








































Humanitas: Indonesian Psychological Journal 

Vol. 21 (1), February 2024, 91-99 

ISSN:  2598-6368(online); 1693-7236(print)   

 humanitas@psy.uad.ac.id           http://journal1.uad.ac.id/index.php/Humanitas    https://doi.org/10.26555/humanitas.v21i1.394 

Exposure to violent video and aggressive behavior among Public 

Secondary Students, Kwara State, Nigeria 

Samuel Kolawole Ajiboye1*, Oluwatoni Esorun2, Bolaji Oladejo3 

1Department of Counsellor Education, University of Ilorin, Nigeria. 
2Saskatoon Open Door Society, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada. 
3Command Science Secondary School, Saki, Oyo State, Nigeria 
Corresponding author: ajiboye.sk@unilorin.edu.ng*, toniesorun@gmail.com, bolajioladejo2015@gmail.com 

This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license. 

Introduction 

A conducive school environment is a major factor that enhances adequate teaching and 
learning among teachers and students, respectively. Therefore, the school is always expected 
to be a space where students can enjoy protection, calmness, and violence-free educational 
activities. However, the phenomenon of aggressive behavior among students has become an 
issue of concern to stakeholders because of the multiplier effects on the students (both the 
victims and perpetrators). While the victims may develop aversive behavior towards 

ARTICLE  INFO ABSTRACT  

Article history 

Received March 22, 2023 

Revised June 3, 2023 

Accepted August 1, 2023 

Aggressive behavior is a range of acts that result in physical and 
psychological harm to the perpetrator, and other students, thus 
hindering learning activities. This study investigated the relationship 
between exposure to violent videos and aggressive behavior among 
public secondary students in Kwara State, Nigeria. The survey 
method with a correlational design was adopted. A total sample of 
381 participants was involved using the stratified random sampling 
technique. A research-designed questionnaire titled Exposure to 
Violent Videos and Aggressive Behaviour Questionnaire (EVABQ) 
was used to collect the data. Pearson’s product-moment correlation 
and t-test statistics were used to analyze the hypotheses. Results 
revealed a positive relationship between exposure to violent videos 
and aggressive behavior. The results showed statistically significant 
differences in exposure to violent videos and aggressive behavior 
among public secondary students based on gender and age. Male 
respondents were more exposed to violent videos and had more 
aggressive behavior than females. In contrast, students below 15 years 
old were more exposed to violent videos and exhibited aggressive 
behavior than 15 years and above. Therefore, school counselors 
should sensitize public secondary students to the influence of 
exposure to violent videos on aggressive behavior, especially among 
males and students below 15 years old. 

Keywords 

Aggressive behavior; 

Exposure;  

Violent video. 

mailto:humanitas@psy.uad.ac.id
http://journal1.uad.ac.id/index.php/Humanitas
https://doi.org/10.26555/humanitas.v21i1.394
mailto:ajiboye.sk@unilorin.edu.ng
mailto:toniesorun@gmail.com
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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attending school because of fear of being attacked, the aggressor, on the other hand, might be 
afraid of punishments due to involvement in aggressive behavior (Rakhmi, 2020). 

Aggressive behavior is an antisocial, deviant, and unacceptable act that hinders 
students' teaching and learning activities. Aggression could be viewed as any behavior or 
action aimed at harming a person or damaging physical property (Rakhmi, 2020). It is 
characterized by acts of physical violence, shouting, swearing, harsh language, gossiping or 
spreading rumors about a classmate, and purposely breaking the classmate’s property, among 
others. Aggression may involve deliberate and unjustified physical or emotionally violent 
actions directed at someone of the weaker ability to protect or defend self. Thus, aggression 
occurs when an imbalance in strength reflects enforced subordination and dominance. The 
stronger students could unjustly dominate weak colleagues, causing them (the latter) to 
develop fear and subsequent school avoidance behavior in some cases. Nevertheless, 
aggression could also be extended to someone of more strength and domination. In most 
cases, the purpose of aggression is to express anger toward another person.  

Aggression is a form of maladaptive behavior among students with debilitating 
consequences on the victims' academic, social, and emotional performances. This 
phenomenon occurs more often among secondary school students owing to their levels of 
reasoning as young boys and girls in school. Aggressive behavior involves direct and indirect 
actions: direct form involves hitting, kicking, offensive sarcasm, and threat, while indirect 
action involves destroying relationships, humiliation, intimidation, and others. If factors 
associated with aggressive behavior could be identified, there can be opportunities for 
stakeholders in the education sector to proffer solutions to the phenomenon. The contents of 
violent videos, especially students' exposure to these movies and games, may predict their 
subsequent aggressive behavior. The impact of violent videos on maladaptive behavior 
among students cannot be overemphasized due to the imitation of characters in violence-
focused scenes. Exposure to violent media can potentially influence many unpleasant 
behaviors, including aggressiveness.  

Both online and offline videos have become major sources of entertainment, especially 
for school-age children. Videos could come in different ways depending on the producer's 
intention and the circumstances that motivated the production. Nevertheless, violent videos 
are prevalent in the film industry owing to the fact that young boys and girls enjoy viewing 
them because of curiosity. Violent movies and games are prevalent among young students 
because they like fantasy and enjoy imitation more than adults (Hassan et al., 2009). The crux 
is that the contents of most of these movies or games are violence-related. Thus, the term 
violent video (both movies and games) describes the phenomenon since violent movies or 
games dominate the sites. 

In some cases, students might get exposed to violent videos unintentionally but as a 
way of catching fun with friends. However, how they get involved would not matter but how 
much they spend their time watching such movies or playing games. In addition, because of 
their age and stage of development, secondary school students are likely to be influenced by 
violent scenes they view and engage in for whatever reasons (Shao & Wang, 2019). 

By way of description, video movies and games are considered violent when the 
activities therein depict intentional attempts by actors (human and non-human) to inflict harm 
on others. In some instances, the scenes may involve extreme violence, such as criminal acts, 
which the viewers may consider harmless since they enjoy watching the movies or playing 
the games. 80% of the most popular video or online movies or games in the market are violent 
in nature (Dietz, 1998). Different authors have categorized various types of video movies. 
These violent video movies can be viewed or played as games on various devices such as 
arcade machines, computers, home consoles, over the internet, mobile phone devices, and 
others. This condition makes the videos simply accessible to secondary school students 
because they can easily use various devices as much as they desire, especially in the 21st 
century’s rapid knowledge of technology. Videos with social and educative or pure fun could 



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Samuel Kolawole Ajiboye et.al (Exposure to violent video and aggressive behavior among Public…) 

be worth viewing (Kubey & Larson, 1990). Still, movies that contain violent and offensive 
messages are useless to students because they could be influenced negatively. Twelve types 
of videos students use are Animation, Stop motion, Mixed media, Screencast, Animated 
demo, Live action, Live stream, Interactive, 360, VR, Whiteboard, and Videographic (Shao 
& Wang, 2019).  

While the game can influence acts of sadism in the players owing to the pleasure of 
torture derivable from the game scenes. Another violent video game that students commonly 
play is Hitman, in which players of this game learn the art of cold-blood assassination because 
the Hitman would have to engage many destructive weapons, such as knives, guns, clubs, and 
explosives. There are many other violent video movies and games, but the common factor in 
video games’ contents, which depict aggression, chaos, conflicts, destruction, and 
callousness, can induce trauma (Oskenbay et al., 2016). 

The exposure of secondary school students to violent videos can potentially influence 
different maladaptive behaviors, especially aggressiveness (Shao & Wang, 2019). Initial 
viewing of violent videos may often persuade students to increase the amount of time spent 
watching because the horrors, actions, and unrealistic dramas contained which would 
continually trigger curiosity and subsequent obsession when viewing the movies, and even 
after, the students learn the behavior of the actors in the scenes regardless of its 
unacceptability. This influence occurs through imitation, demonstration, and internalization 
of violent acts. Thus, it becomes easier for students who view violent videos to be involved 
in aggressive behavior. This condition supports the view of the social learning movement that 
learning takes place through observation and imitation. Social learning theory proposes that 
learning occurs through observation, imitation, and modeling and is influenced by factors 
such as attention, motivation, attitudes, and emotions (Cilliers, 2021). The theory accounts 
for the interaction of environmental and cognitive elements that affect people's learning. 
People observe behavior either directly through social interactions with others or indirectly 
by observing behaviors through media (Cilliers, 2021). Actions that are rewarded are more 
likely to be imitated, while those that are punished are avoided. Thus, students are likely to 
behave differently from the videos they watch and exhibit some of what has been learned, 
regardless of the acceptability. 

Due to different factors, students in public secondary schools are more likely to be 
exposed to video viewing than their counterparts in private schools. First, most public schools 
have shorter school times, allowing students to engage in other activities such as video 
viewing to catch fun or play games. Secondly, the population of students in public schools is 
always large, making it difficult to monitor every student's activities; some of them could 
engage in video viewing on cell phones or even sneak out of the school to video viewing 
centers. Other factors predispose public secondary school students to video exposure, 
especially violent videos, such as accessibility to video centers and peer influence. A previous 
study on attitude and motivation for social networks among secondary school students in 
Oredo Local Government Area of Edo State found that male respondents engaged more on 
social networks while younger students were motivated to engage on social networks owing 
to loose schedules (Omorogbe & Iguodala, 2018). 

Literature has shown the association between exposure to video movies and 
maladaptive behaviors. A longitudinal study of 450 children about their media habits and 
aggressive behavior found that aggressive behavior in adulthood could be predicted by how 
many violent movies one has watched as a child (Huesmann & Taylor, 2014). Thus, exposure 
to violent videos by secondary school students could potentially put them at risk of exhibiting 
aggressive behavior in adulthood. A cross-sectional study in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, among 
public and private high school students on the relationship between video game use and 
aggressive behavior found a positive relationship between the use of video games and 
aggressive behavior, with a significant difference between male and female respondents as 
well as participants in different levels of education (Al-Harbi, 2019). A previous study also 



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found a positive correlation between media violence exposure and school aggression, with 
more male respondents alluding to exposure to media violence and perpetrating school 
aggression (Baker & Ayyd, 2018). Further, a study found that playing violent video games 
increased aggressive behavior, aggressive affect, aggressive cognition, and psychological 
arousal (Anderson & Bushman, 2001). Another study among Saudi Arabian youth in Riyadh 
found that playing video games increased aggressive behaviors (Aleissa et al., 2022).  

Previous studies have different results on the difference in aggressive behavior based 
on gender. A study found no difference between male and female participants’ exposure to 
violent media use (Northup, 2013). However, in another study, males chose more physically 
aggressive methods than females, though verbal aggression is prominent among females, in 
which male bullies assembled a group of followers and enjoyed a status fight (Rakhmi, 2020).  

Several studies on aggressive behavior have been conducted in Nigeria. A study in six 
public secondary schools in Ogun State, Nigeria, found a high prevalence of aggressive 
behavior among students (Owoaje & Ndubusi, 2010). In Benin City, Nigeria, four in every 
five school children reported having suffered from the aggressive behavior of other 
schoolmates (Egbochuku, 2007). A study among the students of Babcock University Nigeria 
found an inverse relationship between the amount of time spent viewing violent movies and 
the level of aggressive behavior (Brown & Marin, 2009). A study among adolescents in 
Calabar municipality and Calabar South Local Government Areas, Cross River state, Nigeria, 
revealed that violent videos are significantly related to violent behaviors and substance abuse 
among adolescents (Nkang et al., 2015).  

Previous studies revealed a correlation between violent video viewing and deviant 
behaviors (such as aggressiveness, aggression, substance abuse, and other behaviors). 
Therefore, this study deemed it fit to investigate the relationship between exposure to violent 
video games and aggressive behavior among Public Secondary School students in Kwara 
State, Nigeria. Thus, the following hypotheses were formulated and tested in the study: 
1. There is no significant relationship between exposure to violent videos and aggressive 

behavior among public secondary school students in Kwara State, Nigeria. 
2. There is no significant difference in the exposure to violent videos among public 

secondary school students in Kwara State, Nigeria, based on gender. 
3. There is no significant difference in the aggressive behavior of public secondary school 

students in Kwara State, Nigeria, based on gender. 
4. There is no significant difference in exposure to violent videos among public secondary 

school students in Kwara State, Nigeria, based on age. 
5. There is no significant difference in the aggressive behavior of public secondary school 

students in Kwara State, Nigeria, based on age. 

Method 

Research Design 

The survey method with a correlational design was adopted for this study. The respondents' 
informed consent was obtained to fulfill ethical procedures.  

Participants 

The study population comprised all Senior Secondary School Students in Kwara State, which 
amounted to 25,618 students (Male= 13,760; Female= 11,858). Three hundred eighty-one 
samples were prescribed for a population of this magnitude at a 5.0% margin of error and 
95% confidence level (Krejcie & Morgan, 1970). The purposive sampling technique was used 
to select secondary schools with heterogeneous populations. Further stratified randomization 
was adopted to select the participants across the moderating variables of the study. Table 1 
shows the distribution of respondents based on gender and age. The percentage of male 



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Samuel Kolawole Ajiboye et.al (Exposure to violent video and aggressive behavior among Public…) 

respondents is slightly higher than that of females. In contrast, the percentage of respondents 
below 15 years old is twice that of 15 years old and above. 

Table 1 
Distribution of Respondents based on gender and age 
 

Variable  f % 

Gender Male 209 54.9 

 Female 172 45.1 

 N 381 100.0 

    

Age Below 15 years 264 69.3 

 15 years and above 117 30.7 

 N 381 100.0 

Instrument 

The researchers-designed structured questionnaire type of instrument entitled “Exposure to 
Violence video and Aggressive Behavior Questionnaire (EVABQ)” was used to collect the 
required information from the respondents. Examples of the items are: “I watch videos that 
involve fighting”; and “I hit other students like the scenes I watched in videos.” After being 
subjected to the test-retest procedure, the 30-item (15 items on exposure to violence videos 
and aggressive behaviour each) questionnaire possessed a reliability coefficient of .83. 

Data Analysis 

Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) was applied to test hypothesis one. At the same 
time, the t-test statistic was used to test hypotheses two to five. 

Results 

The Pearson Product Moment Correlation results in Table 2 reveal a calculated r = .37, critical 
r = .19, and p = .00. Since the calculated r is greater than the critical r at p = .00 (p < .05), the 
null hypothesis was therefore rejected. There is a significant positive relationship between 
exposure to violent videos and aggressive behavior among Public Secondary School Students. 
 

Table 2  
Relationship between exposure to violent video and aggressive behavior among Public 
Secondary School Students in Kwara State, Nigeria 
 

   SD df Cal. r Crit. r p 

Exposure to violent video 43.81 7.30     

   379 .37 .19 .00 

Aggressive behavior 47.11 5.69     

 
The result in Table 3 revealed a significant difference between males and females in 

their exposure to violent video (p = .00). Male respondents are more exposed to violent video 
than their female counterparts. 
 
Table 3 
The mean, standard deviation, and t-test on exposure to violent video based on gender 
 

Gender N   SD df Cal. t Crit. t p 

Male 209 44.58 6.13     



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    379 2.16 1.96 .00 

Female 172 38.70 7.42     

The result in Table 4 shows a significant difference in respondents' aggressive behavior 

based on gender (p <.05). Male ( =47.56) has more aggressive behavior than female (

=45.03). 
 
Table 4 
Mean, Standard Deviation, and t-test on aggressive behavior based on gender 
 

Gender N   SD df Cal. t Crit. t p 

Male 209 47.56 5.92     

    379 2.01 1.96 .04 

Female 172 45.03 5.61     

 
Table 5 shows a significant difference in exposure to violent video based on age (p = 

.00)). However, respondents below 15 years old ( = 50.37) are more exposed to violent 

video than those 15 years old and above ( = 42.08). 
 
Table 5 
Mean, Standard Deviation, and t-test on exposure to violent video based on age 
 

Age N   SD df Cal. t Crit. t p 

Below 15yrs old 264 50.37 6.26     

    379 3.12 1.9 .00 

15yrs old and above 117 42.08 7.14     

 
The result in Table 6 reveals that the null hypothesis was rejected (p = .00). Hence, 

there was a significant difference in the aggressive behavior of Public Secondary School 

Students in Kwara State, Nigeria, based on age. Respondents below 15 years old ( = 48.79) 

showed more aggressive behavior than those 15 years old and above ( = 43.06). 
 
Table 6 
Mean, Standard Deviation, and t-test on aggressive behavior based on age 
 

Age N   SD df Cal. t Crit. t p 

Below 15yrs old 264 48.79 7.01     

    379 2.89 1.96 .00 

15yrs old and above 117 43.06 5.57     

 

Discussion 

The findings of this study revealed a positive association between exposure to violent 
videos and aggressive behavior among Public Secondary School Students. This result implies 
that the more students are exposed to violent videos, the possibility of a higher exhibition of 
aggressive behavior, and vice versa. The contents of violent videos that the students are 
exposed to could significantly trigger different aggressive behavior as a way of imitating the 
violent characters in the scene. Thus, exposure to violence on television, cellular phones, 
movies, video games, or the internet would increase the risk of aggressive behavior, 



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Samuel Kolawole Ajiboye et.al (Exposure to violent video and aggressive behavior among Public…) 

especially among adolescents exuberance. This finding agrees with the results of a meta-
analysis that exposure to violent movies and games is related to increases in aggressive 
behavior, aggressive affect, aggressive cognition, and psychological arousal (Anderson & 
Bushman, 2001). Further, this study's findings support the previous study's result that 
involvement in violent videos increased aggressive behaviors among youth in Riyadh, Saudi 
Arabia (Aleissa et al., 2022). 

The result of null hypothesis 2 revealed a significant difference between male and 
female public secondary school students in the exposure to violent video. Male participants 
are more exposed to violent videos than their female counterparts. One may attribute the 
reason to the fact that the masculine nature of male students would predispose them to hard 
tasks as contained in violent videos, hence the source of their motivation for seeking to watch 
such movies (Shao & Wang, 2019). On the other hand, females are likely to prefer movies 
that contain mild activities such as domestic activities and vocational training. The present 
study's finding negates the previous study, which found no difference between male and 
female participants’ exposure to violent media use (Northup, 2013).  

The result of null hypothesis 3 revealed a significant difference between male and 
female respondents in their aggressive behavior. The male has more aggressive behavior than 
the female. This result may owe to the fact that male students engage in violent physical 
activities more than female group probably because of masculinity's strength, which is more 
domicile in males. This result aligns with an earlier study that reported that males chose more 
physically aggressive methods than females, though verbal aggression is prominent among 
them (Rakhmi, 2020). Thus, aggressive behavior could be viewed as a phenomenon typical 
of male students. 

The null hypothesis 4 revealed a significant difference in exposure to violent video 
based on age. Thus, respondents below age 15 were more exposed to violent videos than 
counterparts aged 15 and above. One may ascribe the reason to the fact that Public Secondary 
School Students aged 15 and above are much more likely to be in senior classes, which 
involves preparation for external examinations that determine the fulfillment of their 
aspiration in life, such as career since the result of such examinations are used for admission 
into higher education as well as job placements. Those below 15 years old are likely to still 
have the luxury of time to engage in violent video since they are only writing school-based 
examinations. Unlikely Private Secondary School Students who are adequately monitored 
and taught Public Secondary School Students may not likely be restricted or strictly engaged, 
promoting students’ exposure to various videos (Omorogbe & Iguodala, 2018). 

The result of null hypothesis 5 revealed a significant difference in aggressive behavior 
among Public Secondary School Students based on age. Respondents below 15 years old have 
more aggressive behavior than counterparts aged 15 years and above. As reflected in this 
study, where public secondary school students below 15 years old are exposed more to violent 
video, such conditions may be responsible for their involvement in aggressive behavior more 
than those of 15 years old and above. This finding suggests that younger students perpetuate 
aggressive behavior more than older ones. This result supports the findings of a previous 
study that aggressive behavior is exhibited differently across variables such as gender and age 
(Rakhmi, 2020). 

This study's findings imply that school counselors sensitize public secondary school 
students to the positive correlation between exposure to violent videos and aggressive 
behavior. When working on solutions to exposure to violent videos and aggressive behavior 
among students, attention should be placed more on males and students below 15 years. 
Counselors should collaborate with other agencies to develop regulatory policies on students’ 
access to violent videos. However, this study has several limitations. This study was only 
concentrated on public secondary school students and left out their counterparts in private 
schools, thereby limiting the findings to the former. In addition, just a fraction (sample) of 
the population was used in the study, which could affect the generalization of the findings. 



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The instrument was developed by the self-developed by the researchers and not adopted nor 
adapted from existing types.  

Conclusion 

The study concluded that exposure to violent videos would increase the exhibition of 
aggressive behavior among students, which portends danger to teaching and learning in 
schools. Thus, the more students are exposed to violent videos, the higher the tendency for 
aggressive behavior, and vice versa. In addition, male students and those below 15 years old 
are likely always to be exposed to violent videos and aggressive behavior, which suggests 
that more attention is required on these students in relation to the phenomenon. 

Acknowledgment 

We acknowledge the Kwara State Ministry of Human Capital Development and 
Principals of the Secondary Schools that were involved in this study form the permission 
granted to conduct this study in their schools. Equally, we appreciate the willingness and 
cooperation of all the respondents in this study. We as well acknowledge the Department of 
Counsellor Education, University of Ilorin for introducing the researchers to the institutions 
used in this study. Finally, we appreciate the reviewers of this article for their useful 
suggestions. 

Declarations  

Author contribution. First author is the main coordinator of the team and originator of the 
topic and concept, developer of the background to the study, interpretation and discussion of 
findings as well as funding of publication fees. Second author Participated in the development 
of the research objectives, question, hypotheses, data analysis as well as funding of 
publication fees. Third author Participated in data collection, analysis, discussion of findings 
as well as funding of publication fees. 
Funding statement. The authors did not receive funding for research, manuscript writing, 
and publication of this article. 
Conflict of interest. The authors declare no conflict of interest. 
Additional information. No additional information is available for this paper. 
 
 

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