




































Humanitas: Indonesian Psychological Journal  

Vol. 19 (1), February 2022, 13-22 
ISSN:  2598-6368(online); 1693-7236(print)                                                                 

        humanitas@psy.uad.ac.id  http://dx.doi.org/10.26555/humanitas.v19i1.8 

Self-adjustment phenomena among high school students: The role of 

coping strategy and parenting style  

Alif Muarifah1, Intan Hashimah Mohd Hashim2, Dian Ari Widyastuti1 

1Guidance and Counseling Study Programme, Universitas Ahmad Dahlan, Indonesia 
2School of Social Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia 
Corresponding author: alif.muarifah.uad@gmail.com  
 

 

Introduction 

High school students need to have self-adjustment to minimize the negative impacts of the 
issues they face (Turashvili & Turashvili, 2015). Self-adjustment helps maintain positive 
relationships between individuals and the environment over time and in various situations 
(Hidayah, 2021) and the extent to which individuals engage in intelligent social behavior and 
adapt to social context directly (Moritsugu et al., 2016). Therefore, they are more satisfied 
contributing to their social role (Mudhovozi, 2012), fostering prosocial behavior, establishing 
a positive friendship, decreasing aggressive behavior and social anxiety (Ryan & Shim, 
2008). Failure in self-adjustment leads to depressive disorders due to environmental stress 
and behavioral disorders characterized by mood changes such as being short-tempered, sad, 
easily offended, and aloof (Ladd & Parke, 2021). Based on the importance of self-adjustment 
described earlier regarding personal and social impacts for high school students, it is essential 
to explore the factors contributing to self-adjustment. 

Coping strategy as an internal factor may contribute to self-adjustment. An individual 
with a coping strategy can manage critical situations and adjust to the stressful environment 
(Turashvili & Turashvili, 2015). A coping strategy is an effort to address the adverse event 
and minimize stressors (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). The coping strategy includes 
searching for information, preparing for an action plan, looking for social support, and 

ART ICLE  INFO  

 

AB ST R ACT  

 

Article history 

Received October 14, 2021 

Revised January 28, 2022 

Accepted February 9, 2022 

 Self-adjustment is one of the social skills that individuals urgently need. 
Self-adjustment helps individuals build social relationships positively 
with others, groups, and their environment. This study aimed to explore 
the factors that influence self-adjustment, both internal and external 
factors. Participants in this study were 116 grade XI high school 
students in Yogyakarta selected with proportional random sampling. 
The instruments in this study were the self-adjustment scale, problem-
focused coping scale, emotional-focused coping scale, authoritarian 
parenting style scale, authoritative parenting style scale, and permissive 
parenting style scale. Multiple linear regression was used to analyze the 
data. The findings indicate highly significant relationships between 
coping strategies, parenting style, and self-adjustment. Afterward, the 
result shows that every parenting style (authoritarian, authoritative, and 
permissive parenting style) and both coping strategies (problem-
focused coping and emotion-focused coping) contributed to self-
adjustment. For practical implications, any programs designed to 
promote positive self-adjustment among adolescents may focus on 
internal factors, such as coping strategy and parenting style as external 
factors. 

    

 
Keywords 

coping strategy; 

high school student;  

parenting style;  

self-adjustment. 

 

 

mailto:humanitas@psy.uad.ac.id
http://dx.doi.org/10.26555/humanitas.v19i1.8
mailto:alif.muarifah.uad@gmail.com


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controlling emotion (C. S. Carver & Connor-Smith, 2010). Lazarus and Folkman (1984) 
classified coping strategies into two: problem-focused coping and emotion-focused coping. 

Previous research among university students points out that problem-focused coping 
plays a significant role in late adolescents’ self-adjustment and becoming administrators in 
student organizations (Semaraputri & Rustika, 2018). Problem-focused coping is an effort to 
change the situation that causes problems focuses on tasks or actions that can eliminate or 
improve problems (Carroll, 2020). Problem-focused coping aims to solve problems by 
creating positive attitudes (Stephenson & DeLongis, 2020). 

Emotional-focused coping controls the emotional response to the demand of the 
situations (Lenz, 2010). Emotional-focused coping is emotion-based coping with settling 
stressful relationships between individuals and the environment (Biggs et al., 2017; Compas 
et al., 2001). Emotional-focused coping involves distracting attention or avoiding to keep 
away from a problem (Biggs et al., 2017). The benefits of emotional-focused coping are 
helping individuals to cope with emotions through cognitive processes such as rejection, 
withdrawal, and dissociation in uncontrolled situations (Corbin et al., 2013). Individuals will 
use emotional-focused coping when a problem is perceived to be out of control; minimizing 
the negative impact is to stay away from threats and eliminate negative feelings that make 
them feel better (Hager & Runtz, 2012).  

The most decisive environmental factor in helping high school students is family 
(Wardani & Setyawan, 2020). In the high school students’ age, individuals are more self-
reliant and decrease their dependency on parents. However, legally, they are bound to parents, 
and their parents still support the basic needs in life. Parents are the main contributors in 
instilling social skills to adapt to social contexts outside the family (Scharf et al., 2011). Self-
adjustment is highly connected to parenting style (Kim & Chung, 2003; Turner et al., 2009). 
The parenting type applied by parents will determine the development of an individual’s 
social competence (Berger & Mclanahan, 2015). Empirical studies by some researchers found 
a relationship between parenting style with the development of an individual’s self-
adjustment in all development domains and across all developmental periods (Bornstein, 
2013; Zakeri & Karimpour, 2011).  

Parenting styles are classified into authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive (D. 
Baumrind, 2013). Ahmad et al. (2020) convey a correlation between parenting style 
(authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive) and self-adjustment among junior high school 
students. Nonetheless, the research result did not reveal differences in the relationship of each 
type of parenting with self-adjustment. There are still certain shortcomings in which the role 
of each parenting style on self-adjustment has not been addressed entirely (Ahmad et al., 
2020). 

The authoritative parenting style is parenting that prioritizes the needs and abilities of 
individuals by applying the demands of maturity according to the age of individual 
development (Kuczynski, 2002). The authoritative parenting style, also known as democratic 
parenting, demands responsiveness on children (H. Wang, 2014). Parents with an 
authoritative parenting style will support children’s quality in their age by setting standards 
to shape positive behavior in the future (Ahn, 2019). This parenting style requires parents to 
recognize the developmental needs of the children and maintain a positive relationship 
between parents and child by guiding their children warmly respectfully, using an excellent 
communicative style while promoting collective control, standards, power, and rational 
expectations. The authoritative parenting style between parents and children accepts the two-
ways concept in which both parties are considered to influence their behavior and self-attitude 
(D. Baumrind, 2013). 

Authoritarian parenting style is a parenting style that is demanding but unresponsive 
(D. Baumrind, 2013). Parents with an authoritarian parenting style try to control children's 
behavior and attitudes following an absolute standard set unilaterally; parents fully influence 
children's attitudes and behavior (D. Baumrind, 2013). Authoritarian parenting is not always 



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dangerous for families. For example, in certain regions, especially Asian-Americans, 
authoritarian parenting is seen as caring for and giving attention to children (Ahn, 2019).  

Permissive parenting styles are child-centered, with higher warmth and low control 
(Mehrinejad et al., 2015). The permissive parenting style uses freedom to enforce routines or 
shape children’s behavior; when children make mistakes, parents understand rather than 
punish them (Smetana, 2010). Parents with permissive parenting styles are more tolerant, not 
demanding, and accept the child's learning conditions and outcomes (Biggs et al., 2017). 

Self-adjustment is an essential psychological attribute for high school students. This 
study examined the external and internal factors that influence self-adjustment, given the 
importance of self-adjustment. It sets to answer the following two research questions: 1) What 
type of coping strategy is more dominant in increasing self-adjustment? 2) What parenting 
style is more effective in increasing self-adjustment?  

Method 

Participant 

One hundred and sixteen (116) students from two public and two private high schools in 
Yogyakarta participated in this study. Participants were selected through the proportional 
random sampling technique by establishing several criteria: students of grade XI, age ranged 
between 16-18 years, having both parents still alive, mother's education must be at least high 
school, and mothers have permanent jobs. 

Instrument 

A Likert model scale was used to collect data on self-adjustment, authoritarian parenting 
style, authoritative parenting style, permissive parenting style, problem-focused coping, and 
emotional-focused coping. The self-adjustment scale has indicators of objective thinking, 
sense of humor, responsibility, responsiveness, and satisfaction reflected in the theory of self-
adjustment by some experts (Achenbach, 1995; Carey, 1998; Schneiders, 1964). The results 
of the field trial analysis on the self-adjustment scale resulting 39 items with a reliability 
coefficient (α) = .947 and discrimination index ranging from .657 to .718.  

The scale of the problem-focused coping is reflected by the active indicators of coping, 
planning, suppression of competing actives, restraint, seeking social support. Emotional-
focused coping is reflected by indicators of escapism, minimization, self-blame, positive 
judgment (Aldwin & Revenson, 1987; Charles S. Carver et al., 1989; Lazarus & Folkman, 
1984). The reliability analysis on problem-focused coping obtained a coefficient of α = .933, 
while on emotional-focused coping, α =.842. Forty-six items were used as a research 
instrument based on the analysis results. 

The authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive parenting style scale emphasizes the 
elements of the indicators of discipline, control, reinforcement, and problem-solving (D. 
Baumrind, 1989; Hurlock, 1978; G. S. Pettit et al., 1997; A. Russell, 1997). The reliability 
analysis results on each parenting style scale obtained α = .783 for the authoritarian, α = .917 
for the authoritative, and α = .504 for the permissive. The discrimination index on the scale 
of authoritarian parenting style, authoritative parenting style, and permissive parenting style 
ranged from .625 to .696, .638 to .719, and .647 to .705, respectively. Forty items were used 
as a research instrument based on the analysis results. 

Data Analysis 

Data in this study were analyzed by parametric statistics using SPSS 19.0 software for 
windows. Multiple linear regression techniques were applied to determine the role of each 
parenting style and coping strategies toward self-adjustment. 



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Results 

The role of authoritative parenting style, authoritative parenting style, permissive parenting 
style, problem-focused coping, and emotion-focused coping to self-adjustment can be seen in 
Table 1. The results showed the R Square = .992, F = 1.4377 with a significance level of p = 
.000. These results indicate that parenting styles and coping strategies simultaneously 
contribute to self-adjustment. The contribution generated by all variables to self-adjustment 
is 99.2%.  
 

Tabel 1 

Major Hypothesis Test 

Variable R R Square F Value Sig Conclusion 

Problem Focused Coping; 

Emotional Focused Coping, 

Authoritarian, Authoritative, 

and Permissive on Self-

Adjustment 

.996 .992 1.4377 .000 Significant 

 

Table 2 shows the role and contribution of each independent variable to self-adjustment 
without controlling other independent variables. All independent variables showed a 
significance level of p = .000, meaning that each parenting style: authoritarian, authoritative, 
and permissive, and each coping strategy:  problem-focused coping and emotional-focused 
coping have a significant role in self-adjustment. Based on the zero-order correlation, the 
correlation between problem-focused coping and self-adjustment is slightly higher than that 
of emotion-focused coping. While in the three parenting styles, the highest correlation is 
found between authoritative parenting style with self-adjustment, followed by authoritative 
and permissive parenting, respectively. 
 

Table 2 
Minor Hypothesis Test 

Variable Zero-order Beta t Value Sig Conclusion 

Problem Focused Coping .953 1.040 10.219 .000 Significant 

Emotion Focused Coping .929 1.067   9.962 .000 Significant 

Authoritarian .801 1.238   8.589 .000 Significant 

Authoritative .810 1.224   8.686 .000 Significant 

Permissive .789 1.257   8.461 .000 Significant 

Discussion 

This study discusses self-adjustment in students from public and private high schools in 
Yogyakarta. The findings of this study indicate that coping strategy and parenting style are 
significant contributors to the self-adjustment of high school students in Yogyakarta. 
Although conducted in different research and cultural settings, the results of this study are 
consistent with the results of the previous studies, which found coping strategies are essential 
and influential predictors in predicting adolescent self-adjustment (Noor et al., 2016). Coping 
strategies facilitate an individual’s self-adjustment (Rahat & İlhan, 2016), increase optimism, 
problem-solving abilities, and individual environment control (Baqutayan & Mai, 2012 ).  

This study examines two coping strategies: problem-focused and emotional-focused 
coping in predicting self-adjustment ability. Both strategies are essential and contributed 
significantly to self-adjustment for our sample. Problem-focused coping is related to 
modifying and solving problems; these efforts aim to manage emotional distress (Cho et al., 
2013). Individuals with problem-focused coping will develop strategic planning that can 
change unpleasant situations; if the strategy is deemed ineffective or does not work well, 



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individuals will ask for suggestions or innovative solutions that involve social support (Aqeel 
et al., 2017). Individuals will consistently re-evaluate what has happened and what can be 
done to manage the situation to be more effective (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). These are 
some processes that explain the importance of problem-focused coping on self-adjustment. 

Previous studies found a significant role of emotion-focused coping in self-adjustment. 
Emotion-focused coping can simplify the way individuals respond to the demands (Skinner 
et al., 2003). The goal of emotion focus coping is to reduce negative emotions, manage 
feelings of distress, and deal with stress symptoms (Smith et al., 2007). Individuals with 
emotion-focused coping can be demonstrated by avoidance and wishful thinking (McCabe et 
al., 2004). Individuals will avoid all responsibilities or demands that are felt beyond their 
capabilities (Okanli et al., 2016). The use of emotion-focused coping effectively leads to 
psychosocial adjustment (Dennison et al., 2009). 

This study found the role of parenting style in predicting high school students’ self-
adjustment. A series of previous studies have investigated the various positive effect of each 
parenting style on the process of instilling and developing self-adjustment skills (C. 
McKinney et al., 2011). Conformity in adopting parenting styles can optimize the self-
adjustment ability of the adolescent (Cliff McKinney et al., 2014). Every individual has 
different characteristics and environmental situations, so do the parents; they have different 
parenting styles (C. McKinney et al., 2011).  

This study applied three parenting styles: authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive. 
The authoritative parenting style has a slightly higher contribution than the authoritarian and 
permissive parenting style. This research result reveals that the authoritative parenting style 
positively contributes to self-adjustment, implying that the more authoritative parents apply, 
the higher the self-adjustment of high school students. This research result is aligned with 
Steinberg et al. (2013) that an individual with authoritative parenting has better self-
adjustment, social, and academic levels. Parents with authoritative parenting carried out their 
control in more flexible ways. Parents try to direct a child's behavior using applied rules and 
standards conforming to social norms. The control applied with discussion strategy. The 
authoritative parents use a child-centered communication style; parents will spare some time 
to discuss and explain their decisions that need to be agreed upon (Pilarinos & Solomon, 
2017).  

This study found that authoritarian parenting style positively correlates with self-
adjustment among high school students in Yogyakarta. The research result is different from 
the previous research by Dwairy, Marwan, Fayad & Benyaqoub (2013) and Varma et al.  
(2018), conveying that the authoritarian parenting style negatively affected teenage self-
adjustment because it is deemed too strict and not warm. However, this parenting style did 
not inflict any danger to mental health (Dwairy et al., 2006). On the other hand, this research 
result is also aligned with Dwairy, Achoui, Abouserie, & Farah  (2006), explaining that 
parents who implement authoritarian parenting use the concept of self-discipline in instilling 
social values. Understanding social values will ease a person to adjust to the environment. 
This understanding builds positive behavior that corresponds to the norms expected by 
society or the environment (Chao & Tseng, 2002).  

Subsequently, this research result shows that the permissive parenting style provides a 
positive role in self-adjustment. This statement can be interpreted as the more permissive 
parenting applied, the higher self-adjustment of high school students. This tendency is 
because the interaction between children and parents continues. The permissive parenting 
style provides warmth, emotional support, and freedom to explore (Wischerth et al., 2016), 
which later benefits shape a child's creativity and responsibility. On the other hand, when an 
individual has good emotional support and gets the trust from the closest people, that person 
is prone to increase their self-adjustment (D. Wang & Fletcher, 2016). 

Our research has limitations, such as the amount of research subject and the school type 
only limited to high school. It needs to do further research on other types of high school, such 



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as vocational high school, religious teaching-based high school, or boarding school. Further 
research also may examine family factors influencing self-adjustment, aside from parenting 
style. 

Conclusion 

Coping strategies and parenting styles influence the self-adjustment of high schools students. 
In general, problem-focused coping contributes slightly higher than emotional-focused 
coping in self-adjustment. Whereas among the three parenting styles, the authoritative 
parenting style has the highest contribution to self-adjustment, followed by the authoritarian 
and permissive parenting styles. Therefore both coping strategies and parenting styles are 
essential in influencing self-adjustment. For practical implications, any programs designed to 
promote positive self-adjustment among high schools students should focus on internal and 
external factors.   
 
 

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