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Vol. 20 (2), August 2023, 129-135 

ISSN:  2598-6368(online); 1693-7236(print)                                                                 

       humanitas@psy.uad.ac.id             http://journal1.uad.ac.id/index.php/Humanitas        https://doi.org/10.26555/humanitas.v20i2.120 

Perception of corruption across gender, religion, and socioeconomic status 

Asoke Kumar Saha1, Atanu Kumar Dogra2, Arunavo Bairagi3, Vijay Pratap Singh4, Md. 

Alamgir Hossain1, Sayma Akter Pata5 

1Department of Psychology, Jagannath University, Bangladesh 
2Department of Psychology, University of Calcutta, India 
3Department of Psychology, University of Chittagong, Bangladesh  
4Department of Psychology, Lalit Narayan Mithila University, India 
5Residential Behaviour Specialist (RBS), Anderson Centre for Autism, USA 
Corresponding Author: drasoke@psychology.jnu.ac.bd 
 

 

Introduction 

Corruption is a multidisciplinary topic in the government and private offices, banks, transport 
systems, railway offices, businesses, industry, and even in the education system. A study on 
corruption found that in several Eastern European countries, more minor incidences of 
corruption have been reported, but other countries had more significant corruption problems 
(Anderson & Gray, 2006). Moreover, corruption is one factor hindering the success of 
decentralization in developing countries (Baltaci & Yilmaz, 2006). This condition has made 
several countries make a breakthrough; for example, in Cameroon, some programs have been 
experimented with in reforming customs administration to reduce corruption (Cantens et al., 
2010). A study in Tanzania found that corruption may continue even with high wages and 
good work conditions (Fjeldstad, 2003). Meanwhile, collective experience impacts perceived 
corruption more than personal experience (Canache et al., 2019).   

Perception of corruption has several impacts on individual psychological condition. A 
previous study finding shows individuals with a greater perception of corruption tend to be 
less satisfied with their life (Ciziceno & Travaglino, 2019; Tay et al., 2014). Also, the 
perception of official corruption significantly negatively impacts subjective well-being (Ma 
et al., 2022). While another study found the more corruption perception, the more depression 

ARTICLE  INFO  

 

ABST RACT  

 

Article history 

Received July 12, 2022 

Revised May 15, 2023 

Accepted August 12, 2023 

 Corruption is a critical issue for Bangladesh, including corruption in 
higher education. The present study explored the perception of 
corruption based on gender, religion, and socioeconomic status with 
factorial survey research design. One hundred twenty participants 
were selected by purposive sampling technique from male and female 
university students aged 20-26 years. All the participants were 
studying in public and private universities. Personal Information 
Form (PIF) and Perception of Corruption Scale (PCS) were used for 
this study. The PCS measured the respondents’ level of perception 
about corruption, consisting of 18 items. One-way analysis of 
variance and t-test were applied to analyze the data. The result 
indicates no significant difference in perception of corruption based 
on gender. In contrast, there is a significant difference in the 
perception of corruption based on religion, with the Hindus having 
the lowest perception of corruption. Moreover, there is a significant 
difference in perception of corruption based on socioeconomic status. 
Therefore, university students’ perceptions of different corrupt 
practices need to be addressed. 

    

 
Keywords 

corruption; 

gender; 

perception; 

religion; 

socioeconomic status. 

 

 

mailto:humanitas@psy.uad.ac.id
http://journal1.uad.ac.id/index.php/Humanitas
https://doi.org/10.26555/humanitas.v20i2.120
mailto:drasoke@psychology.jnu.ac.bd


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 Saha et al. (Perception of corruption across gender, religion, and…) 

will be, and vice versa (Zhang, 2022). Moreover, a previous systematic review found the 
perception that people around behave dishonestly will increase corruption behavior (Julián & 
Bonavia, 2020). Especially among university students, the perception of corruption in the 
workplace influences their intrinsic motivation (Llullaku & Bërxulli, 2017). Therefore, it is 
crucial to know how people perceive corruption based on gender, religion, and societal status.  

Women are considered less corrupt because of their integrity and morality (Goetz, 
2007). Ingrained power practice between women and men produces gender as a biological 
and social role that indicates abuse of power tendency. Even though both women and men 
are affected by corruption, the unequal gender relations in society's perspective cause women 
to be more exposed to corruption and its consequences (Swamy et al., 2001). Women’s lower 
status and position in society make them vulnerable to corruption. This condition may lead to 
different perceptions of corruption across gender.  

Religion may influence human behavior and activity (North et al., 2013). A study found 
the relationship between religion and corruption may be influenced by ecological inference, 
the heterogeneity between countries, and religious commitment among individuals (Ko & 
Moon, 2014). Another study in 174 countries shows that Islam and Christianity have no 
significant effect on corruption (Shadabi, 2013). The variety of the results from previous 
studies may indicate the differences in perception of corruption based on religion.  

Socioeconomic status (SES) includes household income, occupation, and profession as 
well as combined income or an individual's SES, only their attributes in their family. 
Socioeconomic status is typically broken into three levels: higher, middle, and lower. Higher 
levels of corruption perception are found among individuals of lower economic status and 
uneducated than the higher class of socioeconomic status (Maeda & Ziegfeld, 2015). As 
perceptions motivate behavior, it is crucial to understand the relation of socioeconomic status 
to the perception of corruption (Treisman, 2000).  

Corruption is a constant phenomenon worldwide, especially in developing countries, 
and is one of the key issues for public policies. It negatively impacts society and creates a 
hamper on our social life. Day to day, the rate of corruption rises. Therefore, this study aimed 
to identify the perception of corruption based on gender, religion, and socioeconomic status, 
which harms our everyday life because it creates disturbance. Moreover, this study helps to 
create awareness among the people to play a vital role in handling the problem of corruption. 
We can know what and how people think about corruption and how they perceive it. The 
main objective of the present study was to investigate the perception of corruption based on 
gender, religion, and socioeconomic status. Based on findings of previous studies, theoretical 
perspective, and the above objectives, the following hypotheses were formulated: (1). 
Significant differences will be found in the perception of corruption based on gender. (2) 
Significant differences will be found in the perception of corruption based on religion, and 
(3) Significant differences will be found in the perception of corruption based on 
socioeconomic status. 

Method 

Research Design 

The study involved a factorial design consisting of two levels of gender (male and female), 
three levels of religion (Muslim, Hindu, and Others), and three levels of socioeconomic status 
(higher class, middle class, and lower class). At the same time, the dependent variable is the 
perception of corruption. The perception of corruption among university students across 
gender, religion, and socioeconomic status was observed in this study. 

Before collecting data from the participant, permission was first taken from the 
concerned authority, and necessary rapport was established with the participant. Participants 
were informed about the purposes and necessities of the present research in the context of 



Humanitas: Indonesian Psychological Journal 131 
 

              Saha et al. (Perception of corruption across gender, religion, and…)   

Bangladesh, both verbally and in written form. The participants were then briefed about the 
questionnaires and how to fill them up. Participants were assured that their information would 
be used only for research purposes and would be confidential. After collecting data, 
respondents were thanked and rewarded for their cooperation. 

Participants  

The students of different universities in Dhaka city were selected as the target population for 
the study. Participants were selected by purposive sampling method studying in public and 
private universities. The sample consisted of participants who completed each questionnaire, 
and its dimensions comprised 120 university students, male (64 and 53.33%) and female (56 
and 46.67%). The age ranges were 20 years to 26 years, and participants were Muslim (89), 
Hindu (24), and other religions (7). The socioeconomic status participant as a higher class 
(28), middle class (61), and lower class (31) found this collecting data.  

Instruments 

Data was collected through questionnaires. The following questionnaires and assessment 
instruments measured each participant's perception of corruption. A personal information 
form (PIF), a personal information questionnaire, was used to collect personal and 
demographic information such as age, gender, religion, and socioeconomic status. The 
perception of corruption scale (PCS) is a Likert-type scale that measures the characteristics 
and behavior of individuals regarding the perception of corruption, containing 18 items 
calculated as Totally True=5, Partially True=4, Neither True or False=3, partially True=2, 
and Totally False=1 (Singh, 2005). Therefore, the highest score can be 90, and the lowest 
score can be 18 with a score close to 90 means people have a negative perception of 
corruption, and a score close to 18 means people have a positive perception of corruption. 
The Bangla version scale's reliability is Cronbach’s a= .68. Even though scholars have a 
different minimum level of reliability, some accepted values of .6 - .7 as an acceptable level 
of reliability (Ursachi et al., 2015). A difference score (D score) was calculated by subtracting 
the score from each item for each subject separately to determine participant orientation. 
Mean of D scores were thus obtained separately for all 120 participants. 

Data Analysis 

First, obtained data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. Hypotheses were then tested 
with a one-way analysis of variance and a t-test.  

Results 

The findings are shown through the perception of corruption across gender, religion, and 
socioeconomic status. The result from a one-way analysis of variance of the perception of 
corruption based on gender shows no significant difference in corruption perception among 
male and female university students (F = 1.191; p > .05). On the contrary, the result from a 
one-way analysis of variance shows a significant difference in perception of corruption based 
on religion (F = 5.416; p < .01). Therefore t-test was conducted to determine the difference 
in perception of corruption across religions.  

Table 1 indicates the mean score and standard deviation obtained for Muslims (M = 
65.79; SD = 15.288), Hindus (M = 54.96; SD = 13.681), and Other religions (M = 68.00; SD 
= 9.292). The table also shows that mean differences in perception of corruption between 
Muslim and Hindu respondents were significant. Moreover, the mean differences in 
perception of corruption between Others and Hindu respondents were also significant. 
Therefore, the hypothesis of the difference in perception of corruption based on religion was 



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found in this study, especially between Muslims and Hindus, and Hindus with participants 
with Other religions. The Hindu participants have the lowest mean perception of corruption. 
 

Table 1 

Mean SD and t-value of Perception of Corruption Based on Religion  
Variable Religion N Mean SD t p 

PCS Muslim 

Hindu 

89 

24 

65.79 

54.96 

15.288 

13.681 

3.145 

 

.001*** 

 

PCS Hindu 

Others 

24 

7 

54.96 

68.00 

13.681 

9.292 

-2.907 

 

.011* 

 

Note: *** p < .001; ** p < .01; * p < .05 
 

The result from a one-way analysis of variance shows a significant difference in 
perception of corruption based on socioeconomic status (F = 4.910; p < .05). Therefore, a t-
test was conducted to determine the difference in perception of corruption across 
socioeconomic status.  

 

Table 2 

Results from t-test on Perception of Corruption Based on Socioeconomic Status  
Group N M   SD df t p 

Higher class and middle class 28 43.29 13.018 87 -9.834 .001*** 

 61 65.93 8.446    

Higher class and lower class 28 43.29 13.018 57 -13.907 .001*** 

 31 77.94 4.582    

Middle class and lower class 61 65.93 8.446 90 -7.367 .001*** 

 31 77.94 4.582    

Note: *** p < .001; ** p < .01; * p < .05 

 

Results in Table 2 indicate that there is a significant difference in perception of 
corruption between higher (M = 43.29) and middle (M = 65.93) class groups (t = -9.834,  p < 
.01). The results also show that there is a significant difference in perception of corruption 
between higher (M = 43.29) and lower (M = 77.94) class groups (t = -13.907, p < .01). 
Moreover, the results show that there is a significant difference in perception of corruption 
between middle (M = 65.93) and lower (M = 77.94) class groups (t = -7.367, p < .01). 
Participants from the higher class have the lowest perception of corruption. In contrast, 
participants from the lower class have the highest perception of corruption.  

Discussion 

This study's results show no differences in the perception of corruption among male and 
female university students. Therefore, the first hypothesis of this study was rejected. This 
result aligns with a previous study in Slovenia that found no differences in the perception of 
corruption based on gender (Borošak & Šumah, 2019). Although women participated less in 
bribery (Swamy et al., 2001), a previous study's findings found women perceive more need 
corruption, while men perceive more greed corruption (Bauhr & Charron, 2020). The impact 
of corruption on gender equally affected men's and women's tendency (Goetz, 2007). 
Moreover, another study found differences in the tolerance of corruption between men and 
women in Australia but not in Indonesia, India, and Singapore (Alatas et al., 2009). The 
varying results indicate that other variables than gender may play a role in the perception of 
corruption. The first hypothesis of this study is not supported and may be caused by several 
conditions. The respondents of this study are male and female university students, and 
education affects their perception. Also, in modern times, males and females are all aware of 
the perception of corruption.  



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The respondents of this study were classified among three groups based on their 
religion: the Muslim, Hindu, and Others. The findings show a significant difference in the 
perception of corruption based on religion. Moreover, the perception of corruption among 
Muslim and Hindu university students is significant. Also, the perception of corruption 
significantly differs between The Hindu and the Others. The hypothesis of the perception of 
corruption concerning religion is supported in this research. These findings align with a 
previous study's result on religion's impact on corruption (Shadabi, 2013). However, findings 
from a previous study show the impact of religion on corruption is mediated by cultural 
channels (Zelekha & Avnimelech, 2023). A study in China found the role of religious culture 
in preventing official corruption (Xu et al., 2017).  

In this study, the respondents were classified among three groups based on their 
socioeconomic status score: higher class, middle class, and lower class group. The findings 
show a significant difference in the perception of corruption based on socioeconomic status. 
The perception of corruption among university students from higher classes is lower than two 
other groups. In comparison, university students from the lower class socioeconomic have 
higher than the other two groups. These results align with findings from a previous study in 
Croatia that the corruption perception of individuals is influenced by selected socioeconomic 
factors (Zakaria, 2016).  

The current study will help many organizations to increase their honesty, transparency, 
and integrity to reach their goal. This study's findings will also help the government and 
private service organizations rely on betterment against corruption. However, this study has 
limitations. The first limitation relates to the demographic variables that are thought to be 
associated with the perception of corruption. Future research needs to co-operate more 
variables associated with the social aspect, as social identity and family background impact 
the perception of corruption. The second limitation is the number of participants involved in 
this study. Further research needs to be conducted on a large sample size and collected data 
above the country.  

Conclusion 

Even though there are no differences in perception of corruption between male and female 

university students, in this study, the perception of corruption significantly differs based on 

religion and socioeconomic status. The Hindus have the lowest perception of corruption. On 

the other hand, university students from the higher class have the lowest perception of 

corruption, while the lower class has the highest perception of corruption. These differences 

need to be addressed in any intervention in corruption, focusing on designing ethical training 

programs to raise awareness of the negative consequences of non-monetary activities. 

Acknowledgment 

The authors acknowledge the institutions where the study has been conducted. The authors 

also highly acknowledge the participants who participated in the study as respondents. We 

are also acknowledging cordially those who collected data for the current study.   

Declarations  

Author contribution. AKS: Finalization of the research proposal and supervised the whole 
study. AKD: Coordinator of the study and contributed to data analysis. AB: Contributed to 
introduction and discussion. VPS: Contributed to scale development. Md.AH: Data collection 
and report writing. SAP: Reviewed the paper with data analysis 
Funding statement. The study has been conducted the present study out of personal interest. 
Thus, there are no funding agencies as such to conduct the study. 
Conflict of interest. The authors declare no conflict of interest. 



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Additional information. No additional information is available for this paper. 
 

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