured using 
two different measuring instruments. Objective welfare was measured using a questionnaire 
with eight questions and the Cronbach alpha of .608 (Sunarti, 2001). Subjective welfare was 
measured using a questionnaire based on physical-economic, social, and psychological 
dimensions with 29 questions and the Cronbach alpha of α = .877 (Sunarti, 2001). The 
questions asked are. Data scoring for each answer uses a satisfaction level ranging from 1 to 
7.  

Sources of online motorbike drivers' work stress were measured using the Job Stress 
Scale based on the job itself, role management, interpersonal relationships, organization style, 
career development, and family work conflict dimensions (Wu et al., 2018). The scale 
consists of 20 items with Cronbach alpha = .734. The score applied for each answer are 0 = 
no; 1 = yes.  

The modified Bandura General Self Efficacy Scale (Born et al., 1995) measured self-
efficacy. The scale consists of 10 items in a Likert scale (0 0 = never; 1 = rarely; 2 = often; 3 
= always), with the Cronbach alpha of α = .868.  

The Ways of Coping Strategy Questionnaire (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) used a Likert 
scale (0 = never; 1 = rarely; 2 = often; 3 = always) to measure coping strategy. The 
questionnaire consists of two dimensions, focusing on problems and emotions with a value 
of α = .708.  

Stress symptom variables were measured using a questionnaire by Mirowsky & Ross 
(2002) with a value of α = .920. Questions are measured on a Likert scale (0 = never; 1 = 
rarely; 2 = often; 3 = always), with two dimensions: malaise and mood. 

Data analysis 

Microsoft Excel, Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS), and Smart Partial Least 
Square (smart PLS) were used in data processing and analysis. The analysis carried out 
included descriptive analysis, difference test, and PLS effect test, analyzing data based on the 
research purpose.  

In PLS-SEM, the measurement model is often referred to as the outer model, and the 
structural model is termed the inner model (Hair et al., 2014). Test the outer model divided 
into convergent validity, discriminant validity, and composite reliability. Testing the 
measurement model through the loading factor determines the validity of the indicator by 
looking at the indicators' value convergent validity. Each indicator in the model must meet 
outer loading >.7, average variance extracted (AVE) >.5, and a construct said to be reliable if 
the composite reliability value is above .60. Then the inner model test is based on the R-
Square test and the significance of T statistics.  

Results 

Table 1 shows the results of the average and different tests of the characteristic variable of 
online motorbike drivers. The results show a significant difference between drivers who work 
≤ 2 years and > 2 years. Drivers who work ≤ 2 years have a lower average age than drivers 
who work > 2 years. Overall, the average age of Bogor online motorbike drivers is in the 
early adult category. Different test results also show a significant difference in the wife's age 
of online motorcycle taxi drivers. The wives of online motorbike drivers who work ≤ 2 years 
have an average age lower than those of online motorbike drivers who work > 2 years. In 
addition, significant differences were also found in family size per capita income during the 
pandemic and the income of online motorbike drivers before or during the pandemic.  
 
 



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Table 1  

Average and Different of Demographic Data Test Based on Length of Time Worked 

Family Characteristic 
Length of time worked 

p-value 
≤ 2 years >2 years 

Husband’s age (year) 32.19 34.52 .006*** 

Wife’s age (year) 28.72 31.62 .016*** 

Husband’s education (year) 10.72 10.97 .412 

Wife’s education (year) 10.35 10.74 .675 

Family amount 3.28 3.98 .000*** 

Income per capita (before the pandemic) 1187114.19 1638320.70 .000*** 

Income per capita (during the pandemic) 361456.78 351623.73 .709 

Husband’s income (before the pandemic) 3427777.78 6006818.00 .000*** 

Husband’s income (during the pandemic) 897222.22 1142000.00 .046** 

***significantly different at p≤ .01; *at p≤ .05;  

 

Table 2 shows that among six dimensions of work of stress source, the differences 
among online motorbike drivers who work ≤ 2 years and > 2 years were found only in the 
dimensions of family-work conflict. There is no significant difference for drivers who worked 
≤ 2 years and > 2 years in self-efficacy, stress symptoms, and family welfare. However, there 
are differences in emotional focus coping strategies for online motorbike drivers who work ≤ 
2 years and > 2 years. The average emotion focus coping strategy for online motorbike drivers 
who worked ≤ 2 years was higher than the average coping strategy for online motorbike 
drivers who worked > 2 years.  

 

Table 2  
Average and Different of Variables Test Based on Length of Time Worked 

Variable 
Length of time worked 

p 
≤ 2 years >2 years 

Work of stress source 67.04±15.87 64.39±15.07 .415 

Job Itself 90.74±12.88 90.15±13.06 .777 

Role management 36.57±35.25 29.55±33.08 .234 

Interpersonal relationship 25.93±35.35 21.97±32.96 .580 

Organizational style 68.52±32.96 74.24±27.72 .435 

Career development 95.11±16.68 89.94±24.05 .410 

Family-work conflict 73.65±19.87 66.94±23.87 .082* 

Self-efficacy 70.39±18.36 66.97±17.98 .378 

Coping Strategy 67.70±12.89 62.76±14.03 .039** 

Problem focused 68.74±13.59 67.59±16.53 .705 

Emotion focused 66.65±18.14 57.00±16.51 .002*** 

Stress symptoms 35.94±19.08 31.80±20.73 .317 

Malaise 35.81±18.70 31.59±20.81 .328 

Mood 35.81±24.89 32.32±24.38 .407 

Objective welfare 53.22±28.49 58.37±23.33 .552 

Subjective welfare 58.44±13.39 65.72±15.55 .678 

Physic-economic 55.06±15.58 52.09±17.40 .189 

Social 84.09±14.75 84.14±19.49 .414 

Psychology 79.07±16.23 79.26±20.05 .891 

***significantly different at p≤ .01; **at p≤ .05;  

 
Table 3 shows that self-efficacy has a significant positive direct effect on objective 

family welfare (β = .195; t> 1.96) and on subjective welfare (β = .294; t> 1.96). This result 
indicates the more self-efficacy, the more objective and subjective welfare of the online 
motorcycle taxi workers who participated in this study. The source of work stress has a 
significant negative effect (β = -.218; t> 1.96) on subjective welfare, which means that the 



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higher the source of stress for online motorcycle taxi workers, the family welfare level is 
getting low. 

 
Table 3  
The Results of the SEM-PLS Analysis  

Variable 
Direct 

effect 

Indirect 

effect 

Total  

effect 

Work stress source Objective welfare -.091  .013 -.077 

Self-efficacy  Objective welfare   .195*   -.005   .189 

Coping strategy  Objective welfare -.011  .005 -.006 

Stress symptoms  Objective welfare  .020 -  .020 

Work stress source  Subjective welfare   -.218*  .007     -.211* 

Self-efficacy  Subjective welfare  .294* -.074      .220* 

Coping strategy  Subjective welfare  .174  .023 -.152 

Stress symptoms  Subjective welfare  .089 -   .089 

*significance at t>1.96 

 

Figure 1 shows each determinant factor's direct and indirect effect on objective and 
subjective family welfare. SEM-PLS results show that the R-square value of objective 
welfare was .150 and subjective well-being was .114. These results indicate that the variables 
of family characteristics, sources of work stress, self-efficacy, coping strategies, and 
symptoms of stress affect objective well-being and subjective well-being by 15% and 11.4%, 
respectively.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 

 
Figure 1. SEM Analysis 

Discussion 

Currently, non-formal jobs are an alternative work widely chosen by society, including online 
motorcycle taxis. Easy requirements and flexible working time make a lot of people interested 
in this job. The average age of online motorbike drivers who became respondents in this study 
was in the early adult phase, with an average age of 32.46 years. Even though in non-formal 
jobs, education level is not the main requirement, half of the respondents in this study 
complete education until graduating from high school, which means they have a good level 
of education. Based on Firdaus and Sunarti's (2009) research, a high level of education allows 
someone to have the ability to be considered more by society. This point of view provides a 
greater chance to get a job. 



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Even though it is categorized as a non-formal job, the income as an online motorbike 
driver is quite high. The income of online motorbike drivers is 57.5% above the district 
minimum wage of Bogor is Rp. 4,169,806.58. However, during the pandemic COVID-19, 
online motorbike drivers’ income has fallen below the district minimum wage of Bogor. 
Social restrictions were imposed during the pandemic, impact the number of passengers, and 
the working hours of online motorbike drivers, so reducing their income. 

The correlation test results indicate that the source of work stress has a significant 
positive relationship with stress symptoms. This result shows that the higher the source of 
stress felt, the higher the stress symptoms experienced. Moreover, the results show a 
significant correlation between self-efficacy with work stress. Someone with high self-
efficacy tends to like challenges and solve problems to have a low-stress level (Alwisol, 
2009). Someone with low self-efficacy tends to be easily stressed and has doubts about their 
potential and abilities than someone with high self-efficacy (Rodebaugh, 2006). The results 
showed that the mean value of self-efficacy was at a high index of 68.50%.  

In this study, self-efficacy has a significant positive effect on subjective welfare. The 
high self-efficacy of online motorbike drivers during the COVID-19 pandemic affects the 
welfare of their families. Moreover, self-efficacy has a direct effect on objective family 
welfare. The study results show that the overall welfare index, both objective and subjective, 
is moderate, indicating that the family welfare will be better with good self-efficacy.  

Several previous studies support the findings in this study. Previous research stated a 
significant positive relationship between self-efficacy and psychological well-being 
(Chudzicka-Czupała & Zalewska-ŁUnkiewicz, 2020). Other studies also obtained similar 
results, that there is a significant positive relationship between self-efficacy and subjective 
well-being of employees in rehabilitation centers (Hanjani et al., 2016). Sinidikoro and 
Siswati's (2018) research shows a significant relationship between certified teacher self-
efficacy and psychological well-being.  

The online motorcycle taxi drivers who participated in this study have high self-
efficacy, affecting their subjective welfare during the COVID-19 pandemic. Research 
conducted by Chan et al. (2017) shows that someone who has high self-efficacy tends to be 
more able to balance between their work and their family. Hence, the work is less disturbing 
to the family and has good psychological well-being. Research conducted by Cicognani  
(2011) states that the higher the self-efficacy, the higher the subjective welfare of the family. 
Dunn and O'Brien (2013) stated that workers who have high self-efficacy would find it easier 
to manage work and family balance, improving psychological well-being.  

Limitation of this study: only two variables significantly impact family welfare. Self-
efficacy affected family welfare, both objective and subjective. While work source of stress 
significantly affected subjective family welfare. The other variables have no significant 
relationship with family welfare. Further research is expected to use the interview method to 
reduce the possibility of misunderstanding in understanding the questionnaire. In addition, 
extracting information from the wife's point of view will further enrich the research data. 

Conclusion 

Self-efficacy and work of source stress affected family welfare among online motorbike taxi 
drivers. Self-efficacy directly affects objective family welfare, while on subjective family 
welfare, the effect of self-efficacy was found directly and indirectly. Therefore the higher 
self-efficacy, the higher family welfare will be, and vice versa. Work source of stress, directly 
and indirectly, affected subjective family welfare; the higher work source of stress, the lower 
subjective family welfare will be, and vice versa. Among all variables, only coping strategy 
among online motorbike taxi drivers is impacted by the length of work, in which the longer 
length of work, the higher the coping strategy.  



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