Humanitas: Indonesian Psychological Journal Vol. 20 (2), August 2023, 90-101 ISSN: 2598-6368(online); 1693-7236(print) humanitas@psy.uad.ac.id http://journal1.uad.ac.id/index.php/Humanitas https://doi.org/10.26555/humanitas.v20i2.239 Perceived fairness and marital satisfaction: The role of the presence of children with disabilities Klarinthia Ratri, Yudiana Ratnasari Faculty of Psychology, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia Corresponding Author: yudianaratnasari@gmail.com Introduction Marriage is a significant transition and stage in someone’s life as its success impacts people’s lives. One of the success indicators is to attain marital satisfaction (Heshmati et al., 2016). Marital satisfaction refers to the evaluation of the overall state of their marriage and reflects marital happiness and functioning (Schoen et al., 2002). Moreover, marital satisfaction was proven to impact someone’s life significantly. High marital satisfaction can lead to higher job satisfaction and better physical and psychological health (Dush et al., 2008; Rogers & May, 2003). On the other hand, dissatisfaction in marriage can trigger the onset of depressive symptoms in individuals (Rogers & May, 2003). The substantial influence of marital satisfaction has prompted diverse studies to identify the factors contributing to higher marital satisfaction (Student & Student, 2011). These factors are found to be correlated to higher marital satisfaction, not only with its intrapersonal aspects, such as an individual’s personality, attachment, and intellectual maturity, but also its interpersonal aspects, such as sexual satisfaction, compatibility, and conflict resolution (Student & Student, 2011). ARTICLE INFO ABST RACT Article history Received October 20, 2022 Revised June 19, 2023 Accepted June 23, 2023 Perceived fairness has been consistently found to have a significant positive correlation with marital satisfaction. Furthermore, numerous studies on perceived fairness have been conducted related to parents of children with disabilities, considering the difficulties encountered by these parents due to their children’s specialized needs and demands. As a result, these challenges usually affect their marital relationship more than the other couples. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the relationship between perceived fairness and marital satisfaction moderated by the presence of children with disabilities. The Indonesian version of the Perceived Fairness instrument and Quality of Marriage Index were used to measure perceived fairness and marital satisfaction in 335 married Indonesian participants, including both parents of children with and without disabilities. Data analysis was performed using Hayes PROCESS. The result showed that perceived fairness was significantly correlated to marital satisfaction in both parents of children with and without disabilities. However, no significant interaction was found by the presence of children with disabilities on the relationship between perceived fairness and marital satisfaction. The results of this study provide a strong implication for mental health practitioners regarding the intervention goals for families and parents of children with disabilities. Keywords children with disabilities; division of household chores; marital satisfaction; parenting; perceived fairness. mailto:humanitas@psy.uad.ac.id http://journal1.uad.ac.id/index.php/Humanitas https://doi.org/10.26555/humanitas.v20i2.239 mailto:yudianaratnasari@gmail.com Humanitas: Indonesian Psychological Journal 91 Ratri & Ratnasari (Perceived fairness and marital satisfaction: The role…) One factor that has been mentioned repeatedly in previous studies to contribute to higher marital satisfaction significantly is the spouse’s perception that they are sharing household responsibilities with their partner, including household chores and childrearing (Chong & Mickelson, 2016; Gosztyła, 2015; Simmerman et al., 2001; Tsibidaki, 2013). This factor is known as perceived fairness, perceived equality in the division of household responsibilities, including household chores, financial management, and childrearing (Claffey & Mickelson, 2009). Several studies found a consistently significant relationship between perceived fairness and marital satisfaction (Chong & Mickelson, 2016; Kluwer et al., 1996; Stevens et al., 2001; Wilkie et al., 1998). Perceived fairness plays a role in decreasing cognitive appraisal of how stressful the situation of childrearing they are facing, specifically in parents of children with disabilities (Willoughby & Glidden, 1995). Furthermore, numerous studies on perceived fairness have been conducted on parents of children with disabilities (Gosztyła, 2015; Ki & Joanne, 2014; Simmerman et al., 2001; Tsibidaki, 2013). These studies are important considering the difficulties encountered by parents of children with disabilities and the role that perceived fairness holds in the marital relationship. In general, parenthood represents a significant change that inevitably affects individuals' lives, specifically parents with children with disabilities (Risdal & Singer, 2004). Previous research suggested that parents of children with disabilities experience a higher level of stress, lower mental health, and disturbance in daily life, such as interruption in career and a decrease in leisure time (Brobst et al., 2009; Risdal & Singer, 2004). Several studies have explained the impacts experienced by parents of children with disabilities (Chen & Tang, 1997; Mallers et al., 2010). Accepting their children’s conditions and limitations, facilitating providers for specialized care, and planning for their future are the common struggles that the parents of children with developmental disabilities experience (Chen & Tang, 1997). Moreover, both developmental and physical disabilities in children demand complex and special care, which in turn become the main challenges for parents of children with disabilities. This condition will lead to lower social interactions, leisure time, and higher sleep disturbances (Mallers et al., 2010). Additionally, parents of children with developmental disabilities reported higher stressful experiences from managing their children’s emotions and behaviors while worrying about their future at the same time (Hoseinnejad et al., 2020; Ki & Joanne, 2014). In addition to caretaking demands, many studies suggested that financial demands in caring for children with disabilities are significant stressors for parents (Chen et al., 2020; Ren et al., 2020; Vonneilich et al., 2016). Compared with children with normal development, children with any disability tend to need special medical treatment, education, and equipment, resulting in a significantly higher financial burden for the parents (Bahry et al., 2019). The challenges experienced by parents of children with disabilities and their impacts on their personal lives will also negatively affect their marital relationship. This condition is in line with previous studies that parents of children with disabilities reported a higher number of divorces compared with parents of children without disabilities (Hartley et al., 2010; Risdal & Singer, 2004). Specifically, parents of children with ASD reported a divorce rate almost twice as high (23.5%) than the others (13.8%) (Hartley et al., 2010). Nevertheless, various studies have inconsistent results when comparing marital satisfaction between parents of children with and without disabilities. Several studies suggested lower marital satisfaction of parents of children with disabilities (Doulabi et al., 2019; Gosztyła, 2015; Hoseinnejad et al., 2020). However, other studies found no significant difference in marital satisfaction between the two populations (Holmbeck et al., 1997; Lohranpour & Chahartangi, 2016; Tsibidaki, 2013). Even though parents of children with disabilities showed lower levels of parental satisfaction, there is no significant difference in marital satisfaction between parents of children with and without disabilities (Holmbeck et al., 1997). Another study found no significant difference in marital satisfaction between these two populations, although mothers of children with disabilities reported lower quality of life (Tsibidaki, 2013). 92 ISSN 2598-6368 (online) / ISSN 1693-7236 (print) Ratri & Ratnasari (Perceived fairness and marital satisfaction: The role…) Previous study tried to explain these nonsignificant differences in marital satisfaction between couples with and without children with disabilities by the various factors that contribute to marital satisfaction, namely their coping strategy, the capability of cooperation between spouses, or their resilience level (Tsibidaki, 2013). It is possible that even though parents of children with disabilities experience different levels of challenges in childrearing compared to parents of children without disabilities, other factors in the relationships or within themselves contribute more to their marital satisfaction level, hence producing similar marital satisfaction between the two groups. In correspondence with the extensive and complex needs required by children with disabilities, the authors postulate that the couple’s collaboration to divide fair household responsibilities, manifested in their perception of fairness, may reduce the burden of childrearing. This collaboration will lead to higher marital satisfaction among parents of children with disabilities (Gosztyła, 2015; Ki & Joanne, 2014), which explains the higher interest in perceived fairness studies, specifically on parents of children with disabilities. The rise of the important role of perceived fairness in marital relationships could also result from a shift in gender roles in general. Frequently, these studies of perceived fairness would emphasize the importance of the father’s role in the mother’s perceived fairness, as childrearing responsibilities usually fall on the role of mothers. Specifically, father’s cooperation in caregiving and their positive response in taking more responsibility in the household will enhance their marital quality, which results in higher mother’s marital satisfaction (Simmerman et al., 2001; Tsibidaki, 2013; Willoughby & Glidden, 1995). These findings of gender role shift occur specifically in Indonesia. Despite the strong enforced belief of patriarchy, specifically of superiority in men rather than women in the majority of Indonesia’s culture (Hadiz & Eddyono, 2005), there has been a shift of position in the last couple of decades where women in Indonesia begun to gain their place in society by getting higher education, getting more waged jobs, and holding important positions in political organization (Schaner & Das, 2016). These changes could lead to a higher demand for equality in the household, specifically in household chores and childrearing. This condition is in accordance with a study that wives with higher financial earnings have more power to negotiate a more equal division of childrearing with their husbands (Simulja et al., 2014). Based on the different challenges between parents of children with and without disabilities and the important role that perceived fairness holds in marital relationships in general, this study aimed to determine the relationship between perceived fairness and marital satisfaction moderated by the presence of children with disabilities in marriage. This study examined if the relationship between perceived fairness and marital satisfaction will differ between parents of children with and without disabilities. The authors hypothesized that the complex and special care required by children with disabilities would lead to a significantly stronger correlation between perceived fairness and marital satisfaction in parents of children with disabilities, as higher demands will result in higher needs of equal division of household chores and childrearing. The implication of the results of this study is to identify if perceived fairness can be targeted as a factor that needs to be emphasized during counseling for this type of family. This implication is in accordance with a study that suggested the importance of finding factors that reinforce the positive adaptation of parents of children with disabilities to support them as a family (Risdal & Singer, 2004). Method Research Design This quantitative research uses a correlational research design, where the numerical data were gathered from the target population and analyzed to test the associations between variables. Data was collected in an online platform, which took approximately 20-30 minutes. This Humanitas: Indonesian Psychological Journal 93 Ratri & Ratnasari (Perceived fairness and marital satisfaction: The role…) study has received ethical approval from the Committee on Research Ethics at the Faculty of Psychology, Universitas Indonesia, with the number approval 032/FPsi.Komite Etik/PDP.04.00/2022. Participants Three hundred and sixty-six married Indonesian participants participated through convenience sampling. An informative flyer regarding the research was distributed through various social media and communication platforms such as Instagram and WhatsApp. The information presented in the flyer included the purpose of the study, the characteristics of the participants required, the contact person, and the questionnaire link. The questionnaire was distributed online using Google Forms to collect individual data rather than dyadic (couples’ data). The authors controlled the data to be only for participants with children, both with and without disabilities, to minimize possible errors. Therefore, 31 participants without children were eliminated, resulting in 335 data comprised of 187 women (56%) and 148 men (44%), with 152 of them (45%) having children with disabilities such as Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and physical disability (i.e., deaf, blind). The majority of participants received a high degree of education, and more than 70% of the participants graduated with bachelor, master, or doctorate degrees. All participants were provided with informed consent to state their willingness to agree to fill up the research questions. Details of participants’ demographic characteristics and the disabilities diagnosed in participants’ children can be seen in Table 1. Table 1 Participants’ Demographics and Distribution of Disabilities in Participants’ Children Type Frequency Percentage Gender Male 148 56% Female 187 44% Children With disabilities 152 45% Without disabilities 183 55% Education High school diploma 32 10% Vocational study 45 13% Undergraduate 152 45% Graduate 106 32% Duration of Marriage 0-5 years 105 31% 6-10 years 46 14% 11-15 years 66 20% >15 years 118 35% Disabilities Physical Disability 96 63% Autism Spectrum Disorder 31 20% ADHD/Attention Issues 9 6% Learning Difficulties 6 4% Down Syndrome 4 3% Others (Microcephaly, multi-disability) 6 4% Instruments Each participant was first requested to mention the health of their children in a short demographic questionnaire. Specifically, parents of children with disabilities were requested to write down their children’s diagnoses and the source of the diagnoses, such as doctors, psychiatrists, or psychologists. 94 ISSN 2598-6368 (online) / ISSN 1693-7236 (print) Ratri & Ratnasari (Perceived fairness and marital satisfaction: The role…) Perceived fairness was measured using the Perceived Fairness instrument (Claffey & Mickelson, 2009). Participants rated their perception of fairness in the division of household chores in their marriage, including food preparation, cleaning, household management, yard work, and childrearing. The instrument consisted of 5 items, ranging from 1 (“very unfair”) to 4 (“very fair”), with the highest possible score to achieve was 20. The instrument was translated and back-translated to Bahasa Indonesia and English (Rahmadani, 2021) and had good reliability (α = .77). The sample item and corrected item-total correlation of the instrument are shown in Table 2. Marital satisfaction was measured using the Quality of Marriage Index (Norton, 1983), which included six positive items containing two-scale system types. The first five items were a 7-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The last item was a 10-point scale ranging from 1 (extremely low) to 10 (extremely high). The total possible score was 45, and the higher score indicated a higher marital quality experienced by the participants. The instrument was adapted to Bahasa Indonesia (Aranti, 2020), with a high coefficient reliability in Cronbach Alpha (α = .95). The sample item and corrected item-total correlation of the instrument can be seen in Table 2. Table 2 Sample Item and Corrected Item Total Correlation for Each Instrument Instrument Item no. Sample Item CriT Range CriT/scale Perceived Fairness 2 Cleaning (dishes, vacuuming, laundry, etc.) .70 .54-.81 4 Yard work (trash and lawn care) .53 Marital Satisfaction 1 We have a good marriage .86 .85-.93 5 I really feel like part of a team with my partner .85 Data Analysis Participants’ demographic data were analyzed using Hayes PROCESS on IBM SPSS version 23 to test our hypotheses on the moderation effect of the presence of children with disabilities on perceived fairness and marital satisfaction. As additional data, one-way ANOVA was used to see the differences in perceived fairness and marital satisfaction based on demographic data, such as gender, education, and marital duration. Results A calculation of Hayes PROCESS examines the relationship between perceived fairness and the presence of children with disabilities to predict individuals’ marital satisfaction. As shown in Table 3, a significant relationship was found between perceived fairness and marital satisfaction, b = 1.30, SE = .29, 95% CIs = .74, 1.87, p < .01. However, there was no significant relationship between the presence of children with disabilities and marital satisfaction, b = .19, SE = .65, 95% CIs = -1.08, 1.48, p > .01. Moreover, the presence of children with disabilities did not affect the relationship between marital satisfaction and perceived fairness, b = -.09, SE = .18, 95% CIs = -.45, .26, p > .01. Thus, the effect of perceived fairness on marital satisfaction is not moderated by the presence of children with disabilities in a marriage. Furthermore, higher perceived fairness was proven to predict marital satisfaction in parents of children without disabilities, b = 1.21, SE = 0.13, 95% CIs = .96, 1.46, p < .01. A similar result was found in parents of children with disabilities, b = 1.12, SE = .13, 95% CIs = 0.87, 1.36, p < .01. It can be concluded that higher perceived fairness predicts higher marital satisfaction both in marital couples of children with or without disabilities. Humanitas: Indonesian Psychological Journal 95 Ratri & Ratnasari (Perceived fairness and marital satisfaction: The role…) Table 3 Moderation Analysis of the Presence of Children with Disabilities on Perceived Fairness and Marital Satisfaction Analysis Variable b SE 95%CIs Moderator Analysis Perceived Fairness 1.30** .29 .74, 1.87 Parents of children with/without disabilities .19 .65 -1.08, 1.48 Perceived Fairness*Presence of children with disabilities -.09 .18 -.45, .26 Simple slope analysis Parents of children without disabilities 1.21** .13 .96, 1.46 Parents of children with disabilities 1.12** .13 .87, 1.36 Note: *** p < .001; ** p < .01; * p < .05 Independent sample t-test and one-way ANOVA were performed to determine which demographic data (gender, education, and duration of marriage) contributes to marital satisfaction and perceived fairness. Table 4 shows that among parents of children with and without disabilities, there is a significant difference in marital satisfaction for males (M = 6.66, SD = .94) and females (M = 6.09, SD = 1.3) with t(333) = -4.56, p = .00. In addition, male parents had score of perceived fairness (M = 3.74, SD = .47) that is significantly higher than that of female (M = 3.43, SD = .64); with t(333) = -4.96, p = .00. This study also revealed a significant differences on score for marital satisfaction and perceived fairness in each group parents with and without children. On the contrary, one-way ANOVA analysis shows no significant score of marital satisfaction and perceived fairness based on other demographic data, including level of education and duration of marriage. Table 4 Differences in Marital Satisfaction and Perceived Fairness between Parents of Children with and without Disabilities Based on Gender Male Female df t p M SD M SD Total Sample Marital Satisfaction 6.66 .94 6.09 1.30 333 -4.56 <.001*** Perceived Fairness 3.74 .47 3.43 .64 333 -4.96 <.001*** Parents of Children with Disabilities Marital Satisfaction 6.51 .94 5.96 1.41 150 -2.73 <.010** Perceived Fairness 3.77 .44 3.30 .66 150 -4.90 <.001*** Parents of Children without Disabilities Marital Satisfaction 6.78 .93 6.20 1.18 181 -3.61 <.001*** Perceived Fairness 3.72 .49 3.54 .60 181 -2.12 .030* Note: *** p < .001; ** p < .01; * p < .05 Discussion The results showed no difference in the relationship between perceived fairness and marital satisfaction among parents of children with and without disabilities. There are several possible explanations for this finding. One of which is the similarities of challenges between the two groups. Even though parents of children with disabilities tend to encounter a more complex and demanding childrearing routine, parents of children without disabilities also reported similar parental stress related to their children. These parenting stress include fatigue or lack of sleep, decreased sexual satisfaction, financial stress, and less time for personal life (Cooklin et al., 2011; Ponnet et al., 2016). These similar sources of stress on childrearing between both groups may lead to similar perceptions of fairness and satisfaction in marital relationships. 96 ISSN 2598-6368 (online) / ISSN 1693-7236 (print) Ratri & Ratnasari (Perceived fairness and marital satisfaction: The role…) In addition, the higher challenges of childrearing of children with disabilities may lead to the development of adaptive coping skills in their parents. Parents of children with disabilities have a higher cooperative marital relationship than those without disabilities (Tsibidaki, 2013). This cooperation refers to the responsibility associated with the condition of their children. As a result, having children with disabilities tends to unify husbands and wives primarily in their shared role as parents (Tsibidaki, 2013). Aside from their coping as parents, parents of children with disabilities demonstrated a more positive affect and sensitivity toward their spouse compared to parents of children without disabilities (Hartley et al., 2017). Furthermore, even though parents of children with disabilities encountered a greater level of stress, they also demonstrated remarkable resilience in dealing with the challenges (Sanders & Morgan, 1997). Previous studies showed that the presence of children with disabilities does not necessarily negatively impact their lives and marital relations (Tsibidaki, 2013). Moreover, several studies revealed that parents of children with disabilities who are divorced or separated had marital issues before the birth of children with disabilities (Holmbeck et al., 1997; Tsibidaki, 2013). This development of adaptive coping and resilience in parents of children with disabilities may explain why there is no significant difference in the role of perceived fairness in marital satisfaction between parents of children with and without disabilities. This study finding implies that regardless of the presence of children with disabilities, higher perceived fairness leads to higher marital satisfaction. This result aligns with the variety of previous studies on parents of children with and without disabilities (Gosztyła, 2015; Ki & Joanne, 2014; Stevens et al., 2001; Willoughby & Glidden, 1995). Generally, the wife’s dissatisfaction with the division of household chores is correlated with higher marital conflict (Kluwer et al., 1996). On the other hand, domestic labor is divided into three dimensions: household tasks, emotion-work, and status-enhancement work, and suggested that all three dimensions are significantly correlated to marital satisfaction (Stevens et al., 2001). Nevertheless, in correlation with our research, findings satisfaction with household chores only influences marital satisfaction in women (Stevens et al., 2001). In addition, the division of household chores affects marital satisfaction through the perception of fairness, yet what is perceived as “fair” differs for husbands and wives (Wilkie et al., 1998). For wives, doing more than their fair share of household chores and not getting credit for it decreases their sense of justice and fairness. On the other hand, for husbands, a conventional division of household chores increases their sense of fairness. On the other side, specifically for parents of children with disabilities, this result is in accordance with a previous study in which perceived fairness is significantly correlated to marital satisfaction in countries with collective cultures, such as Indonesia and China, as they tend to uphold social harmony and group needs more than anything else (Ki & Joanne, 2014). Therefore, sharing and dividing household chores and childrearing in Indonesia is perceived as a means to achieve harmony and marital satisfaction. Aside from social context, when both parents of children with developmental disabilities cooperate to fulfill their children’s needs, it will strengthen their marriage in the process (Benson & Gross, 1989). Previous studies tend to explain this from the mothers’ perspective, suggesting that the mother’s perception and satisfaction with the father’s help with household chores and caring for children with disabilities significantly correlate to marital adjustment (Simmerman et al., 2001). In addition, as mothers usually take a higher burden of childrearing (60%) than fathers, they reported less anger, depression, and anxiety when their spouse helps and takes more responsibility (Tsibidaki, 2013). These lower negative emotions in mothers can lead to higher marital satisfaction. Not only decreasing negative emotions but sharing childrearing responsibility is also found to lessen the parents’ perspective on the difficulties encountered (Willoughby & Glidden, 1995). As explained in previous studies on both parents of children with and without disabilities, perceived fairness can rarely be separated from gender roles in marital Humanitas: Indonesian Psychological Journal 97 Ratri & Ratnasari (Perceived fairness and marital satisfaction: The role…) relationships (Kluwer et al., 1996; Stevens et al., 2001; Wilkie et al., 1998). Hence, an additional analysis is performed to examine the role of demographic data in participants’ marital satisfaction and perceived fairness. It was found that participants’ gender is the only demographic data that has significant relationships with marital satisfaction and perceived fairness. This finding is in accordance with the previous study that gender has the most significant impact on perceived fairness, in which male is reported to have significantly higher perceived fairness than female (Gosztyła, 2015). As explained in various studies, it should be considered that women have a bigger responsibility for childrearing (Craig & Mullan, 2011; Stevens et al., 2001). Therefore, it is possible that even though husbands perceive that the shared responsibility is fair or that they are helping with household chores and childrearing, the wives do not share the same perception (Chong & Mickelson, 2016). This condition is most likely to happen, particularly in Indonesia. Although the law has regulated the equal rights between husband and wife, it also defines a polarized role for each of them. According to the law, the husband is the head of the family, and the wife is the household's mother. Thus, the social norm that husbands are the ones who work and wives are the ones who stay at home to manage household and childrearing tasks has been rooted deeply in Indonesian culture. A previous study suggested that decades of taking responsibility for caretaking demand have manifested in a higher burden for women, not only doing the responsibility itself but also delegating and thinking about it (Gillespie et al., 2019). As a result, despite the shared chores between fathers and mothers, mothers remain to carry a bigger burden. The significantly lower perceived fairness in women supports our finding that women have significantly lower marital satisfaction. As it was found that perceived fairness has a significant positive correlation with marital satisfaction, it is comprehensible that when women experience lower perceived fairness, they also have lower marital satisfaction. There are a few possible reasons for this result. As several studies stated that wives experience higher stress in handling children with disabilities, they may need deeper and more complex resources to cope with the situation and achieve higher marital satisfaction (Norlin & Broberg, 2013). This result aligns with previous studies that various factors contribute to marital satisfaction in mothers of children with disabilities, including unfairness to self, spousal emotional support, personality, or coping strategy (Chong & Mickelson, 2016; Gillespie et al., 2019). Despite the beneficial findings of this study, there are several limitations. Firstly, this study did not specify the disabilities of the participants’ children as this study generalized disabilities from developmental disabilities and physical disabilities. Consequently, this study could not identify if the findings are relevant specifically for each different type of disability. Therefore, future research needs to examine further by controlling the type of disability in participants’ children. Another similar limitation is how this study did not differentiate perceived fairness in the context of household and childcare tasks. A previous study emphasizes the importance of independently testing childcare and household tasks, as they found a different impact of the division of housework and childcare tasks on spouses’ perception of fairness and assessments of marital conflicts (Newkirk et al., 2017). Conclusion The presence of children with disabilities does not influence the relationship between perceived fairness and marital satisfaction. Perceived fairness is significantly correlated to marital satisfaction in both parents of children with and without disabilities. This finding highlights the importance of increasing perceived fairness among parents of children with and without disabilities, which can be achieved by bridging the communication gap between parents on the expectation of household chores and childrearing division to reach a mutual 98 ISSN 2598-6368 (online) / ISSN 1693-7236 (print) Ratri & Ratnasari (Perceived fairness and marital satisfaction: The role…) understanding of fairness from both parties. Furthermore, the intervention can also be implemented to create a responsibility-sharing plan that is perceived as fair for both parties. This implication can be done to understand better and fulfill the wife’s expectation of fairness in the marriage, as females experience lower marital satisfaction and perceived fairness than males. Hence, a more thorough understanding and intervention on wives’ perspectives of fairness in household labor are expected to prevent conflict in marriage and create higher marital satisfaction. Acknowledgment The author thanks all participants, both parents of children with or without disabilities, for participating in this study. Declarations Author contribution. The first and second authors co-designed the study. The first author analyzed the data and drafted the article, with feedback and guidance from the second author. Funding statement. This study did not receive external funding. Conflict of interest. The authors declare no conflict of interest. Additional information. No additional information is available for this paper. References Aranti, H. (2020). Pernikahan di generasi X: Peran strategi resolusi konflik sebagai moderator dalam hubungan antara human value dan kepuasan pernikahan [Marriage among X generation: The role of conflict resolution strategy as moderator in the association between human value and marital satisfaction] [Unpublished master’s thesis]. Universitas Indonesia. Bahry, N. S., Mat, A., Kori, N. L., Ali, A. M., Munir, Z. A., & Salleh, M. Z. M. (2019). Challenges faced by Malaysian parents in caregiving of a child with disabilities. GATR Global Journal of Business Social Sciences Review, 7(2), 118–124. https://doi.org/10.35609/gjbssr.2019.7.2(2) Benson, B. A., & Gross, A. M. (1989). The effect of a congenitally handicapped child upon the marital dyad: A review of the literature. Clinical Psychology Review, 9(6), 747– 758. https://doi.org/10.1016/0272-7358(89)90021-4 Brobst, J. B., Clopton, J. R., & Hendrick, S. S. (2009). Parenting children with autism spectrum disorders: The couple’s relationship. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 24(1), 38–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088357608323699 Chen, S.-Q., Chen, S.-D., Li, X.-K., & Ren, J. (2020). Mental health of parents of special needs children in China during the covid-19 pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(24), 9519. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17249519 Chen, T. Y., & Tang, C. S. (1997). Stress appraisal and social support of Chinese mothers of adult children with mental retardation. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 101(5), 473–482. Chong, A., & Mickelson, K. D. (2016). Perceived fairness and relationship satisfaction during the transition to parenthood: The mediating role of spousal support. Journal of Family Issues, 37(1), 3–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X13516764 Claffey, S. T., & Mickelson, K. D. (2009). Division of household labor and distress: The role of perceived fairness for employed mothers. Sex Roles, 60(11–12), 819–831. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9578-0 Cooklin, A. R., Giallo, R., & Rose, N. (2011). Parental fatigue and parenting practices during early childhood: An Australian community survey. Child: Care, Health and Development, 38(5), 654–664. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2011.01333.x https://doi.org/10.35609/gjbssr.2019.7.2(2) https://doi.org/10.1016/0272-7358(89)90021-4 https://doi.org/10.1177/1088357608323699 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17249519 https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X13516764 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9578-0 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2011.01333.x Humanitas: Indonesian Psychological Journal 99 Ratri & Ratnasari (Perceived fairness and marital satisfaction: The role…) Craig, L., & Mullan, K. (2011). How mothers and fathers share childcare: A cross-national time-use comparison. American Sociological Review, 76(6), 834–861. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122411427673 Doulabi, M. A., Sajedi, F., Vameghi, R., Mazaheri, M. A., Baghban, A. A., & Afraz, F. (2019). Marital satisfaction and depression in mothers of 3-4 year old children with developmental delay in comparison with mothers of normal children. Iranian Journal of Child Neurology, 13(4), 91–108. https://doi.org/10.22037/ijcn.v13i4.18050 Dush, C. M. K., Taylor, M. G., & Kroeger, R. A. (2008). Marital happiness and psychological well‐being across the life course. Family Relations, 57(2), 211–226. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2008.00495.x Gillespie, B. J., Peterson, G., & Lever, J. (2019). Gendered perceptions of fairness in housework and shared expenses: Implications for relationship satisfaction and sex frequency. PLOS ONE, 14(3), e0214204. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0214204 Gosztyła, T. (2015). Marriage satisfaction of parents of children with autism. Introductory exploration of the problem among Polish married couples rearing children with autism. Fides et Ratio, 4(24), 228–247. Hadiz, L., & Eddyono, S. W. (2005). Pembakuan peran gender dalam kebijakan-kebijakan di Indonesia [Standarization of gender roles in policies in Indonesia]. Lembaga Bantuan Hukum Asosiasi Perempuan Indonesia untuk Keadilan (LBH APIK). Hartley, S. L., Barker, E. T., Seltzer, M. M., Floyd, F., Greenberg, J., Orsmond, G., & Bolt, D. (2010). The relative risk and timing of divorce in families of children with an autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Family Psychology, 24(4), 449–457. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019847 Hartley, S. L., Papp, L. M., Mihaila, I., Bussanich, P. M., Goetz, G., & Hickey, E. J. (2017). Couple conflict in parents of children with versus without autism: Self-reported and observed findings. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(8), 2152–2165. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0737-1 Heshmati, H., Behnampour, N., Arabameri, S., Khajavi, S., & Kohan, N. (2016). Marital satisfaction in Refereed Women to Gorgan Health Centers. Iranian Journal of Psychiatry, 11(3), 198–200. Holmbeck, G. N., Gorey-Ferguson, L., Hudson, T., Sefeldt, T., Shapera, W., Turner, T., & Uhler, J. (1997). Maternal, paternal, and marital functioning in families of preadolescents with spina bifida. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 22(2), 167–181. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/22.2.167 Hoseinnejad, H., Chopaniyan, F., Sarvi Moghanlo, O., Rostami, M., & Dadkhah, A. (2020). Marital satisfaction and happiness in parents with autistic and normal children. Iranian Rehabilitation Journal, 18(1), 49–56. https://doi.org/10.32598/irj.18.1.655.1 Ki, Y. W., & Joanne, C. C. Y. (2014). Stress and marital satisfaction of parents with children with disabilities in Hong Kong. Psychology, 5(5), 349–357. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2014.55045 Kluwer, E. S., Heesink, J. A. M., & de Vliert, E. Van. (1996). Marital conflict about the division of household labor and paid work. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 58(4), 958–969. https://doi.org/10.2307/353983 Lohranpour, G. A., & Chahartangi, S. (2016). Comparative analysis of marital satisfaction and quality of life in mothers with exceptional children and mothers with normal children. International Journal of Medical Research & Health Sciences, 5(7S), 631– 636. Mallers, M. H., Charles, S. T., Neupert, S. D., & Almeida, D. M. (2010). Perceptions of childhood relationships with mother and father: Daily emotional and stressor experiences in adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 46(6), 1651–1661. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021020 https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122411427673 https://journals.sbmu.ac.ir/ijcn/article/view/18050 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2008.00495.x https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0214204 https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019847 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0737-1 https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/22.2.167 https://doi.org/10.32598/irj.18.1.655.1 https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2014.55045 https://doi.org/10.2307/353983 https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021020 100 ISSN 2598-6368 (online) / ISSN 1693-7236 (print) Ratri & Ratnasari (Perceived fairness and marital satisfaction: The role…) McCracken, J. T., McGough, J., Shah, B., Cronin, P., Hong, D., Aman, M. G., Arnold, L. E., Lindsay, R., Nash, P., Hollway, J., McDougle, C. J., Posey, D., Swiezy, N., Kohn, A., Scahill, L., Martin, A., Koenig, K., Volkmar, F., Carroll, D., … McMahon, D. (2002). Risperidone in children with autism and serious behavioral problems. New England Journal of Medicine, 347(5), 314–321. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa013171 Newkirk, K., Perry-Jenkins, M., & Sayer, A. G. (2017). Division of household and childcare labor and relationship conflict among low-income new parents. Sex Roles, 76(5–6), 319–333. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0604-3 Norlin, D., & Broberg, M. (2013). Parents of children with and without intellectual disability: couple relationship and individual well-being. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 57(6), 552–566. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365- 2788.2012.01564.x Norton, R. (1983). Measuring marital quality: A critical look at the dependent variable. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 45(1), 141–151. https://doi.org/10.2307/351302 Ponnet, K., Wouters, E., Goedemé, T., & Mortelmans, D. (2016). Family financial stress, parenting and problem behavior in adolescents: An actor-partner interdependence approach. Journal of Family Issues, 37(4), 574–597. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X13514409 Rahmadani, F. (2021). Peran financial infidelity dan perceived fairness terhadap marital distress: Studi pada lima tahun pertama perkawinan [The role of financial infidelity and perceived fairness on marital distress: Study in the first five years of marriage] [Unpublished undergraduate’s Thesis]. Universitas Indonesia. Ren, J., Li, X., Chen, S., Chen, S., & Nie, Y. (2020). The influence of factors such as parenting stress and social support on the state anxiety in parents of special needs children during the COVID-19 epidemic. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.565393 Risdal, D., & Singer, G. H. S. (2004). Marital adjustment in parents of children with disabilities: A Historical review and meta-analysis. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 29(2), 95–103. https://doi.org/10.2511/rpsd.29.2.95 Rogers, S. J., & May, D. C. (2003). Spillover between marital quality and job satisfaction: Long-term patterns and gender differences. Journal of Marriage and Family, 65(2), 482–495. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2003.00482.x Sanders, J. L., & Morgan, S. B. (1997). Family stress and adjustment as perceived by parents of children with autism or down syndrome: Implications for intervention. Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 19(4), 15–32. https://doi.org/10.1300/J019v19n04_02 Schaner, S., & Das, S. (2016). Female labor force participation in Asia: Indonesia country study. Asian Development Bank Economics Working Paper Series. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2737842 Schoen, R., Astone, N. M., Kim, Y. J., Rothert, K., & Standish, N. J. (2002). Women’s employment, marital happiness and divorce. Social Forces, 81(2), 643–662. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2003.0019 Sharpley, C. F., Bitsika, V., & Efremidis, B. (1997). Influence of gender, parental health, and perceived expertise of assistance upon stress, anxiety, and depression among parents of children with autism. Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability, 22(1), 19–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/13668259700033261 Simmerman, S., Blacher, J., & Baker, B. L. (2001). Fathers’ and mothers’ perceptions of father involvement in families with young children with a disability. Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability, 26(4), 325–338. https://doi.org/10.1080/13668250120087335 Simulja, J., Wulandari, E. H., & Wulansari, S. A. (2014). Gender inequality and the division of household labor: A comparative study of middle-class, working married men and https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa013171 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0604-3 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2012.01564.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2012.01564.x https://doi.org/10.2307/351302 https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X13514409 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.565393 https://doi.org/10.2511/rpsd.29.2.95 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2003.00482.x https://doi.org/10.1300/J019v19n04_02 https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2737842 https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2003.0019 https://doi.org/10.1080/13668259700033261 https://doi.org/10.1080/13668250120087335 Humanitas: Indonesian Psychological Journal 101 Ratri & Ratnasari (Perceived fairness and marital satisfaction: The role…) women in Japan and Indonesia. Makara Human Behavior Studies in Asia, 18(2), 109– 126. https://doi.org/10.7454/mssh.v18i2.3466 Stevens, D., Kiger, G., & Riley, P. J. (2001). Working hard and hardly working: Domestic labor and marital satisfaction among dual-earner couples. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63(2), 514–526. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.00514.x Student, R. A. P., & Student, A. L. P. (2011). Relationship between sexual pleasure and marital satisfaction. Iran Journal of Nursing, 24(70), 82–90. Tsibidaki, A. (2013). Marital relationship in Greek families raising a child with a severe disability. Electronic Journal of Research in Education Psychology, 11(29), 25–50. https://doi.org/10.25115/ejrep.v11i29.1556 Vonneilich, N., Lüdecke, D., & Kofahl, C. (2016). The impact of care on family and health- related quality of life of parents with chronically ill and disabled children. Disability and Rehabilitation, 38(8), 761–767. https://doi.org/10.3109/09638288.2015.1060267 Wilkie, J. R., Ferree, M. M., & Ratcliff, K. S. (1998). Gender and fairness: Marital satisfaction in two-earner couples. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60(3), 577– 594. https://doi.org/10.2307/353530 Willoughby, J. C., & Glidden, L. M. (1995). Fathers helping out: Shared child care and marital satisfaction of parents of children with disabilities. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 99(4), 399–406. https://doi.org/10.7454/mssh.v18i2.3466 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.00514.x https://doi.org/10.25115/ejrep.v11i29.1556 https://doi.org/10.3109/09638288.2015.1060267 https://doi.org/10.2307/353530