




































Humanitas: Indonesian Psychological Journal  

Vol. 20 (1), February 2023, 53-68 
ISSN:  2598-6368(online); 1693-7236(print)                                                                 

       humanitas@psy.uad.ac.id             http://journal1.uad.ac.id/index.php/Humanitas           https://doi.org/10.26555/humantias.v20i1.32   

Adolescents’ mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic: Do 

loneliness, family, and online friends matter?  

Ni Komang Yastri Anasuyari, Melly Latifah, Lilik Noor Yuliati 

Department of Family and Consumer Sciences, IPB University, Indonesia 

Corresponding Author: yastrianasuyari@apps.ipb.ac.id  
 

 

Introduction 

COVID-19 officially became a global pandemic in March 2020 and, a year later, infected 
millions of people around the world. School and economic shutdowns, until recreation and 
tourism activities are restricted, have impacted the psychosocial environment of countries 
worldwide. The lockdown policy to prevent the spread of COVID-19 was implemented. 
Although it is only recommended to maintain physical distance, it cannot be denied that every 
person is at risk of social distance due to the drastic reduction of face-to-face meetings. The 
current crisis significantly affects every individual's daily life (Kowal et al., 2020).   

A similar condition occurs in Indonesia. Since the government reported the first case 
of COVID-19 in Indonesia in March 2020, every sector of society has changed drastically. 
Along with a physical distancing policy, the Ministry of Education and Culture in Indonesia 
requires that learning activities be carried out online or remotely from home, affecting 
adolescents' social aspects due to the limited social activities and direct friendships. This 
condition contrasts with the adolescent instinct to constantly relate and socialize with others 
(B. B. Brown et al., 1986). All the conditions might bring significant change and challenges 
in adolescents' lives (Fong & Iarocci, 2021). As the coronavirus attacks the human 
respiratory system, physical health is the most affected by the COVID-19 pandemic (Yuki 

ART ICLE  INFO  

 

AB ST R ACT  

 

Article history 

Received March 5, 2022 

Revised January 8, 2023 
Accepted February 22, 2023 

 The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted every element of adolescent 

life worldwide, including Indonesia. This study intended to examine 

how adolescents' loneliness and mental health during the COVID-19 

pandemic are affected by their family relationships and online 

friendships. This study collects data using an online questionnaire. 

The Mental Health Continuum-Short Form, the UCLA Loneliness 

Scale Version 3, the Brief Family Relationship Scale, and the Online 

Friendship Scale were used to collect the data. Two hundred ninety-

two students aged 12-18 participated in data gathering in Jakarta, 

Indonesia, between March and April 2021. Descriptive, correlation 

and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) analyses were conducted 

using SPSS 25.0 and LISREL 8.80. This research revealed that family 

relationships and online friendships had a negative effect on 

loneliness. Family relationships favorably impact adolescent mental 

health, but loneliness negatively impacts it. Furthermore, family 

relationships and online friendships indirectly affect adolescents' 

mental health through loneliness. These findings may implement in 

developing interventions to assist adolescent mental health during the 

COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia. 
 

    

 
Keywords 

adolescents;  

family relationship; 

loneliness; 
mental health; 

online friendship.  

 

 

mailto:humanitas@psy.uad.ac.id
http://journal1.uad.ac.id/index.php/Humanitas
https://doi.org/10.26555/humantias.v20i1.32
mailto:yastrianasuyari@apps.ipb.ac.id


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Anasuyari et al.(Adolescents’ mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic: Do…) 

et al., 2020). However, this pandemic has also greatly affected mental health apart from 
physical health (Mental Health Foundation, 2020). Accordingly, close attention to 
adolescents' loneliness and mental health is also needed. 

Adolescents are the most vulnerable age group to receive the negative impact of the 
COVID-19 pandemic related to loneliness and mental health, compared to children or adults 
age, considering the main tasks of adolescent development are achieved through social 
interaction with other people (Cooper et al., 2021). Previous studies reveal that the COVID-
19 pandemic is challenging for adolescents’ loneliness (F. Chen et al., 2020; Ellis et al., 
2020; Wang et al., 2020) and mental health (Rossi et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020). A 
pandemic is more than just a medical phenomenon; it affects every aspect of society and 
causes anxiety, stress, and disorder in every individual (Javed et al., 2020). Adolescents 
staying at home, away from their school and peers, can experience social isolation and lack 
of social contacts, leading to loneliness (Loades et al., 2020) that can have short or long‐term 
consequences on mental health (Javed et al., 2020).   

Loneliness is a perception of being alone and isolated; this definition indicates that 
loneliness is not just a physical separation from other people (Tiwari, 2013). Loneliness is a 
painful experience associated with a mismatch between the existing social relationships and 
the desired one, often described as a state without friends (Myers, 2010). A survey of 1,043 
respondents found that loneliness among respondents increased by 181% (almost three 
times) during the pandemic with the existence of physical distancing and self-quarantine 
policies (Huff, 2020). Not much different, another survey results stated that since the 
lockdown period, adolescents are almost three times more likely to experience loneliness, 
which makes them the most vulnerable age group to experience loneliness (Mental Health 
Foundation, 2020). While 87% of 2,036 teens and youth ages 13 to 25 experienced loneliness 
and felt isolated, even though they could still communicate with their friends (YoungMinds, 
2020). 

When people reach their full potential, work efficiently, manage everyday challenges, 
and contribute to their communities, they are in good mental health (World Health 
Organization, 2004). Mental health affects how people think, feel, and behave and includes 
social, emotional, and psychological well-being (Keyes, 2002). Happiness and satisfaction 
are states of emotional well-being; social acceptance and support from the community are 
examples of social well-being, and positive attitudes toward individual differences and 
becoming independent are examples of psychological well-being (Keyes, 2006). In a recent 
study conducted in India that children and teenagers aged nine to 18 had felt powerless 
(66.11%), worried (68.59%), and afraid (61.98%) during this pandemic (Saurabh & Ranjan, 
2020). Moreover, in Indonesia during the COVID-19 pandemic, of the 113 adolescents 
examined, 38.1% were at risk for peer interaction issues, 28.3% for pro-social behavior 
issues, and 10.6% for emotional issues (Wiguna et al., 2020).  

Most studies concentrate on risk factors, but protective factors are also needed and 
may be more effective as prevention efforts. Feelings of separation from social relationships 
cause loneliness (de Jong-Gierveld, 1987; Shiovitz-Ezra & Leitsch, 2010). However, 
teenagers' perceptions of social support from others may operate as a protective factor for 
their mental health (Fuligni, 2019). Therefore, developing quality social ties might be the 
best way to achieve good mental health and avoid loneliness. Therefore, adolescents' 
loneliness and mental health will be impacted by the quality of their family's relationships, 
both positive and negative. Positive family relationships provide warmth and support from 
family members, which significantly lowers the risk of loneliness in people of all ages 
(Hombrados-Mendieta et al., 2013; Stocker et al., 2020) and impact better mental health in 
adolescents (P. Chen & Harris, 2019; M. D. Johnson & Galambos, 2014). 

The development of adolescence is also dominantly influenced by adolescent 
interactions with peers. Even in a pandemic, adolescents can still build friendships without 
meeting face to face by utilizing internet technology through online friendship (Antheunis 



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et al., 2012). Online friendship is a type of friendship that occurs in online situations, with 
the use of online media, including social networks and internet applications. Online 
friendships can occur in two types of pairs of friends (Helmi et al., 2017).  First, friendships 
between strangers who meet on social media, then become online friends. Second, 
friendships between friends or relatives who are known or have actually met (offline) and 
then interact online. Adolescents are the biggest social media users to connect with friends 
(Cauberghe et al., 2021). By establishing communication with online friends, adolescents 
can build desirable interpersonal relationships, reduce the loneliness they experience, and 
increase their social capital (Best et al., 2014; Triwidodo & Dewi, 2012).  

Adolescence is a crucial period in the life cycle of every individual. Therefore, 
experiencing loneliness and poor mental health, which can adversely affect their personality 
and behavior in the future, is not expected among adolescents. Specifically, this study 
intends to analyze how family relationships and online friendships affect adolescents’ 
loneliness and mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic, as shown in Figure 1. A 
correlation analysis was also conducted to determine the relationship between demographic 
characteristics with family relationships, online friendships, loneliness, and mental health in 
adolescents.  
 
Figure 1  
Hypothesized Model  

 

Method 

Research Design  

This study uses an explanatory research design, with survey research, to explain the 
relationship and influence between variables through hypothesis testing (Edmonds & 
Kennedy, 2016). The research was conducted in March-April 2021 in Jakarta, Indonesia. 
During the data collection, Jakarta began as the province with the highest confirmed cases 
of COVID-19 in Indonesia and implemented the public activity restriction policy so that all 
students were required to stay at home. Participants were recruited through school and were 
contacted via messages to explain the study’s purpose and link to an online questionnaire. 
The procedures and informed consent were provided on the first page of the questionnaire. 
This study was ethically approved by the Institute of Research and Community Service 
Ethics Committee at IPB University number 350/IT3.KEPMSM-IPB/SK/2021. 

Participants 

Research participants were selected by the cluster random sampling method, starting with 
selecting two junior high schools and two senior high schools based on data from the DKI 



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Jakarta Province education unit. Then, the total class was determined from each school, and 
randomization was performed again to select three classes from each school. All students in 
the selected class became participants in this study. Two hundred ninety-two adolescents 
aged between 12 and 18 gave consent to participate in this study. Table 1 shows among these 
participants, 73.6% were females, and 26.4% were males. They were middle and high school 
students from four different schools in Jakarta, Indonesia. Most participants had intact 
families, while 14% came from non-intact families.  
 

Table 1  

Demographic Characteristics 

Characteristics n % 

Gender   

   Male 77 26.4 

   Female 215 73.6 

Paternal level of education    

   Elementary education 15 5.1 

   Secondary education 123 42.2 

   Tertiary education 139 47.6 

Maternal level of education    

   Elementary education 21 7.2 

   Secondary education 143 49.0 

   Tertiary education 121 41.4 

Paternal working status   

   Employed 260 89.1 

   Unemployed 17 5.8 

Maternal working status   

   Employed 114 39.0 

   Unemployed 171 58.6 

Family status   

   Intact family 252 86.0 

   Non-intact family 40 14.0 

Family size   

   Small family (≤ 4 persons) 147 50.3 

   Medium family (5-7 persons) 142 48.6 

   Big family (≥8 persons) 3 1.0 

Per capita income (IDR)a   

   < IDR 683,339.00 84 28.8 

   ≥ IDR 683,339.00 208 71.2 
aIDR (Indonesian Rupiah)   

Instruments 

The data was collected using four instruments; all were administered in Indonesian. Family 
relationship was estimated using the modified Brief Family Relationship Scale (BFRS) (Fok 
et al., 2014). It consists of 16 items with three subscales: cohesion, expressiveness, and 
conflict. Each item is rated on a 4-point scale from very unsuitable (1) to very suitable (4). 
The item discrimination index ranged from .322 to .785, with reliability α=.915. 

Online friendship was estimated using the modified Online Friendship Scale (Helmi 
et al., 2017). It consists of 19 items in four subscales: mutual support, voluntariness, 
companionship, and sharing. Online friends might be strangers that people have made on 
social media or offline pals who also communicate online. Participants rate each item on a 
6-point scale from never (1) to always (6). The item-total correlation index is between .512 
- .750, with Cronbach’s alpha of .902. 

Loneliness was estimated using the modified UCLA Loneliness Scale Version 3 
(Russell, 1996). It consists of 20 items in three subscales referring to (Austin, 1983): 



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belonging and affiliation, intimate others, and social others. The items are rated on a 6-point 
scale from never (1) to always (6). Internal consistency was .927 showing strong reliability, 
while the item discrimination index varied from .457 to .810. 

Mental health was estimated using the modified Mental Health Continuum-Short Form 
(MHC-SF) (Keyes, 2002). It consists of 14 items in three subscales: emotional or subjective, 
social, and psychological well-being. Each item is rated on a 6-point scale from never (1) to 
always (6). The item discrimination index ranged from .558 to .779, with Cronbach’s alpha 
value of .870. 

Data Analysis 

Processing and data analysis were conducted with IBM SPSS 25.0 and LISREL 8.80, using 
2-tailed tests with a significance level < .05. The scores for family relationships, loneliness, 
and mental health were indexed and grouped into three categories based on Bloom's cut-off 
point, namely low (<60), moderate (60-80), and high (>80). The statistical analysis used is 
descriptive, correlation test, and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). Descriptive analysis 
is used to identify each variable's mean and standard deviation. Correlation tests were 
performed to analyze the relationship between demographic characteristics with family 
relationships, online friendships, loneliness, and mental health. SEM is carried out with a 
confirmatory approach to conduct model estimation and analyze the association between the 
constructs. In this research model, the subscale acts as an indicator of the latent construct. 

Results 

The average index of adolescents’ family relationships, online friendships, and mental health 
is moderate. Meanwhile, the average index of adolescent loneliness is in a low category (see 
Table 2).  
 

Table 2  
Mean, Standard Deviation, and Percentage of Each Variable 

Variable 
Category (%) 

Mean SD 
Low (<60) Moderate (60-80) High (>80) 

Family relationship 30.5 58.9 10.6 76.9 11.2 

   Cohesion 4.5 45.5 50.0 80.2 11.2 

   Expressiveness 27.1 45.2 27.7 70.9 17.7 

   Conflict 84.2 14.0 1.7 48.9 13.1 

Online friendship      

   Voluntariness 22.9 49.7 27.4 71.8 14.5 

   Mutual support 44.9 40.4 14.7 62.1 17.2 

   Companionship 63.7 33.2 3.1 56.8 14.7 

   Sharing 30.5 55.5 14.0 67.1 14.1 

Loneliness 62.0 31.8 6.2 58.8 17.8 

   Intimate others 55.1 32.5 12.3 53.6 14.9 

   Social others 71.9 24.0 4.1 54.3 14.5 

   Belonging and affiliation 71.9 24.0 4.1 56.4 14.6 

Mental health 24.3 60.3 15.4 68.1 12.4 

   Emotional well-being 19.8 58.6 21.6 70.3 13.7 

   Social well-being 31.8 53.1 15.1 67.4 13.4 

   Psychological well-being 26.7 51.0 22.3 67.6 14.2 

Table 3 presents correlation results between participants' demographic characteristics 
and all variables studied. Adolescent age and gender, maternal working status, and family 
status were significantly related to family relationships. Male adolescents were found to have 
better family relationships. The older the adolescent, the higher the quality of family 



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relationships. Teenagers from intact families with unemployed mothers have better family 
relationships.  

 

Table 3  
Correlation Analysis 

Participant characteristics 

 Correlation coefficient 

Family 

relationship 

Online 

friendship 
Loneliness 

Mental 

health 

Adolescents’ age  -.197**  .078  .201** -.132* 

Adolescents’ gender (0=male; 1=female) -.122*  .130*  .241** -.119* 

Fathers’ age   .102  .052 -.112  .166** 

Fathers’ education  .054 -.004 -.053  .104 

Fathers’ working status  

  (0=unemployed; 1=employed) 

 .114 -.048  .159**  .032 

Mothers’ age   .030 -.070  .014  .053 

Mothers’ education    .027  .012 -.008  .012 

Mother’s working status  

  (0=unemployed; 1=employed) 

-.129*  .069  .032  .032 

Family status (0=intact; 1=non-intact)  .156**  .030 -.159**  .146* 

Family size  .016 -.028 -.044  .054 

Income per capita -.050  .003 -.074  .024 
*Significant at the .05 level; **significant at .01 level (2-tailed) 

Loneliness is impacted by age, gender, father's work status, and family status. Female 
adolescents are more likely to have higher rates of loneliness than males, and it has been 
found that the older the adolescent, the higher the level of loneliness. Teenagers with 
working fathers and from non-intact families are lonelier.  

While adolescent mental health is influenced by age, gender, paternal age, and family 
status. Female adolescents have lower mental health than males; the older adolescents are, 
the worse their mental health becomes. Adolescents from intact families have better mental 
health. 
 
Figure 2 
Structural Equation Model Predicting Loneliness and Mental Health 

 

The SEM analysis results show the model's fit indices were χ2 = 169.14, df = 59, p > 
.05, RMSEA = .08, CFI = .97, and GFI= .91, indicating a good fit to the data. Significant 
path coefficients (95% CI) between the variables are illustrated in Figure 2. To simplify the 
presentation, the model does not show latent variable indicators and error terms. Loneliness 
was the mediator of the relationships between family relationships and online friendships 



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with mental health. As predicted, family relationships and online friendships were linked 
with loneliness, predicting adolescent mental health. 

The indirect effects of the variables were examined and summarized in Table 4. 
Loneliness as an intermediate factor significantly mediated family relationships and online 
friendships with adolescents' mental health. Nonetheless, the direct effect of online 
friendship on mental health was not statistically significant. However, if comparing the total 
effect on each path, the direct influence of the lonely variable on mental health is the largest, 
with a path coefficient value of .71. This finding shows that loneliness is the most dominant 
variable in influencing mental health compared to family relationships and online 
friendships.  

 

Table 4 
Effects Decomposition of Factors Affecting Adolescents' Loneliness and Mental Health 

Variable Direct Effect Indirect Effect Total Effect 

Loneliness    

1. Family relationship - .54* - - .54* 

2. Online friendship - .39* - - .39* 

Mental health    

1. Family relationship   .19* .38*   .57* 

2. Online friendship - .02 .27*   .25* 

3. Loneliness - .71* - - .71* 
* Significant at the .05 level 

Discussion 

Adolescence is a turbulent period that must be passed, known as a time of stress and storm 
(Casey et al., 2010). Since early adolescence, chemical and physical changes in the brain 
result in a neural mismatch characterized by increased emotions in response to natural and 
perceived stressors (Bailen et al., 2019). But, adolescents face many challenges and 
opportunities, including building and fostering social relationships and maintaining mental 
health (P. K. Smith, 2016). Adolescents are clearly at higher risk for experiencing 
psychological problems during the pandemic due to adolescent developmental 
characteristics and the fact that adolescents study online, spend most of their time at home, 
and are physically separated from their friends (Magson et al., 2021). 

Family relationships and online friendships have a significant negative effect on 
loneliness. Loneliness in teenagers can be predicted by less harmonious family connections, 
characterized by low levels of support, commitment, and openness of expression as well as 
excessive conflict within the family. Adolescents with good family relationships are less 
affected by physical distancing policies than those with low-quality family relationships, 
who are more likely to feel lonely during the COVID-19 pandemic (Orben et al., 2020). 
Quality online friendships are characterized by high mutual support, a sense of community, 
and sharing activities that reduce adolescent loneliness. Through submitted status updates, 
images, and comments, teenagers can indirectly access their friends through online 
friendships (Skues et al., 2012). Adolescents often use social media to express their feelings 
and frustration to online friends (Niederkrotenthaler et al., 2019). This situation makes them 
feel more connected to others and reduces their feeling of isolation (Skues et al., 2012).  

During this pandemic, it would be good if adolescents had a strong support system, 
such as family and online friends. On the other hand, it would be different if adolescents' 
family relationships and online friendships were not supportive; they would easily 
experience loneliness. Long-term feelings of loneliness can predict mental health problems 
in the long term (Pamela Qualter et al., 2010). Loneliness causes the feeling of being 
unloved, helpless, worthless, and abandoned (K. Smith, 2019). It may be more difficult for 



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people who feel lonely to encounter their interpersonal problems; therefore, loneliness might 
negatively affect self-esteem  (Yılmaz et al., 2013) and be connected to personal well-being 
(Lyyra et al., 2021).  

Loneliness mediates family relationships and online friendships, and mental health 
among adolescents. Loneliness partially mediated family relationships and mental health and 
fully mediated online friendship and mental health. It shows that adolescents with poor-
quality family relationships and online friendships are more likely to feel lonely, causing 
low mental health. In contrast, adolescents with good family relationships and online 
friendships tend to feel less lonely and have better mental health. Loneliness is a mediator 
between family functioning (adaptation and cohesion) and the mental health of vocational 
high school students during the COVID-19 pandemic (Pan et al., 2021). Longitudinal 
loneliness has also been reported to mediate adolescent mental health and well-being (Jose 
& Lim, 2014; Pan et al., 2021; Pamela Qualter et al., 2010).  

The COVID-19 pandemic can positively and negatively affect family relationships and 
adolescent mental health. Teenagers experience anxiety and worry because they fear 
contracting COVID-19, restricted access to facilities like schools and hospitals, and limited 
social interaction with friends and relatives (Fegert et al., 2020). This situation is also very 
likely to occur in every family member, which can risk causing conflict and worsening 
family relationships (S. M. Brown et al., 2020; Fegert et al., 2020; Magson et al., 2021). 
Deteriorating the quality of family relationships causes feelings of loneliness in teenagers 
(Pan et al., 2021), leading to low mental health (Isumi et al., 2020; Pan et al., 2021). 
Furthermore, the pandemic may also positively affect adolescents' mental health. Family 
members who spend more time together may develop stronger cohesion and bonds (Fegert 
et al., 2020). This family relationship can help adolescents reduce fear and stress due to the 
pandemic, ultimately reducing loneliness (Cooper et al., 2021) and positively impacting 
mental health (S. M. Brown et al., 2020; Isumi et al., 2020).  

Family systems theory identifies the relationship between family members as an 
element that plays an essential role in the lives of adolescents (Andolfi, 2013; Minuchin, 
2018). The results showed that the average adolescent family relationship index was 
moderate. These findings indicate that most adolescents perceive that their family 
relationships are of sufficient quality, characterized by commitment, support, openness, and 
low levels of conflict among family members (Fok et al., 2014).  

Family relationship is influenced by age, maternal employment status, and family 
status. The older the teenager, the lower the quality of family relationships. Along with 
increasing age, adolescents become more independent, and communication with parents 
decreases (Parra et al., 2013). Families with working mothers were found to have a lower 
quality of family relationships. Working mothers have dual roles: domestic and public. In 
this condition, mothers often lack time to establish close interactions with family members, 
especially children (Nezhad, 2013). Intact families have a better quality of family 
relationships; however, non-intact families (parents divorced or one of them has died) have 
a lower quality of family relationships. Incomplete or non-intact families (post-divorce) 
present more communication difficulties, parental conflict, and lower family cohesion than 
intact families (Afifi et al., 2015; H. D. Johnson et al., 2001; McManus & Nussbaum, 2011).  

Nowadays, online friendship is an inseparable part of adolescents' daily life (Davis, 
2012). Especially in the COVID-19 pandemic, online friendships can be a solution to sharing 
or exchanging information, building networks with new people, and maintaining 
relationships with old friends from the real world without meeting face-to-face (Helmi et al., 
2017). Text messaging and chatting via social media allow adolescents to maintain a sense 
of connection with one another regardless of their time or physical location (Davis, 2012). 
Most adolescents have online friendships in the moderate and high categories, indicating 
that most adolescents have built quality online friendships through social media.  



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Loneliness is a feeling of discomfort, loss, and dissatisfaction resulting from the 
incompatibility of desired social relationships with actual social relationships (Fry & Debats, 
2002; Perlman & Peplau, 1982). Four out of ten adolescents experience loneliness in the 
moderate and high categories, indicating that some adolescents are unsatisfied with their 
social relationships or cannot achieve the desired ones. Several related studies have also 
reported increased adolescent loneliness during the COVID-19 pandemic (F. Chen et al., 
2020; Ellis et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020). Female adolescents experience higher levels of 
loneliness, similar to the result of previous research (Bayat et al., 2021; Goosby et al., 2013; 
Lee & Goldstein, 2016). Girls spend more time building social relationships and are more 
sensitive to a lack of support from friends and family (Lee & Goldstein, 2016). 

Loneliness is impacted by age, the father's work status, and family status. Adolescents 
feel more lonely as they get older. A study on loneliness in adolescents and adults found 
loneliness increases from early adolescence (age 13 years) to the mid-20s (von Soest et al., 
2020). Adolescents to young adults are vulnerable to loneliness because of the instability of 
their social network; this can be related to physical changes and self-identity exploration that 
can make adolescents vulnerable to exclusion (P. Qualter et al., 2013; Pamela Qualter et al., 
2015). Adolescents with working fathers had higher rates of loneliness. Working fathers are 
less able to be optimally involved in children's activities because they have low control over 
work schedules (McMunn et al., 2017; Shows & Gerstel, 2009). Adolescents from non-intact 
families experienced higher loneliness. In the case of families with divorced parents, 
adolescent loneliness results from parental conflict and low family cohesion (H. D. Johnson 
et al., 2001). Divorce causes changes in the family structure, increasing the risk of emotional 
tension between parents and adolescents (Kalmijn, 2013; Wallerstein et al., 2013). 

Most participants' mental health is in the moderate category. It indicates that some 
adolescents are already sufficiently well-off emotionally, socially, and psychologically, thus 
enabling them to cope with life's stresses, realize their potential, and contribute to their 
community (World Health Organization, 2004). Adolescent mental health is characterized 
by age, gender, paternal age, and family status. Adolescent girls have lower mental health. 
During a pandemic, women suffer a more significant psychological impact and higher levels 
of stress and anxiety (Wang et al., 2020), thus consistently being associated with a higher 
risk of low mental health (P. Chen & Harris, 2019; Liu et al., 2020; Rossi et al., 2020). The 
older the teenager and the older the father, the better the adolescents’ mental health. In line 
with these findings, younger individuals have a bigger chance of developing mental health 
problems (Rossi et al., 2020). During a pandemic, adolescents face stress and anxiety (Wang 
et al., 2020). Uncertainty and fear of declining academic achievement also negatively affect 
the mental health of adolescents who are also students (Wang et al., 2020). The older the 
father's age, the better adolescents' mental health. Adolescents with intact parents have better 
mental health than adolescents with divorced or deceased parents. Families with both 
biological parents provide better developmental outcomes for adolescents with the 
assumption that parents carry out their functions as a source of emotional support, practical 
assistance, guidance, and supervision (Amato & Keith, 1991).  

The implications of this study's findings may be implemented for developing programs 
and policies regarding adolescent well-being in Indonesia. Adolescents still had high levels 
of loneliness (6.2%) and low mental health (24.3%). Therefore, directly educating 
adolescents on maintaining mental health stability during the COVID-19 pandemic is 
needed. Educational activities can involve youth directly as ambassadors or volunteers to 
educate their fellow youths. During the pandemic, educational activities can be packaged in 
various methods and approached online, such as holding webinars and competitions or 
sharing audio-visual information through social media.  

Adolescents must have an adequate support system to reduce loneliness and improve 
adolescent mental health. Good quality family relationships have been shown to reduce 
loneliness and better predict mental health in adolescents. Families can strengthen emotional 



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bonds, commitment, and support between family members. Families can create an 
atmosphere that supports open expression, warm interactions, and assertive communication 
to make adolescents feel accepted and understood by other family members. Parents can 
empathize with adolescents. Parents need to maintain a positive family atmosphere by 
responding patiently to each adolescent’s complaints and understanding his feelings. 
Therefore, coaching and guidance to adolescents' families are also needed. So parents can 
gain better knowledge and skills to provide appropriate care for adolescents, leading to 
harmonious family relationships. 

Based on the result, quality online friendships can reduce loneliness in adolescents. 
Even if adolescents cannot meet face-to-face with their peers, they can use existing 
technology to stay connected. However, it must be ensured that the online friendships built 
positively impact adolescents. Parents can provide encouragement and guidance so 
adolescents can choose online friends or be involved in good online communities. 
Adolescents can promote positive activities with their peers, such as studying together or 
participating in extracurricular or talent interest clubs at or outside of school online. 

This research still has some limitations that can be considered for further improvement. 
First, the absence of observations of all research variables before the COVID-19 pandemic 
made this study unable to comprehensively identify the particular effects of the COVID-19 
pandemic on all variables. Second, the sample used in this research is relatively small and 
demographically constrained. Therefore, caution is needed in generalizing the study results, 
given the differences in COVID-19 cases and the different policies for restricting community 
activities from the government in each region. Future research can be carried out in a broader 
demographic area, covering rural and urban areas.  

Conclusion 

Loneliness emerged as a mediator between family relationships and online friendships in 
adolescents` mental health. Adolescents with unqualified family relationships and online 
friendships are more likely to experience loneliness, resulting in poor mental health. On the 
other hand, adolescents with good family relationships and online friendships tend to feel less 
lonely, which translates into better mental health. These findings should be considered when 
developing interventions to support adolescent mental health during the pandemic in 
Indonesia. So there will be more Indonesian youth who realize their potential, work 
productively, and contribute to their communities. 

Acknowledgment 

The authors wish to thank the Principals of all the Schools who have given permission to 

conduct the research. We also thank the respondents who participated in this research and 

all of the lecturers and staff of the Department of Family and Consumer Sciences, Faculty 

of Human Ecology, IPB University.   

Declarations  

Author contribution. NKYA conceived the presented idea, performed the computations, and 
wrote the draft. ML verified the theory and supervised the findings. LNY verified the 
analytical methods and supervised the findings of this work. NKYA, ML, and LNY discussed 
the results and contributed to the final manuscript.  
Funding statement. The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, 
and publication of this article. 
Conflict of interest. The authors declare no conflict of interest. 
Additional information. No additional information is available for this paper. 



Humanitas: Indonesian Psychological Journal 63 

 

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