







































Humanitas: Indonesian Psychological Journal  
Vol. 22 (1), February 2025, 102-110 

ISSN:  2598-6368(online); 1693-7236(print)                                                                 

       humanitas@psy.uad.ac.id             http://journal1.uad.ac.id/index.php/Humanitas                          10.26555/humanitas.v22i1.1000 

Impact of emotional intelligence and perceived self-efficacy on the 

implementation of community policing practice 

Okoka Happiness1,*, Kheswa J. G1, Vakpa Iliya2 
1Department of Psychology, University of Fort Hare, Dikeni, South Africa 

2Department of Psychology, Nasarawa State University, Keffi, Nigeria 
Corresponding author: okokah@gmail.com 

 

This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license. 

 

Introduction  

Community policing is a philosophy and practice that emphasizes the collaboration between 

law enforcement agencies and the community to identify and solve problems. In Nigeria, the 

implementation of community policing has been challenging due to various factors. 

Community policing, a strategy that emphasizes collaboration between law enforcement 

agencies and the community to address crime and disorder, has gained significant attention 

in recent years.  

Community policing is a philosophy that promotes organizational strategies, which 

support the systematic use of partnerships and problem-solving techniques, to proactively 

address the immediate conditions that give rise to public safety issues such as crime, social 

disorder, and fear of crime. Community policing has been defined as a “philosophy, 

management style and organizational strategy” with the end goal of building community 

relationships and not only solving crime but addressing the causes of crime within a 

community. Community policing involves anybody of people (whether that be schools, 

ARTICLE  INFO  

 

ABST RACT  

 

Article history 

Received  August 24, 2024 

Revised  January 6, 2025 

Accepted  January 24, 2025 

 This study aimed to investigate the association between emotional 
intelligence, perceived self-efficacy (PSE) and implementation of 
community policing practice among police officers in the Nigeria 
Police Force. This study involved 107 police officers as participants 
who were selected through purposive random sampling. Data were 
collected using emotional intelligence, perceived self-efficacy (PSE) 
and implementation of community policing practice scales. Data were 
analysed using a regression analysis and partial correlation technique to 
test the Hypotheses.  The study found weak, counterintuitive negative 
correlations between both emotional intelligence and perceived self-
efficacy and community policing implementation in Nigerian police. 
Emotional intelligence positively associates with implementation, but 
perceived self-efficacy does not, demanding further context-specific 
qualitative and longitudinal research to understand these dynamics and 
improve policing strategies. The study highlights the importance of 
emotional intelligence and self-efficacy for successful community 
policing practice among police officers in Nigeria. The results imply 
how the Nigeria Police Force can enhance the officers’ implementation 
of the community policing practice by managing their self-efficacy and 
increasing emotional intelligence.  

    

 

Keywords 

Emotional 

Intelligence 

Self-Efficacy 

Community 

Policing 

Practice 

Police officer 

 

mailto:humanitas@psy.uad.ac.id
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Happiness et. al (Impact of emotional intelligence and perceived self-efficacy on the implementation of community policing practice)  

businesses, residents, community organizations, churches or anyone in the community) 

collaborating with the police to identify problems within the areas they live and how to solve 

them. Whereas, traditional policing tends to draw from police officers and law enforcement 

agencies working solely at identifying problems in the community and tackling how to solve 

them on their own. 

Traditional policing can separate police departments from the communities they serve. 

Departments that use more traditional policing also tend to be more reactive and can create 

a disconnect with the community. Little time is taken to look beyond strategies that will 

potentially mediate a situation they are placed in without the necessary use of force. In the 

1950’s, during the Reform Era, police were seen as “enforcers” who were called to deal with 

large riots and social disorder. Usually, when things went wrong, whether large or small, 

this continued identity and behaviour was used to handle any situation presented. 

Community policing challenges this approach by creating a dynamic within law 

enforcement officials to build trust and relationships with their communities, dismantling 

this in-and-out “enforcer” approach. More understanding is needed to establish this 

philosophy within police departments to create it as an overall staple in police response 

tactics. This study examined internal factors that are believed to contribute to the success of 

the implementation of community policing among Nigerian police officers that have not 

been examined before. Community policing, a philosophy that emphasizes collaboration 

between law enforcement and the community, has emerged as a promising strategy for 

addressing crime and disorder. However, the successful implementation of community 

policing hinges on the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours of police officers.  

Important factors that can influence the successful implementation of community 

policing are the perceived self-efficacy of police officers and the ability to manage their 

emotions. emotional intelligence is defined as the ability to perceive emotions, to access and 

generate emotions in order to assist and understand emotions and emotional meanings 

(Salovey and Mayer  (1997). Any array of personal, emotional and social abilities and skills 

that influence one’s ability to succeed in coping with the environment. It addresses the 

emotional, personal, social and survival dimensions of intelligence that are more important 

for daily functioning than traditional aspects of intelligence. Goleman (1995) identified the 

five 'domains ‘of emotional intelligence as: knowing one own’s emotions, managing 

emotions, motivating oneself, recognizing and understanding other people's emotions and 

managing relationships, i.e. managing the emotions of others. Individuals with high 

emotional intelligence are usually successful in most things they do as they're the ones that 

others want on their team (Goleman, 1995).  

Emotional intelligence plays an important role in ensuring success in the workplace 

and it should be nurtured and practised by all parties facing the challenges of globalization 

and competition in business. Then, it is also a positive encouragement to create human 

relationships that can lead to the achievement of common goals and organizational 

effectiveness (Chong & Zainal, 2024). According to Bar-On (2010) emotional intelligence 

makes individuals to effectively understand of their selves and others; they usually have a 

good relationship with other people and are able to adapt and cope with their environment 

as well as become more successful in dealing with environmental demands. Previous 

research found that emotional intelligence was associated with higher employee 

performance, work engagement and job satisfaction (Sarangi & Vats, 2015; Sharmin et al., 

2024; Vratskikh et al., 2016).   

Other factors that influence the successful implementation of community policing is 

self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is defined as people’s belief in their capabilities to organize, 

execute and achieve success in a particular task (Bandura, 1991). Self-efficacy belief is the 



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Happiness et. al (Impact of emotional intelligence and perceived self-efficacy on the implementation of community policing practice)  

trust people have in themselves that they are capable of performing in a certain manner to 

attain a set goal (Bandura, 1991). Perceived efficacy plays a key role in human functioning 

because it affects behaviour not only directly,  but by its impact on other determinants such 

as goals and aspirations, outcome expectations and perception of impediments and 

opportunities in the social environment (Bandura, 2001). Self-efficacy also influences the 

course of action people choose to pursue the challenges and goals they set for themselves 

and their commitment to them,  how much effort they put forth in given endeavours, the 

outcomes they expect their efforts to produce and how long they persevere in the face of 

obstacles (Bandura, 1991).   

Self-efficacy influences the emotional response of individuals. Self-efficacy beliefs on 

several different levels, varying in psychological character from general self-efficacy which 

appears to be interchangeable with self-confidence in one’s competence broadly defined; to 

domain self-confidence to perform the tasks involved in pursuing a career; and to more 

narrowly defined domain confidence to perform specific tasks (Lucas et al., 2006).  Previous 

research found that high self-efficacy is associated with a range of positive outcomes, 

including job performance, effort, work engagement and organizational commitment, work 

quality and quantity as well as negative associations with  negative outcomes such as 

tiredness and absenteeism (Anfajaya & Rahayu, 2020; Chan et al., 2017; McDonald & 

Siegall, 1992; Seo & Ilies, 2009).  

Despite numerous efforts to implement community policing in Nigeria, its 

effectiveness has been hindered by various challenges. Those challenges required 

individuals to be able to manage their own and other emotions as well as believe in their own 

ability to do their job which impacts their ability to effectively engage with the community, 

build trust, and implement community policing strategies. Specifically, this study seeks to 

address the following research objectives: To investigate the relationship between police 

officers' emotional intelligence, perceived self-efficacy and the implementation of 

community policing principles within the Nigerian Police Force. Thus, the hypotheses we 

proposed are 1) there is a positive correlation between police officers' perceived self-efficacy 

(PSE) in community policing and the extent to which community policing principles are 

implemented in their daily practice within the Nigerian Police Force;  2)There is a positive 

correlation between police officers' emotional intelligence (EI) and the degree to which 

community policing principles are implemented in their daily practices within the Nigerian 

Police Force. 

Method 

Research Design  

This study employed a quantitative approach examining the relationship between emotional 

intelligence, perceived self-efficacy (predictor variables) and the implementation of 

community policing practice (outcome variable) among police officers in Nigeria.  

Participants  

The population of this study consists of 6,199 police personnel in Kaduna State Source: 

Police Headquarters. The majority of the police personnel are male, while a few are female. 

Most are between the ages of 20 and 40, while a few are 40 and over.  The sample size for 

the study was 107 participants, the sample will be made up of 63 males and 44 females that 

was determined using formula (Krejcie & Morgan, 1970).  



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Procedures 

The Ethical Committee of the University of Fort Hare, South Africa has granted approval 

for this study on 9 September 2022 (Ref. No.KHE)041SOKO01). These study only recruited 

police officers who volunteered and were used for the study and copies of the questionnaires 

were administered to them. 

Instruments 

In this study, three different questionnaires were used. They are the Emotional Intelligence 

Scale (EIS), the Self-Efficacy Scale (SES) and community policing practice Scale ( CPPS).  

 The Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS) is a self-reported inventory designed to 

assess the emotional intelligence of people, including those of police personnel. It is based 

on a model proposed by Schutte et al., (2007), which includes four aspects of emotional 

intelligence: the appraisal of emotion in self and others, the expression of emotion, the 

regulation of emotion in self and others, and the utilisation of emotion in problem-solving. 

It was validated and used in Nigeria by Mwantu et al., (2013). The EIS consists of 33 items, 

each of which was rated using a five-point Likert-type scale. This scale ranges from 1 

(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The survey can be completed in maximum of ten 

minutes. 

 The Self-Efficacy Scale (SSES) by Tsai et al., (2014) is a questionnaire that measures 

someone’s self-belief in their ability to build a sense of personal strength as they apply it to 

their day-to-day life. The self-efficacy scale is another instrument that was used for the study. 

It was designed to provide information that could help determine the level of perceived 

efficacy of junior class II Students in the study of integrated science. The scale was generated 

by the researcher with the help of an expert in educational psychology after the review of 

relevant literature. It is a four point rating scale. It ranges from Strongly Agree (SA= 4), 

Agree (A=3), Disagree (D=2), and Strongly Disagree (SD=1).  

 Police-Community Interaction Survey (PCIS) develop by  Rosenbaum et al., (2017) 

to capture both officer and community perspectives, addressing key elements such as officer 

engagement in community events, departmental support for proactive problem-solving, 

officer comfort with problem-solving techniques, perceived supervisory support, and the 

integration of community feedback into policing strategies; simultaneously, it assesses 

community perceptions of police visibility, responsiveness, trust, communication, and 

involvement in problem-solving. To ensure comprehensive data collection, the questionnaire 

recommends incorporating open-ended questions for qualitative insights, contextual 

adaptations, and rigorous reliability and validity testing, ultimately providing a robust tool 

for assessing the effectiveness of community policing practices. (Scale: Not at all, Slightly, 

Moderately, Very Much, Extremely).  

Data Analysis 

Regression analysis was used to test the Hypotheses.  

Results 

The partial correlation analysis revealed a statistically significant, albeit weak, negative 

relationship between emotional intelligence and the implementation of community policing 

principles. Specifically, a beta coefficient of -.164 and a significance value of .012 indicate 

that as emotional intelligence increases, the implementation of these principles tends to 



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Happiness et. al (Impact of emotional intelligence and perceived self-efficacy on the implementation of community policing practice)  

decrease. However, the R-squared value of .024 suggests that emotional intelligence 

accounts for only 2.4% of the variance in community policing implementation, highlighting 

a weak association despite its statistical significance.  

Similarly, the result showed that perceived self-efficacy and the implementation of 

community policing principles demonstrates a statistically significant, yet weak, negative 

relationship. A beta coefficient of -.141 and a highly significant p-value of .001 indicate that 

as perceived self-efficacy increases, the implementation of community policing principles 

tends to decrease. However, the R-squared value of .039 signifies that perceived self-efficacy 

explains only 3.9% of the variance in community policing implementation, revealing a weak 

association, though slightly stronger than that observed with emotional intelligence.  

Result of the linear regresion analyis showed a statistically significant overall model 

(F = 12.793, p < .001) where emotional intelligence and perceived self-efficacy jointly 

predict the implementation of community policing principles, though the model only 

accounts for 6.5% of the variance (R² = .065). R² suggests that other, unmeasured variables 

significantly influence the implementation of community policing practices. See Table 1 

 

Table 1 

The correlation between emotional intelligence, perceived self-efficacy and the 

implementation of community policing principles 
t variables  R R2 F df p 

Constant 0.254 0.065 12.793 2,371 0.000 

Emotional intelligence     
 

Perceived self-

efficacy 

 
 

Discussion  

The study aimed to examine the relationship between emotional intelligence, perceived self-

efficacy and implementation of community policing principles among police officers in 

Nigeria. The finding of a statistically significant yet weak, negative relationship between 

emotional intelligence and the implementation of community policing principles presents a 

complex scenario. While the linear regression analysis confirms a statistically significant 

effect, the practical significance is limited. This indicates that emotional intelligence, while 

showing a detectable negative correlation, explains only a small fraction of the variability in 

community policing implementation. This suggests that other potentially unmeasured 

variables are likely to exert a more substantial influence on the adoption and execution of 

these policing strategies (Cohen, 1988). 

The negative direction of the relationship, wherein higher emotional intelligence is 

associated with decreased implementation of community policing principles, is 

counterintuitive and requires careful consideration. It may point to a potential disconnect 

between the theoretical benefits of emotional intelligence in fostering community 

engagement and the practical realities of policing (Goleman, 1995). Perhaps officers with 

higher emotional intelligence perceive barriers or challenges in implementing these 

principles, or possibly, they prioritize alternative policing strategies that they deem more 

effective. This finding necessitates a deeper exploration of the context within which these 

principles are applied, including the organizational culture, training, and available resources 

(Skogan, 2004). 

Ultimately, while the statistical significance of the finding cannot be dismissed (Field, 

2018), the need for further research to identify and understand the more dominant factors 

that impact the implementation of community policing principles. Future studies could 



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benefit from incorporating qualitative methods to explore the perspectives of officers and 

community members, as well as examining the influence of organizational and systemic 

factors (Bryman, 2016). By broadening the scope of inquiry, researchers can provide a more 

comprehensive understanding of the dynamics at play and develop more effective strategies 

for enhancing community policing practices. 

A statistically significant but weak negative correlation was found between perceived 

self-efficacy and community policing implementation. This indicates that while a reliable 

association exists, perceived self-efficacy explains only 3.9% of the variance, suggesting 

other influential factors are at play (Cohen, 1988). The counterintuitive nature of this 

negative correlation, where higher self-efficacy is linked to decreased implementation, 

necessitates deeper investigation. It could reflect officers favoring traditional policing 

methods or systemic barriers hindering community policing despite high self-efficacy 

(Skogan, 2004). Given the limited explanatory power of perceived self-efficacy, a broader 

research approach is crucial. Future studies should incorporate qualitative methods to 

explore officer perspectives and contextual factors like organizational culture and training 

(Bryman, 2016). This will provide a nuanced understanding of the dynamics influencing 

community policing and facilitate the development of more effective implementation 

strategies. 

The result also found that emotional intelligence and perceived self-efficacy 

collectively predict community policing implementation, though they only explain 6.5% of 

the variance , highlighting the influence of unmeasured variables (Cohen, 1988). Emotional 

intelligence shows a significant positive association, consistent with its role in effective 

interpersonal skills (Goleman, 1995). Conversely, perceived self-efficacy, while negatively 

related, is not a significant predictor diverging from theoretical expectations and 

necessitating further exploration of mediating factors. The model's low explanatory power 

necessitates a broader examination of contextual and organizational factors, such as 

departmental culture and resource allocation (Skogan, 2004). Future research should employ 

qualitative methods to understand officer and community perspectives (Bryman, 2016) and 

longitudinal studies to clarify causal relationships. Despite emotional intelligence's 

significant predictive role, the limited R² underscores the need for a comprehensive, multi-

faceted approach to enhancing community policing. 

The findings of this study, revealing statistically significant but weak negative 

correlations between both emotional intelligence and perceived self-efficacy with 

community policing implementation, carry several key implications for policing practices in 

Nigeria. Firstly, the weak R-squared values suggest that relying solely on these 

psychological factors for effective community policing implementation is insufficient. This 

highlights the need to consider a wider array of variables, such as organizational culture, 

training, and resource allocation, in developing and implementing community policing 

strategies. Practically, it means that police leadership should not assume that officers with 

high emotional intelligence or self-efficacy will automatically excel in community policing 

roles. Secondly, the counterintuitive negative correlations demand a re-evaluation of current 

training and implementation models. The possibility that officers with higher emotional 

intelligence or self-efficacy perceive barriers to community policing or favor traditional 

methods suggests a potential disconnect between theoretical benefits and practical 

application. This necessitates a review of training programs to ensure they adequately 

address these perceptions and equip officers with the skills and knowledge to overcome these 

challenges. 

The study underscores the importance of contextual factors in shaping policing 

outcomes. Future research should prioritize qualitative methodologies to understand the 



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perspectives of officers and community members. This will provide a deeper understanding 

of the systemic and organizational barriers that hinder effective community policing. 

Policymakers and police leadership should utilize these insights to develop more 

contextually relevant and effective strategies, potentially leading to improved police-

community relations and enhanced public safety.In essence, the implications of this study 

call for a multi-faceted approach to improving community policing in Nigeria, emphasizing 

the need for comprehensive training, contextual understanding, and a shift away from relying 

solely on individual psychological traits. 

Conclusion 

This study found weak, negative links between emotional intelligence/self-efficacy and 

community policing in Nigeria. The low R-squared suggests other factors heavily influence 

implementation. The negative correlation is counterintuitive, demanding further contextual 

exploration. While the model demonstrates a statistically significant relationship between 

emotional intelligence and perceived self-efficacy in predicting community policing 

implementation, the low R² suggests other factors heavily influence outcomes. Emotional 

intelligence shows a significant positive association, but perceived self-efficacy does not, 

demanding further investigation. Therefore, a comprehensive, multi-faceted approach, 

incorporating contextual and qualitative analyses, is crucial for enhancing community 

policing practices. Future research should use qualitative methods to investigate officer 

perspectives and systemic barriers. This will provide a more comprehensive understanding 

and improve community policing practices.  

Acknowledgment 

The authors thank all participants who willingly took part in this study.  

Declarations  

 
Funding statement. This research is supported by the University of Fort Hare (Grant 
number: REC-270710-028-RA Level 01  
Transparency. The authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and 
transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and 
that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. This study followed 
all ethical practices during writing. 
Conflict of interest. The authors declare no conflict of interest. 
 

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