







































Humanitas: Indonesian Psychological Journal  
Vol. 20 (2), August 2023, 117-128 

ISSN:  2598-6368(online); 1693-7236(print)                                                                 

       humanitas@psy.uad.ac.id             http://journal1.uad.ac.id/index.php/Humanitas            https://doi.org/10.26555/humanitas.v20i2.374 

Interfaith friendships among emerging adulthood in Surabaya: The role 

of tolerance and stigma consciousness 

Nicolas Valentino Fonda, Darmawan Muttaqin 

Faculty of Psychology, Universitas Surabaya, Indonesia 
Corresponding Author: darmawan.muttaqin@staff.ubaya.ac.id  
 

 

Introduction 

Friendship has been considered important throughout history, including in the current urban 

era, as humans are social creatures and require interaction with others, particularly peers. 

Friendship relations can help individuals develop socially (Tesch, 1983) and understand the 

constantly changing urban situation (Kathiravelu & Bunnell, 2017). Previous studies have 

shown that friendship relations can also encourage individuals to be open to others (Berndt, 

2002) and to practice building intimate relationships (Corsano et al., 2017). Additionally, 

friendship relations can aid individuals in preparing for adulthood (Aryanti, 2014) by 

fostering independence, regardless of family involvement (Flynn et al., 2017), and can 

prevent various psychological problems, such as stress (Schwartz-Mette & Smith, 2016) and 

depression (Tandiono et al., 2020). 

Generally, friendship relations are considered beneficial for individuals involved in 

them. These benefits include stimulating the formation of friendships, mutual assistance, 

intimacy, loyal relationships, self-validation, and emotional security (Mendelson & Aboud, 

1999). These benefits can be experienced when friendship relations have a certain level of 

quality. Friendship benefits are used in a measurement tool, with the principle that the higher 

the score, the higher the quality of the individual's friendship (Mendelson & Aboud, 1999). 

Other indicators of high-quality friendship include supportive attitudes, reciprocal interaction, 

ARTICLE  INFO  

 

ABST RACT  

 

Article history 
Received February 26, 2023 
Revised June 28, 2023 

Accepted July 21, 2023 

 Forming quality interfaith friendships is not impossible. Additionally, 
our society has become accustomed to differences. However, a clear 
explanation for the difficulty of forming such friendships has yet to 
be established. This study aimed to investigate the influence of 
tolerance and stigma consciousness on the quality of interfaith 
friendships. The research involved 400 respondents aged 18-25, 
comprising 200 Muslim respondents with at least one non-Muslim 
friend and 200 non-Muslim respondents with at least one Muslim 
friend. The quality of friendship was evaluated using the McGill 
Friendship Questionnaire (MFQ), while tolerance and stigma 
consciousness were measured using the Tolerance Index 
Questionnaire (TI) and Stigma Consciousness Questionnaire (SCQ), 
respectively. Multiple regression analysis was utilized to test the 
research hypothesis. The study results indicate that tolerance and 
stigma consciousness are significant factors in determining the quality 
of interfaith friendships. Individuals with tolerance and low levels of 
stigma consciousness are more likely to form quality interfaith 
friendships. 

 

 
Keywords 
friendship quality; 
interfaith friendship; 
tolerance; 
stigma consciousness. 

 

 

mailto:humanitas@psy.uad.ac.id
http://journal1.uad.ac.id/index.php/Humanitas
https://doi.org/10.26555/humanitas.v20i2.374
mailto:darmawan.muttaqin@staff.ubaya.ac.id


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Fonda & Muttaqin (Interfaith friendship among emerging adulthood in Surabaya: The role…) 

minimal conflict (Parker & Asher, 1993), and feelings of security and closeness during time 

spent together (Bukowski et al., 1994). 

Friendship relations are a unique and complex phenomenon. Researchers have not 

found a definitive explanation for their formation (Bunnell, 2017; Parker & Asher, 1993; 

Policarpo, 2015; Wicaksono & Adiyanti, 2019). Friendship may arise from a single point of 

similarity, even if the individuals involved have yet to derive any tangible benefits from the 

relationship. This phenomenon is possible because individuals interact with others to obtain 

something, whether it be tangible or intangible, such as a sense of mutual trust (Lambe et 

al., 2001; Lioukas & Reuer, 2015). From the outset, factors such as geography, hobbies, 

interests, and even favorite foods significantly formed friendship relations in daily life. 

However, when individuals enter adolescence, they begin to have abstract and idealistic 

thoughts, and certain criteria are considered when choosing friends (Baharun et al., 2016; 

Kazi & Galanaki, 2020). These criteria are the accumulation of experiences and socialization 

from the environment, which shape new standards of similarity in choosing friends. Religion 

can be a determining factor in forming friendship relations, and society generally prefers to 

interact and be friends with individuals with relatively similar backgrounds (Rubin et al., 

2008). This phenomenon is often illustrated as a "fishbowl" to describe how individuals are 

born, grow, spend time, and interact with others who are relatively similar to themselves 

(Van Der Walt, 2014). This illustration reinforces the importance of similarity as a key factor 

in forming relationships (Myers & Twenge, 2019). 

Religious similarity may be a factor to consider in forming friendship relationships. 

However, interactions between individuals of different religions in urban settings cannot be 

avoided, whether through education or proximity (Yulianto & Tohari, 2019). Thus, it is 

possible for individuals to form friendships across religions. Through a community 

psychology approach, interfaith friendships can bridge religious differences through 

meaningful interpersonal relationships (Mccormack, 2013). These types of friendships are 

important in creating an inclusive society and can offer insights that deepen individual 

religious beliefs (Pschaida, 2018). Despite the significant benefits of interfaith friendships, 

individual involvement in such relationships still tends to be low (Yahya & Boag, 2014). 

This situation may be due to concerns when befriending individuals of different religions or 

a lack of opportunities to interact with them (Lioukas & Reuer, 2015). Furthermore, conflicts 

between religions in society can lead to misunderstandings of religious differences. 

Consequently, people may feel uncomfortable and keep their distance, challenging 

establishing interfaith friendships (Burhani, 2011). 

Despite the challenges in establishing interfaith friendships, the enthusiasm to create a 

more inclusive Indonesian society remains strong. Various groups, such as educators, 

community leaders, and the government, continuously promote tolerance through different 

approaches (Agung, 2017; Masamah & Zamhari, 2016; Setiawan, 2017). From the time 

individuals receive a formal education, they are equipped with an understanding of and 

character education related to tolerance (Setiadi, 2016). These efforts encourage individuals 

to accept and appreciate differences among individuals and groups in daily life (Maemunah, 

2018; Meiza, 2018). The objective is for tolerant individuals to display behaviors oriented 

towards kindness and to provide warmth regardless of personal and group backgrounds 

(Budiman et al., 2021). However, tolerance related attitudes and behaviors are difficult to 

internalize if individuals lack a tolerance character. Furthermore, tolerant individuals can 

exhibit tolerant personality traits and show respect towards social and ethnic differences 

(Sztejnberg & Jasiński, 2018). 

Individuals’ tolerance can guide attitudes and behaviors of mutual respect and 

appreciation in interfaith friendships. However, it is undeniable that individuals consider 



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other factors when establishing such friendships, one of which is stigma consciousness. This 

consciousness enables individuals to evaluate themselves and potential friends subjectively 

before establishing interfaith friendships (Major & O’Brien, 2005). The concept of stigma 

consciousness is related to the mechanism of thinking in meta-prejudice, which allows 

individuals to avoid members of other groups when they think that those members do not 

like them or when they think that members of their group do not like members of other 

groups (Gordijn, 2014; Putra, 2016; Putra & Sukabdi, 2020). Furthermore, stigma 

consciousness can be defined as an individual's judgment that arises from ignorance and a 

mistaken understanding of other groups (Syafriani & Fitriani, 2020). This consciousness can 

arise from norms that are believed and categorized within the structure of society (Usraleli 

et al., 2020). Individuals who internalize certain stigmas tend to reject and discriminate 

against other groups (Lubis et al., 2016; Usraleli et al., 2020). The stigma consciousness 

regarding interfaith friendships that develop in society can cause individuals to worry about 

problems that may arise before and during the establishment of such friendships. For 

example, individuals may believe their religious group dislikes or have negative views 

toward other religious groups, and vice versa. As a result, individuals may choose not to 

establish interfaith friendships. 

Based on the explanation above, interfaith friendships have a unique dynamic compared 

to friendships in general. However, the dynamics of interfaith friendships have yet to be 

thoroughly explained, particularly regarding the factors determining friendship quality. 

Nonetheless, high-quality interfaith friendships can be an asset in fostering a peaceful and 

harmonious society regardless of religious background. Therefore, this study aimed to 

contribute to the understanding of the quality of interfaith friendships in terms of attitudes of 

tolerance and stigma consciousness. This study focuses on interfaith friendships between 

individuals who practice Islam and those who practice non-Islamic religions in Surabaya. 

Method 

Research Design 

This study was conducted using a quantitative survey method with a cross-sectional design. 

This study has obtained ethical clearance approval from the Universitas Surabaya Research 

Ethics Committee with the number 84/KE/VI/2022. 

Participants 

The study participants were 400 emerging adults in Surabaya aged 18-25 (M = 20.56, SD = 

1.308), consisting of 200 Muslims and 200 non-Muslims. The participant criteria used in this 

study were male and female aged 18-25 years old, currently studying in Surabaya, Muslim 

with at least one non-Muslim friend, or non-Muslim with at least one Muslim friend. Data 

were collected from July to September 2022 using the quota sampling technique, which 

determined an equal number of Muslim and non-Muslim participants, and convenience 

sampling, which spread the research information through social media. If the participants 

agreed to participate in the study, they would be asked to fill in informed consent and online 

questionnaires. The questionnaire-filling process on Google Forms used the "required" 

feature in each statement to ensure that the participant's response was fully completed. Based 

on the study, it was found that there were 253 female participants (63.25%) and 147 male 

participants (36.75%). The duration of the participants' friendship ranged from 1-180 months 

(M = 26.42, SD = 25.800), with the majority of friendship relationships (77.25%) established 

due to meeting in educational institutions.  



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Instruments 

The McGill Friendship Questionnaire (Mendelson & Aboud, 1999) is a 30-item 

questionnaire used to measure the quality of friendships. The MFQ consists of six 

dimensions: stimulating companionship (5 items, e.g., "My friend has interesting thoughts 

or ideas to do."), help (5 items, e.g., "My friend helps me with something."), intimacy (5 

items, e.g., "My friend knows when I'm upset."), reliable alliance (5 items, e.g., "My friend 

wants to stay friends even if we argue."), self-validation (5 items, e.g., "My friend praises 

me when I do something well."), and emotional security (5 items, e.g., "My friend makes me 

feel better when I'm scared."). Participants responded using a 9-point scale ranging from 0 

(never) to 8 (always). The MFQ demonstrated high reliability with a coefficient of .991 

(corrected item-total correlation = .814 – .926) in this study. The MFQ used in this study has 

been adapted into Indonesian by previous researchers (Mahirah & Muttaqin, 2022; Putri & 

Muttaqin, 2022). 

The Tolerance Index Questionnaire (Sztejnberg & Jasiński, 2018) measures general 

attitudes toward tolerance. It consists of 22 items that cover three dimensions: ethnic 

tolerance (7 items, e.g., "Minority ethnic groups would be treated better if they changed their 

behavior"), social tolerance (8 items, e.g., "All forms of religious beliefs have the right to 

exist"), and personality trait (7 items, e.g., "I want to become more tolerant towards others"). 

Responses to the TI are rated on a 6-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to 6 (strongly 

disagree). In this study, the TI demonstrated high reliability with a coefficient of .894 

(corrected item-total correlation = .204 – .573). The TI was adapted to Indonesian using the 

back-translation method, which involved two translators from English to Indonesian, two 

reviewers, and two translators from Indonesian to English. 

The Stigma Consciousness Questionnaire (Pinel, 1999) was used in this study to 

measure participants' stigma consciousness related to religion. The items of the SCQ were 

adapted to the context of the study. The SCQ is a unidimensional measure that consists of 

10 items, for example, "I feel that people judge my behavior based on my religion when I 

interact with individuals of other religions." The SCQ responses use a 7-point scale, ranging 

from 0 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). After eliminating three items with relatively 

very low scores of CITC, the SCQ had a reliability coefficient of .892 (corrected item-total 

correlation = .477 – .827). The SCQ was adapted to Indonesian using the back-translation 

method, which involved two translators from English to Indonesian, two reviewers, and two 

translators from Indonesian to English. 

Data Analysis 

The hypotheses were tested for the role of stigma consciousness and tolerance on friendship 

quality using IBM SPSS version 26. Multiple regression analysis was used to test the 

research hypotheses. The criterion variable in this study is friendship quality, while the 

predictor variables are tolerance and stigma consciousness. A predictor variable can predict 

the criterion variable with a significance value of < .05. 

Results 

The descriptive statistics of the variables and the categorization results for tolerance, stigma 

consciousness, and friendship quality are reported in Table 1. In this study, participants had 

a friendship quality score (M = 5.567, SD = 1.743) that predominantly fell within the 

extremely high category (N=178; 44.50%). As for the stigma consciousness score (M = 3.524, 

SD = 1.018), it mostly fell within the extremely low category (N=164; 41.00%), while the 



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tolerance (M = 3.880, SD = .669) score was predominantly categorized as moderate or 

average (N=227; 56.75%). 
 

Table 1  
Descriptive and Category of Tolerance, Friendship Quality, and Stigma Consciousness 

    Frequency (Percentage) 

Variable Mean Range SD 
Extremely 

Low 

Below 

Average 
Average 

Above 

Average 

Extremely 

High 

FQ 5.567 1-8 1.743 
   25 

(6.25%) 

72  

(18.00%) 

52 

(13.00%) 

73  

(18.25%) 

178 

(44.50%) 

SC 3.524 1-7 1.018 
164 

(41.00%) 

85  

(21.25%) 

77 

(19.25%) 

56  

(14.00%) 

18 

(4.50%) 

T 3.880 1-6 .669 
     5 

(1.25%) 

    20   

(5.00%) 

227 

(56.75%) 

108 

(27.00%) 

40 

(10.00%) 

Note: FQ: Friendship Quality; SC: Stigma Consciousness; T: Tolerance 
 

Both tolerance and stigma consciousness factors collectively predict friendship quality with 

an effective contribution of 46.1% (F = 169.523; p = .001; p < .05). Table 2 presents the 

regression analysis results of tolerance and stigma consciousness on friendship quality. In 

more detail, stigma consciousness contributes more to predicting the friendship quality with 

an effective contribution of 42.6% (β = -.636; t = -16.441; p = .001; p < 0.05) compared to 

tolerance, which only provides an effective contribution of 3.5% (β = .113; t = 2.925; p = 

.004; p < 0.05). Furthermore, tolerance has a positive role in friendship quality, while stigma 

consciousness has a negative role. 

 

Table 2 

The Regression of Tolerance and Stigma Consciousness on Friendship Quality 

Predictor R2 B β t p 

T .035 -.295 -.113 -12.925 .004** 

SC .426 -.819 -.636 -16.441 .001** 
Note: T: Tolerance; SC: Stigma Consciousness; *** p < .001; ** p < .01; * p < .05 

Discussion 

This study investigated how tolerance and stigma consciousness contribute to the quality of 

interfaith friendships among adolescents in Surabaya, Indonesia, particularly between 

Muslims and non-Muslims. Surabaya was chosen as it is one of the biggest cities in Indonesia, 

where individuals of different religions interact daily. The study revealed that the research 

participants predominantly fell into the moderate or average category for tolerance, the 

extremely low category for stigma consciousness, and the extremely high category for 

friendship quality. Furthermore, the findings showed that tolerance and stigma consciousness 

were significant predictors of the quality of interfaith friendships. However, these factors had 

different directions and strengths in predicting the quality of interfaith friendships. 

Specifically, individuals with high tolerance levels and low stigma consciousness will have 

high-quality interfaith friendships. Conversely, individuals with low levels of tolerance and 

high levels of stigma consciousness will have low-quality interfaith friendships. Additionally, 

the study indicated that stigma consciousness had a greater contribution than tolerance in 

predicting the quality of interfaith friendships.  

These findings confirm that tolerance cannot be ignored in interfaith friendships, as 

they serve as the foundation for individuals to initiate interactions with those from different 

religious groups. Individuals with tolerance are characterized as people who do not pressure 



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others to change, respect one another, and are free from biased or subjective thinking. These 

characteristics further direct individuals to easily accept differences in interpersonal relations 

(Sztejnberg & Jasiński, 2018). Moreover, previous studies have shown that interfaith 

friendships can be established when individuals respect one another, are open to differences, 

consider each other's feelings, and are accustomed to doing activities together (Al-Gazali, 

2022; Harmi, 2019; Rahmawati & Haryanto, 2020; Utami et al., 2021). These conditions can 

be considered indicators of an individual's readiness to respond to differences in their 

environment, including differences in religion (Sztejnberg & Jasiński, 2018). Additionally, 

one of the key elements of a healthy relationship is respecting the presence of others without 

imposing one's will (Berggren & Nilsson, 2015; Ghorba & Lestari, 2021). 

Although tolerance can serve as the foundation for establishing interfaith friendships, 

stigma consciousness also plays an equally important role. If individuals have a high level of 

stigma consciousness, it can decrease their desire to establish interfaith friendships due to the 

possibility of misunderstandings towards other religions (Lubis et al., 2016; Willemse et al., 

2021). Furthermore, if individuals receive various incorrect information about other religions, 

the possibility of having high stigma consciousness increases (Durupinar et al., 2016; 

Rauthmann et al., 2015). This condition may occur if individuals receive inaccurate 

information about other religions and are unwilling to verify the accuracy of that information 

through direct interaction. The information can then become a stigma that the individual 

believes (Lewis et al., 2006). 

Notably, the study revealed participants to have an extremely low stigma 

consciousness. This finding suggests that people in Surabaya favor interfaith friendships and 

do not perceive any obstacles to establishing such relationships. This belief is reinforced by 

the assumption that individuals from their group or other groups do not have negative 

attitudes toward intergroup interactions (Gordijn, 2014; Putra, 2016; Putra & Sukabdi, 2020). 

Several factors may account for this situation. Firstly, Surabaya is recognized as a large and 

peaceful city in Indonesia despite its diverse ethnic, religious, and racial makeup (Nissa et al., 

2022; Rosidah, 2019). This condition may have contributed to a society where people are 

accustomed to coexisting with others with different religious beliefs (Sofinadya & Warsono, 

2022; Yulianto & Tohari, 2019). Consequently, individuals tend to identify themselves more 

broadly as a member of a group with general characteristics, such as being a resident of the 

city (Al-Gazali, 2022; Dvir-Gvirsman, 2019; Rahmah & Amaludin, 2021; Trepte & Loy, 

2017). In addition, people tend to prioritize factors such as comfort and power in friendship 

relationships, which can give them a higher position in the social status hierarchy within their 

community or among their peers (Anggarani et al., 2022; Privado et al., 2019). 

The second presumption about the relatively low stigma consciousness may be due to 

Indonesia, especially in Surabaya, individuals can interact with other religions in education 

and work contexts. Moreover, some researchers have explained that joint activities between 

groups can gradually reduce individuals' tendency to worry about stigma consciousness 

(Bazemore et al., 2010; Lewis et al., 2006). This phenomenon is because individuals can 

evaluate the truth of the stigma they hold when interacting with other groups  (Clark et al., 

2017). Additionally, interfaith friendships do not generate rejection and negative societal 

labels (Clark et al., 2017; Shigihara, 2018). This condition is also supported by the passive 

effect of the motto "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika" in Indonesia, which implies unity in diversity, 

and therefore, there is no discriminatory treatment when individuals establish interfaith 

friendships (Jacobs et al., 2017; Künkler & Lerner, 2016; Mulya & Aditomo, 2019). 

The findings of this research have implications for interfaith friendships in Indonesia, 

particularly in Surabaya. Interfaith friendships can be formed when individuals have at least 

an average level of tolerance or relatively low stigma consciousness. Therefore, initiative 



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needs to be made to enhance tolerance as a foundation for building interfaith friendships that 

originate from within oneself. It is not only about focusing on improving tolerance alone; the 

efforts also need to consider changing existing stigma towards a more positive direction. 

Moreover, this research found that stigma consciousness contributes more significantly than 

tolerance in predicting the quality of interfaith friendships. One approach that can be 

considered is the relational approach. This approach fosters tolerance through positive 

activities that enable direct interactions between two or more groups. This approach focuses 

on developing tolerance and aims to change the existing stigma towards a more positive 

direction for each individual (Al-Gazali, 2022; Rahmawati & Haryanto, 2020). The hope is 

that individuals will form high-quality interfaith friendships based on their tolerance and the 

absence of stigma that disrupts interfaith friendships. 

In the subsequent discussion, although this study provides new insights into interfaith 

friendships, it still has limitations. First, the study was conducted using a cross-sectional 

approach, which means it cannot explain changes in each variable over time. Second, this 

study employed a person-centered approach, which has yet to explain the relationships among 

variables among individuals who engage in interfaith friendships. Based on these limitations, 

future research is recommended to utilize more complex approaches such as the cross-lagged 

panel model and actor-partner interdependence model. Through the cross-lagged panel model 

approach, it is expected that the study can examine the longitudinal dynamics of interfaith 

friendships (Yang et al., 2023). 

Conclusion 

This study concludes that tolerance and stigma consciousness play a role in predicting the 

quality of interfaith friendships. Interfaith friendships can be of good quality when individuals 

have at least a moderate level of tolerance or relatively low to extremely low levels of stigma 

consciousness. Although tolerance can serve as the foundation for interfaith friendships, 

stigma consciousness plays a more significant role in guiding individuals in establishing such 

friendships. In this study, most participants had extremely low levels of stigma consciousness, 

indicating a positive indication that there are no concerns about forming interfaith friendships 

due to misconceptions about interreligious interactions. 

Acknowledgment 

The author would like to thank the Universitas Surabaya for granting Ethical Clearance for 

this research. Special thanks and appreciation are extended to the participants’ openness and 

willingness to provide their opinions and complete the survey. 

Declarations  

Author contribution. NVF contributed to proposing the initial research idea, conducting 
literature reviews, preparing the measurement tools, data collection, data analysis, and writing 
the initial draft of the research article. DM contributed to adapting the initial idea into a more 
practical research topic, examining the measurement tools, conducting data analysis and 
performing verification checks, language review, writing, and providing necessary 
manuscript corrections.  
Funding statement. The authors themselves funded the research. 
Conflict of interest. The authors declare no conflict of interest. 
Additional information. No additional information is available for this paper. 

 



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