








































Humanitas: Indonesian Psychological Journal 

Vol. 21 (1), February 2024, 65-76 

ISSN:  2598-6368(online); 1693-7236(print)   

 humanitas@psy.uad.ac.id     http://journal1.uad.ac.id/index.php/Humanitas    https://doi.org/10.26555/humanitas.v21i1.353 

Mindful parenting, parenting self-efficacy, and marital satisfaction of 
mother with toddler on family resilience during pandemic 

Sri Redatin Retno Pudjiati, Khusnul Khatimah, Tiffany Lisa Marsaulina, Firyal Fahirah 

Fadilah, and Aulya Diesa Maretha  

Faculty of Psychology, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia 
Corresponding author: retno-pj@ui.ac.id 

Introduction 

Since 2020, the world has been facing the global spread of the Covid-19 outbreak (Pandemic), 
and Indonesia is one of them. This Pandemic has caused various changes in aspects of human 
life due to the necessity to carry out physical distancing and home quarantine as well as the 
implementation of Large-Scale Social Restrictions (LSSR), in mid-2020 and continued with 
public activity restrictions for outdoor activities (Humas Sekretariat Kabinet Republik 
Indonesia, 2021). These impacts changing routines, where outdoor activities usually carried 
out in offices, schools, or other public places are limited and even closed to avoid crowds and 
encourage work, study, and play activities to be carried out at home (work from home). Along 
with this sudden change in routines, problems arise, adding more stressors, especially within 
the family. 

The provision of carrying out various activities from home affects the routines changing 
of each individual in a family. Family members spend time together in the same place 24 
hours a day, but at the same time, this brings another stressor. While everyone in the house 
has their own activities and responsibilities that they must do, parents might face financial 
problems, future uncertainty, and loss of emotional control (frustration), which can lead to 
increased anxiety, stress, and negative emotions (Winurini, 2020). In addition, in a pandemic 

ARTICLE  INFO ABSTRACT  

Article history 

Received: March 16, 2023 

Revised: August 5, 2023  

Accepted: August 24, 2023 

The COVID-19 pandemic has both positive and negative impacts on 
individuals in affected areas. For mothers who have many roles at 
home, this impact can cause stress due to sudden changes in the 
family. Therefore, it is important to know whether mindful parenting, 
parenting self-efficacy, and marital satisfaction are important factors 
for family resilience. This study used a quantitative approach to 
examine the roles of those factors. Data obtained using Walsh Family 
Resilience Questionnaire, Interpersonal Mindful Parenting, Self-
Efficacy Parenting Task Index-Toddler Scale Short Form and 
ENRICH Marital Satisfaction (EMS) Scale were analyzed by multiple 
regression. Based on data from 116 mothers who have toddlers (Mage 
= 28.46, SD = 3.14), it is known that the associations of mindful 
parenting, parenting self-efficacy, and marital satisfaction predict 
50% of family resilience positively. Furthermore, marital satisfaction 
provides the largest significant unique contribution, followed by a 
smaller contribution by parenting self-efficacy, while mindful 
parenting did not. This shows that internal and external factors by the 
mother both contribute to creating a resilient family during the Covid-
19 Pandemic, thus, it is essentially important to ensure that mothers 
receive good support from their partners and are confident in 
providing positive care for their children. 

Keywords 

family resilience;  

mindful parenting; 

parenting self-efficacy; 

marital satisfaction;  

mother. 

mailto:humanitas@psy.uad.ac.id
http://journal1.uad.ac.id/index.php/Humanitas
https://doi.org/10.26555/humanitas.v21i1.353
mailto:retno-pj@ui.ac.id


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Sri Redatin Retno et.al (Mindful Parenting, Parenting Self-efficacy, and Marital Satisfaction of…) 

situation, a mother is required to be able to juggle many responsibilities such as working (for 
those who work), doing housework (e.g. cooking), and caring for and/or supervising toddler's 
activities (playing and learning). This is because mothers with toddlers are the most important 
key figure in this development stage for the child to develop a secure attachment and 
regularity in "play" activities (Pallant, 2020). Therefore, if the mother's focus is divided 
between caring for toddlers and doing house chores while helping other family members who 
also have work and school at home, mothers psychological state might collapse at one point. 
Furthermore, mothers are demanded to adapt to the sudden changing routines at home and 
outside. This is why 'it's important to know whether mothers with toddler have good family 
resilience so they can together adapt to the situation well. 

Family resilience is a dynamic interaction process that occurs within the family and 
how the family adapts to life challenges (Walsh, 2016). According to Walsh, a family is a 
functional unit that works as a system where the family resilience results from a process. 
Family resilience depends on the family's strengths and resources when facing problems 
together, such as the Covid-19 pandemic (Walsh, 2020). This construct has three main sub-
domains, namely family belief systems which is related to beliefs and values instilled in the 
family, organizational factors which is related to structure and connectedness within the 
family, and family communication style which is related to communication processes done 
by family members (Walsh, 2016). 

Previous research shows that for families to remain resilient in the Covid-19 pandemic 
situation, as one of the main life challenges currently, family belief systems have an important 
role in encouraging family members to be able to find positive meaning (meaning-making) 
and positive-outlook of problems and challenges that arise simultaneously (Gayatri & 
Irawaty, 2022). This could help mothers to find any good aspects out of the negative situation 
(Pandemic) so they could stay positive, and the toddlers also got positive influence during 
"play" session. In addition, organizational factors act as a source of support to create 
flexibility so that families can rebound when facing various stressors during home quarantine 
and work/study from home (Walsh, 2020). Being flexible in facing sudden changes of 
routines is needed so family members can all help each other complete their responsibilities 
together. Lastly, a good communication process also plays an important role because it means 
family members can convey feelings and solve problems that arise together like when the 
mother needs time to take a break from interacting with toddlers and ask the spouse to help 
her so mother can gain herself again and get back with a better state. 

As mentioned above, various variables are potential as protective factors in how family 
resilience is well formed in the family. Mothers, as the key figures for toddler developmental 
tasks and those with more responsibilities, especially in the Covid-19 Pandemic, are directly 
faced with problems related to their relationship to their spouses and children, especially 
toddlers. Therefore, ‘it is only fair to look at which factors from a mother-toddler and mother-
father relationships highly relate to family resilience dynamics. From the mother's point of 
view, the relationship between mother and toddler can be observed in how the mother raises 
and cares for her child dearly. This is especially more important for toddlers because they 
need the mother's role as a key figure in parenting to help them grow properly (Miller, 2016). 
Good parenting is done when mothers put their minds into their children's activities 
attentively. This parenting is called mindful parenting. 

Mindful parenting is a new concept that integrates practices and principles of 
mindfulness into the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of parents in a parenting context, 
engenders compassion, acceptance, and kindness in the parent-child relationship, as well as 
the presence of attentive parents in the parent-child interactions (Duncan et al., 2009). In 
Indonesia, mindful parenting has been one of the main strategies of the Ministry of Education 
and Culture to encourage parents and teachers to nurture 'child's development positively at 
home and school (Kiong, 2015). Mindful parenting consists of five dimensions, namely 
listening attentively (eling), acceptance in a non-judgmental way of self and child, 



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understanding of self and 'child's emotional states, self-regulation in parenting relationships, 
and compassion towards self and child (welas asih) (Duncan et al., 2009; Kiong, 2015). By 
applying mindfulness practices in the interaction between mothers and toddlers, especially 
during COVID-19 pandemic, they can develop a good parent-child connection and learn to 
enjoy the moment more (Heifetz, 2022).  

Several previous studies reported that parental and maternal mindful parenting are 
associated with more positive parenting styles, reduced parenting stress, positive interactions 
between parents and children, as well as positive effects on the psychological functioning of 
parents and children (Sofyan, 2018; Wong et al., 2019). This positive interaction could be 
related to a positive communication style. 'That's why it is important to know whether 
'mothers' use of good mindful parenting in nurturing their 'child's development during the 
Covid-19 Pandemic help enhance family resilience.  

While mindful parenting is an important factor due to the presence of positive 
interaction between mothers and toddlers, prior research shown that parental competence, or 
'parent's feeling and beliefs about their competency in parenting, is one of the key variables 
in predicting protective factors of family resilience (Ardelt & Eccles, 2001). Because mother 
is the key figure in 'toddler's development, it would be insightful to find if 'mother's feelings 
and beliefs about their competence, or self-efficacy, in her parenting would be best at 
predicting family resilience. Parenting self-efficacy itself is defined as an estimate of the 
judgment given by an individual related to his competence as a parent, or how parents 
perceive the ability to shape behavior and encourage positive child development (Coleman & 
Karraker, 1998). The parenting self-efficacy construct provides an overview of the 
knowledge possessed by parents related to parenting skills appropriate for the child's 
development as well as confidence in carrying out duties as an older person. Parents with 
high parenting self-efficacy tend to show positive parenting practices and behaviors and could 
create comfortable and enjoyable nurturing environments. In contrast, low parenting self-
efficacy allows parents to feel more overwhelmed when faced with multiple parenting 
hurdles, to the point of triggering parental stress. 

Based on Coleman & Karraker (1998), originally there are seven different parenting 
subdomains considered appropriate to describe the domain of parenting self-efficacy. First, 
emotional availability refers to the emotional relationship that exists between children and 
parents, as parents can hint at and understand the emotional expression of children. Second, 
nurturance is related to how parents raise, appreciate, and display an empathetic response to 
their children. Third, protection is related to how parents protect children from danger. Fourth, 
discipline is related to how parents apply discipline and provide limits to children. Fifth, play, 
related to activities parent-directed child play, especially in the early years of development 
children. Sixth, teaching is related to how parents play an important role in seeking the 
development and education of children. Seventh, instrumental care, or routine, is related to 
how parents apply routines appropriately to the child. Prior research has found that mindful 
parenting could reduce 'mothers' (of school-aged children) parental stress (Srifianti et al., 
2022), and this could further help increase 'mothers' well-being. Study has shown that 
parenting self-efficacy has a strong positive affect on family resilience during the Covid-19 
on parents with children aged 4 to 18 years old (Cihan & Var, 2022) but 'it's not really known 
for children under 4 years old (toddler).  

Another relationship to be looked up is mother-father relationship as the main 
caregivers in the family. Crisis Covid-19 can influence 'couples' marital satisfaction because 
of access to the outside world (like close friends or extended family members), so they could 
only rely on support from each other. Marital satisfaction is defined as a mental state that 
reflects the benefits that are perceived and the effort expended by individuals in a marital 
relationship (Fowers & Olson, 1989). This means that someone will feel higher satisfaction 
towards marriage and spouses if they perceive greater benefits than the effort expended. 
Based on ENRICH Marital Satisfaction, marital satisfaction consists of two dimensions: 



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Sri Redatin Retno et.al (Mindful Parenting, Parenting Self-efficacy, and Marital Satisfaction of…) 

marital satisfaction (positive aspects of marriage) and idealized distortion (social desirability 
aspects) (Fowers & Olson, 1993). Fowers & Olson (1989, 1993) identified ten different 
domains considered the most contributing to marital satisfaction itself; interpersonal 
problems include communication, resolution of conflict, sex, commitment, and roles, while 
external problems can come from relatives, friends, children, parenting style, and financial 
condition. The various domains developed based on various theories and empirical analyses 
summarized in their research.  

Previous research has found that couples’' couples' satisfaction in their relationships has 
a strong and greater effect on family resilience during the Covid-19 Pandemic in Hong Kong 
(Wong et al., 2022). Also, it was found that 'women's level of self-efficacy partially mediated 
the relationship between 'couples' satisfaction and family resilience (Pănoi et al., 2018). 
However, it was also found that during the Covid-19 pandemic, mothers tend to perceive the 
situation as stressful, which influences their perception of ineffectively caring for their 
children (Gniewosz, 2022). While some studies found different relationships how mindful 
parenting, parenting self-efficacy, and couples’' couples' satisfaction could influence family 
resilience independently, more research is needed on this topic. The lack of understanding on 
how those three factors, from a mother's perspective, could collectively predict family 
resilience as the three represented a mother's perspective, could collectively predict family 
resilience as the three represented mother's relationship with other family members. As Walsh 
(Walsh, 2016a) has stated before, that family function as a unit where everyone influences 
each other that makes the family could withstand and rebound from crises and challenges. 
This is why the current 'study's purpose ought to find if 'toddlers' mothers' mindful parenting, 
self-efficacy in parenting and marital satisfaction also has strong positive impact directly on 
family resilience. 

The formation of family resilience does not only occur because of the adaptation of 
each individual from each family member but is formed from the interaction between family 
members who influence each other (Walsh, 2016). Therefore, this study aims to explore how 
mindful parenting, parenting self-efficacy, and marital satisfaction of mothers with toddlers 
enhance stronger family resilience during the Covid-19 Pandemic. Specifically, it is 
hypothesized that mothers' family resilience is predicted by marital satisfaction, parenting 
self-efficacy, and mindful parenting together as a whole. Another hypothesis is that those 
factors independently influence family resilience (have their own unique contributions). 

Method 

This study uses a quantitative approach to explore the factors around mothers that contribute 
to predicting family resilience, such as mindful parenting, parenting self-efficacy, and marital 
satisfaction. This research has passed an ethical review from the ethical committee of the 
Faculty of Psychology, Universitas Indonesia with number 
067/FPsi.KomiteEtik/PDP.04.00/2021.  

Participants 

The sampling method used was the convenience sampling technique (Tabachnick et al., 
2019). Participants in this study were mothers aged 21-40 years and had child(ren) who were 
toddlers or 1-3 years old at the time the research was conducted (54.31% were male). Data 
collection was carried out online by distributing links to fill out questionnaires for individuals 
who fit the criteria and are willing to become participants. Participants involved in this study 
were 116 mothers (21 – 37 years old with M = 28.46, SD = 3.14).  

 
 
 
 



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Table 1  

The Distribution of Study Participants 

Instruments 

There are four main variables examined in this study. First, family resilience was measured 
using the Indonesian adaptation of Walsh Family Resilience Questionnaire or shortened as 
WFRQ (Walsh, 2016) by Nasa (2012). This instrument could be used to measure family 
resilience represented by one of its member views of how the family face crises and 
challenges (mother). WFRQ originally has a total of 32 items, which are divided into three 
components Belief System, Organizational Factors, and Communication Style. But, four 
items were dropped because of their low rit score, so the total became 28 items. This 
instrument is a Likert scale using four options: (1) Very inappropriate to (4) Very appropriate. 
The scale has a good internal consistency coefficient α = 0.931 and corrected total-item 
correlation ranging from 0.396 to 0.696.  

Second, mindful parenting was measured using Indonesian adaptation of Interpersonal 
Mindful Parenting or shortened as IM-P (Duncan et al., 2009). IM-P originally consists of 31 
items divided into five dimensions, namely Listening with Full Attention (LFA), Compassion 
for the Self and Child (CSC), Non-Judgmental Acceptance of Self and Child (NJASC), 
Emotional Awareness of Self- and Child (EASC), and Self-Regulation in the Parenting 
Relationship (SRPR). This instrument was adapted by Marsaulina (2021). But, ten items were 
dropped because of their low rit score, so the total became 21 items. This instrument is a Likert 
scale using five options: (1) Rarely to (5) Always. The scale has a good internal consistency 
coefficient α = 0.870 and corrected total-item correlation ranging from 0.302 to 0.667. 

Third, parenting self-efficacy was measured using the Self-Efficacy Parenting Task 
Index-Toddler Scale Short Form (SEPTI-TS SF) (Coleman & Karraker, 1998). SEPTI-TS 
originally has a total of 53 items which are divided into seven subdomains, however, in this 
study, the short version was used which consisted of 23 items and four subdomains namely 

  Frequency Percentage 

Mother's last education High school or lower 15 12.93 

Diploma (D3) 7 5.88 

Undergraduate (S1) 81 69.83 

Graduate or higher (S2 – S3) 13 11.21 

Mother's employment status Employed 60 51.72 

Unemployed 56 48.28 

Age of marriage < 5 years 95 81.90 

5 – 10 years 19 16.38 

> 10 years 2 1.72 

Family monthly income < IDR1.500.000, - 5 4.31 

IDR1.500.000, - s/d IDR3.000.000, - 11 9.48 

IDR3.000.000, - s/d IDR4.500.000,- 13 11.21 

IDR4.500.000, - s/d IDR6.000.000, - 15 12.93 

IDR6.000.000, - s/d IDR7.500.000,- 13 11.21 

> IDR7.500.000, - 59 50.86 

Work system in Pandemic WFO – WFH 22 18.97 

WFO 15 12.93 

WFH 23 19.83 

Time to care for child(ren) in 

the Pandemic 

Increased 70 60.35 

Equal 46 39.66 

Staying with With child and/or husband 53 44.54 

With parents-in-law 46 38.66 

Others 19 25.96 



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nurturance, discipline, play, and routines. The instrument used for this study was the 
Indonesian adaptation version (Lubis, 2015). But, three items were dropped because of their 
low rit score, so the total became 20 items. This instrument is a Likert scale using four options: 
(1) Strongly disagree to (4) Strongly agree. The scale has a good internal consistency 
coefficient α = 0.878 and corrected total-item correlation ranging from 0.323 to 0.653. 

The fourth variable marital satisfaction was measured using the ENRICH Marital 
Satisfaction (EMS) Scale (Fowers & Olson, 1993). The instrument has been adapted to 
Indonesian from the original and consists of 20 items that measure Marital Satisfaction and 
Idealistic Distortion (Nishfiyaningsih, 2009). But, three items were dropped because of their 
low rit score, so the total became 17 items. This instrument is a Likert scale using four options: 
(1) Very inappropriate to (4) Very appropriate. The scale has a good internal consistency 
coefficient α = 0.892 and corrected total-item correlation ranging from 0.375 to 0.636. 

In addition to these four main instruments, participants were also asked about their 
demographic data such as age, age of children, age of marriage, employment status, family 
income in a month, and so on. This demographic data is used as complementary data in 
discussing the results of the analysis obtained (covariate variables).  

Data Analysis 

The data obtained were then analyzed using JASP (JASP Team, 2022). The analysis was 

performed through a Pearson correlation test and multiple regression to test the hypotheses 

proposed. 

Results 

Based on Table 2, it is known that the four main variables at least have one indicator that 
shows a normal distribution (based on the Z-score of skewness value or Kolmogorov-
Smirnov or Shapiro-Wilk significance value > 0.05) so it can be concluded that each variable 
has a normal distribution (Pallant, 2020).  
 

Table 2  
Descriptions of Instruments / Scales 

Variables M Min-Max SD 
Z 

skewness 
KS (sig.) SW (sig.) 

Family Resilience 92.78 65 – 112 11.543 -1.604* 0.200* 0.010 

Mindful Parenting 82.93 53 – 105 9.779 -0.347* 0.200* 0.619* 

Parenting Self-Efficacy 68.31 38 - 87 8.512 -1.560* 0.200* 0.060* 

Marital Satisfaction 53.75 30 - 68 8.595 -1.604* 0.018 0.004 

 

Before carrying out the regression test, assumption tests were first carried out, namely 
multicollinearity by examining the Pearson correlation value and checking for outliers, 
normality, linearity, and homoscedasticity using the Q-Q Regression Standardized Residuals 
plot (Pallant, 2020). Pearson correlation test results showed that the three main variables, 
namely marital satisfaction, mindful parenting, and parenting self-efficacy were significantly 
positively correlated with family resilience. In addition, the r correlation value of marital 
satisfaction, mindful parenting, and parenting self-efficacy for family resilience did not 
exceed 0.9, as shown in Table 3, so it fulfills the assumption that multicollinearity did not 
occur. In addition, only a number of children positively correlated with family resilience.  

 
 
 
 



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Table 3  

Correlation Test  

Variables 1 2 3 4 

1. Family Resilience -    

2. Mindful Parenting 0.457*** -   

3. Parenting Self-Efficacy 0.578*** 0.687*** -  

4. Marital Satisfaction 0.644*** 0.427*** 0.465*** - 

Mother's Age -0.061 -0.108 -0.150 -0.076 

Number of Children 0.198* 0.124 0.070 0.157 

Family Income 0.140 -0.076 -0.098 0.111 

Age of Marriage 0.145 0.074 0.090 0.057 

Mother's Employment Status 0.042 0.057 0.090 0.038 

Mother's Education 0.029 0.008 -0.017 -0.013 

Parenting Time -0.070 -0.017 -0.002 0.026 

Staying with 0.021 -0.054 -0.068 0.071 

Work System -0.148 -0.130 -0.188 0.116 

Notes: * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001 

 

Next, based on the residual statistics, as shown in Table 4, and its standardized residuals 
histogram, the normality distribution of residual data showed a normal distribution. 
Furthermore, Q-Q plot standardized residuals follow a diagonal line, and no data deviated far 
from the line. Therefore, it can be concluded that the data has a normal residual distribution 
and no outliers that exceed the Durbin standard value. 

 

Table 4 
Residual Statistics 

  Minimum Maximum M SD 

Predicted Value 72.804 110.279 92.784 8.271 

Residual -19.866 21.968 9.659×10-16  8.051 

Std. Predicted Value -2.416 2.115 -3.137×10-16  1.000 

Std. Residual -2.498 2.786 4.665×10-4  1.008 

 

Multiple regression test was then performed using the JASP program. The results 
shown in Table 5. The association between mindful parenting, parenting self-efficacy, and 
marital satisfaction significantly predicted family resilience capacity by 50% (R2 = 0.513, 
Adj. R2 = 0.500, p = < 0.001, f2 = 1.41) and showed a very large effect size (Cohen J, 1988). 
Therefore, the first hypothesis in this study was accepted that mindful parenting, parenting 
self-efficacy, and marital satisfaction together positively predict family resilience. This is also 
supported by the results of the F test, which showed that mindful parenting, parenting self-
efficacy, and marital satisfaction simultaneously significantly predict family resilience.  

 

Table 5  
Linear Regression 

Model R2 Adj. R2 R2 Change F p 

H1 0.513 0.500 0.513 39.405 < .001 

 
Then, the results of the regression coefficient analysis and part correlation coefficients 

specifically showed that the marital satisfaction (β = 0.476, t (113) = 6.300, p < .001) 
significantly made the largest unique contribution (17.22%) and was followed by parenting 
self-efficacy (β = 0.346, t(113) = 3.675, p < .001) with much smaller contribution (5.86%). 
However, mindful parenting (β = 0.016, t(113) = 0.179, p = 0.859) did not make a significant 



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unique contribution to family resilience. The results also showed that only mindful parenting 
gave a very small contribution (Tabachnick et al., 2019). These are shown in Table 6. Based 
on these results, it is known that the second hypothesis was partially rejected, that only 
mothers' parenting self-efficacy and marital satisfaction significantly gave unique 
contributions to predicting good family resilience. 

 

Table 6  
Coefficients Regression 

Predictors b Std. Error 𝛽 t p Variances 

(Intercept) 24.829 7.091  3.502 < .001  

Mindful Parenting 0.019 0.109 0.016 0.179 0.859 0.01% 

Parenting Self-Efficacy 0.469 0.127 0.346*** 3.675 < .001 5.86% 

Marital Satisfaction 0.639 0.101 0.476*** 6.300 < .001 17.22% 

Notes: *** p < 0.001 

Discussion 

This study aimed to examine if the combination of internal and external factors around 
mothers could predict family resilience and which factor gives more contribution. Before that, 
it's worth mentioning that most mothers in this study have spent more time together with their 
toddlers and working from home so they could directly build positive connections with the 
children and protect them from the negative effects of the Covid-19. Knowing that Walsh 
concept of family is seen as a functional system where the members' influence each other and 
could be measured by asking the perspective of one member about the way their family deals 
with adversities, this study focused on factors by mothers that could enhance better family 
resilience during Pandemic. The key protective factors of family resilience studied here are 
related to mother-child relationships: mindful parenting, parenting self-efficacy, and marital 
satisfaction.  

Firstly, results show that the three variables associated together could predict higher 
family resilience positively. This means that mothers who have higher self-efficacy in acting 
positive parenting, while using mindful parenting and getting sufficient support and 
satisfaction in their marriage lives, will give a higher positive impact on their family's 
capability and process to adapt during the Covid-19 Pandemic than the ones who did not have 
those factors.  

Previously, it was explained that family resilience is the dynamic process of coping and 
adapting life challenge which rely on the family's strength and resources at the time (Walsh, 
2016). Family resilience consists of three main sub-domains, family belief system, 
organizational factors, and family communication style. Specifically, family belief system is 
related to parent's self-efficacy in parenting in the way that mother possess positive 
perspective of the stressful situation and good faith in facing the adversity (James, 2022; 
Walsh, 2016). Then, organizational factors is related to mother's satisfaction with the supports 
they get from spouses (Pănoi et al., 2018; Walsh, 2016; Wong et al., 2022). Lastly, 
communication process is related to collaboration of family members to solve problems 
together, clarity in communicating with each other, and being compassionate in caring for 
children mindfully (Sofyan, 2018; Walsh, 2016a; Wong et al., 2022). So, this help explained 
why the three predictors together are found to be important factors for mother to help enhance 
family resilience in the Covid-19 Pandemic.  

Specifically, marital satisfaction has the biggest role. This is consistent with previous 
research, that marital satisfaction felt by mothers gives a big boost in creating a resilient 
family because communication with partners as parents or primary caregivers for toddlers 
goes well even in a pandemic situation (Pănoi et al., 2018; Rich et al., 2022; Wong et al., 
2022). Then, parenting self-efficacy is proven to provide the second biggest role in creating 



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a resilient family for mothers with toddlers. This is in line with previous research that 
parenting self-efficacy is one of the factors that predict the formation of a resilient family in 
mothers who have school-age children (Gniewosz, 2022). This shows that having better 
couples' satisfaction should come as the first concern in the family so the family will be 
resilient in facing crisis situations like the Covid-19. 

The different results in this study are the findings that mindful parenting does not 
contribute much to family resilience like the other two. That is, even though the mother shows 
parenting patterns with mindful parenting, other factors such as the mother's satisfaction in 
married life with her partner and her belief in positive parenting must also accompany it. This 
is also thought to be due to the mindful parenting in this study being seen at one time in 
general, it has not reached the point where it can be shown whether the mindful parenting 
process is routinely carried out or not. In addition, it is also known that most family in this 
study shows relatively high levels on family resilience, parenting self-efficacy and marital 
satisfaction. It means that the participants here have good and functioning protective factors 
that influence their family resilience to be better.  

Additional interesting findings in this study is related to the socio-demographic 
variables. The only characteristic of the family that had quite a good relationship with family 
resilience was the number of children, in which more children related to better family 
resilience. Despite the Pandemic that limits activities, and most mothers need to juggle more 
between working, parenting and doing household chores, the fact that more children 
(toddlers) actually support strong family resilience gives new insight. It is worth to underline 
that most mothers here have high education backgrounds and relatively high-level income 
(family income). Also, they are mostly working moms who work with full-time WFH (work 
from home) system or switching in-between WFH and WFO (work from office). 
Furthermore, most families are in an early stage of family life-cycle stage (age of marriage < 
5 years), which is early parenting stage, as their first child is still a toddler (Walsh, 2002). 
Walsh also stated that different family life-cycle stages might lead to different challenges that 
need different factors to enhance resilient families. In fact, while these variables all show no 
moderate or strong direct correlation to family resilience, there might be indirect influences 
on their family resilience dynamics.  

This study has some limitations. First, it was not known whether mothers used mindful 
parenting for all their children (some participants have more than one child) or it was for 
specific children. Knowing this in future research with the same study focus might help 
explain the pattern in the family process and the development of their family resilience. 
Lastly, many of the families in this study lived with their parents-in-law (39%), so it might 
be possible that the grandparents were helping the mothers care for children or otherwise 
mothers are getting other stressors from outside their main family. Future research might 
consider using actor-partner model analysis to explore whether mothers' and fathers' 
perspectives on the stated three main predictors in this study are correlated to one another as 
a more comprehensive way to examine what factors influence family resilience. Also, explore 
more in the questionnaire whether the parents get help on parenting toddlers by other relatives 
or not.  

Conclusion 

The association of mothers' mindful parenting, parenting self-efficacy, and marital 
satisfaction collectively contributed to enhancing positive family resilience. This suggests 
that mothers with higher use of mindfulness in parenting, self-efficacy in parenting, and 
marital satisfaction, their families will have higher family resilience to help them adapt to the 
Pandemic or even other similar adversities. Furthermore, the mother's marital satisfaction and 
parenting self-efficacy both uniquely contributed positively to family resilience, while 



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Sri Redatin Retno et.al (Mindful Parenting, Parenting Self-efficacy, and Marital Satisfaction of…) 

mindful parenting did not. This means that mothers whose mindful parenting was good still 
needed other important factors to predict strong family resilience in this Covid-19 Pandemic. 
Feeling satisfied with marriage life is the biggest factor for mothers to enhance strong family 
resilience. That's why, in this situation where the Covid-19 pandemic made mothers more 
vulnerable to stress, their partner needs to give enough support to face sudden changes in 
daily life. In addition to this, more children related to more positive family resilience.  

Acknowledgment 

Acknowledge the parties that make the study possible such as the funding sponsor, the 

institution that gives permission, the participants, supervisors, etc. Do not acknowledge the 

names listed in the authors of this article.  

Declarations  

Author contribution. First author conceived the presented idea and developed the theory. 
Second author analyzed the data and wrote the manuscript. Third, fourth, fifth authors 
collected and inputted the data from participants. First and second authors discuss the results 
and final manuscript.  
Funding statement. This research was not funded by any institutions or grants.  
Conflict of interest. The authors declare no conflict of interest. 
Additional information. No additional information is available for this paper. 

 

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