humanities and social science research; vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 http://hssr.ideasspread.org 62 published by ideas spread reviewer acknowledgements humanities and social science research wishes to acknowledge the following individuals for their assistance with peer review of manuscripts for this issue. their help and contributions in maintaining the quality of the journal is greatly appreciated. humanities and social science research is recruiting reviewers for the journal. if you are interested in becoming a reviewer, we welcome you to join us. please find the application form and details at http://home.ideasspread.org/for-reviewers/ and e-mail the completed application form to hssr@ideasspread.org reviewers for volume 1, number 2 albrecht classen, university of arizona, united states amil maharramov, baku state university, azerbaijan elena a. ogneva, belgorod national research university, russia erna multahada, mercu buana university, indonesia gholamreza azarbouyehdinaki, shiraz art university, australia imran ali, the islamia university of bahawalpur, pakistan imron w. harits, university of trunojoyo madura, indonesia irina kuprieva, russian university of cooperation, russia jonas jakaitis, vilnius gediminas technical university, lithuania mercedes llorent vaquero, universidad de sevilla, spain muhammad rehan masoom, united international university, bangladesh p. malyadri, rayalaseema university, india ryan dwi puspita, stkip sebelas april, indonesia solomon ochepa oduma-aboh, kaduna state university, nigeria thomas georgas, institute of education, united kingdom tinashe chuchu, university of the witwatersrand, south africa humanities and social science research; vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v1n1p60 60 published by ideas spread research on the function mechanism of patent information in the patent operation of enterprises in china zhi liping1 & shi bingqi2 1 ph. d of school of computer science & information engineering, anyang normal university, anyang, china 2 m.a student of anyang normal university, anyang, china correspondence: zhi liping, school of computer science & information engineering, anyang normal university, anyang, china. tel: 1-350-372-8754. e-mail: zhiliping1216@163.com received: may 29, 2018; accepted: june 17, 2018; published: june 23, 2018 the research is financed by the henan philosophy and social science project (no. 2015czh004) & the training scheme for young key teachers in universities of henan (no. 2016ggjs-123) & the key project of science and technology research of education department of henan (no. 16a520040) & the humanities and social science project of education department of henan (no. 2017-zdjh-002) & the soft science of intellectual property rights of henan (no. 20170106026). abstract patent operation, as a key activity of technological innovation and industrial transformation, is becoming increasingly important to economic development. on the basis of field investigation, a questionnaire is designed to investigate the application of patent information in the patent operation of chinese enterprises. it is found that the biggest difficulty of chinese enterprises is still lack of perfect patent database and patent information talents. furthermore, the positive feedback mechanism between patent information and enterprise patent operation is analyzed, which is of great theoretical significance to our government and enterprises. keywords: patent information, patent operation, enterprise, positive feedback mechanism 1. introduction with the deepening development of the global knowledge economy, the business model of realizing the value of patent in the world is constantly emerging. in addition to patent transfer, licensing, standardization and patent pool, patent securitization, patent pledge loan, patent trust auction, patent insurance and other emerging patent operation are developing rapidly, and the realization of enterprise patent value is becoming more and more obvious. as the main body of innovation, enterprises play an important role in the patent operation of our country, so how about the patent operation of the enterprises in china? how about the application of patent information in patent operation? what is the internal connection between patent operation and patent information and how does them interact? in order to solve these answers, we designed a questionnaire, analyzed the internal relationship between them, and finally put forward coping strategies. 2. research and analysis of the euestionnaire the patent operation in our country is in its infancy at present, so questionnaires have been distributed to the national patent operation pilot enterprises (mainly 30 production enterprises) and some well-known enterprises, and 16 valid questionnaires have been collected. details are as follows: sichuan changhong electric appliance co., ltd., baidu online network technology (beijing) co., byd co., xiaomi technology co., telecommunications science and technology research institute, sany group co., southwest chemical research and design institute co., new aut (beijing) video technology co., zhonglian heavy technology co., zhejiang zhengtai electric co., zhejiang haizheng pharmaceutical co., zhongguang nuclear engineering co., chongqing runze pharmaceutical co., fuyao glass industry group co., china aerospace science and technology group co., huawei technologies co. by statistical analysis, the following conclusions are drawn: nine enterprises are chinese patent operation pilot projects, representing the overall development level of enterprises in our country at present; one enterprise plan declaration; fifteen institutions believe that the establishment of a sound or more perfect patent operation system; hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 61 published by ideas spread fourteen institutions have established a standardized patent operation process; these show that our enterprises have a certain core competitiveness. following, it is analyzed from the situation of patent application, patent authorization, patent operation, and patent information utilization in patent operation and so on. 2.1 status of patent applications and authorizations 1) status of chinese patent applications and authorizations the chinese patent applications and authorizations of these sixteen companies are calculated that the average number of patent applications and the number of patents granted are respectively 8101.56 and 4377.44. as a patent application leader, huawei technology co., ltd. is far ahead in patent applications and licensing. the number of patents has laid the foundation for the operation of the patent. 2) patent applications and authorizations worldwide it is calculated that the average number of patent applications and authorizations worldwide of these sixteen enterprises are 3914.69 and 887.63, respectively. the top four are byd co., the telecommunications science and technology research institute, and millet technology co. as the patent application leader, the number of patent applications and authorizations worldwide of huawei technology co., ltd. is also far ahead and improved the average; excluding its foreign patent applications, the average number of patent applications and authorizations worldwide dropped to 584.47 and 126.6 respectively. it shows that most enterprises in china have relatively few foreign patent reserves, which will affect their patent layout abroad. 2.2 application of patent information 1) sixteen enterprises have set up patent information utilization system, and most of them (68.75%) have set up perfect patent information system. this shows that enterprises as the main innovation, patent operation activities have paid great attention to the use of patent information. 2) free search sites that companies often use include the national bureau website, the european bureau, the united states bureau and soopat. it can be seen that 87.5% of enterprises use the website of the state bureau to search for patents in china, while 87.5% use the european bureau to search foreign patents. it is worth mentioning that soopat is the most frequently used unofficial website because of its simple interface, fast retrieval and many other advantages. 3) compared with free search websites, commercial databases are less used. among them, 43.75% of enterprises use intellectual property publishing house or 31.25% of enterprises use british derwent, and the probability of using other databases is very low, less than 20%. 4) in the application of patent information, almost all enterprises will use patent retrieval, patent infringement risk analysis, patent legal status query. 93.75% of the enterprises will carry out the specific domain / industry patent analysis, 87.5% of the enterprises will carry out the invalid patent inquiry, the product export country patent risk analysis, the patent early warning, 62.5% of the enterprises will carry on the patent trend research and the technology development trend patent navigation. 2.3 status of patent operations the results show that the main ways for enterprises to deal with patent are self-industrialization, cooperative transformation with other enterprises and licensing of others, and patent technology license, transfer and industrialization are the main mode of patent operation, among which transfer and license mainly take place within the enterprise. 2.4 difficulties and needs in patent information application and patent operation of the sixteen enterprises, ten of them lack the patent information application talents, eight lack of patent data resources, six do not know how to apply the patent information in the patent operation. the statistical results show that enterprises most hope that the state will increase their support to local authorities, followed by providing a free patent analysis system, strengthening the training of patent information personnel, and establishing a perfect patent information service platform. provides multi-level patent retrieval guidance and training. the difficulties and problems encountered by enterprises in patent operation, mainly lack of practical talents of patent information, followed by asymmetry of supply and demand information in patent operation, and lack of patent database. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 62 published by ideas spread from the above three investigation problems, it can be seen that enterprises take patent information practical talents as the main difficulty in patent information or patent operation, which indicates that our country should still take the cultivation of patent information application talents as the main task in the future. 3. the action mechanism of patent operation and patent information through the analysis of the questionnaire, we find out the current situation of patent information application in the patent operation of chinese enterprises. at the same time, it is not difficult to find the relationship between patent operation and patent information. patent information is the basis of enterprise patent operation, which provides an effective support for patent operation. the further development of patent operation promotes the prosperity of patent information, and the relationship between them conforms to the positive feedback mechanism. 3.1 positive feedback mechanism the feedback is divided into positive feedback and negative feedback. it refers to the return of information to the output, which has a certain impact and effect. positive feedback is a form of feedback, it means that the function of feedback information is the same as that of control information. the main function of positive feedback in patent operation and patent information application is to amplify the small changes so as to promote the patent operation of enterprises in a stable state. the positive feedback mechanism refers to the interaction between objects. there is a force that encourages each other. it will strengthen and amplify the original development trend and form the inevitability that cannot be reversed. therefore, the positive feedback mechanism means that the stronger can be strengthened. if an enterprise wants to maximize its benefits through patent operations and the use of patent information, it can promote its own patent operation level by making a series of systems and measures with positive feedback mechanism, so that it has a place in the field of patent. 3.2 the relationship between patent operation and patent information based on positive feedback mechanism by analyzing the questionnaire, we can see that the patent operation and the application of patent information are in line with the positive feedback mechanism. the enterprises with successful patent operation also have strong ability to use patent information and grasp the patent very well. the proper use of patent information, to a large extent, has promoted the deepening development of the patent operation of enterprises. the perfect combination of the two is that the enterprise can fully realize its own benefit maximization. of course, the use of positive feedback will also make enterprises more powerful in patent operation and patent information use. this problem cannot be ignored in our drive to deepen the development of patent operation. the patent operation of enterprises cannot be separated from the support of patent information. its different links to the patent information demand each has the emphasis, also has its own unique demand. the deepening development of patent information is inseparable from the promotion of patent operation. therefore, the foundation of patent operation is the technical scheme as the content of patent entity, which can be understood as technical information of patent. the validity of the patent right, on the other hand, is the guarantee of the patent operation, and it forms the legal information of the patent. patent and its patented products in the market performance, the formation of patent market information. from the perspective of patent information,patent operation is a comprehensive application of technical information, legal information and market information of patents by means of finance, market and law. in this sense, patent operation is equivalent to the application of patent information. convenient, fast and effective application of patent information is the key to the success of patent operation. therefore, if an enterprise wants to have its own advantages in the era of deepening the development of global knowledge economy, it should actively focus on patent operation and the use of patent information, so that it has its own competitive advantage in the market. 4. countermeasures of patent information application and promotion in patent operation of enterprises 4.1 improving the consciousness and ability of patent information application in enterprises in order to improve the awareness of the use of patent information in enterprises, we should start at the root. actively building enterprise patent information culture to make it popular among the people. to actively create an enterprise environment for patent operation, management and staff can be regularly trained about patent operations and patent information. develop the characteristic patent information training and mobilize the various departments of the enterprise according to the industry superiority of the enterprise itself. build a good patent information application platform in the enterprise. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 63 published by ideas spread 4.2 strengthening the cultivation of professional talents in order to meet the needs of government agencies, enterprises and institutions for patent information talents, the government should further strengthen the selection and training of patent information practical talents. although the state administration has selected four groups of patent information teachers and leaders, it has played a positive role in training patent information talents. however, after being selected, most of these talents are idle. it has not been fully utilized by provincial and municipal bureau and played their role. it is suggested that the national bureau set up a talent management file for patent information talents (teachers and leading talents). by the local bureau (provincial and municipal) joint training, give them teaching, training opportunities, so that they can exercise, really play a role. 4.3 perfecting the construction of patent information system if an enterprise wants to make full use of patent information to create market value for itself, it must constantly optimize and perfect its patent information application system to ensure the efficient operation of the enterprise. it is suggested that enterprises should build a unique system of sharing patent information achievements, a patent information training system, for example, develop different and patent information training for different levels of employees to improve their business ability. 4.4 strengthen the communication of enterprise patent operation with the integration of the world economy today, enterprises should pay more attention to cooperation so that patent information can be circulated in a wide range and increase in value, thus creating greater economic benefits for themselves. enterprises can regularly hold some patent information exchange meetings to achieve "win-win" and "multi win". 4.5 speeding up the construction of patent database at present, there are many free patent information platforms at home and abroad, such as soopat, innojoy, patentics and so on. however, the free features offered by these platforms are simple and difficult to meet the needs of enterprises. but its charge function is actually expensive, each year approximately 2-3 million, the majority enterprise is difficult to pay. therefore, the perfect patent database construction needs the government to increase the fund support, supports some conditional patent information service institutions to develop the public welfare function perfect patent information service platform. it also establishes some special databases which can be used by enterprises free of charge, so as to enhance the enthusiasm of enterprises to use patent information, thus promoting the deepening development of patent operation and patent information application in china. 5. conclution under the background of economic globalization and knowledge economy, patent operation, as a key activity of technological innovation and industrial transformation and upgrading, is becoming increasingly important to economic development. in order to maximize the benefits of enterprises, our country should strengthen the support for patent operation and patent information, correctly understand the positive feedback relationship between the two, take measures to promote it, take both ways and grasp it with both hands. we will jointly promote the development of patent undertakings in china. references hu, p., huang, m. l., & zhu, x. y. (2013). finding nuggets in patent portfolios: core patent mining and its applications. tsinghua science and technology, 18(4), 339-352. https://doi.org/10.1109/tst.2013.6574672 tand, s. h., & chen, j. x. (2010). research on component law of chinese patent medicine for anti-influenza and development of new recipes for anti-influenza by unsupervised data mining methods. journal of traditional chinese medicine, 30(4), 288-293. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0254-6272(10)60058-1 wang, j. c., zhou, x. d., hu, y. y., & zhao, z. l. (2018). an empirical research on the field of wireless charging based on patent life length. high technology letters, 24(01), 95-102. xia, y., tang, l., yao, l., wan, b., yang, x., & yu, l. (2012). literature and patent analysis of the cloning and identification of human functional genes in china. science china(life sciences), 55(03), 268-282. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11427-012-4299-6 yuan, x. m., & zhang, z. y. (2016). studies of world carbon fiber industry from a perspective of patent analysis. high technology letters, 22(3), 313-320. zhang, l. w., zhang, q., & zhu, d. h. (2009). application research of robust ls-svm regression model in forecasting patent application counts. journal of beijing institute of technology, 18(4), 497-501. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 64 published by ideas spread zhang, x., li, z. r., zhao, y. h., & zhou, l. j. (2013). studies of layout of world machine tools industry based on patent analysis. high technology letters, 19(3), 246-253. zhi, l. p. (2014). technological development situations of ontology in china based on patentometrics. journal of intelligence, 33(6), 79-83. zhi, l. p., & wang, h. s. (2012). a patent collaborative management model between high-tech enterprises. science of science and management of s. & t., 33(9), 113-121. zhi, l. p., & zhang, s. l. (2014). research on semantic retrieval based on patent ontology. research on library science, 2014(7), 57-61. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v2n4p67 67 published by ideas spread research on the management mode of project archives from the perspective of project management ma yanfei1 1 m.eng of school of civil engineering and architecture, anyang normal university, anyang, china correspondence: ma yanfei, school of civil engineering and architecture, anyang normal university, anyang, china. tel: 1-359-811-4693. e-mail: xifeng1234567 163.com received: november 27, 2019; accepted: december 13, 2019; published: december 24, 2019 the research is financed by the humanities and social science project of education department of henan (no. 2019-zzjh-087) . abstract by analyzing present situation and the characteristics of engineering archives management, analyses the engineering archives management the lack of support for the project management; the possibility of application of engineering files in project management is analyzed emphatically. finally, combining with the actual situation, the paper gives the construction measures of the project archives management mode from the perspective of project management. keywords: project management, engineering archives, application 1. introduction project management refers to the enterprise engaged in project management, entrusted by the construction unit, carries out the whole process or several stages of management and services for the organization and implementation of the project on behalf of the construction unit according to the contract. project management in china's construction industry has been implemented for more than 20 years, and has achieved great social significance and economic value. engineering files are the "recorder" and "driver" of engineering project management, which will play a key role in the smooth development of engineering projects and the orderly and efficient implementation of project management. therefore, the research of project archives management mode based on the perspective of project management has profound theoretical significance and practical value. 1.1 status quo and characteristics of project archives management the documents, drawings and audio-visual materials with archiving and preservation value formed in the construction project activities are the main source of the project archives, which are the important reference basis for the project management, as well as the important technical support materials for the future construction, reconstruction, expansion and demolition of the project. at present, the characteristics of project archives management can be summarized into the following aspects: 1.2 project file management and project management are out of line due to the large number of units and personnel involved in the construction industry, and the complexity of project construction procedures, it is quite difficult to integrate project file management into project management. in addition, there are still many construction units and construction units' understanding of project files remains at the level of archiving and preparing for inspection, which leads to the fact that project files are mainly collected and arranged after the project, and the management of files is not integrated into the project management. this phenomenon will greatly affect the play of the inherent value of archives, at the same time, due to the lack of file support for project management, will also lead to project management loopholes, deviation, waste and even errors. 1.3 project archives management personnel have high mobility and low overall professional quality at present, due to the deviation of understanding of project files, many construction units or construction units are unwilling to invest manpower, material and financial resources in project files management. in order to save costs, some enterprises do not have fixed archives management personnel. during the project, they temporarily recruit and borrow relevant personnel from the society or other enterprises as project archives management personnel. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 68 published by ideas spread this will lead to project records management practitioners or business quality uneven; either one person manages the files of multiple projects at the same time, and due to his limited energy, he is tired of dealing with the work. 1.4 archives management in the traditional mode, information management is relatively scarce due to the wrong understanding of engineering files, coupled with the lack of investment, leading to the current stage of many enterprises engineering files management is still using manual sorting, paper media storage based on the traditional file management mode. this management mode has long been unable to adapt to the requirements of the development of today's information society, and at the same time this management mode has greatly restricted the play of the value of archives, indirectly leading to the lack of project management support for engineering archives. 1.4 part of the project records are not objective, inaccurate, and even suspected fraud due to the instability of file management personnel, the collection and arrangement of project files are mainly carried out after the completion of construction activities, which leads to the fact that the records of project files are often filled afterwards. due to personnel changes in some engineering links, the parties can no longer be found when sorting out the files afterwards. in order to sort out the files, relevant personnel will make subjective assumptions about the contents of the files. such meeting makes the content that project archives records is not objective, inaccurate, exist even false suspicion. 2. research on the application of engineering files in the whole process of project management engineering archives are records of construction activities generated in the process of project construction, as well as technical support materials for construction and construction. engineering files are also an important part of engineering project management. rational and appropriate use of file materials can drive the smooth progress of project management and is an important carrier of project management implementation. the application of project archives in the whole process of project management can be embodied in the following three aspects: 2.1 front-end control in the early stage of the construction of an engineering project, the construction unit may, together with the design unit, the construction unit, the supervision unit, the construction archives management department, the project archives manager and other units and individuals, negotiate the standards and specifications for the collection and sorting of engineering archives, and specify the quantity and quality of engineering archives. from the early stage of the project to timely intervene in the management of files, through the standardization of engineering files, the project construction procedures, standards and quality more scientific and reasonable. at the same time, because the archives manager intervene in the project management in advance, it creates the condition for the next project archives to serve the project management in a timely and effective manner. 2.2 process control in the construction phase of the project, to achieve a complete system of project files and timely archiving, it is necessary to establish a sense of responsibility "everyone is a file manager". because engineering project construction is built during, the department that involves and personnel are numerous, each construction activity is carried out relatively frequently, whether project archives can assure continuity in time on content assure undertake sex, depend on special archives worker alone hard complete a task satisfactorily. this asks construction owner, construction technical personnel, supervise to supervise management personnel to want to have the responsibility of archives manager during construction, according to the requirement standard system in time of collect, sort out, report project archives data. at the same time of finishing the work of collecting and organizing files, the process of construction can be standardized through the scientific and systematic files, and the problems existing in the construction can be timely found through the reported files, which have created conditions for the scientific management of engineering projects. 2.3 back-end control after the completion and acceptance of the project, the project files shall be handed over to the relevant construction management department. in the process of project operation, maintenance, reconstruction and expansion, the project files shall be timely reviewed to make the project files as an important technical support for the normal operation of the project. at the same time, we should continue to collect and collate the project project after the use of the archives, as far as possible to achieve the project archives systematic and integrity. 3. construction of project archives management mode from the perspective of project management to become an integral part of project management, project archives management must innovate management mode and actively integrate into project management. by reforming the project management system, training or hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 69 published by ideas spread introducing the project archives management personnel, establishing and improving the project archives standardization system, promoting the project archives information management and other aspects, the project archives to participate in project management to create favorable conditions. 3.1 the reform of project management system makes archives management an important part of project management project archives objectively and faithfully record the whole process of project progress, which is the recorder of project management. at the same time, the project files can regulate the activities of the project, and the project files play a driving role. project archives is an important carrier and gripper of project management. in order to integrate project archives management into project management and give play to the inherent value of project archives, it is necessary to change the current project management mode. the project file manager should participate in the project as the same as the construction technician, supervisor, quality supervision and testing personnel. at the same time, we should pay attention to the use of archival information on the construction of the front end, the whole process and the back end of tracking management, timely summary of archival data, find problems to solve in a timely manner. 3.2 increase input, train or introduce engineering archives professional management personnel because the archives manager must directly participate in the project management work, this puts forward the higher request to the practitioner's professional quality. in order to train or introduce project archives management professionals, practitioners should have rich archives management experience and profound engineering background, and be competent for project management. we can train project file managers by "going out" and "inviting in", that is, send excellent file practitioners to domestic enterprises and institutions with advanced management concepts to learn from. invite famous experts and scholars to give lectures on a regular basis. efforts should be made to improve the professional qualities of archivists and reserve professional talents for high-level project management. 3.3 establish and improve the standardization system of engineering files because the project archives should be used to drive the project management and guide the construction activities through the project archives, it is required to establish and perfect the project archives standardization system with a high starting point. the establishment and improvement of the standardization system should consider the actual management level of the enterprise and combine with the requirements of the local construction department for project files. make clear the quantity and quality standard of corresponding project files in each construction activity link, guarantee the continuity of project files in time, guarantee the continuity of project files in content. 3.4 promote the project archives information management the traditional file management mode, which collects and collates engineering documents and drawings by hand, has been far from meeting the requirements of the development of today's information society. simple use of microsoft office software, strictly speaking, can not be regarded as information management of archives. archives information management is to collect and maintain project documents are required to follow the file classification arrangement of construction engineering, the construction of electronic documents and electronic records management requirements, unified data format and standard, the implementation file, drawing file cataloging and retrieval of automation, electronic documents fully automated storage and retrieval, image data. only the information management of engineering files can make it more convenient to inquire, read and use files, improve the use efficiency of files, and provide necessary intellectual support for engineering project management. although project archives should be integrated into project management and become an important part of project management, there are still many difficulties to be overcome, as long as we clearly understand that project archives management is an important carrier and gripper of project management, and innovate the project management mechanism, we can certainly make project archives play the role of project driver. through the innovation of project archives management mode, record and drive the project management to carry out efficiently and orderly. references hao, w. (2015). analysis and research on internal control audit of project management [d]. tianjin university of technology, 2015. he, l. h. (2016). research on construction project archives management mode based on project management [d]. shenyang jianzhu university, 2016. jiang, ch. g. (2015). on the role of construction archive informatization in project management [j]. intelligence, 2015(26), 275-276. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 70 published by ideas spread liang, z. y. (2019). research on the collection and transfer of project archives [j]. engineering technology research, 4(3), 145-146. liu, t. h. (2017). significance of project archive management in promoting project quality [j]. china construction, 2017(12), 88-89. liu, z. g. (2019). research on integration of project archive work into engineering construction [j]. office business, 2019(21), 98-100. mei, y. (2015). discussion on effective management measures of construction engineering archives [j]. urban construction archives, 2015(12), 31-32. sun lifu. ways to innovate water conservancy project archives management under the new situation [j]. henan agriculture, 2017(20), 46. wang, h. m. (2017). "inclusion" and "integration" of project archives [j]. china archives, 2017(11), 62-63. yang, t. (2019). practical analysis on digital management of project completion files [j]. urban construction files, 2019(2), 42-43. ye, z. l. (2017). research on engineering archive management of enterprise group [d]. hubei university, 2018. zhang, f. x. (2018). strengthening modern engineering management to build quality engineering platform - trends and countermeasures of expressway archives management in the new era [j]. archives and construction, 2018(6), 81-85. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n2p93 93 published by ideas spread the construction of inter-embedded intermingling mechanism of folk sports to promote social adaptation of relocated residents liu qian1, peng chenggen1 & zhang qing1 1 hunan agricultural university, china correspondence: peng chenggen (1983~), male, doctor, hunan agricultural university, changsha, hunan 410128, china. e-mail: 379569069 qq.com received: april 10, 2025; accepted: april 25, 2025; published: april 26, 2025 abstract this thesis focuses on the relationship between folk sports and social adaptation of relocated residents, comprehensively utilizes multidisciplinary theories such as sociology, culture, anthropology, etc., and combines case studies and theoretical analyses to deeply analyze the mechanism of the role of folk sports on social adaptation of the relocated residents, and systematically reveals the realistic dilemmas faced by the residents' social adaptation and the participation in folk sports. on this basis, the mechanism of inter-embedded integration is constructed from four dimensions: social symbiosis, emotional connection, benefit guarantee and collaborative governance, aiming to provide systematic theoretical references and feasible practical paths for promoting the integration of the relocated residents into the new environment and realizing their social adaptation, and to help promote the innovation of relocated communities' governance and the development of cultural inheritance. keywords: folk sports, relocation, social adaptation, mutual embedding and integration 1. introduction under the coordinated promotion of rural revitalization and new urbanization strategy, the relocation project, as an important path to crack regional poverty and optimize resource allocation, has promoted a large number of residents to realize inter-regional relocation. although this process improves living conditions, it triggers profound social reconstruction. as the relocated residents are separated from their original places of residence, they face drastic changes in culture, social relations and lifestyles, and problems such as cultural rupture, disintegration of social networks, and psychological disorder are highlighted, making social adaptation an urgent problem to be solved. as a living carrier of traditional culture, folk sports carry the collective memory of regional groups, and have the functions of maintaining social relations and passing on cultural traditions. it is not only a physical exercise practice, but also contains deep cultural connotations and social values, and has unique advantages in enhancing social interaction and strengthening group identity. incorporating folk sports into the study of social adaptation of relocated residents provides new ideas for expanding the functions of folk sports and solving the adaptation problems of relocated groups. however, the role of folk sports in community governance has not been sufficiently explored in the current academic field, especially the lack of systematic research on the mechanism of promoting the social adaptation of relocated residents. therefore, an in-depth analysis of the interlocking mechanisms of folk sports and the social adaptation of relocated residents is of great theoretical and practical significance in promoting the integration of relocated residents into new communities and the development of folk sports heritage. 2. the mechanism of the role of folk sports on the social adaptation of relocated residents 2.1 basic connotation and dimension of social adaptation the social adaptation of relocated residents is a multi-dimensional and dynamic process, mainly covering three core dimensions: structural adaptation, relational adaptation and cultural adaptation [1]. at the structural adaptation level, relocated residents need to break the original rhythm of life and behavioral patterns, and gradually adapt to the institutional arrangements and lifestyles in the new environment. for example, residents relocated from mountainous areas to urban communities need to learn and accept urbanized management rules, such as property management systems and garbage classification norms, to complete the transition from “logic of rural life” to “logic of urban life”. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 94 published by ideas spread relational adaptation focuses on the reconstruction of social networks and the adjustment of interaction methods. relocation breaks the original structure of neighborhood and kinship, and after entering the new community, residents have to re-establish trust and build mutual support relationships in a society of strangers. since most residents in the new community come from different regions and have different living habits and cultural backgrounds, how to achieve effective communication and harmonious coexistence in a pluralistic environment has become an important challenge for their social integration. cultural adaptation is related to the transformation of values, behavior and identity. the cultural atmosphere of the new community is often different from that of the original place of residence, so residents need to maintain their original cultural characteristics while understanding and integrating into the value system of the new environment, gradually forming a new cultural identity, and promoting the integration and coexistence of cultural aspects. the three dimensions of structure, relationship and culture are intertwined and interact with each other, which together constitute the overall picture of social adaptation of the relocated residents, and are the important basis for their integration into the new community and social reconstruction. 2.2 multiple social functions of folk sports as a physical practice activity deeply rooted in local culture, folk sports have unique cultural genes and social attributes, and build up a multi-dimensional function system [2]. it not only transcends fitness and entertainment, but also plays a key role in community integration, emotional connection and value consensus generation, and is an important mechanism to promote the social adaptation of the relocated residents, and the core functions have four dimensions. (1) cultural identity function: the link between memory transmission and identity reconstruction from the perspective of cultural anthropology, folk sports are the figurative expression of cultural symbols and traditional carriers, such as the lusheng dance of the miao people in qiandongnan, guizhou, which carries the memories of the ethnic groups, and continues the cultural traditions and delineates the cultural boundaries through regular activities after relocation. based on the theory of social identity, individuals participate in cultural practices to construct “our” group boundaries, thus enhancing their sense of identity belonging [3]. the yi residents in the relocated community in yunnan integrate the torch festival folklore and sports into the community cultural festival, attract the participation of local residents, promote cultural interaction and mutual identity, reshape the community cultural identity, help relocated residents find a sense of belonging, and promote the integration of residents from different cultural backgrounds. (2) social function: a medium to rebuild connections and strengthen community interaction individual social relationship network is the core of social adaptation. folk sports create a structured social scene for relocated residents through group and interaction, and promote the reconstruction of social relationship network. in the relocated yao community in guangxi, the “long drum dance” breaks down the social barriers of the residents through multi-player collaboration, and the participants use their interests as a link in rehearsals and performances, moving from unfamiliarity to trust and forming a close community. the competition mechanism of folk sports events also promotes multiculturalism. residents from different backgrounds work together to achieve their goals and learn from each other in team training and competitions, allowing ethnic cultures to exchange and learn from each other in the process. the neighborhood relationship thus established naturally extends to mutual assistance in life, forming an atmosphere of resource sharing and promoting the relocated residents to move from “physical cohabitation” to “social integration”, highlighting the key role of folk sports in fostering social capital in the community and building a harmonious neighborhood relationship. (3) psychological adjustment function: a channel for releasing pressure and building psychological resilience facing the sudden change of living environment and reconstruction of social relations, relocated residents generally face the problem of psychological adjustment [4]. folk sports, with their fun, participation and inclusiveness, have become an important carrier for residents to regulate their emotions and enhance their psychological resilience. yunnan border communities will dai “elephant foot drum dance” adapted for stress relief exercise, to help residents release pressure; sichuan earthquake community borrowed “sichuan opera face changing experience camp” to provide emotional support for residents to help them get out of the psychological hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 95 published by ideas spread haze. this kind of collective activity builds a community support network, which effectively enhances the residents' psychological resilience to cope with environmental changes. folk sports are not only a channel for emotional relief, but also internalize positive spiritual values into residents' behavioral norms and value identity through practice, becoming an important force in shaping healthy psychology and positive values. (4) corrective function: a field for conveying awareness of rules and cultivating community norms folk sports are essentially a kind of “physical education” containing social rules. for example, in the mongolian “naadam” wrestling competition, players need to follow the rules of competition, such as “no leg-holding”, and practice the etiquette of “friendship first”, so as to implicitly accept the values of fairness and discipline in the competition. in the course of the competition, they will implicitly accept the values of fairness and discipline. in community practice, the edifying value of folk sports is more prominent. a relocated community in zhejiang combines the rules of dragon boat racing with community governance, linking teamwork performance with volunteer service, and corresponding restraining measures for non-compliance. in the process of participation, residents extend the awareness of rules in sports activities to community life, understand the relationship between collective interests and personal responsibility, realize the transformation from “physical relocation” to “institutional integration”, and effectively promote the cultivation of community norms and the establishment of public order. the residents who have been relocated to another place will be able to realize the change from “physical relocation” to “institutional integration” and effectively promote the cultivation of community norms and establishment of public order. 3. difficulties of social adaptation and folk sports participation of relocated residents 3.1 adaptation barriers after relocation with the promotion of the national relocation project for poverty alleviation, thousands of residents who used to live in remote mountainous areas have moved into newly built centralized resettlement areas. this drastic change in life is not only a spatial movement, but also a deep reconstruction of social relations, cultural identity and psychological expectations, and relocated residents often face multiple barriers to adaptation. the problem of group marginalization is prominent. relocated residents often become “outsiders” in the new community, due to differences in regional dialects, lifestyles, cultural traditions, etc., it is difficult to integrate into the community network of the original residents, forming a hidden stratification between “insiders” and “outsiders”. the implicit stratification of “insiders” and “outsiders” is formed [5]. this structural marginalization limits the voice and mobility of the relocated residents in the public space, further aggravating the difficulty of their social adaptation. the lack of identity and psychological gap are significant. the network of geographic, blood and kinship relationships in the original community has been dismantled, making it difficult for relocated residents to find a sense of belonging in the new environment [6]. some middle-aged and elderly people are especially difficult to adapt to the rhythm of urbanization, and face new problems such as property management, cost of living, and alienation of neighbors, which leads to a strong psychological gap, and even a reverse psychology of “loneliness after relocation”. the degree of community integration in the new community is generally low, and the willingness and ability of the relocated residents to participate in public affairs is insufficient. in the absence of support and guidance from acquaintances, many relocated residents tend to live a “closed and self-contained” and “family-oriented life”, and lack a sense of identity and participation in the cultural activities organized by the community. 3.2 realistic dilemmas facing folk sports participation (1) cultural differences and identity conflicts cultural differences and identity conflicts are prominent obstacles to the social adaptation of relocated residents, often manifested in two-way exclusion between relocated groups and indigenous people. for example, the dragon boat race in a three gorges resettlement area in chongqing encountered resistance from aboriginal people because it was inconsistent with local cultural practices, making it difficult to sustain the activity and weakening the relocated residents' sense of cultural belonging. at the same time, the lack of display platforms has also made it difficult to pass on folk sports, and young people's knowledge of traditions is insufficient, resulting in intergenerational ruptures in cultural identity. the above problems not only weaken the adaptive function of folk sports, but also aggravate the group gap and hinder the process of community integration. (2) lack of resources and insufficient protection hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 96 published by ideas spread the shortage of resources is a key factor restricting the development of folk sports in relocation communities, mainly in terms of venues, equipment, funds and talents [7]. for example, a resettlement site in gansu only has a simple basketball court and lacks facilities such as lion dance props and martial arts equipment, which restricts the development of folk sports programs. government funding is insufficient and is mostly used for festivals, with a lack of support for daily programs. the lack of professional talents also makes the activities rely on the spontaneous organization of the residents, and the lack of systematic guidance leads to irregularities in the development of the project, poor continuity, and difficulty in realizing the function of promoting social adaptation. (3) inadequate institutional mechanisms there are many imperfections in the institutional mechanism for promoting the participation of relocated residents in folk sports and realizing social adaptation. in some communities, there are problems of unclear departmental responsibilities and blurred division of powers and responsibilities, leading to cumbersome approval procedures for activities and inefficient coordination of resources. there is a lack of effective evaluation mechanisms, with excessive reliance on quantitative indicators such as the number of participants and neglect of key results such as cultural identity and social relations, making it difficult to accurately reflect actual results and optimize policies. all these problems constrain the sustainable development and functioning of folklore sports in relocated communities. 4. the interlocking mechanism of folklore sports to promote the social adaptation of relocated residents in the process of promoting the comprehensive integration of relocated people, a single material settlement cannot satisfy the deep-seated social adaptation needs of the residents. folk sports, as a form of social practice that integrates culture, behavior and institutions, has unique advantages in breaking down group barriers, activating community vitality and perpetuating cultural identity [8]. in order to promote the multi-dimensional embeddedness of relocated residents in the new community, a social adaptation inter-embedding and intermingling mechanism supported by folklore sports is constructed from four levels: commonality, emotion, interest and institution. 4.1 constructing a mechanism for residents' social symbiosis in the direction of commonality (1) tapping cultural commonality digging deep into the common elements between the folklore sports culture of the relocated residents' place of origin and the culture of the relocated place is the basis for promoting cultural integration and constructing a social symbiosis mechanism. the similarities in different cultures can be systematically sorted out and analyzed by establishing a cross-regional folklore and sports culture database. for example, in the tujia and miao communities in western hubei, the “pendulum dance” and the “wooden drum dance” share certain commonalities in terms of movement rhythms and dance forms, so the movement elements of the two can be fused to create a new collective dance. regularly organize “cultural inclusion workshops”, inviting folklore experts and resident representatives to participate in cultural innovation activities. they share the characteristics and connotations of their respective cultures, discuss the possibilities and ways of cultural integration, promote mutual understanding and acceptance of cultural symbols, and break down cultural barriers. (2) creating a common living space adopt the concept of “micro-renewal” to remodel community space, set up folklore and sports-themed landscapes in public areas, and create public spaces with cultural characteristics. for example, in a relocated community in jiangxi province, a “folk sports corridor” was built to display the history, skills and cultural connotations of different ethnic sports, so that residents can come into contact with and understand folk sports culture in their daily lives. convenient places for folk sports activities are established, and facilities such as multi-functional sports fields and cultural activity rooms are built to meet the diversified activity needs of residents. brand-name activities such as “community games” and “folk sports carnival” are organized regularly. residents collaborate and compete with each other to experience the joys of folklore sports, enhance the sense of community life, and promote mutual integration of residents at the life level. 4.2 using “folk” culture as a metaphor, building residents' emotional connection mechanism (1) inherit and innovate folk sports culture based on the protection and inheritance of traditional folk sports culture, folk sports are developed innovatively by combining the characteristics of modern society and the needs of residents. using modern scientific and technological means, traditional folk sports are digitized and protected. for example, a community in guizhou has transformed the “one-bamboo floating” sport into a virtual reality game, allowing residents to experience this unique folk sport in a virtual environment, attracting the attention and participation of a large number of young hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 97 published by ideas spread people. encouraging residents to transform their folk sports into a lifestyle, simplifying the traditional “dragon dance” into a family version of the “parent-child dragon lantern production” to enhance the fun and interactivity of cultural inheritance. establishing folk sports inheritance bases, inviting non-genetic inheritors to carry out skill training, cultivating local cultural talents, and providing talent support for the inheritance and development of folk sports. (2) carry out emotional exchange activities carry out emotional exchange activities with folk sports as a carrier. in a relocated community in guangxi, a “my folklore story” sharing meeting was held, in which residents recounted their hometown's cultural stories and personal emotional experiences in combination with their participation in folklore sports activities. through sharing, emotional resonance was enhanced. organize activities such as “folk sports parent-child day” and “neighborhood mutual aid competition” to enhance intergenerational and inter-neighborhood emotional exchanges. make use of traditional festivals to plan thematic cultural activities, such as the “folk sports and culture week” of the dragon boat festival, combining folk sports activities with festival culture, creating a community emotional atmosphere, and allowing residents to realize the depth of emotional embeddedness. 4.3 taking the adjustment of interests as the key to build a mechanism to protect the interests of residents (1) establishing an interest coordination mechanism construct a community folk sports development committee composed of representatives of the government, enterprises and residents, and formulate a convention on the protection of rights and interests of folk sports activities. introduce consultative and democratic mechanisms in event organization and resource allocation. setting up conflict mediation groups to resolve cultural conflicts and interest disputes. for example, a community in yunnan feeds the proceeds from folklore sports tourism into community cultural construction, protects residents' rights and interests, stimulates participation, and promotes the harmonious development of the community. (2) provide economic support and employment opportunities the government has set up a support fund for the folk sports industry, giving tax concessions to enterprises developing ethnic sports tourism products and organizing special events, and prying enterprises to participate in the development of the folk sports industry. a relocated community in hunan relies on traditional programs to create folk sports tourism routes, attracting tourists while boosting residents' employment and income. folkloric skills such as “lion dance” and “martial arts” are transformed into vocational skills, and jobs are developed in cooperation with cultural and tourism enterprises. this mode of economic support and employment empowerment realizes the mutual promotion of cultural heritage and economic development, and effectively enhances the enthusiasm of residents to participate in folk sports. 4.4 focusing on institutional mechanisms, building a collaborative and common governance mechanism for residents (1) define departmental responsibilities and division of labor formulate guidelines for folk sports to promote the social adaptation of residents who have been relocated to other places, and clarify the responsibilities and division of labor of the cultural and tourism departments, civil affairs departments, education departments and other relevant departments. for example, the cultural and tourism departments are responsible for guiding cultural inheritance, excavating and protecting folk sports cultural resources, and organizing cultural activities; the civil affairs departments are responsible for community organization and coordination, promoting community residents' participation in folk sports activities, and solving related problems in the community; the education departments are responsible for talent cultivation, incorporating folk sports into the school curriculum, and fostering young people's interest in and skills in folk sports. a joint meeting system has been established to strengthen communication and collaboration between departments to form a synergy of efforts. at the same time, introduce the participation of social organizations, such as cooperating with sports associations and college teams to carry out professional guidance and assessment, giving full play to the advantages of all parties and jointly promoting the work of folk sports to promote the social adaptation of residents. (2) establishment of evaluation and feedback mechanism construct a multi-dimensional evaluation index system that includes cultural identity, social network, and economic benefits to ensure the scientificity and rationality of the evaluation. adopt the multi-dimensional assessment method of “online questionnaire + offline interview + big data monitoring” to collect feedback from residents on a regular basis, so as to comprehensively understand the development of folklore sports activities and the social adaptation of residents. a mechanism for applying assessment results has been established, and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 98 published by ideas spread assessment reports are used as an important basis for policy adjustment and resource allocation. on the basis of the assessment results, problems will be identified and adjustments and improvements will be made in a timely manner, forming a closed-loop management model of “practice-assessment-improvement”, continually improving the institutional mechanism for the promotion of social adaptation by folkloric sports, and promoting the sustained and in-depth development of the work. 5. conclusion as a dual carrier of culture and sports, folk sports have a unique and important value in promoting the social adaptation of relocated residents. through an in-depth analysis of the mechanism of folk sports on the social adaptation of relocated residents, its positive influence on cultural identity, social interaction, psychological adjustment and indoctrination is revealed. in view of the problems of cultural differences, lack of resources, insufficient participation and imperfect mechanisms, the construction of an interlocking mechanism covering social symbiosis, emotional connection, interest protection and collaborative governance can effectively resolve conflicts, integrate resources, stimulate motivation and provide systematic support for the integration of relocated residents into the new community. the study concludes that folk sports, with their natural local, collective and ceremonial characteristics, are an important cultural tool for rebuilding the sense of community and promoting the emotional connection of residents, as well as a cultural link between the “hometown” and the “new home”. through institutionalized and organized practice, folk sports can help stimulate cultural belonging, flexibly integrate into community governance, and help relocated residents realize the transformation and upgrading from spatial resettlement to social integration. in the future, we should strengthen the empirical research on folk sports in relocated communities, explore diversified practice paths, and promote their deep integration into urban and rural community governance systems. combined with regional realities, more targeted measures should be formulated to help relocated residents' sustainable development and promote the inheritance and revitalization of folk sports culture. acknowledgments this article is a research outcome of the hunan provincial philosophy and social sciences foundation project: the role of folk sports in facilitating social adaptation of relocated residents in the context of rural revitalization (project no.: 22yba100). references [1] shi, h. (2022). social legitimacy construction: relocation and institutional adaptation—taking the governance practice of d village in southern fujian as an example. tianfu xinlian, (05), 113–122. [2] guo, z., & chen, g. (2022). sports help rural revitalization strategy: logical premise, value implication and promotion path. sports culture guide, (11), 1–7+21. [3] yuan, y., li, f., & lu, y. (2025). impact of social adaptation on mental health of migrants relocated for poverty alleviation based on a survey in county j of hubei province. journal of huazhong agricultural university (social science edition), (01), 180–193. [4] shen, y. y. (2014). community building and mental health in mid-life and older life: evidence from china. social science & medicine, 107, 209–216. [5] wang, c., liu, q., & yang, h. (2023). intergenerational inheritance and conflict: a practical study on the participation of folk sports in rural governance in china in the new era. journal of shandong institute of physical education, 39(03), 71–80+107. [6] te, b. (2011). dilemma of study on chinese national traditional sports culture and the selection of paths. asian social science, 7(1), 115–121. [7] qin, y., bai, j., & zhu, f. (2022). the linkage mechanism between folk sports development and healthy village and town construction: logical relationship, cultural identity and promotion path. ethnic forum, (01), 112– 120. [8] liao, s., wu, y., xiao, f., huang, x., & zhang, y. (2020). research on the mechanism and path of folk sports participation in rural governance. sports science, 40(11), 31–41. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 99 published by ideas spread this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v1n1p30 30 published by ideas spread population growth and life expectancy in nigeria: issues and further considerations oladayo timothy popoola1 1 department of economics, ahmadu bello university, zaria, nigeria correspondence: popoola, oladayo timothy, department of economics, ahmadu bello university, zaria, nigeria. tel: 234(0)813-574-5100. e-mail: poladayo@gmail.com received: april 25, 2018; accepted: may 15, 2018; published: may 19, 2018 abstract this study empirically investigates the effects of population growth on average life expectancy in nigeria taking into account the explicit role of healthy citizens in economic development as well as other control variables not considered in prior studies. predicted on country-specific regression and granger causality test using time series data between 1986 and 2015, the findings reveal that rising population growth have positive and insignificantly impacts life expectancy; but 1% decrease in fertility rate and population of 65-and-above dependency ratio could positively stimulates an improvement in longevity by 5.84, and 81.5 respectively in nigeria. furthermore, the granger causality test shows that population growth could granger cause low life expectancy in nigeria at least at 10% level of significant. the findings therefore make a case for strengthening efforts towards reducing both fertility rate and age 65 and above dependency ratio with priority given to the welfare of ages 65 and above population in nigeria. keywords: population growth, health and development, nigeria, granger causality, regression jel classification: j11, i15, c13 1. introduction is rapid population growth good or bad for longevity? both theories and empirical studies are yet to provide satisfying explanation about the implications of rising population growth on average life expectancy even in developed countries. specifically, some theories suggest that more increasing population growth could be bad for health status of citizens and their life expectancy because with a larger population there would be more pressure on health facilities especially in developing countries. while others explain that rising population growth could lead to greater productivity either by inducing innovation, producing innovation or through creating greater economies of scale even in medical-care services (turner, 2014; and mateo, 2016). in recent years, growing population has become a key issue of concern to nigerian and policy makers alike. this is because, rising population in terms of its composition and size, has far-reaching implication for citizens’ quality of life. as odusina (2011) observes, population is a major asset of the developing countries, as resource for economic growth and development, and is also the prime beneficiary of development. it often constitutes the bulk of the producers of goods and services as well as the major consumers of the goods and services. however, the impact of population on development depends not only on the absolute size but also on its quality and implications. obviously, nigeria’s population is large with appropriately 194 million people (united nations, 2017). her population is also about 3% of the world population with a population growth rate of about 2.62% annually alongside with low gdp growth rate of -1.54% (during economic recession) respectively in 2016 (world bank, 2017). this implies that the current population growth rate in nigeria exceed the gdp growth rate. with rising population, it become increasingly important to also increase health financing and infrastructure; however, the total health financing (percentage of gdp) is 3.67% in 2016 which is low compare to health spending (% of gdp) of 4.32% and 4.47% in 2004 and 2007 respectively (world bank, 2017). consequently, the average life expectancy at birth in nigeria is merely 53 years in recent years, while it is above 80 years for countries like france, japan, singapore, and hong kong. for ghana and niger, their average life expectancies were 64 and 61 years respectively in 2015 (world bank, 2017). all these perhaps explain why nigeria was far from reaching the health-related targets of the recent past millennium development goals (novignon et al., 2015; who, 2015). another worrisome issue is the high prevalence of; malaria, cholera, acute hepatitis e, stroke, hypertension, typhoid, and all forms of cancer that often constraint longevity (who, 2017). evidence from hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 31 published by ideas spread prior studies have also shown that life expectancy at birth is low in nigeria (see novignon et al., 2015; world bank, 2017; karimo et al., 2017). the foregoing suggests that probably insufficient health facilities to meet the population needs, in addition to inadequate health financing and infrastructure resulted from poor governance might be accounting for low life expectancy in nigeria. although the impact of population growth towards education, urbanization, public finance and economic growth has been established (see mateo, 2016; bussolo et al. 2015; and bloom et al., 2011), its longevity-impact has not received adequate attention from previous studies. therefore, this paper relies on the country-specific regression to comparatively ascertain the effects of population growth, infrastructure and health financing on life expectancy in nigeria. this is with a view to proffer sustainable strategies for health sector development in nigeria. following this introductory section, review of related literature is presented in section two. section three present methodology while section four focus on findings. finally, section five concludes and draws lessons for nigeria. 2. review of related literature population growth rate is an increase in the number of people that reside in a country, state, or city over time. the global population rise from 2.5 billion to 5.7 billion people between 1950 and 1995, and presently the statistics is nearly 7.6 billion in 2017 up from 7.4 billion in 2015; the figure is also expected to grow to 9.8 billion people by 2050 (united nations, 2017). as the report noted, despite nearly universal lower fertility rates globally, the increase is still spurred by the relatively high levels of fertility in developing countries. for nigeria, the report of united nations’ world population reviews (2018) further indicate that among the ten largest countries globally, nigeria is growing the most rapidly. specifically, as of 2018 the estimated population of the country is 195.88 million (united nations, 2018). as figure 1 indicate, the population growth of nigeria has been on the rising since 1997 from 2.48% to 2.69% in 2015 (world bank, 2017). figure 1. population growth rates in nigeria (1981 – 2015) source: world bank development indicator (2017) figure 2 indicate that in recent years the percentage of 0 to 14 years old population to the total population in nigeria is about 44% in 2016. figure 2. percentage of population ages 0-14 to total in nigeria (1981 – 2016) source: world bank development indicator (2017) hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 32 published by ideas spread while figure 3 show that the percentage of 15 to 64 years old as been rising over time in nigeria. the population of ages 15-64 years to the total population in nigeria increase from 51% in 1986 to 53% in 2016 (see world bank, 2017). figure 3. percentage of population ages 15-64 to total in nigeria (1981 – 2016) source: world bank development indicator (2017) conversely, the population of nigerian from ages 65 years and above to percentage of the total population declines over decades. for instance, in 1986 the figure was about 2.9%, while in 2016 the statistics reduce to 2.74% to total population as figure 4 revealed. this imply that longevity in nigeria is decreasing. figure 3. percentage of population ages 65 and above to total in nigeria (1981 – 2016) source: world bank development indicator (2017) for longevity or life expectancy (leb), which refers to the average number of years an infant is expected to live if mortality patterns at the time of birth remains constant in the future (world bank, 2016). it is the average-period that a person is expected to live as determined taking account of current economic situation. this also reflects the overall mortality level of a population, and summarizes the mortality pattern that prevails across all age groups (who, 2006). it also indicates the number of years an infant would live provided the patterns of mortality continues at the time of birth were to stay the same throughout his life. hence, it is an important index of long life and quality of living (grepin and bharadwaj, 2015). table 1 reveals that leb in nigeria increased marginally from 46 years in 1995 to about 53 years in 2015, while rwanda’s leb increased from 31 years to about 65 years during the same period (world bank, 2017). in comparison, leb in nigeria is lower compared with ghana and south africa. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 33 published by ideas spread table 1. average life expectancy at birth (total) in nigeria compare to other countries 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 cote d’ivoire 50.7 52.6 52.6 49.5 46.7 47.7 50.1 51.9 ghana 52.3 54.1 56.7 57.5 56.9 58.7 60.6 63 south africa 56.9 59.9 62.1 61.4 55.8 51.5 54.4 57.4 rwanda 47.9 50.4 33.4 31.6 48.1 54.7 61.4 64.5 nigeria 45.5 46.3 46.1 46.1 46.6 48.6 51.3 53.0 source: compiled from world development indicator, 2017 theoretically, the debate over population growth and its significance for human welfare and their longevity was raised in robert malthus studies on population, in the sense that growth of population depends upon the means of subsistence, primarily the food supply (thompson, 2010). malthusian explanation predicts a fast and steady population growth for countries with an abundance of natural resources until the points where abundance turns to scarcity since the production growth would be linear and population growth exponential (bussolo et al. 2015, and thompson, 2010). with time, the exponential function would return the linear production function and lead to famine or other disasters. other economists like adam smith (1937), schumpeter (1954), and rostow (1990) further provided insight about the relationship between population growth and subsistence resources. these theories led to various empirical findings. for instance, istaiteyeh (2017) investigate the impact of socioeconomic determinants (including per capita gdp, public spending on health, urban population, and secondary school enrolment) on life expectancy in jordan. the study covers the period from 1990 to 2014 and employed vector auto-regression technique (var). the empirical findings indicate that unemployment and secondary school enrolment explains longevity in jordan. in nigeria, ilori et al. (2017) examines an empirical evidence of the specific impact of public health expenditure on life expectancy in nigeria using time series data spanning between 1981 and 2014. their study employ bounds testing co-integration and autoregressive distributed lag (ardl) procedures to determine the relationship between public spending on health and life expectancy in nigeria. the results indicate that school enrolment and carbon-dioxide emission significantly and directly influenced life expectancy in nigeria, while school enrolment was found to be insignificant in both short and long runs contrary to economic theory. ratna and sari (2016) examine empirically the relationship between the health budget, human capital and population growth in indonesia by using both quantitative and qualitative analysis. their quantitative results from regression technique support the theory that there is significant no relationship between life expectancy and population growth, while their qualitative analysis is used to describe the role of formal and informal institutions, including financial institutions in reducing birth rates in an effort to improve human capital. however, shahbaz et al. (2016) focused on life expectancy drivers in pakistan. their findings conclude that rural-urban inequality in income and economic misery have substantial inverse impact on life expectancy, but urbanization support life expectancy, while illiteracy declines it. the study of hansen and lonstrup (2013) indicates that increase in longevity decreased per capita gdp growth and rising population growth. these findings are robust to the inclusion of initial life expectancy and initial gdp per capita. currais (2000) take into account the extent to which fertility and mortality affect the population growth rate. his findings indicate that mortality depends on health expenditure and fertility rate, and that household often take into account the welfare and resources of their current and future that concerns population growth rate. in sum, most of the empirical studies conducted especially in developed and developing countries including nigeria with emphasis on public health spending, per capita gdp, rural-urban inequality in income, and unemployment on life expectancy. however, these studies failed to appropriately account for the impact of population growth on longevity and the effect of fertility rate and age 65 and above dependency ratio. hence, this study will bridge the gap in the empirical literature by investigating the impact of population growth on life expectancy in nigeria. 3.1 theoretical framework grossman (1972) theorized that health status (h) is determined by various factors (x). this implies that: h = f (x) (1) where x are population growth ratio (pg), age 65 and above dependency ratio as percentage of working-age (ad), fertility rate (fr), and population ages 65 and above as the percentage of the total population (pa) in nigeria. thus, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 34 published by ideas spread le = f (pg, ad, fr, pa) (2) from the foregoing, the model utilized for this study is in the spirit of istaiteyeh (2017). however, the model differs in that it considers the impacts of population growth rate, age 65 and above dependency ratio as percentage of working-age, fertility rate, and population ages 65 and above as the percentage of the total population in nigeria. from equation (2), the econometric model is specified as: 𝑳𝑬𝒕 = 𝜶 + 𝜷𝟏𝑷𝑮𝒕 + 𝜷𝟐𝑨𝑫𝒕 + 𝜷𝟑𝑭𝑹𝒕 + 𝜷𝟑𝑷𝑨𝒕 + 𝞵 (3) where 𝝻 is the error term assumed to satisfy the gaussian white noise condition. apriori, the adw, frt and pa are expected to exert inverse influence on longevity or average life expectancy (le), while pg could either be positive or negative. 3.2 scope and data sources the study employs annual data spanning 1981 to 2016. the description and definitions of variables, including the sources are given in table 2. table 2. descriptive statistics of variables in nigeria variable descriptions sources le longevity or average life expectancy at birth world bank development indicators (wdi, 2017) pg population growth rate wdi, 2017 ad age 65 and above dependency ratio as percentage of working-age wdi, 2017 fr fertility rate wdi, 2017 pa population ages 65 and above as the percentage of the total population wdi, 2017 source: author compilation, 2018 4. empirical analysis 4.1 descriptive statistics the descriptive statistics of variables used in the estimations is presented in table 3. from the table, the average le is 48 years old with standard deviation of 2.57 years. the minimum population growth was 2.49 percent, while the average fertility rates is 6 children per woman in nigeria for the periods under study. again, the correlation matrix table presented in table 4 reveal that, high inverse correlation exists among all the variables and le except pg. for instance, the correlation between le and fr is about 86 percent. table 3. descriptive statistics of variables in nigeria variables le pg ad fr pa mean 48.06 2.58 5.31 6.19 2.81 standard deviation 2.57 0.07 0.15 0.37 0.05 maximum 54 2.49 5.09 5.52 2.73 minimum 45.85 2.72 5.54 6.78 2.89 observations 36 36 36 36 36 source: own computations with stata 13 table 4. correlation matrix (1981-2016) le pg ad fr pa le 1.00 pg 0.65 1.00 ad -0.75 -0.39 1.00 fr -0.86 -0.28 0.81 1.00 pa -0.83 -0.57 0.97 0.77 1.00 source: own computations with stata 13 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 35 published by ideas spread 4.2 unit root test the study tests for unit roots for all the variables. augmented dickey-fuller (adf) and phillip-perron (pp) are used to perform the tests. the results of the stationarity tests of variables at levels are presented in table 5. table 5. results of unit root tests (1981-2016) variables adf test at level 90% adf critical level order of integration pp test at level 90% pp critical level order of integration le 5.993 -2.618 i(0) 2.547 -10.40 i(1) pg -2.027 -2.618 i(1) -4.820 -10.40 i(1) ad -0.234 -2.618 i(1) -0.315 -10.40 i(1) fr -2.041 -2.618 i(1) -0.116 -10.40 i(1) pa -0.153 -2.618 i(1) -2.945 -10.40 i(1) source: own computations with stata 13 the findings in table 5 indicate that all the variables except le are non-stationary at levels for adf. the unit root tests applied to the variables at levels reject the null hypothesis of stationarity with evidence from pp test for all the variables. the variables are therefore, differenced once and they are confirmed to be stationary. the adf and pp tests applied to the first difference of the data series accept the null hypothesis of stationarity for all the variables. thus, the variables are integrated of order one i (1). 4.3 co-integration test considering the unit root tests of the variables, the study proceeded to establish whether or not there is a long-run co-integrating nexus among the variables (le, pg, ad, fr, and pa) by using the johnasen full information maximum likelihood method. the johnasen tests (as presented in table 6) indicated that the trace and maximal eigenvalue statistics revealed the existence of four co-integrating relationships between le and other variables at the 5 percent level of significance. the conclusion drawn from this result is that there exists a unique long-run relationship between le, pg, ad, fr, and pa. table 7. johnasen co-integration test results hypothesized eigenvalue trace statistic 5% critical value prob. none* 0.97 200.7 69.8 0.0000 at most 1* 0.74 86.1 47.9 0.0000 at most 2* 0.54 40 29.8 0.0024 at most 3 0.25 13.9 15.5 0.0857 at most 4* 0.118 4.27 3.8 0.0384 source: own computations with stata 13 the long-run longevity (le) can be obtained by normalizing the estimates of the unconstrained co-integrating vector for the long-run le are presented in equation 4. table 8. normalized co-integration coefficients le pg ad fr pa 1.0000 -79.98 (3.22) 107.06 (9.96) -5.79 (1.78) -268.74 (21.96) source: own computations with stata 13 le = -79.98pg + 107.06ad – 5.79fr – 268.74pa (4) 4.4 dynamic specification of longevity in the short-run, deviations from this relationship could occur due to changes to any of the variables (pg, ad, fr, and pa). due to the differences between dynamics governing the short-run and long-run behaviour, the short-run hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 36 published by ideas spread interactions and the adjustments to long-run equilibrium are paramount because of the policy implications. the error-correction model (ecm) is expected to be negatively signed and significant in the le function. this result as presented in table 9 substantiates the finding of co-integration among the variables reported earlier. table 9 also indicate that the error-correction term of 18 percent, suggesting that the disequilibrium in the le model is offset by annual short-run adjustment. table 9. error correction model test variable coefficient standard error t-statistic probability ect(-1) -0.1756 0.1010 -1.7391 0.0926 source: own computations 4.5 granger causality le and pg are inter-linked and co-related through various links. although there seem to be no empirical or theoretical insight that could conclusively indicate sequencing from either direction. therefore, the granger causality test for this study was carried out on le and pg. the results (as presented in table 10) indicates the existence of a bi-directional causality at 10 per cent level of significant which runs from le to pg and vice versa at lag 2. table 10. granger causality test null hypothesis lag observation f-statistics prob. decision le does not granger cause pg 1 35 10.03 0.0034 reject 2 34 5.31 0.0108 reject pg does not granger cause le 1 35 1.63 0.2104 accept 2 34 2.99 0.0659 reject source: own computations 4.6 regression results the regression estimation results are reported in table 11; although, rising population growth have positive and insignificantly impacts life expectancy in nigeria, but fr and pa have negative and significant impacts on longevity in nigeria. this means that 1 percent decrease in fr, ad, and pa could positively stimulates an improvement in life expectancy by 5.84, 27.7, and 81.5 respectively. these findings confirmed that of ratna and sari (2016) in indonesia. therefore, increase in any of these variables could trigger longevity in nigeria. the r2 as shown in the result is 97.5 per cent, this value indicates that the model explains about 97.5 per cent of the behaviour of life expectancy in nigeria. at 0.0000, the probability value indicates that the regression estimation result is highly and statistically significant. table 11. regression results table variables coefficient standard deviation t-statistics probability value constant 162.302 16.031 10.12 0.0000 pg 1.643 2.131 0.770 0.4460 fr -5.846 2.131 -17.06 0.0000 ad 27.678 3.235 8.55 0.000 pa -81.530 9.560 10.12 0.000 source: own computations with stata 13 5. conclusion and recommendations this study investigates the dynamics of population growth and life expectancy in nigeria. the empirical results suggest a long-run relationship between population growth and longevity for a 35-years data period spanning 1981 to 2016. this result is consistent with istaltayeh (2017) that investigated the impact of socio-economic determinants that includes per capita gdp, government expenditure on health, secondary school enrolment, and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 37 published by ideas spread urban population on life expectancy in jordan. although, the regression estimated results of this study indicates that population growth is insignificant in predicting life-expectancy; however, it indicates that rising fertility rate and population of 65 and above dependency ratio would reduce life expectancy in nigeria. the implication of the findings is that rising population growth have positive and insignificantly impacts life expectancy; but 1% decrease in fertility rate and population of 65-and-above dependency ratio could positively stimulates an improvement in longevity by 5.84, and 81.5 respectively in nigeria. furthermore, the granger causality test shows that population growth could granger cause low life expectancy in nigeria at least at 10% level of significant. these results therefore suggest that for policy makers in nigeria to increase average life expectancy of her citizens, attention should be given to reducing fertility rate. more importantly, a higher level of attention should be given to timely payment of pensions and gratuity, this will reduce over dependency ratio in nigeria. also, policies aimed at improving the welfare of population ages 65 and above should be given more prominent attention. references bloom, e. d., canning, d., & fink, g. (2011). implications of population ageing for economic growth. pgda working paper, no 64 bussolo, m., koettl, j., & sinnott, e. (2015). golden ageing: prospects for healthy, active and prosperous aging in europe and central asia. europe currais, l. (2000). population, growth and health expenditure. department of economic analysis, faculty of economics, la coruria university grepin, k. a., & bharadwaj, p. (2015). maternal education and child mortality in zimbabwe. journal of health economics, 44, 97-117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2015.08.003 grossman, m. (1972). on the concept of health capital and the demand for health. the journal of political economy, 80(2), 223-255. https://doi.org/10.1086/259880 hansen, c. w., & lonstrup, l. (2013). the rise of life expectancy and economic growth in the 20th century. discussion papers on business and economics, no 16. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2340926 ilori, i. a., olalere, s. s., & babatola, m. a. (2017). an empirical analysis of public health expenditure on life expectancy: evidence from nigeria. british journal of economics, management and trade, 17(4), 117. https://doi.org/10.9734/bjemt/2017/31783 istaiteyeh, r. m. s. (2017). economic and social factors in shaping jordan’s life expectancy: empirical analysis (1990-2014). advances in management and applied economics, 7(5), 45-59. karimo, t. m., krokeyi, w. s., & ekainsai, s. z. (2017). financial burden associated with ill-health: evidence from the elderly population in nigeria. equatorial journal of social sciences and human behaviour, 2(1), 25-43. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2925693 mateo, z. (2016). the impact of population ageing on public finance in the europe union. university of zagreb, crotia. novignon, j., nonvignon, j., & arthur, e. (2015). health status and labour force participation in subsaharan africa: a dynamic panel data analysis, african development review, 27(1), 14-26. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8268.12119 odusina, e. k. (2011). implications of rapidly growing nigerian population: a reviews of literature. department of demography and social statistics, joseph ayo babalola university, osun state, nigeria. ratna, a. z., & sari, l. z. (2016). health budgets, human capital, and population growth: empirical study in indonesia. review of integrative business and economics research, 5(1), 357-368. shahbaz, m., nanthakumar, l., nooreen, m., amjad, a., & ahmed, n. (2016). determinants of life expectancy and its prospects under the role of economic misery: a case of pakistan. social indic research, 126, 1299-1316. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-015-0927-4 thompson, d. (2010). is slow population growth good or bad for the economy? the atlantic, united states (u.s) turner, j. a. (2014). are ageing populations actually good news? world economic forum united nation’s world population reviews. (2018). nigeria population 2018. united nations united nations. (2017). world population prospects: the 2017 revision. united nation department of economics and social affairs hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 38 published by ideas spread world bank. (2017). world development indicators. washington dc: world bank world health organization. (2015). working together for health: the world health report copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p84 84 published by ideas spread from cultural perception to meaning co-creation: analyzing overseas players’ cultural perception pathways in black myth: wukong liang zhang1 & yunjun zhang1 1 college of literature and media, jingchu university of technology, china correspondence: liang zhang, college of literature and media, jingchu university of technology, jingmen, hubei 448000, china e-mail: ztutustrong@163.com received: july 11, 2025; accepted: july 24, 2025; published: july 25, 2025 abstract as a burgeoning medium for global cultural dissemination, video games possess both narrative and immersive affordances. yet, their actual impact on cross-cultural communication remains underexplored. this study focuses on black myth: wukong, china's first aaa video game, and analyzes 18,916 english-language reviews from the steam platform using latent dirichlet allocation (lda) topic modeling and goemotions sentiment analysis. from the perspective of players, the research uncovers three major findings: (1) players’ perception centers on combat design and gameplay difficulty, where high-challenge mechanics enhance immersion and enable cultural engagement; (2) chinese cultural elements elicit both aesthetic admiration and interpretive confusion, revealing a psychological tension between curiosity and alienation; (3) through social interaction and user-generated content, players actively participate in cultural negotiation and meaning co-creation, thereby fostering intercultural identification. this study offers a player-centered perspective on the complexities of cultural transmission via chinese “souls-like” games, providing both theoretical insight and empirical support for the internationalization of chinese digital games. keywords: cross-cultural communication, cultural perception, sentiment analysis, cultural adaptation, black myth: wukong 1. introduction in recent years, the chinese government has increasingly emphasized the cultural expression and international dissemination function of digital games. in november 2023, the national press and publication administration of china issued a directive titled online game publishing excellence project, calling for domestically developed games to “benchmark international standards” and integrate creativity, aesthetics, audiovisual quality, and chinese cultural elements into high-quality productions [1]. in 2023 alone, overseas revenue from chinese-developed games reached usd 16.366 billion, surpassing 100 billion yuan for the fifth consecutive year [2]. while chinese mobile games have established a strong global presence, the market for high-cost, high-tech console and aaa games has remained largely untapped. the official release of black myth: wukong in 2024, as china’s first aaa title, marks a significant breakthrough into the high-end international market, creating a new platform for cultural dissemination. black myth: wukong draws on the chinese classical novel journey to the west as its narrative core, fusing mythological storytelling with fantasy aesthetics. built using unreal engine 5 with ray tracing and motion capture technologies, the game offers an immersive eastern world. as early as 2020, its initial gameplay reveal went viral on both chinese and international platforms—garnering over 10 million views within 24 hours on bilibili and similarly high engagement on ign’s youtube channel. upon its release in 2024, the game topped the global steam sales chart, with over 1.25 million concurrent players and more than 1.1 million reviews, creating a substantial base of user-generated content and feedback that offers rich data for cultural perception analysis. as a digital medium, games are inherently immersive, interactive, and emotionally engaging, making them a critical vehicle for projecting chinese culture abroad[3]. scholars have long explored the semiotic and aesthetic transformation of traditional culture in games, noting that their audiovisual styles, narrative structures, and interactive logic share expressive paradigms with film and literature, giving games unique storytelling capacities. furthermore, immersive gameplay and participation in “third social spaces” within games help dissolve cultural hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 85 published by ideas spread barriers [4]. however, games also face the “cultural discount” dilemma common to cross-cultural media, wherein fragmented information[5], interpretive autonomy, and cognitive biases among players can hinder cultural comprehension[6]. existing studies on black myth: wukong have mainly focused on its narrative symbolism, cultural representation, and media hybridity. yet few have examined the actual feedback from real user communities, especially overseas players, regarding their cultural perceptions. there is a particular lack of research on the pathways through which international players experience, interpret, and emotionally respond to the game’s cultural content. given that game reviews are organic reflections of players’ post-immersion reactions, often rich in interactivity and emotional nuance, this study uses over 40,000 foreign-language (non-chinese) comments collected from steam as the primary dataset. combining lda topic modeling and sentiment analysis, this research explores how international players perceive the game’s cultural elements, express their emotional responses, and participate in the negotiation and co-creation of cultural meaning. the goal is to reveal the mechanisms underlying cross-cultural reception of chinese aaa “souls-like” games, thereby offering empirical evidence and theoretical insights to support china’s global gaming strategy. 2. research methodology 2.1 data collection and processing this study uses the steam platform as the data source. as one of the world’s largest digital game distribution platforms, steam hosts over 35 million concurrent users and more than 11 million active daily players, making it both representative and globally relevant. the dataset comprises foreign-language (non-chinese) reviews of black myth: wukong posted on steam as of april 2025. initially, 40,513 reviews were collected. after excluding 9,554 non-relevant entries (e.g., chinese-language reviews and those with less than one hour of gameplay), a total of 18,916 valid review texts were retained. table 1 illustrates sample data, including username, recommendation status, gameplay duration, and review content. while the recommendation flag offers a basic indicator of sentiment, it fails to capture the complexity of players’ emotional responses. table 1. sample records from the black myth: wukong steam review dataset no. username recommended review excerpt playtime 1 itskenser recommended i suck at it and i still like it. pretty sure everyone will say the same. 4.5 hrs 2 why'sss recommended this game reminds me of when i watched journey to the west on vtv2... 29.5 hrs ... ... …… ... ... 18915 exaltedparrot recommended after 10 hours, i have a few words to share. pros: the game cannot look better. 71.7 hrs 18916 themightygordo recommended first impression: goty 2024. unbelievable visuals and combat... 10.5 hrs figure 1. lda model perplexity and topic coherence evaluation hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 86 published by ideas spread 2.2 data analysis to ensure both model robustness and interpretability, the number of topics in the lda model was determined based on two key indicators: topic coherence and perplexity. the model achieved optimal coherence when the number of topics was set to six (see figure 1). these six topics form the basis for analyzing the players’ perception focus and pathways of cultural cognition. to further explore emotional dynamics, sentiment distribution was analyzed across all topic categories using a multilabel approach. all 18,916 reviews were preprocessed using natural language processing tools such as nltk and spacy. preprocessing steps included lowercasing, punctuation removal, stop-word filtering, and lemmatization using wordnet. to enhance domain specificity, a customized dictionary of named entities was incorporated, including terms such as “wukong,” “black myth: wukong,” “journey to the west,” “monkey king,” and “black monkey.” a combined stop-word list from nltk and manually defined game-specific terms was also applied to improve lexical precision. next, tf-idf vectorization was used to extract textual features for topic modeling. using the latentdirichletallocation module from sklearn, lda modeling was performed on the cleaned dataset. the six topics were identified based on representative keywords and a close reading of exemplar reviews. these topics were labeled as follows:combat design perception; challenge & difficulty perception; character construction perception; cultural symbolism perception; technical performance perception; personal engagement perception. to uncover emotional patterns within player discourse, the study further employed the goemotions model, a multilabel fine-grained emotion classifier built on the bert architecture. the model supports 27 discrete emotion categories, including admiration, surprise, joy, confusion, disappointment, and anger. for each review, the first 512 characters were processed to generate multilabel emotion tags. emotion frequency distributions were then calculated for each topic, and a topic-emotion heatmap was constructed to visualize emotional variance across content dimensions. by integrating lda-based thematic analysis and goemotions-based sentiment classification, this methodology enables a comprehensive examination of how international players engage cognitively and emotionally with black myth: wukong, shedding light on their cultural perception pathways in the context of digital gameplay. 3. findings 3.1 player perception themes based on lda topic modeling using lda-based thematic analysis, player comments were categorized into six primary perception themes. these themes represent key focal points of user engagement and cognitive processing during gameplay. table 2 presents selected high-frequency keywords for each topic. figure 2. semantic mapping of player perception themes hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 87 published by ideas spread table 2. player perception themes and representative keywords no. theme representative keywords 1 combat design perception boss, combat, story, chapter, design, enemy 2 challenge & difficulty soul, game, play, elden ring, hard, boss, beat 3 character construction great, year, monkey, graphic, goty, masterpiece 4 cultural symbolism wukong, myth, chinese, journey to the west, black 5 technical performance setting, issue, fps, performance, crash, frame 6 personal engagement long, life, grind, bug, spare, brain 3.1.1 combat and challenge: salient perceptual focuses for player engagement as shown in figure 2, the visualization results of lda topic modeling display the semantic distribution of six major themes. among them, topic 1 (combat design perception), topic 2 (challenge and difficulty perception), and topic 3 (character construction perception) are tightly clustered, exhibiting significant semantic overlap. players actively discuss the combat mechanisms in the game, including character move combinations, skill design, and boss battle strategies, emphasizing the refinement of the combat system and the tactile feel of gameplay. players process the information they receive in the game based on their previous gaming experiences and personal preferences—essentially engaging in the reception and perceptual processing of sensory information surrounding combat design, challenge, and character development. this serves as the perceptual foundation for processing cultural elements and interpreting meaning. the semantic overlap indicates that when players evaluate the combat system, difficulty level, and character representation, they often use similar vocabulary, suggesting a cognitive linkage between the three. this densely populated area in semantic space reveals that combat, challenge, and character collectively form the core axis of players’ experiential perception, and belong to the realm of deep participatory perception at the gameplay level. 3.1.2 from “monkey” to “wukong”: the character as a bridge for cultural interpretation theme 4 revolves around cultural elements and is semantically distinct from the previously mentioned cluster of combat-related themes. upon entering the game, players’ initial impression of the main character as a generic “monkey” gradually transforms into the culturally specific symbol of “wukong,” imbued with narrative and personality traits. this cultural transition represents the player’s process of accepting chinese culture, particularly as manifested through character cognition and emotional projection. the symbol “wukong” carries rich pretextual connotations. some players had been exposed to the character symbol prior to playing the game via various channels, and thus the role-playing experience evokes original memories that become embedded in the overall gameplay experience, prompting strong identification with the game. for example: “you play as wukong, what more needs to be said?” conversely, if a player lacks the necessary cultural background knowledge, they may struggle to understand the character’s motivations and narrative details, which hampers immersion and negatively affects their perception of cultural elements in the game. 3.1.3 constructive attention to technical performance driven by high expectations upon release, the game received widespread acclaim in china, where praise from players, game media, and public opinion was overwhelmingly positive. this surge of favorable reviews was often accompanied by nationalist sentiment and collective identification, generating an atmosphere of grand celebration. this celebratory mood— disseminated via social media, professional reviews, and live streaming—also influenced foreign players and raised their psychological expectations:“…still worth a grab, just don't get lost in the hype and see it for what it is.”unable to fully participate in this domestic wave of enthusiasm, foreign players paid heightened attention to the game’s technical aspects. the high-frequency keywords in topic 5 show that international players are highly sensitive to technical performance. frame rate, stability, and compatibility were frequent focal points in reviews. many players offered concrete suggestions regarding game settings and hardware optimization. for example:“i am running a rtx 3060 with 32gb ram… 60 fps with high and medium settings.” such comments reflect a non-confrontational and constructive feedback tendency. in this context, technical parameters not only describe user experience but also function as a medium for communication and collaboration among players. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 88 published by ideas spread 3.1.4 emphasizing immersion and effort in constructing personal gameplay meaning the alternate world constructed by the game also serves as a complex site for self-formation. players’ in-game decision-making and interaction patterns not only reflect their internal value systems but also constitute part of a dynamic self-concept construction process[7]. the high-difficulty setting typical of souls-like games compels players to repeatedly confront challenges and endure trial-and-error cycles. this bittersweet dynamic—“…and the way it really makes you rage after losing to a boss after 69+ tries…”—demonstrates players’ understanding and acceptance of the game’s mechanics and fosters a sense of belonging within the gaming community. keywords in topic 6, such as “grind,” “life,” and “brain,” reflect the considerable energy players invest in the game and how they derive personal meaning from it. comments often include phrases like “100% achievements” or “played for 3 hours,” indicating that players view the game as a process of self-expression and value formation. this reflects a dynamic mechanism of identity construction, in which players extend aspects of their real-life identities into virtual practices. 3.2 emotional characteristics under each perception theme using the goemotions model, each comment was labeled with multiple emotion tags. in total, 28 distinct emotions were identified. based on the overall emotion distribution, the comments were aggregated by their lda topic assignments to construct a topic-emotion matrix. figure 3. overall emotion distribution in player reviews 3.2.1 rational appreciation reflects cultural integration of chinese games in the global context overall, admiration emerged as the most dominant emotion across reviews, followed by neutral and approval (see figure 3). this indicates that players generally held positive evaluations of black myth: wukong, but their expressions tended to be rational rather than emotional. many reviews assessed the game systematically, touching on aspects like storyline, visual effects, audio quality, and combat system—e.g., “story line good. voice overs good. graphics/audio good...”—placing the game squarely within the evaluation framework of aaa souls-like titles. players are no longer viewing the game from an outsider's perspective or simply appreciating its "exoticism." instead, they evaluate the game through the lens of its genre-specific merits. this structured expression of appreciation is itself a sign of cultural acceptance and engagement. such rational and systematic commentary reflects not only the game’s integration into international discourses, but also signifies the growing discursive parity of chinese games on the global stage. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 89 published by ideas spread figure 4. heatmap of emotion distribution across perception themes 3.2.2 emotional identification rooted in the experience of "playability" themes 1 to 3 show significantly higher emotional engagement. combined frequencies of admiration and approval exceed 6,000, and emotions like joy and love also appear frequently. for instance:“…the combat however is fundamentally flawed… but i guess i had too high expectations…”this indicates that gameplay is the most emotionally stimulating component for players. as producer feng ji once stated in an interview, “the most important thing about a game is whether it’s fun to play.” players’ approval is fundamentally grounded in their rational judgment formed through deep engagement. this experience-driven evaluation model reflects a high-involvement, high-standard cognitive approach. players often compare black myth: wukong to other aaa souls-like games in horizontal evaluations. this seemingly critical attitude actually implies recognition and appreciation. stripped of the domestic players’ “sentimentalism” and the foreign players’ “novelty effect,” the game is now evaluated primarily on the quality of its gameplay— signaling its formal entry into global competition. 3.2.4 technical performance triggers strong resonance and positively skewed emotions comments related to technical performance show highly concentrated positive emotions. as shown in the heatmap, admiration is most frequently associated with theme 5, with 3,705 instances—the highest across all themes. in addition, joy (313 instances), love (309), and excitement (124) are also prevalent—reflecting an immersive and satisfying experience. such positive feedback often includes “constructive information sharing,” as in:“...4090 and ran everything on max settings...”players frequently share hardware configurations and gameplay experiences. these technical exchanges establish a shared, communicable user experience. technology here not only enhances acceptance of the game, but also serves as a carrier of emotional connection and community bonding. 4. conclusion from gameplay mechanics to cultural expression, and from technical performance to emotional resonance, overseas players’ evaluations of black myth: wukong demonstrate a high level of engagement and cultural awareness. these findings reveal the complex pathways through which players receive and reconstruct meaning during the international dissemination of chinese games. overall, the communication effects of chinese aaa games have transcended superficial entertainment and consumption, giving rise to a cross-cultural communication mechanism driven by immersive gameplay, aesthetic curiosity, and user co-creation. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 90 published by ideas spread 4.1 immersive mechanism: souls-like challenge induces flow experience player reviews consistently focus on combat systems and gameplay difficulty, with emotional expressions showing strong involvement, high praise, and sharp criticism. this emotional tension indicates that challenge design is a key source of immersion. according to mihaly csikszentmihalyi’s theory of “flow,” high-difficulty and lowtolerance tasks stimulate users to persistently iterate, adjust, and refine their behavior, resulting in deep absorption and intrinsic satisfaction [8]. black myth: wukong continues the souls-like tradition through boss battles, realtime feedback, and goal-matching systems, constructing a highly focused gameplay scenario. this leads players into a cognitive loop of “challenge–feedback–adjustment,” enabling dual immersion on both operational and narrative levels. this immersive mechanism not only enhances player stickiness but also motivates players to actively seek out storylines and cultural backgrounds, forming an extended pathway from mechanical immersion to cultural cognition[9]. especially when confronting high-difficulty gameplay, players undergo repetitive trial-and-error, gaining experience and adjusting pace over time. in doing so, they develop a sense of self-efficacy [10]. this provides a valuable reference for constructing globally competitive immersive standards in chinese games. 4.2 cultural dissemination: coexistence of admiration and confusion drives cross-cultural learning within the lda-derived themes, cultural perception is not the most dominant focus, but it generates stronger and more complex emotional reactions than other themes. players frequently discuss cultural signifiers such as “wukong” and “journey to the west,” expressing curiosity and admiration toward the chinese mythological system. however, difficulties in understanding plot details and character motivations also emerged, highlighting typical experiences of cultural distance. this reaction reveals the paradox of high-context cultures in international dissemination: cultural elements serve both as sources of attraction and as barriers to comprehension. since black myth: wukong is rooted in journey to the west, its story contains many untranslated metaphors and symbolic constructs. for players lacking relevant cultural schemas, these elements form cognitive black boxes. some players noted that “the plot is hard to understand” or “i can’t empathize with the character’s motivations”—responses that can be interpreted as cognitive resistance caused by frame mismatches in communication psychology. however, analysis of specific comments shows that despite these cognitive obstacles, players are not rejecting cultural content. instead, the game’s audiovisual aesthetics inspire curiosity and a desire to explore. elements such as “demonic character designs,” “oriental music,” and “ancient architecture” create sensory attraction, evoking a form of aesthetic cosmopolitanism [11]. players approach chinese culture from a globalized perspective, and for many, this visual enjoyment translates into cross-cultural learning motivations—some even mentioned reading journey to the west to better understand the game. the cultural dissemination of black myth: wukong does not follow a linear model. initial shock and novelty arouse interest, encouraging players to overcome cultural barriers. however, subsequent interpretive challenges reintroduce a sense of cultural otherness. due to the souls-like structure of the game, players are required to engage in “iterative labor” [12], repeatedly going through cycles of “understanding–misunderstanding–reinterpretation.” the game’s cultural impact thus emerges from an interplay of emotional arousal and cognitive adaptation. through the delivery of culturally distinct experiences, chinese games construct a participatory arena for intercultural understanding and identification. 4.3 co-creation mechanism: players actively construct cultural identification built on intertwined processes of understanding and emotional response, players are no longer passive receivers of content; instead, they participate as co-creators in constructing the meaning of the game. beyond the game environment, they engage in conversations through social media, livestream platforms, and comment sections, discussing plotlines, cultural symbols, and character interpretations. these interactions constitute a “coconstruction–resonance–consensus” pathway in cultural dissemination. this aligns with henry jenkins’s notion of participatory culture, in which players break the designer’s monopoly on interpretation through comments, fan art, and mod development. in this way, they continually generate new cultural meanings through collective discourse. players become not merely individuals who “play,” but cultural agents who embed themselves into the narrative and construct significance. from the moment the game is released, narrative authority begins to shift from developers to the community. player engagement not only enriches the cultural context of the game but also enhances its longevity and global communicative efficacy. moreover, in cases of cultural misunderstanding or divergent interpretations, the collaborative negotiation of meaning among players helps lower interpretive barriers. diverse perspectives from the player base contribute to hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 91 published by ideas spread a pluralistic framework of cultural cognition, thereby facilitating the internalization and acceptance of foreign cultural elements. this shift transforms cultural dissemination from a unidirectional model of “telling stories” into a dialogic process of “co-performance,” achieving deeper transitions from perception to identificationp[13]. as a representative of china’s aaa game production, black myth: wukong demonstrates a multi-layered mechanism of cultural perception among international players—one that evolves from immersive gameplay to cocreated meaning. through challenging gameplay, aesthetic engagement, and interactive user participation, the game not only succeeds in overseas entertainment markets but also offers a model for the digital dissemination of chinese culture. by perceiving, interpreting, and regenerating meaning through play, players help position games as vital mediators in cross-cultural exchange. future studies may further explore variations in player reception across cultural backgrounds, or delve into the negotiation of cultural identity, in order to advance the international communication of original chinese digital content. references [1] national press and publication administration. (2023). notice on the implementation of the online game publishing excellence project. available from: https://www.nppa.gov.cn/xxfb/tzgs/202311/t20231117_779954.html [accessed 28th september 2023]. [2] xinhua net. (2023). 2023 china game industry report. available from: https://www.xinhuanet.com/ent/20231215/f670a4330eac41d6859e9f11d9226d5b/c.html [accessed 28th september 2023]. [3] he, w., & li, y. (2024). symbols, knowledge, and ideology: innovative transformation of excellent traditional chinese culture in digital games. jiangsu shehui kexue, (01), 232–240. [4] zeng, p., & deng, y. (2022). from communication vehicle to innovation agent: paradigm innovation of chinese games "going global". xinwen daxue, (05), 94–104, 122. [5] niu, y., tang, g., & li, h. (2024). exploring innovative paths for the international dissemination of chinese traditional culture: a case study of the digital game genshin impact. keji chuanbo, 16(17), 140–147. [6] shen, t. (2025). cultural inheritance and global conflicts in black myth: wukong: an analysis of paradoxes and coping strategies. xueshu tansuo, (02), 134–141. [7] kim, y. y. (2001). becoming intercultural: an integrative theory of communication and cross-cultural adaptation (pp. 45–70). thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452233253.n4 [8] liu, s. (2024). rethinking flow theory in game studies: a case perspective on souls-like games. wenyi lilun yu pipin, (06), 151–155. [9] zhao, j., & peng, j. (2025). becoming the "great sage": affective experiences and community cohesion through chinese cultural symbols in games. bianji zhiyou, (03), 35–43. [10] huang, h. c., huang, l. s., chou, y. j., & teng, c. i. (2017). influence of temperament and character on online gamer loyalty: perspectives from personality and flow theories. computers in human behavior, 72, 50–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.01.009 [11] shen, z., & zheng, j. (2024). digital aesthetic cosmopolitanism: cross-cultural communication of short videos and the emerging pattern of digital social interaction. makesizhuyi meixue yanjiu, 27(01), 287–298, 481. [12] che, z. (2023). traversal and death: a media archaeology of game saving mechanisms. dushu, (4), 90–97. [13] you, h., & wang, x. (2024). the multiple proximities of traditional cultural imagery: modern representations and consensus building in black myth: wukong. chuanmei guancha, (12), 83–91. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 3, no. 1; 2020 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v3n1p14 14 published by ideas spread cosmic signs in the poetry of kadare merxhan avdyli1 1 public university "kadri zeka" gjilan, republic of kosovo correspondence: merxhan avdyli, prof. ass. phd., faculty of education, public university "kadri zeka" gjilan, republic of kosovo. e-mail: merxhan.avdyli uni-gjilan.net received: november 22, 2019; accepted: december 9, 2019; published: april 1, 2020 abstract this paper deals with the cosmic signs displayed in the poetry of one of the best albanian writers, ismail kadare. by highlighting the way kadare's cosmic poetry is dealt with, namely by distinguishing his poems, we will essentialize through an analysis until a sublimated synthesis the main signs presented in kadare's poetic lexicon. since kadare's poetry is also distinguished through a fundamental element of its construction the word, we will undertake such a study adventure, to see how different words, different concepts, different thoughts and ideas are presented. with some of the cosmic signs used by kadare such as: sun, moon, star, sky, earth. keywords: poetry, kadare, signs, cosmos, treatment, sun, moon, star, sky, earth 1. introduction in this way it should be explained that cosmic signs here will not only be treated as signs in the sense of the symbol, though they also have symbols, as well as signs in the saussure’s sense, (note 1) but they will be treated as distinctive signs, as distinctive signs in poetry. kadare's works, which make his poetry not only more special by their marking, but also more characteristic in distinguishing its quality, more complete and more realized in all its constructive and reflective dimensions. likewise, one has to dwell on another fact regarding the sign. well-known literary theorists oswald ducrot and tzvetan todorov, treating the sign, in the sense that we treat it, as they regard it as the basic notion of any science of discourse, recognize the difficulty of defining it. (osvald, d., tzvetan, t., & fjalor, 1984) perhaps, after differentiating the sign from the symbol, the difficulties of understanding would also be alleviated. we find it valuable to emphasize the relationship between the notion of sign and the notion of symbol, which, although they are similar notions, are not entirely the same. while the sign is a notion that helps build the stylistic figure, in this case the symbol itself, it is nevertheless not a stylistic figure as is traditionally the symbol. in another sense we will also try to clarify the use of the sign, in the sense of the saussure’s sign (note 1) according to which every word is a sign, whereas in this monograph, as we have used this concept, the sign is a separate word from the group of words, precisely because of its role and function, as well as the other particular structural and emotional hues it receives in the poetic text. in this sense the notion of sign, although it may have similarities, is clearly distinguished from the key word, which is a key word of a text. thus, based on the notion of the sign, in the sense differentiated from the symbol and the key word, as a lecturing and lexical unit, which in this way can sometimes be equivalent to the symbol or simply a meaning which make the meaning of poetic discourse easier to understand, we will try to understand and treat the sign as a sign that is singled out in the poetic lexicon of ismail kadare's poetry. 2. treatment of poetic signs with aesthetic effects cosmic signs occupy a deserved place in ismail kadare's poetry. although they are of great and widespread use, we will present and address only those which we consider to be more substantive and functional and which complement the artistic and aesthetic effects of kadare's poetry which are in function of aquiline symbol or aquiline stylistic figure. in this respect we will treat the cosmic signs, which often in kadare's poetry come to us with different layers and subdivisions, even as special symbols, namely as meanings which raise the level of his poetry to a certain level. properly literary, artistic and aesthetic, how are the signs: sun, moon, star, sky and earth, which are not the only cosmic signs that kadare uses. because in his poetry there are other cosmic signs, where they are more often and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 1; 2020 15 published by ideas spread less frequently used in various functions, whether motivational or symbolic, or complementary to the full realization of poetry. the cosmic signs in kadare's poetry play their part, regardless of the poetic idea, theme or motif. because these signs perform their function, as in patriotic poetry, love poetry, or other motifs. in fact, one of kadare's collections of poetry is entitled, precisely because of the use of one of the cosmic signs, in this case the sun. it is about the poetry book sunny motives. 3. the sun (light, warmth, vibrancy) we have already pointed out above that exactly one of kadare's poetic works, in its title, stands out as the sun sign the collection “sunny motives”. the book in question received the title from the poem of the same title, "sunny motives", which is an exhilarating display of views of the lura lakes in the evening and a reflection of the author's concerns about the evening fall in the lura lakes, with where does he suggest the lyric hero, addressing: he grabs a handful of colors that vibrate and glisten fleeing alarmingly from the evening that follows. captures sunny motifs ... never brush the night through your brush. (ismail kadare & motive, 1978) the sun is one of the main cosmic signs that he uses in his kadare poetry, even in different meanings. in this way, kadare sometimes uses the sun as an identification with the homeland, sometimes as something that brings warmth to mankind. but there are times when the sun also uses it in other ways, as identifying and personifying, to compare any personality with it. the dimensions of the kadare sun are very large because in most cases size is the main element by which one compares one or something to the sun. and, in such cases, in addition to the metaphor and comparison figure, hyperbole is also used. the sun at kadare often comes out as an illuminating epicenter, respectively, as an antipode of darkness and evil. indeed, there are times when the sun is used to show scientific and technical knowledge, which has also influenced the decay of poetry, as kadare says in poetry "poetry and technique": sun eclipse found, whatever. (ismail kadare & koha, 1976) the sun sign, even when not used as a symbol, is used to create interesting images, images that we seem to have in front of our eyes and that at the same time seem to us to be easily drawn by kadare through his lyrical verses, such as eg in the poem "winter morning on the beach", where he compares the sunshine to the shells with the pieces of a broken service: saving the winter sun above the shells falls like the power bits that accidentally broke. (ismail kadare, 1990) 4. moon (little moon, contemplation, beauty, guard of love) the moon is the sign of others, used in kadare's poetry, which though as a cosmic sign, appears in the form of a gaze element or even as a symbol, in some cases, and sometimes even as part of the female physique, when compared with any part of the female or as an illuminating and observing element of dating lovers alike. however, the moon appears to a considerable extent in kadare's poetry, even more prominently than other signs. some kadare poems focus on the moon itself, either as a symbol or as a sign that aids or supplements the creation of stylistic figures, as well as the full realization of poetry, such as the poems: "you and the moon"( ismail kadare, 1957) or "the moon and poplar ”. (ismail kadare, 1976) the introduction of the moon in the function of poetry is variable, because in almost all the poems where the presence of the moon is the other auxiliary elements, namely the signs or symbols that influence the moon to appear in different places, situations and conditions. different. a fascinating picture, an image where the moon's role is sensitive in association with wild geese and poplars, is found in the poem "flowers", flowerpots under the moonlight fall like brilliance somewhere the wild goose flew to heaven with a little moon in the wings too. (ibidem, p. 7.) likewise, we have an even more interesting picture in the short poem in the title of which we have the very sign that we are treating "moon on poplar". the poplar hiding the girl's look from the moon was cut by the girl's hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 1; 2020 16 published by ideas spread boyfriend, who, however, could not hide from the moon, from where we have her gaze role in this short erotic ballad, as in the verses, as more follows: the moon above the poplars plates plates that you cut the poplar yeah, let's go. (ibidem, p. 63.) a typical personifying comparison of the beloved female and the moon is in the poem "you and the moon", which shows the arrival of a girl in the thoughts of a lyrical hero who sometimes appears, sometimes disappears, like the moon hiding behind a cloud, as in verses: o clouds my thoughts i'm being reminded more often and behind them there is always yours like this moon that looks in the middle of a cloud. (ismail kadare, 1957) the moon is used in kadare's poetry in a slightly more elusive and non-spiritual sense. this mainly happens in those poems that are motivated by our national history, namely in patriotic poetry, since the moon is in this sense understood as an ottoman symbol. thus, the moon in this function is in the poem "portrait of skanderbeg", where the moon shows a faintness of the name skënder (skanderbeg), opposite the solar name gjergj (george), or in the poem "arrival of the imperial decree",(ibidem, p. 43.) where we have a balance of crescent lighting (in the meaning of the ottoman symbol) with the seals "starting to bleed". not only as the crescent, where the moon sign takes on negative meanings, but the moon is also used in the form of the moon, which nevertheless illuminates, as in the poem "the spirit of the future"( ismail kadare, 1954) or even in the poem "the eagle and the crescent",( ismail kadare, 1990) where we face "a two-headed eagle and a crescent," as kadare puts it. 5. star (cosmic star, symbolic star) the star in kadare's poetry, like the moon always plays a positive role, is that part of poetry that expresses tenderness, closeness, brightness and love. the star in kadare's poetry is always radiant, even when it is a function of political poetry, regardless of aesthetic achievement, even when used in comparative function in his lovemotivated poetry. often the star's sign is correlated with the moon, as two approximate elements of kadare's poetry with love motifs, as is the case with "ballad"(ismail kadare, 1957) poetry. even the sign of a star, like the moon, is rarely the focus of a poem as in the poems: "stars do not just fall",( ismail kadare, 1961) "stars" (ismail kadare, 1957) and others. the star in kadare's poetry is not infrequently used in the plural, as the stars and their poetic exploits are incorporated into all his poetic motives, even from patriotic poetry to political poetry with revolutionary marks, we would say, but also in love poetry as well as in meditative poetry. with high functionality, the use of stars is in the poem "spring", where the star-reflecting soup is put to the test. the verse in which he is a reinforce of the idea of poetry and operationalizing the whole construction of this poetry is: only the soup does not reflect the stars. (ismail kadare, 1961) although in the poem "spring" the stars are not reflected in the soup, kadare, as in other editions of this poem, removes, changes and changes the poetic concept of the soup and now puts in front of the stars a much more functional, though darker, not only meaningful and much less reflective of the stars the scum, giving the variant as follows. only the sludge does not reflect the stars. (ismail kadare, 2005) changing this verse also involves changing the formal aspect of poetry, because in other versions of this poetry this changed verse is no longer a singular one, but is within the second unit of the poem "spring". but the stars in kadare's patriotic poetry take on a different dimension. in poetry of this type, respectively in patriotic poetry, the stars usually relate to the other two concepts albania, which sometimes emerges as a homeland and heaven. such a more realistic connection emerges in the poems "stars", respectively in the verses: the endless paths of mother albania hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 1; 2020 17 published by ideas spread with stars above the tombs they twist as if from heaven you have fallen on the heads of resting heroes many stars have fallen through the clouds. (ismail kadare, 1957) starlight in kadare's poetry is also used in meditative poetry and when the star, with its illuminating dimensions, becomes a symbol of another cosmic sign, such as the earth. in this functional connection, the author, speaking the dream, in the poem "dream", states: and the earth shone like a star among other stars. (ibidem, p. 17.) but stars in a poem, like in the poem "deer" is an indicator of heights, from where the height of the deer horns is sublimated relative to the height of the stars, as in the verse: o deer high with those horns with those horns up to the stars. (ismail kadare, 1990) 6. heaven (appearance, shape, width) the sky in kadare's poetry is ever-changing, but as such, as a cosmic sign, kadare is very functional, because through it he can create excellent images, create moments and situations of various kinds, even not least absurd situations and paradoxes. not only the darkness of the real, as well as the actual sky, but also its real, as well as the actual sobriety, in kadare's poetry constantly raise various issues, linking factual situations with those of artistic imagination. the sign of heaven influenced kadare's selective collection to be called formless is the sky, which is at the same time the first part of the first verse and the first part of the last verse of the poem "autumn tyrant", supplemented with the part "like an idiot's brain" , the first verse and with“ like an idiot thought ”the last verse. the qualification of this poem, by some scholars as anthologized and emblematic verses, is consistent, but the tendencies to draw from this poem some kind of kadare's dissidentism towards socialism are not consistent and as such have only influenced it. in expressing unfounded thoughts, even giving the sky of this poetry the dimension of "then socialist heaven", as the scholar sadik bejko puts it in the preface to the selection poetry book is the sky. (note 2) poetry "autumn tyrant" has a complete construction, has a strong connection between what is seen in reality, on a fall day, with the imagination of the author who manages to be aesthetically sublimated through stylistic figures, on this occasion of comparison. it would undoubtedly be necessary the whole picture, even the graphic of poetry: the sky is without form, like an idiot's brain boring sidewalks rain porridge. a passerby, an umbrella, thunders the weather a bike twists and turns. shapeless is heaven, like an idiot thought. (ismail kadare, 2005) the sky in kadare's poetry is presented in different forms, with different looks and different functional characteristics. thus, in the poem "general landscape" is presented: magnificent, cold and boundless sky. (ismail kadare, 1961) in the poem "autumn poem": the sky bowed thousands of water canes knocks like a blind old man going away in the night. (ibidem, p. 12.) in the poem "winter sky", the sky is presented as an inspiration for memories, interesting comparative imagery: winter sky an influx of memories i lit a cigarette, approached the window. it looks like there are no snowflakes falling from the sky but thousands of letters, which i never received. (ibidem, p. 32.) hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 1; 2020 18 published by ideas spread whereas in the poem "on the trip", which is a beautiful description of the author, when he departs to his city during winter holidays, he uses the sign heaven through metaphor: i travel south behind the glass i see the sky above the well. (ismail kadare, 1957) whereas in the poetry "cataracts": icy, the sky reflects. (ismail kadare, 1964) the sky as a cosmic sign is quite present in kadare's poetry, being in function of different images, different images, often in conjunction with other cosmic signs such as: sun, earth, stars, etc. heaven is sometimes used also in the sense of latitude, infinity, respectively in the sense of the universe. heaven is also used as a sign of definition, but also of infinity, or even of trekking, as in the poem "kosovo": how many times have i passed over your heaven kosovo. (ismail kadare, 2005) 7. earth (the great house of mankind, identification with the homeland) is in kadare's poetry the land identified with the homeland? we can say that in many cases in his poetry the land also emerges as a homeland, but it also emerges as a concrete land on which it travels, walks and works on it. kadare has a very clear concept of land, even when it is used as a concept equivalent to the homeland, and when it is used to connect the common man with the land, not only as a homeland, but first and foremost as a part of life. his. earth in terms of the planets has an interesting use in the poem "the peoples' time", where we have a confrontation of two contemporary oppositions of the ruling powers of the superpowers and the efforts of the peoples to be free and to dominate their planet-earth. , which really belongs to them. after three rather striking metaphors, kadare exaggerates the causal links with time and earth, as in the verses: horrible horns and cries of cobia on earth they set the law of the beast; however it was people's time and this planet of former people. (ismail kadare, 1976) the land is also used in the simple sense, just as a piece of land, but also in the equivalent sense of land and homeland, when it takes other meanings or when used as an equivocal, as in the poem "kosovo", where the land sign has two important meanings as land in the general sense of the planet, but also as homeland designated land of kosovo, as in verses: but the broad back of your land runs down, it looks and disappears grimly between the cavities and cloud abyss. (ismail kadare, 2005) in the ambiguous sense the function of the earth sign is also used in the poetry "clouds", which is a poem with tragic and ballad notes, in which case the secondary function is given by the vatan, which in this case is equal to the land of the homeland. poetry is composed of three dystics, as follows: between the mountains further eastward as a soldier fell under cruel bullets. not even a cross was put on them, they were not put on the ground neither her mother nor her sister were on her head. except the clouds that came from far away we saw him and recognized him and wept. (ibidem, p. 38.) alienation of mud land, mud-like land, land that is no longer land homeland, but because of treachery only land mud, and the return of homeland to a widow, but because of treason humiliation by treachery, are the figures that kadare uses by using the land mark in the anthology poetry "the escape of moses golem" in the following verses: the earth is just mud, but no longer home. earth as a widow took away any jewelry. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 1; 2020 19 published by ideas spread homeland died, clay remained under the black knock. (ismail kadare, 1978) a poem that is quite characteristic of the functional use of the earth sign in interaction with the sky sign is the poem "cooling the earth". the following verses: the elders say: it is wintering on earth, not in heaven beware of winter on earth. (ismail kadare, 1990) even in the poem "the first parachutists" the signs of the earth and the sky are used in an efficient way, as in the verse: four girls will go down to earth, from the floors of heaven.( ismail kadare, 1978) 8. conclusion certainly the treatment of cosmic signs in ismail kadare's poetry could be expanded with some other cosmic signs, but we have not expanded because other signs, besides those we have dealt with, in kadare's poetry do not show any significant relevance. . but, in summary, we can conclude that the cosmic signs, which we have considered most prominent in kadare's poetry, which, in addition to being significant and lexical signs, constitute symbols, are: the sun, which begins with light, as a pillar of life, but also as a symbol, which brings warmth and vitality; the moon, as a contemplative and guardian of love, is not infrequently presented as beauty, sometimes diminished by the litotes the little moon; the star, in most cases as a sign of the cosmos, but also as a symbol, guide; the sky, takes a broad, complete picture, also presented as a mass, as a shape, as a width, as a cosmic infinity. the land, the place where we are human, the great house of mankind, the place that is identified with the homeland. references osvald, d., & tzvetan, t. (1984). (encyclopedic dictionary of lecture sciences) “rilindja”, prishtinë, p. 143. ismail, k. (1978). motive me diell (sunni motives), “rilindja”, prishtina, 45. ismail, k. (1976). koha (time), “naim frashëri”, tiranë, p. 33. ismail, k. (1990). ftesë në studio (invitation to the studio), “naim frashëri”, tirana, p. 12. ismail, k. (1957). ëndërrimet... (dreaming...), ndërmarrja shtetërore e botimeve, tirana, p. 22. ismail, k. (1957). koha (time), op. cit., p. 63. ismail, k. (1957). ëndërrimet... (dreaming...), op. cit., p. 22. ismail, k. (1954). frymëzimet djaloshare, f. 52-53. ismail, k., & ftesë në studio (1990). (invitation to the studio), op. cit., p. 14. ismail k. (1957). ëndërrimet... (dreaming...), op. cit., p. 13. ismail k. (1961). (my century), “naim frashëri”, tirana, p. 7. ismail k. (1957). ëndërrimet... (dreaming...), p. 7. ismail k. (1961). shekulli im (my century), op. cit., p. 31. ismail k. (2005). (without form is heaven), “onufri”, tirana, 2005, p. 17; ismail kadare, vepra, vëllimi 7 (works, volume 7), “onufri”, tirana, 2008, p. 43. ismail k. (1957). ëndërrimet... (dreaming...), op. cit., p. 5. ismail k. (1990). (invitation to the studio), op. cit., p. 38. ismail k. (2005). (without form is heaven), op. cit., p. 16. ismail k. (1961). shekulli im (my century), op.cit., p. 10. ismail k. (1957). ëndërrimet... (dreaming...), op. cit., f. 27. ismail k. (1964). (why are these mountains), “naim frashëri”, tirana, p. 26. ismail k. (2005) (works, volume 7), p. 220. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 1; 2020 20 published by ideas spread isamil k. (1976). koha (time), op. cit., p. 3. ismail k. (2005). vepra, (works, volume 7), op. cit., p. 220. ismail k. (1978). motive me diell (sunni motives), op. cit., p. 130. ismail k. (1990). ftesë në studio (invitation to the studio), op. cit., p. 33. ismail k. (1978). motive me diell (sunni motives), op. cit., p. 33. notes note 1. ferdinand de saussure, kurs i gjuhësisë së përgjithshme (general linguistics course), “dituria”, tiranë, 2002. note 2. ismail kadare, pa formë është qielli (without form is heaven), op. cit. the foreword to this selective compilation was written by the poet scholar sadik bejko, who, while qualifying the title of this book as an emblematic title, nevertheless gives the inconsistent conclusion that kadare's comparison to the sky of tirana with the brain and mind of one the idiot is a hint at socialism. this is in no way due to the fact that despite kadare's political shutters, which of course have influenced his artistic, literary, publicist and aesthetic shutters, only the kadare poetry and prose writings of that time have been taken into account. , could not believe such an attitude. even his subsequent social engagement contradicts bejko's conclusions about kadare's "antisocialism" at that time. all the more so when the poetry "autumn tyrant", which is a beautiful and brilliant picture of autumn, beautifully expressed through the anthological verses used by kadare and which in no way has any foresight or allusion to the socialist heaven of tirana , it was written in 1957. however, it is the time when kadare struggles to free himself from the political poetry he has cultivated at least, naturally as a result of the influences of social currents or even as part of his ideal, whether unfinished , be it unfulfilled. after all, the operation, that is to say such findings as sadik bejko attempts, are not only unstable but also counterproductive. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v2n3p10 10 published by ideas spread study on internet of things industry based on patent data zhi liping1 & zhao sijia2 1 ph. d of school of computer science & information engineering, anyang normal university, anyang, china 2 m.a student of anyang normal university, anyang, china correspondence: zhi liping, school of computer science & information engineering, anyang normal university, anyang, china. tel: 86-135-0372-8754. e-mail: zhiliping1216 163.com received: july 17, 2019; accepted: july 31, 2019; published: august 7, 2019 the research is financed by the training scheme for young key teachers in universities of henan (no. 2016ggjs123). abstract based on patent database, this article conducts patent analysis from patent applications, ipc technical field distribution, the main research institutions of the internet of things to reveal the development trend, technical hotspots, leading enterprises, technology leaders, also maps current technology patents, and access to essential strategic information and innovation. the results put forward suggestions on development and utilization of the internet of things. keywords: internet of things, patent data, patent analysis 1. introduction the concept of the internet of things (iot) was first proposed by professor ashton of the auto-id center at the massachusetts institute of technology (mit) in 1999 when studying rfid. the so-called internet of things, that is, the network of things connected. the international telecommunication union (itu) defines the internet of things as: "the internet of things is a new form of communication between people and things, between objects and things, extending the communication from short-range mobile transceivers to long-distance devices and daily necessities". there are many new technologies involved in the internet of things. the key technologies include radio frequency identification technology (rfit), sensor network technology, m2m technology and two-in-one fusion technology. in the 12th five-year plan, the internet of things (iot) technology, as an important part of the new generation of information technology, has been listed as a strategic emerging industry that the state has cultivated. this indicates that the internet of things has officially entered the national strategic level of china. patent literature, which integrates technical, legal and economic information, is an important source of access to the latest global technological information. according to the statistics of the world intellectual property organization, 95% of new technologies and inventions in the world are recorded in patent literature, and about 80% of technical information only appear in the patent literature. the number and development trend of patents can reflect the latest development trend of science and technology in a country (region). 2. data sources and patent search 2.1 data sources the incopat patent database contains more than 100 million patents from 102 countries/ organizations/regions in the world, and integrates multiple functional modules such as patent search, analysis, data download, file management and user management, and patent data for more than 20 major countries. specially, incopat includes and processes patent data information from more than 20 major countries, with more complete data fields and higher data quality. therefore, incopat is selected as the data source, the iot technology keywords and the patent library logical relationship words are combined to form a patent search formula, and the patent information data is obtained in the incopat patent database. since it takes about three years from the application of invention patent to the authorization, and there is a certain delay in the entry of patent into the database, only pre-2015 data was used as the research sample. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 11 published by ideas spread 2.2 patent search according to the keywords of iot, we want to search and the logical relationship words to be used to establish a patent search, a total of 118,586 related patents are retrieved. the following is the final patent search expression: (ad= [19850101 to 20151231]) and (ti=internet of things or tiab= wireless sensor or ti= 2-d code or ti= (rfid) or ti= (radio frequency identification) or (full=(internet of things) and tiab= (sensor) or (tiab= (heterogeneous network and convergence) or tiab= heterogeneous network converged or tiab=ims or tiab= multi-attribute decision-making or tiab= cooperative transmission or tiab= stream control transmission or tiab= sctp or tiab= mobility management or tiab= son or tiab= automatic pci configuration or tiab= mobile load balancing or tiab= random access channel or tiab= backhaul technology or tiab= heterogeneous network collaboration) and (full= (internet of things) or full= (wireless sensor) or full= (wireless network) or (ti= (internet of things and security) or ti= (internet of things and key) or ti= (internet of things and digital signature) or ti= (internet of things and authentication) or ti= (internet of things and fault tolerance) or ti= (internet of things and privacy) or ti= (internet of things and anonymity) or ti= (internet of things and signature) or ti= (sensor and security) or ti= (sensor and key) or ti= (sensor and encryption) 3. patent analysis of global internet of things industry 3.1 annual distribution of patent applications the “technology life cycle theory” divides the growth of technology into four phases: germination, growth, maturity, and saturation. these four stages are graphically represented as if they are s-curves, and because they are like the human life cycle, they are called "growth curves." this paper makes a statistical analysis of the number of patent applications of the global iot to reflect the distribution of patents in each year. the patent applications for the global iot are divided into three phases. the first phase was the bud of 1985-1991. the average annual applications is less than 150, and the total number of patents in the global iot industry is very small. the second phase is the low-speed development period of 1992-2003.professor ashton of the mit auto-id center in 1999 presented the concept of the internet of things for the first time at the international conference on mobile computing and networking in the united states. this proposal further promotes the increase in the number of applications for iot in the world, but the growth rate is still slow. the third phase is the high-speed development period after 2004. on november 17, 2005, the international telecommunication union (itu) released “itu internet speech 2005: the internet of things”. at the world summit on the information society (wsis) in tunis, the concept of “internet of things” was formally put forward. itu pointed out passionately that “the age of the internet of things is coming”, which has received a great deal of attention from all countries around the world. with the deepening of the concept of the iot in people's mind, the number of its patent applications is also increasing rapidly, which ushered in the rapid rise of patent applications for the iot. from the perspective of global society, in 2009, affected by the global financial crisis and economic crisis, the number of patent applications in this year decreased by 10.8 percentage points compared with 2008. after the economic crisis, the number of patent applications has increased, which shows that the global economy will also affect patent applications. in the case of poor external environment, it is very unfavorable for invention and patent application, so the country needs to stabilize the economy and create a sustainable development environment. 3.2 analysis of ipc technology according to the ipc classification number, the top ten iot technologies are counted, of which g06k ranks first, and the number is far more than other technologies; the second is h04w; h04l is ranked third. the number of g06k patents is far ahead, because more and more data recognition technologies have been developed, such as voice recognition, fingerprint recognition, pixel recognition, face recognition technology, etc., which have gradually penetrated into our lives. dimensional payment, mobile fingerprinting, safe face recognition, these are the applications of data recognition in our lives. the ever-increasing demand for society has further promoted the invention and creation of this technology. the wireless communication network (h04w) is composed of many wireless sensor nodes, which may be the same or different. each sensor node is composed of many integrated boards, such as sensors, memories, converters, etc. the scope of application of the technology is also of particular importance. on the one hand, bluetooth headsets, cellular mobile communications, wireless hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 12 published by ideas spread lans, etc. must use g06k technology; on the other hand, it also has great use in military applications, such as satellite positioning, search and rescue work by wireless communication in earthquakes. although the major iot countries in the world are involved in the above 10 iot related technologies, the focus of different countries is quite different. many countries have a large proportion of g06k technology, which is consistent with the first data of the g06k technology analyzed above. at the same time, it is easy to find that china is superior to other countries in every technical field, especially in the g06k technology field. that's because china has done a good job in data processing and communication networks. for example, zte corporation (china), when the economic crisis broke out in 2009, when other countries were in a recession and were unable to conduct scientific research, zte seized the opportunity and showed strong contrarian growth. the rapid progress includes a number of basic patents covering international communication technology standards and core patents covering key technologies in the communications industry. 3.3 analysis of the main applicants through the statistical analysis of the main patent applicants in the global iot industry, we can see the leading enterprises in the internet of things industry in the world. the top two are korean companies, south korea's samsung electronics co ltd is first, followed by south korea's electronics and telecommunications research institute and the third is the germany's goebel porzellan gmbh, and their patent applications are above 1000. the only chinese company in the top 10 is zte corporation, ranking ninth. it can be seen that although china's total number of patents in the internet of things ranks first, the number of patent applications is growing and there is a lack of leading enterprises. however, in the united states, germany, south korea and other countries, patent applications are more concentrated, and related companies are much less than china, but they have applied for a large number of iot patents. the top two are both south korea, indicating that korean companies value technology investment, which is an important reason for the surge in patent applications. samsung electronics co., ltd. occupied the first place in patent applications because samsung had officially changed its patent strategy model as early as 2010. in 2008, samsung electronics applied for more than 4,800 patents; in 2010, samsung established an intellectual property (ip) center, which integrated the patent business functions that were originally dispersed in various business divisions and began to strategically manage patents; in 2011, lee kun-hee, chairman of samsung electronics, emphasized to the management that “we focus on software, talented people and patents”. and samsung’s business philosophy is to create the best products and services based on talent and technology to contribute to human society. these have greatly facilitated patent applications. enterprises must have their own technological advantages to have core competitiveness. samsung electronics technology has been involved in important technical fields, of which h04b (wireless communication network) has the largest proportion, followed by h04w. companies such as gerber porcelain co. ltd, art house limited, dragimex handels ag are rarely involved in important technical fields because the three companies do not do communication technology of iot. 3.4 geographical distribution of global patent applications in order to fully understand the country distribution of patent applications of iot, we further calculated the global geographical rankings. the top ten countries and regions are china, the united states, south korea, germany, the world intellectual property organization(wipo), japan, the european patent office, taiwan, the united kingdom, canada and australia. china has become the world's largest number of applications for patents of iot, with more than one-third of the world's total applications, and the united states, the second largest, is only half of china. in recent years, the surge in related patents in china indicates that china attaches great importance to the research and development of the iot industry, and has listed the iot industry as a national strategic new industry, stimulating the innovation enthusiasm of iot enterprises and research institutes. 4. suggestions and countermeasures 4.1 the government should increase support from the development trend of the number of patent applications for internet of things, it can be found that a few patents for the iot began to appear in 1985, and began to increase rapidly in 1999. in recent years, it has stabilized. this situation also shows that the development of the iot industry is now growing steadily, and it has a lot of room to play in the future. it is recommended that relevant government departments should increase investment in research and development funds and create a favorable environment for the development of the iot industry. it is hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 13 published by ideas spread also suggested that research institutions and enterprises join hands to integrate resources and actively carry out key technologies for the internet of things. 4.2 enterprises should increase innovation the comprehensive strength of a country depends on the progress of science and technology and the all-round development of the economy. for iot enterprises, first of all, they should have their own core competitive technology, and on this basis, they should invent and expand relevant technologies. on this basis, it invents and expands related technologies; it is recommended that iot enterprises grasp opportunities, conform to the trend of the times, increase innovation, and innovate in competition. 4.3 scientific and effective management of patents the strong patent awareness has led to samsung electronics co., ltd., and the electronics and telecommunications research institute in the top of the list of patents. and the main reason why the number of patents in chinese companies does not go away is the lack of public awareness of patent protection. although chinese and korean industries share a large part of the same development goals in the future technological innovation planning, korean independent enterprises have long been ranked among the top in terms of technological competitiveness and scientific research ability. faced with this situation, we should strengthen scientific and effective management of patents, raise awareness of intellectual property protection among the people, and promote the sound development of the iot industry. references cao, j. g., liu, w., cai, w. x., & zheng, y. p. 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(2013). patent analysis in jiangxi province: strategy and its enlightenment[j]. jiangxi science, (2), 261-269. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice humanities and social science research; vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v1n1p21 21 published by ideas spread culturally important objects as signs of cretan protolinear script ioannis k. kenanidis1 & evangelos c. papakitsos2 1 primary education directorate of kavala, kavala, greece 2 school of pedagogical and technological education, iraklio attikis, greece correspondence: ioannis k. kenanidis, primary education directorate of kavala, ethnikis antistaseos 20, 651 10 kavala, greece. e-mail: ioakenanid@sch.gr received: april 30, 2018; accepted: may 15, 2018; published: may 19, 2018 abstract this paper presents seven “syllabograms” of the cretan protolinear script (signs used for consonant-vowel [cv] syllables). this presentation is conducted following the theory of the cretan protolinear (cp) script as the one that all the aegean scripts evolved from, including linear a, cretan hieroglyphics and linear b. the seven syllabograms of this particular set depict inanimate objects or constructions that were very common or important in everyday life, economy and religion. it is also demonstrated that the phonetic value of each syllabogram corresponds to the sumerian name of the object depicted by the syllabogram, in a conservative dialect. thus, more light is shed on the linguistic ancestry of the aegean scripts, the practice followed for their creation, and, indirectly, on some cultural aspects of the minoan civilization. keywords: aegean scripts, cretan protolinear, minoan civilization, sumerian language, syllabograms 1. introduction among the strongest testimonies for cultural contact, affinity or cognateness between two civilizations are language and artefacts; both of them are found within the aegean scripts that emerged in bronze age crete. these scripts include linear a (henceforth la), cretan hieroglyphics (ch) and linear b (lb), all cognate to the cypriot syllabaries (davis, 2010). these scripts are syllabaries as they consist of signs (syllabograms) that usually render single syllables of the consonant-vowel (cv) form and only very rarely double syllables (kenanidis & papakitsos, 2017a). the syllabograms of the aegean scripts depict objects, so revealing cultural elements, and they have been devised on the rebus principle, so revealing the language of those who created the minoan civilization, regardless of the fact that the aegean scripts documents available convey various languages. lb conveys the achaean (mycenaean) greek language, while it has been demonstrated that ch conveys an archaic sumerian dialect, with some quite meaningful instances (kenanidis & papakitsos, 2017b; kenanidis, 2016; papakitsos & kenanidis, 2016), although this is not yet universally and unreservedly accepted; as for the language(s) of la the opinions vary a lot (kenanidis & papakitsos, 2015). the ancestry of the aegean scripts is still considered mysterious in mainstream archaeology (haarmann, 2008), although their direct relation to a conservative archaic sumerian dialect has been repeatedly presented (kenanidis & papakitsos, 2018a; 2018b; 2018c; 2017c; papakitsos & kenanidis, 2015), by demonstrating that the syllabograms’ phonetic values are equivalent to the sumerian names of the objects depicted by those signs, through the rebus principle (fischer, 2004, pp. 34-40). therefor the herein presentation supports the theory of the cretan protolinear script (cp), conceived as the script that all the bronze age aegean scripts (related to cypro-minoan) evolved from. 2. method the existence of cp had been firstly suggested by willetts (1977, p. 100). later on, owens (1996) and schoep (1999, p. 266) suspected or proposed the common ancestry of ch and la. kenanidis (1992) initially demonstrated the affinity of la and lb to a conservative sumerian dialect, while the paleographic similarity of the aegean scripts to the sumerian pictography has been partially demonstrated also by davis (2011, pp. 65-68). just a few years ago, an almost complete reconstruction of cp was released in greek (kenanidis, 2013). the methodology for reconstructing the cp took into account linguistic aspects as well as the contemporary cultural context (kenanidis & papakitsos, 2015). in order to recognize what an ancient sign depicted, it is necessary to trace its pictorial origin in all related scripts (la, ch, lb and even cypro-minoan) and compare to the typical ways of representing objects in the minoan art, examining in parallel the ways of sumerian pictography and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 22 published by ideas spread vocabulary. cp was both pictographic and linear, every sign being a sketch readily recognizable by everyone as a familiar object named by the phonetic value of the sign what the rebus principle means. in this application of the rebus principle (unlike the acrophonic one), the entire pronounced name of the depicted object was used and not only a part of it. the comparative study considered four factors: ● the object as depicted by sign variants in the aegean scripts (la, ch and lb; with lesser aid by cyprominoan); ● the pictorial similarity or analogy of the studied minoan sign to equivalent sumerian ones; ● the phonetic value of the studied sign in the aegean scripts; ● the proximity of its phonetic value to sumerian words that denote the depicted object or some directly related concept. the application of the aforementioned methodology resulted in identifying every sign name as a monosyllabic (rarely disyllabic) sumerian word that named the depicted object. in this respect, the reader should be reminded of the sumerian phonotactics which required that the coda consonant of a sumerian word was silenced, unless the word was followed by a vowel (kenanidis & papakitsos, 2015, p. 336); this feature is indicated here (see section 3. results) by enclosing the final consonant of a sumerian word in parentheses. as a representative example, seven syllabograms of cp will be presented in the next section for the first time to non-greek readers; these syllabograms depict objects or constructions that were very common or important in everyday life, economy and religion. 3. results in the following presentation, the main reference for sumerian vocabulary used is “the pennsylvania sumerian dictionary” of the university of pennsylvania, abbreviated as “psd” (note 1). the images in the figures are retrieved from: the digital archives of the french school of athens; the cuneiform digital library initiative (cdli), where all the images of pre-cuneiform signs used came from (note 2); the atu signs came from falkenstein (1936); the images for lb came from ventris & chadwick (1953), unless otherwise stated. cultural information comes from kenanidis (2013). finally, the rules of sumerian phonology mentioned in parentheses (e.g., “rule 5.0.4, p. 34”) refer to the specified page in kenanidis & papakitsos (2013). 3.1 sign “ŋa” the sign “ŋa” was not used in lb because there is no similar syllable in the greek language. in cp, it depicted a box, called “ĝa” (i.e., “ŋa”) in sumerian. the shape of this sign in pre-cuneiform included variants (fig. 1a), some marking the base of the box or its bottom, others its lid etc. the same is depicted by the equivalent la syllabogram (fig. 1b), which is more accurately represented in lb as an ideogram (fig. 1c); there is some remote similarity to different ideograms for various kinds of fabric showing a lot of fringes at the bottom, while this one may very rarely have a few legs, and, as a luxurious box, metallic pieces that fasten its sides together. it was the word “ŋa” that meant “a box”, or, by extension, “a small shed” in sumerian, so the sign was used for “ŋa”. this sign is frequent in ch, an example is the inscription (fig. 1d), which reads “i-ŋa-ši-(sa?)”, so second from left is the sign “ŋa”. (a) sumerian precuneiform: (b) la (c) lb 164 (d) ch # 303 figure 1. the box sign forms 3.2 sign “jo” the syllabogram lb 36 (fig. 2a) had already been recognized as an adze in scripta minoa by sir arthur evans (1909), who correlated the lb sign with its forms in ch where it is quite common (fig. 2b), as well as with the egyptian pictogram of an adze; his documentation was perfectly sound, so we know that this syllabogram depicted hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 23 published by ideas spread an adze indeed. the adze was “jo” in the sumerian dialect of crete. the word is difficult to trace in the cuneiform; in psd, there is no word that specifically means “adze”, although “adze” is listed as a secondary meaning to some other words that basically mean types of axes. however, some of the words translated with the akkadian “mek(k)û” must have been “šog(ur)”and similar (meaning “adze”), at least the words “ĝešigi-ĝal2” and “ĝešsuhur”. the word “šukur”, seen in the profession called “tug2-šu-kar2-ak / tug2šukur-ra / tug2-šukur-ur3-ra” = “ēşiru”, originated from an older “joc” (rule 5.0.26, p. 36). this “joc” was the tool that hewed and finely shaped wooden objects, using a pulling motion on the tool while hewing; the signs depict it as a very elaborately made adze, quite better technically designed than the usual adzes of our times. so, when a minoan saw this syllabogram, instantly recognized it as a “jo(c)” (adze) and recalled the syllable “jo” (by “c” we represent a palatal tense non-aspirate stop). (a) lb 36 (b) ch: figure 2. the adze sign forms 3.3 sign “me” this sign is very neatly written in lb (fig. 3a), and occasionally in la (fig. 3b) where it is commonly found in the word “a-sa-sa-la-me/ja-sa-sa-la-me” (fig. 3c). sir leonard palmer reasonably conjectured that the word “(j)a-sasa-la-me” means “my lady” in luwian, where -me renders the possessive suffix (palmer, 1958). it is a good conjecture, but possibly erroneous, because he did not know exactly the phonetic value of the signs; for example, he reads “ra” what was “la” in cp. anyway the occurrences of the word “(j)a-sa-sa-la-me” confirm that all those variants belong to the sign “me” of cp (fig. 3a,b). what the “me” sign depicted, was exactly the same thing as of the sumerian pre-cuneiform "muš3" (fig. 3d), also appearing in atu (fig. 3e). that “muš3” was read “mœš” which was possibly the plural of “me” (rule 5.0.4, p. 34), this object could be made of the cheapest materials such as a bundle of reeds, of which the upper soft part front was bent to form a ring like a head inclining to one side, while on the other side the tops of the reeds with their leaves and flowers hung like a tassel. however, since this was a sacred symbol, it would also be made of precious materials, as christians nowadays may use a holy cross made either of cheap wood or of gold. in the picture from a famous vase found in warka (fig. 3f), we see men and women in a ritual procession to offer the season’s first agricultural products to the deity represented by a priestess and two holy symbols (fig. 3g) which are exactly what the cp syllabogram “me” depicted. in mesopotamia, this object was the sacred symbol of goddess “inana”, whom the akkadians worshiped under the name “ištar” that was hellenized as “astarte”. the old testament very often refers to exactly this religious symbol (fig. 3g) as “the asherah pole”, which the nations around the israelites used to set up in many places to honor their most important goddess. the goddess, called “inana” (“the heavenly queen”) by the sumerians, progressively over the centuries came to be the most worshipable deity of the sumerians and neighboring middle east nations, and her name in cuneiform was written with the sign “muš3” (which all the forms in the fig. 3 belong to); importantly, however, this sacred symbol did not represent the goddess herself, but it represented the “me”. we cannot find a word in a modern language to translate sumerian “me” accurately: “me” was every social institution as, for example, the function of all dignitaries and authorities, the function of all artisans and professionals in every field; every tool or weapon or musical instrument was also a “me”; but also everything that has a command in life, e.g. reproduction, natural calamities and old age, were also “me”. “me” was the answer to every question why that thing must exist in life: it must exist, because it is a “me”. so, the closest concept we can find in english, is “authority”; the word was mostly used for the elements of civilization, so different nations had different “me”. because all the “me” of sumerians were established and safeguarded by the goddess inana, the cuneiform sign that represented the “me” stood also for the name “inana”, but the sign itself was the visualization of the “me”, so when the minoans saw this sign, they recognized it as “me”, so recalling the syllable “me” (short “e” usually being represented as “i” in cuneiform, the cuneiform “e” typically stands for long “e”, so “me” was probably “mē”). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 24 published by ideas spread (a) lb 13: (b) la (c) a-sa-sa-la-me: (d) sumerian pre-cuneiform (e) atu 208-209: (f) warka’s vessel (g) “asherah pole” figure 3. the authority sign forms 3.4 sign “ne” this syllabogram appears in forms of exaggerated elegance, as it is customary in lb (fig. 4a). in la this syllabogram has some very naturalistic forms (fig. 4b). it is also found in ch as on the example of (fig. 4c) where we see the syllabograms “ne-šo-tu” on a seal: the sign “tu” (on the right) depicts an ordinary vessel, quite different to “ne” (on the left) that depicts a vessel of very little capacity, with one handle for comfortably holding with the fingers of one hand and a fine spout for pouring liquid very slowly. this elegant vessel was called “necin” or simply “nec” (without the instrumental suffix -in, see: kenanidis, 2013, p. 23). in sumerian cuneiform, the word is found as “nigin” (= a libation vessel). as supporters of the monogenesis theory (one common origin of all languages), we find the root of this word also in old turkic *nek(attested as tök“to pour out”) and the akkadian: naqû “to pour (a libation), sacrifice”; nīqu “offering, sacrifice; libation”. sumerian “nigin” was anciently glossed as ša#-qu2 #-um#”; “šaqû(m)” which is the akkadian verb meaning “to pour hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 25 published by ideas spread water, to offer libation, drink or water” and “šāqû(m)” is the noun that means the man who offers, or the object that pours, water / drink. the word “nigin” had also the variants “ni6”, “niggix (|lagab.lagab|)” and “nigi”. the “g” of “nigin” is not at all reliable in cuneiform, see: rule 5.0.39, p. 38). in sumerian, verb stems could be also used as nouns (like in old turkic or english), so the old verb stem “nek” (= to pour) was also a noun meaning “the pouring vessel”, which in practice was a holy vessel for libations. the vessel was designed so that the liquid would flow out slowly and ceremonially, as the relevant holy words were recited, and so that the whole content of it would be offered to the deity without demanding a big expense (since the vessel’s capacity was so little although the vessel was not small). during ceremonies, or simply to accompany a wish, the libation would be poured out on prepared clean earth or on the famous altar tables found from the minoan era in crete (kenanidis & papakitsos, 2017b). so, the holy libation vessel “ne(k)” sketch stood for the syllable “ne”. (a) lb 24: (b) la (c) ch figure 4. the libation vessel sign forms 3.5 sign “nu” sign lb 55 (fig. 5a) is not so easily recognizable, partly because of its exquisite elegance. in la, its forms are more naturalistic (fig. 5b). it was an object consisting of two vertical wooden poles, where a convex thing was attached above and a concave below. this object was a yoke for one animal. nowadays yokes have somewhat different forms (fig. 5c) but still they are based on the combination of a lower concave and an upper convex or horizontal piece. as far as we can tell from the sign forms, the sumerian yoke was easier to construct, more practical and more comfortable for the animal. it would also be possible to use strong leather pieces instead of curved wood and indeed some of the lb forms in figure 5a probably show curved parts of leather rather than of wood. from the vertical wooden poles, the yoke was connected to a plough or a wagon. in old sumerian, yoke was *ñud or rather *ñuc (rule 5.0.9, p. 35), since the word is an obvious cognate of the latin “necto” (= con-nect). from the original *ñuc and then *ñud, with the addition of suffix -un (signifying instruments, see: kenanidis, 2013, p. 23), the word *ñudun was formed, which in cuneiform sumerian became “šudun”. in psd, the lemma is “šudul”, a word that has been written in many ways: “wr. ša2-dul5; šu4-dul4; ĝeššu4-dul5; ĝeššudul9; ĝeššu2-dul4; šu-dul4; ĝeššu-dulx(|ur×a|); ša2-dulx(|ur×a|) = akk. nīru”, but immediately below it gives “[[šudun]] = šudun = uš-ti-num2”and “geššudun”; otherwise the psd prefers to write the word with -l, but all the different signs read as “šudul” are also read as “šudun”. in addition, the coda “l”, could only be pronounced when followed by a vowel, otherwise the signs supposed to end in -l stood only for “du” that was in fact “du(n)”. for example, the sign “dun4”, which the word “šu4-dul4” is written with, has the readings “migir2, nigir2, nimgir2, šudul4, šudun4, šutul4, šutun4”. for the scope of this work it makes no difference whether it was “šudul” or “šudun”, because the original word was only *ñuc which became “šud” with some suffixes in mesopotamia, and “nu(d)” in crete; simply the forms with -n were more original and probably much more common, because -n was an original suffix for words signifying instruments; and the same root *ñuc through a different evolution became what appears as “migir2, nigir2, nimgir” (-r suffix for nouns in general). in conclusion, any minoan who saw this syllabogram immediately recognized a yoke, called “nu(d)”, thus recalling the syllable “nu”. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 26 published by ideas spread (a) lb 55 (b) ab 55 (c) yokes for a pair of oxen traditional american greek figure 5. the yoke sign forms (a) lb 69 (b) ab 69 (c) ch (d) sumerian pre-cuneiform figure 6. the common vessel sign forms 3.6 sign “tu” this sign (fig. 6a) depicted the most common type of vessel for storing liquids. the equivalent in la almost always indicated the bottom of the vessel (fig. 6b). those vessels, as they had to be moved, had a tapering round bottom (4 5 cm diameter) so they could be rolled on their bottom. nowadays the seashore of samothrace island is strewn with shreds of clay vessels, and especially their narrow round bottoms, that were used in antiquity for the olive oil trade (kenanidis, 2013). this syllabogram is also found in many inscriptions of ch (fig. 6c), in a form clearly different to that of the libation vessel (fig. 4c). in sumerian cuneiform it usually appears as “dug”, but it was never pronounced “dug”; some akkadian writers rendered it phonetically with a d-, although others did it better with a t-. falkenstein (1964) observes that vessels were “dug neben tug” (that is, both “tug” and “dug” appeared equally in ancient lexical texts). the correct pronunciation gloss was “tug”, and that is attested by italian “zucca” which comes from the ancient “tug”, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 27 published by ideas spread borrowed from sumerians (eteocretans) who had settled in sicily and southern italy (given that sumerian p, t, k were aspirate; b, d, g were non-aspirate and tense, in practice heard as geminated consonants; all unvoiced). this settlement is mythologically related to daedalus, who left crete for sicily, pursued by minos (kenanidis, 2013, p. 135). due to the notorious ambiguity of cuneiform, the sign is today named dug, and it was common in the sumerian pre-cuneiform script (fig. 6d). although there were many types of containers and equally many names for them, “tug” was the general word for all kinds of (normally earthenware) containers, so the sign dug was used as a determinative sign (not pronounced but classifying words into the category of “vessels, containers”). when a minoan saw this syllabogram, s/he immediately recognized a familiar container, called “tu(c)” in the sumerian dialect of crete, so recalling the syllable “tu”. 3.7 sign “su” this sign is well-known in lb (fig. 7a) and frequent in la (fig. 7b) where it has some interesting variant forms, as well as in ch (fig. 7c). an object as depicted by this sign does not exist in nature; so, this syllabogram represented something artificial. it was the floor plan of a threshing-floor, probably delineated so as to indicate the circular movement of the animals as they threshed the harvested grain stalks. (a) lb 58 (c) hm 1378 (d) lagar (b) ab 58 (e) lagargunu (f) lagab (i) atu 615-616 (h) sur3 (g) sur8 figure 7. the threshing-floor sign forms the threshing-floor is a well-known word in sumerian cuneiform appearing as “sur12” = “su7”; translated by akkadian maškanu (= literally “place of laying”; threshing floor); nidûtu (literally “abandoning”; also meaning unoccupied land), but in psd there is no occurrence of the latter gloss to be found, only the following ancient lexical lemmata: [[su7]] = su-u = lagarךe = ma-aš-ka-nu-[um] [[su7]] = = = ma-ag-ra-nu-um# [[su7]] = [...] = [lagarךe] = ma#-aš-ka#-nu-um also in etcsl (note 3): “sur12” = threshing floor; the word has only the meaning “threshing-floor”. so cuneiform “sur12” = “su7” is written with the sign lagar (fig. 7d) with še (= cereals) inside, rarely with lagargunu (fig. 7e) where the “gunu” element is a simplification of the grains image in the floor. the sign lagab (fig. 7f) would seem at least equally convenient to sketch a threshing-floor, and indeed it has the readings sux” (lagab) or “surx” (lagab). the sign “sur [unmng] wr. sur3; sur8” (of unknown meaning according to psd), also meant a threshing-floor, since “sur8” (fig. 7g) is lagab (= sketch of floor plan) with “zar3” (= cereal stacks) in it, while “sur3” (fig. 7h) is simpler as a floor plan with something in it. the signs atu 615-616 (fig. 7i) are practically identical to the “su” of cp, and they cannot seem to depict anything else, so probably atu 615-616 meant “a threshing floor”, “su(r)”. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 28 published by ideas spread this cp sign was recognized by every minoan as a threshing-floor, called “su(r)”, so bringing to mind the syllable “su”. 4. discussion & conclusion this study, based on the concept of cretan protolinear (cp) script being the origin of all aegean scripts of the bronze age, has shown the pictorial origin and phonetic use of seven cp syllabograms which depicted objects or constructions that were very common or important in everyday life, economy and religion. in addition, it has been demonstrated how the phonetic value of each presented syllabogram corresponds to the sumerian name (in a conservative dialect) of the object depicted by the syllabogram. accordingly, more light is shed on the linguistic ancestry of the aegean scripts, the practice followed for the creation of cp and the traits of its descendant scripts, as well as several cultural aspects of the minoan civilization, regarding religion and economy. acknowledgments the authors would like to express their thankfulness to the french school of athens. its digital archives greatly facilitated the research presented here. also, this work would be quite inferior if there were not the cuneiform digital library initiative (cdli). even the main dictionary for sumerian today (the psd) is available at the cdli’s tools webpage. references davis, b. (2010). introduction to the aegean pre-alphabetic scripts. kubaba, 1, 38-61. retrieved from http://www.fcsh.unl.pt/kubaba/kubaba/kubaba_1_2010.html evans, a. j. (1909). scripta minoa: the written documents of minoan crete: with special reference to the archives of knossos, volume i: the hieroglyphic and primitive linear classes: with an account of the discovery of the pre-phoenician scripts, their place in the minoan story and their mediterranean relatives: with plates, tables and figures in the text. oxford. falkenstein, a. (1936). archaische texte aus uruk (atu). ausgrabungen der deutschen forschungsgemeinschaft in uruk – warka (volume ii). berlin. falkenstein, a. (1964). das sumerische. handbuch der orientalistik. leiden: e. j. brill. fischer, s. r. (2004). history of writing. london: reaktion books. haarmann, h. (2008). the danube script and other ancient writing systems: a typology of distinctive features. journal of archaeomythology, 4(1), 12-46. retrieved from https://www.archaeomythology.org/publications/the-journal-of-archaeomythology/2008-volume-4/ kenanidis, i. (1992). eteokreetes megaleetores. athens: national library of greece (in greek). kenanidis, i. (2013). historical and linguistic studies: cwepeker.doc. kavala, greece: e.p. lazidou (in greek). kenanidis, i. k. (2016). a 17th c. bc minoan votive double axe (labrys). the arkalochori axe and its siblings. anistoriton journal, in situ 15(1), 1-20. retrieved from http://www.anistor.gr/english/enback/2016_1s_anistoriton.pdf kenanidis, i., & papakitsos, e. c. (2013). yet another suggestion about the origins of the sumerian language. international journal of linguistics, 5(5), 30-44. https://doi.org/10.5296/ijl.v5i5.4107 kenanidis, i. k., & papakitsos, e. c. (2015). a comparative linguistic study about the sumerian influence on the creation of the aegean scripts. scholars journal of arts, humanities and social sciences, 3(1e), 332-346. retrieved from http://saspjournals.com/sjahss-31/ kenanidis, i. k., & papakitsos, e. c. (2017a). linguistic and cultural aspects of disyllabic signs in the cretan protolinear script. scholars bulletin, 3(10), 489-496. https://doi.org/10.21276/sb.2017.3.10.9 kenanidis, i. k., & papakitsos, e. c. (2017b). an interpretation of the malia stone inscription in terms of the cretan protolinear script. terra sebus. acta musei sabesiensis, 9, 43-56. retrieved from https://www.cclbsebes.ro/muzeul-municipal-ioan-raica/terra-sebus-nr9.html kenanidis, i. k., & papakitsos, e. c. (2017c). a decipherment of the eteocretan inscription from psychro (crete). asian research journal of arts & social sciences, 4(3), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.9734/arjass/2017/36988 kenanidis, i. k., & papakitsos, e. c. (2018a). cretan protolinear script: the sixth-vowel set of syllabograms. international linguistics research, 1(1), 32-48. https://doi.org/10.30560/ilr.v1n1p32 kenanidis, i. k., & papakitsos, e. c. (2018b). some syllabograms of the animal category in the cretan protolinear hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 29 published by ideas spread script. migration & diffusion, 2018(article 9), 1-13. retrieved from http://www.migrationdiffusion.info/article.php?year=2018 kenanidis, i., & papakitsos, e. c. (2018c). cretan protolinear script: some syllabograms of human theme. world wide journal of multidisciplinary research and development, 4(2), 370-372. retrieved from https://www.wwjmrd.com/archive/2018/2 owens, g. a. (1996). the common origin of cretan hieroglyphs and linear a. kadmos, 35(2), 105-110. https://doi.org/10.1515/kadm.1996.35.2.105 palmer, l. r. (1958). luvian and linear a. transactions of the philological society, 8, 75100. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-968x.1958.tb01273.x papakitsos, e. c., & kenanidis, i. k. (2015). additional palaeographic evidence for the relationship of the aegean scripts to the sumerian pictography. scholars journal of arts, humanities and social sciences, 3(3c), 734737. retrieved from http://saspjournals.com/sjahss-33/ papakitsos, e. c., & kenanidis, i. k. (2016). cretan hieroglyphics: the ornamental and ritual version of the cretan protolinear script. anistoriton journal, essays 15(2), 1-12. retrieved from http://www.anistor.gr/english/enback/2016_2e_anistoriton.pdf schoep, i. (1999). the origins of writing and administration on crete. oxford journal of archaeology, 18(3), 265-276. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0092.00083 ventris, m. g. f., & chadwick, j. (1953). documents in mycenaean greek. cambridge: cambridge university press. willetts, r. f. (1977). the civilization of ancient crete. oakland, ca: university of california press. davis, b. (2011). cypro-minoan in philistia? kubaba, 2, 40-74. retrieved from http://www.fcsh.unl.pt/kubaba/kubaba/kubaba_2_2011.html notes note 1. available at: http://psd.museum.upenn.edu/epsd/index.html note 2. available at: https://cdli.ucla.edu/tools/signlists/protocuneiform/archsigns.html note 3. electronic text corpus of sumerian literature, available at: http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/ copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v2n2p1 1 published by ideas spread the determinants of customer satisfaction in fast food industry: the case study of kfc viet nam cuong nguyen1, duy nguyen2 & toan do2 1 department of marketing, faculty of business administration, industrial university of ho chi minh city, viet nam 2 faculty of business, university of greenwich, uk correspondence: cuong nguyen, department of marketing, faculty of business administration, industrial university of ho chi minh city, ho chi minh city, 70000, viet nam. e-mail: nguyenquoccuong@iuh.edu.vn received: march 20, 2019; accepted: march 31, 2019; published: april 9, 2019 abstract this primary objective of this study is to identify the determinants of customer satisfaction for kfc in vietnam. fast food industry developed rapidly in an emerging economy like viet nam. current competition in vietnamese fast food has required companies to pay more attention to customer satisfaction. data is collected from kfc's customers in ho chi minh city, viet nam. the research model is adopted from the servqual model (parasuraman et al., 1988). the findings show that the main determinants of customer satisfaction of kfc vietnam are food quality, ambience, price, service quality. among these determinants, ambiance causes the most impact on customer satisfaction, following up by food quality and price. managerial implications for kfc and other fastfood companies are discussed to improve customer satisfaction. keywords: customer satisfaction, kfc, ambiance, price, service quality, food quality 1. introduction kfc is one of the largest fast food franchises in the world. kfc was founded in 1930, has 88 years of history. the headquarter is located at texas, usa and they have 20.952 restaurants around the world. revenue of kfc annually is around 23 million usd (kfcvietnam, 2018). dimbleby and vincent (2010) mentioned that a fast food restaurant has both good and bad side, however, with the developing countries and busy lifestyle, the benefit of fast food is shining and growing quick. maze (2017) reported that the rising of the fast food industry directly influences on the growth of kfc in a positive way. according to business saigon (2011), economy of vietnam started to bloom in 1997 when the government changed the policies, kfc entered vietnam first in 1997, and they aimed for introducing their franchise first. from 2009 to 2018, kfc brand become more famous, excellent customer satisfaction is the new goal to achieve. customer satisfaction is the most critical factor which all fast food franchise needs to improve to create a higher degree of satisfaction for long term business, also keeping a strong relationship with customers and increase customer loyalty (deng at el, 2009). wongmontha (2005) states that operators should learn about customer behavior through research to increase customer satisfaction, it helps understanding customer's decision-making process toward one product and operators can manage the business accordingly. lotongkum (2004) showed that the great acknowledged of customer's behavior always results in better customer's satisfaction and customer's loyalty, increase the relationship between customer and franchise, service. hence, to achieve high customer satisfaction, fast-food restaurants must do more research on multiple factors that influence on customer’s satisfaction. 2. literature review and hypothesis development servqual is the research model that was created by multiple researchers: parasuraman. a leonard l. berry and valarie. zin 1988. servqual has been using for multiple purposes such as researching and measuring the service quality in service sector all over the world. 2.1 customer satisfaction the final result that every restaurant franchise wants to achieve is good customer satisfaction. the level of customer satisfaction is measured by the level which the customer feels the product/service fulfills their expectation. excellent customer satisfaction will also increase return intention and better profit (yuksel, 2002). a better fast food business always has better customer satisfaction score (creel, 2006). barker (1987) and xu (2007); hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 2 published by ideas spread (parsa, 2014) mentioned that operators should put extra effort on some factors such as food quality, price, ambiance, service quality to improve the customer satisfaction in the restaurant business. 2.2 food quality food quality is the core factor, and that is the reason for customers to pick one restaurant over another. the fresh and tasty ingredients play the leading role in food quality of restaurants (soriano, 2002). customers usually feel safer, more satisfied when using foods made by fresh materials. kfc can compete with vietnamese food because according to nguyen (2018), fast food from america is more trusted in vietnam since the current quality of street foods of vietnam are facing too many unhealthy problems. therefore, with the cleaner foods and better service quality, kfc can compete with vietnamese foods. clark and wood (1996) after researched 31 participants and asked them what the most critical factors is between the speed of service, ambiance, foods, scale, environment and so on. furthermore, 50% of participants picked food quality for their main reason to visit any restaurant. as a result, the first hypothesis of this study is stated as h1: food quality is positively related to customer satisfaction. 2.3 price price usually comes along with value; all customers expect to see the fair exchange between value and payment. according to kotler (1980), customers feel satisfied with the business only when the reasonable price can deliver the value they desired. kfc restaurant has the price lower than the traditional luxury restaurant in the usa (american dining data, 2017) that is the reason why customers pick kfc instead of other restaurants; the price competition also happens between fast food franchises. it is a challenge to set a reasonable price for all the dishes on the menu. therefore, the second hypothesis of this study is stated as h2: price is positively related to customer satisfaction. 2.4 ambiance warren (2008) displayed the ambiance, environment of restaurant and detail's design strongly impact on customer perception and satisfaction; it also affects the recognition level with one brand. the design, concept of the atmosphere is fundamental to build a great fast food franchise (bitner, 1992). hence, the third hypothesis is stated as h3: ambience is positively related to customer satisfaction. 2.5 service quality service quality stays on the second level of importance in customer satisfaction (soriano, 2002). it acts as a bridge to connect food quality with ambiance, without good service quality, the ambiance and food quality are disconnected and unrelated. warren (2008) displayed the strong connection between three factors: service quality, food quality and convenience of restaurants. all three influence on customer satisfaction and that also the reason why customers choose kfc over other franchise. location and convenience of restaurants also support service quality (kivela, 2002). customers think good service quality must go along with near location and convenience (mattila, 2002). liu (2008) researched that courtesy of restaurant directly impact on customer feeling about one franchise, with a large number of employee (20.950) of kfc, courtesy, and behavior training are a big challenge. therefore, the last hypothesis of this study is stated as the following: h4: service quality is positively related to customer satisfaction. 3. method the primary objective of this study is to find out what determinants have an impact on customer satisfaction of fast food restaurant in vietnam in the case study of kfc. the data required for this study was conducted from the primary source only; this study collected data by using a structured survey questionnaire. the samples are customers of kfc vietnam who visit kfc restaurant in vietnam. three hundred fifty-eight customers answered the survey, but only 310 results are acceptable. there are two variables discussed in this study, i.e., independent and dependent variables. customer satisfaction in the fast food industry showing dependency on food quality, price, service quality, ambience. the likert scale questionnaire was designed for collecting data from 358 customers in vietnam. the various statistic tools were used to analyze the primary data were correlation coefficients, multiple linear regressions, anova, regression co-efficient. this study used the methodology as the primary research philosophy; research design is descriptive research design; research approach is the inductive approach; research method is a quantitative method. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 3 published by ideas spread list 1. all locations were used to collect primary data. no. kfc restaurants district participants (n) 1 kfc dinh tien hoang binh thanh 39 2 kfc nguyen van giai district 1 62 3 kfc le van viet district 9 15 4 kfc linh chieu thu duc 12 5 kfc au co district 11 23 6 kfc tan son nhi tan phu 49 7 kfc nguyen thi minh khai district 1 31 8 kfc pham ngoc thach district 3 68 9 kfc hoang hoa tham tan binh 59 some locations received more feedback than other places because it has higher traffic and customers at that place were willing to answer the survey. 4. data analysis the correlation coefficients displayed the reliability of data collected from participants. the cronbach’s alpha results showed that all the data is reliable, and participants answered accurately. because the variables exceeded from 70% which is the standard of acceptance for reliability (nunnally and bernstein, 1994). table 1. correlation coefficients reliability scale no. variables cronbach’s alpha 1 food quality 0.879 2 ambiance 0.832 3 price 0.854 4 service quality 0.737 5 customer satisfaction 0.855 the kmo for the second efa test results 0.878 and sig. is 0.000, different from the first efa. this kmo is still on a good range according to kaiser's scale (2002), it is over 0.7, and it proved the suitability to apply efa to all 16 questions (after rejected two questions). table 2. kmo and bartlett's test kaiser-meyer-olkin measure of sampling adequacy. .878 bartlett's test of sphericity approx. chi-square 2525.104 df 120 sig. .000 table 3. communalities initial extraction fq1 1.000 .639 fq2 1.000 .817 fq3 1.000 .628 fq4 1.000 .729 fq5 1.000 .690 p1 1.000 .715 p2 1.000 .779 p3 1.000 .667 p4 1.000 .679 am1 1.000 .685 am2 1.000 .553 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 4 published by ideas spread am3 1.000 .667 am4 1.000 .762 sq1 1.000 .556 sq2 1.000 .587 sq3 1.000 .731 extraction method: principal component analysis. table 4. total variance explained co m po ne nt initial eigenvalues extraction sums of squared loadings rotation sums of squared loadings to ta l % o f va ria nc e cu m ul at iv e % to ta l % o f va ria nc e cu m ul at iv e % to ta l % o f va ria nc e cu m ul at iv e % 1 6.507 40.667 40.667 6.507 40.667 40.667 3.355 20.970 20.970 2 1.873 11.707 52.374 1.873 11.707 52.374 2.859 17.871 38.842 3 1.434 8.966 61.339 1.434 8.966 61.339 2.838 17.737 56.579 4 1.070 6.688 68.027 1.070 6.688 68.027 1.832 11.449 68.027 5 .806 5.038 73.065 6 .669 4.183 77.248 7 .594 3.711 80.959 8 .481 3.009 83.967 9 .467 2.917 86.884 10 .415 2.596 89.480 11 .333 2.082 91.562 12 .325 2.031 93.594 13 .300 1.875 95.468 14 .280 1.748 97.216 15 .273 1.704 98.920 16 .173 1.080 100.000 extraction method: principal component analysis. table 5. component matrixa component 1 2 3 4 fq1 .751 fq2 .699 fq3 .692 fq4 .633 fq5 .762 p1 .645 p2 .707 p3 .676 p4 .575 .551 am1 .618 am2 .533 am3 .643 am4 .652 .501 sq1 .531 sq2 .562 sq3 .646 extraction method: principal component analysis. a. 4 components extracted. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 5 published by ideas spread table 6. rotated component matrixa component 1 2 3 4 fq1 .659 fq2 .869 fq3 .723 fq4 .838 fq5 .695 p1 .762 p2 .816 p3 .732 p4 .793 am1 .781 am2 .711 am3 .734 am4 .827 sq1 .647 sq2 .667 sq3 .833 extraction method: principal component analysis. rotation method: varimax with kaiser normalization. a. rotation converged in 6 iterations. table 7. pearson correlations customer satisfaction fq p am sq customer satisfaction pearson correlation 1 .800** .777** .785** .684** sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 n 310 310 310 310 310 fq pearson correlation .800** 1 .557** .464** .399** sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 n 310 310 310 310 310 p pearson correlation .777** .557** 1 .397** .381** sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 n 310 310 310 310 310 am pearson correlation .785** .464** .397** 1 .517** sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 n 310 310 310 310 310 sq pearson correlation .684** .399** .381** .517** 1 sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 n 310 310 310 310 310 **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). the table displays the correlations between variables. the table shows that all the sig is 0.000 which means the variables are acceptable. the fq has the strongest of a linear association to customer satisfaction variable since the sig of fq is 0.800. the sq has the least association with customer satisfaction since the pearson correlation is 0.684. table 8. the following results were obtained after fitting the multiple linear regressions model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate durbin-watson 1 .996a .992 .991 .03455 2.292 a. predictors: (constant), sq, p, am, fq b. dependent variable: customer satisfaction hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 6 published by ideas spread the adjusted r square in the table showed that the dependent variable (customer satisfaction) is affected by 99.1% by independent variables (food quality, ambiance, price, service quality). it shows that food quality, ambiance, price, service quality is all responsible for customer satisfaction. the overall model was also significant, tested with the help of anova. the results are given in the following table. table 9. anova model sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1 regression 42.587 4 10.647 8919.535 .000b residual .364 305 .001 total 42.951 309 a. dependent variable: customer satisfaction b. predictors: (constant), sq, p, am, fq according to anova result, f = 8919.535 and sig. is 0.000 that means this data is acceptable. moreover, the factors that are affecting independent variables relate to the factors affecting on dependent variable too. through the table, it is clear that all subfactors: food quality, price, ambiance, service quality are related to customer satisfaction, and the relationship between them is significant. table 10. regression co-efficient model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. collinearity statistics b std. error beta tolerance vif 1 (constant) .085 .020 4.223 .000 fq .255 .005 .341 50.547 .000 .610 1.639 am .280 .005 .371 56.523 .000 .645 1.551 p .254 .005 .356 54.562 .000 .651 1.535 sq .189 .005 .220 34.583 .000 .685 1.459 a. dependent variable: customer satisfaction customer satisfaction = 0,085+ β1(food quality) + β2(ambience) + β3(price) +β4 (service quality) with β1 = 0,255, β2 = 0,280, β3 = 0,254, β4 = 0,189. as the table above showed, every factor is significantly related to customer satisfaction. the ambience (am) effects on the dependent variable (customer satisfaction – cs) the strongest because am is the variable has the highest scale of standardized coefficient beta at 0.371. am is followed by p (price) at the second strongest with the standardized coefficient beta at 0.356. the food quality (fq) also has the third most substantial impact on the dependent variable at 0.341. service quality variable (sq) has the lowest number at 0.220 but it still slightly impacts on the dependent variable (cs). moreover, the table showed positive values, so the all hypothesis are supported. 4. conclusion in summary, this study empirically tests servqual the model of customer satisfaction of kfc in vietnamese context. it is evident to conclude that food quality, ambience, price, service quality are four main determinants impact on customer satisfaction of kfc vietnam. moreover, there is a significant positive relationship between the four main factors above with customer satisfaction. the ambience has the most substantial impact on customer satisfaction; the second strongest is price and the third strongest is food quality. from the research findings, fast food companies can design the appropriate marketing strategy since customers care about ambiance, food quality, and price. moreover, this study contains information and data for all other fast food restaurants can refer to and improve their restaurant’s operation. prospectively, newly established food restaurants in vietnam will receive benefits from understanding customers' expectation of service quality. furthermore, this study also helps the student who wants to start up their new fast food business in vietnam understand what the most important determinants that impact on customer satisfaction are so that they can focus on research, learning and improve these factors to create competitive values and compete with large brands from foreign countries. for further hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 7 published by ideas spread research, this study provides empirical results that will be useful for further research in the future with the same topic. it also provides useful literature reviews, information, and knowledge for the restaurant field for researchers who interest in fast food restaurants. these empirical results can be used to compare to other countries’ samples and research to understand the differences between kfc vietnam and kfc's restaurants worldwide. 5. managerial implications firstly, to improve the business of kfc, they need to focus on the three most influential factors and keep up all three as the competitive value. as mentioned above, the results showed that ambience, price, food quality of kfc are strong and causing the most impact on customer satisfaction, then kfc should try to enhance these things further to make it become a new level of competitive value. ambiance can be improved by designing a unique theme and keep customer revisit for the positive environment, create a place for young people taking their picture and food are following the trending in the social network, and it will reward favorable return rates is a good idea. about food quality, combine existing iconic foods of kfc to rice of vietnam, even pho is a good idea. about the price, make more promotion and discounts to attract potential customers and decrease the price tag for children. secondly, kfc should regularly survey to continuously collect customer‟s opinion because of the market and trending change fast. by catching the newest information and data about the customer‟s behavior, it‟s necessary to collect data frequently and analyze to evaluate suitable short term strategy. thirdly, service quality has a low impact on customer satisfaction in the vietnam case, but kfc needs to be aware of future change by retraining their employee to improve service quality. in the future when the customer expectation in vietnam increases higher, the service quality will have more impact on customer satisfaction. training takes a long time and requires a good long term plan, that‟s why kfc should start to do it now. lastly, the future of fast food in vietnam is home delivery, a lot of home delivery food company are developing their business in vietnam such as goviet, grab food, foody which delivers food to the customer‟s home and very fast serving. that‟s why kfc should improve their delivery line and system to deal with new competitors, or they will lose the title "fast" food. these competitors understand the routine and work with many competitors of kfc to deliver food as fast as they can with the same quality as kfc. acknowledgments authors declare there is no conflict of interest. references collis, j., & hussey, r. (2009). business research: a practical guide for undergraduate & postgraduate students, new york, palgrave macmillan. creswell, j. w. (2003). research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches, california., sage publications inc. dimbleby, h., & vincent, j. (2010). leon: naturally fast food. conran octopus. kfc vietnam. (2018). kfc information, kfc vietnam website, vn. retrieved october 9, 2018, from https://kfcvietnam.com.vn/vn kotler, p. (1980). marketing essentials, pearson, published: prentice hall, 1984, usa. kottler, p., & armstrong (2012). principles of marketing 14th edition, new jersey: prentice hall. lamb, c. w., & hair, j. f. (2006). the coca cola company’s product consist of beverage. new jersey: prentice hall, inc. lee, s. s. (2004). college student’s perception and preference of brand name food service, master thesis, oklahoma state university, usa. lewis, r. (1981). restaurant advertising: appeal and customer intention. journal of advertising research, 21(5) 69. mary, l. t. (2013). the assessment of service quality and customer satisfaction using servqual model: a case study of ttcl. university of tanzania. chapter 2, page 20-35. morse, n.c (1953). satisfaction in a white-collar job. michigan: university of michigan press. nguyen, n., & leblanc (2002). contact personnel, physical environment and the perceived corporate image of intangible services by new clients. international journal of service industry management, 13, 242-262. https://doi.org/10.1108/09564230210431965 nunnally, j. c., & bernstein, i. h. (1994). the assessment of reliability. psychometric theory, 3(1), 248-292. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 8 published by ideas spread parasuraman, v. a., & zeithaml, l. l. b. (1988). servqual: a multiple-item scale for measuring consumer perc. journal of retailing, 64(1), 12. schlosser, e. (2012). fast food nation. boston: mariner books/houghton mifflin harcourt. schultz, t. w. (1993). the economic importance of human capital in modernisation. education and economy, 1(1), 13-19. https://doi.org/10.1080/09645299300000003 shaharudin, m. r., mansor, s. w., & elias, s. j (2011). food quality attributes among malaysia’s fast food customer. international business and management, 2(1), 198-208. stevens, p. (1995). dineserv: a tool for measuring service quality in restaurants. cornell hotel and restaurant administration quarterly, 36(2), 56-60. https://doi.org/10.1177/001088049503600226 struebing, l. (1996). world-out-mouth recommendation promotes the service quality. quality progress, 29(10), 18. thomas, d. r. (2006). a general inductive approach for analyzing qualitative evaluation data. american journal of evaluation, 27(2), 237-246. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098214005283748 timmerman, e. m. (2001). starting from scratch: rethinking brand image research and identifying cues and context as influential factors. asia pacific advances in consumer research, 4, 151-161. vietnam, k. (2018). history of kfc | kfc vietnam. retrieved october 12, 2018, from https://kfcvietnam.com.vn/en/kfc-history.html warren. k. l. (2008). kfc in china: secret recipe for success, 1st edition. published: wiley, 2008, usa. weiss, r. (2003). the relationship between restaurant attributes satisfaction and return intent in u.s. theme restaurants, university of nevada, usa. wiles, r. (2013). what are qualitative research ethics? cornwall: mpg books group. wongmotha, s. (2005). consumer behaviour analysis. bangkok: a. n. printing. yee, r. (2007). hotel and restaurant design. 1st ed. new york: visual reference publications. yin, r. (2003). case study research: design and methods, thousand oaks, sage. yuksel, a., & remington, m. (1998). customer satisfaction measurement. cornell hotel and restaurant administration quarterly, 39(1), 60. https://doi.org/10.1177/001088049803900611 zeithaml, a. v., & bitner, j. m. (2003). services marketing, new york: mcgraw-hill. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v1n1p53 53 published by ideas spread a review on the factors affecting the learning of arabic macroskills among malay undergraduate students aliyu abdullahi1, nurazan binti mohmad rouyan1 & siti salwa mohd noor1 1 center of arabic language studies, faculty of languages and communication, universiti sultan zainal abidin, malaysia correspondence: aliyu abdullahi, center of arabic language studies, faculty of languages and communication, universiti sultan zainal abidin, gong badak campus, 21300 kuala nerus, terengganu, malaysia. tel: 60-1133221-092. e-mail: aambyl13@gmail.com received: may 21, 2018; accepted: june 17, 2018; published: june 23, 2018 abstract this research intends to review a number of studies on the factors which might have an influence on the learning of arabic as second language macro-skills (reading, writing, listening, and speaking) among malay undergraduate students. the reviewed articles are categorised into four groups: literature related to factors affecting the speaking skills, literature related to factors affecting the writing skills, literature related to factors affecting the listening skills, and literature related to factors affecting the reading skills. however, different empirical studies reviewed confirm many factors have significant correlations with the students' performances in learning arabic language macro-skills. such factors are malay students' attitude towards the arabic language; the use of arabic for communication purposes; lack of confidence and teaching techniques. however, some studies account different results. this mixture of results regenerates from diversities in methodology, variables used and the time of the study. keywords: arabic language, factors, macro skills, malay students, second language 1. introduction learning a second language is not as simple as learning the mother language (pinter, 2017). various studies highlight some issues concerning the difficulties foreign language learners encounter and some suggestions are given based on the skills needed by learners (yan & wan, 2018). thus, to experience weaknesses in any of the language skills is as equal as having a deficiency in that language (lightbown, 2016). hence, in malaysian context where the arabic language is learned as a foreign language, both teachers and learners are facing various challenges (haron, ahmed, mamat, & rawash, 2016). various studies relate the problems of learning arabic in malaysian context to various constraining factors. another challenge facing afl undergraduate malaysian learners is lack of exposure to the arabic language. for the vast majority of the undergraduate students that are learning arabic as a foreign language in malaysia are lacking exposure towards arabic language (bahraudin, 2017). the use of arabic language for most of the students is confined to classroom whereas in sometimes lecturers are giving lectures not in the target language but students' mother language. because of the class time constraint, vocabulary reinforcement is may be one of the causes of students’ poor performance across the four language skills. however, motivation may be one of the constraining factors to malaysian undergraduate students' performance across the four arabic language skills. thus, it could be argued that motivation has real audiences and influence on how foreign language learners learn language skills. as dörnyei (2001) reiterates that good motivation has a positive effect on foreign language learning. few studies conducted in malaysian context focus on motivation like the one carried out by ainol and sarudin (2009) which investigate malaysian motivation towards learning foreign languages in general not arabic language in particular. 1.1 factors affecting the listening skills the influence of anxiety in arabic language learners’ environment particularly in foreign language learners’ situation is put in to consideration by many researchers (bahraudin, 2017). however, researchers like haron et al., (2016) declared that arabic students with peak language anxiety levels might have low language achievement. anxiety happens as soon as students come to a motion that they ponder is so intricate or different (zhang, 2013). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 54 published by ideas spread though, wan (2016) found that listening ability is tremendously anxiety frustrating mostly when the text is not comprehensible to the learners. students regularly sensed nervous if listening in the target language for the reason that several factors for example the legality of the listening script (bahraudin, 2017). even though unidentified or rigid sentence used in the script, peculiarity of the listening substantial for the environmental factors for instance accent, and learners' lack of self-reliance in their listening ability (yan & wan, 2018). adnan, (2011) strained to distinguish the reason for listening anxiety in the arabic language learning environment and discovered that arabic language listening anxiety among malay learners is related with the types of listening sound the learners have to listen to, the method they endure and instructional elements , classroom practices and assessments. to be an effective listener, a student must to be able to strongly and tactically participate in the listening training inside a truncated anxiety learning environment (sulaiman et al., 2017). nevertheless, the conclusion on either arabic listening anxiety generates poor language attainment is still debatable. as a result, a research on listening anxiety is required for the effective teaching of arabic listening, particularly to foreign language learners (rahman, chik, & sahrir, 2017). furthermore, anxiety is an emotive element that exasperates the learning progression. moreover, anxiety is associated with negative feelings like fear, exacerbation, doubt, discomfort and pressure (sulaiman et al., 2017). foreign language anxiety straightforward effects motivation and produces a destructive response to the language learned (duxbury, & tsai, 2014). the miserable influence of listening anxiety has fortified several researchers to study the origins of listening anxiety．adnan, (2011) conducted a research with 20 arabic learners to determine the causes of listening anxiety. he divided listening anxiety into four categories: the story of listening empathetic, listening tools and listening tasks, instructional and communal factors, second language capability and listening concentration. horwitz, (2016) also claim that characteristics of determination like the quickness or strangeness with the listening contribution and instructional separate factors basically made listening anxiety to the learners. he said again that among the individual factors afraid of disenchantment acted to be allied to learners’ mistaken coherent about language knowledge or bad occurrence. nonetheless, dewaele, and macintyre, (2014). confirmed the nature of listening influence for instance quickness, intonation and stress, glassy of the manuscript and quantity of terminology, and recognized that they were the commencement foundations of listening anxiety in learning the second language. in addition, horwitz, (2016) revealed an extra source of anxiety which is the learners' failures to identify the spoken system of a known sound. moreover, yan, & wang, (2018) indicated that arabic listening skills problems caused a depressed character in listening skills, and it might affect listening attainment by an assortment of factors like classroom activities, ecological factors and lecturer's issues. consequently, researches have displayed that there is a highly deleterious success of arabic listening anxiety. the bases of arabic listening skills problems are typically addressed as physiognomies of listening contribution, listening tools and responsibilities, absence of self-reliance in understanding spoken arabic, taking arabic listening progresses as a responsibility, and perturbing about text intricacy. however, several researchers who explored the relationship between listening anxiety and listening understanding did not find a real association. as, horwitz, (2016) found the probable connecting relationships between second language listening problems and listening attainment. 150 learners who learned a second language fulfilled the second language listening issues scale and the test two different time with the breach of several months. the result shown that the second language listening problems might influence second language listening achievements. conversely, second language listening achievements did not occur to effect the second language listening problems critically. so, to completely realize the relationship between listening problems and language achievement additional researches are required to examine the whole vigorous structure, containing listening issues and the learning environment (yan, & wang, 2018). 1.2 factors affecting the speaking skills most of the studies on the factors affecting the arabic speaking skill have the same findings. among them are: a poor vocabulary, black of practice, cbad learning environment, dlack of confidence, elack of collaboration with arabic speakers, fshyness and feeling intimidated (al-khasawneh, & maher, 2010; haron et al., 2016; sulaiman et al., 2017; shahrir et al., 2018; mutar, mohammad, khaleel, & mohamed, 2018). researchers offered diverse views on arabic-suitable environments in schools, particularly outside the classroom. nafi (1995) narrated that the arabic language lecturers (iium) matriculation centre, explained the atmosphere at the (iium) as favourable to the improvement of arabic speaking skills. this became evident ever since the rule that arabic was to be spoken at all times. additionally, there were co-curricular activities such as study circles that necessitate the learners to talk in arabic. though, these arguments were found to be contradictory with the learners' responses on the same issue. the students mentioned that the environment at the international islamic university malaysia was not favourable enough to support the achievements of arabic speaking skills. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 55 published by ideas spread mohd, (2002) declared that the school surrounding was encouraging for students to implement speaking arabic. his assert was based on a study performed in some government and federal religious secondary schools in melaka, negeri sembilan and selangor. though, research was contended by siti, (2006), her results disproved the existence of such environment in schools. she argued that the lack of practice be the core issue. arabic was mostly used in class meetings and instruction with teachers, as narrated before by tarmizi (1997); hasanah (2001); anida (2003); and amilrudin (2003). this was also confirmed by zawawi et al. (2005) who declared that the best environment for encouraging the use of foreign languages was unavailable in malaysia. the variety of dominance is maintained mostly by the malay language, the english language and other ethnic languages, for these are the most accepted media of communication in malaysian society. foreign language students in malaysia, particularly the learners of arabic, are normally unmotivated to employ these foreign languages in communication because of the constant use of their mother tongue, consequently contributing to their weakness in their speaking skills. the majority of the students do not apply much effort to advance their arabic speaking skill (khalid, 2004). according to amilrudin (2003), this setback is invasive, including even the university students, as they are tremendously shy to speak arabic, afraid of being ridiculed and blamed for being show-offs. however, he also found that the majority of the students never used extra arabic equipment apart from the textbook, be it printed or electronic, for example, magazines, newspapers, radio, television, or the internet, in the mission to advance their arabic speaking skill. mohd (2005) in other hand, narrated that students in this study carried out many activities to improve their learning, like reading arabic magazines and books, watching arabic movies, mastering arabic vocabularies, answering questions in arabic, speaking arabic with friends, asking questions in arabic, partaking in arabic language competition. siti (2006) argued that the students' justification for learning arabic might be the cause of their weakness in speaking the language. she narrated that students' purpose of learning arabic was mostly to enable them to understand religious books, reading the quran, and also reading arabic literature and poetry. ainol and isarji (2009) exposed from a focus group discussion that the major aim of learning the arabic language was to comprehend quran since it is the language of the quran. related results were said earlier by nafi (1995), that the students' main purpose of learning arabic was to know about islam, secondly, to arrange for a profession where the arabic language is necessary, and finally, from the suggestion of relatives and friends, and their special interests. kaseh, nil and zeti (2010) stated that religious inspiration played a significant role in the muslim learners of arabic as they affirmed “muslim learners’ were interjected and identified rule so powerfully prejudiced by the religion of islam, these religious motives with extrinsic beginning have been so internalized by the learners statistically, the items exceed the boundaries between subscales to gather jointly with other religious motives irrespective of the items’ formerly hypothesized origins.” nonetheless, all of these need a good command of arabic grammar and understanding, rather than just the capability to communicate. the majority of malay learners they put no effort to produce an arabic environment that could assist them to increase the arabic speaking skill. possibly they do not sense the necessity to use arabic as a medium of communication for the reason that they are living between the malays. this setback was stated by khalid (2004) as he mentioned that most of the students partaken in his study did not put much effort to advance their arabic speaking skill. azani et al. (2012) conducted a research at nrss kuala lumpur concerning improving speaking abilities via achievement of hard working engagements in teaching the arabic language assists the investigators to defeat students' problems in understanding the arabic language. in contrast, the outcome of the study proves that the learners’ problems in speaking abilities through role-play events should be separated to 4 groups; arabic grammar, phonetic, vocabulary. though, learners' approach towards role-play events discovered that learners' contribution is a transitional stage. in conclusion, the researchers discovered that students acted optimistically across the practice of role play in knowing arabic as it befits student-centred knowledge which provides chances for learners to investigate second language nature according to their experience. moreover, in understanding the arabic language as a second language, bahraudin (2017) discovered that a good number of malay learners of arabic have skills of arabic syntax and lexis, but using it is speaking skills is difficult to them. this predicament happens for many aspects, which include lack of confidence, poor teaching method, the mother tongue influences. 1.3 factors affecting the reading skills haron et al., (2016) mentioned various issues as the causes why reading is not encouraged by malaysian nation as follow: work consumes their time, the impact of the environment, the costs of reading materials which are measured expensive, also the attitude of considering the reading as insignificant. findings show that a small number of malay learners of arabic are eager to put more effort in reading because they do not get pleasure from hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 56 published by ideas spread reading the arabic text, because they assume that reading arabic text does not promote them in any way or the other, when related to other language like english and malay language, additionally about time limitations due to the nature of their day to day activities. however, baba (2007) stated that reading of extra arabic reading materials apart from the syllabus by undergraduate malay arabic learners is very rare while compared to foreign students in malaysia, specifically, they glance at an average of only thirteen books during three or four years of study. this indicates that most of the malay students are not performing well in arabic reading. sutarjo (2008) and siti (2009) discovered that the appliance of sq3r method could enhance learners' curiosity and ability in the arabic reading knowledge. this is verified through the escalation in the normal assessment of the arabic reading grades since the first term up to the third term. the use of sq3r method besides rises the ability of the arabic reading understanding which is confirmed by the escalation in total of learners who can produce most important ideas, able of choosing main subjects, competent to arrive at decisions in the arabic reading, capable to construct subjects summary and distinguish among evidences and sentiments from the arabic reading manuscript for every term. findings of the research are not greatly dissimilar from the conclusions of research conducted by mohd (2009), the major issue which creates different tribulations to learners of arabic in reading passage can be observed in the students’ intention for reading arabic script. the stumpy proportion of the arabic learners that read arabic script for leisureliness indicates their actual assertiveness. the chance of escalating the arabic language ability and lexis by reading arabic manuscript throughout free time is merely disregarded or lost. however, reading arabic script is occurred only for special or compulsory commitments, for example making tasks or searching for solutions. most of the reasons mentioned beyond the reading arabic script are correlated to the abilities of reading understanding. the reason for implementing guidelines of alnahwu and alsarfu emerges to be distinct to script accepting. it seems simply to examine the vowels marked and the accurate phonation of each expression in the manuscript. though, it is usually famous that the student’s reason of accurate accent of expression vowels marked is to know the connotation of a constructed words. consequently, learners are taught to apply procedures of alnahwu and alsarfu whereas reading arabic writing to make sure they are capable to understand better expressions and words arrangement as spoken in the sentences of acumen: (the accurate meaning indicates the accurate syntax manifestation). the stage of concern of reading skills and writing skills learners of arabic language and building orientation to arabic elements is quiet short. the learners are focusing on arabic reading script connected to the islamic religion and their area of study. even though this circumstance is precise suitable for learners of islamic religious, but abandoning common reading resources will manipulate their understanding and attentiveness to face a additional demanding peripheral vocabulary. the greatest significant achievement is the restriction on their capability to know a diverse phonological index. a study similarly shows that learners deficiency referring to customary writing and present arabic reference paperwork. however, upon enquiring the explanation for this occurrence, many reasons are set, such as lack of chances, simply jaded and tired, incapability to concentrate due to the deafening environment, grind in considering the significance of sentence or words, and also exertion in knowing arabic manuscript which is typically not vowel marked. nevertheless, there are some learners who offer the cause for advancement they also say many words in arabic script are not easy. so the reasons caused them to be more tending to go for an easiest way of learning, fast and simple according to their perceptions, so, they refer to malay books whichever formerly written in malay language or interpreted from arabic. the condition is difficult to the indolent assertiveness learners to refer to a lexicon if vocabularies are strange to them. this kind of experience is actual disturbing to educators and academic staff since the civilisation of denoting to translated scripts and malay reference manuscript resolve to the superiority of upcoming f.p.i alumni to failure. consequently, the graduates created shall be inexpert in understanding the arabic script, superficial in their spiritual acquaintance also not self-assured to convey information since their knowledge is not originated from foremost bases. although their reason not to get back to customary books as their sources is because of complexity in knowing the arabic language in the books is fairly correct. however, it could not be a suitable excuse for learners. they must understand that somewhat authentic and extremely treasured is surely hard to attain. in this observation, the different complications confronted by the learners in reading arabic text for example the manuscript of the arabic language is highly unconventional, the words are seldom originate, understanding of words, and it also vowel less, this should not be the major problems to obstruct the reading the arabic script. terminology is infrequently initiate since they rarely use arabic manuscript. similarly with the tribulations of the knowing of vocabularies or constructions and script of the arabic language is very innovative can be conquered by returning to a dictionaries, questioning a lecturer and often reading arabic manuscript. so all the difficulties can be solved by constant purpose and struggle. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 57 published by ideas spread 1.4 factors affecting the writing skills the malaysian ministry of education (2008) has recognised that essay-writing is the main problem for students to obtain essential marks in the examination. jaafar (2011) and ahmad (2003) argue that students’ poor performance in writing arabic results from poor learning method particularly sentences construct. additionally, studies indicate that writing skill is not a simple task and cannot be simply achieved without any proper practices due to being a difficult cognitive activity that requires 5 main levels: thematic, paragraph, sentence, grammar, and lexical (lavelle, smith, & o’ryan, 2002). hidi and boscolo (2008) stated that there is a disparity between a writer and a reader, as writers invent texts within a restricted situation and time, and not just merely use them. because of such problems, students face many writing skills problems and are often disappointed (scott & vitale, 2003). they recognise that these challenges shadow from basic mechanical problems such as spelling, idea, and punctuation to higher cognitive and metacognitive problems. due to this disturbing issue, it is important that the affecting factors be considered and learned by language teachers and curriculum makers. different factors influence students' performance in writing as confirmed by many studies. boud (2001) confirmed the significance of a teacher as a facilitator in different writing activities, while witte, daly, faigley, & koch (1983) say that students themselves want to be taught various kinds of essays effectively. it is stated that the best writing teacher is one who is superior, and has high intellectual level. earlier studies indicate that teachers' behaviours could lead students to have an intrinsic motivation (baba, 2007; senin, 1997). mohamad (2009) and haron (2012) stated that the regularity of reading materials has the significant relationship with student achievement and this argument is supported by jalil (2013) who said that lack of reading materials influence students’ writing ability. 2. method the reviewed literature is categorised into two groups: productive skills (literature related to factors affecting the speaking skills, & literature related to factors affecting the writing skills) and receptive skills (literature related to factors affecting the listening skills, and literature related to factors affecting the reading skills). 3. conclusion and recommendation different empirical studies reviewed confirm many factors have significant correlations with the students' learning of arabic macro-skills. regarding speaking skill, most of the studies show the same findings. among them are: poor vocabulary, lack of practice, lack of confidence. also, according to the reviewed studies poor teaching and learning techniques from the both side of teachers and students affect the writing skill, and most of the affected portions are spelling, idea, and punctuation. nevertheless, almost all the studies reviewed indicate that listening anxiety is the major factor affecting the arabic listening skill, while students' attitude is among the factors affecting reading skills. furthermore, this research recommends that arabic language macro-skills should be learned with the arabic language as a medium of instructions, especially at tertiary institutions. the authorities should implement the important recommendations given by many researches concerning teachers, students, and curriculum factors. open dialogue to be created in order to discover practical solutions to the problems of learning arabic among malay students. 4. summary this research reviewed many studies on factors which might have an influence on the learning of arabic as second language macro-skills (reading, writing, listening, and speaking) among malay undergraduate students. the paper is structured into four segments. the first segment is the introduction of the study; the second segment is empirical reviews of the literature on productive and receptive skills; the third segment is the summary, and the fourth segment is conclusion and recommendation of the study. references adnan, m. a. m. (2011). language learning strategies and self-efficacy belief in arabic language learning: a malaysian context. asean journal of teaching and learning in higher education (ajtlhe), 3(2), 48-59. ahmad, a. (2003). arabic writing skills among malay students. (unpublished phd thesis). malaya university. ainol, m., & isarji, a. (2009). motivation to learn a foreign language in malaysia. gema journalof language studies, 9(2), 73-87. al-khasawneh, f. m. s., & maher, s. (2010). writing for academic purposes: problems faced by arab postgraduate students of the college of business, uum. esp world, 9(2), 1-23. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 58 published by ideas spread amil-rudin, i. (2003). arabiclanguage communication strategies among the malay students: a case study. unpublished master’s thesis, university of malaya, kuala lumpur. anida, a. (2003). arabic language learning strategies of the malay students. unpublished master’s thesis, university of malaya, kuala lumpur. a-shanti, m. s. (2003). al-maharat al-lughawiyah. cet. ke-5. al-mamlakah al-carabiyah al-sacudiyah. baba, s. a. (2007). smart teaching and learning strategies in prewriting activities.: national university of malaysia. bahraudin, h. (2017). strategi dan teknik terjemahan novel arab dalam kalangan pelajar universiti (arabic novel translation strategies and techniques used among university students). gema online® journal of language studies, 17(4), 72-91. https://doi.org/10.17576/gema-2017-1704-15 che, o. (2004). teachers’ problems in teaching arabic language in government secondary schools in malaysia. unpublished master’s thesis, national university of malaysia, selangor. creswell, j. w. (2007). qualitative inquiry & research design: choosing among five approaches (2nd edn).thousand oaks: sage publications. crow, a. c., & crow, l. d. (1983). educational psychology for teachers. kuala lumpur: macmillan. dewaele, j. m., & macintyre, p. d. (2014). the two faces of janus? anxiety and enjoyment in the foreign language classroom. studies in second language learning and teaching, 4(2), 237-274. https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2014.4.2.5 dörnyei, z. (2001). new themes and approaches in second language motivation research. annual review of applied linguistics, 21, 43-59. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0267190501000034 dornyey, z. (1990). conceptualizing motivation in foreign language learning. language learning, 40, 45-78. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1990.tb00954.x duxbury, j. g., & tsai, l. l. (2014). the effects of cooperative learning on foreign language anxiety: a comparative study of taiwanese and american universities. international journal of instruction, 3(1). el-khafaifi, h. (2005). listening comprehension in the arabic classroom. the modern language journal, 89, 206220. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2005.00275.x examination board. (2007). report of quality candidates answer for arabic language paper 2. malaysian certificate of education report, ministry of education, malaysia. harison, m. (2010). reading instruction theory and practice. nilai: penerbit usim. haron, s. c., ahmed, i. h., mamat, a., ahmad, w. r. w., & rawash, f. m. m. (2016). challenges in learning to speak arabic. journal of education and practice, 7(24), 80-85. hasanah, ik-san. (2001). teaching and learning of communicative arabic language: a study in jais secondary religious schools. unpublished master’s thesis, national university of malaysia, selangor. horwitz, e. k. (2016). factor structure of the foreign language classroom anxiety scale: comment on park (2014). psychological reports, 119(1), 71-76. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294116653368 horwitz, e. k. 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(2018). investigating the factors that affect the oral classroom participation of arab postgraduate students. journal of educational and psychological researches, (56), 647-661. nurul, h. o. (2009). muqarrar taclim al-lughah al-carabiyah lil-natiqin bi ghayriha madkhal taqwimi. kuala lumpur: iium press. pinter, a. (2017). teaching young language learners. oxford university press. rahman, t. a. f. t. a., chik, a. r., & sahrir, m. s. (2017). the use of documentary film text in developing arabic writing skills: what the experts say. lsp international journal, 4(2). sahrir, m. s., yahaya, m. f., nasir, m. s., & hamid, m. f. a. (2018). design and development of mobile ezarabic. net for ubiquitous learning among malaysian primary school learners from experts’ perspective. in mobile and ubiquitous learning (pp. 341-361). springer, singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-106144-8_20 shalabi, a. (1980). taclim al-lughah al-carabiyah li ghayr al-carab. kaherah: maktabah al-nahdah al-misriyah. siti, i. s. (2006). the problem of arabic speaking skill among the students of religious secondary schools in selangor. (unpublished master’s thesis). iium. siti, k. (2009). kajian upaya meningkatkan kemampuan membaca pemahaman dengan metode sq3r pada siswa kelas x. 3 sma, sumberlawang, surakarta. sulaiman, r. h. r., din, n. m. n., awang, r. e. n., mustafa, z., noruddin, n., & talib, m. t. (2017). roleplaying technique in teaching arabic communication: a case study at universiti sultan zainal abidin in malaysia. international journal of academic research in business and social sciences, 7(10), 309-318. https://doi.org/10.6007/ijarbss/v7-i10/3379 surapa (2011). strategies for coping with face to face oral communication factors employed by thai university students. gema online journal of language studies, 11(3), 83-96. sutarjo, j. c. (2008). penerapan strategi untuk meningkatkan kemampuan membaca interpretatif dalam bahasa arab. tapis, 8(1), januari. tanveer, m. (2007). investigation of the problems that cause language anxiety for esl/efl learners in learning speaking skills and the influence it casts on communication in the second language. unpublished master’s thesis, university of glasgow. tarmizi a. (1997). the teaching and learning of arabic speaking skill: a case study in smka. unpublished master’s thesis, university of malaya, kuala lumpur. yan, j. x., pan, j., & wang, h. (2018). learner variables and problems perceived by students: an investigation of a college interpreting programme in china. in research on translator and interpreter training (pp. 123146). springer, singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-6958-1 zawawi, m. sukki, o. alif, r., & sanimah, h. (2005). masalah problems of arabic and japanese speaking skills: a comparative study. (unpublished master’s thesis), iium. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v1n2p43 43 published by ideas spread planning educational activities for learning “road safety” evangelos c. papakitsos1, georgia korakidi2, xenophon vamvakeros3 & anastasios mavrakis4,5 1 centre for counseling & vocational guidance of elefsina, greek ministry of education, greece 2 health education office, secondary education directorate of western attica, greek ministry of education, greece 3 director’s office, secondary education directorate of western attica, greek ministry of education, greece 4 environmental education office, secondary education directorate of western attica, greek ministry of education, greece 5 institute of urban environment and human resources, department of economic and regional development, panteion university of social & political sciences, greece correspondence: georgia korakidi, health education office, secondary education directorate of western attica, i. dragoumi 24, elefsina 19200, greece. tel: 30-210-554-5391. e-mail: gkorakidi@gmail.com received: october 8, 2018; accepted: november 16, 2018; published: november 28, 2018 abstract in this paper, a project of the local sustainability network of schools in the area of western attica (greece) is described. the subject of this project is “road safety”, and it was addressed to third grade pupils of junior highschools. it has been planned as the result of collaboration between the local secondary education directorate, a few voluntary organizations, some private vehicle technical inspection centers and the local traffic-police department. this educational activity had been mainly implemented through the teaching and learning method of “experiential learning”. the pupils were divided into groups and attended six workshops that were designed accordingly. the entire process aims at establishing educational activities that in long-term will deal effectively with the acute problem of road safety. keywords: road safety, traffic education, experiential learning, sustainability network 1. introduction road safety is an issue of ongoing concern internationally, due to the social and economic repercussions of traffic accidents, especially the fatal ones among youths (adanu et al., 2018). the potential causes of traffic accidents are extremely diverse, including: 1) driving on the unfamiliar side of the road (malhotra et al., 2018), which is globally the most common type of traffic accidents involving tourists (mot, 2017; yannis et al., 2007; walker & page, 2004; watson et al., 2004; sharples & fletcher, 2001; wilks, 1999; petridou et al., 1997; page & meyer, 1996); 2) consumption of alcohol (charlton & starkey, 2015); 3) not using seat belt (weiss et al., 2014); 4) risky or aggressive driving behaviours (hanna et al., 2012; blockey & hartley, 1995), especially among young drivers (simons-morton et al. 2011; hatfield & fernandes, 2009; simons-morton et al., 2005; stevenson et al. 2001; harré et al., 2000; deery, 1999; tränkle et al., 1990); 5) overestimation or underestimation of driving skills (teese & bradley, 2008; waylen & mckenna, 2008; horswill et al., 2004; taubman ben-ari et al., 2004); 6) loss of focus and attention (curry et al., 2011; shi et al., 2010; groeger, 2006; clarke et al., 2005); 7) even the locally lower socioeconomic conditions (hasselberg et al., 2005), especially the educational ones (hasselberg & laflamme, 2008). thus, the improvement of road safety and the prevention of dangerous driving are equally demanding goals. the procedural tool for achieving these goals is the proper training of novice drivers that includes several aspects (simons-morton & ehsani, 2016), such as: • how to acquire driving and vehicle management skills (elvik, 2006; ericsson et al., 1993); hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 44 published by ideas spread • cognitive issues on how novice trainees learn (groeger, 2000); • the adequacy of formal training for acquiring a driving license, also regarding issues like the knowledge of traffic legislation; • the ability to pay attention when driving that can be distracted by listening to music (brodsky, 2001), eating, using phones and other activities parallel to driving (klauer et al., 2014); • self-control in various traffic conditions and other individual personality considerations (ericsson et al., 2006); • the limitations of training practices (beanland et al., 2013). especially for the latter, several considerations for improvement include: the extension of the training period, codriving supervised by the parents of novice/adolescent drivers (goodwin et al., 2014; ehsani et al., 2015) and introducing various training innovations (isler et al., 2011; washington et al., 2011; mynttinen et al., 2010; tronsmoen, 2010), as for example to make use of a driving simulator (pollatsek et al., 2011). in this international context, the present work is aligned with training innovations that extend the training period towards early adolescence, being focused on developing personal attitude and behaviour skills, according to the relevant priorities of the european union’s policy (note 1), rather than driving ones, due to the minor age of the target group (14-15 years old). it has been implemented considering major topics of the national context (greece), regarding road safety. 1.1 the national context what do the numbers say about the greek roads? according to recent data from the world health organization (note 2) and eurostat’s “road fatalities in the eu since 2001” (note 3): • every year in greece there are more than 1,800 accidents in and out of schools, with victims being children and teenagers. • more than 75 children/teenagers (0-14 years old) are killed every year on the streets. • greece holds the third highest position in the european union (eu) member states (14 per 100,000 persons) in terms of road fatality rates among children, adolescents and young adults up to 25 years old. • during the years 1996-2003, 50% of the children aged 0-14 years, who suffered a traffic accident, were injured as pedestrians. • 20% of the injured (or killed) pre-school children were seated in the front seat and 70% of them did not make use of the special child seat. • 10% of the victims (children and teenagers from 5-14 years old) were cyclists, while almost none used a helmet, so verifying that even for driving a bicycle, there are extremely hazardous situations, depending on the traffic conditions (wall et al., 2016). • the 10% of injured teenagers and young adults (aged 15-24 years) were injured as motorcycle riders. in this national context, it was decided to implement locally (western attica, greece) a road safety and traffic education project (note 4) for secondary education pupils, because in this age-group their thinking starts changing and is transformed from driving a bicycle to a motorized vehicle (note 5; mayhew & simpson, 2002). 1.2 the local context the highest percentage of teenagers involved in car accidents is from 12 to 15 years old. this is the age-range that the teenagers think they “know everything”, as they gradually claim their independence. they may even leave home, for several reasons (bitsaki, 2011). therefore, considering also the afore-mentioned contribution of the low socioeconomic/educational conditions to road safety (7), the area of western attica is particularly vulnerable. there are long-term changes in climate aridity, along with urbanization, industrial development and land use in a mixed urban-rural landscape, while the resident population and established activities increased rapidly in the urban areas (thriasio plain) the last decades (mavrakis et al., 2015). because of this domestic migration, there is a downgrading of natural resources, a loss of social cohesion and an uncertainty regarding economic growth. there is a rubbish dump for receiving the waste of athens metropolitan area (more than 1,570,000 tons of urban waste annually), while the local processing unit can manage about 1,200 tons daily (salvati & mavrakis, 2014). in addition, intent social and economic problems and challenges exist, due to the presence of motley social groups of diverse origins and values-background, like foreign immigrants and ethnic groups (karakiozis et al., 2015). in this particular context, the local educational authorities strive to cope with social exclusion (papakitsos et al., 2017b), in-school violence (karakiozis & papakitsos, 2018) and the underfunding of schools (foulidi et al., 2017). planning though in a systemic manner (papakitsos et al., 2017a), the local secondary education directorate of western attica (wased) initiated a major action of the local sustainability network of the schools in this area. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 45 published by ideas spread specifically, there are 47 schools (24 junior high-schools, 14 general senior high-schools, 5 vocational senior high-schools, 1 special vocational education training center and 3 laboratory centers), located in five municipalities, with a total educational population of more than 1,200 teachers and 11,000 students. the main purpose of this action is to form a sustainable school, namely a school that is a model of an organization that promotes sustainability and adopts it in school life. it seeks to create, in long-term and gradually, a culture and ethics oriented towards sustainability; to make school a learning organization, through which all those who participate in will be able to learn, create, act and make choices with a view to protect the environment and the right of all people to live in conditions of economic, cultural, social and environmental sustainability. within this framework, a pilot project has been designed and implemented in 10 high-schools of two municipalities (megara and aspropyrgos), titled “road safety” (korakidi & mavrakis, 2018). 2. method this pilot project (“road safety”) was mainly addressed to third grade junior high-school pupils, but latter on it was also expanded for senior high-school students, because of their demand for such training. it was the result of collaboration between wased, a local voluntary organization (note 6), some private vehicle technical inspection centers (vtic) and the local traffic-police department. the project took place during 7 days (4 in may 2017 and 3 in march 2018) and addressed a total of about 850 pupils from 10 participating schools (6 junior highschools, 2 general senior high-schools and 2 vocational senior high-schools), accompanied by about 110 teachers. the role of parents and teachers is to take the issues of road safety seriously (keskinen, 2014). adolescents of this age should be informed on the following topics: • for the dangers of traffic; to wait for the traffic to stop before crossing a road, to use pedestrian crossings, not to cross roads by zigzagging, if there is a pavement in the middle of an avenue (separating the opposite lanes) then to cross it as if it were two separate streets, by stopping and waiting on the pavement. • to be aware of the potential dangers for each route that they are going to take (mainly the one to their school). • to properly estimate the speed and distance of cars on a busy road and recognize its “safer passes”. • they must not cross a road by blindly following their friends or others; they must always think and pay attention for themselves. • adults (parents and teachers) should become the right model of traffic behaviour (ehsani et al., 2015; goodwin et al., 2014; note 1), by their example, both as pedestrians and as drivers or riders (fastening their seat-belts, putting their helmets on, etc.). in addition, pupils should become aware of the sustainable urban mobility plan (sump), a strategic plan based on existing planning practices, taking into account principles such as citizens’ participation in decision-making processes, holistic approach for exerting policies, as well as the ongoing evaluation of interventions (note 7). a key criterion for the planning of the project is the satisfaction of existing and future travel needs, in order to improve the quality of life in urban centers. sumps are distinguished from conventional long-term or short-term transport-planning studies, as well as traffic and parking management studies. the most important differences between sumps from the other studies are basically the following: • they focus on people and not on vehicle-traffic. • their main objective is to improve accessibility and quality of life, instead of improving the capacity of the road network to facilitate traffic flow. • they require unified planning approaches (transportations, land use, environment, social cohesion, etc.) and not only a plain thematic approach. • they are based on a multidisciplinary approach, involving scientists from many disciplines. • they are not limited by administrative boundaries but are geographically extended on the basis of operational criteria. • they require continuous assessment of the impact of different interventions and the formation of a process for learning and improving. • they are based on the participatory process of all stakeholders, as well as other directly interested parties, and not only on the involvement of the contributing party. • they aim at the reduction of environmental pollution, greenhouse gas emissions and energy consumption. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 46 published by ideas spread • they seek to increase the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of transport of people and goods. • they try to enhance the attractiveness and quality of the urban environment. the training goals have been categorized into cognitive, emotional and psychomotor. cognitive goals: • by the end of the action, the pupils should be able to report at least 4 points that they must know as pedestrians. • to walk on the sidewalks if they exist. • to use the pedestrian crossings. • to recognize/understand pedestrian traffic signs. • to cross a road safely. • to recognize any risk and play in secured places. emotional goals: • to realize that life is valuable and should be careful. psychomotor goals: • to respond to visual signals. • to understand and take the role of a sensitized citizen. an overall picture with the main factors of the training methodology that includes collaborators (i.e., training agencies), tools (i.e., projects) and goals can be seen in appendix a. the topics of road safety had been approached experientially. the participating pupils (per school) were divided into six teams of about fifteen persons each. these teams attended circularly six workshops of 15 minutes each. this particular duration of each workshop copes well with the phenomenon of “lazy brain” (kahneman, 2011), by keeping each topic less complex, boring and difficult, in order to ensure the cognitive attention of pupils. based on the timetable within 90 minutes, all teams had passed through the workshops, in this one-day (per school) training activity that included also an additional introductory presentation, being similar to relevant educational activities that have been reported elsewhere (senserrick et al., 2009). after its completion and the qualitative evaluation of the outcomes, this pilot project resulted in a standard educational proposal for learning road safety to junior teenagers, which is presented in the next section. 3. results the educational project for learning road safety has two main parts. the first part is titled “the right transition from bicycles to motorized vehicles”. it is a half-hour lecture, conducted by specialized persons, namely: representatives of the local department of traffic police, representatives of vtics, who may also give the trainingplace, a representative of a driver’s school, a representative of motorway assistance, a racing car driver and representatives of a bicycle club. the second part is titled “after the bike, what?” and is composed of the six workshops. these workshops elaborate the following topics: • “what is the relationship between the conventional safety belt and the racing one?” an experienced car racing driver will analyze to pupils what the difference between the two belts is and the difference between a family and a racing car (1st workshop). • “what do the tires have to do with road safety?” an experienced tire-engineer will analyze the need for tire pressure control, when and where to replace the tires, how to test whether a tire is suitable for our vehicle and how to replace a flat tire (2nd workshop). • “why should i always have a first-aid kit and a fire extinguisher in my vehicle?” specialized staff of a drivers’ club will analyze the necessity to have a fire extinguisher and a first-aid kit, how to use them and how to inspect their functionality (3rd workshop). • “what is the use of the emergency lane (lea)?” specialized staff will analyze the necessity of lea, as well as the problems that occur during its illegal/improper use, when we can use it, which vehicles can do it (4th workshop). • “sustainable urban mobility;” qualified members (spokesman from a local traffic-police department and a member of a voluntary organization) will analyze what is sustainable urban mobility, how we can implement it and what are its benefits, e.g., respect for our fellow human beings, practical respect for the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 47 published by ideas spread environment, less pollution, less wear and damage to the vehicle, use of environmentally friendly transport means (like subways or other public transportations) that reduce our ecological footprint, etc. (5th workshop). • “motorcycle;” specialized members of a motorcycle club will analyze (through examples) the proper use of the motorcycle, the potential dangers, safe driving and the value of using a helmet (6th workshop). all the workshops are experiential, because in this way the pupils understand better the cognitive issues and, at the same time, they can perceive in real conditions the existing dangers, either as future drivers or as passengers. 4. discussion this pilot project was carried out in open space premises of vtics (figure 1), where pupils and teachers attended it, without any cost of participation for all. the pupils were transferred from school to workshops and back. (a) (b) figure 1. the premises of a vtic: (a) a workshop’s briefing; (b) teachers, experts and authors. this project had a great impact on pupils and educators. the participating pupils commented that this was their first participation in such action, taking the view that this approach was different and original. it has been requested to repeat such actions in the future, by widening the range of pupils and classes. therefore, the necessity of prevention of road accidents by informing the school population on traffic education and road safety was achieved. it would be very useful to implement similar practices to more pupils and to carry out a more extensive evaluation of such learning activities. acknowledgments the authors would like to thank the headmasters and teachers of the involved high-schools for their voluntary participation in the pilot project. references adanu, e. k., penmetsa, p., jones, s., & smith, r. 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(2007). accident risk of foreign drivers in various road environments. journal of safety research, 38(4), 471-480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2007.01.014 notes note 1. european commission, mobility and transport road safety, policy areas: behaviour. available online: https://ec.europa.eu/transport/road_safety/topics/behaviour_en (accessed on 1 october 2018). note 2. world health organization, global status report on road safety 2015. available online: http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/road_safety_status/2015/en/ (accessed on 1 october 2018). note 3. european commission, mobility and transport, road safety (2016), statistics – accidents data. available online: https://ec.europa.eu/transport/road_safety/specialist/statistics_en (accessed on 1 october 2018). note 4. european commission road safety, mobility and transport, european road safety charter, experiential workshops on road safety (giannopoulos, s.; 2018). available online: http://www.erscharter.eu/charter-acrosseurope/member-events/βιωματικά-εργαστήρια-εxperiential-workshops-road-safety_en (accessed on 1 october 2018, in greek/english). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 51 published by ideas spread note 5. organisation for economic cooperation and development. young drivers: the road to safety. policy brief, 77 2006 01 1 p4. note 6. european commission road safety, mobility and transport, european road safety charter, volunteer group of megara attica, kouros. available online: http://www.erscharter.eu/road-safety-in-action/goodpractice/good-practice-submission-255 (accessed on 28 september 2018, in greek/english). note 7. eltis: the urban mobility observatory, the sump concept. available online: http://www.eltis.org/mobility-plans/sump-concept (accessed on 28 september 2018). appendix a main factors of the training methodology collaborators projects goals health education office environmental education office secondary education schools automobile association clubs vehicle technical inspection centers (vtic) traffic-police department sustainable urban mobility plan (sump) road safety cognitive emotional psychomotor copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v2n1p1 1 published by ideas spread the impact of austerity measures on social security beneficiaries: the case of greece savvoula i. mouratidou1 1 faculty of social administration and political science, democritus university of thrace, greece correspondence: savvoula i. mouratidou, faculty of social administration and political science, democritus university of thrace, komotini, 69100, greece. tel: 30-6977-714-028. received: december, 29, 2018; accepted: january, 14, 2019; published: february 21, 2019 abstract this article discusses how welfare cuts in greece affected social insurance beneficiaries’ access to better living conditions by raising the question why welfare benefits are not excluded from cuts even though they obviously minimize poverty rates in people of the third and fourth age. it focuses on the memoranda reform measures imposed after 2010 acknowledging on the one hand that these measures are for the most part unjustifiable and in parallel locating which changes have been accepted and welcomed by the social insurance fund executives. keywords: impoverishment, austerity reforms, social benefits shrinkage, crisis 1. introduction greece, being the weak link in the eu, unable to cope with the economic crisis (2007-2008), from 2010 and onwards was entered under the supervision of the troika (i.m.f., e.s.m., e.f.s.f.). the international markets would not loan the country due to the general instability of its budgets and its inability to manage the situation. the greek government borrowed on worse terms than countries facing similar problems since there was no interest in greek bonds and the europeans did not trust the ruling political parties that were in power (kallitsis, 2014). in 2017, the greek debt reached 178.6% of gdp (http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu). a decade after the crisis along with the subsequent imposition of austerity policies, greek society is in deadlock (petmesidou, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014). the economy still risks bankruptcy and the government has difficulties in finding solutions for the poor (featherstone, 2011, louzis et al., 2011). the new liberalism measures (jessop 2016) that government officials impose, as per the lenders’ requests, are leading more citizens to impoverishment. the economic crisis, as well as other overarching issues, such as rising unemployment, aging of the population, increase in life expectancy, the government deficit and the public debt, the decrease in jobs and the greek government bonds devalued by 50%, resulted in the welfare state’s inability to cope with these problems mainly due to the unfavorable economic conditions. the method of austerity chosen for the reduction of deficits in the welfare state has also destabilized it. on the other hand, an increasing proportion of the population is led to poverty and social cohesion and solidarity decompose, turning the welfare state into a charity state (robolis, 2013). in particular, currently, one out of three households is unable to meet basic needs, such as heating, maintenance and health costs. also, a significant number of middle-class citizens, especially the elderly over 75, are unable to cover health care costs because it is "too expensive". this fact shows that the middle class is gradually led towards poverty becoming the "young poor" group of greek society. wage and pension cuts, increased household taxes, and health and education cuts led people to extreme poverty (petmesidou, 2013a). following the outbreak of the economic downturn, the social budget was included in the state budget with serious consequences. the european union requires the implementation of economically viable retirement schemes. therefore, especially in southern european countries, either pensions were reduced or retirement age limits were raised, or both were applied without a second thought. however, the problem does not lie in the abovementioned factors. more severe issues concern growth, employment rate and income distribution. the continuous measures that shrink the welfare state will certainly not improve the situation (robolis, 2013). dissatisfaction, especially in southern european countries has been expressed by spontaneous mass civil protests, particularly in greece outside the parliament, through movements such as "the indignant", "the ties", "the farmers", and others, in spain through the "indignados" and recently in france through the "yellow vests" movement. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 2 published by ideas spread undoubtedly, one might argue that since pensions in greece hold the largest share in social transfers and demonstrably reduce poverty (dafermos and papatheodorou, 2013, petmesidou and guillen, 2014; venieris, 2013), they should be excluded from cuts. however, not all pensioners have enjoyed equal treatment since some have received multiple or extravagant pensions that did not correspond to the contributions paid in their working lives. this article investigates the fact that the majority of social insurance fund of employees (ika) pensioners, who receive minimum pension, are at large driven below poverty level even when the slightest decreases in their incomes occur due to the post-2010 austerity measures. milder reductions in this group would be a little more costly but they would also have a positive impact on pensioners’ protection from poverty. the reason why this research focuses on social insurance fund of employees ika is because of its very large size (917, 956 pensioners). in comparison, the fund of farmers (oga) has 641, 316 pensioners, the fund of civil servants (glk) 478, 245 and the fund of freelancers (oaee) 366,583 (http://www.idika.gr/eseps-mhniaies-ek8eseis, december 2016). 2. social security reforms after the 1990s the sustainability of the insurance funds in greece had been disputed since the early 1990s.the need for social security reform had always been obvious. however, it is quite typical for greece, as tinios (2005) claims, what type of reform is preferred. reform efforts do not change past failures in depth. the insurance system is often criticized as costly on the one hand and economically and socially ineffective on the other. petmesidou (1991, 2006) suggests that there is a low degree of social pressure for reforms. trade unions cooperate with the state and do not allow the development and implementation of social policy on a systematic and stable basis. in the early 1990s, reforms in the insurance sector aimed at reducing public debt and social security deficits by increasing retirement ages, working days and contributions (1902/1990, 1976/91, 2084/92), (hadjidimitriou & psilou, 1993; petmesidou, 1996, 2006). later, some reform efforts were made, such as the merger of insurance funds facing viability issues with larger, healthier funds (law 2676/1999). however, those changes were not significant enough (petmesidou 2006, featherstone and tinios 2006). the reform effort continued in 2002 (law 3029/2002), but was still characterized as inadequate in relation to the sustainability problem of the insurance system. the most significant attempt to reduce fragmentation occurred with the introduction of law 3655/2008. individual funds were included in the social insurance fund of employees (ika) with the ultimate aim of achieving homogeneity (petmesidou 2010). the past reform efforts were not successful and the reasons for failure, according to featherstone and tinios (2006), are summarized in the low level of governance efficiency, fragmentation, lack of consensus between social partners and a legacy of conflict. after 2009, the economic crisis left no room for experiments. three memoranda (support programs for the greek economy) were voted between 2010 and 2015. the repercussions for social security beneficiaries, especially those receiving minimum pension, are not affordable. nektarios (2008) suggests that the majority of greek pensioners receives minimum pension (€486.84 for ika pensioners, €406.00 for oaee pensioners and €360.00 for oga pensioners). all laws voted in that period were introduced in the parliament as urgent (that meant there was not enough time given for deliberation) suggesting that they would contribute to the financial consolidation of insurance funds. the reforms implemented aimed primarily at limiting and repealing social benefits and secondly at making structural changes. the first program voted on 3rd may 2010 is known as “the economic adjustment program for greece”. it included structural changes such as the establishment of the disability certification center (ke.p.a.) and the introduction of a measure to separate health from pension by establishing a single health provider (national organisation for the provision of health services, e.o.p.y.y.) that was to by launched in january 2012 (petmesidou, 2011, 2012). the institutional changes also contained the imposition of an additional special solidarity contribution by pensioners (law 3863). however, it concerned only those who received pensions exceeding €1,400 per month. according to law 3845/2010 christmas, easter and holiday leave benefits were reduced. the second memorandum, voted in june 2011 is referred to as “urgent arrangements to negotiate and conclude an agreement with the european support mechanism”. this program also included structural changes and institutional shrinkages. with the adoption of law 4093/2012, regulations were introduced that concerned raising the retirement age and pension cuts starting from 1st january 2012 and the repeal of christmas, easter and holiday leave benefits, starting from 1 january 2013. law 4024/2011reduced pensions of up to €1,000 for pensioners older than 55 by 20% and for pensioners younger than 55 by 40%. law 4051/2012 impacted main pensions of up to €1,300. in same period, the unified fund of supplementary insurance was created and the consolidation of most auxiliary funds was achieved (law 4052/2012). moreover, with the adoption of that law, the calculation method for hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 3 published by ideas spread supplementary pensions changed as well. up until 1st january 2015, the total contributions paid by the insured individuals during their working lives would be taken into account (petmesidou 2013b). the data have shown that the shrinkages rose to 50%. on 13th august 2015 the third memorandum was voted for by the majority of the greek parliament. as a result, law 4336/2015 passed. this law leaves room for those who reach the retirement age limit until 2022. after that the age limit is assimilated for all at the age of 67. these changes have not affected disability retirements. in addition, incentives to stay at work were provided through a 10% (monthly) reduction to the already reduced pension for those who retire earlier. minimum pension (€486.84) will be granted to those who retire at the age of 67 years. law 4334/2015 imposes a deduction of 6% for health insurance on auxiliary pension and an increase from 4% to 6% on the main pensions. the commitments of the third memorandum, however, still required the enactment of law 4387/2016 on the establishment of the unified social insurance institution (efka). it also changed the pension system from “pay as you go” to a “funded” pension scheme based on individual accounts from 2002 onwards. however, the earnings of prospective pensioners have been shrinking since after the onset of the crisis. this means that in the future the pensions will be very low. this law also sets the gradual abolition of the social solidarity pension allowance (ekas) and repeals it in full from those who retired after its enactment. ekas was granted to support pensioners with low income (law 2434/1996). the abolition of this allowance is expected to have negative impact on those pensioners. this law also includes harsh limitations on survivors’ pensions. national pension amounts to €384.00 but it is reduced proportionately for those who have not completed 20 years of insurance throughout their working lives or for those residing in greece for less than forty years. the implementation of this law is a severe step backwards which inhibits people from being optimistic about the future of social security in greece. however, tinios (2010) suggests that although the country still needs to deal with the effects of the latest economic downturn, the interventions of the post-crisis governments do not differ from those of the past. in particular, social dialogue is not promoted, and when it takes place, it is always in the form of an urgent procedure, which leaves little room for making ways. in addition, there is no discussion on the adequacy of the insurance system applied, based on quantitative and actuarial studies, except for those conducted by the general confederation of employees in greece (gsee) which is, however, only a player that participates in bargaining as a social partner. consequently, "... any attempt is doomed even before it even begins". of course, social policy focuses on pensions policies, highlighting the aging of the population as the most important cause of social welfare deficits and, in general, there is a tendency that shifts responsibility towards citizens themselves (robolis 2013). 3. methodology this study uses two questionnaires as primary data collection tools. the first is addressed to beneficiaries of the insurance fund of employees (ικα) and the second to its executives who have a lot of working experience in the social security sector. the sampling method adopted is that of simple random sampling. in order to achieve representativeness, the branches of insurance fund of employees (ικα), where the questionnaires were distributed, were selected randomly (by draw). these questionnaires are structured with closed-type questions in the form of dichotomous answers, simple or multiple-choice scales, and likert scales (five-level) that determine the degree of agreement between the respondent and his or her point of view. the resulting data is processed using the spss 17.0 statistical program (frequencies). the results reported below are derived from an opinion survey conducted on a sample of pensioners from the insurance fund of employees (ικα). the beneficiaries who participated in the survey were 403 and the main questions posed are: how do reductions impact on the beneficiaries’ future expectations and hopes? how strong is their distrust before the inability of state institutions to manage pensioners’ interests? is the state able enough to maintain a decent standard of living for the beneficiaries after implementing cuts and austerity policies? is minimum pension really excluded from reductions as the government claims? the institute’s executives were 109 and they were asked whether they find the measures of structural or institutional changes justifiable and whether they lead to the rationalization of the social security system on the one hand and whether pensioners with low income should be excluded of reductions on the other. research constraints mainly concern the time period of the survey, which is closely related to political, economic and social developments in greece that cause a great deal of uncertainty and confusion among citizens. the willingness of individuals to contribute to the survey is pertinent to the general discomfort they feel as a result of the current economic crisis which finds insurance fund of employees (ικα) beneficiaries hostile against institutions and the state. this anger affects some of them in a positive way by strengthening their will to express themselves, even by completing a questionnaire. however others refuse to do so and avoid any communication or simply mistrust this effort. they are all mainly concerned about unemployment, income and property taxes, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 4 published by ideas spread pension cuts, decrease of their savings and unemployed family members (matsaganis 2011, matsaganis and leventi 2014). of course, the insurance fund of employees (ικα) executives’ concerns have different dimensions. in their case, there is a predominantly disconcerting disincentive for wage restraint and an increase in workload (matsaganis 2013). while answering the questionnaire, they often expressed their fears of forthcoming redundancies since that had already happened to their colleagues. this concern is particularly stressed by executives with lower educational level. in fact, these two factors inhibit some of them from completing the questionnaire consolidating a more general perception that research has no effect, and that results will not be taken into account as stated by the beneficiaries. 4. how have post-2010 austerity measures impacted insurance fund of employees (ika) pensioners? this part of the study aims to capture the extent of the effect of income decline upon the ability of pensioners to meet basic needs. it is noteworthy that at the beginning of the crisis in greece (2009), the housing cost overburden rate amounted to 21.8 % and in 2016 to 40.5%. (source: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database). thus, an image on the purchasing power of social welfare beneficiaries has been formed after the onset of the last recession. from the results it is presumed that a significant proportion of beneficiaries (46.5%) faces difficulties in meeting basic needs regarding nutrition and that is mainly because those beneficiaries also support unemployed family members (chart 1). chart 1. have you been able to meet basic nutrition needs since after 2010? furthermore, as to basic clothing and footwear needs, the results confirm that only a minimal percentage is able to meet them (6.8%). priority is primarily given to meeting food needs first and then other basic needs (chart 2). chart 2. have you been able to meet basic clothing and footwear needs since after 2010? the situation seems less encouraging when it comes to medication coverage or medical costs. beneficiaries of social allowances face difficulties (6.6%) related to medical costs or medication coverage in general. according m ax im al ly w id el y m od er at e r ar el y n ot a t a ll 40 30 20 10 0 pe rc en t 13 ,5 % 40 ,0 % 32 ,2 5% 9, 25 % 5, 0% m ax im al ly w id el y m od er at e r ar el y n ot a t a ll 40 30 20 10 0 pe rc en t ,2 5% 5, 51 % 30 ,8 3% 44 ,8 6% 17 ,5 4% hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 5 published by ideas spread to eurostat the self -reported unmet need for medical care rate in 2009 was nearly 5.5% and in 2015 it raised to 12.3%. (source: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database). in disability situations, when people wish to have access to better and immediate treatment (e.g. by avoiding waiting lists), they are often directed to private practitioners and hospitals where they have to pay large sums of money. due to lack of government funding, from 2010 onwards, healthcare conditions have deteriorated significantly and, as a result, citizens are at risk, not from diseases but from hospital-acquired infections (fountoulakis et al. 2012, kentikelenis et al. 2011). a large percentage of respondents stated further that they may not cover private health expenditure. once more, this makes one wonder about the role of the state in respective cases and its inability to support citizens when they are in need. however, this could be refuted arguing that social practice (most of the times with few specialties) and social pharmacies have assumed the responsibility to support the financially weak people in similar situations (sotiropoulos and bourikos 2014, giannitsis and zografakis 2015). undoubtedly, solidarity is invaluable and demonstrates a high level of social capital and cohesion in a society (jenson 1998, forrest and kearns 2001). on the other hand, for many people, the resort of citizens to such structures raises issues of dignity. some of them think of themselves as stigmatized. there are also a few who claim that although they have paid social insurance contributions during their working lives, now, at an age in which they are unable to work the state is unable to cover the costs for their medical care. moreover, there are examples of people who postpone visits to healthcare facilities because they are uninsured. this occurs mainly among former freelancers or employees in the private sector who, due to the latest recession, either lost their jobs or went bankrupt (fountoulakis et al. 2012). this postponement might mean further worsening of their health. therefore, discontent is particularly strong and makes the citizens’ feeling of uncertainty of what is to follow even stronger (chart 3). chart 3. have you been able to afford medication coverage or medical costs in general since after 2010? chart 4. have you been able to afford costs related to house loans since after 2010? in addition, several households from 2010 onwards find it difficult to pay house loans because of cross-cutting reductions in salaries and pensions (louzis et al. 2011, matsaganis 2013). a significant proportion (25.4%), therefore, is not able to cover such costs. there also exists the risk of the loss of one of the most important human m ax im al ly o fte n m od er at e r ar el y n ot a t a ll 40 30 20 10 0 pe rc en t 7, 16 % 24 ,3 % 42 ,9 7% 20 ,2 % 5, 37 % m ax im al ly w id el y m od er at e r ar el y n ot a t a ll 30 20 10 0 pe rc en t 5, 56 % 24 ,6 % 30 ,9 5% 13 ,4 9% 25 ,4 % hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 6 published by ideas spread goods: housing. in greece, there has already been an increase in homelessness, especially in large urban centers (theodorikakou et al. 2013, mavridis and mouratidou 2018). on the other hand, political parties of the opposition take advantage of the state’s failure to meet such needs with a view to gain votes and climb to power (such as the ”i’m not paying” movement) (chart 4). the above question also concerns monthly utility costs that include communal taxes, water and heating. such costs have been characterized by many households as unbearable (matsaganis 2013, papadopoulos and roumpakis 2012, 2013). the majority (55.6%) mentions difficulties in covering utility costs. more particularly, the decline in household incomes implies inability to respond to heating costs. in 2014, the share of households that could not afford to keep its dwelling warm was 52%. (source: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database). this results, on the one hand, in poor health due to low temperatures or inhalation of carbon monoxide (the use of braziers has caused even deaths) and, on the other hand, in the smog increase because of the use of inappropriate heating materials. it is obvious that if beneficiaries with a monthly income have expressed such weakness, people who are unemployed or have precarious jobs with meager payment and most often without insurance coverage are far worse (chart 5). chart 5. have you been able to cover utility costs such as communal taxes, water supply and heating since after 2010? nonetheless, the economic exhaustion of social security beneficiaries is strongly established in their ability to meet needs related to entertainment (fragos et al. 2012). the vast majority of pensioners (48.4%) cannot meet basic needs related to entertainment. it could, of course, be argued that entertainment is not a basic human need. however this signals that society returns to past situations where the privilege of entertainment was only for prosperous social classes while those hailing from lower social strata were not entitled to such right. thus, the inability of people nowadays to meet such needs shows a regression. nevertheless, coverage of basic entertainment needs including those determining whether a citizen lives within poverty lines or not-, is a human need, not a luxury (for example, one week vacation per year or a visit to the theater) (chart 6). chart 6. have you been able to meet entertainment related needs since after 2010? m ax im al ly w id el y m od er at e r ar el y n ot a t a ll 30 20 10 0 pe rc en t 6, 3% 38 ,0 8% 36 ,9 9% 9, 59 % 9, 04 % m ax im al ly w id el y m od er at e r ar el y n ot a t a ll 5 40 30 20 10 0 pe rc en t 76 % 3, 53 % 16 ,6 2% 30 ,7 3% 48 ,3 6% hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 7 published by ideas spread the next question concerns the extent to which the recipients of social benefits cover costs related to the education of their children. the results of the research corroborate the alleged expanding exhaustion of the population from 2010 onwards. the majority of the beneficiaries (45%) is unable to cover such costs. steps backwards are recorded as to the ability of households to spend on the education of their members (fragos et al. 2012, papadopoulos and roumpakis 2012, 2013). so, this privilege, once again, is only for those who can afford the costs for quality education services, as happened in the past. the state has again shown inadequate to cover basic needs of the population, such as education, because of reductions in social benefits. also, the results of the analysis show that the amount of pension granted does not differentiate as to whether the beneficiaries face difficulties in meeting basic education needs of their family members (chart 7). chart 7. have you been able to cover education related costs for family members since after 2010? 5. the opinion of insurance fund of employees (ika) executives on the post-2010 measures that affected the social security system the results shown below were extracted from the opinion survey of highly experienced insurance fund of employees (ika) executives. unquestionably, the measure reducing main and supplementary pensions (petmesidou 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013a, 2013b) is not seen by the executives as a legitimate change in the country's pension system. however, there are cases of healthy funds of which excessive benefits do not correspond to the contributions currently being paid. at the same time reductions for pensioners with more than one pension will lead to the rationalization of the system (featherstone 2011, petmesidou 2006). given also the fact that the majority of beneficiaries of the insurance fund of employees (ika) receives minimum pension, through this policy of cuts, the social protection system will be affected resulting to the slippage of low-income pensioners to poverty level (petmesidou 2013a, 2013b). regarding the need for consolidation in the pension system through cuts in main and supplementary pensions, the majority of executives states that there is "none" (46.3%), or there is "rarely" (25%) a justified measure (chart 8). ma xim ally wi de ly mo de rat e ra rel y no t a t a ll 40 30 20 10 0 pe rce nt 6,3 4% 11 ,97 % 23 ,59 % 13 ,38 % 44 ,72 % hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 8 published by ideas spread chart 8. has the reductions of primary and auxiliary pensions been a decisive measure for the viability of the social security system after 2010? undoubtedly, the changes in the retirement age limit are imperative since funds do not have reserves capable of paying future pensions. factors such as prolonged unemployment, increased life expectancy and declining birth rates constitute this measure necessary (lyberaki and tinios 2012). moreover, rules which favor certain occupational groups, such as bank employees, who retire following a fifteen-year period of work, have negative effects on the ability of insurance funds to pay pensions. the results of the research show a controversy regarding the need of that measure. 30.84% of the executives suggests that increasing the retirement age limit is not a legitimate change. on the other hand, some of them, 28.04%, claim that the retirement age limit should be necessarily increased (chart 9). chart 9. has the increase of the retirement age limit been a significant measure for the viability of the social security system since after 2010? another measure imposed by the lenders and ratified by the greek parliament, during the same period, is the reduction and, after 2013, the abolition of christmas, easter and holiday leave benefits. directly related to the previous measure, it is obvious that the general reduction and cuts policies on pensions support the view that the cuts are imposed in a cross-cut manner, disregarding that 70% of pensioners in greece receive minimum pension, as mentioned above. the attitude of the executives towards this measure is particularly critical. the vast majority characterizes this measure as "not at all" (61.68%), and as "rarely" (24.3%) justified (chart 10). alw ays oft en so me tim es ra rel y no t a t a ll 40 30 20 10 0 pe rce nt 3,7 % 10 ,19 % 14 ,81 % 25 ,0% 46 ,3% alw ay s of ten so me tim es ra rel y no t a t a ll 30 20 10 0 pe rce nt 7,4 8% 28 ,04 % 18 ,69 % 14 ,95 % 30 ,84 % hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 9 published by ideas spread chart 10. has the reduction-abolition of christmas, easter and holiday leave benefits been a necessary measure for the viability of the social security system since after 2010? additionally, the increased age limit for granting, reducing or abolishing pension for the uninsured elderly is another measure applied in order to improve, as argued by its initiators, the country's fiscal situation (petmesidou 2012, 2013a, 2013b). however, it leads a large proportion of the elderly to poverty. specifically, the implementation of this measure is designed to meet the needs of those elderly who have not met retirement conditions in any other social insurance fund, domestic or foreign. although the benefit paid is low, it covers some of their basic needs. it could be argued that this ‘allowance’ policy, which does not significantly improve the financial situation of the elderly, somehow provides some minimal support. nonetheless the reduction, abolition or the age limit increase for eligibility at the age of 67 concerning pensions for the uninsured elderly is contended by the majority (64.49%) of the executives as "not" justifiable (chart 11). chart 11. has the increased age limit for pension eligibility, and the reduction or abolition of pension for the uninsured elderly been a justifiable measure for the viability of the social security system since after 2010? what is more, benefits for families with three or more children and other categories of the population could not be left untouched by the sweeping changes introduced by the memoranda, which dramatically dissolute the welfare state (papadopoulos and roumpakis 2012, 2013). nonetheless, as mentioned above, all these measures lead to further impoverishment. however, objections are raised as to the criteria of the eligibility of several groups. according to a statement these privileges were used to attract votes or given to people who had no financial need and still receive benefits as no previous resource inspection had taken place. the administration should be able to alw ay s of ten so me tim es ra rel y no t a t a ll 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 pe rce nt 93 % 3,7 4% 9,3 5% 24 ,3% 61 ,68 % alw ays oft en so me tim es ra rel y no t a t a ll 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 pe rce nt 93 % 5,6 1% 14 ,02 % 14 ,95 % 64 ,49 % hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 10 published by ideas spread make use of such inspections in order to provide benefits to those that demonstrably have low incomes. the survey results reflected the dissatisfaction of executives on the implementation of this measure. the removal of large family benefits is not accepted as justified by the majority (59.81%) (chart 12). chart 12. has the reduction in benefits for families with three or more children been a necessary measure for the viability of the social security system since after 2010? furthermore, the establishment of the disability certification center (ke.p.a.) is recognized as measure of rationalization and consolidation for disability benefits provided by the insurance fund for employees (petmesidou 2012). the establishment of ke.p.a. was deemed necessary due to the fact that the system according to which the percentage of disability was assessed by health committees, which operated until august 2011, was particularly vulnerable to political pressures and other pressure groups. corruption in the form of bribery, favoritism and electioneering had taken enormous proportions. the political intervention of government officials, the local government and other organizations were downright common. many are those who do not meet the disability rate based on medical criteria and, thus, lose the right to receive benefits and this means that they have no other state support. in the survey, the results suggest that the majority of the executives maintains that the structure of the disability certification center is totally (42.45%) and for the most part (33.02%) an essential change. it is expected that the establishment of ke.p.a. will contribute significantly to the reduction of the misappropriation of social resources (chart 13). chart 13. has the establishment of the disability certification center (ke.p.a.) been an imperative measure for the viability of the social security system since after 2010? alw ay s of ten so me tim es ra rel y no t a t a ll 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 pe rce nt 1,8 7% 5,6 1% 14 ,95 % 17 ,76 % 59 ,81 % alw ay s of ten so me tim es ra rel y no t a t a ll 40 30 20 10 0 pe rce nt 42 ,45 % 33 ,02 % 15 ,09 % 2,8 3% 6,6 % hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 11 published by ideas spread last but not least, the first memorandum (2010) introduced a measure separating health from pension resulting in the creation of a single health provider to launch from january 2012 (petmesidou 2011, 2012). arguably, this measure will lead, in the long run, to beneficial effects with regard to spending. of course, the cuts and the deterioration of quality of the services provided by the newly established body lead to a further decrease in living standards. what is more, in the long run, increase in morbidity and mortality will be expected if these costs do not contribute to the prevention and treatment with advanced methods. although there are modest thoughts regarding the efficiency of the national organization for the provision of health services (eopyy), the majority (60.95%) of executives argues that this measure will significantly improve the rationalization of the health system while a 22.86% has a more moderate stance by selecting the answer somewhat (chart 14). chart 14. has the creation of a single health provider been an essential measure for the viability of the social security system since after 2010? 6. conclusion the experience of the implementation of the first, second and third memorandum shows that pensions are the easy solution, since not only they are not exempted from cuts but any further change has been more burdensome than the previous one. the findings of the survey show that the austerity measures implemented after 2010 have deteriorated the living standards of pensioners. however, the consequences of the memoranda are more devastating for pensioners with low income. for example, the abolition of christmas, eastern and holiday leave benefits has not the same impact on someone who receives a pension amount of €1,300 monthly as for someone who receives only €486.84 per month. on the one hand, the measures have been imposed in a cross-cutting manner on the pensioners’ income and, on the other hand, those pensioners have to face a dramatic increase in the cost of living with additional taxes. therefore, most households are unable to cope with everyday needs. the discomfort of pensioners is reflected on the results of this research. they feel widespread discontent from income deductions, which, as mentioned above, affect them particularly by penalizing those who receive minimum pension. they gradually lose their ability to ensure medical care for themselves, which has now become their own responsibility, and education for their children, which has been largely privatized or is expected to be further privatized, to cover basic nutrition needs, clothing and footwear, as well as expenses related to housing. and all this occurs notwithstanding that it has been widely supported by academics that pensions demonstrably reduce poverty in greece. the survey findings also indicate that the measures concerning structural reforms are welcomed by most executives. however, they consider reductions in social benefits as unjustified, in particular those concerning citizens with low income. it is suggested that in times of austerity the pensioners and in general citizens with low income should be excluded from welfare cuts. the government should first implement reforms aiming at state reconstruction and then evaluate the outcomes of such reforms and, if needed, adopt measures leading to institutional changes. in any case though, low income pensioners should be protected from falling into poverty since they are unable to meet their basic needs otherwise. alw ay s of ten so me tim es ra rel y no t a t a ll 30 20 10 0 pe rce nt 23 ,81 % 37 ,14 % 22 ,86 % 10 ,48 % 5,7 1% hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 12 published by ideas spread references chadjidimitriou, f., & psilou, g. 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(2010). a method of understanding the social security system. athens: critique publications (in greek). venieris, d. (2013). crisis social policy and social justice: the case for greece. hellenic observatory papers on greece and the southeast europe, greese paper nr.69. retrieved from http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/50258/1/greese_no69.pdf hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 14 published by ideas spread copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n3p138 138 published by ideas spread ai empowers school physical education: development opportunities, practical challenges, and coping strategie jiang zhiheng1 1 henan polytechnic university, china correspondence: jiang zhiheng, henan polytechnic university, jiaozuo city, henan province, china received: june 8, 2025; accepted: june 22, 2025; published: june 23, 2025 abstract with the rapid advancement of artificial intelligence technology, its application in the field of education has significantly promoted educational development. as a crucial component of the education system, physical education must also keep pace with the times to meet the demands of social progress by actively adopting and leveraging ai technologies. through the use of literature review and logical analysis, this study aims to conduct an in-depth analysis of the developmental opportunities and challenges that ai technology brings to physical education and training, including immature technological applications, potential data quality issues, the transformation of teachers' roles and educational objectives under the trend of intelligentization, as well as personal data security risks and ethical concerns. on this basis, practical implementation strategies are proposed to provide reference and guidance for the future development of physical education. keywords: artificial intelligence, real-world challenges, coping strategies 1. introduction with the rise of artificial intelligence, transformations in technology, productivity, and education are undergoing unprecedented changes. marked by the widespread use of software such as deepseek and doubao, the integration of technology and sports has deepened significantly. artificial intelligence not only demonstrates immense potential in professional sports but is also gradually permeating physical education and public sports life, becoming a powerful driving force for the development of school sports and national fitness initiatives. in april 2018, the ministry of education issued the "higher education artificial intelligence innovation action plan" and the "education informatization 2.0 action plan," explicitly setting goals to accelerate the deep integration and innovative development of ai and education. these plans emphasized the importance of developing intelligent education to actively address the opportunities and challenges brought by the new wave of technology[1][2]. the third plenary session of the 20th central committee further stressed that forging new paths for educational development and shaping new advantages in education are crucial to providing solid policy support and guidance for the digitalization and intelligence of national education, which is key to building a "digitally intelligent education" with chinese characteristics. in recent years, the application of ai across various fields has continued to gain momentum, including in sports. many studies have shown that the application of artificial intelligence plays a significant role in promoting the development of physical education. its applications are extensive, ranging from data analysis to vr technology. by leveraging ai technology, the scientific and efficient aspects of physical education can be enhanced while focusing on cultivating students' comprehensive abilities and qualities. 2. the development opportunities of ai empowering school sports 2.1 policy guidance: enhancing policy support for school sports the support of national policies and funding has provided fertile ground for the development of artificial intelligence, laying a solid foundation for its survival and advancement in the field of physical education, and significantly promoting the deep integration of ai with physical education. by reviewing relevant policy documents, it is evident that the government has successively introduced a series of policies actively advocating and strongly supporting the application of ai technology in school education, aiming to achieve the goal of integrating ai with education. for example, documents such as the *action plan for ai innovation in higher education institutions*, the *outline for building a leading sports nation*, and the *implementation plan for accelerating the modernization of education (2018-2022)* explicitly propose promoting the deep integration of ai with physical education, accelerating the intelligent transformation of physical education, and supporting its high-quality development. additionally, the *new generation industrial ai development plan* issued by the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 139 published by ideas spread state council in 2017 emphasizes "establishing a funding support mechanism guided by fiscal policies and driven by the market"[3]. this mechanism provides fundamental guarantees for advancing intelligent physical education toward high-quality development and the application of ai in sports. finally, the successive introduction and implementation of these policy documents highlight the pivotal role and urgency of ai in empowering high-quality development in physical education, fully demonstrating the impact of national policies and financial support. these documents not only outline a clear direction for the deep integration of ai with physical education but also provide strong momentum for its application in the field, greatly facilitating the popularization and adoption of ai technology. 2.2 technical and tactical driving force: enhancing sports skills and tactical analysis in the field of competitive sports, especially in the realm of precision training, the application of artificial intelligence (ai) technology is particularly significant. precision training is an efficient method that combines digital technology with practical experience, focusing on achieving precise control over the training process. with the help of advanced motion capture technology and ai algorithms, detailed analysis of students' or athletes' movements can be conducted to identify flaws and provide targeted improvement suggestions, ultimately leading to success in sports. for example, in gymnastics training, ai systems can accurately analyze every detail of an athlete's movements, detect and correct subtle deviations, thereby enhancing both the standardization and aesthetics of the movements and ultimately elevating competition performance. this new training model, which integrates technology and practice, promotes the shift toward digitalization and intelligence[4]. on one hand, the non-invasive functional monitoring system developed under china's "science and technology winter olympics" initiative, specifically the "key technologies for physical training and monitoring in winter sports" project, can automatically generate initial functional monitoring and evaluation reports within five minutes. this system has been applied in national team events such as skeleton and parallel giant slalom snowboarding, enabling autonomous data collection, processing, and analysis for athletes[5]. 2.3 era development: ai drives the evolution of sports in recent years, ai technology has experienced explosive growth across various fields, emerging as a rapidly rising hotspot in research[6]. this technology has achieved widespread application in numerous areas, such as production, daily life, healthcare, and financial services, significantly improving work efficiency and output levels. for instance, ai can efficiently process vast amounts of data to create precise user profiles; through machine learning, it enables intelligent machine operations, completing tasks with high accuracy and identifying and extracting features from images, speech, natural language, and other multidimensional data. in the medical field, ai can also assist doctors in diagnosis, making healthcare services more efficient and precise. these applications demonstrate that ai technology has gained broad recognition and utilization across industries. consequently, the rapid development of ai has triggered profound and transformative effects. as technology continues to innovate, ai is expected to drive global technological progress and innovation, finding even broader applications in more fields. at the same time, ai also presents new opportunities for promoting the transformation of physical education, deepening the integration of ai and sports education, and fostering high-quality development in sports education. 3. the realistic challenges of ai empowering school sports 3.1 immature technology application, concerns over data quality the development of artificial intelligence in sports teaching and training faces numerous challenges, one of which is the immaturity of technological applications. although ai technology holds immense potential, its current application in sports education—particularly in data collection and processing—remains imperfect. ai technology relies heavily on large datasets, yet in the field of sports education, where data quality is crucial, the available data is often fragmented and non-standardized. data collection in sports teaching and training depends on sensors and smart devices, but environmental factors (such as magnetic interference, weather changes), limitations in device accuracy, and the complexity of athletes' movements can compromise the precision of data acquisition. for example, in outdoor track and field training, motion sensors measuring an athlete's speed and distance may be affected by wind speed, temperature, and other variables. additionally, data collected by different types of devices may vary in format and standards, posing challenges for integration and analysis. moreover, some equipment may generate excessive redundant or noisy data, reducing overall data quality and usability. for instance, low-quality fitness trackers may frequently produce missing or inaccurate data, hindering accurate assessments of students' training progress. furthermore, wearable devices such as vr and ar headsets can induce dizziness, potentially creating safety risks during dynamic movements like running and jumping. practical experience has also revealed certain hazards, such as electrical leakage in ai-powered devices, which pose additional risks to students during training sessions[7]. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 140 published by ideas spread 3.2 the transformation of teacher roles and educational goals in the era of intelligent technology with the continuous innovation and advancement of technology, the renewal of physical education teaching and training methods has become particularly crucial. however, during the introduction and application of artificial intelligence (ai) technology, teachers and students still face numerous challenges in understanding and utilizing it. these challenges are mainly reflected in the following three aspects: first, the difficulty of transforming teachers' roles. traditional teaching mindsets have long constrained physical education teachers, who are accustomed to conventional teaching methods. after the introduction of ai, teachers need to shift from being knowledge transmitters to becoming learning facilitators and organizers. this role transformation poses a significant challenge for many educators. some teachers may struggle to break free from traditional teaching mindsets, remaining overly reliant on their own experience rather than leveraging ai's advantages to enhance instruction. for example, in soccer training, some teachers might prefer demonstrating tactics personally or explaining them verbally, neglecting the use of ai-powered virtual coaches for more intuitive and personalized tactical demonstrations and guidance. consequently, scholars have pointed out that the integration of ai technology, to some extent, imposes technical pressure on teachers rather than alleviating their workload, disrupting the stable structural relationship between teachers and students. from this perspective, while ai has been introduced into sports teaching, the complexity and instability of teaching have, in certain aspects, increased. second, the lack of technical application skills[8]. to effectively utilize various intelligent teaching tools and platforms, teachers must not only possess expertise in physical education but also acquire certain information technology and ai application skills. however, many physical education teachers currently lack proficiency in these areas, necessitating specialized training and learning. for instance, some teachers may not know how to operate smart training equipment, analyze students' sports data, or adjust teaching plans based on such data. finally, the challenge of students adapting to new teaching models. over-reliance on technology and the imbalance in selfdirected learning: ai-mediated physical education courses can easily lead to excessive dependence on technological products and intelligent systems, undermining learners' independent study and innovative thinking. for example, students may rely too heavily on virtual coaches for guidance, lacking the motivation to think and explore independently. in gamified teaching models, students might focus solely on the entertainment value of the games while neglecting the actual mastery of sports skills. 3.3 personal data security crisis and ethical considerations sports data can be categorized into individual sports data, commercial sports data, and public sports data[9]. in the field of sports teaching and training, a significant amount of personal information about students and athletes— such as physiological indicators, movement trajectories, and training performance—is collected. this data often falls under the category of personal privacy. without proper protective measures, such sensitive information may be illegally accessed or misused. for instance, hackers could target databases of schools or sports institutions to steal students' personal data, which not only violates their privacy rights but may also lead to severe consequences. additionally, ethical concerns regarding data usage are increasingly prominent. ensuring that data is used legally, fairly, and transparently has become a critical ethical issue when applying ai technologies to analyze student data. for example, questions arise over whether schools or sports institutions have the right to use students' sports data for commercial purposes and whether explicit consent from students or parents should be obtained beforehand. these issues require careful consideration and prudent handling. 4. analysis of measures for ai to promote school sports and vocat3 ional training 4.1 enhancing intelligent information competence of university faculty comprehensively improving teachers' information literacy the ministry of education's "education informatization 2.0 action plan" (2018) proposed[10]. significant obstacles exist in practical applications[11]. with the widespread adoption of intelligent technologies in domestic physical education, the demand for smart literacy among school physical education teachers continues to rise. on one hand, it is essential to strengthen the training of physical education teachers in intelligent information technology. schools can regularly organize professional training courses, inviting it experts to teach topics such as foundational knowledge of artificial intelligence, the operation and application of smart sports equipment, and the use of data analysis software. through systematic training, physical education teachers can become familiar with various intelligent technology tools and master their practical applications in teaching and training. on the other hand, practical exploration of intelligent information technology should be encouraged. teachers should be provided with opportunities and platforms for hands-on experience, such as organizing open classes for smart physical education or teaching competitions, motivating them to experiment with ai technologies in designing teaching plans and conducting hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 141 published by ideas spread training sessions. through real-world practice, teachers can continuously accumulate experience, thereby enhancing their application and innovation capabilities in intelligent information technology. 4.2 establish a data protection mechanism the importance of health and sports data for ai research is self-evident. therefore, it is recommended that governments and sports organizations moderately open access to such data while ensuring privacy, intellectual property rights, and data security as foundational principles[12]. first, technical measures must be strengthened to enhance data security protection. encrypting physical education teaching materials can effectively prevent theft, tampering, and other issues during storage and transmission. to ensure data confidentiality, a rigorous access control mechanism must be established. additionally, regular security checks and vulnerability patches should be implemented to guard against hacking and malicious software intrusions. second, a comprehensive personal data protection system must be established. this involves classifying and categorizing sports education data in universities. education authorities and relevant institutions should strengthen supervision and management of data protection, strictly penalizing violations of data protection regulations. at the same time, data security education for physical education teachers and students should be enhanced to raise their awareness of data protection, helping them understand the importance of data security and how to safeguard their personal information. in summary, achieving secure data management and development requires collaboration across multiple domains, including technology, policy, and governance. 4.3 rational design of ai-based physical education teaching plans and curriculum systems in the design of physical education programs, it is essential to fully consider the characteristics and advantages of artificial intelligence, leveraging ai technology to create personalized learning plans tailored to students' individual differences and learning needs. this includes conducting comprehensive assessments of teaching objectives, methods, models, and risks, and formulating scientific teaching plans accordingly to guide rational and systematic development[13]. ai can recommend suitable sports and training intensities for each student by analyzing their physical fitness data, exercise preferences, and learning progress. simultaneously, through ai's real-time feedback capabilities, teachers can gain immediate insights into students' learning status and physical conditions, enabling informed educational decisions to enhance teaching effectiveness. secondly, a diversified curriculum system should be established to deeply integrate ai with physical education. courses on ai applications in sports—such as motion data analysis, training, and competition officiating—can be introduced to familiarize students with ai's role in the field. additionally, incorporating high-tech tools like virtual reality (vr) and augmented reality (ar) into physical education can boost students' interest and engagement by creating immersive experiences. for example, vr technology can simulate various sports scenarios, allowing students to practice and compete in virtual environments, thereby improving their athletic skills and performance levels. 5. conclusion in the development of physical education and training, artificial intelligence undoubtedly serves as a powerful driving force. it not only brings new opportunities for precise, intelligent, and efficient teaching and training but also presents challenges such as data security and ethical concerns. however, by maintaining an attitude of active exploration and scientific application, continuously improving relevant policies and measures, and strengthening technological research and talent development, artificial intelligence can better serve physical education and training. it is believed that in the near future, ai-powered sports education will cultivate more outstanding individuals with strong physiques and unwavering determination, contributing the unique strength of sports to societal development and progress. the application of artificial intelligence in sports is not limited to improving training efficiency and teaching quality. it can also optimize athlete performance by analyzing vast amounts of data and even predict and prevent sports injuries. additionally, ai technology can be used in sports broadcasting and analysis to provide audiences with richer, more personalized viewing experiences. however, as ai technology becomes more deeply integrated, vigilance is required to address potential issues such as privacy breaches and misuse, ensuring the healthy development of the technology. therefore, establishing reasonable laws and regulations, creating effective regulatory mechanisms, and cultivating professionals with both ai expertise and ethical awareness have become urgent issues in the field of physical education and training. only in this way can we ensure that ai technology not only advances sports education and training but also safeguards the rights of athletes and users, promoting comprehensive progress in the sports industry. references [1] ministry of education of the people's republic of china. (2018, april 3). notice of the ministry of education on issuing the "artificial intelligence innovation action plan for higher education institutions" [eb/ol]. http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/a16/s7062/201804/t20180410_332722.html hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 142 published by ideas spread [2] ministry of education of the people's republic of china. (2018, april 18). notice of the ministry of education on issuing the "education informatization 2.0 action plan" [eb/ol]. http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/a16/s3342/201804/t20180425_334188.html [3] state council of the people's republic of china. (2017, july 8). notice of the state council on issuing the "new generation artificial intelligence development plan" [z]. state council document no. 35. [4] wu, z., zhong, y., shi, j., et al. (2023). digital intelligence empowering scientific training: conceptual logic, international experience, and local practices. sports science research, 37(1), 82–94. [5] zhao, j., fang, g., zi, w., et al. (2022). research progress on key technologies of physical training and training monitoring for winter sports. journal of beijing sport university, 45(1), 25–34. [6] liu, c., cheng, q., huang, m., et al. (2023). opportunities, challenges, and strategies for high-quality development of physical education empowered by artificial intelligence. bulletin of sport science and technology, 31(09), 186–189. [7] guo, j., & hu, t. (2023). toward "metaverse physical education": conceptual characteristics, functional perspectives, and scenario applications. modern educational technology, 33(3), 27–35. [8] wang, k., & wang, j. (2022). the mechanism, risks, and countermeasures of artificial intelligence empowering classroom teaching to reduce burden and improve quality. contemporary educational science, (2), 57–65. [9] liu, q., & xu, w. (2022). cultivation of china's sports data factor market: opportunities, challenges, and strategies. sports science, 42(5), 29–37. [10] ministry of education. (2018, april 25). notice of the ministry of education on issuing the "education informatization 2.0 action plan" [eb/ol]. http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/a16/s3342/201804/t20180425_334188.html [11] ma, y., bai, m., & zhou, z. (2017). exploring the development path of artificial intelligence education applications in china in the era of smart education: interpretation and enlightenment from the u.s. report "preparing for the future of artificial intelligence". e-education research, (3), 125–130. [12] shi, j., wu, z., & zhong, y. (2023). artificial intelligence and sports: application scenarios, risk examination, and mitigation strategies. bulletin of sport science and technology, 31(10), 202–204, 210. [13] zhang, y., tang, l., & ma, c. (2023). research on the pathways and countermeasures of artificial intelligence in promoting teacher development. e-education research, 44(10), 104–111. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v2n3p5 5 published by ideas spread eco-translatology perspective on the english translation of subtitles in the documentary eight hundred years of chu state zhang shuyue1 & wang feng1 1 school of foreign studies, yangtze university, p. r. china correspondence: wang feng, school of foreign studies, yangtze university, hubei province, 434023 p. r. china. tel: 86-155-7215-1282. e-mail: wangfeng@yangtzeu.edu.cn received: july 9, 2019; accepted: july 25, 2019; published: july 25, 2019 this research is supported by the ministry of education humanities and social sciences 2015 youth fund under grant [15yjc740078], and hubei provincial institutions of higher education humanities and social sciences research award under grant [2018za31]. abstract based on the concept of translational eco-environment, oriental ecological wisdom, and the darwinian principle of natural selection, the concepts of eco-translatology and relevant theoretical ideas were proposed and explained by professor hu gengshen from 2001 on. this interdisciplinary theory of translation studies and ecology considers translation as a translator's adaptation and selection activities, and its translation methods include the linguistic, cultural, and communication aspects. eight hundred years of chu state is a large-scale documentary about chu culture. it systematically tells about the great history of the 800 years of chu state, interpreting the brilliant and splendid civilization of chu with its magnificent cultural relics, and revealing the laws worth pondering behind its ups and downs. taking as examples the chinese-english subtitle translations of the documentary eight hundred years of chu state, this paper aims to take the interdisciplinary theoretical perspective of eco-translatology to explore its implications for documentary translation from the linguistic, cultural, and communicative dimensions. aiming also to improve the english translation of chinese-made documentaries to a higher level, this paper hopes to promote the spread of chinese traditional culture, especially jingchu culture, and to enhance the world's understanding of china and its splendid culture. keywords: eco-translatology, eight hundred years of chu state, subtitle translation, documentary translation 1. introduction as chinese culture goes out, sino-foreign exchanges are increasing. the promotion of chinese traditional culture is crucial for the building of china's national image. in the spring of 2014, hubei radio and television station and cctv documentary channel produced the humanities documentary eight hundred years of chu state. in the historical order, the documentary takes the achievements of the chu kings of the past generations as nodes, artistically presents the whole process of the chu state from the rise to the demise, and creatively explains the influences of chu culture to the central plains culture and later chinese culture. (hubei daily, 2014) after the broadcast of the documentary, people were enthusiastic. it is important not only for us to learn our own traditional culture, but also for foreigners who do not understand chinese traditional culture to learn about and promote chinese traditional culture. however, in intercultural communication, the documentary can only improve its acceptance among foreign audiences by virtue of excellent subtitles, if dubbing is too expensive or impractical. however, the research on documentary subtitle translation at home and abroad mainly focuses on translation strategies, which cannot provide systematic guidance for subtitle translation. eco-translatology proposed by professor hu gengshen provided a new perspective for translation studies. this paper intends to study the chinese-english subtitle translations of the documentary eight hundred years of chu state from the perspective of eco-translatology in light of its characteristics, and explore the corresponding translation strategies to better spread chinese traditional culture. 2. characteristics of documentary subtitle translation a documentary is an important form of film and television production that will create artistic works from real life. as a film and television work, the documentary has pictures on the screen and complementary words spoken by hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 6 published by ideas spread the characters. (zhang, 1998) the voices of the documentary are displayed in subtitles, supplementing the screen information to help the audience better understand the program. subtitle translation, an important part of the introduction of foreign documentaries, recreates reality for the target audience. in the process of subtitle translation, the translator should give full play to its functions, ensure its quality, and carefully arrange the translations to match the target language with the source language. it is essential to keep the original information, reconstruct the facts, and make the target audience have the same psychological feelings of the source audience, thus achieving the purpose of cultural communication. (lin, 2012) the documentary is both real and artistic, and the translation of the documentary subtitles is also seen as a bridge between chinese and western cultural communication and plays a vital role in cultural exchanges. professor qian shaochang (2001) summarized the five characteristics of film and television language: conversational, comprehensive, instantaneous, popular, and non-note. due to the characteristics of documentary subtitles, the subtitle translation of the documentary is different from the translation of general literary works and other film and television works. to our understanding, its main features are as follows: 2.1 time limit the documentary is a kind of film and television work. therefore, the sounds and images in the film cannot be separated from the text in subtitle translation. the translator must take into consideration the pictures and sounds of the film in translation. on the one hand, if the subtitles cannot be expressed or sufficiently expressed, the audience can get compensation from the original sound and images. on the other hand, general translation is only subject to the content of the text, but documentary subtitles are also limited by time. (li, 2001) the subtitles of the documentary should be synchronized with the pictures and the commentaries. however, the display time on the screen is extremely short, the speed of commentaries is usually fast, and the changes of shots are frequent; thus, it is too late to read repeatedly to savor the taste. this time limit makes the subtitle translation of tv documentaries difficult and requires the readability of subtitles. 2.2 space restrictions subtitles are used as a tool to assist understanding. in order not to affect the picture, subtitles can only appear at the lower part of the screen, and the length of subtitles that can be shown on the screen is limited, so there is a certain limit in space. depending on the size of the tv screen and the minimum size of letters that can be seen by ordinary viewers, there are usually up to two lines of subtitles on the screen, up to 35 words in a line; if there are too many words, or the subtitle font is too large, the picture effect will be affected. therefore, the sentences translated by the subtitle translators should not be too long. it is best not to overuse explanatory words and comments. translators need to avoid parentheses and notes, but to use techniques such as abstraction, simplification, and omission. 2.3 cultural differences the documentary has a wide range of subjects, reflecting daily life, customs, geography, and humanities. as with other translated texts, translating documentary subtitles is not just a simple language conversion. culture is one of the important elements to consider in translation. different languages are spoken with different cultural backgrounds and language habits. they represent different people's behaviors, ways of thinking, and ways of language expression. many chinese and english words have specific expressions and their specific cultural meanings. for example, “apple” does not only refer to a fruit sometimes; “spring and autumn” are not always about seasons. therefore, translators need to carefully check to well convey the original cultural factors. 2.4 understandability to be in compliance with the commentary, the subtitle translation in the tv documentary is required to be understandable, clear and concise, and natural and smooth. it is also required to keep the translated text and language style as consistent as possible with the original text. it is not advisable to be difficult and cumbersome with too many professional terms, which will directly affect the viewer’s understanding, thinking, and experience. in the documentary eight hundred years of chu state, the subtitles are mainly voiceovers, with a small number of characters speaking between different scenarios, and the speed of speech is usually fast. the subtitles on each screen stay for 1 to 4 seconds, which requires the translation of subtitles to be as concise as possible and be effective in conveying information to the audience in real time. 3. theoretical basis: eco-translatology inspired by chinese traditional ecological wisdom and the basic principles of western ecological holism, professor hu gengshen proposed the theory of eco-translatology in 2001. developed from the theory of translation adaptation and selection, it advocates that translation is translator's adaptation and selection activities in a translational eco‐environment. under the guidance of the darwinian principle of natural selection, it compares the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 7 published by ideas spread correlation and commonality between translation activities and the natural laws of “survival of the fittest” to explore the interrelationship, related mechanisms, basic characteristics and laws of translators in the adaptation and selection in the "translation eco-environment". it also explains the essence, process, standards, principles, and methods of translation from the perspective of adaptation and selection (hu, 2008). among them, “translation ecoenvironment” includes the worlds of the source text and the source and target languages (hu, 2003: 283), in which “translation studies compared source texts and target texts to see what happened and used the results of the analysis to form prescriptive or descriptive laws” (cronin, 2003: 9). at the same time, the theory uses the natural laws of “survival of the fittest” to propose and demonstrate the translator's central position and the translator's leading role in translation, as well as the translator's self-adaptation mechanism and the restriction of post-mortem punishment mechanism. the theory elaborates and exemplifies its interpretative function of the translation ontology: (1) the process of translating is a production of target texts by “natural” selection via the translator's adaptation to the eco‐ environment and the translator's selection of both the degree of the adaptation and decisions about the form of the final target text; (2) translation principles are the multi-dimensional selective adaptation and adaptive selection; (3) translation methods include the linguistic, cultural, and social dimensions of translating; (4) the translation criteria are multi-dimensional, depending on reader’s feedback and translator’s quality, so as to get the best translation from adaptation and selection (hu, 2003; 2004; 2006; 2008). the methods are ''three dimensional transformations'' (i.e., linguistic, cultural, and communicative dimensions). (hu, 2006) the translation on the linguistic dimension refers to the translator's adaption and selection of the language form in different aspects and different levels; that on the cultural dimension refers to the translator's interpretation of the bi-cultural connotations; that on the communicative dimension refers to the translator's adaption and selection in the pragmatic bilingual communication. in other words, the translator should pay attention to the function of the text in terms of language, culture, and communication. translators should not only be familiar with the differences between the original language and the translated language at the linguistic level but also adopt the language style close to the target language. they should also pay attention to the cultural differences between the two languages, avoid misinterpreting the original text from the perspective of the target language and culture. at the same time, attention should be paid to adapting to the entire cultural system to which the language belongs. the adaption and selection on the communicative dimension mean that the translator pays attention to the bilingual communicative intentions in the translation process. it requires the translator to focus on communication in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and cultural connotations and to pay more attention to whether the communicative intentions in the original text are reflected in translation. in translation practice, the adaptive transformation on the three dimensions does not exist in isolation but often needs to be carried out at the same time, to ensure that the original text and the translation reach a balance and harmony of linguistic, cultural and communicative ecology. 4. a study of english translation of subtitles in eight hundred years of chu state from the perspective of eco-translatology from the perspective of eco-translatology, the above-mentioned "three-dimensional" conversion is the primary concern in translation. in a specific translation process, the translator pays attention not only to the linguistic dimension but also to the cultural dimension and communicative dimension. the three are intertwined and interconnected. the documentary eight hundred years of chu state has a refined and vivid language and a strong cultural connotation, which is of great significance to the spread of chinese traditional culture. eco-translatology can provide a new research perspective for documentary subtitle translation. this paper will explain the adaptive translation strategies of the subtitle translation of the documentary eight hundred years of chu state on the linguistic, cultural, and communicative dimensions of eco-translatology. 4.1 adaptation and selection on the linguistic dimension the translator will make an adaptive choice in the form of language in the translation process (hu gengshen, 2008). on the one hand, the language features, styles, and rhetorical devices of the original text should be fully conveyed in translation. on the other hand, because of the many differences between the source language and the target language, the translation should adapt to the ecological environment of the target language, and it is not appropriate to make a hard copy or a dead translation. translators need to be familiar with the language style, genre, rhetoric, and sentence patterns of the source text and carry out adaptive transformation to maintain a harmonious relationship between the language elements of the target language. eight hundred years of chu state is a historical documentary with a large number of historical images. with narrative techniques, each section expresses a certain fact, assisted with interviews of experts in related fields, which makes the language relatively hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 8 published by ideas spread more colloquial. therefore, we need to adapt to the differences between chinese and english colloquialism and logic when translating. for example: 楚国已经分封，但是“号为子男之田五十里”。 那么方圆五十里，那像现在来讲，就不到二 十平方公里。 translation: chu nobles were conferred with titles and territories, but they were only conferred viscount and a piece of land within a fifty-mile radius, which is less than 20 square kilometers. in the example, “号为子男之田五十里” appeared in the source text. the original meaning of "号为子男之田五 十里" (chu nobles were granted with a land covering an area of less than 20 square kilometers and the title of viscount”) is conveyed with an interpretative method. however, this example is followed by an explanation of “五十里” (fifty li). therefore, it is not plausible to translate the whole expression of "号为子男之田五十里". if so, the translation would be lengthy and cumbersome. therefore, in order to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language, the chinese expression must be well adapted for the reader’s easy understanding. 4.2 adaptation and selection on the cultural dimension snell-hornby (2001) argues that translation is a communicative act that crosses cultural barriers. language is the carrier of culture, and different cultural characteristics will appear in translation. the adaptation on the cultural dimension requires that the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of the bilingual and bicultural connotations in the translation process. the translator should examine the source language from a cultural perspective. they should fully understand the differences between the source text and the target text in terms of cultural norms, and use appropriate translation methods to maximize the reader's understanding of the source language and source culture. in the subtitle translation of the documentary, the translator should also use extralinguistic information such as the film images, sounds, and non-verbal communications between characters to help the target readers to overcome the cultural differences. given this, the translator should not advocate the direct translation method but adopt the domestication strategy. for example: 楚人的代表，鬻熊的儿子守在殿外。他眼里满是渴望，心中充满了激动。父亲为周王朝捐躯， 不知道周武王会封自己为什么。是伯？是侯？最小也会是个子爵吧。 translation: yu xiong’s son, the representative of chu, was waiting outside the hall. his eyes were filled with desire; his heart swelled with excitement. his father had died for the founding of the western zhou dynasty, so he was wondering what official rank he would be granted. earl or marquis, or, at least, viscount? in the example, “伯”, “侯” and “子爵” are three of the five ranks “公” “侯” “伯” “子” 男” in ancient chinese feudal system. however, in europe, the titles are usually divided into five kinds: duke, marquis, earl, viscount, and baron, showing the hierarchy of the feudal monarchs. the european hierarchy first appeared in the middle ages and continues to be used in some western countries. generally, the number of occupied lands is determined by the titles. if the translator used transliteration and explanation here, translating “伯” into “bo, the second tier of the five ranks of nobility in ancient china”, it would make the translation lengthy. in light of the space-time limitation of the subtitles, such a translation is not conducive to the understanding of the target language audience. therefore, “伯” is domesticated as “earl”, “侯” “marquis”, and “子爵” “viscount”, which not only make the translation simpler but also correspond to the cultural terms in the target culture. even though there are differences in these ranks in the two cultures, such conversions would be better accepted by the target audience. 4.3 adaptation and selection on the communicative dimension in addition to the linguistic dimension and cultural dimension, adaptation and selection also include the communicative dimension, that is, to focus on the communicative level by paying attention to whether the communicative intention of the original text is reflected in the translation (hu, 2004). the role of language is not only to convey the information and cultural content but also to make people understand and respond. as is known, the content of linguistics research lies not only in semantics but also in pragmatics. this shows that pragmatic expressions are also crucial in the use of language. in translation, it is necessary to convey not only the semantic content of the original text (i.e., information on the “linguistic dimension” and “cultural dimension”), but also the pragmatic or communicative role of language. the adaptive transformation on the communicative dimension requires the translator to pay attention to the communicative intention in the source language and the target language in translating. it is essential to express the meaning of the original text adequately and to maximize the communicative ecology between the source text and the target text. for example, 《墙盘》铭文记载，周昭王率领着旌旗猎猎的车马，铠甲鲜明的整齐六师，集中全国兵力， 南下攻打楚国。 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 9 published by ideas spread translation: according to the inscription on it, king zhao of zhou was leading a mighty army of chariots, knights and soldiers, and concentrating all forces to attack the chu state. in the example, “旌旗猎猎” (banners flying in the wind), “铠甲鲜明” (shining armours) and “整齐六师” (six armies in order) are all used to describe the number and power of troops led by king zhao of zhou, emphasizing the disparity between chu and zhou in military power. the use of these words allows the audience to feel the inequality between the powerful zhou dynasty and the weak chu state. in translation, in order to highlight the main information in the text and achieve the communicative effect, the word “mighty army” is used to express the meaning of “整齐六师” in the source text, and words such as “chariots” “horsemen” and “soldiers” in the army are listed to further illustrate the great power of the zhou army. therefore, the translation realizes the communicative purpose of the original text and better realizes the adaption and selection on the communicative dimension. 5. conclusion eco-translatology provides a new perspective for translation studies, paying more attention to the translator's ability, translation eco-environment, and the translator's adaptability to the translation eco-environment. as the documentary is an essential way of promoting communications between different countries, different nationalities, and different cultures, its subtitle translation plays an important role and deserves our attention. with an introduction to the characteristics and current situation of documentary subtitle translation, this article takes as examples several chinese-english translations of the documentary eight hundred years of chu state, studies how the translator makes selections on the basis of adaptation, and how subtitle translation strategies on the linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions are properly used. it provides a new perspective for the publicity of chinese traditional culture and has a particular reference for its future promotion. references cronin, m. (2003). translation and globalization. london: routledge. hu, g. (2003). translation as adaption and selection. perspectives: studies in translatology, (4), 283-291. https://doi.org/10.1080/0907676x.2003.9961481 hu, g. (2004). an approach to translation as adaptation and selection. wuhan: hubei education press. hu, g. (2006). adaption in consecutive interpreting. perspectives: studies in translatology, (1), 3-12. https://doi.org/10.1080/09076760608669013 hu, g. (2008). eco-translatology: a primer. chinese translators journal, (4), 11-15. hu, g. (2010). eco-translatology: backgrounds and bases for its development. foreign languages research, (4). https://doi.org/10.13978/j.cnki.wyyj.2010.04.007 hubei daily. eight hundred years of chu state. march 4, 2014. li, y. (2001). strategies for translating subtitles. chinese translators journal, (7), 38-40. lin, x. (2012). analysis of subtitle translation in documentaries. journal of xinzhou teachers university, (6), 45-47. snell-hornby, m. (2001). translation studies: an integrated approach. shanghai: shanghai foreign language press. zhang, c. (1998). a preliminary study on film translation. chinese translators journal, (2), 50-53. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice humanities and social science research; vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v2n3p26 26 published by ideas spread assessment of the extent of electrical safety practices among staff and students of electrical engineering department of bayero university, kano, nigeria nasiru mukhtar1 & abubakar shu’aibu kantsi1 1 department of science and technology education, bayero university, kano, kano state, nigeria correspondence: nasiru mukhtar, department of science and technology education, bayero university, kano, 700231, nigeria. tel: 234-9035-722-487. e-mail: nmukhtarbichi gmail.com, nmukhtar.ste buk.edu.ng received: august 25, 2019; accepted: september 17, 2019; published: september 19, 2019 abstract researchers globally conducted several studies on electrical safety awareness and practices for improving occupational safety and health of workers. however, most of these studies were limited to industry workers, with few focusing on academic workshops/laboratories, and almost none in the case of bayero university, kano, nigeria. this study therefore, aims to assess the extent of electrical safety practices among staff and students of electrical engineering department, bayero university, kano, nigeria. the authors used descriptive research design in which 50-item structured questionnaire was used to collect data from 42 staff and 99 students of electrical engineering department, bayero university, kano, nigeria. the results show that staff and students do not strictly observe electrical safety practices in the workshops/laboratories. the results also revealed the common causes of electrical accidents in the workshops/laboratories; nature of frequent electrical accidents; and measures to reduce electrical accidents and promote students’ compliance to electrical safety rules and regulations. the researchers limit this study to only department of electrical engineering in the faculty of engineering. also, only quantitative data was collected from the respondents, without giving consideration to the in-depth information qualitative data (such as interview) would have provide. as such, conclusions derived using quantitative approach from the respondents relies on the genuineness of the information provided by them. the findings provide the faculty of engineering with a basis to introduce ‘electrical safety awareness and practices’ course into the curriculum. keywords: electrical safety, electrical accident, electrical engineering 1. introduction the most vital innovation ever in the history of mankind is electricity. it is instrumental to the growth and development of all facets of human life. this includes domestic applications such as operating all appliances, entertainment, lighting, its uses in transportation, schools, hospitals, retail facilities, etc. furthermore, the industrial and manufacturing applications of electricity are of utmost important, because all businesses require electricity to operate. however, working with electricity can pose a lot of dangers especially to industrial workers such as engineers, electricians, and other workers dealing directly with electricity, for instance, working on overhead lines, electrical installations and circuit assemblies. although electrical work is not regarded as an exceptionally dangerous occupation (bls, 2015), contact with electricity has a much higher percentage of fatal injuries. for this, the bureau for labour statistics suggests that worker safety programmes need to make electrical hazard awareness a priority. to this end, this paper aims to examine the extent of electrical safety practices among staff and students of electrical engineering department, bayero university, kano, nigeria. albeit globally, studies on electrical safety awareness and practices have reached an advanced stage and have contributed in reducing occupational injuries, the majority of these studies are industry-based. there is need for these studies to be extended to academic workshops/laboratories since they are the initial avenues for training electrical personnel. probing the electrical safety awareness and practices of workers from the perspective of academic workshops/laboratories and adequate implementation of the findings will directly help in curbing out the incidences of electrical accidents and injuries in the school workshops as well as industries. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 27 published by ideas spread 2. problem background technological innovations have been the key to the world economic growth and prosperity, and engineering has been an important driver of these innovations. certainly, the development and institutionalization of engineering disciplines in the world provided much talent behind the technological domination of the world market. engineering disciplines integrate scientific principles with practically oriented research, providing systems and process of acquiring knowledge, skills and attitudes. the acquisition of practical skills in engineering is very important aspect in which it teaches the students techniques of the major aspects of engineering subjects including the basic techniques of the experiment and the use of instrument; such as manipulation of tools, equipment and apparatus. in engineering, teaching practical skills serves as a consolidator of the subjectmatter discussed in class. practical skills is the ability to perform kinesthetic activity in an easy, precise, harmonious way with the constant changing circumstances. practical skills, according to soebagio (2016) are the ability of graduates to perform several activities which are needed in the process to find solutions in the work place. the practical skills are most conveniently acquired in the workshop and laboratories. patrick and babatope (2013) pointed out that workshop/laboratory is the right place by which effective teaching for development of skill in the students is carried out. similarly, mukhtar (2014) argued that the workshop manipulative approach of teaching was significantly superior to passive transmission of abstract concepts. the workshop is the backbone of any functional technical and engineering education seen by simpson (1998) as home for all kinds of materials, equipment, tools, and machines using electricity. nevertheless, araneo, dehghanian, and mitolo (2019) stressed that engineering faculties are faced with the challenges of introducing unqualified engineering undergraduates to the culture of workshop/laboratory safety. by this, they are required to work on electrical installations and electrical equipment with almost no safety background. electricity is the major contributor of technological development in the world, as technology has been a dialectical and communicative process at the center of human experience. electricity in modern society is the most convenient and useful form of energy, without which, the present social infrastructure would not all be possible. however, taylor, mcgwin, valent and rue (2002) reported that electricity is ranked fifth in the causes of work-related injuries leading to death (responsible for 7% of all workplace fatalities), and it can create a specific peril to employees who work consistently in propinquity to electrical sources. this therefore, indicates the needs for requisite safety practices in the academic workshops and laboratories for the students, instructors and the teachers. the world health organization describes an accident as “an unplanned and an unanticipated event”. similarly, the international labour organization defines occupational accident as unanticipated and unplanned events that caused a certain damage or injury (gulhana, ilhanb, and civilc, 2012). accidents are caused and all staff and students in the workshops and laboratories are prone to it (alake, 1998). however, accidents can be avoided with proper knowledge, skill and positive safety attitude on the part of individual in the workshops, offices and laboratories. according saba, tsado, raymond and adamu (2014), increasing awareness for electrical safety hazards and understanding the importance of electrical safety programme are critical first step for improving electrical safety practices in the workplace. safety is the most important practice in an academic laboratory as “safety and productivity are on the same team”. henderson (2000), defined safety as the state of being “safe”, (from french sauf), the condition of being protected against physical, social, spiritual, financial, political, educational or other types of consequences or failure, damage, error, accident, harm or any other event which could be considered non-desirable. safety can also be defined as the control of recognized hazards protected from the event or from expose to something that causes health or economical losses. a safe situation is one where risk of injury or property damages is low and manageable. safety consciousness could be defined as the mental awareness of an individual which serve as a guide to his conduct, behaviors and overt actions to the end that he will be free from injury, accident or damage (sara, 2004). it could also mean emotional guide for personal conduct which leads to minimizing danger and risk. according to jain (2009), the result of safety practices will improve production stability; cost and quality, reduces cost in maintenance and materials wastage, absentee and medical bills. the workshop/laboratory is a place where all sort of equipment, machines, tools and materials are used, and simpson (1998) stressed that such place is prone to accident occurrences. ersoy (2013) argued that the main causes of accidents especially in industries are untidiness, noise, too hot or too cold environments, old or poorly maintained machines, and lack of training or carelessness of employees. on the other hand, jain (2009) categorized courses of workshop accidents into the following: a. environmental factors: this includes inadequate illumination, dust, and lack of good ventilation, non-cleanliness, and temperature extremes. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 28 published by ideas spread b. mental factors: this includes broken safety guards, inadequate maintenance, poor distribution of safety signs, faulty machines design, leaking valves and lack of personal protective equipments. c. human factors: this includes ignorance, age, taking chances, forgetfulness, alcoholism, fatigue/boredom, carelessness and personal instability. furthermore, several workers are exposed to electrical energy during executing their tasks. according to national institute for occupational safety and health (niosh) (1998), four main types of electrical injuries exist. these are: electrocution, electric shock, burns, and falls due to contact with electrical energy. electrocution is usually a result of the current passing through the body or head causing cardiac arrest or damage to vital centers of the brain. stride voltage plays an important role in fatal electrocution. electric shock occurs when a person comes into contact with an electrical energy source. the electrical energy flows through a portion of the body causing a shock. onuoha (2001) maintained that electrical shock in the workshop/laboratory occurred from unprotected conductors, machines etc. resulting to the shock risk, fire outbreak or even fatal cases and other serious consequences. burns are tissue damages that results from heat, overexposure to the sun or other radiation, or chemical or electrical contact. burns are characterized by severe skin damage that caused the affected skin cells to die. there are three types of burns including first-, second-, and third-degree burns. each degree is based on the severity of damage to the skin. lastly, falls due to contact with electrical energy usually occurs while installing moving or repairing power lines or poles. accident prevention is usually based on analysis of occurred accidents and removal of accidents causes. afeez (2016) stated that arrays of measures for reducing the occurrences of accidents in academic workshops/laboratories were recommended by experts. this includes, but not limited to, observing essential precautions while working in the workshops/laboratories, keeping the workshops/laboratories safe, working with healthy machines, equipment and devices. groeneweg, et al., (2007) urges that accident prevention should focus on organizational factors, which cause human error. bearing in mind that human behavior and those errors occur at every organizational level, the investigation of human errors and especially the surrounding errors provoking condition is an important part of accident prevention. meanwhile, okafor (1998) argued that university teachers in nigeria have placed much emphasis on theory and neglecting practical knowledge in their teaching. she also pointed out that available workshops resources are not been utilized by students and teachers. this is a serious situation since engineering cannot effectively and efficiently be taught and/or learned without good and adequate workshop and laboratories. consequently inadequate utilization of the available resources influences students’ negative performance in the future engineering practical activities. electrical safety practice is an important field concerned with the safety, health, and welfare of people at work. it aims to equip future engineers with the basic knowledge and skills of identifying safety, health, and environmental hazards; determining control measures; and developing and implementing safety policies and programs. many studies in nigeria assessed electrical safety practices among construction and manufacturing workers, with no study on assessment among staff and students of engineering department in the university. the researchers argued that institution-based assessment of electrical safety practices will help in saving the industries millions of dollars in workers’ compensation, medical costs, and work efficiency. upon this background, this study is set to assess the extent of electrical safety practices among staff and students of electrical engineering department, bayero university kano. 3. problem statement the need for electrical safety awareness and practices among workers has been demonstrated by bureau for labour statistics, campbell and dini (2015), burdge and floyd (2014) among others. this is perhaps due to the frequent work-related injuries and deaths caused by industrial electrical accidents. these electrical accidents do not only occur in industries, but also in academic workshops and laboratories as attested to by araneo, dehghanian, and mitolo (2019), and afeez (2016). this is also confirmed in a pre-study interview with some staff (lecturers and workshop instructors) in the department being investigated (i.e., department of electrical engineering, bayero university, kano, nigeria). to help minimize the occurrences of these accidents, a catch-them-young-approach is suggested in which the electrical safety practices of staff and students of electrical engineering department of bayero university, kano, nigeria is thoroughly assessed. several research studies on electrical safety practices are industry-based focusing only on workers and/or organizational management, which left the present problem unanswered. if this problem is not adequately and effectively addressed, there will be continual occurrence of accidents in the workshop/laboratories which will indisputably extend to the industries. this will lead to injuries, loss of life and properties, and will undoubtedly lead to having insufficient trained engineering graduates with clear awareness on hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 29 published by ideas spread the electrical safety practices for the industries. this consequently will affect negatively the country’s level of technological education vis-avis economic growth and economic development. a country with the above mentioned problems will experience massive youth unemployment, political thuggery, drug, addiction, and corrupt society. in view of these problems, this study is designed to assess the extent of electrical safety practices among staff and students of electrical engineering bayero university kano. 4. research objective and questions the main objective of this study is to assess the electrical safety practices of staff and students of electrical engineering department of bayero university, kano, nigeria. specifically, the study answered the following questions: i. to what extent do the staff and students observed electrical safety practices in the workshops and laboratories of bayero university, kano, nigeria? ii. what are the common causes of electrical accidents in the workshops and laboratories of bayero university, kano, nigeria? iii. what are the nature of electrical accidents that frequently occur in the workshops and laboratories of bayero university, kano, nigeria? iv. what precautionary measures are to be taken to reduce accident occurrence, and promote students’ compliance to safety rules and regulations in the workshops and laboratories of bayero university, kano, nigeria? 5. method this study employed a survey design method. the target population for the study consists of 99 final year students and 42 staff (lecturers and instructors) of the department of electrical engineering, bayero university, kano, nigeria. altogether the total population is 141. no sampling was made, as the size of the target population is manageable. therefore, the entire target population was used as respondents for the study. the instrument for data collection used was a 50-item structured questionnaire designed by the researcher for eliciting the information from the respondents. the initial draft of the questionnaire was presented to six (6) lecturers in the department of science and technology education, faculty of education, to check the face and content validity of the instrument. based on their necessary suggestions and observations, the final draft of the questionnaire was produced. the reliability of the instrument was later established through pilot-testing the questionnaire on 32 staff and students of electrical engineering, kano state university of science and technology, wudil, kano, nigeria. the reliability coefficient was computed with the aid of spss statistical software version 20, using cronbach’s alpha method to ascertain the extent of homogeneity of the items. the reliability coefficient of the questionnaire was found to be 0.875, which indicates that the items in the questionnaire are internally consistent in measuring what was intended to be measured for the study. the researchers used mean and standard deviation in analyzing the research data and answering all the research questions with the aid of spss statistical software. any item with mean value of 2.50 and above is accepted while items with a mean value below 2.50 are rejected. 6. results the results of the study are presented below in accordance with the research questions that guided the study. 6.1 research question 1: to what extent do the staff and students observe electrical safety practices in the workshops and laboratories of bayero university, kano? table 6.1 mean and standard deviation of the responses of staff and students on the extent of observance of electrical safety practices in the workshops and laboratories n1=42, n2=99 s/n items 𝒙1 sd1 𝒙2 sd2 𝒙t sdt remark 1. staff and students are always using protective safety wears in the electrical engineering workshops/laboratories. 1.98 .898 1.97 .770 1.97 .818 rejected 2. staff and students always observed safety precaution in electrical engineering workshops/laboratories 1.76 .781 1.82 .738 1.79 .705 rejected 3. electrical engineering department have safety club 1.88 7.6.2 1.82 .628 1.85 .709 rejected 4. staff and students are not using faulty equipment in 2.20 .758 2.13 .817 2.25 .835 rejected hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 30 published by ideas spread electrical engineering workshops/laboratories 5. safety training courses are periodically organized in electrical engineering workshop/laboratories 2.34 .813 2.08 .911 2.21 .824 rejected 6. safety procedure are not well observed in electrical engineering workshop/laboratories 2.13 .965 1.95 .835 2.04 .509 rejected 7. precautionary strategies are periodically carried out on machines, equipment and devices to avoid electrical shocks in electrical engineering workshops/laboratories 2.18 .061 1.98 .835 2.08 .141 rejected 8. causes of electrical accidents are always investigated and analyzed and subsequently reported to the department/faculty member supervising the laboratory 2.25 .197 1.97 .941 2.11 .268 rejected 9. safety demonstrations are occasionally conducted to students by safety personnel in electrical engineering workshops/laboratories 2.15 .260 1.97 1.050 2.06 .374 rejected 10. safety awareness (such as safety signs) are made available in electrical engineering workshops/laboratories 2.25 .449 2.40 .835 2.32 .505 rejected 11. machines are always checked before and after use in electrical engineering workshops/laboratories 2.41 .621 2.03 .274 2.22 .593 rejected 12. unobstructed access to all exits, fire extinguishers, electrical panels, emergency showers, and eyewashes are maintained 2.48 .709 2.02 .274 2.25 .702 rejected 13. all new students are given safety orientation by staff before using any equipment in electrical engineering workshops and laboratories 2.52 .813 2.45 .393 2.48 .830 rejected 14. staff and students wear safety goggles when soldering or wire-cutting with side-cutters. 2.46 .141 2.49 .590 2.47 .512 rejected 15. staff and students wash hands before leaving the workshop. 2.46 .141 2.49 .590 2.47 .512 rejected key: n1 and n2 population of staff and students respectively; 𝒙1 – mean of staff; 𝒙2 mean of students; 𝒙t mean of all respondents; sd1 – standard deviation of staff; sd2 standard deviation of students; sdt standard deviation of all respondents table 6.1 above shows the mean and standard deviation of the responses of respondents in this study. analysis of mean responses of the two groups of respondents revealed low observance of electrical safety practices by the staff and students in the workshops and laboratories of bayero university, kano. 6.2 research question 2: what are the common causes of electrical accidents in the workshops and laboratories of bayero university, kano, nigeria? table 6.2 mean and standard deviation of the responses of staff and students on the common causes of electrical accidents in the workshops and laboratories n1=42, n2=99 s/n items 𝒙1 sd1 𝒙2 sd2 𝒙t sdt remark 1. use of improper clothing (such as shorts, sandals) in workshops and laboratories 2.74 .258 2.50 .660 2.62 .623 accepted 2. use of powered tools, machines and equipment without adequate knowledge of their operation and/or being briefed/trained as a user. 2.64 .141 2.85 .796 2.74 .719 accepted 3. overconfidence on workshop procedures 3.18 .352 3.35 .765 3.26 .776 accepted 4. use of faulty tools, devices, equipment and machines 3.11 .470 2.87 .093 2.99 .321 accepted 5. using machine without machine guard 3.16 .627 3.04 .967 3.10 .502 accepted 6. working in an unsafe condition such as splash of oil and grease 3.46 .612 3.34 1.23 3.24 .325 accepted 7. unsafe acts by persons like playing, eating, indulging in 3.58 .744 3.40 .029 3.49 .319 accepted hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 31 published by ideas spread reckless behavior such as running, sitting on the workbenches etc 8. performing unauthorized experiments, jobs and tasks in the laboratory and workshop 3.32 0.290 3.18 .25 3.25 .420 accepted 9. working with hazardous/ flammable materials and/or equipment in an unsafe condition such as unable to wear safety glasses or face shields 3.11 .260 2.75 .532 2.93 .529 accepted 10. unsafe installation of electrical devices, equipment and machines such as faulty/loose connections, 3.51 .290 3.49 .377 3.31 .679 accepted 11. powering up installations without proper check by the instructors and/or workshop supervisors 3.51 .260 3.34 .55 3.42 .814 accepted 12. leaving the workshop/laboratory unattended without turning off all ignition sources and locking the doors 3.72 .368 3.29 .690 3.50 .944 accepted key: n1 and n2 population of staff and students respectively; 𝒙1 – mean of staff; 𝒙2 mean of students; 𝒙t mean of all respondents; sd1 – standard deviation of staff; sd2 standard deviation of students; sdt standard deviation of all respondents table 6.2 shows the mean and standard deviation of the responses of respondents. the results presented in the table indicated that the respondents agreed with all of the items as the common causes of electrical accidents in the workshops and laboratories of bayero university, kano, nigeria. 6.3 research question 3: what are the nature of electrical accidents that frequently occur in the workshops and laboratories of bayero university, kano, nigeria? table 6.3 mean and standard deviation of the responses of staff and students on the nature of electrical accidents that frequently occur in the workshops and laboratories n1=42, n2=99 s/n items 𝒙1 sd1 𝒙2 sd2 𝒙t sdt remark 1. a fall in the workshop/laboratory due to shock and slippery floor 3.69 .290 3.50 .930 3.59 .380 accepted 2. accident due to loose dress with tendency to be caught up by rotating part of electrical machine or equipment 3.93 .610 3.35 .420 3.64 .600 accepted 3. accident as a result of climbing up a movable ladder or pole without safety belt 3.30 .790 3.64 .180 3.47 .790 accepted 4. accident caused by working on machine with wet body 2.93 .940 3.77 .480 3.35 .770 accepted 5. accidents during electrical installation due to short circuit resulting in shock and/or burns 3.20 .920 2.60 .590 2.90 .840 accepted 6. accidents due to unnecessary bending, twisting, reaching out, as a result of lifting heavy objects 3.83 .280 2.82 .690 3.32 .430 accepted 7. accidents during assembling/dismantling of electrical machine or equipment 3.04 .370 3.46 .590 3.25 .560 accepted 8. accidents due to electrical arc flash, flash current flowing through the body, flash over, and thermal spark 3.09 .170 3.29 .760 3.19 .250 accepted key: n1 and n2 population of staff and students respectively; 𝒙1 – mean of staff; 𝒙2 mean of students; 𝒙t mean of all respondents; sd1 – standard deviation of staff; sd2 standard deviation of students; sdt standard deviation of all respondents analysis of the mean responses and standard deviation of the respondents as shown in table 6.3 above reveals that the respondents accepted all the eight items describing the nature of electrical accidents that frequently occur in the workshops and laboratories. 6.4 research question 4: what precautionary measures are to be taken to reduce accident occurrence, and promote students’ compliance to safety rules and regulations in the workshops and laboratories of bayero university, kano, nigeria? hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 32 published by ideas spread table 6.4 mean and standard deviation of the responses of staff and students on the precautionary measures to be taken to reduce accident occurrence, and promote students’ compliance to safety rules and regulations in the workshops and laboratories n1=42, n2=99 s/n items 𝒙1 sd1 𝒙2 sd2 𝒙t sdt remark a). reducing accident occurrences in workshops and laboratories 1. no student or group of students should carry out unauthorized experiments, tasks or job 3.55 .15 3.23 .18 3.39 .14 accepted 2. use of film show, safety signs/posters in the workshop/laboratories 3.48 .31 3.07 .33 3.27 .26 accepted 3. conducting safety inspection and safety audit periodically 3.55 .45 3.25 .41 3.40 .16 accepted 4. never work in the workshop/laboratory alone or at least without another person within easy call 3.76 .57 3.39 .50 3.57 .54 accepted 5. provision of automatic fire detection system and automatic fire alert circuit in risk zones 3.76 .72 3.96 .78 3.86 .54 accepted 6. do not use corridors for storage or work areas 3.93 .86 3.90 .78 3.46 .80 accepted 7. ensure all electrical circuits are checked by the technicians or tutor or the relevant technical staff before powering up 3.02 .83 3.87 .91 3.44 .47 accepted b). ensuring students compliance to safety rules and regulations 8. all new students should review safety orientation before using tools machine and equipment in the workshop/laboratory 3.02 .16 3.00 .14 3.01 .61 accepted 9. students who disregard workshop safety rules should be punished 3.18 .29 3.95 .11 3.56 .29 accepted 10. formation of departmental safety club 3.04 .47 3.22 .20 3.13 .34 accepted 11. organizing safety training course periodically for staff and students 3.90 .66 3.14 .33 3.52 .46 accepted 12. inform the lecturer/technician of any medical conditions that you may have which could affect your performance in the laboratory, or could be aggravated by the work environments in the laboratory 3.16 .76 3.24 .42 3.12 .59 accepted 13. investigation, analyzing and reporting the causes of electrical accidents 3.20 .91 3.44 .50 3.32 .21 accepted 14. clean working areas and return back equipment after use 3.45 .84 3.19 .67 3.32 .33 accepted 15. keep benches clean and free from apparatus that is not being used 3.44 .96 3.23 .78 3.33 .48 accepted key: n1 and n2 population of staff and students respectively; 𝒙1 – mean of staff; 𝒙2 mean of students; 𝒙t mean of all respondents; sd1 – standard deviation of staff; sd2 standard deviation of students; sdt standard deviation of all respondents table 6.4 above shows the mean responses and standard deviation of the respondents on precautionary measures to be taken to reduce accident occurrences, and ensure students’ compliance to safety rules and regulations in workshops and laboratories. analysis of the mean responses indicates that all the proposed measures are accepted by the respondents. 7. discussion and implications of findings this study assessed the electrical safety practices of staff and students of electrical engineering department of bayero university, kano, nigeria. in particular, the study investigated the extent of respondents’ observance of electrical safety practices, the common causes of electrical accidents, the nature of electrical accidents, and the precautionary measures for reducing accident occurrences, and promotes students compliance to safety rules and regulations in the workshops and laboratories. these objectives are achieved using descriptive survey design, where a structured questionnaire designed by the researcher was administered to the respondents for the data collection. as such, the discussion of the findings that follows is organized according to the objectives that guided the study. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 33 published by ideas spread 7.1 the extent of respondents’ observance of electrical safety practices the findings of the study with regard to this objective revealed that the respondents do not strictly observe electrical safety practices in the workshops and laboratories. this is confirmed by their rejection of all the fifteen statements/items presented to them to probe the degree of their observance to electrical safety practices. this finding is in line with the work of boubaker, mekni, and jerbi (2017), who reported a poor electrical safety cultures among respondents in hail region in saudi arabia. however, the finding is contrary to the study outcome carried out by aigbodion, orukpe, and igbinovia (2014). they reported that secondary school students have a considerably greater knowledge of electrical safety both at home and in the laboratory, which helps them in effective observance of electrical safety practices. the finding is also confirmed by unnikrishnan, iqbal, singh, and nimkar (2014) that safety management practices among workers in small and medium enterprises (smes) in india are inadequate. this implies that these accidents will continue to exist in our academic workshops/laboratories, and will result in immediate consequences such as instructors’ loss of job due to their fault/negligence, students’ untimely dropout from school, damages to workshop’s environment and equipment, loss of school reputation and integrity, cost of repairs of workshop’s tools, machines and equipment, and temporary closure of school leading to loss of some days of school period (afeez, 2016). 7.2 common causes of electrical accidents in the workshops and laboratories the findings of the study also revealed that the respondents agreed with the proposed items presented to them on the common causes of electrical accidents in the workshops and laboratories. these include use of improper clothing; use of faulty tools, devices, equipment and machines; working in an unsafe condition such as splash of oil and grease; over confidence on workshop procedures; and use of powered tools, machines and equipment without adequate knowledge of their operation amongst others. a study conducted by ersoy (2013) conformed to this finding in which he affirmed that the main causes of occupational accidents are lack of training or carelessness of employees, old or poorly maintained machines, untidiness, noise, and too hot or too cold environments. furthermore, this finding is in agreement with the work of koo, nurulazam, rohaida, teo and salleh (2013) that reviewed literature and compiled the causes of electrical hazardous situations and conditions in the academic laboratory to include lack of safety knowledge and training, safety beliefs, effects of peers, self efficacy, and personal controllability. rahmani et al, (2013) also found that lack of protective equipment, insufficient professional skills, and negligence are the main causes of electrical accidents. this findings is also in line with finding of jain (2008) in which he categorized the causes of accidents as environmental factors, mental factors which include (ignorance, use of broken tools/equipment) and human factor which include (forgetfulness, alcoholisms and carelessness). since the respondents confirmed that these causes are the mastermind of one or more of the electrical injuries sustained by either students or staff, then this implies that the staff and students lack good training on electrical safety awareness. instructors’ lack of good training on electrical safety awareness is an outright violation of electricity at work regulation, 1989, that requires any employee necessary to work on or near electrical systems to have suitable training, skills, and knowledge for the task to prevent injury to themselves and others. anything short of complying with the electricity at work regulation will result in unsafe work practices which will endanger the lives of the inhabitants, the equipment, machines and the work environment. 7.3 nature of frequent electrical accidents in the workshops and laboratories furthermore, the respondents in this study accepted all the eight items proposed for probing the nature of accidents in the workshops and laboratories. these comprise a fall in the workshop/laboratory due to shock and slippery floor, accident due to loose dress with tendency to be caught up by rotating part of electrical machine or equipment, accidents due to electrical arc flash, flash current flowing through the body, flash over, and thermal spark among others. this finding is consistent with niosh (1998) that the four main types of electrical accidents and/or injuries are electrocution, electric shock, burns and fall caused by contact with electrical energy. this outcome is also agreed by afeez (2016) in his study where be stressed the following as type of frequent accidents in the workshop/laboratory: falling below the working level, slipping to surface in the workshop, exposure to electric shock among others. since these electrical accidents do occur frequently as confirmed by the respondents, this implies that the purposes of academic workshops/laboratories as a safe environment where one can teaches, learns and conduct research, are defeated. it also implies that the there is carelessness and negligence on the part of the teachers/instructors/technicians/supervisors on the enforcement of safety rules and regulations, which umeokafor, isaac, jones and umeadi (2014) described as very crucial in guaranteeing the effectiveness of regulations. further, idubur and osiamoje (2013) opined that devoid of appropriate enforcement, regulations are tantamount to no laws. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 34 published by ideas spread this situation of non-compliance to safety regulations will therefore results in serious negative impacts such as loss of income, disability, death inter-alia. 7.4 measures to reduce accident occurrence, and promote students’ compliance to safety rules and regulations the respondents of the study agreed with all the items presented to them on the precautionary measures to reduce accidents and promote students’ compliance to safety rules and regulations in the workshops/laboratories. accepted measures consists prohibition of conducting unauthorized experiments, tasks or job by students; conducting safety inspection and safety audit periodically; provision of automatic fire detection system and automatic fire alert circuit in risk zones; new students should review safety orientation before using tools, machines, and equipment in the workshop/laboratory; and formation of departmental safety club among others. this finding is in concise with the work of hodgson, mckinney, and degrate, (2011) that safe behaviors and observing all rules and regulations will play a vital role in reducing or even eliminating all kinds of accidents in the workshop and laboratories. patrick and babatope (2013) found that the observance and compliance of safety measures in workshops among engineering students in nigeria was above average. the respondents’ outright acceptance of the proposed measures implies that these measures if implemented will go a long way in reducing the incidences of electrical accidents and/or injuries in the workshops/laboratories. as a result, the workplaces will be free from avoidable mishap which causes injury to the person, damage to machines, tools and equipment. this will undoubtedly establish a successful safety services that will improve the outcome of engineering works, add quality and lifespan of workers, and equipment lives. ultimately, the findings of the study generally imply that adequate dispositions in electrical safety and awareness should be embedded into the engineering education curriculum in nigeria. in line with this, turekova and bagalova (2018) stressed that educational organizers must ensure occupational safety and hygiene, since this has an economic impact and educational attainment, in addition to humanistic nature. this is also consistent with endroyo, yuwono and mardapi (2015) who believed that to guard against industrial accidents, it becomes essential to enhance the knowledge, skills, attitudes and habits of the people involved by adequately embedding safety education in the school curriculum. 8. conclusion an investigation of electrical safety awareness and practices of staff and students in academic workshops/laboratories has two-fold benefits. it helps minimizes the risks of electrical accidents in the workshops/laboratories, and promotes the chances of employing safety-conscious electrical personnel by industries and other organizations. the results demonstrate that staff and students do not strictly observe electrical safety practices in the workshops/laboratories. the results also revealed the common causes of electrical accidents in the workshops/laboratories; nature of frequent electrical accidents; and measures to reduce electrical accidents and promote students’ compliance to electrical safety rules and regulations. as a result, the department of electrical engineering, bayero university, kano, should, as a matter of urgency, introduce a course on electrical safety awareness into their curriculum. there is also need for periodical training on electrical safety awareness through seminars, workshops and conferences, for instructors and technicians. this will be of utmost important in order to reduce the occurrences of electrical accidents in the workshops/laboratories, which will save the management unnecessary expenses with respect to cost of repairs, loss of job on the part of staff, students’ drop-out, injuries leading to disabilities and deaths in case of fatal accidents. references afeez, y. s. 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(2015). safety management practices in small and medium enterprises in india. safety and health at work, 6(1), 46-55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shaw.2014.10.006 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice humanities and social science research; vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v2n4p47 47 published by ideas spread impact of rurality on students’ educational transition in lesotho. a case study ‘malimpho elsie seotsanyana1 & mafa maiketso2 1 department of language and social education, national university of lesotho, lesotho 2 centre for teaching and learning, national university of lesotho, lesotho correspondence: ‘malimpho elsie seotsanyana, department of language and social education, national university of lesotho, lesotho. address: p.o. roma180, lesotho. fax: 266-2234-0000. orcid no. 0000-00017914-5365. e-mail: me.seotsanyana nul.ls, mseotsanyana yahoo.co.uk, mafamaiketsosda gmail.com received: september 25, 2019; accepted: october 25, 2019; published: november 26, 2019 abstract the students’ views, from the secondary education in the rural areas in lesotho, have been sought on the impact of rurality in relation to their transition from secondary education to higher education (in this regards, the national university of lesotho (nul). the students’ views were sought through their autobiographies. autobiographical narratives were employed because it was assumed that they are a good tool for knowing oneself better. the study was qualitative, with the adoption of a case study research design. the participating students were drawn from three of the ten lesotho districts that are situated in the rural areas. the purpose of the research study was to find out whether studying at the university has an impact on the students who have transited from secondary education in the rural areas and whether university education assists and prepares them to achieve their intentions and to reach a successful outcome. a purposively selected number of eleven (11) students from the rural areas formed the sample of the study. a one question questionnaire was designed to collect information on the students’ experiences from their nul studies in relation to the transition from secondary education to higher education. an interpretative analysis was employed to unveil the results of the study. the research study finds that the students have deficiencies. secondary education has not moulded them to have a sudden engagement with their studies in higher education. many of them still require further training in study skills in order to cope with the academic demands of higher education. it is therefore recommended that nul should have a programme that serves as a bridge between secondary and higher education. keywords: the national university of lesotho (nul), rurality, students’ views, transition, influence, secondary education, higher education 1. introduction the paper reflects the influence of rurality on teaching and learning at the institutions of higher education in lesotho in general and at the national university of lesotho, in particular. it discusses the problems related to the transition of students from rural secondary schools to nul. the study is based on the assumption that rurality in lesotho may represent a particular aspect of inequality that leaves students from a rural background at a disadvantage when they transit to tertiary education. according to students’ autobiographies (students’ autobiographies presented on the 15th august, 2018), inequality in lesotho may be caused by the fact that the nature of deep rural areas does not give motivation to studying because the average society is illiterate. the rural families are poor and have limited food. this comes with a host of other challenges not only in school work but also in a limited ability of one to participate in extra-curricular activities. poverty also leads to increased absenteeism and early dropouts in both primary and secondary schools. more of the nature of rurality in lesotho is raised in the later sections of this paper. studies such as guiffrida (2008), maxwell and modhuvozi (2014), sovanak, vouchsieng and navy (2018), pheko, monteiro, tlhabano and mphele (2014) and marcus (2018) have been conducted on the impact of rurality as students transit from secondary schools and proceed to the institutions of higher learning. specifically, guiffrida (2008: 2) indicates that “students from rural communities face additional challenges when adjusting to large colleges and universities compared to students from urban and suburban areas”. the author stipulates that these additional challenges include a) a drastic increase in curriculum offerings, b) lack of exposure to professional and technical careers, c) an overwhelming plethora of course offerings, d) exposure to hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 48 published by ideas spread unfriendly and hostile social relationships, taking into account the fact that rural students come from relaxed and friendly social relationships, e) and lack of parental support (guiffrida, 2008: 11 -19). the challenges encountered by students in their transition from rural to tertiary education attracted the attention of institutions such as lycoming college in the usa (marcus, 2018: 3), the university of exeter medical school, medical imaging in the uk (bleiker, et al., 2018: 28), the urban universities in cambodia (sovanak, vouchsieng & navy, 2018: 94), the secondary schools in germany (bakadorova & raufelder, 2018: 57), the university of south africa (maxwell & mudhovozi, 2014: 4) and the university of botswana (pheko et al., 2014: 313). some of the challenges that tend to feature predominantly in students’ transition and render the students vulnerable to poor academic performance include the teachers’ indifference to the students’ needs (bleiker, et al, 2018: 28; marcus, 2018: 3), new learning demands, incompetence, loneliness, dependency (bakadorova & raufelder, 2018: 57; maxwell & mudhovozi, 2014: 4; sovanak, vouchsieng & navy, 2018: 94) as well as low proficiency in written and spoken english language (pheko et al., 2014: 313; sovanak, vouchsieng & navy, 2018: 94). however, these institutions have begun to address the students’ learning impediments by engaging them in activities such as course outlines, teaching methods and assessment ((bleiker, et al, 2018: 28), for example. this exercise helps teaches to pay attention to individual students’ emotions, perceptions, attitudes and expectations (bleiker, et al., 2018: 28). the institutions further assist teachers to practice positive teacher-student relationships, to facilitate students’ competences, relatedness and independent study skills in order to enhance their learning (bakadorova & raufelder, 2018: 57). in the process, teachers learn to review their teaching methods (virat, et al., 2018: 4) so that their interaction with students may serve as a bridge from a rural background to urban tertiary institutions. the national university of lesotho, the institution of higher learning, is no exception in admitting students from all areas of the country, inclusive of those that come from the rural areas who are to pursue their professional and technological careers. it was, therefore, the aim of the study to explore the issues facing the nul specifically on rurality and the educational transition. it addressed the question: what challenges do students from the rural secondary schools in lesotho experience when they go to the institutions of higher learning? the objective of the study was: (a) to determine the nature of the challenges that students from the rural areas experience when they study at nul. 2. literature review 2.1 the meaning of rurality although there is no common definition of rurality, this section presents the various definitions that are given in the literature. according to kim et al. (2014: 7309), the word ‘rural’ is manifested in economic, sociological, psychological, ethnic, racial and geographical forms. urban peoples are generally non-agricultural while ruralists mostly reside in places where the dominant livelihood activities are agricultural. (kim et al., 2014: 7309). beyond the core features related to the natural resources and population density, rural areas can be characterized in different ways, such as places where most people spend their working time on farms as well as the abundance and relative cheapness of land and association with long distance and poor infrastructure (abdulwakeel, 2017). it is also a place of tradition rather than modernity, of agriculture rather than industry, of nature rather than culture and changelessness rather than dynamism` (abdulwakeel, 2017). in sweden, rural areas have been categorized through the characteristics such as non-existent communal exercise, inadequate connectedness to the conveyance system (it network and innovation), low technology for crops, livestock farming and poor savings culture (abdulwakeel, 2017). 2.2 rurality in the context of lesotho rurality in lesotho is couched in circumstances that often compromise the quality of education for students who grow up in this place and makes it difficult for them to transit from secondary to higher education. rurality involves the keeping of livestock and crop farming in the districts that are mountainous, inaccessible and sparsely populated (marrion, 2016: 8). most housing structures in rural lesotho do not meet any standards for decent living (makuta, 2001: 2). the bulk of them are built out of mud, stones or sticks and often lack proper ventilation due to the absence of windows. safety in such houses is negligible as the doors are run-down and often lack suitable door locks. sanitation is a challenge. basotho in these areas often have to grapple with (and therefore need to construct) pit latrines the ways to improve them (makuta, 2001: 2). since teaching and learning thrive in conditions that resonate hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 49 published by ideas spread with extra-mural activities as well as the physical and mental welfare of all the stakeholders, it may not be difficult to appreciate why students in the rural areas struggle to transit from high school to institutions of higher learning. the challenge of limited services (such as lack of infrastructure, economic and health centers and their being largely inaccessible (marrion, 2016: 2), is compounded with lack of electricity. according to mpholo et al. (2018: 100), despite the serious efforts of the lesotho government, the lesotho electricity company (lec) and other stakeholders, the level of rural household electrification and affordability are still low. whereas in 2015 about 72% of urban households were grid-connected, this was only true for 5.5% of the rural households. furthermore, the vast majority of the rural households use wood for fuel while electricity use, where available, represents a small share of the domestic energy consumption (mpholo, et al., 2018: 100). the lack of electricity in particular implies that schools in these areas hardly have science laboratories or computers. students from these places tend to encounter computers for the first time when they transit to colleges and universities in the urban areas (mpholo, et al., 2018: 100). the boys who come from wealthy families, in terms of livestock, tend to miss school on account of having to look after livestock (lefoka, 2007: 13-14). this occupation goes on even during the weekends. those who grow up exposed to initiation schools believe that they have obtained manhood. they become arrogant and refuse to go back to school (liphoto, 2018:1) after their initiation. the overall experience of the rural learners they are taught only by basotho nationals who speak the local language or english language. this experience proves to be a challenge when students get to institutions of higher learning where they are sometimes taught by foreigners with unfamiliar accents. however, the moments enjoyed by most students are in winter, where they sit around the three-stone fireplace and roast ears of dried corn with other family members (countries and their cultures, 2000). these are instances in which storytellers, dancers and musicians join the audience in chanting, clapping and singing to retell ancient folktales (countries and their cultures, 2000: 5). in the end, it is the combination of all the circumstances referred to above that suggest that the quality of education of the students in the rural areas leaves much to be desired. 2.3 other case studies on rurality and transition into higher education guiffrida (2008: 2) substantiates the assumption that students encounter some challenges in their transition from rural secondary schools to tertiary education. guiffrida alludes to the benefits enjoyed by the students in the rural settings. he writes: a) “small classes enable teachers to give personalised attention to students; b) pupil to teacher ratio is normally lower. this allows for more effective learning experience; c) rural environment tends to be more relaxed, friendly and collectivist in nature; whereas urban environments tend to be more hurried, less friendly and more competitive; d) social relationships in rural communities tend to be more personal, tightly-knit than urban social relationships” (guiffrida, 2008: 12). instructors in some colleges such as lycoming college, usa, acknowledge that once students from a rural background get to college, they are more likely to drop out (marcus, 2018: 3). their excuses are often that they were not aware that the students from rural backgrounds need assistance. they say, "we never really came to terms with the fact that they needed extra support" (marcus, 2018: 3). the president of lycoming college is quoted as saying "it's fair to say that until fairly recently, we just took our rural students for granted," (marcus, 2018: 3). bleiker, et al. (2018: 28) of the university of exeter medical school, medical imaging, in the uk, conducted a study through which they discovered that since students often “differ in terms of individual psychological characteristics such as emotions, perceptions, attitudes and expectations” (all of which have an impact on academic performance, professional and technological careers), teachers should provide a safe and fair environment for them and for other teachers. they should also “listen to and respect [the] wishes and needs of the students” (bleiker, et al., 2018: 28). teachers were encouraged to devise the ways through which they can engage students in the design of course outlines, curriculum, teaching methods and assessment. in the process, teachers would be acquainted with individual students’ needs, expectations, perceptions and feelings (bleiker, et al, 2018: 28). the study concluded that when teachers have an idea about the background of their students, they are likely to advance equality and diversity (bleiker, et al., 2018: 29) while at the same time exercising compassion and non-judgmental acceptance of all their students. in another study conducted in france the focus was on assisting the teachers to become acquainted with the concept of compassionate love. the teachers learned that such a concept was: “… an attitude toward other(s) either close others or strangers or all of humanity, containing feelings, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 50 published by ideas spread cognitions and behaviors that are focused on caring, concern, tenderness and an orientation toward supporting, helping and understanding the other(s), particularly when the other(s) is (are) perceived to be suffering or in need” (virat, m., et al., 2018: 4). part of what french teachers were expected to do in their venture of teaching and learning and applying compassionate love in their interaction with their students was to help the students to feel that they were valued at a fundamental level (virat, m., et al, 2018: 4). the teachers were made aware that they should make their students to feel cared for and to develop some trust in their teachers; the teachers themselves had to learn how to have accurate cognitive understanding of the students. it was on that premise that they could become open and sensitive to their students’ needs. this relational approach proved to be beneficial to french students and enhanced their autonomous motivation for learning (virat et al., 2018: 4). a study by bakadorova & raufelder (2018: 57) focused on the effect of a positive teacher-student relationship on students’ learning in one german secondary school. as is the case with students transiting from rural schools to university, this study focused on students who were transiting from one level of education to another. the students’ transition involved encountering an entirely new school environment (including new rules, classes, learning demands, daily rhythms, etc.), which was shaped by new social relationships with both peers and teachers (bakadorova & raufelder, 2018: 57). such a transition made students feel vulnerable. bakadorova & raufelder (2018: 57) utilized the self-determination theory (sdt) to determine to what extent the role of the teacher-student relationship enhances the students’ learning. according to this theory, motivation for learning is based on three innate psychological needs, namely, competence, relatedness and autonomy (bakadorova & raufelder, 2018: 57). the claim is that satisfaction of these needs enables students to adjust better to their new environment (bakadorova & raufelder, 2018: 57) and to advance in their academic learning. for example, when students are provided with well-tailored and challenging tasks, given manageable responsibilities in class, assisted with tips to integrate into the new social surroundings and afforded boundless opportunities for receiving detailed feedback from each teacher, their competence becomes unstoppable (bakadorova & raufelder, 2018: 57). with regards to relatedness, the findings of bakadorova & raufelder’s (2018:58) study suggest that “positive teacher-student relationships promote a feeling of security and warmth, which support a sense of relatedness and, thereby, the students' motivation and engagement.” the students enjoy an increased feeling of being personally accepted and cared for by others and this enhances their motivation to be committed to their studies. finally, a positive teacher-student relationship seems to usher students into an experience of autonomy, which is pronounced as “the developmental demand to self-regulate an activity so that it becomes intrinsically important to an individual” (bakadorova & raufelder, 2018: 58). similarly, drawing from a sample of middle and high school students in the usa, a study conducted by brinkwortha et al. (2018: 24) also focused on the impact of teacher-student relationships on the teaching and learning (brinkwortha et al, 2018: 24) and established that students’ performance improved significantly . the researchers learned that in order to help the students to improve their performance, teachers had to identify students’ interests, to develop interventions and to assess the effectiveness of these interventions (brinkwortha et al., 2018: 24). more importantly, the study found that when teachers were keen to promote students' social emotional learning in addition to traditional outcomes such as grades, test scores and graduation rates, “students' academic achievement affects behaviour and motivation improve{s].” (brinkwortha et al., 2018: 25). similarly, in the urban universities in cambodia, sovanak, vouchsieng and navy (2018: 94) emphasised the need to assist students through a transitional bridge in order to curb academic learning frustrations encountered by students from rural to urban universities. in their view, the bridge would assist students to overcome the learning challenges such as “poor academic performance, language barriers, financial constraints, adjusting to an urban lifestyle, difficulty in making friends and living alone” (2018: 94). maxwell and mudhovozi (2014) write about the challenges that students experience in their transition from rural high schools to the university of south africa. they posit that “ [t]transiting from rural high school to university is stressful enough but enrolling into a suitable degree programme is even more demanding in this era of heightened competition for places at institutions of higher learning” (2014: 3). they further argue that encounters such as inadequate places in tertiary institutions, failure to satisfy the minimum choice requirements as well as financial trials are more prevalent among the learners from the rural areas (maxwell & mudhovozi, 2014: 3). these scholars add that the bulk of matriculants tend to come from humble backgrounds and that “rural school leavers who succeed to get into universities usually have troubles attaining high academic achievement even though intellectually they are no different from their urban peers” (maxwell & mudhovozi, 2014: 4). they claim that the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 51 published by ideas spread “learners often state that their high school coursework was not challenging enough” (maxwell & mudhovozi, 2014: 4). pheko et al. (2014) conducted a study in which they also have a record of students from the rural areas that went to study at the university of botswana, in an urban area. they indicated that some of the problems that students struggle with include the “perception of rudeness, reactions to dressing styles, views on greetings and salutations, experiences of stress associated with separation from family, challenges with using public transport and the use of english language” (pheko et al., 2014: 313). in conclusion, the case studies above provide concrete evidence that nul’s admission of students from rural educational backgrounds, in tandem with their challenges of transition into the urban learning institutions, is no exception. what is even more fascinating is that these case studies avail best practices that have worked to assist students to improve their academic performance in spite of the learning challenges in the new environments. the practices include: a) compassionate love (virat et al., 2018: 4) and positive teacher-student relationship (bakadorova & raufelder, 2018: 57; brinkwortha et al., 2018: 24). b) personalized attention (guiffrida, 2008: 2). c) friendly, safe and fair teaching and learning environment (guiffrida, 2008: 2; bleiker et al., 2018: 28). d) creating teachers’ awareness that students from the rural backgrounds need an extra hand (marcus, 2018: 3). e) listening to and respecting the needs of students (bleiker et al., 2018: 29). f) engaging students in curriculum design, course outlines, teaching methods and assessment (bleiker, et al, 2018: 29). g) crafting teachers’ self-awareness (bleiker, et al., 2018: 29). h) producing well-tailored and challenging tasks (bakadorova & raufelder, 2018: 57). i) promoting student independent and social emotional learning (brinkwortha et al., 2018: 24). j) building a bridge to circumvent language barriers and facilitate a better transition from rural and secondary to tertiary education (sovanak, vouchsieng & navy, and 2018: 94). with respect to the issues of rurality, an attempt has been made to respond, through the literature, to the question as to whether coming from the rural secondary education has an impact on studying at an institution of higher learning. there is a consensus among the authors such as guiffrida (2008), maxwell and mudhovozi (2014), pheko et al. (2014), marcus (2018, liphoto (2018) and bleiker et al. (2018) that there are challenges which students encounter when they study in universities in the urban areas. the following are examples of the identified challenges: a stressful life that is caused by experiencing a new environment, the students’ inability to enroll into a suitable degree programme, the students’ inability to attain a high achievement, problems to cope with new teaching methods and assessment, learning demands, as mentioned in the review of literature section. however, some authors indicate that, in the current phenomenon, no institution worthy of its mandate can remain indifferent to the question of rural-urban disparity in the higher education institutions (bakadorova and raufelder, 2018; marcus, 2018). according to (vouchsieng and navy, 2018), students who are transiting from rural schools to urban universities require a transitional bridge in order to reduce academic learning problems. it is against this background that the present study attempts to find out the nature of the impact of rurality on students’ learning at the institutions of higher learning, in this case, the nul. the findings might act as the awareness strategy to the university and a way of finding solutions that may assist the students in their learning. 3. methodology 3.1 research design this paper is based on a student survey that adopted a qualitative paradigm. the basic assumption for using this paradigm was that a qualitative study “describes what is” (kahn and best, 1993: 105). the qualitative approach adopted for this study is a case study research design. according to mertens, 2005: 229) case studies ‘study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or to interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them” based on the description of mertens, a case study approach seems to be appropriate for finding out the information regarding the impact of rurality on students’ studies at a university. the data for the study was collected through students’ autobiographies and then analysed thematically. that is, the attention was focused on the themes that arose from students’ autobiographies which featured their own experiences of secondary education hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 52 published by ideas spread and their transition to higher education. the themes were grouped for the purpose of identifying similarities and differences. a total of eleven (11) students formed a sample for the study. they were drawn from the deep rural areas of lesotho. the focus was placed on the students who were in the third and fourth years of study at nul). it was assumed that the students in those years of study are well experienced, have knowledge and better understanding of the two worlds – rural secondary school education and transition into higher education. such students could identify the similarities and differences of the two worlds. they could also identify the nature and impact of the transition such as the mode of teaching and learning. for example, they could identify the mode of communication, the quality of teaching, resource accessibility, information communication as well as technology and computer literacy. a one question questionnaire was designed to source information on students’ experiences. the question requested them to narrate their experiences of transiting from the rural secondary education to study at the nul, an institution of higher learning. the question read as follows: what are your experiences of studying at the nul after transiting from the secondary education in the rural areas? in a seminar, the objective of the study and the question to which the students were to respond were presented. they were provided with guidance to respond effectively and were guided to determine which aspects of their narratives were essential for the purpose of this study. they were each afforded ten days within which to complete the assignment. since the initial presentations of the narratives were quite lengthy as students still struggled with making the choices pertaining to which areas of their stories could be shared and which ones could be left out, specific days were scheduled in which students would present their written stories. they were at liberty to present as they pleased. the team of researchers and students would comment and ask questions for clarity after each presentation. the team later provided assistance in editing the students’ stories 3.2 analysis of data a thematic analysis was used in accordance with the one question, as indicated on page 4. similar themes were grouped together and were further supported by excerpts drawn from the students’ transcriptions. a thematic analysis is recommended by strauss and corbin (2008) because it discovers concepts and relationships in raw data. it then organizes data into categories to derive grounded theory. thus in this study, concepts and categories were organized to form themes from which theories could be derived. three themes have been analysed through the use of descriptive and interpretative analyses to indicate the results of the study. a few students’ excerpts are quoted to support the themes that have been raised. the collected data was also analysed and interpreted in relation to the problem and review of the relevant literature. the idea of a joined research study was also important in sharing the understanding of the emerging themes and reaching a consensus when analysing the data as well as drawing conclusions. 4. ethical consideration it was essential to request permission from a selected number of students to participate in the study on rurality and learning at nul. students were grouped and informed about the nature of the research study, the length of time to be spent on the project, the objective and the significance of the study and the procedure to be adopted for data collection. it was further indicated that they were allowed to withdraw from the study, should they wish to do so. this project had an informed consent and approval of the university centre of teaching and learning (ctl). the students wrote out their autobiographies and were expected to share their experiences of studying at nul. in a seminar, all the attendants, inclusive of students and ctl staff commented on the individual presentation. at the end of the presentation, an analysis of the autobiographies was done in order to draw conclusions on the nature of rurality and students’ learning. every participant was allowed to know the results of the other. permission was requested and granted of publishing the findings in a journal. 5. the findings as indicated earlier, the major purpose of the study was to explore the impact of the students’ transition from rural secondary schools to higher institutions of learning. the students’ attitudes, perceptions and views were explored to determine the extent to which studying in the rural areas affects their transition into nul. in this study, the question put to the students was: what are your experiences of studying in the rural secondary schools, and what was the nature of your transition from there to nul? in responding to the question, students’ were requested to write autobiographies. according to walker (2017: 1896), autobiographies ‘reflect a set of values, rules, and norms that govern a person’s learning and sense of logic and, “enable people to tell the stories of their storied lives” (ibid: 1896-97). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 53 published by ideas spread from the students’ autobiographies, a number of themes such as the challenges with the use of english language, communication skills, the selection of the curriculum of study, the use of technology, new teaching methods, the library use, low self-esteem and not coping with many assignments were identified. however, for the purposes of this study, only three of these themes are considered. the three are determined by condensing two or more themes that are related in order to end up with a smaller number, as indicated below: a) the use of the english language and communication skills b) the selection of the curriculum of study and low self-esteem c) problems with the use of technology and new teaching methods 5.1 the use of the english language and communication skills it is evident from the students’ autobiographies that there are more problems than benefits of transition from secondary schools to nul. with regard to the use of the english language, students identified some pointers to the problems of understanding english as the medium of instruction on a daily basis. these problems include lack of communication with other students, lack of communication and participation in class, struggle with understanding assignments and problems with everything learned in english language. one student (s1) (the letter s represents the word student) expressed the view in relation to the use of english language in the following way: s1 english is a very big problem for me. it is the most dominant medium of instruction that teachers use when lecturing. i found myself compelled to major in sesotho because of this. i thought this was going to be easy but it was even worse to do sesotho assignments using english books…understanding meaning or interpretation…therefore having to do sesotho in english was not helping because…when translating, there were no equivalent words due to language differences so much that i failed and supplemented three courses from the sesotho curriculum. another student elaborated on the idea of problems with english language use as follows: s2 english language usage has been a great challenge to me. the challenge lies in the way the university runs its activities in assignments through thuto, email and through using the post to make announcements was a hard nut to crack. one student asserted that: s3 when i came to the university, language usage was a great challenge to me from arrival. this was because we were not forced to speak in english language in my secondary school. other secondary schools encouraged their students to speak in english language at all times. if students failed to follow this instruction, they were punished. another student added her views on the use of the english language in relation to communication skills: s4 but here at the university, things are different, everything is learned in english and i had to memorise everything in order to pass. the big problem came when i had to communicate with other students. i would agree with everything they said because i did not know how to reply. as a result, i would spend the whole day being quiet. it is evident therefore, from students’ perspectives, that the key factor that caused inadequate use of english language is their previous secondary school practices and the school administration. teachers in the rural secondary schools appear not to have been committed to speaking english. they even failed to make students feel committed to the language, yet it is well known that the use of english language is mandatory in institutions of higher learning. 5.2 selection of the curriculum of study on the examination of the data collected from the students’ autobiographies, three types of views are revealed about the selection of the curriculum of study: (i) students land in the study programmes which are not of their preferences; (ii) the university is not effective in exposing the students to all the programmes of study because the assumption is that the students have already made their choice when filling in the application forms. (iii) as a result, some students regret their choice. the excerpts below reflect the students’ experiences in this regard. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 54 published by ideas spread s7 i had an application form of course, but i was not in a position to choose what i really wanted to be. that only came to my mind when i was about to step my foot at the administration office. i said to myself, “may be, i could be a teacher so as to fulfill my mother’s dream. s3 in the second year, i encountered a challenge in having selected my majors. i ended up taking the courses that i did not really want to study. s2 i could not focus in class because i had selected what i was not interested in. i did not like it. i was always depressed; sometimes i would cry and become inattentive. ultimately, i failed the programme and started selecting the one that i liked in the following academic year. it means that i had wasted one year already. s11 i also felt like withdrawing from the university when i realised that i had chosen a curriculum that was not of my preference. i saw my peers selecting it and i thought that it must be very good, only to find after three months that the curriculum that i require was available. i wanted to withdraw from the university that year and re-join it the following year. but i was warned that i might not get the sponsorship. so, i have to continue with the programme that i had previously selected. the above views illustrate that there is a need, at nul, to have preparation of the new students prior to their curriculum selection. the fact that the students make mistakes in their curriculum selection is indicative of the unavailability of university academic structures that can be used to expose students to the understanding of the university curricula. being exposed to broad base curricula would facilitate better choices while still bearing in mind the requirements of each curriculum. based on the students’ comments, it appears that the university should develop a cross-over bridge that can allow students to have an easy way to the university systems. 5.3 problems with technology use and university teaching methods the frequent problems that the eleven students encountered were based on the computer and library use. they further, commented on the university teaching methods which they had never been exposed to before. their failure to use the computers and the library resulted from the fact that these facilities were not available in their secondary schools. secondly, the lecturers used learner-based teaching methods that were unfamiliar to what they experienced in the secondary schools where a teacher played the dominant role and never promoted an interactive way of teaching and learning. the following are the remarks that indicate the various problems that they encountered when they moved into the nul systems of operation. s9 when i arrived, i had neither computer nor internet access. i found it difficult to employ digital resources such as youtube for emphasis on what in class… access to the internet in general was indeed another factor that affected me negatively because i did not even know wireless network and the learning management system (thuto), a software platform where courses, assignments, announcements were posted. as a result of my ignorance, i would find myself left behind when others were up to date on everything concerning the course that they were taking. two examples that explain the problem with access to the library are as follows: s6 at the university, we learn on our own, there is no longer a teacher running after you, telling you when to read. there is no specific tune selected to study as it was back in secondary schools. assignments are piled one after the other. the worst problem is the big and complex library. i sometimes spend more than three hours looking for a single book. s2 i knew nothing about the library catalogue and websites. we were just told to search for books. having to read a book on my own in the library was a problem. i could not understand a thing. i relied on my friends to help me make a meaning out of what i read. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 55 published by ideas spread two examples of the challenges of classroom teaching methods were as follows: s1 i often performed badly in tests and assignments because i did not understand how the lecturers operated. they would come and explain some points but would never go into the details on the content. instead, they would end up saying that we should go and read for ourselves. i could not memorize what was taught in the classroom as i used to do at the secondary school. s4 a power point was a big obstacle for me because when i tried to copy the points, the lecturer would have moved fast to other points. some students used their cellphones to take photos of the slides. but i did not have any and i had to rely on those who had them. our families are poor and they cannot afford to buy us cellphones. some of the students from the eleven indicated that lack of exposure to the university teaching methods made them lose their confidence in learning. this is what they said: s10 this type of teaching at the university made me lose self-esteem. i used to think that i was brilliant but i scored low marks in every course. i even became reluctant to ask for help from other students because of the nature of the campus activities where everyone is in a hurry for something or the other. that contributed to the fear of asking questions. i was afraid to ask a student with a high ability, especially males because i thought that he might rape me if there were only the two of us. the impact of rurality on the students’ performance is observable from their autobiographies. it appears that the students who prepare to go to the university need orientation regarding the university academic and non-academic activities. one might find it in order to introduce a bridge between secondary and higher education. the students believe that the recommendation mentioned above would make a difference when they get to the university. 6. discussion the challenges which students from rural backgrounds experience in their transition from high schools to university, as depicted in literature, seem to resonate with those that students studying at nul from rural backgrounds were grappling with. the students at nul blame their academic inadequacy on their lack of appropriate study skills, on their inability to satisfactorily express themselves in written and spoken english language, on their struggle to adjust to sudden and unprecedented personal freedom engendered by their urban lifestyle, on the difficulty to make friends for the purpose of group assignments, on studying the courses which are at variance with their personal ambitions and on the teacher-centred lecture methods where the lecturers dictate, and students write notes and listen at the same time. just as it was noted that students in some universities in the usa were taken for granted and not furnished with extra assistance, it is possible that students at nul are experiencing the same challenge. the teachers at nul may not be aware of the students’ needs, perceptions, expectations, frustrations and lived experiences, as highlighted in autobiographies. the literature pertaining to students’ transitions from high school to tertiary institutions may have been helpful in highlighting the challenges that the students experience in different parts of the world but it seems to fail to concretize clear-cut strategies to reach out to students who are in dire need of academic and socioemotional assistance. some of the challenges featuring in the autobiographies of students from nul include low self-esteem and selfpity because of poverty, being unaccustomed to instructional technology, lack of study skills and the need for inspirational teaching. reference is made to these challenges in order to point out that while the literature alludes to the benefits engendered by rural school environments such as teacher’s personal attention to the students, relaxed, friendly and the collectivist nature of learning and teaching as well as the meaningful personal relationships among the peers and between teachers and students outside the classrooms (guiffrida, 2008: 12). this literature has gaps in terms of what teachers and students may do to overcome the challenges that threaten the academic success of the students from the rural backgrounds. 7. conclusion the study has highlighted the problems that the students from the rural areas met as they transited and studied with nul. it can be concluded that autobiographical narratives are useful for getting information on oneself. the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 56 published by ideas spread students’ narratives were detailed and stipulated various problems, namely, the challenges with english language and communication skills, the selection of the curriculum and low self-esteem, problems with technology use and new teaching methods. it seems that these challenges may deter students’ academic performance. one would assume that even those rural students who did not participate in the study experience similar problems. it calls for a great concern that warrants the university to provide mechanisms that could assist students to be at par with their colleagues from the urban areas. references abdulwakeel, s. (2017). what is rurality? swedish university of agriculture. retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319123136_what_is_rurality retrieved on 13th sept 2019. bakadorova, o., & raufelder, d. (2018). the essential role of the teacher-student relationship in students' need satisfaction during adolescence. journal of applied developmental psychology, 58, 57-65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2018.08.004 baker, p., gabrielatos, c., khosravinik, m., krzyżanowski, m., mcenery, t., & wodak, r. (2008). a useful methodological synergy? combining critical discourse analysis and corpus linguistics to examine discourses of refugees and asylum seekers in the uk press. discourse & society, 19(3), 273-306. https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926508088962 bleiker, j., knapp, k. m., morgan-trimmer, s., & hopkins, s. j. (2018). “it's what's behind the mask”: psychological diversity in compassionate patient care. radiography, 24, 28-32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radi.2018.06.004 brinkwortha, m. e., mcintyrea, j. jurascheka, a. d. & gehlbach, h. (2018). teacher-student relationships: the positives and negatives of assessing both perspectives. journal of applied developmental psychology, 55, 24-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2017.09.002 countries and their cultures. (2000). lesotho. retrieved september 16, 2019 from https://www.everyculture.com/ja-ma/lesotho.html cranford, n. (2017). difference between positivist, interpretive and critical sociology. education by demand media. http://www.qualres.org/homeinte-3516.html retrieved 21 feb 2017 not. guiffrida, d. a. (2008). preparing rural students for large colleges and universities. kahn, j. v., & best, j. w. (1993). research in education. boston: allyn and bacon. kim, i., masin, a. g., achiv, a. d., & abdullahi, i. u. (2014). climate change: effects on agricultural growth and rural transformation in nigeria. international journal of current research, 6(7), 7307-7314. lefoka, p. j. (2007). out of school missing boys–a study from lesotho. commonwealth education partnerships 2007, 13-14. retrieved september 16, 2019 from http://www.ungei.org/lesotho.pdf liphoto, n. (2018). keeping an eye on initiation schools. retrieved september 16, 2019 from https://www.thepost.co.ls/news/keeping-an-eye-on-initiation-schools/ makuta, m. (2001). habitat for humanity lesotho. retrieved september 17, 2019 from https://www.habitat.org/where-we-build/lesotho marcus, j. (2018). 'going to office hours is terrifying' and other tales of rural students in college. retrieved may 24, 2019 from https://www.npr.org/2018/12/12/668530699/-going-to-office-hours-is-terrifyingandother-hurdles-for-rural-students-in-col marrion, m. (2016). in rural lesotho, reaching communities with basic services. united nations children’s fund. retrieved may 24, 2019 from https://reliefweb.int/report/lesotho/rural-lesotho-reaching-communities basic-services maxwell, g. m., & mudhovozi, p. (2014). transiting from rural high school to university: the challenges of getting into an appropriate degree programme. new voices in psychology, 10(2), 3-14. © unisa press issn 18126371. mertens, d. m. (2005). research and evaluation in education and psychology – integrating diversity with quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods. london: sage publication. moletsane, r. (2012). repositioning educational research on rurality and rural education in south africa: beyond deficit paradigms. perspectives in education, 30(1). retrieved from https://ajol.info/index.php/pie/article/view/77005 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 57 published by ideas spread mpholo, m., meyer-renschhausen, m., thamae, r. i., molapo, t., mokhuts’oane, l., taele, b. m., & makhetha, l. (2018). rural household electrification in lesotho, 23-26 january 2018, national university of lesotho on occasion of nulistice 2018. chapter 8. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93438-9_8 mulkeen, a., & chen, d. (editors) (2008). teachers for rural schools experiences in lesotho, malawi, mozambique, tanzania, and uganda. africa human development series. the world bank washington d. c. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-0-8213-7479-5 pheko, m. m., monteiro, n., tlhabano, k. n., & mphele, b. m. (2014). rural-to-urban migrations: acculturation experiences among university students in botswana. international journal adolesc. youth, 19(3), 306-317. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2014.928782 sovanak, l., vouchsieng, l. & navy, m. (2018). the challenges of higher education for rural students in urban universities in cambodia, 94-106. retrieved october 9, 2019 from https://uc.edu.kh/userfiles/image/2018/the_challenges_of_higher_education.pdf thanh, n. c., & thanh, t. t. l. (2015). the interconnection between interpretivist paradigm and qualitative methods in education. american journal of educational science, 1(2), 24-27. virat, m., trouillet, r., & favre, d. (2018). a french adaptation of the compassionate love scale for teachers: validation on a sample of teachers and correlation with teacher autonomous motivation. psychol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psfr.2018.03.003 walker, a. (2017). critical autobiography as research. the qualitative report, 22(7), 1896-1908. retrieved from https://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol22/iss7/10 dr. ‘malimpho seotsanyana is a senior lecturer at the national university of lesotho, faculty of education. she teaches and supervises students’ theses on development studies education as well as programme monitoring and evaluation. she attained her doctor of philosophy in development studies education at the university of the western cape, south africa, where her research focused on development studies education programme monitoring and evaluation. since then, her area of research and publication is on programme monitoring and evaluation. she has co–authored book chapters on the lesotho education system. mr. mafa maiketso has been an academic programmes developer at the center for teaching and learning at the national university of lesotho since 2015. his unit supports students’ academic learning. he obtained his masters of education degree at the university of botswana. he is a counsellor and facilitates seminars and workshops on examination preparation. study skills such as self-motivation, note-taking, reading and writing techniques, balancing social with academic life and coping with intimidating teachers. mr. maiketso is a freelance writer for local newspapers and a radio presenter on socio-emotional issues. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v1n2p9 9 published by ideas spread complexity of reconciliation of multiple regional identities and regional policies: example of bosnia and herzegovina goran mutabdzija1 1 department of geography, faculty of philosophy, university of east sarajevo, bosnia and herzegovina correspondence: goran mutabdzija, department of geography, faculty of philosophy, pale 71420, bosnia and herzegovina. tel: 387-57-223-479. e-mail: goran.mutabdzija@ffuis.edu.ba, goran.mutabdzija@gmail.com received: july 6, 2018; accepted: august 21, 2018; published: october 18, 2018 the research is financed by author. abstract bosnia and herzegovina (bih) today shows marked inefficiency, which in economic terms is seen as an example of extremely unfavourable macroeconomic indicators. it is the most visible in the domain of the unemployment rate according to which this is the first country in europe. this economic reality is particularly reflected in the elements of the spatial structure (population and settlements) and which flows into the overall social relations that are recognized as non-perspective countries / regions. this is one of the reasons why bih is the first country in the world by the percentage of inhabitants who do not live in the country where they were born. the complexity of relations in bih reflects the complexity of regional identities, which are recognized as the formula 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 (one state + two entities + three nations + four different religions). in addition to religious diversity, regional identities are characterized by physiognomic, cultural, economic and legal specificities of the existing two entities, which can be better reconciled and harmonized through a more efficient regional policy. keywords: bosnia and herzegovina (state bih), spatial structures, regional identities, republic of srpska (entity rs), federation of bosnia and herzegovina (entity fbih), regional policy 1. introduction the notion of regional identity is a very complex and wide-ranging question that can be interpreted differently in a wide range of physiognomic and cultural landscapes. depending on the interpretation of this term, two situations can be identified. the first refers to "endangered" people or ethnic groups, who accept this term as a kind of "last resort" through which the minority population defends the right to its cultural specialty and other specificities. therefore, the regional identity carries the idea that part of the person's identity is rooted not only in the country, but also in the region in which he lives. this can also be seen on the example in which one, hypothetically, asks us where we are from. if we respond from the republic of srpska or quebec, and not from bih or canada, then this is an illustrative example of regional identity. in terms of gradation, regional identity can also be represented as a sense of belonging, similar to that of a national identity, but to a lesser extent. many nations live in unhealthy natural geographical conditions in the northern part of europe and are confronted with a prominent process of emigration of their compatriots. in order to preserve the sustainability of development, they create a social awareness according to which regional identity gathers young people and aims to develop and nurture a sense of belonging to a given region. a similar example may refer to the mountain population of scotland or eastern serbia. the second context relates to a critical research of narratives about regional identity and its, possibly conservative, fetishized view of the power of the region, which goes beyond other forms of power in a regional context. 1.1 regional concepts of identity and policy: what’s the problem? bih was part of former yugoslavia which after the first multiparty elections in 1991 and the civil war (1992-95), was established as independent state. unfortunately, not even this new state of the two-entity structure with three equal nations failed to harmonize political goals with existing regional identities for the benefit of all citizens. observing the current regional identities, a significant difference between the existing three ethnic concepts is observed. the first question is why regional identity is important problem? that idea has long been implicit in geography, as traditional approaches to regions and regionalism often celebrate the primordial nature hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 10 published by ideas spread of the region, emphasizing their "personality" and harmony / unity between the region and its inhabitants... regional identity is, in a way, an interpretation of the process through which the region becomes institutionalized, a process that consists of the production of territorial boundaries, symbols and institutions. this process simultaneously provokes and conditions discourses / practices / rituals that move on borders, symbols and institutional practices. practices and media discourses gathering the structural and experiential dimensions of the process, it is useful to differentiate between the identity of the region and the regional identity (or regional awareness) of people living inside or outside of it (paasi, 2003, pp. 475-477). traditionally regional geographic narrations have lost their validity in academic research and the corresponding ideological contexts of their production are now being explored by historians of geographical ideas. “since the 1970s, reflections on the idea of a region have been characterized by the coexistence of two approaches: the classical one, with its emphasis on objective realities and the role of economic forces in the shaping of space, and they lived space one, with its interest in images, representations, signs, symbols, affectivity, and meaning. it appears today that the two approaches share a common aim: how to explain the social construction of space? in the past, geographers insisted mainly on the role of ecological conditions, economic infrastructure and activities. today, they are also interested in ideological superstructures, narratives, representations and images” (claval, 1998, pp. 18). narration of regional identity relies on various elements: ideas about nature, landscape, built environment, culture / ethnicity, dialect, economic success /recession, periphery / central attitude, marginalization, stereotyped images of people / communities and their fictitious history, utopias, and various arguments on identifying people. in order to create imaginary identities, a number of examples in practice and discourses are contextually used to construct desirable narratives with elements of more or less closed forms. extensive literary opus, academic conferences and thousands of websites testify to the fact that regional identity is in various ways on the agenda, whereby it can be a constituent element of localized resistance to globalization. “cultural identification refers to the existence of specific sets of values and beliefs in which specific human groups recognize themselves. it’s mainly the result of the geography and history of the human organization, but it can also be formed on the basis of special identity building projects” (castells, 2017, pp. 153). regional identity has become particularly visible through the notion of european regions, which have been accepted by various agencies for regional development and chambers of commerce. it is a term that refers to the multistage classification of national territory (nuts units) for statistical purposes. “nevertheless, the coreperiphery paradigm which relies on setting sub-national territories and the state in opposition has had its day. for the cities and regions, the creation of a european polity means, in particular, that if they develop collective projects, they are likely to be able to mobilize a much more extensive range of actors as private or public sector, european, central or sub-national partners, and a much wider range of resources. however, this process is made easier if the cities and the regions already have substantial resources of finances, powers and collective action at their disposal—and this may depend on, for example, a strong identity, organized interests or regionalist movements. on the other hand, the weakest in this system run the risk of finding it hard to benefit from the new rules of the game. although the game is more open, there is a risk that inequalities between territories — in terms of capacity for action or capacity to mobilize (and subsequent success in mobilizing) resources and external actors — will become wider, in favor of federated states or of certain cities and regions” (le gales, 1998, pp. 487). but also, its important stressed that “wilbur zelinsky (2001) showed that the problem of identities was ignored by geographers, as well as by other social sciences, until the mid 20th century. it appears today as a key – question for anyone who wishes to understand the social sphere. such a situation reflects the role of space in the building of identities. this process is generally presented in such a simplified way that nothing is said about its spatial aspects: ‘i am similar to other individuals since i believe in the same symbols and the same values. i share the same identity as they do.’ the significance of symbols is ignored. a symbol is not a pure abstraction” (claval, 1998, 15) on the other hand, it is necessary to look at the concept of the region from the economic side, which defines the region as a historically evolved, contiguous territorial society that possesses a physical environment, a socioeconomic, political, and cultural milieu, and a spatial structure distinct from other regions and from the other major territorial units, city and nation (markusen, 1987, 16). this definition recognizes that regions are historically determined entities that emerge largely due to the interaction between humans and local natural resources. although improvements in transportation have removed many of the constraints imposed by geography, the historical patterns of regional formation still affect the evolution of modern regions. regions may also be defined in terms of natural resource, ecosystem or other geographic boundaries. a few authors hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 11 published by ideas spread suggest an interesting approach to defining regions in terms of the interdependencies between natural resource systems and human populations. based on the economic principles of development, different theories of regional development have been established. “one of them is neoclassical trade and growth theories that provide a conceptual basis for understanding whether regional economies will become more or less similar over time. in the theory of neoclassical growth, regions with less capital per unit of labor will achieve higher yields and higher initial growth rates than regions with higher capital levels per worker (barro & sala-i-martin 1999). although the regional version of the neoclassical exogenous growth model proposed by borts and stein (1964) predicts interregional mobility of factors, most of them presuppose the perfect internal regional mobility of factors. finally, neoclassical growth models often allow differences in technology and / or savings rates between regions. if it is assumed for these parameters that they are exogenous, then the regions will only be conditionally covert according to the stable state of constant growth rate. in neoclassical growth models that allow variability in growth parameters, a stable state can differ between regions, but all regions will always reach constant income p.c., consumption and value of capital / work ratio” (dawkins, 2003, 136). regional inequalities are an inescapable fact of europe’s economic geography, so every country have to set up all efficient strategy to promote and support the ‘overall harmonious development’ of its member states and regions. the aims are to strengthen economic and social cohesion by reducing disparities in the level of development between regions. one of the most prominent scientists in this field was w. isard (1998) which used the concepts of location theory to develop a new area of science known as regional science, a branch of social science that investigates the influence of space on economic decision-making. after that he has developed analytical methods and which become a standard regional planning tool. regional policy concerned both with the regional (normally thought of as sub national) constitution and effectivity of economy, society, culture and polity, and with the economic, social and cultural constitution and effectivity of regions. these two aspects of policy are not binaries: they are mutually constitutive of regional policy. however, although always influentially co-present in policy initiation, design and implementation, their relative significance varies across space and time. as objects of policy, regions are subjected to attempted policy-led transformations designed to ameliorate uneven development for reasons of social justice, welfare and economic efficiency. whilst contemporary emphases in regional policy are increasingly preoccupied with a singular concern for economic growth, these motives are not mutually exclusive. regional policy is rarely purely redistributive (lee, 2009, pp. 637). also, existing bih’s geographical schools shows quite different point of view of the regional identities and number, type and form of regions as part of regional policies. so, two approaches have been crystallized: “the first is represented by scientists from the republic of srpska who support decentralized state, including two entities structure and normative principle for the formation statistical regions at the level nuts 3 and accordingly, within this entity define between four and six functional-urban regions (monocentric and polycentric) that developed around the largest urban centers (prijedor, banja luka, doboj, bijeljina, zvornik, istocno sarajevo and trebinje). another geographical school (scientist from the fbih) have the other approach, which is based on the fact that bih’s internal structure should be viewed as a single centralized economic space, which should be primarily divided according to analytical criteria (pre-war chambers of commerce, main traffic and infrastructural directions) rather than normative principles. they see the optimal nodal-functional organization in returning to pre-war functional relations and five such regions at the level of bih. in this way, it is being tried to ignore the two-entity reality and the assumption for the implementation of this model is to change the constitution of bih and create a “civil society” in which the existing regional structures will be lost and build a unitary state” (mutabdzija, 2018, pp. 278). in geographical terms, that anti constitutional proposal by colleagues from fbih, is explained in such a way that "the current hopeless regional-geographical development of bih crossed by the dayton division can be resolved in the transition phase to the europeanization of the regional division of bih by stimulating the economic development of regional development communities and agencies. it should be modeled on the nodal-functional principle, while respecting only the territorial complex approach. that would include the frontal units of physiognomic character, which ignore the entity and cantonal divisions" (spahic & jahic, 2014, pp. 48). similar point of view was presented by other experts like political scientist (osmankovic & pejanovic, 2009, pp. 240) or a few international organizations through the program eured (note 1). 1.2 the starting hypotheses and the importance of this research this paper starts from the historical geographical review of the development of this problem and follows the definition of this term in different periods of modern development in bih: the austro-hungarian empire, the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 12 published by ideas spread kingdom of yugoslavia, the socialist yugoslavia and the independent bih. the primary hypothesis of this paper is based on the assumption that in multicultural societies the prosperity of state depends on the existence of democratic institutions, which ensure the application of high democratic standards in securing equal personal and collective rights for all citizens and peoples. and vice versa. it is also commonly known that uneven economic development intensifies regional differences, leading to political instability. this fact leads us to establish a secondary hypothesis, which starts from the existence of a regional policy that has a double impact: as a planning instrument and as a factor contributing to the harmonization of economic, political and social formative role of the regions as subjects of policy. the consequences of inadequate treatment of regional identities and the lack of a clear and conductive policy of regional development lead to the strengthening, above all, of the political forces of divergence in relation to cohesive forces within such a society. in theory, this is not an unknown issue and refers to the application of an adequate policy, best represented by eu regional policy. the practical importance of allocating these statistical regions is reflected in the conduct of regional policy, but more importantly for the tasks of economic and overall planning for social development. in addition to these practical reasons, there are specific cultural landscapes that bear clear indications of regional identities. in practical terms, the negative trend in the development of society (the lack of democratic institutions and the absence of regional policy) leads to the polarization of that society. on the one hand, they are advocates of stronger centralization and reduction of democratic potentials of society, and on the other, they are advocates of decentralization and strengthening of democratic structures. establishing consensus between these parties leads to an acceptable territorial regionalization and a provincial policy of regional development. the extraordinary processes lead to the strengthening of regionalism and separatism. importance of regional policy may stress regional responsibilities for addressing uneven development through regionally induced supply-side transformations – involving regional training, learning and innovation, for example – designed to increase regional economic efficiency, productivity and dynamism. it thereby places responsibility for these transformations on local workers and firms – albeit with some support and encouragement (both positive and negative) of various kinds (lee, 2009, 638). based on this, it can be concluded that regional identity is one aspect of collective identity that is important in cultures that promote individual autonomy and cohesion of the group. collective identity has many positive elements in terms of creating group cohesion, supporting internal solidarity and establishing rules that help in social transactions, but it can also be a source of conservatism and a mean of maintaining cultural barriers that hinder the progress of the group as a whole and the root of violent conflict between groups. but in itself, collective identity is neither negative nor positive, but a social characteristic that requires recognition, not a judgment (marc, 2010, 81). 2. methodological approach the methodological framework of this research, besides the method of analysis and synthesis, includes a wide array of geographical methods. in order to understand the specifics of regional identities in bih, it is also desirable to analyze the spatial structures, which significantly determine them. these are primarily the specifics of physiognomy (relief), which will be analyzed through spatial differentiation by applying different principles and separating different regions. this will determine the similarities or differences between the structural elements of the geospacies, on the basis of which homogeneous regions were created. during the 20th century different regions have been identified in this region, and thus different regional identities have been portrayed. applying the principle of homogeneity, several natural geographic regions were distinguished in the territory of bih (marek 1932, melik 1949, petrovic, 1957), and using the principle of physiognomy, different physiognomic regions were isolated (markovic 1966, rogic 1973, smlatic 1983). analyzing economic activities and their correlation with natural conditions, resources and different forms of agrarian landscape, the economic-geographical region was isolated (ilesic 1961, kanaet 1964). obviously, there is a significant overlap between these regions, so a basic overview of the main morphological units is required. 2.1 geographical method the starting point is the geographical method, based on which the geographical characteristics of bih terrain and its regional differentiation were examined. for regional researcher, according ecological and economic functioning of society, landscape has always been an important element. so, applying this principle, mitchell (2000) explains that new directions have emerged in the study of physiognomic regions: possibilism and cultural geography. the first direction is characterized by the basic settings of regional geography enriched by the new interpretation of the relationship between man and nature, the abandonment of geographical determinism and the formulation of an alternative concept (possibilism), based on the concepts pays, genre de vie and possibilities (blas, 1902). the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 13 published by ideas spread second direction, culturally-geographically, developed during the 20th century in two branches. overtime, the work of early cultural geographers split into two opposing camps. one group was epitomized by carl sauer, who is seen by many as a father of modern cultural geography, and by another by friedrich ratzel, ellen churchill sample and ellsworth huntington, who sought to determinatively connect human behaviour to physical environment. in this connection “donald mitchell (2000) speaks of the ‘cultural wars’ of the modern world. thanks to the new forms taken by the regional approach, it is easier to understand the very nature of modern space, with many groups coexisting within the same areas and competing symbolically for acknowledgement (claval, 1998). as a notion, a cultural landscape is formed under the influence of a cultural group from the natural landscape and is the premise of the object of cultural geography, where culture is a factor, the natural landscape is a medium, and the cultural landscape is the result of this interaction. changes in the views of different orientations of cultural geography on culture followed the changes in the view of the basic object of research cultural landscape (sauer, 1925). various landscapes correspond to different cultural traditions. such a concept was in the spirit of perceiving culture as a way of life, characteristic of many human communities inhabiting a particular cultural area. types of artefacts that were in the landscape were associated with different types of culture. drawing attention to the fact that there is no culture in a certain space, but that every culture is polyvocal, the door has been opened to the search for the traces of multilayer’s, i.e. social differentiation in landscapes. on the other hand, the awareness that the meanings are expressed in symbolic forms has revealed to cultural geography the fact that the landscape is not just what the eye sees. it carries symbolism, its hidden codes, and therefore it is not enough to just describe the landscape, it needs to be interpreted, revealed codes and assume the meanings of which they are an expression. "the development of cultural geography during this century records a shift from 'objectivity' to 'subjectivity'. after insisting sauer's school of cultural geography on objects, i.e. on material elements of culture, in the 1960s comes the subject orientation: emphasizes the role of human communities that inhabit and shape the space; the reasons for the human behavior in the space, the role of perception of the environment are emphasized, and later the role of the researcher-geographer as a subjective interpreter is also emphasized. combining selected aspects of both directions and objectively oriented sauer's cultural geography and subject-oriented perceptive and interpretiveoriented works a modern branch of geography that proclaims itself as a "new" cultural geography tries to overcome, in accordance with general trends in science, the separation of the object and subject" (sakaja, 1997). 2.2 historical geographical method the application of the historical geographical method provides an insight into the understanding of the contemporary economic development of bih and the different interpretation of the cultural notion of regional identity. so, we need a “wide picture” about notion of culture and one of first definition itself is broader and refers to a complex whole that includes knowledge, belief, art, morality, law, custom, and other benefits and ways that a person has acquired as a member of society (tylor, 1871). modern interpretations reduce this notion to religion, philosophy and art (jerotic, 2007) or to a set of values and beliefs that serve to inform, direct and motivate the behavior of people (castells, 2017). but, cultural identity is one of the most important features of culture, and its basis is a lasting dialogue between literature, philosophy, music and theatre creativity (eco, 2013) or it’s a great deal has been written about the issue of identity over the last decades – its permanence or malleability, its role in the lives of individuals and societies (zygmunt, 2001). he said that the sociologist bauman has written that “identity research” has become an independent area of study, one that is developing very rapidly. what is more, “identity” has become a prism through which many important aspects of contemporary life can be viewed. during the contemporary historical and geographical development (from the berlin congress in 1878 to the present), bih has been following two constants: economic underdevelopment in relation to neighboring regions / states and the lack of democratic institutions. at different stages of social development in bih there were universal goals, a more dynamic economic development and a greater efficiency of the state administration. at the same time, it can be recognized that its regional / ethnic diversity is seen as an aggravating factor for the realization of these goals. therefore, it was tried to diminish autonomy and emphasize the need for a stronger centralization. was there a planned and long-term regional policy in such conditions? this period in the development of bih has been marked by four different phases, with the question of regional identities being interpreted differently in each of them. the first period was during the austro-hungarian administration (1878-1918) when new political goals were proclaimed (merging with the other state) through the change of cultural-civilization patterns. this was attempted to be achieved gradually through the retention of an earlier (ottoman) administrative division into six areas and strongly favoring the unique cultural identity of all inhabitants. this is the policy most visibly carried out by its administrator b. kalai, which was manifested through the existence of one state language (bosnian) and one nation (bosniaks), among which there were only confessional differences. this is confirmed by the explicit allegation that "the government only knows about the local population as bosniaks, who by faith are divided into hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 14 published by ideas spread muslim, eastern orthodox and catholic christians" (stancic, 1991). the second period refers to the kingdom of yugoslavia (1918-1945), whose political ideal was the freedom of the south slavs and the creation of an integral yugoslav nation. during this period, the two phases differ, the first, conditionally unitaristic, characterized by an administrative division in six areas (as in the previous period), with only one administrative centre of the new state (belgrade). in the conditions of visible poverty and overall social backwardness, during this phase in the development of bosnia, one of the most important changes was "the democratic structure of the yugoslav state from 1918 to 1929 and the triumph of the idea that religion is not the watershed between the nations" (ekmecic, 2010). the second phase in the development of bih, within the yugoslav state (1929-1945), has federal characteristics, and in order to overcome the anachronistic cultural matrices, the administrative organization (four regions) has been changed, and bih emerge from the framework of its "historical boundaries" (borders on uni, sava and drina ). in the third period of socialist yugoslavia (1945-1991), bih was a centralized republic with the centre in sarajevo. in the domain of regional policy, historical progress has been made in the development of urbanization and industrialization throughout bih, with highly ideologized social life on the basis of "brotherhood and unity". yugoslav society as an integrative element of civil society was apostrophized developed at the expense of religious differences and all "war scars" that are consciously forgotten. the only aspect of regional identity was a geographical definition, based on which "bosnians" and "herzegovinians" existed, and their peculiarities were described by the populist phrase: "bosnia is neither serbian nor croatian nor muslim, but it is also serbian and croatian and muslim". today, according cultural heritage exists three cultural identities / nations but still exist strong idea about recovering single notion as bosniak. 2.3 method of regionalization the method of regionalization involves the implementation of the widespread nuts (note 2) classification, whose objective is to extract statistical regions as the administrative unit of bih. in the domain of such an organization, the bih level can be considered as the first-order unit (nuts 1), and the entities meet the criteria for the separation of statistical regions of the lower rank (nuts 2). also, at the level of units of the second level, complex cultural landscapes have been formed, which generally have a homogeneous dispersive spatial arrangement. what is lacking on the level of both entities are regional units that correspond to lower levels of organization (nuts 3) and which would be separated on the principles of complex regionalization (based on several qualitative characteristics), mainly as nodal-functional regions. it is precisely within these units that cultural objects are identified that have a dominant homogeneous spatial arrangement and whose meaning needs to be interpreted. the borders of these statistical regions, as an element of the administrative organization of each state, are mainly an expression of a compromise between the interests of economic and political subjects that direct the economic, social and spatial development of each region. precisely on this element is the absence of a harmonized regional development policy at the level of bih, since there are oppositional attitudes among the representatives of the leading political / ethnic communities. within the eu, these regions have played the role of normative and analytical regions, and have enabled a simple and unambiguous division of territory to form regional statistics. normative regions reflect political will, their borders are determined by historical heritage, and analytical (functional) depart from geographical criteria (natural, social, economic). it is clear that representatives of the serbian people are advocating a position on the inevitability of establishing normative regions (republic of srpska and the federation of bih), while representatives of the majority bosniaks people advocate the establishment of analytical regions (as they existed until 1991 in the unitary socialist republic of bih). representatives of the croatian people, as the least indebted, advocate the establishment of normative regions, within which their political and cultural interests would be better articulated. it is clear that through the elements of bih's internal regionalization, they try to better affirm cultural contents, individually different for each nation, which lead to the identification of regional and cultural (ethnic) identities. 2.4 method of analyses as element of method of analyses, complexity of notion regional identity will be observed trough four aspects: natural, cultural, legal and economic. all specifics can be recognized within the framework of regional identity, which significantly contribute to the polivocality of cultures and identity diversity in bih. their essential characteristics derive from regional differentiation of space based on different principles and creation of different types of regions (homogeneous, functional and statistical). in homogeneous regions (natural geographic, physiognomic and economic-geographical regions), some types are separated based on the existence of one or more qualitative characteristics (claval, 1998), and it is noticeable that the primary units are shifted right from the north to the south of bih. since modern socio-economic trends impose new views on the approach to geographical valorization, integration, differentiation and organization of geospacies, the concept of homogeneous regions has become inadequate and does not reflect all the dynamics and complexity of the interaction of natural-geographic hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 15 published by ideas spread and economic-geographical factors in the process of creating new cultural landscapes. the development of "new geography", as a new paradigm based on procedural functionalism, enables the complex research, planning and direction of these contemporary social geographic processes. protagonists of contemporary regional geography found the most appropriate solution in the concept of functional regions. instead of the natural geographic determinant (river valley, woody plain, plateau ...), the key word becomes a city function. the basic economic and social functions are grouped into certain fields (regions) and points (cities) that have the role of poles of convergence and divergence (distancing) of spatial and functional connections. it connects, unifies and more or less integrates different territorial (natural-geographic) entities into functionally rounded, but open regional systems at the heart of cities. therefore, functional regions (nodal, social geographic and functional-urban) do not possess such spatial regularity in reporting as homogeneous regions, but they create different cultural and geographical contents (ethnographic, social). 3. results: regional identities and policy regional identity is a complex category that includes four different aspects of identity. each of them essentially characterizes the whole and makes it unrepeatable. the example of bih shows the incompatibility of these aspects, including the policy of regional development was unclear or did not exist, and the regional differences between the centre and the periphery were increasing. in the crisis situations during the previous century, should it be noted, the interruptions in the development caused mutual misunderstandings and were marked by wars (1914-18, 194145, 1992-95), which were always in their character bearing the elements of civil war. 3.1 natural identities the principle of homogeneity is used as the starting point and the simplest approach to regional differentiation of the relief. on the example of this regionalization, elements of geographical determinism are seen, but the application of the principle of physiognomy is of greater importance for the creation of specific regional identities. low terrain is located in the north of bih and is part of the pannonian plain and its periphery, which is dominated by quaternary river deposits that formed the ravine at the confluence of the right tributaries of the sava river. these terrains are separated from the pannonian section at about 150 m altitude. pannonian plain in the morphological view is recognized as macro plains of una (knezpolje), vrbas (lijevce polje), ukrine (ivanjsko polje), bosnia (brodsko-samacko polje) and drina (semberija). in the higher terrain of the peripanon zone, under the influence of river-denudation processes, valleys were formed on unguent sediments, which have marine and laconic origin, and are mostly represented by clay and sand. river valleys are different in their morphological characteristics, normal and composite, cliff and canyon, polyphase and polygenetic appear. the upper boundary of the peripanon zone represented the boundary of paratets, and in our conditions, an important border was symbolized by zones of various economic activities, farm and forestry and cattle breeding (isohypse 500 m). this was also the historical border that went around the rims of the prijedor, banja luka, doboj and zvornik basins, which in the roman period (1st century) divided illyricum into two provinces: pannonia (north) and dalmatia (south). one millennium later, this line was called the "dry border", which after the pozarevac peace (1718) was the border between austria and the ottoman empire, and in 1995 it became an inter-entity line of demarcation (republic of srpska-federation bih) within bih. in the present circumstances, this line divides the republic of srpska into two roughly equal halves: the north and south. in the north there are about ¾ of population, and in southern 1/4. from these relations of spatial distribution of population, the basic socio-economic differences within the rs also arise. and the northern part of the territory of the federation of bih belongs to this area. as dominant morphostructural units, there are hilly and lower mountain terrains with cut composite valleys of the middle flows of una, vrbas, bosnia and their tributaries. most of this terrain is represented by the rudne and flysch mountains, and the boiling extensions in the middle flows of the mentioned rivers testify to the lake stage in the development of this relief (the consequence of the terry-charred basins in the spreca valley). the mountainous region covers two geotectonic units, of which the central parts of bih belong to the inner dinarides, and the southern karst terrains are part of the external dinarides. all of these terrains are built of rocks of different structure and age. the most important morphological units within this mountain-hilly area have a cascading character. in the southwest, the mountain peaks between which are formed, tectonic predisposed, numerous karst fields, and east of this zone are the highest dinaric mountains. the terrain descends steeply, through the high plateau and deep canyon valleys of the neretva and the drina, towards the south and the submediterranean and coastal zone. it is a herzegovinian holo karst, which characterizes all forms of karst relief. based on the natural geographical characteristics of the territory, a natural identity has developed that has its own regional specificities through which it defines its local identity. from this brief description of the main relief lines, the existence of two regional identities is visible. the northern identity is present in the north, and it is characterized by the largest concentration of population, the densest network of settlements and cities, and the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 16 published by ideas spread tradition of crop production and fruit growing. in modern conditions, this zone represents the most promising economic space along which the longitudinal axis of development (east-west) is presented, represented by the highway "9th january", which will connect the largest cities of the region and make connection with the paneuropean traffic corridor x (serbia). mountain-valley regional identity has greater spatial dispersion, but a lower concentration of population and a small number of larger cities. traditionally, this is the zone of forestry and cattle breeding and complementary industries, built in smaller towns in valley extensions. this zone crosses the transversal axis of development (north-south) which represents the backbone of the traffic system. it is the paneuropean corridor vc, connecting the adriatic with posavina and via croatia going to budapest. both regional identities are substantially altered under the strong influence of urbanization and industrialization, and contemporary urban processes align the essential characteristics of these identities and lead to an increasing concentration of population along existing transport corridors. as specific zone of this identity exist karst submediterranean. figure 2. natural geographic regions and the network of modern axes of development. natural entities of bosnia and herzegovina (melik 1949) are: pannonian perimeter (5), low hills and basins (8), high dinaric mountains and plateau (9) and low seaside interior (2). it’s amended according: m. spahic, h. jahic, 2014 3.2 cultural identities from a geographical point of view, culture is a subject of cultural geography, which, as its systematic branch, is concentrated on communities and societies at the local, regional and national levels, with emphasis on the relationship between man and the environment (goodall, 1987). therefore, it can be said that the cultural identities of bosnia and herzegovina are related to the identities of its people: serbs, bosniaks and croats. the cultural identity of serbs is today identified with the republic of srpska, dominated by their culture, history, art, ethnographic specialties in the domain of customs and tradition, as well as contemporary cultural aspirations and traits. "since its entry into the historical stage, serbian people have been polycentric and have lived in several historical areas, separate and independent principals, states, and later empires. so it is today, so the serbs have two states: in serbia they are sovereign, and in bih they share sovereignty with bosniaks and croats" (antic & kecmanovic, 2016). the cultural identity of bosniaks is more complex. from a territorial point of view, it mainly relates to the northern part of the federation of bih, and basically derives from the economic and social structure of bih during the ottoman period. as such, a privileged ethnic group, muslims lived mainly in cities and traded crafts and trades. today, bosniaks form an absolute majority in the largest cities of the fbih, and in the republic of srpska they have a dispersed position. a similar schedule, but a significantly smaller number, has croats. the elements of their regional identity are the clearest in the border zones towards croatia, while in central bosnia and parts of the republic of srpska they have only a dispersive character. as a kind of correctness in the distribution of the population in the territory of bih, it is noted that there are three models of regions: distribution of serbians people (blue) shows a homogeneous model, homogeneous-dispersion model within the bosniaks people (green) and croatians people (red) have a dispersion model, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 17 published by ideas spread figure 1. ethnic structure of bih according to results of the 2013 census (source: http://www.statistika.ba) the basic definition of the cultural identity of every nation and political community is dominated by religion, which is a striking feature of their immaterial cultural identity. in the reality of bosnia and herzegovina, it is confidently equated with ethnicity, so if apostates and agnostics are excluded, all bosniaks are mostly muslims, croats are catholics, and serbs are orthodox. in bih co-exist islam and christianity, and at the level of religion, those differences are increasing. within christianity, there are two major religions (catholic and orthodox), and within the framework of islam two main currents (sunni and shiites). about 4/5 inhabitants of republic of srpska are orthodox, about 13% belong to islamic, and <5% are catholic. on the territory of the fbih, about 70% of the populations are bosniaks-muslims, about 22% are catholics, and about 3% are orthodox. from this kind of religious mosaic, the cultural diversity and the number of different religious objects that make up the recognition of cultural identities arise. based on the data from the monograph on churches and religious communities in bih (mustafic et al., 2012), the oldest dioceses of the serbian orthodox church in the territory of bih are the dabrobosanska episcopate (sarajevo) and the zahumsko-hercegovacka and primorska (mostar) episcopate founded by the holy sava 1219 and from this period come some of the most important monasteries. within the framework of islam there are several madhhab (school of theology) and in official use in bih there is a sunnihanafi school. this madhhab is considered one of the "soft" islamic schools, which is open to modern ideas. within the catholic faith there are several ranks, "franciscans", "jesuits", "benedictines" and others. some of the oldest catholic church-monasteries have been preserved to this day and are located in central bosnia. the jewish community is smallest and consists of members sephardic and ashkenazy people. there is a lot of scientific controversy and misunderstanding in the domain of use and the name of the mother tongue. there is a clear connection between the history of language and the history of the people, and these issues come to the force in the late 20th century. language is the basic identity issue of every nation and all the peoples of bih speak the same language (stokavski pronunciation), this language was created through the reform of the national into the literary language, conducted by vuk st. karadzic (1818). until 1991 all nations called this language the same "serbo-croatian or croatian-serbian, which was in fact a politically renowned serbian literary language" (kovacevic, 2013). as a rule, languages are called by nations, not by countries, and the problem arises when bosniaks name their language (bosnian) and thus impose it as a state language. a very important subsystem of cultural identity is the cultural goods that are in different stages of protection. these are numerous religious buildings, fortifications and fortified cities and architectural objects of public and private significance. particular contribution to cultural identity is provided by populated places, both urban and rural, with a particular emphasis on the identity of cities, their specific urbanism and architecture, their style (culture) of life, as well as their relationship to the natural environment. because of these specificities there are different approaches in evaluating certain periods, and the key difference is in the assessment of the ottoman period in the history of bih. this period was the subject of controversy, so "the relations between the bosnian-herzegovinian cultures-ethnics, shaped through the long centuries of ottoman rule, were customary, especially after the bloody end of the twentieth century, to think of the manichaean simply, in two interacting polarized stereotypes. according to one, the main and constant line of these relations is divergence, arising from the inability of the different religions in the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 18 published by ideas spread organized political community. advocates of this view with many dark passions interpret the whole history of life in bosnia as a history of eternal conflict, general hatred and misfortune, within which the people to whom they belong, of course, suffer most and suffer the most severe casualties ... contrary to this, not less flat and fake from it, it is a historical cliché that draws the past of bosnia as an idyll in which good neighbourly relations, tolerance, multiculturalism and general style flourish, and idyll only occasionally spoil the evil intentions and invading plans from a closer geographical-national environment" (lovrenovic, 2017). 3.3 legal identities today's bih was created by the dayton peace agreement (1995), which ended the unfortunate conflict between the warring parties, mostly mono-ethnic armies (vrs (note 3), abih (note 4), hvo (note 5) and apzb (note 6)). bih consists of two entities (federation of bosnia and herzegovina and republic of srpska) and one district (brcko). republic of srpska was created as an expression of the will of the serbian people in bih, after the violent breakup of the sfry (note 7). in a referendum on the stay in yugoslavia, held in bih in 1991, the serbs expressed such a mood massively, but this was not accepted and a unilateral referendum on the allocation of bih from yugoslavia was held in 1992. although voted "for" <2/3 of the population enrolled in the voter list, bih declared independence, which was a prelude to a civil war that lasted 3.5 years. today the territory of the republic of srpska is divided into 63 local self-government units, seven of which have the status of a city, and 56 the status of the municipality. "having in mind the prescribed competencies of the municipality, it is clear that the huge disproportion of the size of the territory and the number of inhabitants, between the largest and the smallest municipality (city), creates disproportion in the ability to fulfill the prescribed competencies and, consequently, the quality of life in them. for this reason, the concept of spatial development of republic of srpska points to the need to review the role and competencies of municipalities "(pp rs (note 8) to 2025). the legal identity of the fbih is derived from the legitimacy of the political relations of the two people (bosniaks and croats). the starting point for defining this issue could be the referendum held in march 1992, and the absence of dialogue and compromise introduced bih into the war, during which "everyone was against each other". in order to end the war, a ceasefire agreement was signed. it was called the "washington treaty" because it was signed in washington in 1994 and allowed the ceasefire between the warring parties. it also anticipated the creation of a confederation between croatia and the fbih, but this possibility was never seriously considered. under the agreement, the combined territory under the control of the croatian and pro-islamic forces was divided into ten autonomous cantons and a muslim-croat federation (later the federation of bih) was established. the cantonal system was established to prevent the domination of muslims over croats, and the fbih became one of the two equal entities in bih. unresolved large political and identity issues, all these years, the fbih is inefficient and burdened by political crises. the bosniaks as the most numerous people are not satisfied with the concessions they give in the domain of functioning of power. the parity principle implies equality and equal representation of members of all peoples in the institutions of executive power. the croats are dissatisfied because they have entered the fbih> 50% of the territory that was under the control of the hvo (27% of bih), but they do not have their own entity, public broadcasting service, etc. everyone is looking for a new concept of the fbih / bih organization in which the existing "injustices and shortcomings" of the existing system will be corrected. in domain of legal identity, exist only two entities: the republic of srpska (rs) and the federation of bosnia and herzegovina (fbih). 3.4 economic identities this identity, above all, means the sustainability of development that is directly related to the increase in the employment rate of the population. since bih is in the region of the western balkans, where economic problems are present in all countries, it is clear that the general framework for faster economic development is not realistic. in accordance with contemporary doctrines of new economic geography this situation is complicated by the neighboring (western balkans) whose total gdp (17.5 million inhabitants) is equivalent to only half of the gdp of portugal (10.5 million inhabitants)? this is confirmed by the idea that increased yields lead to an increase in agglomerations and the growth of rich regions and their divergence towards poorer regions (krugman 1991). since economic success is defined through the general level of economic wealth and the number of scientific and technological innovations, it is clear that the increase in employment rates and demographic development is also contributing to it. this can also be seen from the structure of the economic production and recognition of a particular region based on the product that is created on it. the economic identity of bih has largely depended on the level of use of local resources (agriculture, extractive industries), and today they are elements of the economy on which accelerated economic growth and development can be based. carriers of dynamic change have become the cities, and in the conditions of low urbanization (40%), this is becoming more difficult for the development of few large cities and their regional environment. in the essence of every economic identity, the forces of economic expansion are recognized, from the city markets for new and diverse import goods, the rapid increase in the number hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 19 published by ideas spread of city jobs, technologies for increasing rural production and productivity, the relocation of city plants, and capital of urban origin. it is therefore concluded that "it is a cruel truth that there is no decent way to overcome rural poverty where people do not have access to productive urban jobs. it was valid during scotland's displacement and still applies. it is a matter for the wealthy us and is also true in the case of poor world bank clients. many technologies, including cheap, flexible, medium and small technologies, are available to improve rural yields and productivity of rural workers. but what is not available where needed most are flexible, powerful cities of import substitution. in their absence, technology that arrives arbitrarily from distant cities is not a blessing but a curse, and the economic wealth it creates is always partial and sometimes even completely illusory“(jacobs, 2010). it is clear that bih's regional identities depend on these parameters, the gravitational power of the main nodalfunctional centers, and the overall economic strength of the given regions. significant support to this development is culture and cultural heritage, through which the competitiveness of its products is achieved. this effect of sustainable development is enhanced by a very complex network of settlements, which is reflected in the strengthening of the lowland cities, as well as the absence of functional and hierarchical network of urban centers and development holders in the hilly and mountainous area. the very complex morphological structure of the relief of these regions and the hydrographic network has caused a very rare network of road roads per unit area. therefore, the geographical characteristics of this area are complex and significantly determine the identity of the entire bih. based on these characteristics, in the earlier periods of technological development, economic and social frameworks have been clearly defined, partially preserved even today. the population living in the river valleys or the basin extensions of northern and central bosnia is primarily oriented to urban centers and the most represented economic activities: industry, crafts, trade. forestry residents are closely related to the exploitation of forests and wood processing, cattle breeding and crop farming for their own needs. population of karst and highland areas is dominantly related to animal husbandry, crop farming and, more recently, tourism. table 1. correlations between regional identities and regional policy in bih during 20th century phase period regional identity regional policy civil wars between three nations i 1878-1918 bosniaks no 1914-1918 ii 1918-1945 integral yugoslav no 1941-1945 iii 1945-1992 bosnian and herzegovinian partly 1992-1995 iv 1995serbian, croatian, bosniak partly according natural resources, infrastructures and human resources, in bih we can recognise two regions: agroindustrial at the nord and mainly agricultural at the south. 3.5 regional policies today in bih there are at least two regional policies (at the entities level: rs and fbih). the problem is not in their number but in the fact that there is no harmonization of these policies. the reason for this lies in the disagreement of political goals and regional identities, and this creates constant crises in the functioning of all government’s level. the political representatives of the bosniaks people dominate the awareness of the unique and civic bih identity and the "democratic" concept of "one man, one voice". for the political representatives of the serbian people, the preservation of the republic of srpska as a framework that meets all the values of their regional identity is of primary importance, while the croats, who are the smallest and dispersed, have a strong desire for territorial linking of local communities in which they are the majority. since there is a significant correlation between regional and cultural identities, there are also different approaches to evaluating individual periods, as historical geographical memory. since this element is very important for the formation of collective ideas about the common past and ethnic unity during their cultural and historical development, the key difference between existing cultural / regional identities arise in the assessment of the ottoman period in the history of bih (14631878). this period was the subject of controversy over two irreconcilable approaches and never reached a coherent standpoint in science, let alone in ideological images and judgments. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 20 published by ideas spread figure 3. network of urban centres and nodal-functional connections in bih as optimal framework for implementation multi stages regional policies (mutabdžija, g. 2018) today, there are several regional policies at the level of administrative units in bih. at the level of the republic of srpska, a unique regional policy is being implemented which, due to the economic problems of this entity, is still not satisfactory. the greatest effects have been achieved in the area of construction of the highway network and regional hospitals, but there are still small effects in the domain of stimulating industrial development. on the territory of the federation of bosnia and herzegovina, the basic territorial units are cantons (10) and they are responsible for the implementation of development programs. the elements of a successful regional policy are invisible and insufficient and a consequence of this is double. on the all executive level strengthens the bureaucratic structures and the emigrations of young people. 4. discussion finally, we can conclude that there are coincidence of starting hypotheses and results of this research. during a certain period, bih did not succeed in establishing democratic institutions that would be able to apply the democratic standards in crisis situations. as a proof of this conclusion, there were three civil wars, including "wide picture" of the causes, consequences and participants on the world scale. it is also clear that bih did not obtain satisfactory economic development what had consequences for macroeconomic stability and political instability. this refers to the totality of social relations, and therefore the modest economic results that motivate yang people to leave bih. the complexity of regional identities within bih can be simplified through representation of two regional entities that have the characteristics of nuts 2 statistical units. identity issues of the republic of srpska are significantly different from those of the other entity. while the fbih is a collection of two geographical concepts and historical provinces (bosnia and herzegovina), the republic of srpska is a political-geographical term that tends to the concept of a nation, the nation's awareness of statehood. the essential characteristics of these identities are recognized as natural-geographic (north-south) and cultural-geographic (ethnographic), and harmonization of identity is what its sustainable spatial development needs to achieve. the identity of the republic of srpska, as well as the identity of its regions, would have the character of sustainability only if these identities (natural, cultural and economic) in a given legal framework are harmonized and horizontally linked. sustainable development of the republic of srpska and its regions would be achieved and provided that its regional centres are strengthened and that the development of the economy is based on local resources, without compromising, but contributing to the regulated area and its natural environment as a resource for development. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 21 published by ideas spread on the other hand, the fbih on the most recognizable regional identities derives from its name. it refers to the existence of certain natural-geographic, settlement-demographic, economic-social and ethno-psychological features. the simplest thing is that herzegovina is a historical region with geographical features (the neretva river basin), which is trying to redefine it in contemporary ethnic and political geographical circumstances. in the bosniaks corps, there is a strong idea of erasing this regional identity in order to create a unified and unallocated ethnic definition of a complete and unique state in which the most numerous people are identified only with the term bosnia. on the other hand, croatian people derive part of their identity from this regional specialty, within which the majority, but in the federation of bih, only 1/5 of the total population. its identity base is dominantly herzegovina. the rest of the population unites members of other nations, those who do not want to declare themselves or their determination are unknown, and their participation is 5%. therefore, when we speak about regional identities, we primarily refer to domicile population and its sense of belonging and attachment to natural geographic environment (natural identity), the constitutional-legal position and administrative and legal definition of territorial units of lower level (legal identity), dominant ethnic characteristics in terms of language, religion, cultural aspirations and achievements (cultural identity) and economic and social status of certain ethnic groups or population as a whole, measured by macroeconomic indicators (economic identity). acknowledgments this research author provided without financial support and these results would be a part of textbook “regional geography of bosnia and herzegovina”. references antic, c., & kecmanovic, n. 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(2000). cultural geography: a critical introduction. malden, mass: blackwell publishing. mustafic, i., jovanovic, v., zovkic, m, kozemjakin, b., & dobutovic, t. (2012). religions in bosnia and herzegovina – profile of religous communities and churches. sarajevo: interreligious council in bosnia and herzegovina. mutabdzija, g. (2013). republic of srpska: socio-geographic challenges (pp. 209-219). scigeo journal of university alexandru ioan cuza, 59(2), 2284-6379 eissn. mutabdzija, g. (2016a). evropski izazovi od geografskih ka inovativninim regijama (european challenges from geographic to innovation regions ). istocno sarajevo: zavod za udžbenike i nastavna sredstva. mutabdzija, g. (2016b). sarajevo-romanija region: a fluid space between the rural and urban(pp. 296-303). european countryside, 3. https://doi.org/ 10.1515/euco-2016-0021 mutabdzija, g. (2017). ekonomski identitet i naseljska stvarnost republike srpske. godišnjak matice srpske – društvo članova u republici srpskoj, 7, 367-379. https://doi 10.7251/gms1707367m mutabdzija, g. (2018). concept and importance of statistical regions on the example of bosnia and herzegovina. journal of the geographical institute “jovan cvijić”, 68(2), 265-280. https://doi.org/10.2298/ijgi1802265m paasi, a. (2003). region and place: regional identity in question (pp. 475-485). progress in human geography, 28(4). https://doi.org/10.1191/0309132503ph439pr sakaja, l. (1997). kultura kao objekt geografskog proučavanja (culture as a geographic study object) (pp. 461484). društvena istraživanja, 3(35), udk: 911.3(091) sauer, c. o. (1974). the fourth dimension of geography (pp. 189-192). annals of the association of american geographers, 64(2). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8306.1974.tb00969.x spahic, m., & jahic, h. (2014). geografske regionalizacije bosne i hercegovine u svjetlu evroatlanskih integracija (geographical regionalization of bosnia and herzegovina in the light of euro-atlantic integration) (pp. 3145). acta geographica bosniae et herzegovinae, 1. stancic, l. (1991). jezička politika i nominacija jezika u bih za vrijeme austrougarske uprave (language policy and language nomination in bih during the austro-hungarian administration). in m. kovacevic, hercegovina i zemaljski jezik (pp. 39-64). značaj srpskog jezika i književnosti u očuvanju identiteta republike srpske. pale; uis, filozofski fakultet. notes note 1. the program started in 2001 and has proposed establishing two nuts 2 and three nuts 3 at the state level. note 2. the nomenclature of territorial units for statistics note 3. the army of republic of srpska (mainly serbs) note 4. the army of the republic of bosnia and herzegovina, often referred to as bosniaks army (mainly muslims) note 5. the croat defence council (mainly croats) note 6. army of autonomous province of western bosnia (mainly muslims) note 7. socialist federative republic of yugoslavia note 8. spatial plan of the republic of srpska copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v2n1p35 35 published by ideas spread reading “keresijo weke” and other designations of tripods on mycenaean tablets ioannis k. kenanidis1 1 primary education directorate of kavala, kavala, greece correspondence: ioannis k. kenanidis, primary education directorate of kavala, ethnikis antistaseos 20, 65110 kavala, greece. received: march 4, 2019; accepted: march 17, 2019; published: march 26, 2019 abstract this work examines the designations for tripods on the tablets py ta 641-1952 and py ta 709+712, which have been puzzling and misinterpreted since their discovery until now. these tablets are examined in connection to each other, using a detailed etymological analysis, the common sense of accountants, and close observation of the sketches on the tablets. it is explained why the term “keresijo” has nothing to do with crete and why “ai-ke-u” or “ai2-ke-u” as traditionally read on the tablets mentioned is not a personal name. the result is a translation given for the texts related to vessels and especially tripod cauldrons on these tablets. keywords: linear b tablets, mycenaean greek, crete, cretan, etymology, proto-indo-european, pylos, tripod cauldrons 1. introduction 1.1 the tablets of tripods pylos tablet ta 641-1952 is probably the most famous tablet of linear b. in one of his lectures, professor john chadwick said that “greeks should be grateful to this tiny piece of charred clay, because it proved that the linear b (lb) language is greek”. proof for the correctness of a decipherment is usually offered by bilingual documents; for lb there is no bilingual document, but this tablet is rich in “ideograms” which can confirm that the reading of the syllabograms is correct. the term “ideograms” can be misleading: those signs do not convey any abstract ideas, they are only sketches of the things counted and recorded on the accounting documents (clay tablets). so, the term “sketches” will be preferred in this work. personally speaking, this tablet, py 641-1952, is the one that introduced me to linear b since i found a photograph of this tablet (identical to fig. 2) in the official school book of history when i was a 12-year-old pupil. another picture of the tablet is presented in fig. 1 (which clearly shows m. ventris’ knowledge about it and the state of research at that time, 1952, which essentially remains at the same level until now) and, together with the other relevant tablet, in fig. 3 (a high resolution color photo, that can be seen by following the link given). the caption in the history book said that “after the syllabic signs for a tripod, “ti-ri-po-de”, there is a drawing of a tripod, and so on”. at that time i thought that everything about linear b is known and that all discovered tablets are deciphered, although the caption said that their (the tablets’) reading is difficult. at least this tablet ought to be perfectly read; i could not imagine, as a child, that there are serious problems with the reading even of this famous tablet which so much helped the specialists to decipher it. it will be clearly shown below that the direction of the research has been wrong in thinking that the tablets speak of provenance or people who had to do with the tripods; instead, the tablets are concerned with the condition and usability of the tripods. 1.2 a detailed examination of previous readings and interpretations of the texts related to tripods the py 641-1952 tablet, according to the traditional system of transliteration, is transcribed as: ● 1st line: “tiripode a3keu keresijo weke cauldron 2 tiripo eme pode owowe cauldron 1 tiripo keresijo weke apu kekaumen(o) kerea2”; hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 36 published by ideas spread ● 2nd line: “qeto jar 3 dipa mezoe qetorowe vessel 1 dipae mezoe tiriowee vessel 2 dipa mewijo qetorowe vessel 1”; ● 3rd line: “dipa mewijo tirijowe vessel 1 dipa mewijo anowe vessel 1”. figure 1. drawing and translation of pylos tablet ta 641-1952 by michael ventris (1952). from https://www.academia.edu/23643380/archaeology_and_science_vol._10_2014_an_archaeologists_translatio n_of_pylos_tablet_641-1952._pp._133-161 figure 2. photograph of pylos tablet ta 641-1952. from http://www.classics.cam.ac.uk/research/projects/mycep/decipherment there are some problems with the translations m. ventris gave to the various vessels: ● “dipa” cannot be a “goblet”, because goblet is “1. a drinking glass with a base and stem. 2. a bowl-shaped drinking vessel; especially the eucharistic cup” (wordweb dictionary), while the “ideograms” make it clear that “dipa” is not a drinking vessel, but one used for storage of liquid. it is convenient to translate simply “vessel”. so here i agree with (chantraine, 1968) sub voce (s.v.) “δέπας”, including the opinion that the word is probably a loan-word from luwian, and i suggest that it was some popular false connection to greek root dap“to spend, consume” and “dais” (mealtime) that made the meaning change hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 37 published by ideas spread to “wine drinking vessel”. ● “qeto” is supposed to be the vessel called pithos in classic greek, an opinion shared by (chantraine, 1968: s.v. “πίθος”), but after observing the sketch (“ideogram”) for the “qeto” and the shape of the early “kuathos”, i am convinced that “qeto” was the early form of “kuathos” and not “pithos”. the classical “kuathos” was a vessel with one long handle, used for serving wine, but the earlier the era, the more similar to the sketch on the tablet was the “kuathos”: shorter and broader than the classic “kuathos”, it had two handles, and sometimes a spout for pouring. “pithos” was the largest vessel used by the ancient greeks for storing (olive oil and other goods), analogous to a modern barrel, and it was never similar to the sketch of “qeto” on the tablet, which shows it even smaller than the “dipa” (the size of the vessel is inferred by the size and position of the “ears”, i.e. its handles drawn in the sketch; the “pithos” has the smallest handles in proportion to its body, while “qeto” has bigger handles than the “dipa”). figure 3. high resolution photograph of tablets py ta 641-1952 (above) and py ta 709+712 (below). from https://resgerendae.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/106_3357.jpg “cauldron” is a good translation for “tripod-”. it was used for boiling. having three legs ensured that it stood steady even if a leg would be a little shorter or longer than the others, and in between the three legs of the tripod a fire would burn for boiling water or cooking the food in it. the main problems in reading this tablet, however, are not the names of the vessels, but the words “a3keu”, “keresijo” and “weke”. according to m. ventris, “keresijo weke” (in the fig. 1 we see english y for j) is *krēsijowergēs (κρησιjοϝεργής), meaning *“of cretan workmanship”, and “a3keu” is “of aikeu type”, that is “an unknown designation of the tripods”. however, already in “documents” (ventris & chadwick, 1953) there is another tentative interpretation too: *aigēus krēsijos wekhei (αιγηύς κρήσιος ϝέχει), meaning *aigēus (a personal name, well known in classical greek as αἰγεύς) the cretan brings”. both these interpretations, especially the second one, were always very hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 38 published by ideas spread dubious, and it is now explained why they must be simply unacceptable. there is no other indication on any other lb tablet of a person who brought an object; and there is no other “we-ke” except in the phrase “keresijo weke”; even if on the py ta 641 it were *aigēus krēsijos, (supposing krēsijos=a cretan man), then on the same tablet py ta 641 and on py ta 709+712 “keresijo” is mentioned another three times without a connection to anything that might have been a man’s name. so, by common sense, the interpretation “aigēus krēsijos” is totally impossible. even if we look closer to the supposed verb “wekhei” (“weg΄hej” in traditional transcription of indoeuropean), that would be necessarily from the pie root “weg΄h” (note 1), a well-known root meaning “a vehicle; to carry with a vehicle” (the very word “vehicle” comes from this root); but while there are known greek words from this root (όχος / “wok΄hos” =a vehicle, chariot; οχέ-εσθαι / “wok΄heesthaj” =to be carried in a vehicle, to ride), a verb form *“wekhei” has never been attested in any form of the greek language; that *“wekhei” would anyway mean “he carries with a vehicle”, and even this meaning would be absurd in the context of the tablet: *“two cauldrons are carried with a vehicle by aigēus the cretan”(!). a newer interpretation was given by r. roberts, to which r.v. janke agrees with enthusiasm: “aigeus is working on two tripods of the cretan style” (janke, 2014, p. 19; fig. 7). this means that “weke” is read as “werg΄ej”, supposed to mean “his is working”, but there is no such verb in the whole greek language; the verb from the root “werg΄” in the meaning “he is working” is found many times in lb as “woze” (read “worzej”, from *worg΄jej), see dmic. (diccionario micénico) and documents (ventris & chadwick, 1953), therefore the verb was “worzej” and not *werg΄ej in mycenaean greek.. furthermore, this tablet is a list of things; it cannot contain any verbs, because it is not a report of who is doing what, it simply records objects and in how good condition they are preserved. even if we suppose that “weke” makes sense in this sentence as “(aigeus) is working (on two tripods)”, then what is the sense in the other three sentences where “weke” occurs? who “is working on tripods of the cretan style” in the other three sentences? how would r. roberts or r. v. janke parse and interpret all of those 4 sentences on those two tablets? moreover, the phrase “tiripode a3keu keresijo weke” cannot be taken as “aigeus is working on two tripods of the cretan style”, because if that were intended, the text, by means of the words’ order, would join the cauldrons (“tiripode”) to “keresijo” and “aigeus” to “weke”, e.g. *“tiripode keresijo a3keu weke” or *“a3keu weke tiripode keresijo”; or even *“a3keu tiripode keresijo weke”, but it would never be “tiripode a3keu keresijo weke”, as the tablet really says. the conclusion is that there is no way to make sense of the text if we ever take “a3keu” as a name or “keresijo” as “cretan”. note also that beyond “keresijo weke”, there is no lb tablet that mentions the provenance of a commodity or artefact at all. it is obvious in the whole tablet that the scribe tried her (note 2) best to give a very detailed description of the objects: how many handles they have, what is their relative size, a tripod has a handle on one of its legs, another tripod is a little burnt at its legs; in other words the scribe wanted to give a detailed description of the form and the condition of objects kept in (her) storeroom. it is obvious that (she) had to safeguard the objects and give a clear account at any time a superior would ask e.g. “why is that tripod damaged?”; “where did you find this ‘dipas’?”; “the jar we lost, is it maybe here?”; “have you kept all the jars you received in good condition?” and so on. this tablet is what we call today a “certificate of (delivery and) acceptance”, that is a document recording objects that somebody receives, and is entrusted with, from another person. in such a document it is important to describe the objects in detail so they can be identified later without ambiguity, and also it is important to record in how good or bad condition the objects are. however, to record if the tripods are of cretan workmanship is quite irrelevant, unless if this can be recognized in their appearance. but could a tripod be recognized by its appearance as “cretan”? of all that i can understand or imagine, there was no characteristic of the tripods, or of the “ideograms” used for them on the tablets, that could make them recognizable as “cretan ones”. after all, what can make us believe that the word “keresijo” meant “cretan”? there is not even a slight indication that crete was known by that name (“krētā”) at the time that the tablets were written. wikipedia has spread a wrong idea that the name “krētā” is very old and even existed in mycenaean greek, by saying that the word “ke-re-te (*krētes)” is attested on py an 128 tablet, but this is bluntly wrong; the tablet is presented in fig. 4 (from ruijgh, 1962), so you can see it is not “ke-re-te”, but a man’s personal name “ke-re-te-u”, probably krēthēws (ventris & chadwick 1953), a name well documented as classical “cretheus”/κρηθεύς, with a very common ending –ηύς [-ēws, classical –εύς] anyway, and it has nothing to do with the classical word “krētes” which is in plural, while the personal name on the tablet hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 39 published by ideas spread is clearly in singular, being the subject of the verbs “ekhej” and “ōnato” (έχει, ώνατο, meaning “he holds, he has been benefited (i.e. received)” (note 3). figure 4. text from tablet py an 128. palaeolexicon too (http://www.palaeolexicon.com/showword.aspx?id=17101) records “ke-re-te-u” as a personal name, and no word *“ke-re-te”. that whole tablet reads “krēthēws ekhej ōnato parō mologrōn pojmenej wheat measures: 2”, which, transferred into classical greek, is “κρηθεύς έχει ώνατο παρὰ μολοβρῶν ποιμένι” (“krēthēws [man’s personal name] holds, has received, 2 measures of wheat from the herdsman of the pigs”). ώνατο (ōnato) is simple past tense of the verb ονίναται (“he is benefited, he earns, enjoys”), and μολοβρῶν (classical molobrōn, with “b” from older velar “g”) is definitely not a personal name, but a description of profession together with ποιμένι (classical “poimeni”). the (alphabetic greek) word μολοβρός, and similar derivatives like μολόβριον, μολοβρίτης, clearly mean a kind of pig, which has constantly its snout on the ground greedily searching and devouring all plants and creeping creatures, so μολοβρῶν ποιμήν =the herdsman of (that type of) pigs (chantraine, 1968, p. 709). also, an alphabetic form “κρήσιος” (krēsijos) has scarcely been attested in the greek language, and that only in highly elaborate poetic language (to fit the prosody) and as part of three (geographical or mythological) names; totally unrelated to the name of crete is an entry by hesychius: “κρησίαι: καλλίονες, hsch.” (a rare dialectic variant of κρείσσονες, defined by hesychius himself as “more beautiful girls/ladies”), and equally unrelated is “κρῆς” (a rare, late doric form for classic kreas “meat”) (liddell & scott, 1940). the etymology of “crete” is obscure; the island of crete was internationally known as “kaptara” and similarly, which, according to kenanidis (1992; 2011), came from the sumerian autonym {cwepeto(r)}, also recorded as the egyptian name “k-f-tj-w”, which, according to o. dickinson (1994, p. 241–244) “strongly suggests a similar minoan name for the island”. all those variants of the ancient name are too remote to krētē (attested for the first time in homer’s odyssey, 8th century bc) to make us believe that the word krētā (hence krēsijos) was known when the lb tablets were written, and we have seen that a word krēsijos supposedly meaning “cretan” cannot fit the context in the two tablets where it appears. to make “keresijo” fit, it is assumed, furthermore, by the first editors until now, that “keresijo weke” is *“krēsijowerg΄ēs” / κρησιjοϝεργής), one only word (note 4), but then it would be odd that it was always written as two separate words: “keresijo weke”, separated by a word-dividing line, all the four times that it was written, by the same hand, on two tablets (hand py 2, on tablets py ta 641, py ta 709+712); and we cannot assume that the scribe habitually divided long words, because the same scribe wrote words of more than 6 signs without word division ( “po-ro-e-ke-ti-ri-ja”, “o-pi-ke-wi-ri-je-u”), see ruijgh (1962) and figures 3, 5, 6. to the two occurrences of “keresijo weke” on the tablet py ta 641, we should add the two occurrences on the tablet py ta 709+712 as recorded in the transliteration of (ruijgh 1962) and (chadwick 1955) presented here in fig. 5 and 6. 2. method 2.1 the role of transliteration, mycenaean phonology and “ə” (“schwa”) the traditional transliteration of linear b (henceforth lb) is really praiseworthy because it reflects a sensible understanding of mycenaean phonology, that understanding contained, however, some misconceptions which have not been cleared, but rather increased, since the time of lb decipherment. clues to understand mycenaean phonology better are the pronunciation of greek in later stages and even in modern greek dialects; the knowledge of other ancient indo-european (ie) languages; and, last but not least, the knowledge of the proto-linear (pl) script and the dialects of the sumerian language. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 40 published by ideas spread figure 5. transliteration of the two tablets which contain the phrase “keresijo weke”, from ruijgh (1962). figure 6. transliteration of the tablet py ta 709+712 in chadwick (1955). proto-indo-european (pie) studies have gone progressively on a wrong way because of the trend to see “laryngeal” sounds everywhere and so ignore the fact that pie had also some central vowels: a short “a” and a long “a” as well, not only front (“e”) and back (“o”) vowels. the “schwa indogermanicum” is nothing else but the pie short “a”, which was “closer” than the pie long “a”, in other words, the pie short “a” was a real /ə/ (a mid-central unrounded hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 41 published by ideas spread vowel). as ancient greek was the most conservative recorded language descending from pie, the original greek short “a” was /ə/ as in pie; although that was later modified, we can be sure that the “a” in the mycenaean diphthong “ai” was exactly /ə/, for the following reasons: ● it descended from the pie (and original greek) short “a”, that is /ə/; ● it was rendered by the sumerian signs for /ɤ/, which was the closest available means to write /ə/, and marginally, in some sumerian dialects and sociolects, /ə/ was pronounced instead of /ɤ/; ● mycenaean “a” in “ai” (that is /əj/) was not the same as “a” alone (without a –j or –w coda), since different syllabograms were used for “a” and different ones for “ai”; this means that the –j (probably also the –w) kept the “a” higher (closer vowel) than the mere “a”. this is why the mycenaean “ai” was rendered with the signs for sumerian /ɤ/ (e.g. lb 43). in some cases, however, the same sign stands for both “a” and “aj”, e.g. lb sign “ja” is also used for “jaj” too, either because the scribe had forgotten the rare sign for “jə” or, more likely, because in “jaj” the “a” was not made higher; this proximity, but not identity of the two vowels shows that they were similar, differing only in height (/ä/ versus /ə/). ● mycenaean “a” was not a back vowel, as we shall see in this work that long mycenaean “a” was near to long “e” (a tendency generalized later in the ionian or “eastern greek” dialects: appendix b). so, mycenaean “a” in “ai” (in fact /əj/) was /ə/, while the independent short “a” was quite opener and long “a” was also fronted. the important for the present study is “a” in mycenaean “ai” /əj/ because that is crucial in reading the tripods’ tablets. the sumerian language has been already mentioned; it would be absurd if the whole sumerian civilization (including language and the art of writing) had been always confined to southern mesopotamia without affecting the writing systems of cyprus and the aegean which are clearly related to each other, when we know of the adventurous character of the sumerian nation, the fact that sumerians are known as the first inventors of writing, the necessity for ancient nations to travel, trade and colonize to distant lands, and the main writing material being the same unbaked clay for mesopotamian sumerians and the minoan writing systems. it has been explained in detail (kenanidis, 1992; 2011) that the whole minoan (including cypro-minoan) civilization was due to sumerians who settled especially on crete since the beginning of the 3rd millennium bc; and the writing system used by those sumerian settlers evolved from pictography to proto-linear (pl). for those familiar with lb, linear a (la), cretan hieroghlyphic (ch) and the cypro-minoan (linear cypriot, lc) script, it is easy to understand what proto-linear was: the syllabic script that all other aegean and cypriot syllabic scripts originated from; rather, it is more accurate to say that lb and la were only applications of pl for writing languages other than sumerian, while pl itself was devised and used for sumerian by sumerians. although the linear b tablets were written in pure greek (achaean) language, the study of cretan proto-linear (cp, conveying the cretan sumerian dialect) will prove to be indispensable for the complete understanding of linear b and for solving problems with the reading of the lb tablets; it is exactly because of hitherto ignoring or not applying the knowledge of proto-linear that research has remained essentially stagnant since the time of the first decipherment of lb (1952), because it is only the study of proto-linear that sheds light on the exact phonetic use of lb signs and on the hitherto unknown phonetic value of about 1/10 of the lb syllabograms inventory. this is why the tablets and words on them will here be transcribed not only in the traditional system used for lb, but also in the system used for transliterating the proto-linear, which uses “c” for emphatic palatals and “q” for non-emphatic but aspirated velars (“k” and “g” reserved for non-emphatic palatal aspirate and emphatic nonaspirate velar respectively, these two not attested in cretan pl). in contrast to (kenanidis, 2011), where “ı” (the dotless i) is used for a sumerian vowel “similar to turkic /ɯ/”, that vowel was in fact /ɤ/ in most dialects and /ə/ in others (kenanidis & papakitsos, 2018), so “ə” will be used for transliterating the proto-linear too, although “ə” had not exactly the same use when writing the mycenaean (achaean) greek language. to distinguish between systems of transliteration, the traditional transliteration of linear b will be in quotation marks (“”), while curly brackets {} are used for the linear b signs treated as signs of the cretan proto-linear (cp). 2.2 texts about tripods on the two “keresijo weke” tablets according to the mentioned system for transliterating the proto-linear script (kenanidis & papakitsos, 2018), the lines about cauldrons on those two tablets read: ● py ta 709+712: {tilipo celesijo wece niceu cauldron 1 tilipo celesijo wece opicewilijeu cauldron 1} hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 42 published by ideas spread ● py ta 641: {tilipode əceu celesijo wece cauldron 2 tilipo eme pode owowe cauldron 1 tilipo celesijo wece abu cecaumen(o) celeha} (slight breakage on the end of tablet, so “ideogram” missing; “celeha” is underlined only to indicate that it was written over another word, because there was no other room for it on the line of the tablet). 2.3 reading the crucial term “keresijo weke” the whole context of these two tablets shows that the scribe was concerned to describe how suitable for use the cauldrons were: this is anyway the most important concern for any document recording things received and entrusted for a storehouse. this makes the words “keresijo weke” very easy to recognize as the greek words «χρήσιος ϝεικής» (khrēsijos = of usage, weikēs = proper, suitable, so “khrēsijos weikēs” = suitable for use). these two words, “keresijo weke” are the key for understanding the whole of the texts referring to tripods on the two tablets discussed, after it has been explained that “keresijo weke” = suitable for use; it is surprising that ϝεικής (weikēs) cannot be found in alphabetic greek unless with the “privative” prefix “a-” in ἀ-εικής, -ές, (attic αἰκής); this prefix “a-” was added to any word in greek (and in sanskrit exactly in the same way) to form a word with the opposite meaning, so the meanings of ϝεικής (weikēs /wejceːs/) are perfectly known as exactly the opposite of ἀεικής, and as ἀ-εικής existed (and was a common word with a well-known range of meaning), ϝεικής existed before. it was formed by the pie root w(e)jk΄ meaning “to be matching; suitable; proper; just; agreeable; fair; resembling; seeming true or natural; expected”; today the root is known mostly for the meaning of “resemblance” (as in the derivative “eikōn” hence english “icon”), however the original meaning of the root was “well matching”; the root has given a great many words in greek. “khrēsijos” is the genitive of “khrēsis” (χρῆσις, “use, usage”) a wellknown word; the genitive goes before the modified word as always in mycenaean and as usually in old greek prose. 2.4 the exact meaning of the term “apu kekaumeno” as to {abu cecaumeno} = “apu kekaumeno”, corresponding to classic αποκεκαυμένος (apokekaumenos), the dictionary (http://perseus.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.7:4:137.lsj) gives “burn off”, which means, in all cases, to cauterize or burn the extremities of things, but not the whole things (appendix a). that is why i translate “burnt around”. the legs of a cauldron were made of bronze; they could not really be burnt, unless on the surface, and that “burning” was simply the discoloring that fire causes on metals (not so much by soot, rather by intense heating). such “burning” on the cauldron’s bronze legs, although it makes the legs look already used and somewhat ugly, does not make the cauldron less usable. that is why the tablet describes the cauldron as “burnt” at the legs, but still «χρήσιος ϝεικής» (“khrēsijos weikēs”), suitable for use. the fact that the “apu” (classical “apo”) is written as a separate word, and not as a component in *“apukekaumeno”, indicates that it was pronounced and understood as a separate word (a usage common in the earlier stages of greek, sanskrit and other ie languages), and so the original meaning of “apo” (“away”, i.e., on the edges, on the outer, on the surface only) is better preserved than when used as a preposition component of a bigger word. 2.5 etymological analysis of {əceu} and {niceu}; the hitherto misinterpreted sign “ni” the most elusive question about these cauldron texts, however, is about the words {niceu} and {əceu}. what i transcribe as {ni} is lb sign 34/35, and as {ə} the lb sign 43. in (kenanidis, 1992; 2011) it has been explained that the sign 34 (together with 35, which is simply a variant of the sign 34) comes from two old proto-linear signs, one depicting the moon and another depicting a bead of a precious bright gem; both “moon” and “gem” were called “ni(r)” in the cretan variety of sumerian, and probably it was one and the same root that gave {ni(r)} as the name of both the moon and the gem; so the sign lb 34 (and 35) depicted the moon, but in such a way that it can also be interpreted as a round gem bead on a thread; most forms of the sign 34 and 35 are a fusion of the two images: a crescent moon and a threaded round bead, so the sign was used for the syllable {ni}. traditionally, the lb syllabogram for “ni” is thought to be the lb sign 30. however, in the works mentioned (kenanidis, 1992; 2011) it has been clarified that lb 30 was not “ni” but originally {ŋi} (sumerian /ŋi/), so it stood for greek /ɲi/, because greek “n” was usually palatalized before “i” and sometimes before “e”, as it is until today in some widespread greek dialects; greek {ni} with /n/ or nearly /n/ occurred only in the beginning of words or after “r” (and possibly after some other consonants too), such mycenaean greek words can be seen in bibee & wilsonwright (2015); the words “*34-ke-te-si” and “*34-ka-te-re” are obviously “nīkātēres” (nominative) and “nīkētērsi” (dative) of a word meaning “the victorious deities”, in classical form «νικητῆρες» and «νικητῆρσι» respectively. the word *34-ke-ja (a personal name) is probably an early form of classical “nikaios” (νικαῖος, “victorious”) (appendix b). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 43 published by ideas spread the other words with *34 in the middle of words must have had a “r” before the “ni”; the (name proper?) “po*34-wi-do” can be read “porniwidos”, possibly related to classical “pornē” (πόρνη, not in the later sense “prostitute”, but in a more original sense: “seller”, derived from the verb “pernēmi” / πέρνημι “i sell”); another plausible etymology is in relation to «πρῖνος», (“prīnos”, a yew bush or tree, proverbial for its endurance and longevity); it may even be possible to connect it to sankrit parṇá “feather”; otherwise, it would have to be a derivative from the root pher-/phor(φέρειν) “to carry”. the word “au-to-*34-ta-ra”, listed with objects used for bath, was *αυτόννιτρα (autonnitra), here the nonpalatalized and doubled –nnis wholesomely justified by the first element being the more original *awtod instead of classical “auto”; but also the second component “nitron” was treated similarly to a separate word by not palatalizing the ni(as if starting a word which in fact was the second part of the compound); “nitron” was a technical word of foreign origin, referring to a chemical substance used as a detergent; so, “autonnitra” (neuter gender, plural of *“autonnitron”) were some kind of objects containing the detergent in them, a formation analogous to classical “aut-andros” =(a ship) together with the people (andr-) in it. therefore, it has been a blunder for so long time to relate lb *43 ({ə}, used for mycenaean “ai”) with lb *34/35 {ni}; these two have been considered related only because of the two hapax words {əceu} and {niceu}, but apart from these two words there is no case of a *34/35 interchangeable with *43 (“ai” / “a3”). and there is no reason to believe that the word “*34-ke-u” means the same as “*43-ke-u”; both were written by the same scribe, and the scribe meant them as two different words: “*43-ke-u” meant “very well”, while “*34-ke-u” meant “far from; definitely not”. how could it be possible for linear b, a script that barely approximates the greek phonology, to use two different signs for the same syllable “ai”, for which not even one sign would be necessary, if “ai” were written as “a-i”!?. the fact that it was the same scribe who wrote “*43keu” and “*34keu” makes it even more impossible to think that *43 and *34 had the same phonetic value: of two different scribes, each of them might have preferred a different sign for the same syllable, but one and the same scribe could not have used two signs of totally different pictorial origin for the same “ai”. a similar case of different words which are suspected to be the same are the names “a2-nu-me-no” and “a3-nu-meno”, and quite rightfully melena (melena, 2014, p. 225) doubted about it when he wrote: “… a2-nu-me-no py jn 389.12 (hand 2) man’s name in –μενος, if a variant of a3-nu-me-no pyan 261. 2 (hand 43)…” the two words, “a2-nu-me-no” and “a3-nu-me-no” are clearly two different words, from different roots. this is clearly understood when we know that mycenaean “a” in “ai” was a closer vowel than a non-diphthong “a”: so, “a2-nu-me-no” is surely not “αινύμενος”, but it can be well interpreted in other ways, e.g. homeric “ἀρνύμενος” (a hcan have been lost in homer; homer even uses “amaksa” without the h-, which is found in classical “hamaksa”). αρνύμενος (“winning”) makes perfect sense as a personal name, but if this word was with “h-” in mycenaean greek it is a unique case of a pie laryngeal surviving and documented in greek, unless classical greek “hámaksa” shows another surviving pie laryngeal. it is still no proof that “a” was an “e” that became “a” due to the laryngeal; it could still have been *həin pie, that is the pie “ha-”, given that /ə/ was the pie short “a” (note 5). the –“eu” in the words {əceu}, {niceu}, and even {opicewilijeu} is not a meaningless coincidence: it will be shown below that it was the most usual adverbial ending in mycenaean greek (unlike classical greek that mostly used -ōs for adverbs). as noted in bichlmeier (2014, p. 55), “o-pi-ke-wi-ri-je-u cannot be an adjective, since the suffix -ēuonly forms substantives”. this is a rule which might have had an exception, however {əceu} cannot be an adjective nor a substantive, because if it were a declinable word it would appear in the dual number as *{əcewe}; in the phrase {tilipode əceu celesijo wece}, {tilipode} i.e. “tripode” is in dual number nominative, so {əceu} would have to be in dual number nominative too; it cannot even be in genitive as {celesijo} =“khrēsijos”, nor in any other inflected form known in greek grammar. therefore it has to be an indeclinable form, as also {niceu} and {opicewilijeu}; however, indeclinable forms are often “fossilized” inflected forms that were forgotten as inflected forms and retained a meaning as indeclinable adverbs or particles; a typical example is the so-called «δοτικοφανῆ επιρρήματα» (adverbs in the external form of singular number dative case nouns, especially of 1st declension feminine ones, e.g.: ιδίᾳ, δρόμῳ, δημοσίᾳ, σπουδῇ, κοινῇ, σχολῇ, πεζῇ, φύσει, βίᾳ, τῇδε, ταύτῃ). now, what old inflected form could have remained in these words ending in –ēu? the answer is given by one of the oldest indoeuropean languages: sanskrit, where the suffix –āu (from *–ēw / -ōw, since sanskrit ā normally comes from older –ē or –ō) forms the locative case of all nouns and adjectives with stems in -i/u; (then it is reasonable that nouns/adjectives with stems in –i (e.g., “hari”) may have formed originally the locative in *–ēw, while those with hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 44 published by ideas spread stems in –u (e.g., “viṣṇu”) formed the locative in *–ōw, although this is not important for the scope of this article, as ē could alternate with ō due to ie ablaut). this means that in greek too there was a singular number locative case in –ēw (perhaps alternating with *–ōw), which was lost even in pre-mycenaean times, but left, as a linguistic fossil, a suffix –ēw that formed adverbs; this suffix survived even in alphabetic greek as «-οῦ» (-ou), forming adverbs like αγχοῦ, απανταχοῦ (ankhou “close to”, apantakhou “everywhere”); there are some pairs of adverbs like άγχι αγχοῦ (ankhi ankhou, having a form in –i and another form in –ou), which means they were originally nouns with nominative in –i and locative in –ou, from older –*ηῦ (–ēw). *–ēw turned to –ou for dissimilation to εὖ (ew) “good” and to the nouns with nominative in –ευς (-ews), while –ou was also influenced from the 2nd declension genitive suffix. more traces are found in many adverbs with a locative sense, formed, even in alphabetic greek, with a suffix –χ (-kh-), such as πάγχυ, άγχι, αγχοῦ, απανταχοῦ, αλλαχοῦ, αλλαχῇ, πανταχῇ (the latter two being “δοτικοφανῆ επιρρήματα”, “dative-apparent adverbs”, see above; even the ending, usually -ēj, of “dative-apparent adverbs” can easily be explained by an older locative ending -ēw; when locative case was lost in greek, its function merged into the dative). it is the same suffix –χin some nouns expressing an abstract concept, as αῖσχος (aiskhos, “shame”) from root “aid”-, and ισχύς (iskhus) from root “wis”(“manly strength”, usually thought to be *wih-, h being a pie laryngeal, see note 5). actually, that suffix –χ(-kh-) had a demonstrative function, so it was convenient for words indicating placement or direction, but also could be used with a psychological demonstrative (i.e. expressive) sense: aiskhos (“see, it’s a shame”), iskhus (“see, he is so strong”). back to our tablets, the words {əceu}, {niceu}, {opicewilijeu} carry that adverbial (from older locative) suffix – ēw, while {əceu} and {niceu} also carry the adverbial suffix –kh(-χ-); one might even argue that {əceu} is the same as alphabetic αγχοῦ (ankhou), but this is proven impossible because there are some words starting with “aki-” on lb tablets and in some of them, at least in the word “a-ki-a₂-ri-ja-de”, «αγχι-» (ankhi-) is written with lb “a” and not “a3” (“ai”) which is what we have in {əceu} (note 6). a better conjecture for {əceu} (“a3-ke-u”) was *ajskhēw, from the root aid“ugliness, shame”, formed like “aiskhos” (shame, ugliness), with the adverbial suffixes –khand –ēw which have been explained above. as in ancient times the root aidformed the most usual terms to denote ugliness, *ajskhēw would mean “in an ugly manner”, i.e. “not proudly or presentibly” (but still the two tripods are “khrēsijos wejkeh[e]”, suitable for use). although this seems grammatically correct and makes some sense, could two tripod cauldrons be “not proudly or presentibly” usable in a palace? the root aidhas a strong sense of ugliness and shame, so if those two tripods were consciously shameful to use, they would not be suitable to use in the palace (although they could be sold or recycled). and then, in all these descriptions of vessels, the imperfect tripods (and all noteworthy vessels, even much cheaper than tripods) are described one by one and their imperfection, if any, is specified in full detail. it would be too odd if two tripods were shamefully usable but their imperfections were not described for each individual tripod. on the other hand, it was natural for two tripods to be mentioned together, if they were in a very good condition, in contrast to the rest ones. so, the scribe started with the two “a3keu keresijo weke” tripods which were in best condition, and then went on to describe the other tripods which had some small defects although they were usable. it is clear that “a3keu” meant “very well”, but the origin of the word must be also clarified: it was the adjective “ainós” (αἰνός, stunning) and not the noun “áinos” (αἶνος, narration). it is easy to be misled, because dictionaries give misleading definitions and no certain etymology for these two words: it is surely misleading to define “ainós” as “dreadful” (including liddell & scott, 1940): the original meaning was not “dreadful”, and if we take a close look to all occurrences of the word, it never meant “dreadful” or “horrible”: it only meant “majestic in appearance; impressive; stunning”, and the derived adverb “ainóos” (αἰνῶς) meant only “most assuredly”, but never “horribly”; such meanings as “horribl(y)” or “dreadful(ly)” were only based on context of other words with a dreadful meaning, which were only augmented by the use of αἰνός and αἰνῶς. a good example is when the elders of troy speak of helen (iliad iii, 158) “αἰνῶς ἀθανάτῃσι θεῇς εἰς ὦπα ἔοικεν·”, then “αἰνῶς” is nothing more than an assertion: “indeed, she looks like the immortal goddesses”, although indeed the word is emphatic and carries a connotation of impressiveness, and the idea that “it is really so, because we see it”. there is no word derived from “áinos” (αἶνος) with an assertive function; although it can be used in a sense of “praise”, especially in later, christian literature, the original sense of αἶνος is “narration; proverb; a word inherited from the old people; word of wisdom; a word that is worth listening to”. what we have here on the tablet is the mycenaean form of αἰνῶς (word of assertion) and not a form of αἶνος (word of wisdom). only, αἰνῶς is formed with the adverbial ending ως, common in alphabetic greek, while “ajnkhēw” /əjɲcʰeːw/ was the same word formed by the old demonstrative suffix -khwith the older adverbial ending -ēw (previously explained). the same suffixes will be seen in {niceu}, which is the most difficult word to explain on these tablets. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 45 published by ideas spread many different thoughts were quickly rejected as irrelevant, when trying to explain {niceu} by the root niq“to winnow, disperse into the air”; from nīkē “victory”; from neikos “hatred”; from the root “nek” (“dead”); the only thought with some resemblance to truth, was to explain it as from “nig” (“to wash hands or feet”), a root well known in alphabetic greek of all times, from homer until today, in the form “nib-”, and as the verb «νίζει». by that conjecture, {niceu} might be read as *“nikkhēw” from *“nig-khēw”, and the phrase {celesijo weke niceu} would be interpreted as “proper for use only as a basin for washing hands”. this interpretation is clever, but quite subjective. it is not supported by any similar usage in the whole greek language. in fact, a cauldron too old to be repaired was not proper to use as a hand-washing basin, especially in a palace. it was sooty and all over covered with the greenish patina of bronze, so it was too “aiskhros” (ugly) to be publicly used in the palace. washing hands before meals was a public and ceremonial activity, as we see in homer, and it would be shameful to use a rusty useless tripod for that. also, the shape of a tripod cauldron was not fit to use as a washing basin, which should have a flat bottom, to be placed on a table. a tripod cauldron could not stand on its rounded bottom, unless on three “skéleha”, legs. besides, consider that fire was always holy with ancient greeks and other nations; to use the cauldron for holding dirty water of washing, would be a desecrating act. in the world’s literature there is no known instance of a cooking vessel that came to be used under hands being washed, even by poor people – let alone in a palace. the only plausible explanation of {niceu} on the tablet, is to read it as “niskhēw”: it is simply the well-known “privative” (“στερητικό”) prefix nand the suffixes –kh-i, the latter in the adverbialized obsolete locative case form –ēw, which is also in ainkhēw (mentioned previously), and the same fossilized suffix –ēw will be seen in {opicewilijeu}. more precisely, it is the extended form of the “privative” (“στερητικό”) prefix nwhich is very common in sanskrit as “nis-”. by the way, the compound suffix –khi (of which we have here the obsolete locative form –khēw) is also common in sanskrit as “hi”, which is both used on its own as a particle meaning “surely, of course; knowing that, because” (used like greek “gar”), and also joint with “na” in “nahi” (meaning “of course not” etc.). in classical greek the same -χι is in ουχί and ναιχί; we have previously seen also άγχι and πάγχυ (influenced by πάνυ) and a suffixed mere -χwith a demonstrative function. the form “niskhēw” on the tablet is an adverbialized locative corresponding to an adverbialized nominative form *niskhi which does not seem to be documented on lb tablets, but it is quite well documented in alphabetical greek in the form “nosphi” (νόσφι). now we know the etymology of νόσφι, which is unknown in (chantraine, 1968, p. 757); it comes from an original form *nəskhi, that evolved (through a slight raising of /ə/ into /ɪ̈/) to a vernacular form */nɪ̈skhi/, which in mycenaean greek became *niskhi (/niscʰi/; with an obsolete inflection form documented here as “niskhēw”), while in homeric texts it reached a form “nosphi” (influenced by the locative plural suffix – phi, and also influenced by the phonetic change of (“labio”)velars to labials, which was regular in some era between mycenaean and homeric greek; the rounding of /ə/ to “o”, although not regular, was not difficult, especially under influence from words with a negative meaning starting with no-, for example “nōpheles” =“useless”). “nostos” (reaching homeland; return) can also have influenced the formation of “nosphi” as an opposite concept word. other unknown reasons could have accounted for */nəskʰi/ to /nospʰi/ such as an unknown linguistic taboo related to */nəskʰi/, or some other connection, e.g. to νῶϊ (nōi “we two, you and me”) that could imply “without the others”, for which meaning /nospʰi/ was often used. another word importantly showing that suffix *-khi with an extended parallel form *-khēw is the old adverb, later preposition and conjunction “mesphi / mespha”: both forms “mesphi” and “mespha”, as also an usuffixed form “mes” have been attested, and unfortunately these have not been connected to “nosphi” in (chantraine, 1968, p. 689). the form “mespha” is due to an obsolete */meskʰe:w/ (if not */məskʰe:w/) after influence by many prepositions (and even adverbs) ending in –a. so, with {niceu} being “niskhēw”, a form of the classical “nosphi” meaning “far from; separately; without; missing”, the phrase {celesijo weke niceu} is to be read “khrēsijos wejkēs niskhēw” = “for use suitable not any more” = not anymore suitable for use (which indirectly implies that the tripod cauldron had been repaired repeatedly in the past but it would be meaningless to try and repair it any further). 2.6 etymological analysis of “opikewirijeu” / {opicewilijeu} the other difficult word on these texts is {opicewilijeu}; -eu is the same fossilized locative case suffix we saw before (note 7). the component opiis the well-known mycenaean form of classical epi-. considering that opiis classical epi-, {opicewilijeu} / “opikewirijeu” is instantly reminiscent of the words episkeuē (“repair”) and episkeuaz(to repair), which are very ancient words, and exist until today in greek. some inscriptions in the cypriot greek syllabary hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 46 published by ideas spread contain a word “katesekeuwase” (kat-e-skeuw-ase, κατεσκεύασε “he constructed”), with a different preposition but the same root σκευ (skew-). episkeuē (“repair”) makes the best sense in this context: “a tripod cauldron that will be proper to use when it is repaired”. the only remaining question about {opicewilijeu} is its exact grammatical form; it seems to be “opiskewirjēw” or “opiskewrjēw”, but then what is after the root skewand before the suffix –ēw? to the best of my understanding, this form on the tablet can be explained only by a small scribal error: the scribe wrote “opikewirijeu” instead of the correct “opikewitirijeu”; it was much easier to make the mistake than to write the word correctly, for the following reasons: ● the word was very long; ● the omitted sign “ti” was similar in shape to “wi”: both “wi” and “ti” resemble a λ with some additional little lines inside it; ● the omitted “ti” has the same vowel as the previous and the following sign: -“wi(ti)ri”-; ● the “ti” was only for the “t”, not for a whole syllable; the syllable was rendered by the sign “ri”, so the scribe felt that every syllable was written, thus nothing was felt to be missing; ● “ri” sounds very similar to “tri”, so, by writing “ri”, the scribe thought that s/he wrote “tri”. in the corrected form “opiskewitrijēw”, the suffix root –tris well-known in greek and in pie for two functions: for marking “nomina agentis” (nominative -tēr /-tōr for the male and –tri[j]a for the female) and for “nomina instrumenti” (usually neuter: -tron); these two functions, (“nomina agentis” and “nomina instrumenti”) are originally one: they come from one and the same concept, “the doer”, person or thing doing something. so, “opiskewitrjēw” used the “doer” suffix -trand the adverbialized old locative ending “-ēw”. the -i(turning to j or ij) before “-ēw” is explained by the most ancient adverbial suffix –i, which is e.g. in αμισθί, αυθωρεί etc, and in many cases it is expanded into –τί (αμαχητί, ακονιτί, ασκαρδαμυκτί, μεγαλωστί) for indicating manner, and in other cases it is expanded into –χι (άγχι, ναιχί, ουχί, νόσφι, μέσφι, and see νίσχι/niskhi, αίγχι/ainkhi above) for a demonstrative, often locative, function. as explained previously, the adverbs in –i were for some time considered adjectives in nominative, of which the corresponding locative ending is “-ēw”; so, the form “opiskewitrijēw” shows that there was in use also an adverb *opiskewitrí meaning “by repair”, and that *opiskewitrí was the more common form, but as the scribe had in mind other adverbs ending in “-ēw” (ainkhēw, niskhēw) referring to the condition of tripod cauldrons, and possibly also had in mind the adverb “ew” (εὖ, meaning “well, in good condition”, contrasted to those not so perfect cauldrons), s/he preferred to use the form ending in “-ēw”, still influenced by *opiskewitrí, so made it “opiskewitrijēw”. it is highly preferable to reconstruct it as “opiskewitrijēw”, in which case the “i” after the “w” is simply epenthetic to ease the pronunciation. a reading “opiskewtrijēw” is also possible, without any difference of meaning. we should consider also that there must have been an undocumented word *opiskewitēr (masculine) and *opiskewitrija (feminine) corresponding to the documented (ventris & chadwick, 1953) “aketirija” = akestrijaj, which made for the adverb *opiskewitrí (meaning “by means of the repairer”). of course, *opiskewitēr and *opiskewitrija meant “a repairer”, so the word is indeed a synonym of akestrija, only that the akestrija mended by using thread and needles, while the *opiskewitēr and *opiskewitrija repaired by other means. 3. results in table 1 we can see that not all sketches of tripods are the same; the photographs (above) are more reliable than the modern copies (below), still the modern copies are useful to show the size of each sketch in relation to the space of each line; so we can see that the shape and size of the sketches are connected to the quality and usability of the tripod cauldrons. the examination (presented above, in the section 2) of the texts about tripods on these two clay tablets results in the reading and translation provided in the table 1. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 47 published by ideas spread table 1. the sketches and descriptions for each tripod cauldron py ta 641 py ta 709+712 tripode ajnkhēw khrēsijos wejkeh[e] (note 8) tripos hemej podej ojwowej tripos khrēsijos wejkēs apu kekawmenos skeleha tripos khrēsijos wejkēs niskhēw tripos khrēsijos wejkēs opiskewi[t]rijēw two tripod cauldrons very suitable for use a tripod cauldron with one leg having only one “ear” a tripod cauldron proper for use, superficially burnt around the legs a tripod cauldron no more suitable for use a tripod cauldron suitable for use when it gets repaired (sketch missing due to chipped off edge of tablet) 4. discussion & conclusion after the reading and interpretation (section 3, table 1) we can notice that the scribe made the sketches according to the real shape and condition of the tripods, while psychologically connecting quality to size: the better the condition of the tripods, the bigger s/he made the sketch (table 1). the best condition tripod cauldrons (left column) were drawn with a big body, while in the second column from the left, the cauldron with only one “ear” (in this case “ear” meaning a lesser handle) on a leg was drawn with the legs shown big, especially the middle leg. in the 4th column from left, the worst preserved cauldron is drawn as smallest of all, with the brim slanting to the right and visibly sagging; while the better cauldrons (left two columns) show their “ears” (i.e. main handles) erect, the worse ones (right two columns) show their “ears” horizontal; and it is only the last (on the right) tripod cauldron that was drawn with a wavy brim, to indicate that the brim can be straightened by hammering (repair). comparing the two tablets, we also notice another typical process followed by the professional scribe; both tablets list other things together with the tripod cauldrons: the tablet on the left lists various kinds of containers, while the tablet on the right lists things useful for cooking and serving food, such as fire starter devices, grillers, ladles and bowls; but when the tripods recorded are in more or less good condition, they are mentioned first, before the other things, as seen on the “left” tablet; on the “right” tablet, where the tripods recorded are in a more or less bad condition, they are mentioned last, after all the other items. so, once again the sketches helped to confirm the correct reading of the lb texts; this time being texts describing the tripods in terms of their usability. references bibee, w. e., & wilson-wright, a. m. (2015). a laryngeal in linear b: evidence from ugaritic and egyptian (the university of texas at austin). 14th mycenological colloquium, copenhagen, denmark, september 5, 2015. bichlmeier, h. (2014). studien zur verwendung der lokalpartikeln im mykenischen. wiesbaden: dr. ludwig reichert verlag, p. 152. retrieved from http://www.bmcreview.org/2014/12/20141219.html chadwick, j. (1955). a critical appendix to the pylos tablets. cambridge: museum of classical archaeology, pp. 138-148. retrieved from https://www.google.gr/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=5&ved=0ahukewjkreyhgkrmahx hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 48 published by ideas spread evbokhylyd4yqfggzmaq&url=http%3a%2f%2frevistas.usal.es%2findex.php%2f05443733%2farticle%2fdownload%2f2836%2f2875&usg=afqjcng08rrhaddgxllwjwrivvqtmek6r a&sig2=a86zlrqy_8kcvn1lcxsfrg chantraine, p. (1968). dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque. paris: éditions klincksieck. diccionario, m. (dmic.). biblioteca virtual miguel de cervantes de la universidad de alicante. retrieved from http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/bib/portal/diccionariomicenico/contenido/wo.html dickinson, o. (1994). the aegean bronze age. cambridge, uk: cambridge university press. janke, r. v. (2014). an archaeologist’s translation of pylos tablet ta 641-1952 (ventris), with an introduction to supersyllabograms in the vessels & pottery sector in mycenaean linear b. archaeology and science, 10, 133161. retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/23643380/archaeology_and_science_vol._10_2014_an_archaeologists_transl ation_of_pylos_tablet_641-1952._pp._133-161 kenanidis, i. (1992). eteokreetes megaleetores. athens: national library of greece (in greek). kenanidis, i. (2011). cwepeker. in i. kenanidis (ed.), historical and linguistic studies (pp. 26-191). kavala, greece: deposited to the notary e.p. lazidou in 2013 (in greek). retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/3436810/everything_of_the_minoan_civilization kenanidis, i. k., & papakitsos, e. c. (2015). a comparative linguistic study about the sumerian influence on the creation of the aegean scripts. scholars journal of arts, humanities and social sciences, 3(1e), 332-346. retrieved from http://saspjournals.com/sjahss-31/ kenanidis, i. k., & papakitsos, e. c. (2018). cretan protolinear script: the sixth-vowel set of syllabograms. international linguistics research, 1(1), 32-48. https://doi.org/10.30560/ilr.v1n1p32 liddell, h. g., & scott r. (1940). a greek-english lexicon (revised and augmented throughout by sir henry stuart jones with the assistance of roderick mckenzie). oxford: clarendon press. melena, j. (2014). filling gaps in the linear b additional syllabary: the case of syllabogram *34. in a. martínez fernández, b. ortega villaro, h. velasco lópez & h. zamora salamanca (eds.), ἄγαλμα. homenaje a manuel garcía teijeiro (pp. 207226). valladolid: secretariado de publicaciones e intercambio editorial universidad de valladolid. raymoure, k., minoan, l. a., & mycenaean linear b. retrieved from http://minoan.deaditerranean.com/resources/linear-b-sign-groups/o/o-pi/o-pi-ke-wi-ri-je-u/ palaeolexicon. (n/a). word study tool for ancient languages. retrieved from http://www.palaeolexicon.com/ papakitsos, e. c., & kenanidis, i. k. (2015). additional palaeographic evidence for the relationship of the aegean scripts to the sumerian pictography. scholars journal of arts, humanities and social sciences, 3(3c), 734737. retrieved from http://saspjournals.com/sjahss-33/ ruijgh, c. j. (1962). tabellae mycenenses selectae (76 pages). leiden: e.j. brill. ventris, m., & chadwick, j. (1953). documents in mycenaean greek. cambridge: cambridge university press. wordweb dictionary. (n/a). retrieved from http://wordweb.info/ notes note 1. in the traditional transliteration of pie, a ΄ mark on or after a k/g indicates that it is palatal. note 2. judging at least from the handwritings and the tidiness of linear b scribes, i consider that most if not all of them must have been women rather than men. note 3. see verb form in: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=w%29%2fnato&la=greek&can=w%29%2fnato0&prior=m'&d=p erseus:text:1999.01.0133:book=17:card=25&i=1#lexicon. note 4. a supposed compound from *“krēsijo-” and “-werg΄ēs” meaning “wrought” from the root “werg΄”. note 5. even so, it is a harmful trend to “discover” laryngeals everywhere and explain everything by laryngeals in the old indo-european languages. most scholars nowadays think that every “a”, many “o”s and every word initial vowel in ancient ie languages are due to laryngeals; i suggest that more proof is needed to establish a laryngeal. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 49 published by ideas spread note 6. this must be «αγχιαλιάνδε» (ankhi-halijan-de) a place name meaning “near the sea” with allative suffix -de; similar place names are used until today in greece, e.g. αγχίαλος. note 7. we cannot exclude a chance that some popular false etymology might have connected that suffix -eu to mycenaean “eu” (classical εὖ “good, well”), which could make sense in this context; accordingly also ainkhēw might have had a connotation of good appearance, and niskēw a connotation of “no good”. such a popular false etymology might have applied to “opiskewitrijēw” as “good after a repair”. note 8. the scribe made a slight mistake here: s/he ought to write “ke-re-si-jo we-ke-e” but wrote only “ke-re-sijo we-ke”; a similar slight mistake is in the second line of the same tablet, s/he wrote “di-pa me-zo-e qe-to-ro-we” instead of the correct “di-pa me-zo qe-to-ro-we”. i do not dare to say that s/he made those small mistakes because s/he did not know greek grammar perfectly, (her)self being a minoan sumerian, according to the theory presented in kenanidis (1992; 2011), kenanidis & papakitsos (2015) and papakitsos & kenanidis (2015). in fact the scribes spoke greek really better than minoan sumerian, but it was easy to make such small mistakes, as “ke-re-si-jo weke” was a habitual expression (written four times by the same scribe on these two tablets), and then, when writing the first “me-zo-e” the scribe was thinking of the next words to write: “di-pa-e me-zo-e ti-ri-o-we-e”. appendix a similar modern use of the verb “apokaiō” even today there is a use of the verb «αποκαίω»: (http://www.ethnos.gr/koinonia/arthro/kyprioi_dasokomantos_bazoun_foties_gia_na_sbisoun_tis_floges129077/ retrieved in may 2016) for a technique of burning the trees around a fire so as to prevent it from spreading. it is an article from a greek newspaper with a heading “cypriot forest-commandos set fires in order to put out the flames”; their method is described by a traditional use of the verb “apokaiō”. appendix b proof about the nature of mycenaean “a” even if *34 were not {ni}, “*34-ke-te-si” and “*34-ka-te-re” are necessarily different forms (cases) of the same noun, and note that one scribe uses “ka” where the other uses “ke” in the same word; this is the phenomenon generalized later in the ionian dialect, where the long “a”, originally central /äː/, was made slightly more front and high (/æ:/) by the ίωνες (iōnes), and that /æ:/ was rendered with the greek letter «η». so we know that even in the mycenaean greek language long “a” was fronted as /a:/, very near to /æː/. this means that “a” was originally a central vowel, given that it could easily be fronted. it was not originally a front vowel, because the fronting ionian dialects were clearly differentiated from all the other greek dialects, which did not front the “a”. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n3p81 81 published by ideas spread exploring the "poetry + tourism" model under the integration of culture and tourism: a case study of meibei lake in huyi district, xi'an zhao xinyi1 1 xi'an peihua university, china correspondence: zhao xinyi, xi'an peihua university, xi'an, shaanxi, china. received: may 8, 2025; accepted: may 31, 2025; published: june 4, 2025 xi'an peihua university school-level project: research on empowering cultural-tourism industry development in huyi district of xi'an through tang-song poetry depictions of meibei lake; project no.: phkt2549. abstract classical chinese poetry constitutes a vital "carrier of local cultural heritage, rich in literary connotations and historical value, and holds considerable potential for tourism development. as a historic cultural metropolis and celebrated tourist destination, xi’an boasts profound cultural resources. although much research has addressed tourism development in xi’an, the unique role of ancient poetry remains underexplored. this paper takes meibei lake in huyi district as its focal point, examining tang and song dynasty poetic portrayals of meibei and their intrinsic connections with tourism planning. it aims to propose feasible recommendations for integrating poetry into local tourism development and to offer a reference model for deeper cultural-tourism integration in xi’an and beyond. keywords: meibei lake, huyi district, tang and song poetry, tourism planning, cultural empowerment 1. introduction meibei lake, located in what is now huyi district of xi’an, was a renowned tourist destination in ancient chang’an. its name derives from the spring “meiquan,” famed for its sweet-tasting water. the area around meibei is celebrated for its scenic beauty and abundance of historic sites, making it a favored haunt of poets and scholars since antiquity. during the tang dynasty, meibei lake was one of the premier retreats in the capital region, where illustrious poets such as du fu, cen shen, wei yingwu, and wen tingyun would boat across its waters, feast upon its shores, and compose verse in its honor. in the song dynasty, meibei was even acclaimed as “the finest of guanzhong’s mountain–water landscapes,” inspiring luminaries like su shi, li biao, and zhang dun to leave behind many celebratory poems. these works alternately portray meibei’s unique, exquisite beauty; express the poets’ complex emotions about their political ambitions and disappointments; or convey a tranquil, reclusive spirit influenced by buddhist and daoist thought. in particular, du fu’s travel poems about meibei have become a lasting literary model and have laid a solid cultural foundation for the lake’s tourism development. the poetic depictions of meibei lake in tang and song literature represent a rare cultural treasure for huyi district, offering immense value for integrating culture and tourism. these poems are not only masterpieces of literary art but also vital sources for shaping the district’s unique cultural-tourism identity and enriching its cultural depth. however, despite meibei lake’s wealth of poetic heritage, the study and application of classical verse in its tourism development remain limited. research on incorporating ancient poetry into tourism strategies is still in its infancy, and this significant cultural asset has yet to be fully explored or utilized. as an emerging form of cultural tourism, “poetry tourism” can offer visitors a fresh, immersive experience and inject new vitality into the tourism market. given its abundant poetic resources, meibei lake holds tremendous potential for such development. this paper proposes a “poetry + tourism” model to explore pathways for the integrated development of meibei lake’s cultural-tourism offerings, providing valuable reference and inspiration for deeper fusion of culture and tourism in huyi district and beyond. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 82 published by ideas spread 2. significance of tang and song poetry depictions of meibei for tourism development in huyi district during the tang and song dynasties, meibei lake was renowned as a premier destination in chang’an, drawing countless poets and scholars who visited and composed verse in its honor. it is estimated that around twenty-three poems referencing meibei were written—by tang masters such as du fu, cen shen, wei yingwu, sima zha, wei zhuang, and wen tingyun, and song literati including su shi, li zhi, li biao, wei ye, and zhang zai. among these works, du fu’s “meibei xing” and “rowing west of the city moat” stand out as the most celebrated, and his stature as the “sage of poetry” has imbued meibei with a profound humanistic aura[1]. these poems not only showcase the lake’s exquisite scenery but also convey their authors’ complex emotions and insights, making them a precious cultural treasure for huyi district and conferring exceptional value for culture-tourism integration.the contributions of tang and song poetic depictions of meibei lake to the development of huyi district’s tourism industry are reflected in the following key areas: 2.1 unearthing and documenting tourism resources to stimulate visitor interest in today’s thriving tourism industry, identifying and recording unique attractions to motivate travelers is essential for raising a destination’s profile. by combining strategies—such as leveraging famous poetic lines in advertising, preserving poets’ former residences, and naming sites after classical verses—destinations can effectively develop and promote their tourism assets[2]. first, poetic couplets play a powerful role in promotional campaigns. classical chinese poetry is renowned for its evocative imagery, which can greatly enhance a region’s appeal. for example, lines like “guilin’s scenery is the best under heaven,” “above is paradise, below are suzhou and hangzhou,” and “he who has never been to the great wall is not a true hero” have become iconic tourism slogans. in the song dynasty, zhang ji’s praise of meibei lake in his “record of kongcui hall”—“among guanzhong’s many scenic wonders, meibei beneath mount zhongnan stands peerless and pristine”—bestowed upon meibei the epithet “the finest landscape in guanzhong,” significantly boosting its renown.second, poets’ former residences and sites named after their verses serve as valuable tourism resources. many classical poets stayed, wrote, or even built villas at meibei lake, leaving behind material heritage such as cottages and memorial pavilions[3]. these sites underpin the development of new cultural tourism offerings. for instance, poets wen tingyun, zheng gu, and wei zhuang commissioned lakeside retreats that inspired numerous celebrated poems. the “chaoge pavilion,” built to commemorate bai juyi’s studies at meibei, and “kongcui hall,” named after du fu’s line “silk-pipes trill through emerald emptiness,” both enrich meibei’s cultural depth and draw visitors seeking literary connection[4].finally, the vast corpus of humanistic landscape poetry itself constitutes a priceless record of early tourism resources. these works are not only a rich part of local heritage but also a critical reference for modern culture–tourism integration. by thoroughly researching and promoting these poems, destinations can deepen their cultural narrative, heighten their distinctive appeal, and transform into even more compelling tourist attractions. 2.2 enhancing tourism value by building bridges between the destination and its celebrated poets in tourism development, enriching a destination’s cultural depth and appeal is key to increasing its overall value. take meibei lake in huyi district as an example: tang and song dynasty poems about meibei provide both a historical foundation and cultural endorsement for the site’s development, while also forging a direct connection between modern tourism and celebrated literati[5]. a destination’s literary image profoundly influences travelers’ choices. in “poetry tourism,” visitors are often moved by the scenes conjured by poets, setting their expectations high. many classic verses instantly evoke their corresponding scenic spots, and people subconsciously equate the poet’s renown with that of the place itself. at meibei lake, tang and song poets such as du fu (in “meibei xing”), cen shen (in “feasting at meibei with local officials”), wei yingwu (in “viewing meibei as prefect of hu”), and su shi (in “meibei fish”) left behind celebrated works. these poems not only depict meibei lake’s natural beauty but also reflect the deep admiration these writers held for the landscape. for instance, du fu writes in “meibei xing”:“south of the islet, mountains sink into glassy depths; ghostly reflections dance in merging air,”painting the lake as a living masterpiece and stirring readers’ desire to witness it themselves. su shi’s vivid portrayal of meibei’s fish—its delicate flavor and the heartfelt gift from a distant friend—kindles both curiosity and an appreciation of the bonds between poets and their peers. the continued circulation of these poems has steadily raised meibei lake’s profile, drawing ever more visitors. because so many renowned poets have extolled its virtues, meibei lake has come to symbolize the finest of guanzhong’s mountain–water scenery, and its appeal and visibility have grown accordingly. poems by celebrated figures serve as a bridge linking the destination to its illustrious patrons, boosting the site’s fame and increasing the likelihood that travelers will choose it. moreover, anything associated with these poets—stories, anecdotes, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 83 published by ideas spread historic sites—becomes an additional attraction, enriching the destination’s cultural cachet. for example, meibei lake’s transformation into a haven for literati like du fu and cen shen means that their biographies and the ruins connected to them are now integral parts of the visitor experience. 2.3 enhancing the taste of tourism resources and elevating visitors’ aesthetic appreciation against the backdrop of culture–tourism integration, tang and song dynasty poems about meibei lake do more than showcase its rich natural scenery—they convey profound emotional depth that plays a critical role in refining the taste of tourism offerings and cultivating visitors’ aesthetic sensibilities. just as travelers who behold west lake recall the line “i compare west lake to xi shi; lightly or heavily adorned, she is always graceful,” or stand atop yueyang tower and recite “the rosy clouds and lone wild goose fly together; the clear waters mirror the boundless sky,” so too can the appreciation and interpretation of meibei’s poetic heritage unlock its deeper cultural value and heighten its appeal as a destination. 2.3.1 scenic description and atmosphere creation poetic depictions of meibei lake in the tang and song eras convey three principal qualities: a grand, almost fantastical vastness; an ethereal, mist-shrouded ambience; and a pure, delicate beauty.du fu opens “meibei xing” with:“my brother cen shen and i, curious at heart, traveled far to roam meibei.suddenly heaven and earth took on strange hues; ten thousand acres of waves piled up like colored glass.”here, the poet evokes the lake’s sweeping grandeur and otherworldly brilliance, inspiring his companion’s—and ours—desire to explore its wonders.cen shen, in “feasting at meibei with local officials,” writes:“ten thousand acres steeped in sky’s hue, a thousand fathoms probing earth’s roots.”in just two lines, he summons the lake’s boundless expanse and unfathomable depth.in the song dynasty, li chuo’s “meibei” describes:“gazing out on mist-shrouded emptiness fills my soul; i seek old traces atop the high terrace.slanting sunlight brightens treetops then fades, and when winds subside, mountain shadows appear upon the still waters.”with brush-stroke precision, he paints a mist-laden landscape that feels like an ink-wash painting, drawing readers into its serene mystery.another song poet, li biao, in “yang bei,” portrays yet another facet:“clear skies reflect as dark-green hills, waves as blue as indigo;calm waters mirror heaven’s clarity, filling the jade basin.standing within this painted scene, my heart soars with birds over zhongnan.”on a clear day, the lake’s emerald surface appears tranquil and enchanting—an idyllic sanctuary that today’s visitors would find equally mesmerizing.finally, wei yingwu’s “viewing meibei as prefect of hu” captures the lake’s pure elegance:“wild waters gleam along the long pond; under clear skies, blossoms swirl.verdant trees drift in soft mist; green peaks rise beyond a thousand hills.”these vivid portrayals enrich visitors’ visual imagination of meibei lake and elevate its cultural refinement as a destination. 2.3.2 emotional connotations and cultural resonance the tang and song poems about meibei lake are imbued with rich emotional layers, including scenes of festive splendor, yearnings for reclusion, and nostalgic reflections on the past. in du fu’s “rowing west of the city moat,” he depicts the poets’ experience aboard a pleasure boat amid meibei’s grand scenery:“on lacquered decks fine ladies and gentlemen recline, flutes and pipes lament the distant sky. spring breezes sway the painted masts, and in the slow sunlight i watch the brocaded cables pulled. fish stir gentle ripples that sway song fans, swallows dance among petals at the banquet’s edge. if no small boat can ply these oars, what river of wine would flow like a spring?” here, ornate pavilions and painted boats, song and dance, wine and feasting—all convey the exuberant joys of tang-era revelry and invite modern readers to long for such lavish pleasures.similarly, in cen shen’s “feasting at meibei with local officials,” he writes of the lakeside banquet:“idle egrets startled by flute and pipe, hidden dragons drawn to the wine jar.”the flute’s notes disturb the languid waterbirds, while the aroma of the feast even entices mythical dragons from the depths—capturing the bold, romantic spirit of the high tang. these vivid portrayals can inspire today’s visitors to recreate meibei’s ancient pageantry by developing attractions that evoke the tang dynasty’s “pleasure boat” experience.in contrast, wei yingwu’s poem “watching swallows at the west pond of hu pavilion” expresses a desire for retreat:“at dawn’s bright hour i gaze across the peaceful lake;fine trees emerge in soft mist as spring outings swell.official duties weary my soul, yet here my heart finds release.with wine now brimming high, i ask you to drink deep.”serving as the county magistrate, the poet’s daily burdens had worn him down, kindling a daoist–buddhist longing for seclusion. his visit to meibei’s serene landscape renewed his spirit—a sentiment resonant with modern travelers who seek solace from busy urban lives. finally, in the late tang, wei zhuang recalls meibei’s former glory in “passing meibei, recalling old times”: “three paths overgrown, lost amid bamboo; neighbors gone, fields now mulberry groves.meibei’s past affairs live only in memory; the purple pavilion remains in fading smoke.”returning after twenty years, he finds the lakeside’s hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 84 published by ideas spread former bustle vanished. witnessing the sea of change, his sorrow is evident: “at sunset’s end, i wept as i finished my verse.” such reflections on the passage of time touch upon a universal human experience, drawing visitors across millennia into an emotional dialogue with meibei’s evolving landscape.these poems’ emotional depths not only enrich visitors’ cultural understanding of meibei lake but also spark personal resonance, elevating their aesthetic and emotional engagement with the destination. 3. empowering meibei lake’s tourism development through tang and song poetic depictions tang and song dynasty poetry, as treasures of ancient chinese literature, not only holds exceptional artistic value but also conveys rich cultural connotations and historical insights. meibei lake in huyi district of xi’an—long celebrated as a retreat for poets and scholars—appears frequently in these classical works, providing the region’s cultural-tourism industry with a unique reservoir of heritage. this paper explores how such poetic portrayals of meibei empower huyi district’s cultural-tourism development across three dimensions: the interpretation system, tourism product creation, and the synergy between characteristic landscapes and the celebrity effect. 3.1 interpretation system at present, tourism development often focuses on the physical enhancement of scenic spots while neglecting the cultural dimension—particularly the development of the tourist interpretation system, which is the primary medium through which visitors receive and appreciate a site’s cultural significance. although huyi district boasts abundant historical and cultural resources, the use of tang and song poetry about meibei lake in its culturaltourism offerings remains unsatisfactory. aside from a few quotes from du fu on information boards and the official wechat account, the powerful cultural appeal of these poems has yet to be fully leveraged. consequently, visitors lack a poetic framework to guide their experience and struggle to perceive the resonance between the ancient verses and the modern landscape. to address this, huyi district should prioritize the design and construction of a comprehensive interpretation system that weaves together centuries of poetic works with engaging stories and cultural insights. for example, along the lakeside promenade, interpretive scripts could highlight du fu’s lines, “suddenly heaven and earth took on strange hues; ten thousand acres of waves piled up like colored glass,”inviting visitors to behold the lake’s vast expanse and its ever-changing light. cen shen’s verse,“ten thousand acres steeped in sky’s hue, a thousand fathoms probing earth’s roots,”would encourage them to feel the lake’s breadth and depth. wei yingwu’s line,“wild waters gleam along the long pond; blossoms swirl under clear skies,”could draw attention to the water’s clarity and the tranquil atmosphere.in a cultural experience zone, su shi’s “meibei fish” could be featured:“bamboo frosted and slit into twin gates; within, long fish lie like resting swords,”recreating the lake’s historic fisheries and introducing visitors to ancient fishing practices.at each historic ruin—kongcui hall, yunjisi, chaoge pavilion—narrators could recount the poets’ connections to these sites, sharing anecdotes and background that bring the verses to life. by integrating these interpretive elements, visitors will not only admire meibei lake’s natural beauty but also gain deeper insight into its literary heritage and the unique emotions conveyed by its poets. 3.2 tourism product development scenic spots frequently celebrated in classical poetry often become flagship attractions. as a favored retreat of tang-dynasty literati, meibei lake’s abundant presence in tang and song poems provides a wealth of cultural resources for tourism product development. one could create a series of cultural-themed routes—such as a “meibei in tang poetry” tour—that weaves together the lake’s poetic landmarks with modern travel itineraries, allowing visitors to appreciate its natural beauty while immersing themselves in the charm of classical verse. 3.2.1 curated themed routes one example is a “poetic cruise” that draws on du fu’s descriptions in “meibei xing” and “rowing west of the city moat.” a boat route would carry visitors across the glittering lake, allowing them to experience meibei lake’s grandeur firsthand. during the cruise, recordings of poems by du fu, cen shen, and others would be broadcast over the speakers, accompanied by live or recorded guzheng music to enrich the cultural atmosphere. a “poetry pavilion” could be installed at the center of the lake, where visitors might recite verses, take part in poetry contests, and win meibei-themed cultural souvenirs.around the shore, a “poetry promenade” could be laid out, with interpretive panels displaying poems by du fu, cen shen, wei yingwu, and their historical contexts. trained cultural volunteers would walk the route, explaining the imagery and background of each poem.additionally, drawing on du fu’s references to “kongcui hall” and “yunjisi” in “meibei xing,” a separate “historic ruins tour” could be developed. at the restored kongcui hall, a small “poets’ memorial gallery” would showcase the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 85 published by ideas spread lives and works of du fu, wei yingwu, and other literati, allowing visitors to feel the serenity of the ruins and the weight of history. 3.2.2 poetic homestays and dining experiences integrate tang and song poetry into lodging and dining. establish “poetic inns” where rooms feature décor inspired by classic verses, and guests receive calligraphy reproductions of relevant lines. create a “poetry restaurant” whose menu items are named after famous poems—such as a “meibei fish banquet”—and that includes a poetry corner stocked with anthologies for guests to read and discuss. these offerings blend meibei’s poetic heritage with contemporary tourism, delighting visitors with immersive cultural experiences while boosting local engagement and economic vitality. 3.3 historic landscapes and celebrity effect over time, some historic sites fade from view unless immortalized by poetry. meibei lake, once the qin–han imperial garden and a tang-era retreat, earned the epithet “the finest of guanzhong’s landscapes.” by restoring or recreating key sites—such as kongcui hall, chaoge pavilion, and yunjisi—tourism planners can leverage market demand for authenticity. employ vr to reconstruct these structures, allowing visitors via mobile devices or vr headsets to explore meibei’s past and hear narrated cultural insights. a vr “poetic boat” could simulate tangsong era excursions, with virtual landscapes unfolding alongside narrated verses. poems by du fu, su shi, and other renowned poets have elevated lesser-known spots into cultural icons, inspiring modern travelers. to harness this celebrity effect, promotional materials—online and offline—should prominently feature these poets’ lines, forging an emotional connection that motivates visits and strengthens meibei lake’s identity as a place where history, literature, and tourism converge. 4. conclusion meibei lake, this ancient and enchanting body of water, has long been beloved by poets and scholars. during the tang and song dynasties, literary masters such as du fu, cen shen, wei yingwu, and su shi left behind numerous admired poems that constitute a precious cultural asset for huyi district’s integration of culture and tourism. however, meibei lake’s current tourism development still underuses these poetic resources, and research into their combined application in tourism remains insufficient. the “poetry + tourism” model proposed in this paper seeks to transform tang and song poetic depictions of meibei into lively modern tourism practices. these innovative initiatives not only offer fresh ideas for meibei lake’s development but also provide valuable reference for the deeper fusion of culture and tourism in other locales. in sum, tang and song poems about meibei lake supply huyi district’s cultural-tourism industry with rich connotations and unique charm. by thoroughly uncovering and appropriately leveraging these poetic resources, one can effectively elevate meibei lake’s tourism quality, enhance visitors’ cultural identification, and promote high-quality development of the district’s culturaltourism sector. looking ahead, we anticipate meibei lake becoming a model of culture-tourism integration, where every visitor fully experiences the allure of classical poetry and the richness of cultural heritage. references [1] han, c. (2017). a study of du fu’s meibei travel poems. hanzi culture, 5, 53–56. [2] liu, x. (2018). an exploratory study of the role and influence of classical poetry in chifeng’s tourism development. journal of chifeng university, 10, 102–105. [3] wang, w. (2016). an exploratory study of the role and influence of classical poetry in nanjing’s tourism development. language arts journal, 12, 92–94. [4] han, c., chen, m., & kong, l. (2018). a study of tang-dynasty literary works on meibei lake. journal of shaanxi preschool teachers college, 34(12). [5] zhu, l. (2006). silk-pipes trill through emerald emptiness: meibei lake through the changes of history. tangdu journal, 1, 156–158. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). zhao xinyi1 1 xi'an peihua university, china correspondence: zhao xinyi, xi'an peihua university, xi'an, shaanxi, china. received: may 8, 2025; accepted: may 31, 2025; published: june 4, 2025 xi'an peihua university school-level project: research on empowering cultural-tourism industry development in huyi district of xi'an through tang-song poetry depictions of meibei lake; project no.: phkt2549. abstract classical chinese poetry constitutes a vital "carrier of local cultural heritage, rich in literary connotations and historical value, and holds considerable potential for tourism development. as a historic cultural metropolis and celebrated tourist de... keywords: meibei lake, huyi district, tang and song poetry, tourism planning, cultural empowerment 1. introduction meibei lake, located in what is now huyi district of xi’an, was a renowned tourist destination in ancient chang’an. its name derives from the spring “meiquan,” famed for its sweet-tasting water. the area around meibei is celebrated for its scenic beau... the poetic depictions of meibei lake in tang and song literature represent a rare cultural treasure for huyi district, offering immense value for integrating culture and tourism. these poems are not only masterpieces of literary art but also vital sou... 2. significance of tang and song poetry depictions of meibei for tourism development in huyi district during the tang and song dynasties, meibei lake was renowned as a premier destination in chang’an, drawing countless poets and scholars who visited and composed verse in its honor. it is estimated that around twenty-three poems referencing meibei were... 2.1 unearthing and documenting tourism resources to stimulate visitor interest in today’s thriving tourism industry, identifying and recording unique attractions to motivate travelers is essential for raising a destination’s profile. by combining strategies—such as leveraging famous poetic lines in advertising, preserving poets’... first, poetic couplets play a powerful role in promotional campaigns. classical chinese poetry is renowned for its evocative imagery, which can greatly enhance a region’s appeal. for example, lines like “guilin’s scenery is the best under heaven,” “ab... 2.2 enhancing tourism value by building bridges between the destination and its celebrated poets in tourism development, enriching a destination’s cultural depth and appeal is key to increasing its overall value. take meibei lake in huyi district as an example: tang and song dynasty poems about meibei provide both a historical foundation and cult... a destination’s literary image profoundly influences travelers’ choices. in “poetry tourism,” visitors are often moved by the scenes conjured by poets, setting their expectations high. many classic verses instantly evoke their corresponding scenic spo... because so many renowned poets have extolled its virtues, meibei lake has come to symbolize the finest of guanzhong’s mountain–water scenery, and its appeal and visibility have grown accordingly. poems by celebrated figures serve as a bridge linking t... 2.3 enhancing the taste of tourism resources and elevating visitors’ aesthetic appreciation against the backdrop of culture–tourism integration, tang and song dynasty poems about meibei lake do more than showcase its rich natural scenery—they convey profound emotional depth that plays a critical role in refining the taste of tourism offering... 2.3.1 scenic description and atmosphere creation poetic depictions of meibei lake in the tang and song eras convey three principal qualities: a grand, almost fantastical vastness; an ethereal, mist-shrouded ambience; and a pure, delicate beauty.du fu opens “meibei xing” with:“my brother cen shen and... 2.3.2 emotional connotations and cultural resonance the tang and song poems about meibei lake are imbued with rich emotional layers, including scenes of festive splendor, yearnings for reclusion, and nostalgic reflections on the past. in du fu’s “rowing west of the city moat,” he depicts the poets’ exp... spring breezes sway the painted masts, and in the slow sunlight i watch the brocaded cables pulled. fish stir gentle ripples that sway song fans, swallows dance among petals at the banquet’s edge. if no small boat can ply these oars, what river of wine would flow like a spring?” here, ornate pavilions and painted boats, song and dance, wine and feasting—all convey the exuberant joys of tang-era revelry and invite modern readers to long for such lavish pleasures.similarly, in cen shen’s “feasting at meibei with local officials... finally, in the late tang, wei zhuang recalls meibei’s former glory in “passing meibei, recalling old times”: “three paths overgrown, lost amid bamboo; neighbors gone, fields now mulberry groves.meibei’s past affairs live only in memory; the purple pa... 3. empowering meibei lake’s tourism development through tang and song poetic depictions tang and song dynasty poetry, as treasures of ancient chinese literature, not only holds exceptional artistic value but also conveys rich cultural connotations and historical insights. meibei lake in huyi district of xi’an—long celebrated as a retreat... 3.1 interpretation system at present, tourism development often focuses on the physical enhancement of scenic spots while neglecting the cultural dimension—particularly the development of the tourist interpretation system, which is the primary medium through which visitors rec... to address this, huyi district should prioritize the design and construction of a comprehensive interpretation system that weaves together centuries of poetic works with engaging stories and cultural insights. for example, along the lakeside promenade... “suddenly heaven and earth took on strange hues; ten thousand acres of waves piled up like colored glass,”inviting visitors to behold the lake’s vast expanse and its ever-changing light. cen shen’s verse,“ten thousand acres steeped in sky’s hue, a tho... 3.2 tourism product development scenic spots frequently celebrated in classical poetry often become flagship attractions. as a favored retreat of tang-dynasty literati, meibei lake’s abundant presence in tang and song poems provides a wealth of cultural resources for tourism product... 3.2.1 curated themed routes one example is a “poetic cruise” that draws on du fu’s descriptions in “meibei xing” and “rowing west of the city moat.” a boat route would carry visitors across the glittering lake, allowing them to experience meibei lake’s grandeur firsthand. during... 3.2.2 poetic homestays and dining experiences integrate tang and song poetry into lodging and dining. establish “poetic inns” where rooms feature décor inspired by classic verses, and guests receive calligraphy reproductions of relevant lines. create a “poetry restaurant” whose menu items are nam... these offerings blend meibei’s poetic heritage with contemporary tourism, delighting visitors with immersive cultural experiences while boosting local engagement and economic vitality. 3.3 historic landscapes and celebrity effect over time, some historic sites fade from view unless immortalized by poetry. meibei lake, once the qin–han imperial garden and a tang-era retreat, earned the epithet “the finest of guanzhong’s landscapes.” by restoring or recreating key sites—such as ... poems by du fu, su shi, and other renowned poets have elevated lesser-known spots into cultural icons, inspiring modern travelers. to harness this celebrity effect, promotional materials—online and offline—should prominently feature these poets’ lines... 4. conclusion meibei lake, this ancient and enchanting body of water, has long been beloved by poets and scholars. during the tang and song dynasties, literary masters such as du fu, cen shen, wei yingwu, and su shi left behind numerous admired poems that constitut... references copyrights humanities and social science research; vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v1n2p52 52 published by ideas spread prevalence of domestic violence against women and children in the philippines annie c. clores1, glenda m. dimaano1, leo justine d. javier1 & abegail m. iloco1 1 college of teacher education, batangas state university jplpc-malvar, philippines correspondence: glenda m. dimaano, college of teacher education, batangas state university jplpc-malvar, batangas province, 4233, philippines. e-mail: bellematthew@yahoo.com received: october 16, 2018; accepted: november 7, 2018; published: november 28, 2018 abstract in a country where gender and development is promoted, professionals, educators, students, household and families must be exposed in the issues of violence against women and children in the philippines. hence, this mixed method study determined the prevalence of domestic violence against women and children in the municipality of malvar with an end goal of proposing extension service activities to minimize the problem of domestic violence in the municipality of malvar. specifically, it dealt with the following: the issues of violence against women and children in the municipality from 2014-2016, the police officers’ perspective in addressing such case, and the factors that drive the complaints to report such case. the data were obtained through the issues of violence reported in the women’s desk and interview of the two police officers and two random victims. by evaluating and analysing the information gathered, the researchers found out that the common factor that lead the complainant to report the case was the victim’s fear that even their children may experience violence from the husband. the results of the study also revealed that reluctance of the victims to pursue the complaints and the victims’ tolerance of abuse are the problems which boil down the culture. in connection to victims’ reluctance to pursue the complaint, problems like costly, lengthy litigation and corruption in the judiciary and prosecution exist. these problems discourage the victims in filing formal complains. in addition, there is no established national free legal aid program for financially challenged women. in line of the above cited problems, the researchers recommend that victims be referred to dswd even if she does not file formal complaint. in instances when the victims chooses to go back to her abuser, consistent monitoring and counselling must be done to inform them of other remedies like that of barangay protection order which is cheaper and readily available in barangay. keywords: domestic violence, women and children, prevalence, gender 1. introduction nowadays, there are many reports of positive change in international, national and local laws focusing on development, equality and human rights that lead to positive outcome in deed and attitude on the part of governments, religious organizations and other institutions when looking at the key development issues through gendered lens-looking at how development decisions and practices affect both men and women. in addressing gender and development issues, it is usual to look at the relations between women and men (social, political, economic), focusing on global inequalities, always keeping in mind, however, that all play a part in supporting inequality wherever in the world. we look at issues of power, which can prevent development and which can hinder participation in, and opportunities for, involvement in one’s own community. gender and development refers to the development perspective and process that are participatory and empowering, equitable, sustainable, free from violence, respectful of human rights, supportive of self-determination and actualization of human potential. it seeks to achieve gender equality as a fundamental value that should be reflected in development choices; seek to transform society’s social, economic and political structures; and question the validity of the gender roles ascribed to women and men; contends that women are active agents of development and not just passive recipients of development assistance; and stresses the need of women to organize themselves and participate in political processes to strengthen their legal rights. (ched memorandum order 1 s. 2015). violence against women is the most shameful human rights violation, and it is the most pervasive. it knows no boundaries of geography, culture or wealth. as long as it continues, we cannot claim to be making real progress towards equality, development and peace. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 53 published by ideas spread in a fast changing world, everyone needs to be aware of the violence against women and children. everyone must be involved in this issue and must know how to protect, guard and secure the rights of both men and women including at home. “it takes the viewpoint of the woman’s subordination and low status at home, in the community and in society, as the starting point of healing partnership; takes the issue of vaw as a violation of the human rights of a woman that is, the right to be free from violence, the right to equal opportunities in all spheres of life; takes women empowerment as the goals of healing partnership and service delivery….” (responding to vawc – a manual on gender responsive case management, dswd, 2006) violence against women by state actors was highlighted at the time of martial rule when detained women suffered sexual abuse, torture and other ill-treatment. violence against women as a human right issue was largely viewed as state violence, and minimal attention was given to vaw by non-state actors or private individuals, particularly in inter-relational contexts. republic act no. 9262, known as the “anti-violence against women and their children act of 2014:, defines violence against women as any act or series of acts committed against wives, former wives, or women in any form of intimate relationship with the perpetrator, which result in or likely to result in physical, sexual, psychological harm or suffering, or economic abuse. it considers these acts of violence a public offense, and provides for protective measures and other necessary relief for the survivor victims. in march 2004, republic act 9262 or the so called anti-violence against women and children act was signed into law. this law was created to protect the welfare of housewives and all women and their children. furthermore, the state values the dignity of women and children and its members particularly women and children, from violence and threats to their personal safety and security. (r.a. 9262, sec. 2) according to the 2008 statistical report on the role of filipino women (ncfrw), violence against women (vaw) cases in the philippines rose to 21 percent from 2007 report. with the implementation of the republic act 9262 or the anti-violence against women and children act of 2004, it is very alarming that the number of violations against women’s rights did not decrease. it is also important to know and study this topic to prevent and avoid series of acts committed by any person against a women who is his wife, former wife or against woman with whom the person has or had a sexual or dating relationship, or with or without the family abode, which result in or is likely to result in physical, sexual, psychological harm or suffering, or economic abuse including threats of such acts, battery, assault, coercion, harassment or arbitrary deprivation of liberty. the above cited phenomenon serves as the rationale of the research endeavour. the researchers aimed to determine the prevalence of violence against women and children in the municipality of malvar based on the law enforcers’ perspective and to provide recommendation to address the needs of not only the victims but of the law enforcers as well. the researchers believe that it would be best to conduct this research. this endeavour also aimed to promote gender and development (gad) program as the institution adheres to the initiatives of the government on gender equality. the result of this study would also help the researchers to be aware on violence against women and children and radiate this concept among their future students as they teach in their field of specialization. 1.1 objective of the study this study aimed to determine the prevalence of domestic violence in the municipality of malvar, with and end goal of providing recommendation to address the needs of not only the victims but of the law enforcers as well. specifically, it sought to answer the following questions: what are the reported cases of violence against women and children in the municipality of malvar?; what factors drove the complainants to report cases to the proper authorities? and lastly, what extension service activities may be proposed to minimize the problem of domestic violence in the municipality of malvar? 2. methodology in order to answer the questions posted in this study, the researchers utilized mixed method of research, specifically, quantitative and qualitative method of research. this is also called as “multi-methodology”, wherein its variation in date collection leads to greater validity. this kind of research method involves generating new knowledge and can involve either concurrent or sequential use of these two classes of methods to follow a line of inquiry. quantitative method utilizing descriptive design was used to describe the trend of violence from 2014-2016. the quantitative method can provide information and explanation that are adequate at the level of meaning while recognizing that survey research has not always been good at tapping the subjective dimension of behaviour. while qualitative method was used to elicit the responses of the officers regarding the prevalence of domestic violence and their action in dealing with these cases, and of the victims themselves. the qualitative method uses the nature hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 54 published by ideas spread of data collected which is usually detailed descriptions recorded by the women’s desk. it also provides textual description of how people experience a given situation; hence, the use of it provides better interpretation and understanding of the complex reality of violence against women and children. meanwhile, analyses of secondary data were also done by the researchers. these data were the issues of violence obtained from the records of the wcpd, particularly their blotter book. the researchers sought the assistance of one of the wcpd officers for counting the cases manually in the wpcd blotter book. only cases which pertain to violence against women, particularly violation of ra 9262 were gathered for the purpose. to substantiate the gathered data, interview was conducted by the researchers considering the schedule given by the wpcd section chief. they utilized interview guide questions to elicit response on the participants. during interviews, they took down notes and used voice recorder for comprehensive recording of the subjects’ responses. the second wave of the interview followed after identifying the victims who are willing to be interview. data gathered were classified, tallied and tabulated using frequency and percentage. 3. results and discussion this chapter primarily deals with the research problems. to give an in-depth analysis and interpretation, the gathered data are arranged thematically and sequentially resembling the presentation of the specific problems posed at the beginning of the study. figure 1. reported cases of violence against women and children in malvar police station 3.1 what are the reported cases of violence against women and children in the municipality of malvar? the researchers sought the permission of the officer-in-charge in malvar police station of the reported cases of violence against women and children from year 2014 up to 2016. these cases are physical violence, sexual violence, economic violence and psychological violence. to clearly present the numbers of the said cases, the researchers utilized a graph in figure 1. there were a total of 30 reported cases of violence against women and children in the municipality of malvar from 2014-2016. nine reported cases in 2014, five of which were physical violence, 2 were sexual violence, 1 was economic violence and 1 was psychological violence. in 2015, there was a sudden increase, 13 were reported cases of violence. lastly in 2016, there was a declined of reported cases with a sum of eight. in general, the number of cases of physical violence increased while the number of cases of sexual violence, economic violence and psychological violence decreased. it infers that there are more physically violent husband or persons that committed violence against women and children. 3.2 what factors drove the complainant to report the case to the proper authorities? the researchers did their best to seek for the complainants’ factors that drove them to report the cases to the proper authorities but due to the confidentiality and secrecy of the cases, the researchers did not achieve to seek those. they only got 2 victims who stated their reason to have reported the violence they had experience. when asked what factors drove the complainant to report the case, the interviewed victims stated various reason. each categories were discussed below. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 55 published by ideas spread 3.2.1 severe physical assault to the victim and their children this portion shows the result of the interviews conducted by the researchers. their answers were stated in verbatim, with corresponding translation for better understanding of the statements. victim 1 came to pcwd sometime in 2015, complaining that her husband hit her and she was afraid that her husband might inflict harm on their children. she stated: “sinumtok ako…sa katunayan ay lagi nya ako sinasaktan. natatakot na nga ako na baka pati mga anak namin ay saktan nya sa tuwing nalalasing sya” (the woman said that her husband punch him, and hurts her all the time. she and her children are afraid especially when her husband is drunk.) victim 2, on the other hand, also experienced severe physical assault. she went to the police station because her husband boxed and strangled her. she said that it was not the first time that her partner inflicted harm on her. “bale ilang beses na syang nananakit. hindi lamang ako ang sinasaktan nya, maging ang aming anak na panganay. wala syang pinipiling lugar, kahit sa kalsada at kahit sa harap ng maraming tao ay sinasaktan nya kami”. (the woman said that her husband hurts her in public, even their eldest child.) both victims opined the same case that they needed to seek the assistance of the wpcd officers. in 1981, anthropologist david levinson, as cited by santiago and aya (2014), reported that the most common form of family violence throughout the world was wife beating. until 2000s, women in most societies were seen as being owned by their husband. 3.2.2 abuse of alcohol drinking and/or use of drugs of their partner the two victims shared the same sentiments that alcohol and use of drugs aggravated the abuse. victim 2 stated that her husband is uncontrollable when drunk, saying that, “pag lasing yan ay malimit na nagaamok”. victim 1 shared similar statement, saying “kapag yang si ***** ay nakainom, diretso lahat sa ulo ang alak at dun na sya nagsisimulang manakit. nung ngang isang araw minsan na umuwi rito, lasing na lasing, pagkarating ay naghahanap ng makakain ay gab-i na, wala nang ulam. wala na akong pera dahil ang kinita ko ay pinambili na din ng ulam ng mga bata .ayon, nagalit sa akin, ako’y minura at pinagsasampal”. (the victim said that when her husband is drunk, he easily gets mad, and provokes a fight.) substance (alcohol/drug) abuse might have aggravated the assault of men to women. substances often make people more likely to misperceive others’ behaviour and interpret their motives in a negative light. as noted by caparas and amparado (2011), while an abuser’s use of alcohol may have effect on the severity of the abuse or the ease with which abuser can justify his/her actions. they further asserted that alcohol affects one’s ability to perceive and process information. the distortion might cause the violence but it may increase the risk that user will misinterpret other’s behaviors and actions. javeña and hernandez (2014) found that 74 percent of perpetrators had been drinking at the time of assault. north american studies have also found increased rates of violence after the perpetrators’ use of alcohol, particularly heavy drinking, is likely the result in more serious injury to their partner than if they had been sober. in here, the link between alcohol and drug use and perpetration of domestic violence is clear. 3.3 what extension service activities may be proposed to minimize the problem of domestic violence in the municipality of malvar? the current study has an end view of drawing the suggested enrichment activities to strengthen the implementation of ra 9262. proposed activities, objectives, proponent, strategies and beneficiaries was presented. 4. conclusions and recommendations in the light of the important findings in this study, the following conclusions were drawn. first, most reported case of violence against women and children is the physical violence. second, is that the severe physical assault drove the complainant to report the cases and lastly, the proposed extension service activities to be implemented will help combat violence against women and children. considering the significant findings revealed and conclusions drawn in this study, the researchers humbly recommend the following. the head of extension services and head secretariat of gad unit of the university may collaborate with the local government unit of the municipality in conducting seminar, training and workshop in the barangay level with regards to the implementation of ra 9262. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 56 published by ideas spread table 1. proposed extension activities to minimize the problem of domestic violence in the municipality of malvar proposed activity objectives proponent strategies beneficiaries stress debriefing activity for the victims of violence to enable victims to recover to the violence they have experienced lgus, vaw desk of malvar, gender and development unit of the university, psychologists and guidance counselor providing stress debriefing activity like conducting recreational activities to the victim as they recover to the violence they had experienced victims of violence-women and children seminar in barangay’s role in implementing ra 9262 lecture on the proper issuance of barangay protection order (bpo) to provide the barangay officials with knowledge on their role as provided by ra 9262 to enhance the effectiveness of barangay officials in issuing bpo lgus, batangas state university extension service office conducting of series of seminars residence of barangay and officials of the municipality of malvar and the whole constituents. capacity building training for the strengthening of vaw desk and training workshop for vaw desk officers to help community in the strengthening of active barangay vaw desk to enhance the effectiveness of barangay vaw desk officers in the municipality of malvar wcpd malvar, vaw desk of malvar municipal government, association of barangay chairpersons (abc), wcpd malvar, batangas experts in the field will be invited as resource speaker distribution of invitation for the conduct of the training workshops for the said proponents residence of barangay and officials of the municipality of malvar and the whole constituents. second, gad focal persons together with the students and with the assistance of the student organizations and activities may distribute fliers and leaflets about ra 9262 and ra 9710 to stakeholders. third, vcpd officers and vaw desk officers may ensure safety and strengthen their fight against violence. fourth, the intervention program proposed by the researchers may be implemented, monitored, evaluated and reviewed to ensure strengthening the aforementioned laws. lastly, a similar research may be conducted in other perspective to verify, confirm or negate the findings of this study. references caparas, m. a. e., & amparado, m. a. p. (2011). women’s awareness on the law on anti-violence against women and their children. university of cebu city, philippines. http://doi.org/10.7719/pair.v8i171 ched. (2015). memorandum order #1 series of 2015. retrieved from https://ched.gov.ph/wpcontent/uploads/2017/10/cmo-no.-01-s.-2015.pdf dswd. (2006). responding to vawc – a manual on gender responsive case management. library. retrieved from http://library.pcw.gov.ph/node/1326 javena, z. m. c., & hernandez, c. c. (2014). gender sensitivity program of the three municiplaites of batangas province. unpublished thesis: batangas state university, gpb main campus i, ri8zal avenue, batangas city. santiago, c., & aya, e. b. (2014). awareness and perception of housewives in selected municipalities of palawan regarding r.a. 9262. unpublished thesis: western philippines university, aborlan, palawan philippines. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v1n1p65 65 published by ideas spread development trend of global green building materials industry based on patent analysis ma yanfei1, zhang zhenqi2 & zhi liping3 1 teacher of school of civil engineering and architecture, anyang normal university, anyang, china 2 m.a student of anyang normal university, anyang, china 3 ph. d of school of computer science & information engineering, anyang normal university, anyang, china correspondence: zhi liping, school of computer science & information engineering, anyang normal university, anyang, china. tel: 1-350-372-8754. e-mail: zhiliping1216@163.com received: june 6, 2018; accepted: june 27, 2018; published: june 29, 2018 the research is financed by the henan philosophy and social science project (no. 2015czh004) & the training scheme for young key teachers in universities of henan (no. 2016ggjs-123) & the key project of science and technology research of education department of henan (no. 16a520040) & the humanities and social science project of education department of henan (no. 2017-zdjh-002) & the soft science of intellectual property rights of henan (no. 20170106026). abstract using the incopat intelligence platform, the development status of the current green building materials was analyzed from the perspectives of ipc technology composition, patent licensing, patent transfer, patent applications, and patent types. it is concluded that the global green building materials industry is unbalanced in development, and it is necessary to strengthen industrial exchanges and development between countries, to jointly promote and achieve a win-win situation; despite the high number of patents in china, the patent translation rate of chinese universities and research institutes is relatively low, and the government should establish a communication platform between industry, universities, and research institutes to gain an in-depth understanding of market demand, which would help to patent transfer. keywords: green building materials; patent analysis; incopat 1 introduction for the past few years, in order to seek new economic growth points and improve people’s livelihood, countries around the world have begun to invest more in infrastructure construction, and which requires a lot of construction materials, so green building materials technology is becoming more and more important(hua jian,2003:46). the difference between green building materials and traditional building materials is that green building materials are designed to use as few natural resources as possible, promote the use of renewable resources and recycled or recyclable materials, improve production technology, reduce energy consumption and reduce the impact on the environment(li xiangzhou,2000:51). produce non-toxic, harmless or low-toxic products while meeting fire protection, insulation, noise reduction, dimming and anti-static functions of houses(zhu yuhua,2001:40). we must follow the principle of sustainable development so as to reduce the burden on the earth's ecosystem, realize the efficient use and recycling of resources, and provide guarantees for human survival and development. promoting the development of green industries can stimulate green development and promote industrial transformation and upgrading(shi huisheng,2007:9). 2 data sources and patent search we choose incopat technology innovation intelligence platform (www.incopat.com) as source of the data, as incopat has a wide collection of patents, authoritative sources of data, and fast update speeds. this provides the latest and most comprehensive basic data for the analysis of patented technologies (bai shangping,2008:102; zhang mingqing,2008:151) . hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 66 published by ideas spread this research was conducted on the incopat innovation intelligence platform to retrieve and statistically analyze the patents of green building materials from 1999 to 2016 in henan province(zhi liping,2014:79). it should be noted that since the patents for inventions were applied for about three years from the time of application, the patents were entered into the database with some delay(zhi liping,2014:57). only the data before 2016 are used. this article uses the statistical data from 1999-2016 (some of them within the last 40 years) as a sample(zhi liping,2012:113). in order to obtain more accurate search results, through the study of relevant patent documents, this article has determined the construction materials, building materials, structure, decoration, green, ecological, environmental protection, health, noise reduction, dimming, heat insulation, thermal insulation, flame retardant, fire prevention, the most relevant keywords such as antistatic, harmless, low energy, clean and recyclable. 3. patent analysis 3.1 global green building materials patent analysis figure 1. annual distribution of global patent applications (1970-2016) global green building materials-related patents were collected from incopat's patent database, and global green building materials industry patent application trends from 1970 to 2016 were obtained. as shown in figure 1, the patent application for the global green building materials industry has appeared since the 1970s. according to the number of patent applications filed in the world, the global green building materials industry patent applications can be roughly divided into three stages: the 1970s to the 1980s. the medium-term is the initial stage of development. the green building materials industry has just emerged, and the number of patent applications is relatively small. from the mid 1980s to 2005, it was a stable development stage. the green building materials industry has developed to a certain scale, but its progress has been slow; it has been a rapid development since 2005. at the stage, the annual application volume of the green building materials industry has grown rapidly. among them, the ranking of green building materials patents by countries and organizations around the world is shown in figure 2. china (excluding hong kong, macao and taiwan data) ranks first in the world in patent applications, up to 44,380, with south korea and japan ranking second. three were 5358 and 3842 respectively, and south korea was 12.07% of china. canada and australia are the 11th and 12th in the world, and the number of patent applications is only 0.73% of that in china. overall, the development of the green industry in the world is not balanced, not only between the developed countries and the developing countries, but also among the developing countries. the development of the green building materials industry in china is far ahead of the rest. other countries and organizations in the world. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 67 published by ideas spread figure 2. patent applications by countries and organizations worldwide as the country with the largest population in the world, china has a population of 1.379 billion (as of 2016), the third largest country in the world, and a large demand for housing and related infrastructure. it requires tens of thousands of construction materials. after the reform and opening up, the economy grew rapidly, national income and living standards gradually increased, consumption concepts and structures changed, disposable incomes continued to increase, and the green economy became the mainstream. many conditions became the driving force for the development of the green building materials industry. the top ten global green building materials applications in the year are mostly developed countries or organizations related to developed countries, including germany, the united states, and japan, which earlier proposed environmental labels. the united states and germany have high levels of economic development and high standards of living. there is a certain degree of emphasis on environmental protection and conservation; korea and japan, due to lack of resources, attach great importance to energy conservation and environmental protection as well as the rational use of resources, and have strong enthusiasm. 3.2 analysis of global green building material technology composition figure 3. trends in patent technology composition of the global green building materials industrytable 1 table 1 technical composition analysis table hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 68 published by ideas spread table 1. ipc meaning e04b1/94 fire protection e04f13/075 for isolation or surface protection, for example, against noise or collisions c09d7/12 other additives e04b1/80 plate type c04b28/00 b32b33/00 compositions containing mortar, concrete or artificial stone, such as polycarboxylate cements, containing inorganic binders or products containing the reaction products of inorganic and organic binders [4] laminated products characterized by special properties or special surface properties such as special surface coatings (surface irregularities or inhomogeneities in b32b3/00); not included in a separate large group, designed for special purpose layered product) e06b5/16 fire doors or similar closing devices; and their suitable fixing members e04b1/76 specially used for insulation (general insulation into f16l59/00) c08k3/22 metallic c04b28/04 portland cement the trend of global patents for green building materials is shown in figure 3. larger bubbles indicate more quantities. e04b1/94 (fire prevention (fire prevention into a62c; immersion of wood or similar material into b27k; fire door into e06b5/16)) steadily slow growth between 1999 and 2009, with the development of category numbers in the later phases the ratio is greatly improved. the technical composition is represented by the ipc classification number. the top 10 ipc classification numbers (by group) are shown in table 2, most of them (e.g. e04b1/94, e04f13/075, e06b5/16, e04b1/76) relates to functionalized materials, followed by mortar, cement, etc., and finally interior decoration materials. 3.3 patent analysis of green building materials in china figure 4. patent applications of green building materials industry in china the number of patents related to green building materials in china was calculated from the incopat patent database, and the number of patent applications for china green building materials in 1999 was obtained. as shown in figure 4, the growth trend of china's green building materials industry is consistent with the global industry growth trend. the annual growth rate of china's green building materials applications averaged 23.25%, the highest increase was 47.86% in 2014, and the lowest increase was 7.49% in 2014, showing a steady growth overall. the reason why the current good development status can be inextricably linked with national policies. in 1996, we established a sound environmental management system and issued corresponding evaluation standards. in the "new action plan for green buildings" announced in 2013, it is required to vigorously develop green building materials, establish a product certification system, and compile related product catalogues. in the same year, a coordination group for promotion and application of green building materials was established to jointly promote the use of green building materials in multiple sectors; 2014 the "administrative measures for the evaluation of green building materials markings" was promulgated, and the meaning of "green building materials" was clearly defined and explained from various aspects. in 2015, the "technical guidelines for evaluation of green building materials (test operation)" was formulated, and 7 categories were formulated. technical requirements for the evaluation of building materials products. the state has strengthened its attention to the green building materials hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 69 published by ideas spread industry, improved the evaluation and management system of related products, used the influence of the national level to promote and apply green building materials, and promoted the standardized development of the green building materials industry. 3.4 analysis of chinese patent types figure 5. analysis of patent types in china china's patents mainly include inventions, utility models and designs. the status of china's patents for green building materials is shown in figure 5. starting in 1999, the proportion of utility models and invention authorizations was comparable, and the appearance design ranked third. in 2007, the invention authorization exceeded the utility model, reaching a maximum proportion of 52.9%. the proportion of utility models began to rise in 2008, and the proportion of invention authorizations decreased by 2% each year. after 2013, utility models accounted for the proportion exceeds 50% and starts to increase at an annual rate of 9%. the appearance design grew slightly in 2010-2013, reaching a peak of 16.2% in 2010, and then remained stable at a level of 9%. it can be seen from the figure 5 that china’s patents for green building materials are mainly based on utility model patents, followed by inventions, and finally by appearance design. compared to utility model patents and invention patents, the level of technological breakthrough is relatively low, and specific technical solutions are needed. however, they have high practical value, low application threshold, and low level of professional knowledge required. they are suitable for most people to try; the technologies needed for invention patents the high level of breakthrough is not limited to specific things and requires the mastery of professional knowledge and skills. 3.5 analysis of technical composition of green building material industry patent in china figure 6. technology changes trend hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 70 published by ideas spread the top 10 ipc classification numbers for green building materials patents in china (by group) are shown in table 3. compared with the global green building materials industry, the key areas for development are roughly the same, and all are focused on e04b1/94, e04f13/075, and e06b5 /16, e04b1/76 insulation, fire and other functional building materials. according to the ipc classification number, the bubble of china's green building material technology composition trend is shown in figure 6. e04f13/075 began a sudden growth in 2009, and then the growth rate tends to be flat. in 2012, c09d7/12 began to show growth momentum. more than 70%, then the average increase was about 30%; e04b1/80 began to develop in 2012, after a slight fluctuation; other areas of slow development, in its infancy. on the whole, there is a big gap between the development speeds of the fields and the development areas are too single. 3.6 analysis of patent application in china table 2. types of patent applicants in china applicant type number of patents enterprises 23736 individuals 15700 colleges and universities 4776 scientific research institutions 1009 organizations 102 others 44 as shown in table 2, the applicants for patents for green building materials in china are enterprises, the number of patents is 23,736, accounting for 52.3%, followed by individuals, accounting for 34.6%; the third are colleges and universities, accounting for 10.5%; and the fourth is scientific research institutions, accounting for only 2.2%. it can be seen that china's patent applicants for the green building materials industry are scattered. the number of applications for each applicant is not enough. the main reason is that the scale of the company is immature. enterprises account for more than half of the share because companies need to continue to innovate to create their own advantages under the trend of economic interests. applying for patents can protect their own advantages at the legal level and not be infringed, and can achieve the goal of crowding out rivals to occupy market share; on the other hand, government policy support can be obtained. universities and research institutes accounted for only 12.7%. due to limited state funding, there are universities with higher levels of state subsidies, but fewer such universities can not support a large number of scientific research projects, resulting in a limited number of projects; more commercial enterprises the relationship between products and patents is closer than the relationship between research and patents, leading to the actual development of products more likely to be able to apply for patent colleges and universities are more inclined to research and discover. the "heavy essay" has serious thoughts. as a result, the number of patent applications in universities and research institutes is small. figure 7. trend of patent transfer in china 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 transfer number 1 6 5 32 18 30 54 74 133 161 231 260 311 396 528 707 license number 0 0 0 0 0 2 55 108 86 101 87 84 65 91 23 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 71 published by ideas spread as shown in fig. 7, compared with the number of transfers, the development of green building materials patent licenses is severe. before 2006, the number of patents for green building materials in china was 0, peaking at 108 in 2008, and then began to fluctuate around 100. the number of patent transfers was also 10 in 2001-2006, and it began to increase substantially after 2007, reaching a peak of 707 in 2016. compared with the number of patent applications, the number of patent assignments and licenses is negligible. patent assignments and patent licenses can acquire their own required patents by way of transfer or license, which is more convenient and quicker. patent licenses have a variety of licensing methods and are more mature, and the promotion of patent licenses should be increased. 4. existing problems and countermeasures from the perspectives of ipc technology composition, patent transfer and licensing trends, patent applications, and patent types, we analyze the current development status of green building materials and come up with the following issues and countermeasures. 4.1 problems 1) unbalanced development of global green building materials industry developed countries such as europe, the united states and japan started earlier, and they have been in the leading position in the world for some time before. however, with the continuous development of the green building materials industry in china, relevant supporting policies have been continuously introduced, and the chinese green building materials industry has begun to make breakthroughs, thus surpassing other countries. the country ranks first in the world. although china occupies a dominant position in the number of patent applications, the evaluation and management system of related products is not perfect, and the production technology is backward, and relying on domestic support alone will take a long time. 2) low patent technology conversion in universities institutions of higher learning and scientific research institutions have a large number of knowledgeable people who have received higher education. the state allocates funds for scientific research project activities each year, convenient knowledge and information networks, and good research conditions, but the number of patents that are truly commercialized each year very little. the activities of scientific research projects, mainly universities and research institutes, have different purposes. institutions of higher learning and scientific research units do not use economic efficiency as a research evaluation index. instead, they use theoretical knowledge as their main approach. they usually end up applying for patents, and are not capable of commercialization alone. therefore, they do not consider the market demand in advance, resulting in the inability to proceed. accepted by the market, thus losing the economic value of the patent itself. on the other hand, in institutions of higher learning and research institutes, ownership of patents is classified as a unit and there is no perfect reward mechanism, which will dampen the enthusiasm of r&d personnel. the main research projects of universities and research institutes are mainly research and discovery. they cannot link the findings and achievements directly to related products. since there has been no good solution to the issue of piracy in china, issues left over by history have caused most people to the awareness of patent rights protection is not strong, resulting in insufficient attention to their own research results, ignoring the importance of patents; on the other hand, due to the high cost of funds for scientific research activities, the national funds are insufficient to support relevant practical testing, resulting in only theoretical cannot be actually used. 3) the value of chinese patents is generally low although the number of related patents in the green building materials industry in china ranks among the top in the world, the overall patent value is generally low. only very few patents are of high value, and fluctuations in quality fluctuate greatly. it is easy to spend a lot of time and money, which is not conducive to green building materials. the stable development of the industry. 4.2 countermeasures 1) the cooperation between china, europe, the united states, japan, and other countries should be strengthened to learn from the excellent management system of the green building materials industry; to strengthen the construction of transportation infrastructure and to shorten the distance between commodity markets; to introduce advanced products, to integrate market resources through market competition, to stimulate the development of the domestic green building materials industry; to encourage the establishment of joint ventures through the government's lead and policy support, and to absorb outstanding management experience; to encourage hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 72 published by ideas spread universities and research institutes to conduct international academic cooperation, jointly research and solve problems, and promote multi-level exchanges. 2) the government shall guide enterprises, universities, and research institutes to cooperate between industry, universities and research institutes to establish a fast and effective communication platform so that the r&d personnel of institutions of higher learning and research institutes can understand the market demand, conduct research on key areas, and develop new technologies. technology can be transformed in time, scaled into production, and produce economic benefits. institutions of higher learning and research institutes should establish corresponding assessment systems to link research and development with salary and job title selection, which greatly stimulates the enthusiasm of r&d personnel. colleges and universities and scientific research institutions should strengthen their awareness of patent rights protection and pay attention to the economic value of patents. 3) in view of the uneven quality of patents, china should establish an effective communication platform, be able to understand related patent information in a timely manner, avoid the waste of resources caused by secondary r&d, and integrate resources, cooperate with each other, and face common scientific research issues. solve the problem. references bai, s. p. (2008). review of development and trend of green building materials in china. library and information service, 18(35), 102-103. hua, j. (2003). development of foreign green building materials. world of tiles and tiles, 2003(12), 46-46. li, x. z. (2000). analysis of the development of green building materials in china. china building materials, 2000(4), 50-52. shi, h. s., & yao, y. m. (2007). green building materials and its development trend (1). building materials technology and application, 2007(10), 9-11. zhang, m. q. (2008). analysis on the development status and countermeasures of green building materials in china. shanxi architecture, 34(15), 151-152. zhi, l. p. (2014). technological development situations of ontology in china based on patentometrics. journal of intelligence, 33(06), 79-83. zhi, l. p., & wang, h. s. (2012). a patent collaborative management model between high-tech enterprises. science of science and management of s.& t., 33(09), 113-121. zhi, l. p., & zhang, s. l. (2014). research on semantic retrieval based on patent ontology. research on library science, 2014(07), 57-61. zhu, y. h. (2001). research on the development of china's green building materials market. wuhan university of technology, 2001(4), 40-43. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v1n2p57 57 published by ideas spread analysis of patent technology transfer in china take guangdong province as an example zhi liping1 & li yanyan2 1 ph. d of school of computer science & information engineering, anyang normal university, anyang, china 2 m.a student of anyang normal university, anyang, china correspondence: zhi liping, school of computer science & information engineering, anyang normal university, anyang, china. tel: 1-350-372-8754. received: november 21, 2018; accepted: december 12, 2018; published: december 17, 2018 the research is financed by the henan philosophy and social science project (no. 2015czh004) & the training scheme for young key teachers in universities of henan (no. 2016ggjs-123) & the key project of science and technology research of education department of henan (no. 16a520040) & the humanities and social science project of education department of henan (no. 2019-zzjh-479) & the soft science of intellectual property rights of henan (no. 20190106013). abstract taking the status of china's patent technology transfer as the research goal, select the representative guangdong province as the research object, using the incopat innovative intelligence platform as a data source, 157,178 related content were retrieved, and from patent technology transfer trends, technology ownership, applicants, geography, legal and operational status, patent agents and other aspects of analysis. research shows that the development of china's patent technology transfer is strong, but there are some problems, in particular, the transfer of patent technology in research institutes and research institutions needs to be strengthened, and there is a large gap in regional patent technology transfer. therefore, it is necessary to create a favorable environment for patent licensing and technology transfer and transformation policies, and actively guide the industrialization of patent technology in universities and research institutions, strengthen the transfer of scientific and technological achievements to the market, train and expand the technical transfer of professional talents and so on, further promote the integrated development of science and technology and the economy, and accelerate the transformation of scientific and technological achievements into actual productivity. china's patent technology research has certain reference value for other countries. keywords: china, guangdong, patent technology transfer, patent transfer, patent license 1. introduction technology transfer is the act of technology owners transferring their production technology, sales technology or management technology and related rights to any third person in various forms. patent technology transfer is one of the main contents of technology transfer, especially the transfer of patent technology from one region to another in a certain way. the transfer of patent technology has become one of the important forms to realize the industrialization of patent technology, and it is also the main way to improve the overall core competitiveness of enterprises. china is rich in innovative resources and well-developed infrastructure, especially in recent years, and is considered to be an important highland for technological innovation in the world. it is of great theoretical significance to choose the representative guangdong province to conduct research on the status quo and countermeasures of chinese patent technology transfer. 2. data sources and patent search the data source is the incopat technology innovation intelligence platform 4.0 developed by beijing hexiang intelligent technology co., ltd., which includes more than 100 million patent data received by 105 countries, regions and organizations around the world. the official website is http://www.incopat.com. the reason for choosing this search platform is based on incopat not only the comprehensive patent data, but also the registration and filing data of patent licenses and patent transfers of the state intellectual property office. the data source is hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 58 published by ideas spread authoritative and fast, which provides high-quality basic data for the study of patent technology transfer. this study searches and analyzes the patent technology transfer data of guangdong province in 1998-2017 on the incopat innovation intelligence platform. the patent technology transfer mainly includes two forms of patent transfer and patent license. next, in the incopat patent search system, the guangdong province patent whose legal status is transfer or license is retrieved. the national code 44 represents guangdong province, and the final patent search formula is: ((((((assign-flag=1)or(licenceflag=1)))and((pnc=cnandpt=("1"))or(pnc=cnandpt=("2"))or(pnc=cnandpt=("3"))))and((p nc=cnandpt=("1"))or(pnc=cnandpt=("2"))or(pnc=cnandpt=("3")))and(pnc=cn)andappc=("44") 3. data analysis of chinese patent technology transfer 3.1 overview the incopat data platform retrieves the total amount of patent technology transfer in 31 provinces across the country. the chart shows the top ten patent technology transfer volumes in china's provinces and cities, from which it can be analyzed: guangdong province ranks first in the country with 124,471 patents, and has a significant lead with zhejiang, jiangsu, beijing, shandong and other cities, but it is a big gap with cities such as fujian, sichuan, hunan and anhui. the reason for this is closely related to guangdong's policy support. due to the hightech enterprises in guangdong, the corporate culture is strong, and the top management of the company actively encourages the transfer of patent technology and other factors. figure 1 can grasp the change of patent application heat in the analysis period from the macro level through the application trend. since guangdong province is an open coastal city, after the reform, it is mainly based on manufacturing. this is also an early stage of industrial upgrading in guangdong, that is, the transition from manufacturing to “creating” industries precedes inland areas. therefore, the invention of patents in guangdong has been increasing year by year. it is reflected in the statistics of the data. before 2015, the number of patent applications and patent disclosures showed an increasing trend year by year, and reached the highest value in 2015. since the patented invention can only be made public until it is 18 months old, the data is statistically analyzed until 2015. figure 1. development trend of patent application transfer in guangdong province (1999-2015) 3.2 analysis of ipc technical composition of patent technology transfer the technical composition is represented by the ipc classification number. the top ten ipc classification numbers (in small categories) concluded: the main ones (such as g06f, f21v, h04l, and f21y) involve high-tech industries such as electronic information, electronic equipment, and new materials, and there are areas such as a47j that are related to the daily life of the home. it is not difficult to see the comprehensiveness and diversity of the analytical objects in the technical components. according to the ipc classification number, the annual change hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 59 published by ideas spread trend of the technical composition of patent technology transfer in guangdong province is shown in figure 1: the larger the bubble, the more patents there are. from the analysis in the figure, we can conclude that: h04w (wireless communication network) and h04l (transmission of digital information) continue to rise in number before 2008,and reached the highest peak around 2008, after which it decreased year by year. h21v (functional features or components of lighting fixtures or their systems; structural components of lighting fixtures and other items not included in other categories), g06f (electrical digital data processing), h21s (non-portable lighting fixtures or systems thereof) ), h21y (involved in the composition of the light source combined with the subclass f21l, f21s and f21v), these four categories have increased significantly year after year after 2006, and the number of patent applications has increased by a large margin. other classification topics such as h01r (conductive connection; a combination of structural components of mutually insulated electrical connection elements; connecting devices; current collectors), h05k (printed circuit; housing or structural parts of electrical equipment; manufacture of electrical component components), a47j (kitchenware; coffee mill; spice mill; beverage preparation device), h04n (image communication) did not change much. therefore, guangdong province has gradually embarked on the development path of high-end industries, focusing on the development of the information and communication industry. this indicates that the current development of guangdong province is moving towards the matching of industrial layout and regional functions, and the direction of regional industrial dislocation and coordinated development. figure 2. distribution and development trend of patent applications in different technical directions (1999-2017) 3.3 analysis of patent transfer & patent licensing according to statistics: guangdong province's patents are in the form of utility models, accounting for 44.34%, invention and creation applications, accounting for 34.72%, and accounting for 20.94% of the design . since 2000, guangdong province has developed rapidly in the direction of patent technology transfer, and the progress of patent licensing has been slow, with a large gap between the former and the former. patent licenses are favored in other provinces and cities such as beijing. this is because, on the one hand, patent licenses are flexible and flexible, including five types: full license, exclusive license, general license, sub-license, and cross-licensing; on the other hand, due to the good maturity of the patent license, the licensee can directly apply the patented technology to obtain greater benefits and returns in accordance with the contractual implementation permit method. therefore, while promoting the development of patent transfer, guangdong province needs to recognize the advantages and importance of patent licensing and continuously strengthen the application of patent licensing. 4. research conclusions and recommendations according to the previous analysis of patent technology transfer trends, technology ownership, applicants, regions, legal and operational status, patent agents, etc., the research and analysis of the status quo and causes of patent technology transfer in guangdong province, the following conclusions and recommendations. 4.1 status and existing problems patent is an important yardstick for regional creation level, and patent technology transfer is the main expression of patent industrialization. after analyzing this paper, we have learned that the main problems are: (1) the benefits of government technology investment to form technical patents are relatively low. (2) the geographical gap of patent technology ownership is large, and the development potential of some regions needs to be explored. (3) the transfer of patent technology is still dominated by enterprises, which also makes it pay more attention to the proportion of development in universities, institutions and other organizations in the future development. (4) the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 60 published by ideas spread distribution of patent technology applicants in guangdong province is unevenly distributed, and the communication information industry is more focused. for example, the fields of home appliances, household appliances, and equipment manufacturing are relatively small, and the industrial distribution is uneven. (5) the scale of transfer of patent technology in guangdong universities is particularly weak. many patents cannot meet the needs of emerging markets and appear to be “sleep patents”. while promoting the development of the patent transfer situation, the understanding of the advantages and importance of patent licensing needs to be strengthened, and the application of patent licensing is insufficient. 4.2 proposal to promote the transfer of patent technology in combination with china's national conditions, the specific countermeasures proposed are: 1) create a good patent authorization and technology transfer policy environment the government should further strengthen the protection of intellectual property rights, guide scientific and technological achievements to declare patents, encourage more patented technologies to enter the market, and it is necessary to promote patented inventions and innovations through tax reductions and exemptions. through the implementation of measures such as the transfer of funds from special funds and other programmes to increase support for the transfer of patented technology, establish a good technology research and development practice site, and cooperate with high-tech incubators to continuously promote the industrialization of patented technology infrastructure. 2) promote the balanced development of patent technology transfer in different regions carry out comprehensive training on the training of patent technology transfer talents, establish a group of patented technology transfer talent education bases with institutions and localities with superior resources. actively play the role of the scientific and technological community in promoting the transfer and transformation of patent scientific and technological achievements, and promote the accurate docking of scientific and technological achievements in the demand side and the supply side. 3) pay attention to the transfer and transformation of patents in universities and research institutes at the same time as the enterprise-led patent technology transfer, pay attention to the transfer and transformation of patents in universities and research institutes, and at the same time strengthen the transfer of scientific and technological achievements to market-oriented services, and comprehensively promote the perfect development of patent technology transfer institutions. enrich the role of different platform channels such as technology property rights transactions and intellectual property transactions. vigorously develop the "internet + intellectual property" program plan, set up an application platform for intellectual property databases, and promote the free distribution of patents, copyrights, trademarks and other information to achieve interconnection and mutual benefit. 4) promote more balanced patent transfer in different industries and encourage promote more balanced patent transfer in different industries and encourage patent technology applicants to increase investment in household appliances and equipment manufacturing industries. in addition, it is necessary to build a team of talents for the transfer of scientific and technological achievements, and to pool and transfer scientific and technological talents to carry out the transfer and transformation of patented scientific and technological achievements, and vigorously develop the management mechanism for the transfer of talents in scientific and technological achievements. creatively carry out the "internet +" innovative talent service model, organize public service activities such as science and technology assistance, education and training. references cao, j. g., liu, w., cai, w. x., zheng, y. p. (2009). research on patent technology transfer in industryuniversity-research cooperation. science and technology management research, (12), 488-490. chen, k. (2012). analysis of the development of patents in beijing area during the ten years of wto accession. china invention and patent, (12), 64-66. li, w. j. (2015). comparative study on regional school-enterprise patent cooperation application network: an empirical analysis based on guangdong. modern intelligence, (12), 106-110. li, z. h., & ding, c. y. (2016). research on the implementation effect of the patent regulations of guangdong province. journal of political science and law, (3), 6-7. lin, g., zhang, r., & chen, j. (2008). analysis and suggestions on the status of patent technology transfer in beijing. science, (2), 12-18. mao, w., liu, c., & lin, w. (2013). research on patent implementation and industrialization of chinese hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 61 published by ideas spread enterprises. science research. rao, k., meng, x. f., andrea, p., & chen, w. (2011). research on patent technology transfer in uk universities and its reference significance. china science and technology forum, (2), 148-154 song, d. l., fu, b. h., & tang, h. (2011). analysis of the transfer mode of patent technology in colleges and universities. china science and technology forum, (3), 95-100. tang, x. x., zhang, j. f., & zou, y. y. (2014). research on the status quo of invention patent application in china and countermeasures for improving authorization rate. scientific management research, (1), 31-34. wang, y. h., & wang, x. l. (2014). analysis of the status quo of patent technology transfer evaluation. software, 35(4), 71-72, 77. yang, l. s. (2014). research on patent technology transfer in international technology transfer. industrial technology innovation, (2), 221-225. zhang, y., liu, b. q., wang, w., & xu, q. x. (2013). patent analysis in jiangxi province: strategy and its enlightenment. jiangxi science, (2), 261-269. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p113 113 published by ideas spread home intelligent waste recycling product design wang siyua1 & liu xinyub1 1 xi'an technological university, china correspondence: wang siyu, xi'an technological university, xi'an, shaanxi province, china. e-mail: a2414802978@qq.com, b905229563@qq.com received: july 26, 2025; accepted: august 5, 2025; published: august 6, 2025 abstract in the context of the widespread attention of garbage classification, the collection and treatment of household garbage has always been a headache. the research object of this project is young office workers. from the perspective of service design concept, it integrates the user pain points and user needs in the family intelligent household garbage classification and recycling service system by constructing the service scenario and service flow chart. under the guidance of service design theory, it studies and analyzes the user portrait, user journey map and service blueprint. combine tangible products with intangible services, and the "user-centered" service idea is applied to the garbage recycling system, and finally design the design of intelligent garbage recycling products classified from the source of garbage generation and the online design scheme. keywords: smart home, garbage recycling, garbage sorting 1. introduction 1.1 background at present, at least two-thirds of the cities in china are facing the dilemma of being surrounded by garbage, which seriously affects the residents' quality of life and environmental hygiene. garbage is the discarded items generated by people in production and life that have lost their use value. in densely populated cities, the collection and disposal of household waste has always been a headache. although the traditional centralized landfill and incineration methods have solved the problem of garbage disposal to a certain extent, they have also caused serious pollution to the environment.promoting the popularization of waste separation and resource recovery, changing traditional disposal methods, turning waste into treasure and realizing the resourceful use of waste are important tasks facing society today. in the work of garbage classification, from the source of garbage classification to the final process of garbage disposal, household users are often unable to effectively participate in garbage classification. this project improves the user experience in the process of waste classification and recycling in terms of service system design, and combines online service experience with offline products. in the process of promoting waste separation, the design of waste recycling products based on service design can enhance people's initiative of waste separation. improving product design and user service experience can motivate people to actively participate in waste separation and recycling. the application of household intelligent recycling products in waste classification reduces the difficulty and complexity, improves the efficiency and accuracy of classification, and effectively improves the awareness and implementation of waste classification. combining user experience and technological innovation, it promotes waste classification as a convenient, fun and beneficial way of life, saves land resources, reduces pollution, and shapes environmental awareness to promote social concern and sustainable development. therefore, it is of positive theoretical significance and practical value to study the application of household intelligent recycling and innovative design thinking in waste classification and disposal. 1.2 research content and methodology this research starts from the plight of household garbage classification and recycling, researches and analyzes the existing garbage recycling products, and designs the household intelligent classification and recycling garbage can design with 1-2 person family as the use scenario, young office workers as the target group, and source part of the classification process. through the research to understand the way, habits, attitudes of users in garbage classification, as well as their process in the process of garbage classification, to make and get the pain points and opportunity points existing in the process of garbage classification; to draw the user experience journey map, and to derive the user needs. understand user expectations of services in the waste sorting system and establish service processes. satisfy these needs by improving product functionality and provide direction for the design of smart mailto:e-mail@e-mail.com hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 114 published by ideas spread recycling products for home use. the research methods used in this paper are observation method, literature research method, user experience journey, stakeholder analysis, and service blueprint. 2. design analysis studies 2.1 user needs analysis through the research and analysis of the behavioral characteristics of the users in the garbage recycling, to determine the target users and characteristics of the analysis, to determine the 1-2 person family with the ability to consume the young office workers as the target user population, the young office workers have strong consumption ability, and produce more garbage, the acceptance of intelligent products is higher, this paper focuses on the generation of meal waste, courier cartons, plastic bottles, and other recyclable garbage and difficult to handle battery waste cosmetic bottles and other garbage for the user model classification habits research, so as to build a user portrait. combined with the actual scene when young groups use the garbage can, the four phases of garbage throwing behavior are split, which are the phases of garbage generation, garbage classification in progress, garbage recycling completion, and garbage putting, forming a user journey map. then the user needs, user emotions, user pain points and opportunity points involved in the whole recycling garbage stage of young office workers were analyzed. in the garbage generation stage, users may have problems such as not being able to classify the garbage at the first time, and the opportunity point is that it can guide users to change their lifestyles to reduce the generation of garbage; in the garbage classification stage, users may have problems such as troublesome classification work and inaccurate classification results, so as to discover the opportunity points such as intelligent garbage classification and recycling and opening of garbage cans, etc.; in the garbage recycling completion stage, users may have the following problems at the stage of garbage collection, users may have problems such as not having enough sorting bins, not having differentiated garbage bags, etc. the opportunity lies in the design of multi-sorting modules.to sum up, when analyzing the design of household garbage cans for young office workers, as shown in table 2.1, we should start from specific pain points such as the morning commute time is too tight to throw garbage in time, lack of knowledge of garbage classification, etc., and analyze the opportunity points specifically for the pain points in order to satisfy the needs of the target users. 2.2 household waste recycling product study existing intelligent sensor trash can, most of the use of high-precision optical sensors, based on the height of the trash can barrel on the user's action capture, open the lid action to facilitate the user to throw the garbage; the biggest feature of the existing products can be realized automatically change the bag, the user does not need to contact the garbage directly. young office workers use smart garbage cans to pay more attention to its ease of use, functionality and appearance design. the demand for ease of use mainly includes the provision of a convenient way to dispose of garbage; the demand for functionality is analyzed to include intelligent identification of garbage types; and the demand for appearance is mostly simple and beautiful. through the comparison and analysis of user needs and existing products to find out the direction of improvement, the existing intelligent garbage cans on the market achieve intelligent throwing, but for the target users need to be designed from the classification of intelligent, instant classification functions. 2.3 research on the environment of use there are multiple scenario areas in the home where different waste collection categories need to be considered. in the kitchen area, consideration needs to be given to the ability of young workers to quickly and easily sort and dispose of waste during cooking and food preparation. in the living room/living room area for rest and recreation, people need to easily dispose of their trash while watching tv, playing games, or gathering with friends. similarly, intimate areas such as bedrooms or offices often require the disposal of paper, packaging materials and other small trash. bathroom areas are mainly used for discarding paper towels, makeup wipes and other bathroom waste to ensure a neat and sanitary bathroom environment. at the entrance of the home or in the hallway area, people usually need to dispose of mail, delivery packaging and other trash entering the home. by analyzing multiple scenario areas in the home and sorting and processing waste according to recycling categories, it can meet the waste management needs of young workers in different scenarios, while improving the tidiness and hygiene of the home environment. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 115 published by ideas spread 3. service process analysis through the preliminary research and analysis, we establish the target users as young office workers, and present the stakeholders in the smart recycling bin service system in a visual way, divided into key users, internal and external stakeholders, with young office workers as the core service object, and the stakeholders as app users, managers, operators, supervisors, partners, manufacturers, etc., and the external layer as the government and the environmental protection organization, etc. the government has prestige and appeal, while the environmental protection organization can realize the social function value as the regulator. the outer layer is the government and environmental protection organizations, etc. the government has the prestige and appeal while the environmental protection organizations can realize the value of social functions as regulators. after analyzing the stakeholder relationship, the service system mainly provides garbage recycling service for target users by combining offline product entities and online software app, and through the combination of product equipment and app, it can realize the functions of garbage recycling classification, garbage can monitoring, and rewarding for recycling and putting in garbage cans. the mobile terminal provides intelligent management of garbage cans through information flow and user flow, as well as behavioral data record feedback and points exchange, online shopping mall shopping, user socialization and other services, while the backend management terminal mainly analyzes users' recycling information and information feedback through information flow. through the analysis of the various processes in the household intelligent recycling bin service system, it visually demonstrates the foreground and background functions of the customer visibility line during the whole user experience process. the analysis of the entire garbage classification process stages and behavioral disassembly, can be derived from the service focus on the target population and offline intelligent garbage can equipment, online app, in-depth analysis of the foreground technology and background behavior of household garbage classification and recycling system.the core of the whole service focuses on how the target user group can complete the household garbage classification and recycling behavior through the offline smart garbage can hardware equipment and the online app software platform, and its successful operation highly relies on the close synergy between the front-end interaction technology and the back-end support behavior.the core of the household smart recycling product service system is that users can complete garbage sorting through the offline smart bucket and online app, and its smooth experience relies on the clear division of labor between the front and backstage. the frontend (visible to users) interacts directly with users: before sorting, the app displays the status of the bin; during sorting, the screen on the bin recognizes the type of garbage in real time and guides the user to put it in, which is intuitive for the user to operate; after sorting, the app provides the recycling records, points rewards, redemption malls and community activities. the backstage (invisible to users) provides strong support: before sorting, it monitors the status of the bucket, manages user accounts. 4. design development 4.1 design positioning the following aspects need to be considered when designing and analyzing home scenes for young office workers as target users. young office workers usually have a tight schedule, and the design positioning should focus on the convenience of the product so that it can be easily integrated into their lifestyles. garbage disposal should be simple and quick, easy to operate, and not take up too much time and energy. target users are more familiar and receptive to technological products. intelligent technologies can be integrated into the garbage cans, such as sensor recognition and automatic sorting, to provide an intelligent waste management experience. based on the needs analysis and service system construction targeting typical users, different design options are analyzed to finalize the solution. a household intelligent sorting and recycling bin is designed to focus on solving the source problem of garbage sorting. by combining users' needs for function, form and color, it helps users recycle waste at the source by optimizing the service design in order to reduce the pressure of waste disposal at the end. the design of the product includes two parts: the physical household smart recycling bin and the mobile application. for the design of the physical product, it covers functional design, appearance form, basic structure, human-machine dimension and color material analysis. the design of the mobile application includes information architecture and interface design. 4.2 offline product design for household intelligent recycling by adopting a modularized design, it is divided into three large modules and one small module. each module can be used individually to accommodate a recycling category, and the corresponding module is automatically used according to the category of garbage, thus realizing the convenience and flexibility of garbage sorting as well as the fine management of garbage sorting at source. it is able to automatically identify and categorize the garbage hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 116 published by ideas spread items to be put into the garbage without the need for users to manually sort them. realized through sensor technology and intelligent algorithms. uses image sensors, weight sensors, and infrared sensors to detect garbage features such as appearance, weight, and infrared reflection. after comparing with the pre-stored garbage classification data, the garbage category is automatically recognized. according to the garbage category, it is put into the corresponding storage area, such as recyclables, wet garbage and hazardous garbage. real-time monitoring and management of garbage cans is achieved through various sensors and smart technologies to improve the accuracy and efficiency of waste separation and recycling. smart garbage cans can be equipped with capacity sensors to monitor the filling of the garbage cans in real time. by accurately grasping the capacity of the garbage cans, garbage collection and disposal can be carried out in a timely manner, avoiding overflow or overfilling of garbage. with the help of image recognition, object recognition and other technologies, smart trash cans can accurately recognize the type and classification of garbage. users do not need to manually sort the garbage, improving the accuracy and convenience of garbage sorting. it can record and monitor the placement tracking and classification of garbage, and transmit the data to the backend system for analysis. by analyzing and feeding back this data, users can understand the trend of waste generation, the effectiveness of classification and the results of recycling. it can be connected to the internet for remote management and control. users can monitor the garbage cans, set parameters, and remotely control the opening and closing of the garbage cans through cell phone applications or cloud platforms to realize remote operation and management of the garbage cans. 4.3 household smart recycling online product design the design concept of app shows the vitality of nature's colors and conveys an environmentally friendly, lowcarbon, recycling and sustainable living concept. at the same time with the auxiliary colors of blue and green in line with the concept of green recycling design, the interface prototype is designed using the iphone model as a carrier, the design meets the trend of young office workers and environmental protection and recycling of the app interface. the user opens the app and triggers the interactive behavior. firstly, they need to log in or register, and enter the homepage after logging in; the homepage includes a guide to garbage classification, a garbage recycling calendar, a map search area, and a product recommendation area, which exist independently and are easy for users to recognize. the solar powered feature converts sunlight into electricity through a solar panel mounted on the trash can and stores it for use in the trash can. the bin is equipped with a built-in battery or battery pack to store the converted electricity and provide power. the advantages of solar power are that it is a renewable energy source that reduces dependence on traditional energy sources, and that it can be used in unpowered environments, which increases applicability and flexibility and reduces operating costs. the navigation bar at the bottom of the homepage is distributed with the function icons of the five modules. among them, the center of the navigation bar is the points account module, which is also a special feature for recording garbage collection. the user connects to the account through the smart trash can home system, and after confirming the connection, it records the type of garbage and begins to collect information on recycling delivery behavior. after the user completes the door-to-door recycling or community delivery, the background automatically calculates the recycling category and weight and converts the points to the personal account, and the app interface displays the recycling information and the points obtained. users can exchange the points for prizes or art and environmental protection activity services through the mall section to promote environmental protection and waste recycling behavior. 5. conclusion this paper designs a household intelligent recycling trash can construction service system. firstly, the process of garbage classification and recycling is decomposed, and the behavioral journey of young office workers is sorted out. finally, the design ideas and directions of household intelligent garbage recycling products are proposed based on the principle of improving user experience, with the goal of realizing the classification and recycling of garbage and alleviating the pressure on the end, and subconsciously guiding the users to take the classification and recycling of garbage as a habit. from the perspective of design, the recycling of household garbage is integrated into the product system, and the combination of “online + offline” mode improves the user's participation in garbage recycling. reference [1] mirchandani, s., wadhwa, s., wadhwa, p., & joseph, r. (2017). iot enabled dustbins. in 2017 international conference on big data, iot and data science (bid) (pp. 73–76). https://doi.org/10.1109/bid.2017.8336576 [2] bone, j. l. (2016). household waste recycling in rural areas in the netherlands and britain. dutch crossing, 17(50). https://doi.org/10.1080/03096564.1993.11784013 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 117 published by ideas spread [3] sleaford's new household waste recycling centre will open on friday 25 april. (2014). m2 presswire. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p72 72 published by ideas spread optimizing the consumer experience in the tourism industry: an analysis of the "paying for emotional value" phenomenon han yan1 1 southwest forestry university, china correspondence: han yan, southwest forestry university, kunming, yunnan, china. received: july 10, 2025; accepted: july 21, 2025; published: july 23, 2025 abstract as the tourism industry becomes a new growth point for the economy, a notable shift in consumer behavior has emerged: the willingness to "pay for emotional value." this phenomenon is reshaping the consumer market, product supply, and competitive landscape. in an era dominated by the attention economy, tourism providers that innovate to deliver high-quality products coupled with positive emotional experiences can achieve significant growth. this paper, grounded in the theory of emotional value, investigates the current state of the tourism industry and explores the "emotional value demands" of modern tourists. it analyzes the pathways to fulfilling these demands and proposes optimization strategies. the objective is to provide theoretical support and practical guidance for the high-quality development of the tourism industry by focusing on how to systematically integrate emotional value into tourism products and services, thereby enhancing consumer pleasure and satisfaction. keywords: emotional value, tourism industry, consumer experience, emotional resonance 1. introduction the year 2023 was designated the "year of consumption promotion" in china, marking a period of comprehensive recovery and warming in the consumer market. this resurgence has been characterized by the emergence of new and popular consumption scenarios. according to the national bureau of statistics, the total retail sales of social consumer goods increased by 7.2% year-on-year in 2023, while service retail sales saw a significant jump of 19.5%, confirming that consumption remains a powerful engine for economic growth. within this landscape, tourism has emerged as a particularly strong performer. data from the ministry of culture and tourism indicates that in 2023, domestic travel accounted for 4.891 billion trips, a 93.3% increase from the previous year. total spending by domestic tourists reached 4.91 trillion yuan, a year-on-year increase of 140.3%. these figures represent a recovery to 81.38% of the 2019 levels for travel volume and 85.69% for tourism revenue, respectively. the tourism market demonstrated strong, sustained vitality and a powerful recovery throughout the year and into the first half of the current year, illustrating the industry’s role as a catalyst for broad economic prosperity. behind this vibrant picture, the tourism industry is undergoing a profound transformation. consumers are demanding more from their travel experiences. from the craze for zibo barbecue to the ice and snow festival in harbin and the viral popularity of tianshui malatang, consumers have demonstrated that the era of experience-isking has arrived. a growing number of tourists are willing to pay a premium for emotional fulfillment. the economic success of these "viral" destinations—harbin earning 6 billion yuan in three days and zibo's gdp exceeding 100 billion yuan in the first quarter—proves that products and services capable of providing emotional value can stand out in a market where supply generally exceeds demand. as the industry shifts toward an experience-based model, consumers are prioritizing the emotional and spiritual satisfaction derived from travel, willingly paying more for a superior experience. 2. theoretical framework of emotional value the concept of emotional value, originating from the fields of marketing and economics, explores the significant impact of emotions on human experiences, decision-making, and behavior. 2.1 the definition of emotional value emotional value pertains to the role emotions play in an individual's experience of happiness and the overall importance of emotional experiences in life. it can be understood as an individual's perception and evaluation of an emotional experience in a specific context, encompassing the effects of both positive emotions (e.g., joy, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 73 published by ideas spread satisfaction, happiness) and negative emotions (e.g., anger, disappointment, fear). furthermore, "emotional value" is intrinsically linked to product value, as it directly influences a consumer's evaluation of a product or service and, consequently, their purchasing behavior. 2.2 the origin of emotional value the theory of emotional value was first proposed in 2001 by jeffrey j. bailey, a professor at the university of idaho's college of business and economics, from the perspective of relationship marketing between customers and brand enterprises. initially, the theory was used to explain emotional value as the difference between the emotional benefits and emotional costs perceived by a customer during the shopping process. while the functional attributes and use-value of a product satisfy basic needs, consumers increasingly focus on the“added emotional value” when making a purchase. this includes symbolic meaning, identity affirmation, and social needs associated with the product. businesses enhance this emotional value through packaging design or by creating unique cultural connotations and service values. over time, the concept has expanded into broader daily life and other industries. 2.3 emotional value in the tourism industry in the context of the tourism industry, emotional value is the capacity to provide tourists with positive, uplifting, and pleasant emotional experiences. this value extends beyond simple amusement; it involves mobilizing the tourist's emotional resonance through a comprehensive experience integrating content, scenes, atmosphere, and service. when tourists feel joy, relaxation, and satisfaction during their travels, they form a deeper emotional connection and sense of identification with the destination, which in turn influences their consumption desires and purchasing decisions(2020)[1]. 3. analysis of tourists' demand for emotional value to successfully cater to modern tourists, the tourism industry must deeply understand their needs and emotional drivers.the phenomenon of tourists prioritizing emotional value over price is rooted in several profound psychological and social factors. 3.1 prioritizing experience over material possessions in modern tourism, travelers increasingly focus on the emotional journey and overall feeling of their trip rather than on material acquisitions. they recognize that the emotional value derived from a memorable travel experience—such as joy, relaxation, or excitement—is immeasurable in monetary terms. consequently, price alone has become a less influential factor in their decision-making process(2019)[2]. unlike traditional sightseeing, many tourists now travel great distances to a city for a novel or fun experience, which could be anything from eating a specific meal, watching a game, or even just listening to a song. this trend reflects a shift in what constitutes a travel destination, where the core of emotional value is emotional resonance that ultimately translates into economic value. 3.2 the enduring nature of emotional satisfaction a travel experience rich in emotional value leaves a lasting impression on tourists, becoming a cherished memory. the durability of this emotional satisfaction far outlasts fleeting material pleasures. tourists are willing to pay for experiences that can positively influence their emotional state long-term, as these experiences provide a sustained sense of happiness and fulfillment. from the "special forces-style tourism" of visiting eight attractions in one day to the immersive "citywalk," the tranquil "lie-flat" stay in a countryside homestay, or the "reverse travel" to lesscrowded destinations, people are seeking mental and spiritual comfort. this pursuit aligns with the highest level of maslow's hierarchy of needs—self-actualization—with many using travel as a means of self-healing. 3.3 social identity and self-realization tourism is both a personal and a social activity. travelers use their journeys to express their taste, personality, and lifestyle, seeking connection and a sense of belonging with others. in this context, a high-emotional-value travel experience can bolster a tourist's sense of social identity and self-realization(2016)[3]. they are willing to purchase products or services that enhance their social standing and self-image. this is evident in trends like traveling to specific locations for hanfu or joseon-era clothing photoshoots, trying trendy local crafts like "hairpin flower art" , or waiting in line at an iconic photo spot. in chasing these trends, tourists connect with destinations, earn praise on social media, and gain the satisfaction of being fashionable. 3.4 demand for personalization and differentiation as the tourism market matures, the demand for personalized and differentiated products and services is growing. such offerings often provide unique emotional experiences tailored to the specific needs and preferences of travelers. when faced with these unique offerings, price becomes a secondary consideration. for instance, a hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 74 published by ideas spread growing number of tourists prefer to avoid crowded attractions, opting instead for quieter cities where they can enjoy peace, comfort, and the surprise of discovery. there is also a rising interest in immersive, deep-dive experiences that capture the "new pyrotechnics" or authentic, everyday vibrancy of a city. the saying "the smoky, lively air of the human world is what most soothes the mortal heart" captures this sentiment, as this atmosphere can soothe worries and evoke a sense of warmth. this shows that contemporary tourists use consumption to express their attitude toward life, seeking a personal sanctuary and validation within their social circles. 3.5 evolving consumer attitudes modern consumer attitudes are undergoing a profound shift away from a sole focus on material satisfaction and utility toward a greater emphasis on spiritual enjoyment and emotional experience. this change directly influences tourists to prioritize emotional value over price. the zibo barbecue phenomenon is a prime example: in march, it exploded on social media, sparking a massive travel trend. tourists who traveled by high-speed rail or plane were seeking more than just flavor; they were pursuing social interaction, a lively atmosphere, food culture, and the spontaneity of a "say-yes-and-go" trip. on social media, zibo barbecue's "soulful trio" of a small stove, thin pancakes, and scallions with dipping sauce was described as a metaphor for an attitude toward life: warmth, tolerance, and forthrightness. this highlights a departure from traditional tourism focused on grand landscapes and historical sites. today's consumers prefer to discover local "human vibrancy"and slow down to deeply experience a city's culture and lifestyle, willingly paying for elements that create unique life experiences and reflect an authentic quality of life. the shift in consumer focus from "things" (resources, products) to "people" (personalized needs, psychological satisfaction) is clear. destinations that successfully leverage emotional marketing are naturally becoming more popular. the following case studies and strategies illustrate how the tourism industry can optimize for emotional value. 4. implementation paths and optimization strategies 4.1 implementation paths 4.1.1 complementarity between scenario value and emotional value in chongqing's ciqikou ancient town, the unique bayu architecture, winding stone-paved streets, and bustling markets create a rich physical scene. visitors can see traditional teahouses, ancient temples, and countless snack stalls. however, what truly captivates them is the feeling of liveliness and "fireworks"—the friendly human interactions and a nostalgic connection to an older way of life. this emotional value makes the scene more vivid and meaningful, fostering a sense of belonging and identity among tourists. similarly, xi'an's great tang all day mall offers a magnificent scene with its grand architecture, brilliant lights, and spectacular performances. but its core appeal is emotional: visitors feel as though they have been transported back to the glorious and heroic tang dynasty. this powerful emotional resonance leaves a lasting impression. 4.1.2 enhancing tourist emotional value through exceptional service in 2024, local governments have fully embraced a strategy of "pampering" their guests. for instance, the city of yangzhou made a concerted effort to "focus on providing emotional value for tourists and enhancing their travel experience." practical measures included opening 42 government facility parking lots with 2,481 spaces for free, opening public restrooms, and providing hot water and information services. visitors with non-local id cards could also ride city buses for free. furthermore, over 600 volunteers were stationed at key scenic spots and intersections to offer warm and thoughtful assistance. these services made tourists feel as welcome and comfortable as if they were at home, generating extensive praise on social media. likewise, during the may day holiday, jiyuan city coordinated multiple departments to ensure tourist safety and satisfaction. this included joint safety inspections by police, market supervision, and fire departments; proactive crowd management during peak hours; and rigorous food safety checks at hotels and restaurants. volunteer teams in "red vests" provided free charging stations, directions, and first-aid kits. these measures effectively "pampered" guests and maximized their emotional value, leading to a significant increase in tourism: on the first day of the holiday, jiyuan received 420,500 tourists (an 11.39% increase year-on-year), generating 209 million yuan in revenue (a 17.8% increase). 4.1.3 developing immersive cultural tourism products immersive cultural tourism projects, which integrate visual, tactile, auditory, and olfactory experiences, have become new market favorites(2020)[4].by creating unique scenes and atmospheres, they allow tourists to gain deep emotional and spiritual resonance through interaction. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 75 published by ideas spread for example, only henan: land of dramas uses the yellow river civilization as its creative foundation, employing immersive theater and a unique "fantasy city" architectural design. it tells stories of "land, grain, and inheritance" through 56 different spatial environments, creating a multi-dimensional and immersive experience that allows visitors to feel the weight and charm of history. super wenheyou in changsha achieves immersion by meticulously recreating the city's old market life. through holographic design, it ensures that everything guests see, touch, and experience feels authentic and historically grounded. this allows visitors to feel a strong sense of identification and resonance with the local culture(2021)[5]. 4.2 key optimization strategies for the tourism industry based on the analysis of these successful cases, the following optimization paths are recommended for the tourism industry: 4.2.1 focusing on emotional resonance and value conversion emotional elements designed into tourism products can touch consumers' hearts, trigger emotional resonance, and enhance the travel experience. this leads to positive emotions like joy and relaxation, which in turn increase satisfaction. at the same time, emotional value creates added value for tourism products, aiding in their economic conversion(2021)[6].this makes destinations and products more attractive and competitive, boosting market share and profitability. for example, the giant panda "hua hua" in chengdu has become more than just an animal; she is an emotional anchor and a symbol of the pursuit of a better life, leading to her appointment as an "honorary director" of the chengdu cultural and tourism bureau. one platform estimated that each tourist drawn by hua hua contributes at least 1,075 yuan to the local economy. therefore, the industry must understand its target audience and design products that resonate emotionally to stimulate consumption and ensure loyalty. 4.2.2 strengthening destination brand image and cultural connotation when tourists have a positive emotional response to a service or product, they associate that feeling with the destination, thereby enhancing its brand influence. the popularity of the character linabell at shanghai disneyland is a prime example of consumption driven by emotion. her cute appearance and witty interactions with guests created a huge fanbase, with a 200-yuan doll once selling for ten times its original price. shanghai disneyland's success is partly due to its ability to provide a "carrier" for emotions , creating a closed loop that establishes an emotional link between the project and the consumer. the industry should therefore focus on providing emotionally valuable products and services to boost brand image(2019)[7]. using sensory stimuli (visual, olfactory, auditory, etc.) to shape perception and memory can significantly improve a destination's competitiveness(2019)[8]. 4.2.3 improving tourism service quality and experience high-quality supporting facilities are foundational to enhancing tourists' emotional value. this includes investing in "dual-use" infrastructure that serves both normal and peak periods, such as adding rest areas, improving restrooms, and providing convenient transportation. service quality is equally critical. providing professional tourism services, high-quality accommodations, and rich entertainment options can make tourists feel the warmth and comfort of home. additionally, the emotional labor of tour guides has a significant impact on tourists' emotional experience and perception of a destination. governments and companies should enhance guides' emotional labor skills through training and management to promote the transmission of positive emotions. 4.2.4 utilizing technological innovation to enhance the tourist experience technology offers new opportunities for the tourism industry. virtual reality (vr), augmented reality (ar), and artificial intelligence (ai) can create richer and more immersive travel experiences that satisfy consumer desires for novelty and excitement. by crafting emotionally resonant stories, personalized interactions, and unique sensory experiences, destinations can create unforgettable moments and cater to a wide range of emotional needs. 4.2.5 optimizing services through analysis of tourist reviews using sentiment analysis techniques, such as normalized scoring and comprehensive evaluation models , tourism managers can automatically analyze the emotional leanings in online reviews(2019)[9]. this allows them to extract positive and negative emotional themes and capture tourists' true feelings about a destination(2020)[10]. this data not only helps in optimizing tourism services but also provides a scientific basis for shaping the destination's image and marketing strategies, progressively improving tourist satisfaction and the destination's reputation. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 76 published by ideas spread 5. conclusion this paper, based on the theory of emotional value, has analyzed the emotional demands of modern tourists and proposed several optimization strategies. by focusing on emotional resonance and value conversion, strengthening brand image, elevating service quality, embracing technological innovation, and leveraging tourist feedback, the tourism industry can innovate its business models to meet the emotional needs of consumers and achieve highquality development. however, it is crucial to recognize that emotional value is a double-edged sword in tourism development. while tourists "paying for emotional value" have created viral destinations and powerful new consumer drivers, this heightened visibility also means that any negative incidents at a destination can be amplified by the same viral mechanisms. therefore, tourism providers cannot rely solely on short-term "revenge consumption." instead, they must commit to long-term, sustained efforts to continuously improve the quality of their tourism offerings. references [1] sun, y. l. (2020). from the perspective of psychology, tourism consumption experience has five characteristics: comprehensiveness, experience, personalization, dynamics and sociality. tourism tribune, 12(3), 41–46. [2] ma, t., & xie, y. j. (2019). emotion and emotional research in tourism experience: status quo and progress. tourism herald, 3(2), 82–101. [3] fang, m., pan, l., & chen, y. w. (2016). a study on emotional experience of domestic tourists based on eem. tourism forum, 9(4), 27–32. [4] deng, y. (2020). construction and empirical research on evaluation index system of tourist destination based on consumer satisfaction. china tourism marketing, (2), 53–64. [5] wang, y. q. (2021). research on the characteristics and trends of chinese tourists' consumption behavior. journal of beijing technology and business university, (4), 27–30. [6] zhang, z. q., & zhao, l. (2021). construction path and influencing factors of emotional experience of tourists in tibet. china metallurgical education, (203)(2), 118–124. [7] she, s. x., fei, y. a., & tian, y. z., et al. (2019). dimensions and tests of tourism consumer emotion scale. statistics & decision, 35(5), 36–40. [8] sun, x. l., gao, j., & lin, b. s., et al. (2019). construction of tourists' presence emotional experience: theoretical model and empirical test. tropical geography, 39(3), 430–439. [9] moyle, b., et al. (2019). the next frontier in tourism emotion research. current issues in tourism. [10] hosany, s., martin, d., & woodside, a. (2020). emotions in tourism: theoretical designs, measurements, analytics, and interpretations. journal of travel research. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287520937079 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p77 77 published by ideas spread a study on the authenticity, symbolism and radical style of sound narration in nolan's films qiumin chen1 1 academy for advanced interdisciplinary studies, nankai university, china correspondence: qiumin chen, academy for advanced interdisciplinary studies, nankai university, assistant research fellow, tianjin, china. e-mail: garfield@nankai.edu.cn received: july 14, 2025; accepted: july 24, 2025; published: july 25, 2025 abstract nolan's films have a distinct personal style in the handling of sound. his treatment of human voices, background music, and decorative sound effects all have a certain degree of unconventional characteristics. in response to this phenomenon, this article analyzes nolan's artistic exploration of the sound medium from the perspectives of sound ontology, media narratology, and symbolism. this article attempts to connect the technical principles and aesthetic tendencies in nolan's films through multidisciplinary approaches such as physical acoustics, electronic engineering, aesthetics, and phenomenology of the spirit, to interpret how he uses sound to express the experiential world, represent emotional values, and construct spatiotemporal cognitive views, and then to explain the avant-garde and modern nature of the aesthetic features of his film sound. keywords: nolan, sound, symbol, digital twin, modernity 1. the dispute between digital twin and naturalism: reconstructing the auditory order of the screen 1.1 defective dialogue: distortion or authenticity? as a vital medium in filmmaking, sound plays a pivotal role in storytelling. however, its inherent characteristics and practical value are often overlooked due to the difficulty in defining and describing this medium. while sound itself lacks inherent semantic direction, when integrated with visual elements and textual content, it reinvigorates the process of meaning-making. it's easy to find that christopher nolan's distinctive approach to film sound design has significantly shaped his artistic identity, through meticulous handling of dialogue, sound effects, and musical arrangements, he establishes a unique cinematic language. one of the core functions of movies is to reproduce the sensory experience of reality and provide the audience with an extremely immersive feeling. the authenticity of the dialogue in a film is of great significance to its narrative. the quality of the dialogue production often directly affects whether the audience can be drawn into the story. nolan prioritizes natural speech delivery, crafting dialogues that feel like everyday conversations rather than scripted lines. this "authenticity" may can be reinterpreted as "kinship", which makes the relationships between the characters more believable and enhances the audience's immersion in the film. to achieve this goal, he usually uses live recording equipments to capture actors' natural performances rather than relying on post-production dubbing. this method preserves the delicacy of live acting, making dialogues more vivid and lifelike. however, the sense of intimacy does not equate to absolute realism. nolan's personal preference of minimizing or eliminating adr (automated dialogue replacement)[1] can be interpreted as an aesthetic philosophy that deliberately blurs the distinction between dialogue and ambient sounds. this creates a watching barrier where audiences may experience discomfort or insecurity due to unclear audio. this phenomenon is particularly evident in tenet. regarding the theater screening situation of tenet, some cinemas in the united states had to post notices to clarify that it was not due to equipment failure: "the volume of the entire film is not consistent. the current mixing situation is in line with the expectations of the filmmakers. if you have any further doubts or feedback, please feel free to inform our staff at any time." audiences generally have two main reactions to nolan's film dialogues: 1. voices like banes in the dark knight rises — vague and unsettling to the ear, yet intelligible. 2. the muffled dialogue in interstellar that make many viewers complaining about missed details, such as matthew mcconaughey's character shouting instructions while driving a car with two children chasing a uav through cornfields, which audiences found completely hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 78 published by ideas spread incomprehensible. the above-mentioned tenet is even more obvious in this aspect. in tenet, the protagonist is transported to the reverse world with oxygen masks, causing voices to become muffled within the sealed environment. however, this sound ambiguity differs from bane's artificially distorted voice typical of postproduction. do these two scenarios both represent distortions in nolan's audio processing? the principles behind these two cases are fundamentally different. in the former one, it represents an artistic approach to sound effects. in the dark knight rises, bane's distinctive vocal timbre stems from his perpetually worn custom-made mask (as shown in figure 1). the plot reveals that bane, having sustained severe facial injuries that left terrifying scars, wore this specialized mask to conceal his wounds while using it to inject drugs into his brain. this mask thus achieves a dual effect of grotesque horror through both visual and auditory media. figure 1. bane regarding the processing of baine's voice, this post-production technique alters the frequency and spatial reflections of an actors original sound, a method commonly used in hollywoods sound production systems. firstly, the production team must provide an original sound signal with excellent signal-to-noise ratio (snr) to postproduction engineers. then, tools like "speaker phone" or "space" are employed to shape the sound within a container, creating material resonance and short reflections. this simulates the auditory experience of sound reflection and resonance within a small enclosed space. such techniques are typically applied to characters embodying malevolence, mysterious forces, or large-bodied figures, differentiating the voices of such characters is a necessary part of the plot setting. this dealing method is prevalent in hollywoods industrial ecosystem, as seen in the alien klyntar from venom and mechanical life forms in transformers. from a technical perspective, applying adr to baine's voice proves necessary, as this post-production technique transforms originally clean dry sound into heavy reverb and intense noise — a process transitioning from "silence" to "noise". if actual sound recording were used, the original audio would not meet technical processing standards. by leveraging modern technology and digital signal systems, we can create various acoustic waveforms which don't exist in the natural world — a groundbreaking advancement for the film industry. this is similar to the situation of electronic music in the field of music, where artificially enhanced sound products deliver a surreal sensory experience beyond natural existence. the aesthetic subjects spiritual essence seems to transcend into an "external realm", making this technique particularly effective for supernaturalism or romanticism themes. regarding the second issue of unclear dialogue, nolan addressed this in an interview with the hollywood reporter: "we made carefully considered creative decisions... there are particular moments in this film where i decided to use dialogue as a sound effect, so sometimes it’s mixed slightly underneath the other sound effects or in the other sound effects to emphasize how loud the surrounding noise is. it’s not that nobody has ever done these things before, but it’s a little unconventional for a hollywood movie." [2] this clarification dispelled lingering doubts. undoubtedly, a big-budget film's audiovisual elements should be very carefully crafted rather than accidental mishaps. nolan's attitude to sound design clearly leans toward naturalism. 1.2 the trade-off between technological proliferation and sensory simulation the social response to nolan's cinematic dialogue style offers a critical perspective on auditory authenticity: while modern digital film technology employs adr and post-production techniques can enhance the clarity, contrast hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 79 published by ideas spread ratio, and spatial depth of audio sources, directors like nolan deliberately reject such technical enhancements, as if pursuing a kind of sensory minimalism. the sound textures created through adr are no longer authentic recordings from the original filming environment. no matter how sophisticated the technology is, compared with the sound text that occurs immediately at that time, this is still just a kind of "digital twin", it creates sensory simulacra under technological amplification, undermining the authenticity of human perception. consequently, audiences with differing aesthetic preferences react differently: the ambiguity of sound creates an illusion of actors have taken a step backward, retreating spatially from the audience. the possible reactions of the audience in european and american cinemas at this moment might be: 1. more nervous, trying to hear clearly; 2. more relaxed, believing that this part doesn't need to be understood. however, in china, the industry norm for showing foreign films is to provide bilingual subtitles. therefore, the audience's listening experience is always limited by the availability of the subtitles. suppose the subtitles simply omit the shouting of the characters in the cornfield chase scene of interstellar, then the audience would temporarily assume that this part doesn't require understanding. but when they look back and think carefully later, they might overturn the previous tacit acceptance. regarding this difference in aesthetic perception, supporters argue nolan deliberately incorporated accented dialogues and preserved ambient noises to achieve authenticity. however critics raise a question: while the auditory relationship between the audience and the characters in the play is isomorphic. since the audience cannot hear the dialogue clearly, then the characters themselves should also be unable to hear each other clearly. how can they communicate smoothly? another technical group of critics argue that: it's not the case that the background noise masking dialogue, but rather an audio-visual synchronization problem caused by abrupt transitions between on-screen sound and background music. there is no need to elevate this technical flaw to the level of aesthetic ideals. human auditory habits can be shaped. the sound effects in films are usually artistically processed, the way the film handles sound is primarily to serve the overall style and tone of the entire film, and secondarily based on the personal aesthetic preferences of the director and the post-production engineers. in the real world, the volume of human speech is not uniform — generally, starting strong and fading into weak and vague by the end. hollywoods industrial system routinely applies compression, gain adjustment, equalization, and eq to vocal dialogues. for example, palpatine's opening line in star wars: episode ix-the rise of skywalker — "a new empire... you shall rule the galaxy as its emperor" — this passage adopts the above-mentioned audio techniques. such processing creates rich, balanced vocals which have no need to avoid the interference of music or decorative sound effects. such vocal effect evokes a sense of wonder, ideal for magical dialogues or profound narration in supernatural themes, created a supernatural and surrealistic experience. however, the current film industrys overuse of such sound technology may lead audiences to develop auditory fatigue from prolonged exposure, eventually resulting in a dependence on distorted sounds. this is similar to the abuse of filters and post-production color correction in visual media, which may prevent viewers from directly viewing the visual imperfections such as real skin blemishes. in reality, untrained voices often carry inherent flaws. excessive refinement or artificial enhancement tends to give films an expressionist feel, whereas nolan's approach to filming realistic scenes emphasizes preserving the authenticity of natural sound. under this cinematic style, the textual dialogue inevitably leads to some deficiencies. yet this mirrors our lived experience: many sensory informations are blocked or omitted during the transmission process. however, our perception automatically extends in this environment of missing and broken sensations, generating an understanding of meaning. as phenomenology repeatedly stresses: return to the essence of things. nolan's attitude toward dialogue seems to guide audiences back to the raw reality of their surroundings — returning to pure sensory perception. 2. establish a new aesthetic of auditory senses in the midst of illusion, grandeur and anti-conventionality 2.1 external sound and inner hearing jointly construct the perceptual world a films sound system primarily consists of two components: dialogue and audio effects. audio effects encompass ambient sounds (amb), special effects (sfx), and foley sound. the sound effects play a crucial role in the narrative. in many cases, their significance is even greater than that of the visuals, yet they are often overlooked. sound media defy preservation and linguistic definition. their functional logic often start with intuition, skipping over the stages of perception and consciousness, and directly reaching the realm of cognition. although working within hollywoods industrial ecosystem, nolan demonstrates distinctive personal characteristics in sound design. he excels at using ambient sounds to enhance scene authenticity and lay the groundwork for narrative structure. in inception, sound designer richard king is skilled at using the humidity and dryness of the sound as a hint to indicate the progression of the plot, thereby depicting the transformation of dream hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 80 published by ideas spread levels. acoustic humidity refers to the relationship between sound sources and spatial reflections: the more open the space where a sound source resides, the stronger the reverberation effect and higher the sounds "humidity," while conversely, the tighter the space makes the sound drier. in inception, as the characters' dreams progress layer by layer, spatial reverberation gradually diminishes. initially characters in the real world, the sounds reflection field resembles echoes in actual streets or rooms. as the dream deepens, the spatial sense becomes increasingly confined, when culminating in the "limbo" realm where characters dialogues and friction sounds whisper in the audiences ears. it is a process of becoming drier. conversely, the recurring dream-awakening cue song no, je ne regrette rien grows progressively louder in reverberation as the dream layers accumulate. this design reveals the creator's profound understanding of freud's psychoanalytic theory. the increasingly dryness sound effects in dreams represent subjective auditory perceptions within the characters' minds, mirroring how brain activity evolves with layered dream progression. the conscious mental activity area gradually narrows until reaching the final realm of limbo (the subconscious zone). piaf's song serves as a tangible sonic source of the objective world. as the dream progresses layer by layer, external sounds seem to be progressively blocked by successive barriers. thus, in terms of auditory perception, the reverberation intensifies and the reflection coefficient of the sounds gradually increases, amplifying the dreamlike and surreal atmosphere of the scene. such sound design not only adheres to scientific principles of the objective world but also adds an idealized narrative dimension to the film, while simultaneously prompting viewers to contemplate what constitutes the experience of multiple dreams. similarly, the film interstellar which is a science fiction movie, also has a realistic undertone. nolan's attitude to sound design remains fundamentally essentialist: "what if we don’t use any of that, just use the production sound and enhance it a little bit? so, you’re hearing the footsteps on set, it’s not all cleaned up and it’s very grubby, very real... but that had the right sort of ‘non-sound-designed’ quality."[3] the film explores how astronauts navigating multidimensional space construct cosmic imagination through sound, weaving their profound love for earth into this narrative. this process involves a complex cognitive engagement: cosmic entities like galaxies，space and the universe are beyond human sensory perception, typically represented through animated visuals or special effects. when these fantastical constructs merge with abstract concepts like "multidimensional universes" or "time tunnels", they become hard to understand. consequently, some massive material clusters such as galaxies are further enveloped by intangible and fluid concepts like "time". conveying such imagery through sound demands exceptional creative mastery. hans zimmer handled it this way: in interstellar, cooper returns to nasa to save his home and pilots a spaceship to explore space, where the roar of engines, metallic friction, cosmic silence, and the steady pad[4] sound symbolizing emotional and temporal flow intertwine to create a grand and mysterious cosmic atmosphere. as three astronauts work in the cockpit, the narration states: "fiercely, fiercely, against the fading light," with the pad sound progressing steadily. when the narration concludes, the camera cuts to an external view of celestial bodies and vast cosmic space, the pad volume suddenly rises, evoking an imagination of infinite universe material existence, then a sudden oppressive feeling of fear swept. this demonstrates how sound narratology can establish sublime emotions. in memento, the opening sequence transitions from black screen to the main title using progressively louder pad sounds, which laying a psychedelic foundation for the protagonists fragmented time perception and memory loops. in the production conventions of pad sound effects, hollywoods audio system almost has a distinct pattern: first comes a thunderous "boom" (a bass drop effect mimicking a bass drum), followed by a sustained high-pitched pad sound with escalating volume, then a high-frequency binaural beats.[5] this three-part sequence is typically set pattern in scenes depicting massive explosions or psychological breakdowns, where the binaural beats signal to the audience that now viewers should enter a state of mental exhaustion or distraction alongside the characters. in hollywood systerm, this three-part sound design has almost been symbolized as the auditory hallmark of "guilty pleasure film". but nolan rarely employs these three sounds consecutively. in memento, prolonged scenes showcasing the protagonists mental derangement are accompanied by binaural beats. meanwhile, the pad sound consistently serves as a philosophical reflection and compassionate undertone throughout nolan's multiple works. 2.2 the movement of time in the representation of sound media of particular note is the sound design in tenet. this film employs thunderous volume and relentless drumbeats to heighten tension. when neil first arrives at oslo freeport, the pulsating freeport blares over the narrators monologue, which immediately emphasizing the missions objective: to retrieve the missing item rather than engage in dialogue. while this sonic approach has been criticized as "overly explosive" and even causing cinema audio systems to fail, but it undeniably showcases nolan's bold experimentation with sound design. the film sets up a time-reversal mechanism with a paradoxical motion logic where events in "reverse timelines" appear backward to our linear perspective. to achieve this story setting, the film only needs to reverse the normal filmed moving images in the aspect of image processing. at the same time, the sounds must also be reversed, for instance, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 81 published by ideas spread the soundtrack retrieving the case used in the high-speed car chase scene is actually the reverse playback of one of the loops[6] from the soundtrack rainy night in tallinn for the theater attack scene. this temporal inversion creates suspenseful interweaving of multiple timelines. people are more familiar with the motion patterns of reversed images, which are the geometric symmetrical relationships of the forward movement of objects. however, the auditory experience brought by audio reverse playback is very strange. it creates an unsettling asymmetry sensation, which breaking the natural flow of perception. this reversed audio sounds like a huge alien beast roaring, or like a sudden outburst of a torrential rain. the reversed sound surpasses people's ordinary aesthetic habits in terms of auditory perception, and brings a sense of strangeness and terror to the listener. beyond conventional aesthetic norms, this reversed audio evokes a sense of unfamiliarity and horror. in tenet, multiple instances of reversed sound perfectly demonstrate the challenging audio-visual relationship within the "reverse time" premise. here, the reversed audio medium masterfully illustrates the inherent nature of temporal movement itself. besides intricate sound effects, nolan excels at using silence to build tension and anticipation. at critical moments, he frequently lowers or completely silences the volume to emphasize a scene's significance or heighten psychological pressure. in the dark knight, the scene where the clown appears is often accompanied by a long period of silence, which actually makes the clown's threat seem even more terrifying and unpredictable. this technique exploits human selective perception: when emotionally charged, the brain automatically filters out ambient sounds while amplifying specific, seemingly insignificant noises. the test explosion scence in oppenheimer employs time-warping editing to prolong pre-explosion tension. as sound travels slower than light, the film sequentially shows every staffs' body movements and facial expressions before the thunderous explosion occurs, a pivotal moment that elevates the films narrative (as shown in figure 2). since audiences lack of firsthand experience with nuclear explosions, this approach masterfully crafts an immersive spectacle. the audiovisual construction of a film can be partially controlled by the creative team. if directed by a director from the "007" or mission: impossible series, they might synchronize intense explosion scenes with synchronized sound and visual effects, employing multi-camera editing to amplify dramatic impact – this makes the watching experience more dramatic, but the aesthetic style is somewhat reminiscent of the 20th century. nolan's unique aesthetic lies in his adherence to pure linear auditory logic while strictly following scientific principles of physical acoustics and auditory physiology. this methodology not only achieves an extreme sense of clarity but also delivers a moment of epiphany: audiences suddenly realize how scientifically measured perception actually works. this precisely embodies the hallmark of media modernity. figure 2. oppenheimer while nolan's film employs sound elements largely in line with hollywood conventions, his personal approach defies standard practice. his grasp of the "noise-quiet" relationship often stands in stark contrast to others. a prime example is his handling of the explosion scene in oppenheimer, where exaggerated visual imagery accentuates the solemnity of the audio medium. regarding the extreme silence preceding the explosion, nolan remarked: "i remember asking the sound mixers to take the sound to absolute silence at a particular moment, just for half a beat, and they wouldn’t do it. it took days to convince them. it was something that just wasn’t allowed to happen in a hollywood film."[3] the intense stillness is abruptly followed by the protagonists labored breathing, which seems to originate from the characters inner auditory perception. after nearly two minutes of emotional buildup, the explosion finally erupts. this bold technique clearly deconstructs and reconstructs audience expectations, representing a daring experiment in cinematic storytelling. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 82 published by ideas spread 3. constructing the view of time and space: musical experience reshapes the cognition of time and emotion the sound effects and music in a film are often so intertwined sometimes it's hard to tell them apart. film music is divided into subjective music, also called off-screen music, which can not heard by the characters in the story, and objective music, also called realistic music, which is the musical activity that takes place in the plot. to date, hans zimmer has composed the music for six of nolan's films. these works are distinguished by their intense rhythmicity and extended bass passages that instantly evoke the cinematic style of nolan. the rhythmdriven and bass-prioritized scoring style effectively conveys a profound sense of anxiety. in inception, the original soundtracks time and dream is collapsing reinforce the boundary between dream and reality through their deep, repetitive melodies, creating a strong sense of ritualistic immersion. zimmer once remarked that composing for inception differed significantly from his usual practice. typically, composers begin working on film soundtracks after receiving director's initial cut versions, but for inception, zimmer started composing simultaneously with the director's editing process. nolan repeatedly instructed zimmer to follow his artistic vision without considering other aspects of the film. this collaborative mode granted zimmer immense creative freedom, allowing musical concepts to take precedence and drive subsequent visual and narrative refinements through their aesthetic value. in interstellar, hans zimmer extensively employs organ music to create an atmosphere of "share a common fate" with the protagonist. the film explores the philosophical question of individual existence within the vast cosmic expanse through its thematic exploration. centered on a microcosm, the story follows a humble individual navigating infinite time, repeatedly attempting to reverse the timeline through profound emotional attachments to alter their destiny. zimmers adopted numerous reed instrument sounds mimicking the grand spatial quality of church hymns. as a staple of christian choir orchestras, the organs timbre has long evoked sacred associations. when the adult murphys burning cornfield scene alternates with his father's suffocating work in the canopus star system, the music no time for caution plays. this soundtrack intensifies the sense of despair while symbolizing their simultaneous pursuit of divine salvation, revealing the religious narrative script of "sacrifice-redemption." amidst the majestic musical progression, mechanical clock ticks occasionally punctuate the countdown to the protagonists demise and humanitys existential crisis — a moment of ultimate tension. here, it is highlighted that a bridge has been built between the physical sense of hearing and existential philosophy. the soundtracks of tenet was composed by the swedish composer ludwig göransson, whose style is clearly distinct from that of hans zimmer. its extensive use of electronic sound effects establishes a technological and futuristic tone throughout the movie. beyond creating eerie reverberation effects, the soundtrack pays homage to bach's "crab canon"[7], a musical structure where forward and backward performances produce strikingly similar sounds, evoking visual associations of ascending or descending imagery. the opening piece meeting neil achieves perfect synchronization between its forward and reverse versions upon neil's debut, symbolizing his destiny as a "redemptor" — a concept echoing the biblical narrative of jesus incarnation: his arrival marks the zero point of human history, with all preceding events serving as prologue and subsequent ones as redemption. the english word "tenet" itself is written in identical reverse and forward configurations. by the musical arrangement pays tribute to the crab canon technique, nolan establishes an intertextual relationship between audio media and textual content, striving to achieve symmetrical aesthetic harmony across soundscapes, visual narratives, and storytelling dimensions. similarly, hans zimmer's film soundtracks for dunkirk, including the mole and supermarine, ingeniously employ "shepard tone". these are fixed octave counterpoint melodies that repeat in ascending or descending patterns, creating an illusion of infinite pitch ascending or descending. the continuity between these musical segments is achieved through dynamic changes: high notes fade, mid-range notes remain stable, while low notes intensify or diminish, forming a cyclical repetition that creates the sensation of continuous ascent. shepard tone is tricking the brain into perceiving the notes as continuously climbing without reaching a peak, triggering a heightened synesthetic response that disrupts linear "time-emotion" perception. this technique deconstructs the stability of temporal consciousness, transforming sound into a medium that shapes perceptual frameworks. the use of shepard tones also intertwines with the films polyphonic narrative, where alternating high, middle, and low registers symbolize the interwoven timelines of land, sea, and air, amplifying dramatic tension. aesthetically, both shepard tone and crab canon utilize the shared sensory similarity between auditory and visual media, shaping visual synesthesia through frequency modulation to create a multisensory perception system that erases the audiences sense of time, allowing for artistic reshaping. beyond tonal variations, nolan frequently employs rhythmic shifts in dunkirk to craft an "artistic temporal variation." for instance, during the opening alleyway battle scene, the contrast between soldiers slow movements and the sudden explosion creates rhythmic tension. when the camera widens to reveal soldiers fleeing toward the sea, the music abruptly stops, highlighting the temporal hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 83 published by ideas spread density differences across land, sea, and air narrative threads. these deliberate temporal distortions imbue the film's rhythm with refined musicality. the musical techniques employed in these examples share a common logic: they establish symbolic expressions of temporal progression within narratives through audience perception of music. typically, visual media employs three symbolic construction steps: referencing, transcending, and reshaping — which collectively form a process of narrowing, decontextualizing, and refocusing. skilled directors can firstly create partial sensory dissonance in the audiences perception of material media, then reconstruct it into a novel yet distinct version. in cinematic art, time has always been a high-dimensional toy to be played with. while previous directors have extensively explored visual elements in narrative games, nolan's contributions stand out uniquely in the realm of sound media. 4. conclusion among nolan's films to date, oppenheimer has earned the best original score at the 96th academy awards, a testament to his teams groundbreaking explorations in sound design. nolan demonstrates pioneering approaches in both dialogue delivery and audio-music integration. emerging from hollywood's production ecosystem, he championed against excessive digital simulation and sensory overload while establishing a distinctive aesthetic benchmark that continues to inspire future directors. references [1] adr stands for additional dialogue recording. [2] the hollywood reporter. (2014, november 15). christopher nolan breaks silence on ‘interstellar’ sound (exclusive). https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-news/christopher-nolan-breaks-silenceinterstellar-749465/ [3] christopher nolan: a showman’s odyssey. (2024, march). sight and sound, 34(2). [4] the pad sound, also known as the pad tone, is a synthesized timbre created through modulation. it is often used as background music to create a specific atmosphere or emotion. this timbre is similar to the sound of multiple reed instruments playing together in auditory perception. it has a long duration and stable volume, and can blend smoothly with other sound elements. [5] binaural beat effect is a specialized technique in audio post-production engineering. it creates a unique auditory experience by sending sound waves of slightly different frequencies to each ear through headphones. when both ears receive these slightly differing frequencies simultaneously, the brain combines them to perceive a new frequency, producing the sensation of pulsating pitch tones. [6] this music is made up of multiple loops. [7] it can also be called "retrograde canon". copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v2n2p17 17 published by ideas spread analysis of financial statements: the importance of financial indicators in enterprise petrit hasanaj1 & beke kuqi2 1 iliria college, management, business and economics, pristina, kosovo 2 university "haxhi zeka", tourism management, peja, kosovo correspondence: petrit hasanaj, iliria college, management, business and economics, pristina, kosovo. email: petrithasanaj gmail.com received: may 20, 2019; accepted: june 1, 2019; published: june 19, 2019 abstract the main purpose of this study is to determine, forecast and evaluate the best of economic conditions and company’s performance in the future. the other purpose of this study is to analyze the financial statement and than give information for financial managers to make through decisions about their business. the financial statement applies tools, analytical techniques and required methods for business analysis. it is a diagnostic tool for evaluating financing activities, investment activities and operational activities as well as an assessment tool for management decisions and other business decisions. the analysis of financial statements, respectively the analysis of the financial reports are used by managers, shareholders, investors and all other interested parties regarding the company's state. managers use financial reports to see the situation in which the company stands and then provide information to shareholders, to see how reasonable are the investments made in the company. to potential investors, the analysis of the financial statements of the company is very important, because, first they want to know the actual state of the company and then decide whether to invest or not. keywords: financial analysis, financial reports, decision-making, profitability, liquidity 1. introduction there are various number of methods used by accountants and financial analysts to analyze financial state of a company. the purpose of the financial analysis is to provide information to financial managers and analysts to make thorough decisions about their business. assessing financial position and performance of an enterprise is a skill that every manager needs to have to make the best and right decisions for the company. the analysis of the financial statements is a method of comparing, judging or valuate situation of particular parts of balance sheet, on the basis of which important decisions are made. so, financial analysis is an analysis of balance sheets for the past, present and future of the enterprise. balance sheet position values separately do not have high analytical significance, but if we compare them to the values of other balance sheet positions then their comparative value increases. financial analysis is a study of the company's financial statements by analyzing the reports. report analysis is a tool that easily calculates and interprets reports that are used by investors, creditors, enterprise executives and others. 1.1 methodology in this research a number of qualitative and quantitative elements have been taken for analysis to determine and analyze the importance of financial indicators in an enterprise. during this study, tools, analytical techniques and adequate methods were used to analyze the financial statement of company “x”. the sources of data used in this research are primary and secondary data. then, from the data collected, different analyzes were used to come to the results and to reach a conclusion, indicating that inductive methods were used. apart from analysis and induction, in this research it also used the classification method due to certain criterion data categorization. also, given the fact that data do not make sense if they are secluded, comparison method was used and the company’s financial statements were compared for two consecutive years. 1.2 hypothesis h1 company has a good financial statement. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 18 published by ideas spread 2. analysis from analyzing the financial statements of the company, we can conclude its financial condition and how it has operated during the periods for which the analysis is conducted and what are the future trends for that enterprise. by the use of different liquidity indicators we try to anticipate whether companies can meet their short-term liabilities using their available current assets. liquidity ratios have a great benefit of being relatively accurate regarding their components because on the short-term, there are more realistic data available in the accounting system than for analysing longterm assets and sources. in case of certain fields of activity, the degree of liquidity can differ seasonally. for the calculation, we have analysed data of a manufacturing company in the period of 2016 2015. graphic 1. summary of liquidity reports after calculating, analyzing and interpreting the various financial reports of the company, we have come to the conclusion, that the company has a good liquidity statement, because the company has more short-term assets to cover the liabilities short-term, which means that there is more working capital. because, if these indicators are larger than 1, then it shows that the company has good liquidity status.this means, that this company is able to pay its current liabilities at any time. also, we know that current assets are also constituted by customer requirements and if it happens that customers do not pay their debts, then the company may become insolvent and this would affect the reputation of the company. graphic 2. summary of revenues and profitability reports regarding profitability ratios, there is a better situation in 2016 and it is more effective in using assets to generate revenues, hence, there is a greater turnover this year as well as greater return on capital. this means, that with the revenues increased in 2016, are also increased the performance indicators of the company (net profit ratio, from 0.21 to 0.23 in 2016 and gross profit ratio, from 0.38 to 0.40 in 2016). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 19 published by ideas spread graphic 3. summary of turnover assets ratio from turnover assets ratio, we can conclude that the company is more effective in 2016 because in this year it was more likely to collect customer debts (receivable accounts, 13.62 times for one year), but it was also more effective in inventory sales (62.82 times for one year), whilst with regard to payable accounts, the company has paid more often the debts to suppliers in 2015 (4.38 times for one year), it is good to pay these debts because the company should not lose these important sources of funding. graphic 4. summary of long-term solvency ratios through analysis of financial ratios of long-term solvency, we can conclude that the company is less financed by debts in 2015, because the smaller the value of these coefficients are indictae that the company is less financed by debt. after calculating, analyzing and interpreting the various financial reports of the company, we have come to the conclusion, that the company has a good financial statement, because the company has a good liquidity statement, is profitable and is effective in inventory sales. and that leads us to the authentication of the third hypothesis, the company has a good financial statement. 3. financial statements according to the accounting standards, financial statements are a structured financial presentation and transactions undertaken in an organization. the main financial statements are the means used by the accounting for the purpose of collecting, processing and presenting economic information. the purpose of financial statements is to provide information on the position and financial changes as a very important basis for making managerial decisions (asllanaj, 2008). the objective of the financial statements is to provide information about the financial situation, financial performance and changes in an entity's financial position that are usable by a wide range of users in making their economic decisions (lewis, & pendrill, 2004). financial statements and reports arising from their study provide information on: hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 20 published by ideas spread • assets • liabilities • equity • income and expenditures and • cash flow financial statements reflect the cumulative effects of all of management’s past decisions (helfert, 2001). financial statements are the business documents that companies use to report the results of their activities to various user groups, which can include managers, investors, creditors, and regulatory agencies. in turn, these parties use the reported information to make a variety of decisions, such as whether to invest in or loan money to the company (charles, walter & thomas, 2012). the main financial statements are international accounting standards (ias): • income and expenditure statements, • balance sheet, • cash flow statement, • statement of equity changes, • statement of explanatory note. 3.1 income and expenditure statements this statement shows the financial result of a firm over a period of time (monthly, quarterly or annual). it summarizes the incomes and expenditures incurred for the creation of such income. income represents the amount of assets generated through business operations. expenditure represent the amount of assets consumed during the business operation, respectively the flows and obligations occured during the production of goods and services (asllanaj, 2008). the difference between income and expenditure represents net income or net profit. table 1. income statement 3.2 balance sheet the balance sheet reports in a summarized form the balances of the assets, capital and liabilities accounts at the date of its establishment for a specified period of time. the balance sheet denomination comes from the assumption that between the total assets on one side and the total of capital and liabilities on the other hand, there must be a 2016 2015 net sales 233,715 182,795 cost of sales 140,089 112,258 gross margin 93,626 70,537 operating expenses: research and development 8,067 6,041 selling, general and administrative 14,329 11,993 operating income 71,230 52,503 other income/(expense) net 1,285 980 income before provision for income taxes 72,515 53,483 provision for income taxes 19,121 13,973 net income 53,394 39,510 "x" company hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 21 published by ideas spread balanced state. consequently the total assets in the balance sheet must be equal to the total of liabilities and capital (asllanaj, 2008). this equilibrium is expressed through the equation (xhafa, 2005): assets = liabilities + capital (equity). assets are rights or other access to future economic benefits controlled by an entity as a result of past transactions or events. liabilities are obligations of an entity to transfer economic benefits as a result of past transactions or events (lewis, & pendrill, 2004). capital represents the rights of the owners in the corporate property, so it is a kind of obligation but to the owners. in fact, demands of the owners of the enterprise's assets are equal to the amount of the assets which remains after all the liabilities have been deducted (asllanaj, 2008). table 2. balance sheet 3.3 cash flow statement the main purpose of cash flow review is to provide business information about activities that affect cash inflows and outflows during a fiscal period. in other words, the cash flow statement reports the transactions from which the cash is generated and the transactions for which the money is used (asllanaj, 2008). years 2016 2015 current assets: cash and cash equivalents 21,120 13,844 short-term marketable securities 20,481 11,233 accounts receivable 16,849 17,460 inventories 2,349 2,111 deferred tax assets 5,546 4,318 vender non-trade receivable 13,494 9,759 other current assets 9,539 9,806 total current assets 89,378 68,531 long-term marketable securities 164,065 130,162 property, plant and equipment, net 22,471 20,624 goodwill 5,116 4,616 acquired intangible assets, net 3,839 4,142 other assets 5,556 3,764 total assets 290,479 231,839 current liabilities accounts payanble 35,490 30,196 accrued expenses 25,181 18,453 deferred revenue 8,940 8,491 commercial paper 8,499 6,308 current portion of long-term debt 2,500 0 total current liabilities 80,610 63,448 deferred revenue, non current 3,624 3,031 long-term debt 53,463 28,987 other non-current liabilities 33,427 24,826 total liabilities 171,124 120,292 shareholders' equity comon stock 27,416 23,313 retained earnings 92,284 87,152 accumulated other comprehensive income (345) 1,082 total shareholders' equity 119,355 111,547 total liabilities and shareholders' equity 290,479 231,839 liabilities and shareholders' equity assets "x" company hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 22 published by ideas spread cash flow statement methods (society of certified accountants and auditors in kosovo (scaak)) (2008): direct method shows cash collection from customers, interest and dividends collected, other cash inflows, money paid to suppliers and employees, paid interests, paid taxes and other operating fees indirect method starts with net income and is adjusted to deferred items, ascertained, non-monetary items such as depreciation and amortization and non-operating items such as profits or losses on the sale of assets. money flows and capital movements are divided based on activities (lewis, & pendrill, 2004): • operational activity • investment activity • financing activity. operational activities are the principal revenue-producing activities of the enterprise and other activities that are not investing or financing activities. investment activities – are the acquisition and disposal of long-term assets and other investments not included in cash equivalents. financing activities – are activities that result in changes in the size and composition of the equity capital and borrowings of the enterprise. 3.4 statement of equity changes this statement shows the changes occurred to the size of the owner's equity over a certain period of time from the change of his interests or from the activity of business units, which explains changes in capital and reserves over a year or (assets – liabilities = equity) (asllanaj, 2008). 4. main financial analysis indicators the main indicators of financial analysis are the following ratios (helfert, 2001): liquidity ratio profitability ratio assets turnover ratio ratio of long-term solvency (debt) 4.1 the importance of liquidity and its analysis as it is known, a company's liquidity refers to its ability to settle short-term liabilities when they mature. so liquidity is the ability to convert activities into cash or make money in another way (eg through financing) (mayo, 2012). liquidity analysis through working capital – working capital has been consistently considered as one of the most important and significant indicators in the liquidity analysis of an enterprise. from creditor’s point of view, working capital is always from the first indicators to be considered. this is because the creditor always seeks to find and read "safety" in the financial statements. he is interested in liquidity because it "protects" him from an unwanted situation of lack of cash (shuli & perri, 2010). working capital is calculated as the difference between short-term assets and short-term liabilities working capital = short term assets – short term liabilities 2015: working capital = 68,531 – 63,448 = 5,083 2016: working capital = 89,378 – 80,610 = 8,768 liquidity ratios are 4.1.1 current ratio shows a direct proportion between short term assets and short term liabilities. through this, it is measured the ability of a firm to pay short-term liabilities at the maturity date (expiry date of payment) (mayo, 2012). = ℎ ℎ 2015: = ,, = 1.08 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 23 published by ideas spread 2016: = ,, = 1.10 times this ratio shows that the company in 2015, for every 1 euro short-term obligation has 1.08 euro short-term assets to cover them. in 2016 the company has 1.10 euro short-term assets, for every 1 euro short-term obligation. the most liquid is in 2016. 4.1.2 rapid ratio an even more stringent test, although again on a static basis, is the acid test or quick ratio, which is calculated using only a portion of current assets—cash, marketable securities, and accounts receivable—which are then related to current liabilities (helfert, 2001). = ℎ −ℎ 2015: = , ,, = 1.04 2016: = ,∋ ,, = 1.08 this ratio shows that even though the company is deducting stocks as assets that can not be converted into cash very fast, it is still quite liquid and compared to the previous year, in 2016 the company is more liquid, where for every 1 euro short-term liability has 1.08 euros of current assets to cover them. 4.2 profitability ratios the fundamental purpose of every business is to make profit. these reports show how reasonable decisions are that the organization has made for investments. profitability reports express exactly what the organization wins over its sales, assets or capital (asllanaj, 2008). 4.2.1 rate of return over total assets shows a direct proportion between net profit and total assets. the return on total assets is a ratio that measures the effectiveness of using total assets to generate net profit (mayo, 2012). roa = 2015: roa = , , = 0.17 % 2016: roa = ,, = 0.18 % from the calculation of this ratio we see that the company has the greatest rate of return on assets in 2016, it is natural that the higher the rate of return is, it is more favorable to the company. 4.2.2 rate of return over share capital measures the profit made from investments of regular shareholders in the company's assets. in other words, the rate of return on share capital is the rate of return from regular (ordinary) shares invested by the owners of the enterprise (asllanaj, 2008). ℎ = 2015: ℎ = ,, = 0.35 % 2016: ℎ = ,, = 0.44 % from the calculation of this ratio we notice that the company has greater return on capital in 2016, it is also important for the company to have this ratio higher than the return on assets, as this indicates that the enterprise is in the successful years of business. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 24 published by ideas spread 4.2.3 net sales ratio over net assets (equity) shows a direct proportion between net sales and net assets. this report measures the profitability of the enterprise on the basis of the efficiency of using net assets in the generation of revenues from sales (asllanaj, 2008). = 2015: = ,, , / = 1.55 2016: = ,, , / = 2.02 from calculation of this ratio we notice that in 2016 the company has exploited assets better and managed to generate more income this year. 4.2.4 net profit ratio shows the amount of profit made for each € 1 of sales. in other words, this ratio measures the percentage of each euro of sales that remains after deduction of expenditures, including interest expenditures and tax expenditures. = 2015: = , , = 0.21 % 2016: = ,, = 0.23 % from the calculation of this ratio we notice that, from revenues, the company generated higher percentage of profit in 2016 compared to the previous year. 4.2.5 gross profit ratio shows the percentage gained from sales after commodities reached the customer (xhafa, 2005). = 2015: = = , , = 0.38 38 % 2016: = = , , = 0.40 40 % this shows that the company in 2016 has a higher gross profit margin than in other years, this report also shows how much the company earns on its products. 4.3 assets turnover ratios indicators of assets turnover provide the key information on the efficiency of usage and control of certain aspects of current business assets such as: inventories (reserves), current accounts and credit accounts. the ability to sell inventory of goods and collection of cash from buyers undoubtedly comprises the succesful business foundation of any commercial business (asllanaj, 2008). the main indicators of assets utilization are: 4.3.1 turnover ratio of receivable accounts this ratio measures the ability of the entity to collect debts from buyers for sales with due date for payment. so, this ratio shows how many times receivabe accounts has been converted into cash within a certain period of time (mustafa, i. (2005). = 2015: = ,, = 11.96 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 25 published by ideas spread 2016: = ,, = 13.62 from the calculation of this ratio we notice that the company was most effective in collecting cash from buyers in 2016, doing this 13.62 times during the year, whilst in 2015 it did 11.96 times during the year. 4.3.2 ratio of unreceivable sales days this indicator provides information about how many days is the deadline for collecting sales with due date for payment. in other words, through the ratio of unreceivable sales days it is indicated the number of days needed to be collected from receivable accounts (asllanaj, 2008). = 365 2015: = . = 30.52 2016: = . = 26.80 from this report we notice that the company has more often received debts from buyers, and this has done every 26.80 days in 2016 whilst in 2015 every 30.52 days. 4.3.3 inventory (stocks) turnover ratio this ratio measures the ability of the entity to sell the inventory or the speed of stock sales within a specified period of time. this ratio practicly shows how many times a year the firm has sold the average level of its inventory (asllanaj, 2008). = 2015: = ,, . = 57.94 2016: = ,, = 62.82 from the calculation of this report we notice that the company has most frequently sold stocks in 2016, whilst the turnover stocks was 62.82 times during the year. 4.3.4 inventory (stocks) sales days ratio this ratio measures efficiency in inventory management, simply this ratio shows the number of days needed to sell inventory within a year. 2012: = 2015: = . = 6.29 2016: = . = 5.81 calculating per day, we see that the company has sold stocks every 5.81 days in 2016 and every 6.29 days in 2015. 4.3.5 turnover ratio of payable accounts this ratio measures the efficiency of payment management to suppliers, simply this ratio shows the deadline or the period of liabilities towards suppliers. for an ideal firm it would be that the payment period to suppliers to be equal with the period of collection of sales from buyers (asllanaj, 2008). purchases = cost of goods sold t + inventory at the end – inventory at first 2012: = hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 26 published by ideas spread 2015: = ,, . = 4.38 2016: = ,, = 4.27 from calculation of this ratio we notice that the company has paid debts to the supplier more often in 2015with 4.38 times during the year. it is better to pay these debts because the company should not lose these important sources of funding. 4.4 ratio of long-term solvency solvency reports measure the enterprise's ability to pay long-term debts on their maturity date. while liquidity refers to the enterprise's ability to pay short-term debt, solvency means the enterprise's ability to maintain financial stability in meeting long-term liabilities. in the solvency analysis the starting point is the capital structure of an enterprise. the capital structure constitutes share capital and long-term debt capital. significant component in the capital structure is the financial leverage. financial leverage represents the amount of debt participation in the financing of the enterprise (asllanaj, 2008). 4.4.1 debt ratio over total assets measures the ability of an entity to cover long-term liabilities, this indicator is an information for creditors on the security of the given debt return. practically shows debt participation in an enterprise financing (shuli & perri, 2010). = 2015: = ,, = 0.52 52% 2016: = ,, = 0.58 58% for creditors it is desirable that the debt ratio to be o report the debt as small as possible and vice versa, for the shareholders it is favorable the debt ratio in the greatest value, under the condition that the profitability of total assets to be higher than the cost of debt capital. 4.4.2 debt ratio over equity a more refined version of the debt proportion analysis involves the ratio of longterm debt to capitalization (total invested capital). the latter is again defined as the sum of the long-term claims against the business, both debt and owners’ equity, but doesn’t include short-term (current) liabilities. this total also corresponds to net assets, unless some adjustments were made, such as ignoring deferred taxes (helfert, 2001). = ℎ 2015: = ,, = 1.07 107 % 2016: = ,, = 1.43 147% when values of this ratio are high, it means that the interest rates to be paid towards creditors will also be higher. therefore, this report shows the extent of financing the enterprise through debts. 5. conclusions the analysis of the financial statements is a very important process, even necessary for making right decisions. information obtained from financial analysis, together with accounting, are the basis for making decisions, both internally and externally. from the analysis of financial statements, we can ascertain its financial condition and how it has operated during the periods for which the analysis is conducted and what are future trends in that enterprise. these reports are also used to give information to shareholders on how reasonable are investments made in the company because they are interested in making profit from investments made. these reportscare also hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 27 published by ideas spread used by potential investors who first want to know how the company is performing and then decide whether to invest or not. after calculating, analyzing and interpreting the various financial reports of the company, we have come to the conclusion that in terms of liquidity, the state of the company is better in 2016, because this year the company has more short-term assets to cover short-term liabilities which means that there is more working capital. regarding profitability ratios, there is a better situation in 2016 and it is more effective in using assets to generate revenues, hence, there is a greater turnover this year as well as greater return on capital. from turnover assets ratio can be seen that the company is more effective in 2016 because in this year it was more likely to collect customer debts (receivable accounts), but it was also more effective in inventory sales, whilest with regard to payable accounts the company has paid more often the debts to suppliers in 2015, it is good to pay these debts because the company should not lose these important sources of funding through analysis of financial ratios of long-term solvency, we see that the company is less financed by debts in 2015, because the smaller the value of these coefficients are indictae that the company is less financed by debt. references asllanaj, r. r. (2008). financial accounting, university of pristina, pristina, 50-68, 581-586. charles, h., walter, h., & thomas, w. (2012). financial accounting, 9th edition, 2. helfert, e. a. (2001). financial analysis-tools and techniques, mcgraw-hill, united states, 107-129. retrieved from http://alqashi.com/book/book17.pdf international accounting standards (ias), 24-63. lewis, r., & pendrill, d. (2004). advanced financial accounting, seventh edition, 4-5, 96, 154, 547. retrieved from http://ek-sk.com/files/kontabiliteti_financiar_avancuar.pdf mayo, h. (2012). principles of finance, uet press, tirana, 251-276. mustafa, i. (2005). financial management, pristina, 102-103. shuli, i., & perri, rr. (2010). analysis of financial statements, albpaper, tirana, 275-338. society of certified accountants and auditors in kosovo (scaak) (2008). financial accounting, pristina, 464465. xhafa, h. (2005). analysis of financial statements, third edition, pegi, tirana, 52-225. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v1n1p1 1 published by ideas spread negative correlation between economic structure of rentier state and non-democratization (case study: saudi arabia) hamid s1, mortaza b2, hafez a3 & sirous s2 1 ph. d of political science, department of politics and law, science and research branch islamic azad university, tehran, iran 2 ph. d student of political science, department of politics and law, science and research branch islamic azad university, tehran, iran 3 m.a student in international at bonb azad university, iran correspondence: hamed s, ph. d of political science, department of politics and law, science and research branch islamic azad university, tehran, iran. e-mail: hamedsarmadi2000@gmail.com received: march 14, 2018; accepted: march 27, 2018; published: april 8, 2018 abstract the saudi arabia having patrimonial government politically system and unique nature of power structure that all political affairs set in ale saudi dynasty. government system is traditional and dependent to person and persons of dynasty are absolute rulers and away from criticism and ruler willing prefer to law. despite of authoritarian and monarchy system and non-democracy development in saudi arabia special now that kind of government system isn’t acceptable side of dominant discourse of global community, this country could rely on oil produce regarding to rentier state features have active representation in international communities and too in home sue achievement to legitimacy and vindication. the interests of state-building and to reinforce its legitimacy, which is hardly the act of a state free of interests. saudi arabia is also an archetypal example of a state that still faces influence from actors within the state and elite structures, i.e. princes, senior officials, and clerics, among others. in this article analysis rentier state effect on non-democracy development in case study of the saudi arabia and research claim is that in nature of relations between rentier state and non-democracy development exist negative correlation. namely whatever government income dependent to oil export and state economic nature has been independent from peoples, will be decrease from democratic charge in political dimension. this country by oil produce and effect to world powers economies cause that be complex government structure under monarchy system and use endowment of oil rent. now observe modern dictatorship that despite of economic and social reforms side if internal, regional and international pressures in general dimension of society, will be non-democratic politically structure. keywords: democracy, saudi arabia, rentier state, patrimonial system 1. introduction cultural (ethnic) pluralism domination instead social (liberal) pluralism where societies not pass nation building period can be obstacle of democracy in short term. for example, saudi arabia is kind of traditional oligarchy, because in traditional oligarchy in political aspect we encounter lack of structural varieties and in social sphere lack of social pluralism with interference religion institutions with political institutions. in this kind of political system central government is fragile and unorganized and unapt to modernization (nagibzadeh, 2008: 52). by lexicology, democracy term formed combine of two greece word comprise “demos” meant people and “cratia” meant rule that is geographical of govern manner (mojtahedzadeh, 2002: 81). on this base definition of democracy as government responsibility principal versus of people. so government formed on human equality with referendum. deployed system when entitle as democracy that preserved civil rights and society security. democratic manner as collective manner living that individuals having right and with equal opportunities action freely for participation in social affairs (hashemi, 2003: 30). condition of political participation is political development. political participation meant reconciliation rivalry between variety sects of society for attain to political power and definition of public expediencies. political freedoms in society prerequisite of political participation because democracy lack of consciousness citizens participation, led convert to internal despotism and externally going to aliens dominant. other side political and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 2 published by ideas spread civil freedoms is entail communication freedoms (publication, thought and express). so political participation include series of political behaviors. for democracy study in middle east can indicate two main index: first, apply restriction in executive branch comprise constitutions, majesty of law and balance of power system. second, active sphere of public that including mass of people, political parties, powerful press but current reality in middle east indicate one of important democracy barricade , refer to their monarchy government model and autocratic. on this base middle east countries political systems are traditional and conservative and systems legitimacies refer to monarchy divine rights and tribal and religious roots. in this political structure, elections and political participation is slight and or not exist. authoritarianism is major feature of arabic states that political authority concentrated in minority group of politicians. in the other side with analysis of other democracy feature, see civil society as bed of non-governmental social common acts milieu interests, aims and common values in middle east countries are weak and fragile. democracy in level of a country require to exist of various institutions such as elected officials, openly elections, freedom of speech, various informing resources like that magazine, newspapers, books, mass communication instruments, efficient political parties but this process in middle east encounter challenges. reluctance and loss of necessity sense to alternative institutions, participation express, unofficial orient of mass organizing are major causes of slump of civil society organizations in middle east. actually citizenship concept that is entailing mutual rights and duties between peoples and sovereignty, not expanded in middle east. in spite of distinction between middle east countries politically but bans and transition to democracy is some same. components such as lack of political infrastructures, alien powers interference, lack of bearable of active groups in social arena, some currents and ethnics authority cause that encounter democracy with serious challenges in middle east and in situation lack of democracy effect two agent in those extend. first, refer to rentier state special political economy structure. oil dollars disposal an independent resource for arabia governments to use for retain and reproduce of their legitimacies. on this base raise arab state relative home independent and power from dependent of oil incomes influx of abroad. this kind of states not declination to extend of freedoms in their political system and try to satisfy people by offer services and economic activities rely to oil incomes and nor by democratic processes. until influx oil dollars to region countries rulers, this statets responsible only public demands that necessary for retention their power and situation. so until that rent manners and styles remain, cannot consider direct bond between rentierism and responsibility principal (nower and martin, 2004: 13-14). generally, rent is incomes that a government receive from certain abroad resource with underground resources sale and aids receipt by aliens. so all of incomes that not attain by creative produce and work is entitled rent (shekari, 2000: 31). rental income is award require by possession on natural sources that attain without effort and versus concepts like that wage and benefit. actually any country form of rent received main portion of incomes by foreign resources is rentier stare (mirtorabi, 2005: 113). seems, governments that relying to oil incomes as financial resources and having massive budget, enhance authority probability and versus governments that relying to tax and resources is little, enhance democracy probability. robert barrow famous economist in article entitled “ determinants of democracy” present a virtual variable for states that have two-thirds of incomes by oil incomes and too taking one percent of world oil export. he explain natural resources incomes like that oil, make less pressure for democracy building than incomes rising accumulation of human and physical capital. 2. rentier effect researchers definition rentier effect such that a state use from abundant disposal natural resources for extenuate social pressures that otherwise rising people demands for responsibility. at least exist three supplemental effect for making this phenomenon. 1. “taxation effect” here namely in circumstances that state having adequate income by oil sale, probably recieve less tax and or take not, instead will be slake public demand possible for government responsibility and rulers representative of people. 2. “sumptury effect” that wealth can be increase government costs for patron rising and instead slake potential pressures for democratization. 3. “classical shaping effect” include when oil incomes disposal adequately financial resources, government prevent forming of independent social groups by excluding spends. this groups after forming may demand political rights. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 3 published by ideas spread oil incomes enable rentier state repel democratic and liberalists with invest in suppress tools by reducing of taxes, resources providing for patron rising, preventing forming of independent social and political groups economically (askari, www.noormags.ir). 2.1 theoretic rudiments huntington ascribe cause of debility of richest oil states for “democratization” their relying to oil incomes and satiety of taxing incomes. according to rule, all of competitive regimes without taxation will not any responsibility (huntington, 1968: 65). too katoozian believe export-driven economy cause that needlessness of rulers from society and sue inadvertence to it leading to justice concept either side of rulers either people. absence of two main elements cause creation of transmogrification movements as like revolution. luciani indicate to rete of economic having and political trend and ordain between its. so fix oil income cause continuity of authority and despotism and government financial crisis is main agent of demand rising and democracy exigency. reduction of oil incomes can be anticipate democracy birth but governments not accede to people demands with reduction of oil incomes and try to retention of controlling and political blockage even less oil incomes (alireza soltani, alireza heshmatpoor, www.iaujournal.ir). effect of states financial resources special rental on political system structure and ruling quality in last decades had attend more itself. about consequences of state resources consider two contrary outlooks: first, rental financial resources have negative results on government political structure. theorists of this perspective believes abundance of financial resources have negative consequences to states political and social structures (moayedfar and colleague, 2011). mack koor believe issue of state incomes on ruling quality is one of the important subjects in financial sociology. he proceed in numerous researches to analysis effect of state rental incomes on structure or forming of state in ruling quality in developing countries. his research results indicated state financial resources have main effects on state model structure. he expressed ruling quality will be recover in developing countries although this countries dependent to domestic financial resources economically such as taxation (moor, 1998). in this framework more than mack moor other thinkers indicate in numerous comparative studies that variance of state financial resources in high grade explicative of dissident in ruling quality and state efficiency and their relation with citizens (hobson, 1997 & campbell, 1993). lam and wantchekon (1998 & 2000) on base of empirical data indicate that with increasing of natural sources portion in case study of exporting countries such as oil, reduction possible multiplicity of democracy in this countries and because of rules weakness is minimum participation of citizens in decision-making (wantchekon & lam, 1999). michel rice in 2001 and leonardo wantchekon in 2004 with concentration on rentier states features and functions try to attain to general analysis between oil incomes and open political atmosphere in export-driven countries from intra case studies (rice, 2001). freeman and colleague (2008) argued that first rule in political structure based on oil exporting and crude materials is that democracy process way in contrary to increasing of exporting of crude materials. importance of freeman theories is for that clarifying participation crisis, administrative inefficiency, and lack of political legitimacy in rental governments. he indicated rental incomes applying with intense solution of social and economic moribund, leading to inefficiency, lack of legitimacy and extend of legitimacy crisis (freeman & qunnin, 2008) (kabiri. jes.ui.ac.ir). 2.2 rentier state and features rent as economical term are incomes gain without any scholarly and manufacturing endeavor because economists became distinction between non-generative income sources –natural resourcesthat is more of third world incomes and with generative, exporting and taxing incomes. so rental incomes not paying for domestic economical produce activity. for example oil, gas, uranium, iron and e.tc incomes (azghandi, 2006: 39). according to luciani and beblawi definition, rental state have bellow features: any state gaining 42 percent or more of annual income from exporting of one or many crude material is rental state. according to rent have foreign source and not at all haven’t relevant with domestic produce processes. rental state not only having rent receive exclusive but also have authority of spending and so become to an institution of natural resources incomes distributor and or one of the main employer and investor institution (beblawi,1975: 50). luciani believe country that dependent to sale of ground resources as oil, it possible experiment factionalism and power struggle but away accede demand and willing in support of democracy (luciani,1995: 426). beblawi counting below conditions for rentier state: hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 4 published by ideas spread 1. rent should be supply from abroad and haven’t any relevant to production processes in domestic country economy. 2. in a rentier state engage few percent of manpower in rent production and so majority of people in society are rent receiver and distributor. 3. rentier state also is main receiver of foreign rent and too spend it (nasiri, 2001: 183). seem there are a profound relative between rental states and them non-democratic nature. in this case some theorists believe although may there aren’t direct relative between democracy and taxation but this is a reality that when states basically dependent to tax incomes, democracy willing will be inevitable. so such as rentier states can be responsible to society demands without dependent on internal resources, not seem democracy be a main matter and problem for them (shekari, 2000 : 23). 3. rentierism rentierism is behavior of rentier state manner. this special manner have two main features. first, rent is under control of ruler elites and second, ruler elites applying this rents for cooperate and society controlling to retain state in auspices of political stability (haji yousofi, p:153). most important manner of government applying for entice of variety groups and classes are: credits grant and special loans to groups of society, increasing of government costs in internal economy, parties formation and e.tc (shekari, 2000: 39). rentierism lead in attenuate of developmental social groups and instead provoke nondevelopmental social groups such as state protections groups that received most advantages and interests from rent, mass of civil populate that have interests from governmental cost increase on internal economy and rural populate that have least receive rate from rents (katoozian, 1995: 95). rent affections and sequences on government structure are: 1. enhancement of state independent from society: the nature of rentier state is as that society isn’t reliable because state in auspices of rent receive from abroad (oil or other any crude material) not necessity to other internal resources incomes (taxation, tolls, industrial wares exporting). 2. state needlessness of democracy making and impede in political development route in circumstances that state concentrate main power resources in hand and actually social groups haven’t necessary potential for challenge creation versus state, disrupt social supervision mechanism from society and responsibility from state (mirtorabi, 2005: 117). 3.1 rentier states institutional weaknesses in aiding to development some researchers of development issues has been followed answering this question that why oil-bearing countries despite access to huge capitals due oil exporting, disappointed in achievement to growth and sustainable development. in oil-bearing countries such as success eastasian countries, state perform vital role in delineates and execute of development program, although formation conditions and rising of its institutional capabilities in development has basically different with developmental states because of oil incomes influx. effective probably mechanism of oil incomes on institutional capabilities of oil exporting countries about development are: 1. weakness in making of efficient bureaucracies oil incomes and extend-over bureaucracies system oil incomes fluctuate and instability of decision-making system transcend of bureaucracies system distribution function, increase of corruption and deviation heightening in policy-making 2. weakness of rentier state coalition-making capability in development route weakness of rentier state connection with variety social groups oil rent seeking and attenuate of state bureaucracies impartiality and coherence (ipes.razi..ac.ir/article_183_0.html). 4. saudi arabia race and ethnic compound of population in saudi arabia is 75 percent arab, 15-20 percent turk, assyrian, armenia, turkmen, iranian (asadi, 2009: 235). exist of different tribes with religion like that wahhabis, hanbalite, maliki, shafiite, hanafite, imami shiite, ismaili and jafarite moreover of regional affiliation such as najdi, hijazi, tribe affiliation have imaginary subject national identity in saudi arabia. model of nation in saudi arabia had formation base of arab ethnical majority (from two races of semitic and hemitic), arabic language (other hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 5 published by ideas spread languages: english, ordu, indian, persian) and muslim religious majority (sunnite, wahhabis) and itself special culture (elahi, 2009: 143). state in saudi arabia not formed by colonial states but is reflex variety of geographical district that growth it. according to this reason even nationalism and capitalism cannot realize intends transforms. saudis dynasty stressed special kind of political organization in saudi arabia. in this country ruled coalition of tribal chief and religious leaders that is tribal chief authority surpass of itself tribal requirements for legitimate cooperation with major religious leaders. by special quality of formation not participate all of social groups in political system or strictly unequal. predominant feature on saudi arabia regarding to necessity of those nature is idea of politics based on limited connection. political activity exist but determined its quality and range by ruler elites are saudi dynasty family. so definition of legitimacy should be formation by this realities (dehshyar, 2006: 22). 4.1 structural obstacles of progress and development in saudi arabia this components are: 1. social situation (immigrant, separated tribes, tribe affiliation and e.tc) 2. lack of infrastructural facilities (electricity, water, road, school and hospital) 3. lack of adequate communications between arabia peninsular countries and transition underdevelopment 4. lack of bartering system or very limited between regional countries 5. lack of supplement of regional products (in industrial or agricultural) reason that has been lead those exporting and importing to out of region 6. tribal sovereignty and political dependents in side of this problems, saudi arabia encounter to other numerous problems in development route 1. market districts due underpopulation 2. decline of simple, skillful and expert workers 3. lack of achievement to technical knowledge 4. special geographical situation (water scarcity, hot and wet climate) that cause be diminish of choice right 5. dependent to importing (including consumption, capital goods and nutraceuticals) that vulnerable them. saudi arabia development strategy determined regarding to sum of internal and external agents and too regarding to limited market, limited labour , less of achievement to specialty and technical knowledge and geographical situation (elahi, 1989: 114-115). 4.2 saudi arabia governmental structure and formation of rentieral state saudi dynasty family as saudi arabia establishment, sovereignty to all of political and economical pillars. according to saudi arabia constitutional, king is supreme of political position and com to power among abdolaziz progeny. government cabinet members elect and appoint by king and merely responsible versus him and this officials usually are among saudi major personalities. too consultant assembly appointed by government and provinces rulers are between saudi princes. sovereignty in saudi arabia from 1923 has been in control of the saudi dynasty and arabia society and social groups had haven’t any role in political structure. in this country parties haven’t activity right and citizens not only haven’t participation right in political arenas but also some of groups and citizens such as womens, shiites has been deprive of themselves social main rights and ever discriminate by government (amini, 229: 164). generally main features of political system structure in saudi arabia are: authority and traditional oligarchic and patriarchy government, determinate of king and conservative sheikhs assembly and saudi dynasty, judicial system dependent, strict district to institutions and civil activists and new middle class, partiality-follower corrupted relations between government and tribes chiefs, traditional clericals and businessman, governmental key posts concession for saudi princess in provinces capital, saudi dynasty economic corruption, saudi dynasty embezzles to increaser oil incomes, governmental suppress, sever security-informational leverage in across of country and e.tc (sardarnia, 2010: 90). too, the nature of saudi arabia is rentier and with having oil incomes and needlessness to taxation from middle class, not responsible versus them. because of financially independent from middle class. in this wise coalition impossible between independent capital class and new middle class and sequence continue authority and irresponsibility. oil rent cause government irresponsibility such as lead government in independent position from society and political pressures (azghandi, 2006: 40-41). 4.3 patriarchal and authority political system hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 6 published by ideas spread arabia countries side of persian gulf have authoritarian and closet regimes and concentrated all of power instruments (political, economical, military, judicial,legally) in hand of rules including president, emir, sheikh and king (mohammadi, 1992: 78). political structure in saudi arabia, kuwait and some of little countries side of persian gulf is patriarchal dictatorship. primarily this states take their legitimacies based on religious and traditional rule but in oil industry modernization process their legitimacy has been dependent to profit of oil wealth for rising life standards. regnant often consulting to his family members about adopt of main decisions and despite of treasury department and budgeting and programming organizations, depositing incomes of resources ( special oil income) to ruler personal account. in major of arab countries power pyramid and advantages classified alike. this pyramid is top to bottom with below sequence: rule person (king, sultan, emir, sheikh) main rule dynasty members (ministers, commands and e.tc) other ministers and high grade officials citizens and nationals of countries ( commercials, governmental inferior cadres and e.tc) immigrants including arab, non-arab (emami, 2006: 80 , 121). in this countries are emirs (kuwait, bahrain, qatar), sheikhs (septet chiefs of the united emirate arabia), king (saudi arabia) and sultan (oman). they are symbol of an arabic country and chief of a tribe that have leading to other tribes with itself local and traditional clothes. in political history of edge of persian gulf arab countries, there aren’t charismatic personality in context of weber applying but always has been powerful groups and power elites ruling to people by bigot force and family, tribal, kinsman correlatives and special foreign communications and use sum of suppress and pressure tools on people and society (lyssee, 1995: 16). one of the major features of this societies that regarded by orientalists is patriarchal and tribal culture on people of this lands. tribal life tradition and adopt of sheikhs principal and charismatic tendencies that mid to magisterial is people of middle east subjective background. leaders of major of this countries having superior power than constitutional and haven’t responsibility versus of powers and tasks vis-àvis people and deputies (javedanimogaddam, 2006: 6). modernity that coincide including rational and revolution, deviated in arabic and islamic countries and merely reproduced and resurrect formally traditional patriarchy authority discourses and accordingly isn’t actual modern person and institution. actually social changes done superficially and undone deeply, basically and structural reforms in variety fields (sharabi, 2006: 10). 4.4 international system and democracy in saudi arabia middle east region that experimented numerous coups, riots and revolutions in last seven decades, covering conditions alike of other region countries that encounter to quintuple crises including identity, legitimacy, participation, distribution and penetration and yet have top of systemic stability rate. from 1932 as formed saudi arabia state whatever distinguish this country is continuity of saudi dynasty authority. importance of governmental stability retention as regarded that united states policy in middle east based on democratization and liberal model at a last decade in region. saudi arabia except of geographical importance by holy islamic places for muslims, geopolitically and geo-strategically is biggest of arabia country in persian gulf region and too is greatest oil producer in global level and provider of oil importing in rete of 50 percent daily needs of the united states of america. while this strategical relations extend every day with liberal capitalism polar that now saudi arabia is one of the numerable societies with having sever socio-political close monarchy system in the world. integration of saudi arabia with world economy and strategic system possibly by its role as a main oil producer. this country have flexibility of oil product case and can rising immediately its product near of two million barrels at day. oil formed base of united states and saudi arabia relations. saudies having a few independent in choose of foreign and economical policies. the background of saudi arabia indicate complex image. main role in formation of opec organization in 1960, united states oil sanction in 1973-74, control of aramco in 1970 decade and reject of camp david treaty in last of 1970 decade. saudi arabia leaders retain their independent remarkably with united states. so the saudi arabia integration with world economy and strategic system realize with asymmetric reciprocal relations. oil change saudies to a strategic capital for usa and aid to monarchy security warrantee against external threats. special features of oil increase of the saudi arabia pressure exert potential in internal and international levels and this country could applying this leverage for furthering of foreign policy aims (hineh bush and ehteshami, 2011: 353-354). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 7 published by ideas spread 5. conclusion rentier state regarding to features as natural endowment for political sovereignty for spend of rule political structure prefers and its intents at society. in third world countries that have more distant with democracy development by authoritarian political structure and interests is based on rule system retention and national interests is at inferior preference, rentier sources feasible to government without rely to domestic products and taxation on citizens manage state. this act lead to diminish of citizens pressures for democracy demand. in the early years of the kingdom, the royal elite had a symbiotic financial relationship with merchants, relying on them to provide money and goods in exchange for broader freedoms and new opportunities in their business activities as well as other concessions or privileges. saudi arabia was, it can be argued, rentier long before oil wealth began flowing, given the reliance of the ruling family on rents from trade and pilgrimage, and the fact that such income allowed rulers to impose far less taxation on the population than otherwise would have been the case. saudi arabia is a rentier state (oil exporting driven) and have patriarchal political system that providing near of 50 percent of united states needs. more than is flexibility about oil exporting and could rise oil product rate of two million barrels in day and has been direct effect in world economy. this trait is distinguish of saudi arabia with other rentier state and caused world powers supporting of monarchy system in this government for geoeconomical preferences and selves economical interests and ignore political underdevelopment and democracy violate. saudi arabia by rental incomes presence in international organizations and with financial contributions reserve their supports for retain of its political structure. in the other side rent resources is so much more that government can provide financial and economical citizens needs and too contenting tribe chiefs, other citizens and other society classes by rent distribution between governmental elements and consequently controlling democratization process in society. so could be claim that saudi arabia having free political economy and against close society. references books: amini, k. (2009). effect of nation-state building process on political stability and saudi arabia foreign policy, defense policies quarterlies, number of 68. azghandi, a. (2006). introduction on political sociology in iran, tehran: ghomes press. barteran, b. (2008). political development, translated by ahmad naghibzadeh, fifth edition, ghomes press. dehshyar, h. (2006). triangular of government retention in saudi arabia; united states of america, religion and oil, middle east studies quarterlies, number of 4. elahi, h. (1989). the persian gulf (and its problems), tehran: gomes press. elahi, h. (2009). the persian gulf (and its problems), tehran: third edition, ghomes press. haji, y. a. (1998). rentier state: a contceptual analysis, politico-economical information, number of 125-126. haji, y. a. (1998). state or society relative independent in islamic republic of iran, strategic studies, number of 2. hanna, b. (1978). the old social classes and the revolutionary movements of iraq: a study of iraq’s old landed and commercial classes and of its communists, ba’thists, and free officers (princeton: princeton university press, 1978). hineau, b. r., & ehteshami, a. (2011). foreign policy of middle east countries, translated by rahman and massah ghahramanpoor, tehran: imam sadeq university press. huntington, s. (1991). political order in changing societies, translated by mohsen salasi, tehran: science press. javdanimaghaddam, m. (2006). national trust newspaper, number of 88, page of 6. katouzian, h. (1995). political economy of oil exporter countries, translated by alireza tayyeb, politicoeconomical information, number of 95-96. lee, n., & martin, j. (2004). new face of security in middle east, translated by ghadir nasiri, tehran: strategic study think tank. lysee, r. (1995). sultans territory, translated by firouzeh khalatbari, tehran: first volume. madawi, a. r. (2010). a history of saudi arabia, (cambridge: cambridge university press, 2010). mirtorabi, s. (2005). iran oil issues, tehran: ghomes press. mohammad, e. a. (2006). internal effective agents in middle east, tehran: international and political studies bureau. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 8 published by ideas spread mohammadi, y. (1992). analysis of integration dimension in persian gulf region, sabbah press, number of 2. nasiri, g. (2001), oil and national security of islamic republic of iran, tehran: strategic study think tank. rodney, w. (2006). saudi arabia’s role in the global economy, in globalization and the (persian) gulf, (london: routledge, 2006). sardernia, khalil-ollah (2010). new middle class and saudi arabia political challenges, middle east studies quarterlies, number of 3. sharabi, h. (2006). new patriarchy, translated by ahmad movasseghi, tehran, kavir press. shekari, a. (2000). rentier state theories and iran islamic revolution, tehran: islamic revolution document center. website oil incomes management structure in norway and transition from rentier state. retrieved from http://www.iaujournals.ir/article-525719-0.html comparative-phase analysis of state financial resources relation and ruler quality (interstate study. writer: afshar kabiri. http://jas.ui.ac.ir/article-21014.html http://yousefi-mr.blogfa.com/post/99 http://www.aftabir.com/articles/view/economy effect of oil incomes on rentier state and democracy making. writer: mohsen askari. retrieved from http://www.noormags.ir/view/fa/articlepage/1060840 http://ipes.razi..ac.ir/article_183_0.html copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v2n2p28 28 published by ideas spread deficit of women’s human right in papua province:a conceptual framework marlina flassy1 1 phd, liptek-papua and fisip-unce, indonesia correspondence: marlina flassy, liptek-papua and fisip-unce, indonesia. e-mail: flassylina yahoo.co.id, flassymarlina gmail.com received: may 19, 2019; accepted: june 6, 2019; published: june 22, 2019 abstract the title of this article “deficit of women’s human right in papua province: a conceptual framework”, is dealing with mapping of criminal trafficking in persons (tppo), domestic violence (kdrt) and women employment (tkw) in papua province. it is carried the efforts to protect the human rights. for this study in particular, is aimed at women (and children) in the papua province in specific. mapping is allocated in 4 sample areas, namely jayapura city, nabire regency, mimika regency and boven digoel regency. the study was conducted by a research team initiated by the papua institute for science and technology/liptek-papua in frame work of cooperation and sponsorship of the ri-ministry of women's empowerment and children’s protection. the author in this connection was appointed by liptek-papua as team leader. the full report is copyright of liptek-papua, so for this publication it is at the knowledge of liptek-papua for the submission of an immediate dissemination of direct information. considering that, in papua province from the location of the cities and regencies which taken as a sample it is very necessary for more action taken, namely in addition to more intervention from the government where global concerns are also raised because besides tppo, kdrt and tkw, these also in line with hiv/aid, narcotics, alcohol and their kinds. these are also defects and extinction of generations. in this study revealed, apparently tppo, kdrt and tkw in papua province which is reached the highest level of significance. in addition to field data, for completeness, in this article the author also uses library’s data including existing empirical data. furthering to the researchers, it is worth to mention of jayapura city: (1), dr.jane ansanay, (2) christine sanggenafa, and (3) andreas mayabubun; of nabire regency: (1) yudith karethji , (2) nova karet and (3) yunus sarwa; of mimika regency: (1)oliva angela flassy (2) martha yagaluwo and (3) bernard inaury and of boven digoel regency: (1) dr. beatus tambaib, (2) elias thesia and (3) edison flassy. on behalf of the management of liptek-papua and of the author self, i submit thank you very much for all their good cooperation and efforts. keywords: human rights, tppo, kdrt and tkw, aware of society and of generation executive summary the act of appreciation for human rights (ham) is an interesting discourse among academics, practitioners and social activists in indonesia, especially after the enactment of ri-law no. 39 of 1999 concerning human rights. the collapse of the new order authoritarian government became the basis for the wider community to make respect for human rights one of the principles in the implementation of social life and also of state life and humanity life in wider. this fact makes sense, considering violations of human rights are considered the main cause of the crisis caused by the new order. following the enactment of ri-law no. 39 of 1999 concerning human rights, also applies ri-law no. 23 of 2004 concerning the elimination of domestic violence, and ri-law no. 21 of 2007 concerning eradication of crime in trafficking in persons. all of these laws strengthen the presence of women in social life and state life and humanity in wider scene. women cannot be considered as second class citizens who can be treated as commodities or supplementary sufferers. the dominance of men towards women which has been a practice in social and state life has vanished. especially in papua province, the collapse of male domination of women has increasingly found its shape thanks to article 47 of ri-law no.21 of 2001 concerning special autonomy for the papua province which reads "to hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 29 published by ideas spread uphold the human rights of women, the provincial government is obliged to foster, protect rights and empowering women with dignity and making all efforts to position them as equal partners of men". this article is in line with the process of respecting human rights desired by civil society or the wider community. the existence of all the regulations above certainly adds strength and encouragement for women to reform themselves to be equal to men. therefore, it is not surprising that in recent years women have emerged as leaders of private institutions, government institutions, well-known business women, famous academics, and so on. a female political figure even became president of the republic of indonesia, megawati soekarnoputri. in addition, a number of women leaders also became ministers of women's empowerment and child protection, such as prof. meutia hatta and prof. yohana yembise. even so, academics, social activists, students, and other components of society do not fall asleep with this reality. they still need to criticize the practice of respecting women's human rights that have been going on so far. isn't the concentration of political, economic and administrative power centred on men? for this reason, field research is needed on the practice of respecting women's human rights. the papua institute for science and technology/liptek-papua is one of the independent institutions in papua that tries to examine the practice of respecting the human rights of women in the papua province. in view of liptek-papua, it is not easy for the government of papua province to oversee the practice of criminal trafficking in persons (tppo). this, at least can be seen from two sides, first the factors that influence the practice of tppo, namely (i) social factors, (ii) economic factors, (iii) ideological factors, and (iv) geopolitical factors. second is, government services that cannot reach all levels of society. at this point liptek-papua actually wanted to help the papua provincial government to map the practice of tppo through a study. through the results of this research, it is expected that the papua provincial government will have a sense of the practice of tppo in papua province and develop alternative policies to reduce it, or even eliminate it. the question that arises later, is, what about the practice of domestic violence (kdrt) and practice of women employment (tkw) in the papua province? it is not easy to answer this question correctly without research. then liptek-papua also examines the practice of domestic violence and women employment in the papua province. this research was conducted simultaneously with research on the practice of tppo in the papua province. the research of the 3 topics was taken place in the same one city and three regencies in the papua province, namely: jayapura city, nabire regency, mimika regency, and boven digoel regency. the results showed that tppo, kdrt and tkw practices often occur in the four research areas mentioned above. the study found that the practice stems from the desire of women outside papua who want to find a better life in papua province. however, they are not sceptical of the false promises given by brokers. they just believe in new hopes about a better life and greater income. finally they were fooled. if this is the case, they can no longer escape the bondage of the broker. this finding is certainly interesting to note by the office of women's empowerment and child protection in the four research areas. although the problem concerns criminal matters, the agency accompanies the victim and advocates for the authorities to bring the perpetrators to justice. however, the reality shows that almost no tppo actors in the papua province can be brought to justice. as a result, the perpetrators did not get a deterrent effect. instead, they are even more rampant in carrying out their activities. the fact also shows that victims, even if they feel cheated, tend to accept the fact that they are victims of tppo. they are not persistent demanding that the perpetrators get legal sanctions. the victims did not even understand that the perpetrators had violated their human rights. seen from here, awareness about women's human rights does need to be improved. they must read, at least, rilaw no. 39 of 1999 concerning human rights. they must be given reinforcement about the need to protect their human rights. this seems to include the duties of the women's empowerment service and child protection in the four research areas. findings about victims of kdrt are consistent with the findings of tppo victims and tkw practice. women who are victims of kdrt are not aware that they have human rights that must be maintained. they tend to accept the treatment of their husbands. even though they are suffer physically and psychologically. almost no one complained about their fate to security parties, for example the police. not infrequently they even accept the treatment of their husbands in order to defend theirs household. judging from this situation, it feels the importance of women's awareness in papua about human rights. armed with this awareness they can sue those who deceived them in tppo and tkw. they can also position themselves hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 30 published by ideas spread as equal to men. they can really be partners with their husbands, according to the culture of marriage they adhere to. strictly speaking, men, as their husbands, will think twice before committing violence against them. seeing the reality above, it can be concluded that efforts to stage tppo and minimize kdrt and handling tkw and psk in the papua provinces cannot be separated from increasing the existence of women about their human rights. for that, a long struggle is still needed. the office of women's empowerment and child protection in all four research areas can accelerate the process. limited resources and professional personnel should not be an obstacle to doing so. are there not many women activists who can be invited to work together to jointly struggle to stage tppo and minimize kdrt and ordering tkw, and psk in the papua provinces? 1. introduction as a legal state, indonesia must be very concerned about human rights (ham). indonesia must make human rights one of the important agendas and become the main pillar in regulating and managing all the life systems of every citizen in the nation. as a result, ri-law no. 39 of 1999 concerning human rights must be a functioning basis for regulating the protection of the rights of all citizens without exception. protection of these rights, including the prevention and eradication of the problem of trafficking in persons (tppo) as stipulated in ri-law no. 21 of 2007, then the problem of domestic violence (kdrt) as mandated by ri-law no. 23 of 2004, as well as handling labour issues, especially "women" (tkw) as stipulated in ri-law no. 13 of 2003. the implicit message from a number of regulations mandates that cases of tppo, kdrt and tkw issues that have occurred are forms of crimes against humanity that must be eradicated comprehensively, both through social, political, economic and legal policies, so that perpetrators must be dealt with decisively because they do not in accordance with human rights. all the regulations above prove the government's seriousness in making efforts to prevent and deal with tppo, kdrt and tkw issues. prevention efforts cover regional and national levels. look at each year a variety of strategic activities and budgeting programs are held which are directed at overcoming these three issues across sectors, for example by the establishment of a task force on trafficking in persons (gt-tppo), as mandated in ripresidential regulation no. 69 of 2008. the technical implementation is then regulated in the regulation of the coordinating minister for human development and culture no. 2 of 2016 concerning the national action plan for eradicating the criminal act of trafficking in persons for 2015-2019. unfortunately, the various policy frameworks and concerns of the government in reality have not had a significant impact to reduce the number of tppos, kdrt and tkw abuses. then the question arises, why is that? what's wrong so far? is it lack of socialization or is it due to other factors? then how is the best solution and treatment needed? here are a number of reflexive questions that were the subject of a joint discussion. if look at the data nationally, for example the annual report of the indonesian national commission on violence against women, it turns out there are 259,150 cases of violence against women reported and handled during 2016 (komnas perempuan, 2016). in addition, from several data shows that indonesia is considered to be the main source of trafficking in women, children and men, both as sex slaves and victims of forced labour. this was, since 2013 there have been around six million indonesians being migrant workers abroad, including 2.6 million workers in malaysia and 1.8 million in the middle east. of the total migrant workers, 4.3 million are officially documented and 1.7 million are classified as undocumented workers, that were about 69 percent of indonesian migrant workers are women. the state ministry of women's empowerment estimates that 20 percent of indonesian workers (tki) who work abroad are victims of human trafficking. at present there are an estimated 6.5 million to 9 million migrant workers working abroad. as basing on data from the international migration organization (iom), 70 percent of the mode of human trafficking in indonesia originated from sending illegal migrant workers abroad. in the period 2010 to 2012, iom noted that 1,180 victims had been sent home and accompanied. unicef estimated that there were around 100,000 women and children in indonesia are trafficked annually for commercial sexual exploitation in indonesia and abroad. there are 30 percent of female prostitutes in indonesia who are under the age of 18 years, and 40,000-70,000 indonesian children are victims of the exploitation agency (toule dan adam, 2013). in contrast, in the papuan context, tppo data is also quite high. in 2017 there were 60 victims who generally entered papua as their destination. the area of origin of tppo is manado, makassar, bandung, jakarta and several other regions in indonesia. most tppos are employed at night entertainment venues, such as karaoke bars, cafes and massage places in several papuan cities. for data on kdrt or domestic violence problems, as reported by kabarpapua.co, citing data from lbh apik papua, during 2016, there were 90 cases of kdrt. of the total cases, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 31 published by ideas spread about 80 percent of them were triggered by perpetrators influenced by liquor or alcoholic beverages. while in west papua province as reported by the p3kb service as of may 29, 2018, there were 65 cases of kdrt in manokwari. the conditions of violence and trafficking in persons (human trafficking) and domestic violence have a significant impact on the increasingly widening development achievements between men and women as seen in the indonesian gender development index (gpa) at 92.74. this figure, despite being above the world average, still shows that the accelerated development for indonesian women is still slower than the development of men. meanwhile, for the human development index (hdi), indonesia is at the middle level with an achievement of 68.38. this index, if compared to the ratio of the gender empowerment index (idg), is still low, 92.6 or below the world average of 93.8. this figure illustrates the achievement of gender equality is good. however, the achievement of human development both men and women are equally low (kpppa, 2017) (note 1). looking at the provincial human development index (hdi) data in indonesia in 2016, it turns out that the papua province occupies the lowest position or only 58.05. this index is under west papua province with an index of 62.21. the level of life expectancy and the quality of women's human resources in the papua province occupies the lowest position or only at 79.09, also below the life expectancy and quality of human resources in west papua province at 82.34. then the data on the gender empowerment index (idg) of papua province occupies position 24 with achievements of 64.73 or above several provinces such as west sumatra, west kalimantan, bali, north kalimantan, jambi, lampung, west nusa tenggara, east kalimantan, kep. bangka belitung and west papua. (kpppa, 2016). it is not surprising that many parties say that development issues with a gender perspective, gender equality and justice still face obstacles in papua. 2. methodology this research was only carried out in the papua province spread over 5 cultural regions. namely, from 1 city and 28 districts in papua province, only 4 districts were determined to have a very high level of vulnerability related to cases of trafficking in persons (tppo), domestic violence (kdrt) and women employment (tkw). the four locations in question are jayapura city, nabire regency, mimika regency and boven digoel regency. the types and sources of data to be collected for this study consist of primary and secondary data. the primary data is a description of the real conditions of papuan women in relation to tppo, kdrt and tkw as well as obstacles and constraints faced, which originate from the community, perpetrators, victims, local government, legislature, police, religious and customary institutions, businesses, community institutions, media, practitioners and the wider community through in-depth interviews, observations, case studies, group discussions and questionnaires. secondary data came from local government, police, religious figures and customary documents, community institutions, the business world and the media relating to policies, program activities, handling, budgeting and settlement of cases. the technique of data collection is reached through (1) in-depth and structured interviews about the real conditions of tppo, kdrt and tkw with snowball sampling techniques for residents, religious figures, customary figures, community figures, youth leaders, female leaders, perpetrators, victims who have competencies, and local government , community institutions, business world, mass organizations and the police. (2). group discussion activities with the focus group discussion (fgd) technique were carried out to capture data about views, aspirations and alternative solutions. discussion activities carried out at the location of all stakeholders. (3). use of questionnaire techniques to reach data on the number, form and type of tppo, kdrt and tkw using quota sampling, which is samples taken are based on a certain number of samples. (4). library study activities namely by gathering various information through data on documents, reports, books, texts, and papers from parties at the regional and central levels in addition to conducting content analysis, but comparison material when the team is in the field and at the time of writing report; (5) participation observation activities, namely by conducting direct observations to the field to see, hear, understand and objectively record all activities and mobility associated with tppo, kdrt and tkw; (6) ethno-audio visual, namely the collection of ethnographic data relating to the focus of the study using tape recorder, camera, handy cam etc. (7) case study activities, data collection by carrying out case-by-case deepening relating to tppo, kdrt and tkw intervened through perpetrators, victims, relatives, local government, police, the wider community, traditional institutions, etc. 2.1 mapping of victims or actors? the concept of respect for human rights is often used by various parties to explain gender perspective development. this concept has been widely used in public discourse in papua since 2001, following the enactment of ri-law hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 32 published by ideas spread no. 21 of 2001 concerning special autonomy for the papua province. this is understandable because article 47 of the law indeed mandates that the government of papua province take gender equality and justice issues seriously. look at the article carefully: to uphold human rights for women, the provincial government is obliged to foster, protect rights and empower women in dignity and make every effort to position them as equal partners for men. this quote shows that the provincial government in papua is obliged to foster, protect and empower women in dignity. the question is, what for? the answer is very strict, so that, the position of women is equal to men. after the implementation of ri-law no. 21 of 2001 concerning special autonomy for the papua province running for more seventeen years, of course the question arises whether the provincial government in papua has succeeded in carrying out the mandate of article 47 of the law? this question makes sense considering that seventeen years is not a short time. there should have been a lot of work done by the provincial government in papua to implement the law. it is because not too excessive if liptek-papua tries to examine the implementation of the law. efforts to prevent and handle tppo, kdrt and tkw problems in the context of the development of a certain perspective must pay attention to and consider the existing conditions of the socio-cultural, economic and environmental population between the regions of indonesia which are very diverse. it is natural that a specific strategy and pattern of approach is needed to bridge each of these points of gap. except that, the paradigm of the approach is in desperate need of special formulas. all of these formulas are not only at the level of policy and regulation, but also at the level of the approach model and implementation of affirmative programs in the context of prevention and handling of tppo, kdrt and tkw problems. referring to the fact above, this study, in a descriptive manner, will portray the problems, modes, causes, forms, objectives and impacts as well as the form of intervention that the government has carried out on tppo, kdrt and tkw issues in papua provinces. this study took samples in jayapura city, mimika regency, nabire regency, and boven digoel regency. the study was conducted by the liptek-papua, which has gained the trust of the ministry of women's empowerment and child protection (kpp-pa) of the republic of indonesia. the results of this study have strategic value and long-term benefits. in addition to being able to map and reveal the roots of tppo, kdrt and tkw issues that have become a common problem, this can also carry out early detection and initial steps to carry out appropriate prevention and handling of eradication of tppo. moreover, this could reduce the tppo rate and the number of kdrt and tkw in the papua province. the low level of victims of tppo, kdrt and tkw who report their fate to the police is one reason why the practice of tppo, kdrt and tkw is still prevalent in the papua province. in general, law enforcement regarding tppo, kdrt and tkw is still a rare item in the papua province. as a result, it is difficult for research or women activists to be able to map actors, especially in terms of tppo practices. most tppo cases were "resolved" secretly by the perpetrators and victims. in the settlement, the perpetrator usually threatens the victim not to open their mouths. the existence of perpetrators of kdrt is indeed easily identified. however, as is the case with the tppo and the tkw practice, the solution is not brought to the legal domain, but secretly between the perpetrators and the victims. as a result, the settlement did not bring a deterrent effect to the perpetrators. at this point, mapping of the perpetrators and victims of tppo, kdrt and tkw is actually needed. 2.2 concept of tppo it is in indonesia tindak pidana perdagangan orang (tppo) translated from crime of trafficking in persons in accordance with article 2 paragraph (1) of law no. 21 of 2007 concerning eradication of criminal acts on trafficking in persons (tppo), namely; "everyone who recruits, transports, accommodates, transfers or accepts someone with the threat of violence, use of violence, abduction, confinement, forgery, fraud, abuse of power or vulnerable position, debt collector or payment or benefits despite the approval of a person who has control over another person for the purpose of exploiting that person in the territory of the unitary state of the republic of indonesia". from the formulation of the law, there are three basic elements in tppo, namely; (a) everyone who does; recruitment, delivery, surrender of people; (b) by using; violence or threats of violence, fraud, kidnapping, confinement, abuse of power, utilization of positions of vulnerability, or debt bondage; (c) for purpose; exploit or act that can be exploited by the person. to find out the map and the process of the occurrence of trafficking of women and children is usually done through deception to attract the interest of their victims. the minimal economic condition is the target of the syndicate of hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 33 published by ideas spread women trafficking that has been organized and planned to recruit, even far from the reach of the law because the syndicate starts from debt accounts between suppliers of illegal labourers and victims who live below the poverty line(note 2). cameron and newman (note 3)(2008: 3) describe the existing structures in society related to the trafficking of women and girls very close to economic, social, ideological and geopolitical aspects in the following picture chart: figure 1. community structure related to trafficking of women and children cameron and newman, 2008 the scheme of the thinking framework in figure 1 above is the rationale for explaining the process of structural victimization in this study. the figure sees a variety of structural factors in society that contribute to the occurrence of human trafficking crimes, namely economic factors consisting of globalization, poverty, declining economic levels, and migration movements. then are social factors, namely the existence of social inequality, gender based discrimination, discrimination based on age and gender status. next are ideological factors such as racism, gender, and cultural stereotypes. forms of patriarchies in society are also one example of ideological factors. the last are geopolitical factors. an understanding of geopolitical factors is war, violent conflict, and military operations. geopolitical factors can be found in countries that are experiencing conflict. these structural factors will create vulnerability or vulnerability for women and children to become victims of trafficking. 2.3 concept of kdrt it is in indonesia “kekerasan dalam rumah tangga (kdrt)” translated from domestic violence. this is any act against a person, especially a woman, which results in physical, sexual, psychological misery or suffering, and / or neglect of the household including threats to carry out acts, coercion or deprivation of liberty against the law within the scope of household. kdrt is a situation that often occurs within the family sphere. the intended family scope includes: (a) husband, wife and child; (b) people who have a family relationship with the person referred to in number one because of blood relations, marriage, dairy, caring, and guardianship, who live in the household; and / or; (c) people who work to help the household and settle in the household. meanwhile, the form of kdrt and thus of tkw that often occurs in the household sphere is: a. physical violence: physical violence is an act that results in pain, illness, or serious injury. b. psychic violence: psychological violence is an act that results in fear, loss of self-confidence, loss of ability to act, feeling helpless, and / or severe psychological suffering to someone. c. sexual violence: sexual violence is any act in the form of forced sexual relations, forced sexual relations in an unnatural manner and / or dislikes, forcing sexual relations with other people for certain commercial purposes and / or purposes. d. household neglect: household neglect includes two actions, namely: (1) a person who has a legal obligation or because an agreement or agreement gives life, care, or maintenance to that person within the household but does not carry out the obligation. (2) everyone who causes economic dependence by limiting and / or prohibiting proper work inside and outside the household so that the victim is under the control of that person. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 34 published by ideas spread 2.4 setting of research location a. research location of tppo the location setting for tppo where also tkw taken place, a research is the selection, determining of locations or points that will be the main target locus of the research indicated or suspected to be criminal practices of trafficking in persons. while tppo or criminal acts for trafficking in persons, in the ri-law number 21 of 2007 concerning eradication of crime in trafficking in persons, in the general provisions are mentioned that: trafficking in persons is the act of recruiting, transporting, sheltering, sending, transferring or receiving someone with the threat of violence, use of violence, abduction, confinement, forgery, fraud, abuse of power or vulnerable positions, debt bondage or providing payments or benefits, thus obtaining consent from people who hold control over other people, whether done in the country or between countries for the purpose of exploitation or causing people to be exploited. it is also to be considered that the most of tkw with a very wide range can switch professions into pekerja seks komersial/psk whis sex commercial workers. 2.4.1 research sites in jayapura city a. dok sembilan kali, jayapura north (1.1) merlyn. interviews were conducted with respondents, merlyn (19 years) on november 20, 2018. based on the interview, the following inputs were obtained: (1.) in the beginning of the respondent doing sex acts was introduced by a friend. at that time, she was 16 years old. respondents responded by accepting the offer, because the family's economic background was quite alarming. after the first incident, the respondent was contacted again and again. (2.) however, as time goes on the respondent finally becomes independent can be contacted directly by the party who wants to be accompanied. (3.) so far, merlyn has been with about 3 adult men and 2 age-old friends. (4.) respondents sometimes have to fulfil treaty requests from friends for fear of being referred to their parents or family. (5.) there has been no harsh treatment from customers so far. (6.) her deceit was a lot from her friends who also did the same thing she did. based on the input or results of the interview above, elaboration of the case can be carried out as follows; merlyn is included in the tppo and thus tkw victim because it fulfils the elements mentioned in the general provisions for eradicating the crime of trafficking in persons, namely, (1.) "recruitment", this is similar with recognition from the victim that she was "introduced at the age of 16" (2.) "vulnerable position", meaning when recruited introduced by the victim in a weak position to refuse, this is in line with the victim's recognition, that when she was introduced, she was still a 16-year-old teenager. (3.) "giving economic benefits or benefits" (additional bold prints of researchers), this can be explained as a rare tactical tool used by actors to express ideas when recruiting victims as if they were helping victims get out of pressure or difficulty forcing victims to think that they were not harmed. (4.) "for the purpose of exploiting or causing people to be exploited" b. argapura bawah, jayapura south (1.2) rani. the interview was conducted with the respondent, rani (21 years) a psk/tkw on 21 november 2018. personal data, the respondents were from makassar and had no family. she had gone off to papua (jayapura) when she was 18 years old, approximately 3 years ago. education was completed by junior high school and claimed to have been involved in protection since the age of 16 years. based on interviews, the following input was obtained: (1.) i heard information from friends regarding job vacancies in jayapura, then came to jayapura with the boss paying, arrived in jayapura and immediately received a ktp (inhabitant id card) and yellow card (labour achievement card). (2.) when i was in makassar i already knew that in jayapura i can worked as a prostitute, but was reluctant to inform my family. there was fear at the beginning of coming to jayapura, because of the large body posture of men in papua. (3.) i sign the work contract for the first 3 months, and after that it continues to this day and is placed in the mess. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 35 published by ideas spread (4.) during the first year contract, there must be no communication with other people besides the boss's instructions and communication with the family is also limited in the first year. (5.) sundays are holidays, other than sundays if the respondent is getting an obstacle so he does not serve the customer. but according to acknowledgment, sometimes customers who have become subscribers "force" to continue to be served. based on the input or results of the interview above, elaboration of the case can be carried out as follows; rani is included in the tppo victim because it fulfils the elements mentioned in the general provisions for eradicating the trafficking in persons, namely, recruitment, (1.) "transportation, shelter, shipping, transfer or acceptance," (2.) "for the purpose of exploitation or exploiting people”. rani than also fulfil as tkw and psk. c. entrop dalam (traditional spa) (1.3) reza. interviews were conducted with respondents, reza (24 years) on november 24, 2018. personal data, widow respondents with one child, came from tangerang. based on the interview, the input is as follows: (1) knowing job vacancies from friends, taking 2 weeks training in jakarta and going to papua using their own money, arriving in jayapura, immediately picked up by her brother's boss. (2) when she arrived in jayapura, she was immediately given a ktp and a yellow card and placed at a mess. (3) reasons for migrating due to family economic needs and the lure of large income. (4) in addition to serving massage, also usually accompanying in karaoke based on the input or results of the interview above, elaboration of the case can be carried out as follows; reza is included in the tppo victim because she fulfils the elements mentioned in the general provisions for eradicating the trafficking in persons, namely, recruitment, (1) "transportation, shelter, shipping, transfer or acceptance," (2) "for the purpose of exploitation or exploitation". d. kakikumassage parlours (1.4)ayu. the interview was conducted with respondents, ayu (23 years) on november 15, 2018. personal data, widow respondents with one child, came from tangerang. based on the interview, the following inputs were obtained: after graduating from high school she got a call from one of her friends who had already migrated to papua first. through this communication, her friend told her about work and working in papua because in papua she got a salary and a big tip through her work. the lure to get big income and the victim's own desire to find new experiences, made ayu decide to leave lampung, migrate to jayapura. the victim requested her blessing and permission from the parents to migrate, which was initially opposed because of the distance from lampung to papua. but the victim tried to convince her parents to finally get permission. the victim and 9 of her friends left for papua with the guarantee of all living equipment, starting with tickets and food and drink and travel money prepared by the kakiku travel agency. made in the form, a pre-employment contract signature, in lampung. in the contract signed by the victim, the victim claimed to have been deceived by the kakiku travel agency because after arriving in papua, the victim was told that travel money and food and drink costs carried out from lampung to papua had to be replaced. arriving in papua the victim was accommodated with her friends at a special boarding house. ayu claimed to work under pressure to pay off debts. based on the input or results of the interview above, elaboration of the case can be carried out as follows; ayu is included in the tppo victim because it fulfils the elements mentioned in the general provisions for the eradication of trafficking in persons, namely, recruitment, (1.) "transportation, shelter, shipping, transfer or acceptance," (2.) "for the purpose of exploitation or exploiting people” e. taman bar kafe hollywood, entrop dalam (1.5) indah wati. interviews were conducted with respondents, indah wati psk (25 years) on november 26, 2018. personal data, respondents came from tanjung priok, jakarta, widowed with three children, coming to papua (claiming), to be involved in prostitution since arriving. based on the interview, the following input was obtained: (1.) heard information from friends regarding job openings in jayapura, then came to jayapura with the boss paying, arrived in jayapura and immediately received a ktp and yellow card. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 36 published by ideas spread (2.) when i was in jakarta i was lured by working at a large bar and income earning place. (3.) accommodated in the mess and feel deceived because we have to change all the costs of the trip. (4.) forced to prostitute because the income at the bar and karaoke is not as promised. based on the input or results of the interview above, elaboration of the case can be carried out as follows; inda wati is included in the tppo victims because she fulfils the elements mentioned in the general provisions for eradicating the crime of trafficking in persons namely, (1.) "recruitment, transportation, shelter, shipping, transfer" (2.) "debt entrapment" and (3.) "for the purpose of exploitation or to cause people to be exploited ". f. bar café hollywood (1.6) naiya. interviews were conducted with respondents, naiya psk (24 years) on november 28, 2018. personal data, respondents came from tanjung priok, jakarta, widowed with three children. come to papua, claiming to be involved in prostitution since arriving in papua. based on the interview, the following input was obtained: (1.) heard information from friends regarding job vacancies in jayapura, then came to jayapura with the boss paying, arrived in jayapura and immediately received a ktp and yellow card. (2.) while still in jakarta, it was told that making money in papua was not difficult, then came with 4 of her friends. (3.) when i was in jakarta, i was lured by working at a large bar and income earning place. (4.) feel cheated because they have to pay off the debt on their journey. (5.) feeling cheated because the employment contract decimates her. forced to prostitute to pay debts and to live everyday. based on the input or results of the interview above, elaboration of the case can be carried out as follows; naiya is included in the tppo victims because she fulfils the elements mentioned in the general provisions for eradicating the crime of trafficking in persons namely, (1.) "recruitment, transportation, shelter, shipping, transfer" (2.) "debt entrapment" and (3.) "for the purpose of exploitation or to cause people to be exploited " 2.4.2 overview of tppo, tkw and psk conditions in jayapura city a. problem tppo or known as human trafficking is a product of crimes against human rights, especially women and children. basically, the problem of people's trade is indeed difficult to predict, not only because the structure is complicated but because of its veiled nature. research in jayapura cityshows that tppo is present in the form of; fraud and exploitation of women employed in places of covert prostitution or prostitution under the guise of entertainment venues karaoke and bars and illegal prostitution, whose transactions openly occur in public places, such as imbi park and entrop terminal. there are three main elements of trafficking in the city of jayapura which lead to covert prostitution, namely: 1. moving people, both within and outside the regional boundaries (including recruitment, transportation, shelter, shipping, transfer or reception) 2. ways to violate the law (including threats, use of violence, kidnapping, confinement, forgery, fraud, abuse of power or vulnerable positions, debt bondage or providing payments or benefits so as to obtain approval from the person in control of the other person). 3. the purpose is exploitation or causing people to be exploited. b. mode generally victims claim to be persuaded by seduction to get high income. c. form the form of tppo found in jayapura city is covert prostitution or prostitution under the guise of entertainment venues karaoke and bars and wild prostitution that occur in public places, such as behind the entrop terminal and imbi park. d. causes and impacts the chaotic household economy and shocks in ladder life such as infidelity which leads to divorce and economic neglect are the main triggers. in addition, the lack of human resources and a lack of awareness among the community, especially regarding the rights of women and children, helped push or drag youth into the wild hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 37 published by ideas spread prostitution circle, such as behind the entrop terminal. another contributing factor that should not be considered unrelenting is the intention or desire to earn large income instantly. while the impact of covert prostitution or prostitution under the guise of entertainment karaoke and wild prostitution that has developed in the city of jayapura is the increase in hiv rates in jayapura city which is listed as one of the highest in indonesia and dragged young people or teenagers into the industrial circle prostitution. e. aim the purpose of human trafficking actors is to enrich them, increase their degree or social status and pay their debt. f. forms of provincial and municipal government interventions. many forms of direct intervention from the provincial government and the city of jayapura have been carried out with the application of regulations and service activities for well-known victim assistance for hiv-aids and other skin diseases, carried out by the health office and workshop seminars on the role of women and development and socialization of health empowerment for tkw and psk women advocated by social community institutions. besides that, the city of jayapura has also opened up space for the tkw and psk by giving them opportunity to provide courses, as the most basic training in human resources. although the activities have been carried out, but direct intervention to close the karaoke place, bar or massage parlor which was allegedly the center of covert prostitution and the occurrence of criminal trafficking in persons has never been attempted. 2.5 research sites in nabire regency the location setting for tppo research is the selection and determination of locations or points that will be the main target of locus to indicate or suspect research the criminal practices of trafficking in persons. while tppo or criminal actions for trafficking in persons, in the ri-aw number 21 of 2007 concerning the eradication of crime in trafficking in persons, in the general provisions is stated that: trafficking in persons is the act of recruiting, transporting, sending, transferring or receiving someone with the threat of violence , the use of violence, kidnapping, confinement, counterfeiting, fraud, abuse of power or vulnerable positions, debt bondage or providing payments or benefits, thus obtaining agreement from those who hold control over others, both within the state and between countries for the purpose of exploitation or cause people to be exploited. a. samabusa samabusa is the largest localization for prostitution in nabire regency. the samabusa localization is situated in teluk kimi district, not far from the sea harbour, which was built in the form of barracks, where in each barrack made barriers from 5 to 10 rooms, which were occupied by each one prostitute (psk). generally these pks are from java and sulawesi, which were identified as victims of tppo. (2.7) riska. here is an interview done with riska (20 years), date of birth 1 january 1998. to riska, the researcher acknowledged that she was a widow and had attended education up to high school level. based on the interview, the input is as follows: (1) in july 2017, riska was invited by her friend to come to nabire using a ship on the grounds that she worked in a karaoke because she was rewarded with a large salary. (2) arriving in nabire, the promised work does not exist. beaten and felt cheated, riska resigned to the situation. (3) urgent economic needs made she have no choice but to prostitute. (4) finally riska was under her friend to samabusa localization and was introduced to the employer and forced to sign a contract that harmed her. (5) since then the victim told the researcher, trying to find a way to get out of the place. based on the input or results of the interview above, elaboration of the case can be carried out as follows; riska is included in the tppo victims because she fulfils the elements mentioned in the general provisions for the eradication of the crime of trafficking in persons, namely, recruitment, transportation, shelter, shipping, transfer, fraud, debt trapping for the purpose of exploitation or resulting exploitation. (2.8)ayu desi. an interview with ayu desi (24 years), place of birth, ambon date, 08 december 1994. based on the interview, the input is as follows: (1) at first ayu, by her friend, was invited to work at a supermarket in fakfak, lured by a large salary. (2) arriving at fakfak, ayu and her friend were accommodated in a house. by her friend ayu obtained an affirmation that the owner of the inn was her employer. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 38 published by ideas spread (3) after one week of waiting, the promised work does not exist. ayu even goes down to the karaoke and bar as a visitor mate to drink. (4) finally arrived at samabusa localization, because she was forced to leave by her employer (5) since then told she to the researcher, she is trying to find a way to get out of the place. based on the input or results of the interview above, elaboration of the case can be carried out as follows; ayu is included in the tppo victim because it fulfils the elements mentioned in the general provisions for eradicating the crime of trafficking in persons namely, recruitment, transportation, shelter, shipping, transfer, fraud, debt trapping for the purpose of exploitation or causing people to be exploited. b. baya biru baya biru is one of the largest gold mining sites located between nabire and paniai district. because of its location on one of the mountains, access from nabire to baya biru can only be accessed by using a helicopter. women were brought in from several places outside nabire regency even from outside papua, such as from east java, west java, manado, kalimantan and makassar. they work to serve miners, ranging from food stalls, karaoke, bars, to plus-plus services. many women who are affiliated with miners in baya biru prostitute themselves because they are generally entangled in debt and do not find other ways that are easier to just survive. almost all of them are victims of tppo, who are victims of fraud, who are closely monitored by their employers. one of them who was willing to be interviewed by the researcher was (2.9) veronika sondak. the interview with veronika sondak went as follows. (1.) veronika sondak was invited and promised by her friend to work at a hotel in the city of nabire, lured by a large salary. (2) veronika sondak was financed by commitment to come to the city of nabire. arriving in nabire, she was accommodated in a shelter and was not given the job as promised. (3.) a few days of waiting, veronika sondak was finally taken to baya biru, one of the gold mining sites which is located between the border of nabire and paniai regency. (4) in there, she worked as a guest servant at the bar, but eventually chose to prostitute because of being caught in debt. based on the input or results of the interview above, elaboration of the case can be carried out as follows; veronika is included in tppo victims because she fulfills the elements mentioned in the general provisions for eradicating the crime of trafficking in persons, namely, recruitment, transportation, shelter, shipping, transfer, fraud, debt trapping for the purpose of exploitation or the exploitation of people. 2.6 overview of tppo conditions in nabire regency a. problem tppo or known as human trafficking is a product of crimes against human rights, especially women and children. basically, the problem of people's trade is indeed difficult to predict, not only because the structure is complicated but because of its veiled nature. research in nabire regency was showing that tppo is present in the form of fraud and exploitation of women employed in places of covert prostitution or under guise prostitution as entertainment venues karaoke and bars. there are three main elements of trafficking in nabire regency which lead to covert prostitution, namely: a) moving people, both within and outside the regional boundaries (including recruitment, transportation, shelter, shipping, transfer or reception) b) ways to violate the law (including threats, use of violence, kidnapping, confinement, forgery, fraud, abuse of power or vulnerable positions, debt bondage or providing payments or benefits so as to obtain approval from the person in control of the other person). c) the purpose is exploitation or causing people to be exploited. b. mode the perpetrators gave the lure of a large income by working in nabire regency. arriving at the destination of the victim was forced to work in a place that was not in accordance with what was promised by the perpetrator. c. form hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 39 published by ideas spread the form of tppo found in nabire regency is covert prostitution or prostitution under the guise of entertainment venues karaoke and bars. d. causes and impacts there is lack of human resources and lack of awareness in the community, especially regarding the rights of women and children. desire or tempted to earn big income. while the impact of covert prostitution or prostitution under the guise of entertainment karaoke is the increasing hiv rate in nabire which is listed as one of the highest in indonesia and dragged young people or teenagers into the circle of the prostitution industry. e. aims the purpose of human trafficking actors is to enrich them and pay their debt. f. forms of interventions from provincial and district government the form of direct intervention from the provincial government and nabire district has been carried out with the application of regulations and service activities for the well-known victim assistance of hiv-aids and other skin diseases, which are carried out by the health service. even though it has been done, direct intervention to close the karaoke and bar area has not been done. 2.7 research sites inmimika regency the location setting for tppo research is the selection and determination of locations or points that will be the main target locus of the research indicated or suspected to be criminal practices of trafficking in persons. while tppo or criminal actions for trafficking in persons, in the ri-law number 21 of 2007 concerning the eradication of crime in trafficking in persons, in the general provisions is stated that: trafficking in persons is the act of recruiting, transporting, sending, transferring or receiving someone with the threat of violence , the use of violence, kidnapping, confinement, counterfeiting, fraud, abuse of power or vulnerable positions, debt bondage or providing payments or benefits, thus obtaining agreement from those who hold control over others, both within the state and between countries for the purpose of exploitation or cause people to be exploited. a. bar barcelona various methods are carried out by the perpetrators of crimes against women, especially for the purpose of prostitution. from the beginning is to forced marriage, contract marriage, karaoke business, and restaurants to massage parlours. in the research to mimika, researchers travelled to places suspected of being hidden locations where women were prostituted by pimps. the location of prostitution is usually impersonating karaoke or bar. actually, it cannot be said guise, if there are already many people who know it, we are almost sure that the authorities also at least have sniffed at the existence of illegal businesses in these places. one of them is the barcelona bar located in km.10 localization, kampung kedun jaya. in this bar the researchers ware managed to interview, one of its workers, (3.10) yanti. yanti (28 years old) told researchers that she was a widow with two children and came from the city of jepara, a city in the province of central java. based on the interview, the following input is obtained: (1.) yanti arrived in timika city in 2013; she came because she got a job offer by her neighbor pak marjo as a singer in a cafe or bar, with a huge fee, rp. 500,000 per night. (2.) yanti goes to timika, through jogja city, transits in makassar and finally arrives in timika. all travel costs are borne by the boss. (3.) arriving in timika, yanti was immediately picked up from moses kilangin airport, heading to the localization site km.10. (4.) yanti arrives at kilo 10 and realizes that she was tricked. she claimed to have rebelled to ask for repatriation, but ultimately in vain, instead she was required to immediately pay off debts. (5.) according to yanti's confession, she was a victim who was often chosen to serve officials in mimika regency based on the input or results of the interview above, elaboration of the case can be carried out as follows: yanti is included in the tppo victim because she fulfills the elements mentioned in the general provisions for eradicating the crime of trafficking in persons, namely, recruitment, transportation, shelter, shipping, transfer, fraud, debt trapping for the purpose of exploitation or the exploitation of people. b. covert boarding houses in timika the locations where the research team goes around are in the downtown area. even behind a big size hotel where the team stayed. apparently it was a boarding house which was suspected of being a place of covert prostitution. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 40 published by ideas spread not only adult women are prostituted in these places, but also young women. the location is usually located in boarding houses that have only one room access. some say that, boarding houses are covert prostitution that prices can be reached by all groups. one of the victims of sex workers under the guise of boarding houses that were successfully interviewed was (3.11) mawar. mawar (26 years) to the researcher admitted she was a single from metropolitan, jakarta. based on the interview with her, obtained the following input: (1.) before coming to timika city, mawar worked in a beauty salon in jakarta, (2.) a family acquaintance offers work in the same profession in timika but earns higher. the lure of income is 3 to 4 times higher than the previous workplace. (3.) mawar decides to accept offer and all costs for the trip to timika are borne by the boss. (4.) arriving in timika, she was picked up by a boss who then drove her to boarding houses in the area of jl. restu (a location downtown in timika city). (5.) in the shelter, she is given a cell phone with the direction "you are just waiting for an incoming call" your job is on this cellophane. (6.) forced to prostitute, due to debt and daily needs. based on the input or results of the interview above, elaboration of the case can be carried out as follows; mawar is included in the tppo victims because she fulfils the elements mentioned in the general provisions for eradicating the crime of trafficking in persons, namely, recruitment, transportation, shelter, shipping, transfer, fraud, debt trapping for the purpose of exploitation or the exploitation of people. c. amole bar amole bar is located on jl. raya sp.2 next to the gas station of mimika baru. this is a covert prostitution place that is impersonating karaoke, live music. the majority of workers at amole bar are from palopo and manado sulawesi. in addition to working to accompany guests, they also offered services to have sex. transactions can be made directly in the room that is set up at the bar, but generally workers here are taken out of the bar. based on the observations of the researchers and brief questions and answers with security officers, it was alleged that many workers were victims of tppo. d. queen bar queen bar is located on jl. hasanudin cutting road towards sp.4. just like bar amole, queen bar is a covert prostitution place that impersonates karaoke, live music. the majority of workers at bar amole are from manado sulawesi. in addition to working to accompany guests, they also offer services for sex. transactions can be made directly in the room that is set up at the bar, but generally the workers here are taken from the bar. indeed, to prove that in this place there are prostituted women as a result of tppo victims this is not easy. but considering the closure factor, it can be assumed that there were workers identified as tppo victims. 2.8 overview of tppo conditions in mimika regency a. problem tppo or known as human trafficking is a product of crimes against human rights, especially women and children. basically, the problem of people's trade is indeed difficult to predict, not only because the structure is complicated but because of its veiled nature. research in mimika regency is showing that tppo is present in the form of fraud and exploitation of women employed in places of covert prostitution or prostitution under the guise of public entertainment venues karaokes and bars. there are three main elements of anti-trafficking in mimika regency which lead to covert prostitution, namely: a. move people, both inside and outside the regional boundaries (including recruitment, transportation, shelter, shipping, transfer or reception) b. the methods are against the law (including threats, use of violence, kidnapping, confinement, forgery, fraud, abuse of power or vulnerable positions, debt bondage or providing payments or benefits so as to obtain approval from the person in control of the other person.) c. the goal is exploitation or causing people to be exploited g. mode hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 41 published by ideas spread the perpetrators gave a large income lure by working in timika regency. regarding mode, one thing that can be categorized as is a supporting factor for the growth of prostitution in mimika regency. it is the very high mobility of people, goods and services here in mimika regency. this high mobility has led to the provision of related facilities, such as shelter for residents and places for goods and services to be not easily controlled. in other words, supervision of population traffic, goods or services is very loose. h. form the form of tppo found in mimika regency is covert prostitution or prostitution under the guise of entertainment venues and in massage parlours and boarding houses scattered in the city. i. causes and impacts there is lack of human resources and lack of awareness in the community, especially regarding the rights of women and children. desire or tempted to earn big income. while the impact of covert prostitution or prostitution under the guise of entertainment venues karaoke and massage parlours is an increase in hiv rates in the mimika regency and the dragging of young people or teenagers into the circle of the prostitution industry. j. aims the purpose of human trafficking actors is to enrich themselves and pay their debt. k. forms of provincial and district government interventions the form of direct intervention from the provincial government of papua and mimika regency government is to repatriate several victims who were found to have been identified as hiv-aids and skin diseases. in addition, the mimika regency government also immediately went down to advocate for the community to avoid free sex, and provide hiv-aids advocacy services to psk (female sex workers). 2.9 research sites inboven digoel regency the location setting for tppo research is the selection and determination of locations or points that will be the main target locus of the research indicated or suspected to be criminal practices of trafficking in persons. while tppo or criminal actions for trafficking in persons, in the ri-law number 21 of 2007 concerning the eradication of crime in trafficking in persons, in the general provisions is stated that: trafficking in persons is the act of recruiting, transporting, sending, transferring or receiving someone with the threat of violence , the use of violence, kidnapping, confinement, counterfeiting, fraud, abuse of power or vulnerable positions, debt bondage or providing payments or benefits, thus obtaining agreement from those who hold control over others, both within the state and between countries for the purpose of exploitation or cause people to be exploited. a. cafe paradise café paradise is located on arimob street, saokanggo village, mandobo district. this outside view is a karoeke place but if it is traced to this it is one of the places that is used as prostitution. when operating this cafe, it opens at 20:00 and closes at 3:00. the number of workers is 12 people consisting of 10 female services and 2 male security. the average age is 19 to 28 years and each comes from palu (4 persons), makassar (3 persons), solo (2 persons) and malang (1 person). in carrying out the task of accompanying guests who sing they are paid a price of rp. 150,000 hour, with the distribution of rp. 75,000 to mammy and rp. 75,000 to the lady. besides working as a singing guide, they also offer sexual services to the guests. the place used to practice of prostitution is usually inside the café as here special rooms also prepared. one of the prostitutes under the guise of the karaoke who successfully interviewed was (4.12) alia. alia (28 years old) told researchers that she was a widow with one child from the city of palu, central sulawesi. based on the interview with her obtained the following input: (1.) alia departs from palu makassar jayapura merauke and to boven digoel, financed by pimps. (2.) after arriving at boven digoel, alia is under a shelter, at the house of mommy the pimp, namely in the mandobo district, kampung saokanggo. (3.) at first alia worked as promised, namely as a lady of song guide for the guests who came. (4) but finally she confessed to being told by the pimp to serve a plus-plus. alia obeys the pimp's orders because she has to pay the debt issued for her trip. (5.) alia tells the researcher that to the family, if there is a family parents or relatives asking, she answering them that she is working at the café and restaurant as servicer. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 42 published by ideas spread based on the input or results of the interview above, it can be concluded that alia is included in the tppo victim because she fulfils the elements mentioned in the general provisions for eradicating the crime of trafficking in persons namely, recruitment, transportation, shelter, shipping, transfer, fraud, debt trapping for the purpose of exploitation or resulting exploited people. b. café resto café resto is located on arimob street, saokanggo village, mandobo district. this cafe appears in the form of a karoke which also serves alcoholic drinks. the number of workers is 9 people consisting of 8 ladies, and 1 male security. on average, female workers at resto cafes between the ages of 19 and 33 come from palembang (2 persons), makassar (2 persons), surabaya (3 persons) and jakarta (1 person). in carrying out the task of accompanying guests who sing they are paid a price of rp. 150,000 hour, with the distribution of rp. 75,000 for mom and laddies rp. 75,000. in addition to working as song guides, they also offer sex services to guests. customer that comes to café paradise is diverse, ranging from ordinary people to company employees, tni / polri entrepreneurs and civil servants. in the café special rooms has been prepared for the place of sex but if there are guests or customers who want to take it outside, it is fine as long as it is in accordance with the agreement of the prostitute and her pimp. c. café manise telaga biru and cafe saraba cafe manise telaga biru and cafe saraba are located in jair district, asike village. what is in cafe manise and saraba is the same as in other cafes spread in boven digoel, namely prostitution veiled under the guise of karaoke. the women accompany singing customers end with prostitution. the number of ladies in café manise are 9 persons while at cafe saraba 11 persons, came from various regions inside and outside papua such as, merauke, makasar, bandung and manado. d. warung plus-plus warung plus-plus is located along the arimop road, persatuan village, mandobo district. in addition to serving a variety of food and beverages, warungs along the lines of arimob also provide sex services. for guests who are willing to have sex, they are subject to a tariff of 300,000 per person. sex can occur in a shop or at a hotel depending on the agreement of both parties. the way to calculate the distribution is that each commercial sex worker only pays room rent or permission to go out to mammy the pimp for rp. 100,000 for one date and the rest for the ladies. the average number of workers in each shop ranges from 2 to 6 persons. the guests or visitors who comes to visit are range from ordinary people as well as people of company employees. the warung (food places) plus-plus operates day and night. figure 2. amount of entertainment, café, bar, warungand number of csws in mandobo sub-district no kampung/ kelurahan bar café plusplus food place plusplus massage parlours number of csws 1 ampera 2 persatuan 3 5 45 3 mawan 4 sokanggo 3 3 35 5 mariam jumlah 6 8 80 figure 3. number of entertainment places café, warung, barand the number of female sex workers in the jair/asiki sub-district no village bar café plus-plus food place plus-plus massage parlours psk numbers 1 getentiri 2 miri 3 anggai 4 butiptiri 5 asiki 2 20 total 20 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 43 published by ideas spread even though it is remote, but because of the alleged plywood, oil palm and gold mining, it has attracted workers from outside and certainly needs entertainment. the last two tables are based on observations and preparations of researchers at the research sites, namely in the mandobo and jair districts, especially in the villages of persatuan, sakonggo and asiki. 2.10 overview of tppo conditions in boven digoel regency a. problem tppo or known as human trafficking. it is a product of crimes against human rights, especially women and children. basically, the problem of people's trade is indeed difficult to predict, not only because the structure is complicated but because of its veiled nature. research in boven digoel regency shows, that, tppo is present in the form of fraud and exploitation of women employed in places of covert prostitution or prostitution under the guise of public entertainment venues karaoke and bars. there are three main elements of trafficking in boven digoel regency which lead to covert prostitution, namely: a) moving people, both within and outside the regional boundaries (including recruitment, transportation, shelter, shipping, transfer or reception) b) ways to violate the law (including threats, use of violence, kidnapping, confinement, forgery, fraud, abuse of power or vulnerable positions, debt bondage or providing payments or benefits so as to obtain approval from the person in control of the other person.) c) the purpose is exploitation or causing people to be exploited. b. mode the mode carried out in tppo at boven digoel was that the victims claimed to have experienced fraud, namely to be employed with the lure of a large income. c. form the most prominent form of tppo found in boven digoel regency is covert prostitution or prostitution under the guise of food stalls along the roadside. apart from that, there is also finding in entertainment venues karaoke and in massage parlours. d. aim the purpose of tppo actors to victims is to exploit victims in order to seek benefits from and using the services of victims. e. causes and impacts the cause of the tppo is for the victims to be carried out because of the demands of life, which at first was due to the economic demands of family life so that when promised a large salary job the victim accepted the job, blindly without first questioning it. while the impact of tppos targeting prostitution is the high rate of hiv-aids sufferers in boven digoel regency and the absorption of adolescents in the prostitution environment. f. forms government of interventions the form of intervention by the boven digoel regencial government, in this case has been done for example by the office of women's empowerment and child protection (pp & pa). boven digoel's pp & pa office has provided assistance for victims of skin diseases and hiv-aids. in addition, the health office routinely checks victims and workers who are in localized, every 3 months. 2.11 mapping of kdrt in the province of papua a. identity and story of some victims of kdrt per-research area what is the scope of kdrt (domestic violence) is the act of someone, especially women, which results in physical, sexual, psychological misery or suffering resulting from domestic neglect including threats to carry out acts, coercion or deprivation of liberty against the law within the household. most of the victims of domestic violence are women (wives) and the perpetrators are husbands, although there are also victims who are just the opposite or subordinate people in the household. not all kdrt can be dealt with thoroughly because the victims often cover up with reasons for the cultural, religious, and incomprehensible ties to the legal system, whereas protection by the state and the community aims to provide security for victims and act against them. the results of the research in the four districts in papua province show that papua is the province with the highest number of cases of violence against women. the vulnerability of women, especially indigenous papuan women, has experienced violence due to various factors including the strong culture of patriarchy with traditional values hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 44 published by ideas spread and systems, economic problems, and liquor. analysis of the results of the focus group discussion (fgd), data collection conducted by in-depth interviews with survivors showed that papuan women and children were very vulnerable and dominant experienced violence. from the results of the comparison between preferred reading and the results of interviews with survivors, it was also found that domestic violence was mostly caused by liquor, environmental problems and economic problems. 2.12 jayapura city (1.1). name of respondent: miryam waninbo; job/status: public servant/widow; age: 26; education: diplom. mom miryam tells, about the physical violence she suffered. "he started beating me often, after i passed the public servant test." it was done by her husband because he felt suspicious and jealous if miryam was in contact with another man. "sometimes i was beaten to fall and one time he hit me with a plate kicking my ribs until i unconscious. he panicked and asked for help from the neighbours to take me to the hospital. after that, he got along with me and asked my neighbour for help", said miryam again. shorten the story, "i got up and was already in the hospital. i saw two sisters clean glass fragments at my feet, "she continued. after the incident, miryam revealed that the perpetrator, her husband apologized. after being satisfied with acts of violence, the perpetrators felt guilty and apologized to the victims. according to the victims the perpetrators gave gifts, seducing sweet words, and promising the victim will not repeat his actions again. both of them also had to be met by the large family of both parties to find a solution. after reaching agreement and promises from the perpetrators not to repeat again, they continued their relationship to foster their families until miryam finally suffered violence from the man who had now become her ex-husband. miryam admitted, she had reached the peak of patience, unbearable physical pain and the burden of her mind made her run and complain to her parents' house. miryamsighed : "saya tidak menyangka, setelah tahun lalu, dia janji tidak lakukan (penganiayaan) lagi. ternyata, saya itu salah dan saya enggak nyangka dia begitu kejam. katanya cinta tapi ... (i did not expect, after last year, he promised not to do it (persecution) again. apparently, i was wrong and i didn't think he was so cruel. he said love but ...)". (1.2). name: agustina rumere; place / date of birth: jayapura, november 23, 1983; job / status: private / married; education: bachelor one. agustina rumere, in a lace tone told researchers that, "she did not want to leave her marriage because she thought about the future of the child. she was afraid that divorce or separation would make the fate of children become uncertain. for the good of the child, she chose to survive. told that” “bapa sering memukul saya beberapa kali hingga tersungkur di lantai, namun hal itu tetap membuat ia tak menghentikan pemukulan tersebut. kadang-kadang, bapa menghentakkan kakinya di betis saya, lalu menginjak paha saya, bahkan menendang perut saya dengan sangat keras beberapa kali. setelah puas menyiksa, bapa memberikan peringatan ke saya, kalau berani untuk melapor maka akibatnya akan lebih besar. (daddy often beat me several times to fall on the floor, but that still made him not stop the beating. sometimes, he stomped his leg on my calf, then stepped on my thigh, even kicking my stomach very hard several times. after being satisfied with torture, he gave a warning to me, if i dare to report then the consequences will be even greater.)” economic limitations and the need to be protected and loved by others (partners), are the main causes of the reluctance of victims to report perpetrators of domestic violence. just like mom agustina rumere. although the violence experienced is sometimes classified as heavy kdrt, the victim does not want the offender to be punished or imprisoned. they only hope that the perpetrators can change their behaviour. 2.13 nabire regency (2.3). name: novi logoff; place of birth: nabire, november 14, 1980; job / status: public servant/widow; education: bachelorette one; mrs. novi logoff recounted: "my body was tossed abysmally, pulled, grabbed, plucked again until it hit the wall of the house. that i might thought about, when i arrived at my sister's house, i just saw that my body was blushing blue, my head was bleeding, my legs were unable to walk, "she said. this incident happened repeatedly when her husband returned home drunk, “suami saya selama ini tidak pernah menafkahi kami walaupun gajinya besar, tetapi seribu perakpun tidak pernah dikasih kepada kami atau untuk keperluan anak kami, dia menghabiskan uangnya dengan minumminum dan diberikan kepada perempuan-perempuan yang biasanya dia bawa (my husband has never provided for us even though his salary is large, but a thousand silver has never been given to us or for the needs of our children, he spends his money drinking and given to the women he usually taken along).” (2.4). name: sarlota ramandey; place and date of birth: nabire, april 3, 1972; job / status: public servant/married; education: bachelorette one. sarlota ramandey, tells about the violence experienced in her hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 45 published by ideas spread household for years. during her marriage, 10 years more, with her husband, "he has mastered my life. every time i receive a salary, he immediately takes it from me," said mother sarlota, to the researcher. "he also often throws things hitting my face ..." sarlota said she could not stand but could not decide to leave her spouse or husband, because they were sorry for their children. she also told researchers that she never reported to the authorities, for fear of the husband. following is her narrative: “suami saya selalu melakukan tindak kekerasan kepada saya hampir setiap hari selama kami menikah, semua yang dilakukannya dikarenakan karena faktor pengaruh minuman keras dan ada perempuanperempuan lain diluar sana yang biasanya mengganggu rumah tangga kami. bapa itu kalau sudah ketemu dengan perempuan-perempuan itu pasti nanti pulang mama akan jadi sasaran dari pukulan dan cacian dari bapa, tidak pernah, karena kami selesaikan antara suami istri saja, mama tidak pernah melaporkan ke kantor polisi. biasanya kalau sudah bertengkar yang biasanya membantu mama adalah tetangga dan mama punya keluarga (my husband always commits violence to me almost every day while we are married, all he does is because of the influence of liquor and there are other women out there who usually interfere with our household. daddy, if have met with the women, will definitely come home, i will be the target of beatings and insults from him, never reported to the police, because we have finished between husband and wife, so never report to the police station. usually when we have a fight that usually helps to mom is from the neighbour and the family of mom.).” (2.5). name: vera manuaron; place date of birth: nabire february 05 1971; job / status: teacher / married; education: bachelorette one. mother vera’s said, “mom often gets violence done by daddy, he always hit mom, kick mom and throw mom with items in the kitchen.” furthermore, vera said, “violence usually occurs inside the house but sometimes it also happens outside the home. the last thing she experienced, “last month,” she told:“kejadiannya di rumah mama le, mama tidak tahu juga tiba-tiba saja bapa _ating dan langsung pukul mama dengan wadah nyiru yang diisi dengan buah jambu air yang mama le taruh diatas meja buat cucu-cucunya makan, setelah dipukul dengan nyiru mama ditendang dan ditarik rambut, kemudian mama dimaki-maki sama bapa (it happened at mama le’s house, mom did not know, suddenly daddy came and immediately hit mama with a misty container filled with guava fruit which mama le put on the table for her grandchildren eat. after being beaten by daddy, mom was kicked and pulled by hair, then was scolded by the daddy).” 2.14 mimika regency (3.6) maria fautngilyanan. name: maria fautngilyanan place / date of birth: nabire, august 1, 1976 job / status: domestic worker / widow, education: high school; ms. maria fautngilyanan (42 years), told researchers that she married in 2009 and the result of her marriage, she and her husband were blessed with four children. at the beginning of the marriage until giving birth to the first child everything goes well and even though there is a quarrel just about child problems. the incident turned upside down when her husband got a promotion and a transfer from the contractor company to a permanent pt employee of freeport indonesia, which was originally felt by mother maria as a blessing given by god to their families. but the blessing was misused by her husband. job and high position at pt. freeport indonesia was slowly eroding its household. this was starting from reducing the amount of monthly money, to rarely return home. feeling strange and suspicious, mother maria looked for the cause of her husband's change of attitude. as a result, before the person first knows the problem, the child turns out to often catch his face with another woman. the effort of mother mary to look for her husband's existence, apparently led to the destruction of her household. said: “bapa marah, dan mengamuk, di mengambil dana pendidikan anak-anak uang, fasilitas milik ibu maria juga dan anak-anaknya lalu diberikan keselingkuhannya atau wanita lain/wil("the father was angry, and went berserk, took the children's education funds, the facilities owned by mom also fund of the children and then given to his affair or other woman/wil)”. at present mom maria, to support her daily life, trades in selling fish in the market, at the time of the morning and at the end of the day her children come home from school picking up cans from the border area on patimura road to cenderawasih street, selling the results of collecting for snacks and motorbikes to school. (3.7). ningsih marlina wanma yembse. name: marlina yembse, place / date of birth: nabire, july 11, 1980; job / status: domestic workers, education: senior high school. ms. ningsih marlina wanma yembise (38 years) experienced psychological violence and economic neglect, ms. ningsih worked as a washing worker, the results she earned were used to support her daily needs. told: hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 46 published by ideas spread “suami tidak pernah memberikan gaji, karena gaji suami sebagai karyawan pt. kuala pelabuhan indonesia di berikan untuk wil-nya yang berasal dari manado (the husband never gives a salary, because the husband's salary as an employee of pt. kuala pelabuhan indonesia is given to wil from manado)” various efforts have been made by marlina to make jacob yembise her husband to aware but just the truth: “saya dipukuli, muka saya ditampar dan saya didorong sampai jatuh lalu diinjak sampai keluar darah, dan saya dimaki-maki, babi ko, anjing hutan, biawak bhakan sampai diludah (i was beaten, my face was slapped and i was pushed until i fell and then stepped on to get blood, and i was cursed, you pigs, coyotes, lizards, till were spit)." said marlina yembise as she could not stand the situation, finally mom ningsih dared to report the problem she had experienced to the escort agency for violence victims, then the institute carried out advocacy and mediation when her husband was sent to mediation, but that night jacob threatened to kill and beat marlina yembise until he was battered. until finally her husband was expelled from the company because of being subject to disciplinary action. (3.8). aryani kasim. name: aryani kasim, place / date of birth: belu, july 11, 1982, job / status: domestic worker, education: junior high school. aryani kasim 36 (year) woman from ntt married wens mitoro, a man from the kamoro tribe mimika. their marriage was awarded with four children. early marriage all went well, there were no strikes between them, starting life from zero until wens mitoro was entrusted to become a regional official. their households began to fluctuate, after returning to attend training in makassar, the attitude and character of wens mitoro changed, coupled with his passion for consuming liquor, increasingly made him lose consciousness and persecute his wife. as always, if wens goes home drunk then mother aryani is persecuted, accused of being whole, even the clothes she wears are opened and beaten in front of friends until the victim faints. in fact, it was not enough, mother aryani often received expulsion and insults that were brought up, due to mother aryani, "rebuking another daddy’s ideal woman. that was a woman named tanti from toraja who is a nurse." 3. kabupaten boven digoel (4.9). alia. name: alia, age: 28 years, status: widow 1 child; address of origin: palu. alia said that she had received a rough treatment / violence from a number of guests who had come 2 times, in the form of physical and psychological violence such as: yelling / shouting with a big voice and harsh words, and slapping her face, making her afraid. the main trigger of this violence is liquor. (4.10). momin. name: momin, age: 34 years old, status: married, address of origin: west java; violence that has been experienced in the form of psychological and physical, when serving visitors at work, which is the trigger of the violence, because it is influenced by alcohol. momin's experience has been 3 times, 2 in the form of physical violence and 1 in psychic, this is what causes momin, always careful when serving the end, even when a visitor who is influenced by alcohol asks to be served, she refuses. b. conditions of kdrt per research area papua is the province with the highest number of cases of violence against women reaching 1,360 cases for every 10,000 women. papua is actually the highest even though various data suggest that dki jakarta is the highest. based on data from the papua regional police, domestic violence in the papua province includes cases of abuse, neglect, rape, infidelity, and psychic violence. the vulnerability of indigenous papuan women experiencing continued and layered violence was also triggered and caused by various main factors, including high domestic violence (domestic violence), partriarchal culture with traditional values and systems that did not provide substantive justice to women, inability to economic problems, weakness handling system, and prevention of violence by local government, and the highest trigger factor is the influence of liquor. the strong patriarchal culture that is causes men to feel more powerful and can act arbitrarily against his wife. patriarchal culture here can be seen for example from the application of dowry which is assumed by men as a "buying tool" for women. as happened in nabire regency, where brothers and parents are considered more important than their wives, besides papuan men, they also cannot control themselves after drinking liquor. in addition to the factors mentioned above, further elaboration to obtain a description of the conditions of violence in households in papua province is carried out in the districts, according to research data: hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 47 published by ideas spread 3.1 conditions of kdrt in jayapura city a. problem various cases of domestic violence are inseparable from the persistence of patriarchal culture that is still inherent as a mindset to become a contributing factor. this also includes legitimizing acts of violence committed by men to their partners. patriarchal culture that influences that men are stronger and more powerful than women, so wives have limitations in making choices or desires and have a tendency to obey all the desires of their husbands, even bad desires. there is a social reality that often occurs in society if "just fine" violence is done if the wife does not obey the wishes of the husband. b. form the form of domestic violence in the city of jayapura is generally in the form of physical violence, namely the perpetrators of beating, slapping, kicking, strangling, pulling hair, and even burning the victim's limbs. which results in serious injuries to the body of the victim and / or injuries that are difficult to cure or that cause a danger of death. in addition to physical violence there is also psychological violence in the form of acts of control, manipulation, exploitation, abuse, humiliation and humiliation, in the form of prohibition, coercion, and social isolation; degrading or insulting actions and or sayings; stalking; threats of physical, sexual and economic violence; each of which can result in psychological suffering in the following ways: (1) terrorist fears and feelings. (2.) feeling helpless, loss of confidence, loss of ability, and (3.); phobias or depression. c. aim the purpose of domestic violence generally is only as a momentary effort from the perpetrators to meet psychological or emotional needs. d. causes and impacts according to the results of the research, the factor that ranked first in the cause of domestic violence in the city of jayapura was the strong patriarchal culture, which caused men to feel more powerful and could act arbitrarily against their wives. next is drug, alcohol or alcohol abuse which also contributes greatly to domestic violence. drugs and alcohol change moods to behave rudely without making conscious judgments. next is the influence of mass media, especially tv, which has a large role in the rise of domestic violence. through the media, the perpetrators seemed to be guided by a precise method of persecuting victims without being sniffed by law enforcement. in films and soap operas, acts of violence are often used as a form of punishment or a way to overcome problems. in addition, the economic factors in the form of money availability, and health. when two important things are interrupted, domestic violence is common. say an individual has a negative life experience, unemployment or deteriorating health. as an outlet for disappointment, the closest person is usually the target of anger. while the impact of domestic violence on women is a lack of confidence to appear as a party that actively encourages change, both in the family and society, hampers the ability of women to participate in social activities, disrupts their health, reduces autonomy, both in the economic, political, socio-cultural and physical. likewise with children, selfconfidence in the growth of his soul will be disrupted and can inhibit the process of mental development and their future. e. form of government intervention of jayapura city efforts to prevent and or cope with various violent behaviors experienced by women and children must receive serious attention and treatment, from the papua province and the jayapura municipalities. only, the approach in handling this problem has not been integrated with the community. the forms of attention and interventions of the provincial and city government of jayapura are (1.) aid and counseling from the health office, and from the education and culture service to victims of women's and children's violence aimed at increasing women's awareness of their rights and obligations in law and raising public awareness how important efforts are to overcome the occurrence of violence against women and children, both in individual, social and institutional contexts; (2.) the p2tp2a assistance and from lsmn, are namely by conducting a campaign against violence against women and children systematically and supported by a strong network, including renewing a conducive health service system to combat violence against women and children. while the action of interventions that may soon be taken are: (1.) forming institutions to support victims of violence with specific targets for women and children to be given free of charge in the form of consultations, medical and psychological care. (2.) asking the mass media (print and electronic) to pay more attention to the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 48 published by ideas spread problem of acts of violence against women and children in their reporting, including providing education to the public about the basic rights of women and children. 3.2 conditions of kdrt in nabire regency a. problem the dominance of men is very visible because of the patriarchal culture that creates a social construction that women are weak and can be hurt, both heart and physical. in relation to men, the social meaning of biological differences leads to the strengthening of myths, stereotypes, and rules, practices that demean women and facilitate violence. violence can take place in family and personal relationships; it can also be at work or through cultural practices. b. form form of kdrt experienced by the victims committed by the perpetrator is; in the form of physical, psychological, economic and sexual things that occur continuously. physical violence dominates in nabire, such as beatings, torture resulting in minor injuries, pain and physical injuries to the body of the victim and or the danger of losing one of the five senses, getting deformed until suffering paralysis. whereas psychological and sexual violence in the form, humiliation of victims in public, spit victims and coercion to have sex without the consent of the victim or when the victim does not want or sexually act with physical violence with or without the aid of sex tools that cause illness, injury or injury results in mental or stress disorders, even depression. in the economic field, it is the act of exploitation, manipulation and control through economic means to force victims to work in exploitative ways including prostitution or prohibiting work victims but abandoning them. also in the form of deliberate efforts that make the victim dependent or economically helpless or unmet basic needs. c. aim the purpose of domestic violence/kdrt, generally is only as a momentary effort from the perpetrators to meet psychological or emotional needs for a moment. d. causes and impacts liquor is the main trigger for various cases of domestic violence in nabire district. miras changes her mood to behave rudely without making conscious judgments, which leads to acts of violence. but the prohibition of alcohol in nabire can also have a greater impact. alcohol has been around since ancient times and until now it is almost in all parts of nabire or to remote parts of nabire. in addition to alcohol, the culture of the patriarchy that puts men and women in an equal position is also the cause. the community considers men to be strong, brave and merciless, so that domestic violence is considered not as a social problem, but a personal problem with husband and wife relations. the factors that contributed to the occurrence of violence against women in the next nabire were a low level of education and a misunderstanding of religious teachings, resulting in the assumption that men may control women. while the impact of kdrt on women is the stereotype or bad stigma attached to the victims including; first, internal stigma, namely, the tendency of victims to blame themselves, close themselves, punish themselves, consider themselves disgrace, loss of self-confidence, and especially trauma, so that the woman does not want to be involved after traumatizing her husband's violence. second, external stigma, that is, the tendency of people to blame victims, information media without empathy, publicly report cases experienced by victims and ignore the privacy rights of victims. in addition to the bad stigma attached to victims, violence against women can also destroy the order of ethical and social values such as bad impacts, for example, lead to human trafficking. e. form of government intervention of regency the form of intervention that has been carried out by the government, from the pp & pa office of nabire regency has provided assistance to several victims of domestic violence, then there are also cases handled by nabire regional police, but from all cases accompanied by the pp & pa office and those who have arrived at their police station (the victims did not continue the case because they returned again with family reasons). 3.3 conditions of kdrt in mimika regency a. problem the act of domestic violence (kdrt), is one of the abnormal symptoms in society, because it is contrary to the values and social norms of the community. today the condition of these abnormal symptoms is increasingly developing and sticking to the surface with the circulation of various cases in social media such as, husbands hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 49 published by ideas spread hitting, burning and torturing even killing their wives. there are also employers who commit acts of violence against their domestic servants. why are acts of violence against women so easy in our environment? of course there are various kinds of causes as well as the problem. like the iceberg theory, the problem that appears on the surface is only a small part, but what is hidden in the sea is very large and cannot be detected. actions of domestic violence that occur in mimika regency are dominated by physical violence and economic neglect. b. form actors of domestic violence (kdrt), have different motives, but appear in the same form, namely, in the form of psychological, sexual and economic physical violence that occurs continuously. physical violence dominates in mimika, such as beatings, torture which results in minor injuries, pain and physical injuries to the victim's body and or creates the danger of losing one of the five senses, getting disabled until he suffers from paralysis. while psychological, sexual and economic violence include, humbling or insulting speech, sexual acts with unwanted physical contact, such as fingering, touching sexual organs, forcibly kissing, embracing and other actions that cause disgust, and feel controlled. and economic violence includes measures of control, manipulation, exploitation without the knowledge and without the consent of the victim, as well as the act of abandoning it. c. aim the purpose of conducting a report on domestic violence (kdrt) is to find out about efforts to combat violence in households in mimika regency. this is to find out the inhibiting factors for efforts to combat violence in households in mimika regency. next to that, is to find out the fulfilment of victims' rights, and legal efforts needed by the victim. d. causes and impacts according to the results of the research, the factor that ranks first in the cause of kdrt in mimika is a patriarchal culture, which subordinates women to second class beings, which causes men to feel more powerful and can act arbitrarily against their wives. furthermore, alcoholic abuse also contributes greatly to domestic violence. other causes are poverty, social relations problems both in family or community, deviations from social behavior (psychosocial problems). the weak social control that is becomes the primary community and law and the influence of social cultural values in certain social environments. but for the author the main cause of this problem is the loss of religious values because of course only with religion that can regulate social problems based on individual awareness. violence experienced by the wife will cause heart injury and trauma to the child. the long-term effects on women's lives are depression, stress, and other psychological disorders that can interfere with social life and daily activities. in addition, the direct impact of domestic violence is bruising, swelling, sprains, broken bones, burns, internal bleeding, injury to the genital area, lack of hygiene and sexually transmitted diseases and many that not all can be seen immediately. it is certain that women who are victims of violence will be reluctant to tell others about the things they experienced, let alone report. this condition forms a closed or introverted personality that is very dangerous. e. form of government intervention by mimika regency the social approach carried out by the mimika regional government encompasses an approach to community participation in reporting and being alert to any crime, especially human trafficking. the medical approach, namely from the health office who directly provides services and treatments both physically and psychologically, and also provides counselling to women about how to handle good and proper domestic contact for kdrt. and lastly is the educational approach carried out by p2tp2a and ngo institutions that hold information on mothers on the dangers of kdrt. forms of intervention of the provincial government of papua and the government of mimika regency, which may soon be taken is to focus on the process of handling victims, for this reason, it requires strategic efforts from outside parties to support and educate victims to report perpetrators and not provide protection for perpetrators in order to disclose and resolve the case. 3.4 conditions of kdrt in boven digoel regency a. problem at present the problem of violence against women and employment is not a local or regional problem but also has become a national problem and is even a global problem. violence against women and children can occur anywhere, starting from public places, workplaces, family environments (households) and others. the perpetrators of violence can be anyone, be it parents, brothers or other women and can happen anytime and anywhere. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 50 published by ideas spread b. form the forms of violence that are often experienced by women are physical and psychological violence, where according to the respondent's information in one of the cafes we met, the brand claimed to often get harsh treatment from the guests who came. c. aim the objectives to be achieved in mapping this domestic violence problem are: (1) preventing all forms of domestic violence, (2) protecting victims of domestic violence, (3) taking firm action against all perpetrators of domestic violence, and (4) maintaining and maintain the integrity of the household so that it is safe, harmonious and harmonious. d. causes and impacts one of the biggest factors that cause domestic violence in boven digoel is liquor. in addition, other factors that cause domestic violence are economic problems, dowry, polygamy, patriarchies culture, jealousy and cheating. the impact that arises from domestic violence problems against women is that victims often experience trauma or excessive fear so that it is difficult to control their behaviour. this fear often affects all activities of the victim. this has an impact on whatever the victim does always arise a sense of reluctance, making it difficult to solve a problem or an activity properly. women who often get violence in the household will experience feelings of helplessness so that there is a belief that nothing can be done to change their condition. the wider impact of kdrt is not only felt by women or wives but also on children. children who often see kdrt in their families or homes will experience trauma such as being nervous, aloof, anxious, agitated and experiencing changes in behaviour that lead to introverts. e. form of government intervention by boven digoel regency various ways have been done by the district government of boven digoel through the pp & pa office to deal with domestic violence issues including: socializing to the community from the district level, district to the villages about the law on the protection of women and children, this was revealed by the pp & pa office secretary of boven digoel regency, agustina a. muskita, in the fgd forum. the following are programs and activities that have been carried out by the district government. boven digoel through the pp & pa office in order or as a form of direct government intervention in cases of violence against women, among others; (1) life quality improvement and women's protection program, type of activities in the form of facilitation of women's protection against violence, (2) program for improving the quality of life and women's protection, types of activities for the implementation of policies and protection of women in the regions (3. preparation of group assistance staff bina kelurga, type of activity in the form of counseling training for family development groups in districts and sub-districts. 3.5 recommendation of strategy and approachment model and implications of the tppo, kdrt and tkw prevention program in the province of papua based on the description of the situation of vulnerability and the potential for prevention of tppo, kdrt and tkw in papua province obtained from the field several preventive education suggestions can be provided covering workshops for cadre training, socialization planning in the general public, media selection, monitoring and evaluation and policies at the administrative and working group levels for the prevention of tppo, kdrt and tkw. the training workshop is a good choice of education formats to improve participants' knowledge and skills about tppo, kdrt and tkw. from the point of view of the speakers, their job is to provide teaching and training so that the aim is for participants to get sufficient knowledge in theory and to be skilled in implementing practice. learning and practice methods can be done in the form of groups or individuals. considering the handling of the issue of tppo, kdrt and tkw is new, so it is suggested that the planning of social activities be carried out in groups. the goal is for cadres to have the opportunity to sharpen their knowledge better by looking at their group members. another benefit is that each group member can complement the things found in the field. in addition to group formation, the training participants are guided step by step in planning and implementing activities, such as theme selection, time and place allocation, audience determination, audience size, visual aids, implementers, and others. equally important is the provision of guidance in the formation of organizations along with the distribution of their respective functions and tasks. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 51 published by ideas spread 4. finale prevention of tppo, kdrt and tkw can be carried out in several ways, namely, first mapping tppo, kdrt and tkw both for domestic and broad purposes. number two is, the improving community education, especially alternative education for girls, is including with educational facilities. third, increasing community knowledge through providing the widest possible information about tppo, kdrt and tkw along with all aspects related to it. fourth, it is necessary to strive for guarantees of accessibility for families, especially women and children to obtain education, training, increase in income and social services. these methods seem very ideal, just how the implementation is real. these efforts also require the involvement of all government, private sector, ngos, international agencies, community organizations, individuals including the mass media. as one form of implementation of these methods, the step that has only recently been carried out by the office of women's empowerment to minimize the practice of trafficking and violence is by conducting training for village heads on orderly administration. one of the main objectives of the administrative order is to anticipate the practice of falsifying identity which is increasingly prevalent in the management of tki requirements. in this case, many forms of activities can touch the community in general, including women in them who are vulnerable to human trafficking and domestic violence. a. synthesis of policy recommendations the handling of criminal trafficking and violence in persons is complex, where the handling of it requires comprehensive mapping. besides that the seriousness of the government and the involvement of all elements of the nation are expected to contribute participative in the effort to eradicate the crime of trafficking in persons. recognizing the general conditions in the province of papua, the community needs to get a lot of knowledge and socialization about the dangers of trafficking in persons. the education and outreach also includes procedures and conditions that must be known by female workers before leaving for other regions in indonesia such as those who go to papua. prospective female workers are required to pay attention to how complete official documents will be taken, adequate knowledge of work services in accordance with government regulations so that they get security guarantees and are not constantly tricked by irresponsible parties. b. policy recommendations this research focuses on the aspects of trafficking in persons (tppo) and domestic violence (kdrt), so the recommendations of the two aspects, namely: 1. the socialization of legal protection for women is a protection given to legal subjects in the form of preventive and repressive legal instruments, both written and unwritten. legal protection as an illustration of the function of law, namely a concept in which the law can provide justice for women. 2. regional governments at the provincial, city and district levels can tighten control of entertainment and restaurant venues operating in their work areas in employing women, so that female workers can be needed well and they get their rights according to the rule of law. 3. the regional government should tighten the supervision of entry routes for passengers by land, sea and air, so that the flow of illegal migration to papua can be controlled, especially women who are trafficked by irresponsible parties, such as brokers, pimps, etc. 4. the socialization of the act of kdrt carried out continuously by the office of women's empowerment and child protection at provincial level, municipal or regencies should be mapped according to the sociocultural context by involving indigenous and religious leaders to be understood by the community, especially papuan men. 5. completion of kdrt cases is processed according to customary rules and formal or positive law with high sanctions to provide a deterrent effect for the perpetrators. construction of safe houses for women in the province, city and regency. 6. economic empowerment for papuan women refers to the cultural characteristics and ecological zone of papua. notes note 1. to evaluate the results of the development of a gender perspective, the indicators of the gender development index (ipg) and the gender empowerment index (igd). the ipg describes the gap or achievement gap of human development between men and women. women are expected to get equal access to men so that they can participate in productive activities that can improve the quality of life. meanwhile, the gender empowerment hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 52 published by ideas spread index (idg) measures the active participation of men and women in economic, political and decision-making activities. both of these gender indicators can be used as monitoring tools for gender development results (kpppa, 2017). note 2. jurnal kriminologi indonesia, vol 7 no.iii, desember 2011: 307. note 3. annisa jihan a, analisis viktimisasi structural terhadap tiga korban perdagangan perempuan dan anak (structural victimization analysis of three victims of trafficking in women and children),ui,jakarta, 2010, pg.3. references a. biblio graphy nasbianto, elli n. (1999). kekerasan dalam rumah tangga; sebuah kejahatan yang tersembunyi (in syafik hasyim: menakar harga perempuan(measuring women's prices). bandung. ollenburger, jane c. 2002. sosiologi wanita. jakarta: rineka cipta. ruth rosenberg, (2003). perdagangan perempuan dan anak di indonesia (trafficking of women and children in indonesia), jakarta: icmc. t. o. ihromi dan a. s. luhulima, (2004). hak asasi perempun (women's rights), jakarta: conventional watch ui dan yayasan obor. tri wahyu widiastuti, sh. mh., dosen fakultas hukum unisr, (2010). upaya pencegahan tindak pidana perdagangan orang (criminal prevention of trafficking in persons), wacana, hukum vol. ix, 1 april 2010. ri-laws: ri-law no. 39 of 1999 concerning human rights; ri-law no. 21 of 2001 concerning special autonomy for the papua province; ri-law no. 13 of 2003. on manpower included women labour (tkw); ri-law no. 23 of 2004, on labour issues, especially "women" (tkw); ri-law no. 21 of 2007, on eradication of the crime of trafficking in persons (tppo). b. empirical and field researches of liptek-papua. sources from jayapura city sources from nabire regency sources from mimika regency sources from boven digoel regency c. else http://www.kpai.go.id/artikel/temuan-dan-rekomendasi-kpai-tentang http://www.zriefmaronie.blogspot.com rahayu, perdagangan orang, etd.eprints. ums.ac.id tim jaringan indonesia act, panduan nasional melindungi hak dan martabat anak yang di perdagangkan di indonesia, yayasan jurnal perempuan, jakarta. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p56 56 published by ideas spread knowledge production and dissemination in human-ai collaboration: generative ai as travel consultants jing shu1 1 xia'men university, china correspondence: jing shu, xia'men university, xia'men, fujian, china. received: july 4, 2025; accepted: july 21, 2025; published: july 22, 2025 abstract currently, the opportunities and challenges posed by artificial intelligence (ai) in travel consulting and user experience remain underexplored. this paper takes wanderboat, an ai-driven customized online travel platform, as the research subject. based on the theory of interactive media effects (time), the study employs semistructured interviews and grounded theory methods to explore the social impacts of ai affordances on human-ai interaction (haii). the findings reveal that in the knowledge production process, there are interaction modes of "full agency," "negotiated agency," and "agency paradox" between machine agency and user agency. in the content consumption and dissemination stages, positive or negative machine heuristics, along with social interaction participation provided by online communities, become factors that either enhance or diminish user engagement. due to users' difficulty in taming or resisting ai algorithms based on the chatgpt model, ai travel consultants hold a dominant position in the knowledge mediation process, leading to a trust crisis and technological fear among users regarding ai-generated content. this results in a zero-sum game dynamic in the "consultant-client" relationship. keywords: online travel platforms, generative ai, human-ai interaction, knowledge mediation, user engagement 1. introduction in recent years, the rapid iteration of ai technology has brought opportunities and challenges to various industries. human-computer interaction (hci) has become an indispensable method, with chatgpt and chatbots, as representatives of generative ai, gradually transforming the way humans interact with machines. in july 2024, wanderboat ai, a gpt-4-powered intelligent travel planning platform launched by the silicon valley startup uta ai, officially went live with investment support from sequoia capital. since its beta launch, wanderboat ai has demonstrated unique advantages in technology and user experience compared to other ai travel assistants in the market. the platform integrates cutting-edge technologies such as large language models (llms) and multimodal interaction, allowing users to conduct in-depth information searches through natural conversations and receive personalized travel recommendations based on their preferences. users can quickly find attractions, restaurants, and activities using the platform's ai tools, and even interactively search on maps. the platform not only supports generating detailed travel itineraries but also allows users to upload relevant documents or links, with the ai providing personalized suggestions based on this content. "consulting" is essentially a process and strategy of transferring professional knowledge and skills from one party to another[1]. consultants provide advice to help clients achieve their goals or solve problems. as a bridge between knowledge production and consumption, "knowledge brokers" play an increasingly important role in the knowledge economy, particularly in business and management, information technology, and healthcare research. however, there is limited research on consulting in the tourism industry, especially in the context of chinese tourism. the emergence of wanderboat undoubtedly opens up new prospects for the application of generative ai in the travel consulting market, transforming the one-way communication between tourists and traditional travel agencies and promoting the development of ai-driven online travel platforms, enriching the forms of smart tourism. intelligence and agency are core functions of ai. by integrating advanced ai technologies, algorithms supported by chatgpt have acquired the agency to make decisions in social, political, and economic contexts. however, technology is a double-edged sword. while enjoying intelligent services, we must also consider: when ai replaces humans as travel consultants, how should we examine ai's involvement in the knowledge production and dissemination process in the context of human-ai interaction? what impact will this have on user engagement and travel experiences? to address these questions, this paper draws on the theory of interactive media effects hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 57 published by ideas spread (time), which focuses on the affordances of media technology, to explore the technical characteristics of generative ai and human-ai interaction behaviors on ai-driven online travel platforms. 2. literature review 2.1 tourism knowledge production and knowledge mediation process 2.1.1 knowledge brokers and consulting work knowledge brokering refers to the process of "seeking-providing" information exchange between two parties[3], involving skills or tasks such as information management, communication, and capacity development[4]. other scholars describe it as knowledge identification and localization, redistribution and dissemination, and reexpansion and transformation[5]. the roles that perform consulting or service functions are called "knowledge brokers" or "consultants," who are described as approachable and patient in gaining clients' trust and respect[6]. consulting work is a highly interactive "people work"[7], where face-to-face contact and pleasant interactions are crucial. the relationship between consultants and clients is built on mutual understanding, collaboration, and trust. therefore, consultants are essentially knowledge workers who engage in intellectual work, requiring a high degree of tacit knowledge to generate creative, inventive, and innovative solutions. in the context of destination marketing, wong and mckercher explained that satisfactory outcomes occur when knowledge seekers clearly articulate their needs and when brokers provide information that meets these needs. conversely, customer satisfaction declines[8]. 2.1.2 consultant-client relationship if clients are the information providers and implementers of solutions[9], consultants are not only problem identifiers and diagnosers, solution generators, and evaluators but also facilitators who shape clients' interpretations of consulting project outcomes[10]. walsh identified three types of relationship strategies between consultants and clients[11]: (1) the expert model, which assumes that professional behavior involves solving specific client problems with the help of scientific theories and technologies; (2) the critical model, where consulting firms are seen as persuasive systems[12], communicating with clients through a series of success stories (using rhetoric, images, metaphors, and humor) that can replace the firm's ambiguous knowledge base; and (3) the social learning model, where clients and consultants share the stage, actively diagnosing and solving problems together[13]. the process of building trust between consultants and clients is complex and variable. consultants must respond to clients' desires, tastes, and expectations, effectively "mirroring" their clients. additionally, they need to balance interpersonal relationships to ensure that the consultant-client relationship does not become too personal. credibility and a good track record are key factors influencing trust. in commercial transactions, consultants persuade clients to pay high fees for personalized, unique, and high-value-added services, resulting in a symbiotic relationship driven by opposing interests. 2.1.3 development status of the travel consulting industry china's tourism industry is characterized by both government-led and market-driven dynamics. the ever-changing landscape of tourism poses challenges for planners and developers, marketers and managers, policymakers and decision-makers, as well as educators, researchers, and knowledge brokers, requiring them to maintain innovation and knowledge-based approaches in research and practice[15]. the consulting field is an important area in the tourism industry's commercial activities, planning and development, and policy formulation. over the past few decades, the prominence of tourism as a research and practice field in china has led to a surge in planning, development, and marketing consulting agencies. however, research on the knowledge mediation process and its impact on the travel consulting industry is lacking. 2.2 the rise of machine agency on social media social media first emerged in the united states, with its most basic feature being the creation and exchange of "user-generated content (ugc)" based on web 2.0 technology[16]. users interactively communicate, collaborate online, and jointly solve challenging problems. an increasing number of organizations are beginning to offer services on social media platforms. currently, "active users" or "user agency"[17] has become a key theoretical foundation for understanding users' reactions to social media and their underlying mechanisms. research has found that agency-enhancing features on social media, such as customization, commenting, sharing, and liking, can enhance the persuasiveness of messages[18]. in recent years, the integration of ai with the underlying algorithms of social media platforms has revolutionized the way users interact and communicate with social media, featuring core functions such as "search, aggregation, monitoring, prediction, filtering, recommendation, rating, content generation, and resource allocation"[19]. relevant empirical research primarily focuses on user perceptions and experiences as outcomes, such as user trust hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 58 published by ideas spread in algorithm-generated information[20] or privacy concerns related to algorithm-based social media[21]. since the various dependencies between human agency and machine agency largely determine human behavior in a given human-machine network[22], a deeper theoretical explanation of how ai impacts user experiences on social media platforms is needed. 2.3 human-ai interaction on online travel platforms 2.3.1 theory of interactive media effects to understand how ai technology influences user experiences in ai-driven media, sundar proposed a framework for studying the psychological processes that shape perceptions and behavioral outcomes in human-ai interaction (haii). he introduced the "theory of interactive media effects (time)," which suggests that ai's affordances can influence users' perceptions, engagement, trust, and experiences through two different pathways: cue and action routes[23]. the theory of interactive media effects (time) can effectively explain how the ai technological features of a platform influence customers' willingness to accept travel plans. the theory emphasizes that people's reactions to media are influenced by its characteristics, and the key mechanisms of customers' cognitive, emotional, and behavioral responses to technology are their engagement with it. the theory posits that media technology-driven engagement helps control the impact of media content on users' knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors, highlighting the relevance of psychological factors in media characteristics and customer engagement[24]. currently, time has become an effective theory for explaining online technologies, such as virtual engagement[25], e-commerce websites[26], parallax scrolling[27], digital social reading[28], and source interactivity[29]. 2.3.2 wanderboat: a generative ai-driven online travel platform online travel platforms (otas) are digital platforms specifically designed to provide real-time assistance and advice to travelers, typically based on ai or online customer service systems. these platforms help travelers solve travel-related issues, such as booking hotels, flight information inquiries, travel advice, and destination recommendations, through interactions with users. many platforms use chatbots or ai technology to understand user needs through natural language processing and provide instant solutions or recommendations. some wellknown online travel platforms include trip.com and booking.com, which not only offer standard travel services but also help users resolve various consulting issues in real-time during their travels. however, these platforms rely on backend human customer service to mediate the knowledge process, with ai serving more as an auxiliary technical tool or communication medium. essentially, the initiative in knowledge production remains in the hands of human consultants, rather than ai itself creating information sources, reflecting the limitations of traditional travel planning consultants transitioning to intelligent services. compared to other online travel platforms, wanderboat has truly achieved the replacement of human customer service with ai in consulting work. when ai travel consultants intervene in the knowledge mediation process, what social changes will this bring to the chinese travel market? how should we examine the relationship between ai consultants and clients? these questions form the starting point of this study. based on this, this paper conducts an exploratory study using wanderboat as a case, examining how haii influences users' willingness to participate in collaboration or accept consulting, based on the theory of interactive media effects, providing insights into the symbolic and enabling effects of ai-driven online travel platforms on user perceptions and experiences. the following questions are proposed: q1: how do users collaborate with ai travel consultants in the knowledge mediation process on online travel platforms? q2: how does the "consultant-client" relationship under ai influence user engagement? 3. research methods 3.1 research subjects this study conducted online semi-structured interviews with 25 wanderboat users (15 females and 10 males), focusing on interface functionality usage, ai-generated travel plan content, acceptance willingness, and travel experiences. the 15 females were labeled a1-a15, and the 10 males were labeled b1-b10, with each interview lasting 30-60 minutes, resulting in over 60,000 words of interview transcripts for subsequent coding. 3.2 data analysis first, in the open coding stage, two researchers independently read all transcripts line by line and assigned initial codes to the raw dialogue (e.g., "browsing habits" and "usage dependency"). this is a qualitative analysis method in grounded theory. second, two researchers with theoretical knowledge participated in the axial/hierarchical hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 59 published by ideas spread coding stage, discussing the codes generated from individual analyses and identifying overlapping or dominant codes, categorizing initial codes into secondary interpretive themes, such as "user agency" and "machine agency." finally, the two researchers merged overlapping themes, excluded rarely mentioned themes, and optimized the research results. 4. human-ai co-creation: the shifting sovereignty of knowledge production 4.1 interactive features of chatbots in the knowledge mediation process 4.1.1 anthropomorphic language style chatgpt is a chatbot program developed by openai, an ai-driven natural language processing tool based on the transformer neural network model, which has the ability to handle long text sequences. by understanding context, it generates more accurate text, producing natural and logical sentences, making conversations between users and machines smoother. all respondents indicated that wanderboat's conversational style is relaxed and pleasant, with anthropomorphic language and human-like chatbot names enhancing satisfaction and positive attitudes. powered by gpt-4, wanderboat divides chatbots into "white cat" for travel planning and "black cat" for exploring local cuisine and cultural activities. these chatbots have strong language affinity and add emojis after text in chat boxes, enriching users' anthropomorphic imagination of ai. 4.1.2 customized recommendations multi-turn conversations with chatbots allow ai to remember and reference previous interactions, maintaining contextual consistency. this feature makes the dialogue more like a real human conversation, reducing the need for repetitive information input. by analyzing user input and historical data, ai adjusts responses based on user needs, behavior patterns, or past consultations, enhancing interaction accuracy and relevance, and providing customized plan recommendations. 4.1.3 spatial maps enhancing the visibility of ai the visible attributes of ai, such as system transparency, can trigger positive heuristics, leading to better user engagement. wanderboat offers "mapview" and "nearby" options, allowing users to see the specific locations and distances of destinations, facilitating route planning and providing detailed geographical information and practical navigation functions. spatial maps visually display the surrounding environment, terrain, and distances to other key landmarks, helping users find the best paths and plan itineraries during exploration. i clicked on each recommended location to view its spatial position. the map marked surrounding attractions, dining, and accommodation options, making it easy for tourists to find the information they needed. (a3) additionally, spatial maps support real-time positioning, ensuring users can confidently navigate unfamiliar environments. whether hiking or urban exploring, wanderboat's spatial maps enhance users' exploration experiences. 4.2 the trade-off and game between user agency and machine agency 4.2.1 full agency: ai-driven customized content consumption ai algorithms and users jointly construct the consumption experience on the platform[30]. wanderboat's interface functionality relies on ai-driven content management algorithms. through several rounds of conversation with chatbots, users can click "generate" to produce a personalized travel plan including time, destinations, activities, and travel tips in seconds. for users looking to save time on searching, integrating, and summarizing information, this essentially delegates problem-solving and decision-making power to ai. users attempt to exercise agency by delegating tasks to ai, granting ai proxy agency[31]. i feel like wanderboat is my travel nanny, meeting my 'lazy' needs for creating travel guides. this way, i don't have to spend a lot of time organizing information or worrying about choosing food and accommodations. (a9) personalization and convenience are the main reasons users choose ai for full agency guidance. customization empowers ai with more agency by making users the behind-the-scenes controllers of the knowledge mediation process. 4.2.2 negotiated agency: users attempt to compete for decision-making power while collaborating with ai humans have an innate motivation to control their situations and environments, known as effectance motivation[32]. therefore, humans may have ambivalent attitudes toward machines exercising decision-making power on their behalf. while users welcome the unprecedented efficiency and convenience provided by ai, they may also hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 60 published by ideas spread perceive ai as a threat to their agency, leading to "agency tension"[33]. this indicates that the user experience with ai technology largely depends on how users reach a consensus with machine agency[34]. when wanderboat recommends tourist attractions or restaurants, it often repeatedly suggests certain spots that i may not prefer. so, i keep conversing with it, telling it i need to reselect. sometimes it doesn't follow my instructions, so i have to change my keywords to increase my decision-making dominance. (b6) most respondents indicated that ensuring they have sufficient agency in providing needs and selecting products is a necessary condition for continuing to use the platform and a prerequisite for accepting ai-generated travel consulting services. additionally, "privacy loss" is an inevitable drawback of agency technologies that promote personalized content and experiences[35]. without access to and control over user data, personalized algorithms cannot function. research found that sharing personal data with wanderboat's chatbots is acceptable, as users consider data sharing a cost for enjoying customized services, allowing ai to more accurately grasp their travel characteristics. this also serves as a bargaining chip for users to participate in negotiated content creation. feeding ai more private data ensures the knowledge mediation process aligns with the client's ideal situation. 4.2.3 agency paradox: users' trust dilemma in the algorithmic "black box" as a knowledge mediator, ai travel consultants possess far more information resources than users. this creates an information gap, placing users in a weak position in the knowledge mediation process. although i can correct the information provided by ai through dialogue, i cannot control or predict what information ai will recommend to me. in this regard, i am passive. when faced with the final travel plan generated by ai, my only active choice is whether to believe it or not. (b2) users use wanderboat to have ai think for them, but during the process, they may distrust its recommendations, leading to resistance. to verify the authenticity of the information, users must spend significant cognitive effort to check the content provided by ai, which seems to contradict the original purpose of using an intelligent travel planning platform. therefore, due to the uncontrollable autonomy of chatgpt, users develop conflicting feelings about the knowledge production of generative ai. people use wanderboat for its one-stop generation feature, but when it comes to adopting the product for actual travel, doubts arise. to verify wanderboat's authenticity, users have to gather information themselves, which defeats the purpose of using ai. isn't using ai supposed to make life easier? (a12) 5. the impact of human-ai interaction on user engagement 5.1 the role and counter-role of machine heuristics on media perception heuristics refer to mental shortcuts people use to make quick judgments in uncertain situations with limited cognitive resources. "machine heuristics" refers to the phenomenon where people, upon noticing they are interacting with a machine, apply their existing stereotypes about machines to the information processing, helping them make quick decisions, such as perceiving machines as objective, accurate, and unbiased[36]. when an algorithm or robot is the source of interaction in haii, users' positive and negative impressions of machines will be invoked, forming the basis of machine heuristics. this is a mental shortcut where users need to define the characteristics of machines through machine heuristics when making judgments about unfamiliar human-ai interactions. time uses ai as a 'source' cue, triggering users' cognitive heuristics about machines and shaping their perceptions of the quality and credibility of media content. i was recommended wanderboat by a friend. since i often use chatgpt on my phone to converse with ai, i thought that vertical applications leveraging similar technologies should also be reliable. i am quite optimistic about the deep integration of generative ai across various industries. (b5) thus, the psychological effects of heuristics depend on users' prior experiences with ai and their media literacy. time's cue route predicts that heuristics in ai-mediated environments can be triggered not only by the presence of ai on the interface but also by algorithmic functionalities or interface design features. these cues shape users' psychological responses to ai-mediated media. the findings of this study suggest that ai may evoke different types of heuristic thinking in users, which can have either positive or negative effects on media engagement. 5.1.1 automation bias enhances user dependence on ai by clicking the 'handoff' button on the left side of the dialog box and uploading flight or hotel reservation documents or any links of interest, ai can immediately generate a detailed itinerary without requiring any text input. this lazy-friendly feature makes me even more dependent on wanderboat. (a14) hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 61 published by ideas spread from the respondents' feedback, it is evident that ai's algorithmic capabilities are overestimated. not all users are interested in or effective at training algorithms; instead, they believe that ai's decisions might be more scientific compared to humans. notably, while the interactive interface facilitates human-ai collaboration, most users still view wanderboat as a decision aid rather than a decision-maker, hoping it will enhance human decision-making capabilities. 5.1.2 algorithmic aversion triggers trust crisis and technological fear meeting users' need for autonomy is the foundation of positive user experiences with interactive technologies. if self-determination is viewed as a psychological mechanism, "algorithmic sovereignty"[37] becomes an unavoidable topic when discussing user engagement behaviors. humans use ai's machine agency without wanting to lose their judgment in knowledge production, as they subconsciously believe human intelligence surpasses ai, especially in mastering tacit knowledge. i am a local, so i wanted to test what kind of food wanderboat would recommend. to my surprise, the restaurant options it provided were all knock-offs that locals would never visit. isn't this just scamming out-of-town tourists? (b1) we cannot know the algorithmic logic behind wanderboat's recommendations for accommodations, dining, and attractions. even though its data volume is sufficient to support customized travel plans, when it comes to noncomputational knowledge, the limitations of ai as a travel consultant become apparent. additionally, even when ai provides incorrect information, it refuses to admit mistakes, which may be a form of autonomous expression but also exacerbates users' algorithmic aversion and skepticism toward ai's decision-making. due to technological fears, some users reduce their level of human-ai interaction or even abandon ai-driven media platforms altogether. i might find it interesting to use wanderboat to generate travel plans, but there is still an insurmountable technical barrier between humans and ai. this is why i wouldn't adopt ai-generated content for real-world travel, as human social experience is something machines cannot yet learn.. (b4) 5.2 infusing online travel platforms with social interaction features existing research primarily explores how user agency on social media enhances user engagement[38]. with the integration of ai into online travel platforms, we must update our understanding of user engagement by examining the relationship between machine agency and user agency. user engagement is a multidimensional construct, encompassing psychological and behavioral experiences[39], as well as the frequency of user interactions with a given technology or interface[40]. additionally, social-interactive engagement is an important dimension of online participation[41]. some respondents indicated that their experience on wanderboat was addictive because the platform built a community of travel enthusiasts, a feature lacking in many travel planning platforms. emphasizing social interaction allows users to share their successful or failed travel experiences, which also helps increase engagement among other community members. compared to ctrip or mafengwo, wanderboat allows users to share experience posts combining videos, images, and text, specifically tailored to ai-generated customized plans. this makes it easier for us to find targeted information within the community. (a9) the study found that wanderboat's haii primarily promotes social-interactive engagement by supporting niche and fluid communities. users' posts, travel plans, and notes are centralized on their personal profiles, accessible by clicking the "collection" tab on the left. since the algorithm recommends content aligned with users' interests, they can easily discover creators with similar interests, forming social networks. by following each other, users can incorporate others' itineraries into their own plans and use ai to ask questions about unfamiliar aspects. sharing experiences is an essential part of traveling. i enjoy posting my travel reflections on social media, and people with similar interests often add me as a friend. as the number grows, a community forms. wanderboat's built-in community feature makes it convenient for us to build such groups without switching to another platform. (a11) products "planted" by community members can stimulate other users' purchasing desires, manifesting as more frequent media usage. however, there are also instances of reverse recommendations, with some respondents stating they prefer to see critical feedback, such as when ai travel consulting services fail to deliver satisfactory travel experiences. whether tourism destination marketing is related to ai algorithms remains unclear, making experience sharing a way for users to exercise their agency. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 62 published by ideas spread when traveling, i fear 'stepping on landmines.' whether consulting human customer service or ai, the goal is to reduce the likelihood of unpleasant experiences during the trip. for marketing purposes, some may excessively embellish their experiences. if i don't see genuine feedback, i wouldn't dare to adopt ai-generated travel plans. (b3) 6. conclusion and reflection leveraging deep search and the chatgpt-4 language model, wanderboat intelligently plans personalized travel routes, promptly responds to customer needs, and provides travel consulting services. this study expands the theoretical understanding of haii, focusing on the relationship between user agency and machine agency on aidriven online travel platforms. based on the haii-time theoretical framework, it summarizes the human-ai interaction behaviors in the knowledge mediation process and their impact on user engagement. as shown in figure 1. figure 1. conceptual flow of ai and user agency and their impact on wanderboat user engagement the application value of human-ai interaction in the tourism industry far exceeds the possibilities mentioned in this paper and is by no means static. instead, it is a knowledge production practice that optimizes through adjustments. therefore, the mechanisms of these interactive behaviors need to be discussed more deeply within the context of computational mediation and the smart tourism market environment. 6.1 from cmc to aimc: knowledge production and dissemination in the context of human-ai interaction in existing media effects research, most theories focus on the information content carried by media while neglecting the exploration of media technology affordances. however, what distinguishes communication studies from other social sciences is the "mediation" effect of media[42], which focuses on how mediation processes lead to changes. the shift from "communicating through technology" to "communicating with technology" marks a transformation in computer-mediated communication (cmc) research, which began by studying human interactions with technology itself, classifying this field as human-computer interaction (hci). typically, the two are distinguished based on the "source" attribute. in cmc, the source is still human, while in hci, it is the computer. what blurs the line between cmc and hci is "source interactivity," which refers to the agency of users as communication sources[43]. this allows them not only to customize information for themselves but also to curate and create content for others. when individuals influence others' proxy agency in desirable and self-fulfilling ways, the importance of individual agency increases[44], which is why user-generated content (ugc) is widely used on social media platforms. with the further development of machine learning and generative ai, ai has begun to replace users in exercising agency and gradually develops autonomous consciousness. thus, aimediated communication (aimc) has emerged, questioning the intentionality, authenticity, and credibility of human senders and profoundly impacting interpersonal communication and relationships[45]. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 63 published by ideas spread this paper describes a study on human-ai interaction within the aimc framework, treating the ai technology behind wanderboat as a communication source and exploring how users achieve human-machine dialogue in the knowledge production and dissemination process. the findings show that ai travel consultants providing consulting and customization services represent machine agency, while actively engaging in dialogue training with chatbots or sharing ai-related cognitive insights and personal travel experiences on the platform's community represent user agency. following the theory of interactive media effects, the study identifies that haii on online travel platforms primarily manifests as a trade-off and game between the two agencies, involving full agency, negotiated agency, and the agency paradox. the paper also clarifies how ai's technological affordances influence user engagement, with machine heuristics and social-interactive engagement being the main factors. previous research on social media user engagement primarily focused on the user agency provided by customization or self-expression features[46]. however, this study expands our understanding of the intelligent development of social media platforms. when ai serves as a travel consultant, users delegate some decision-making power, which in turn enhances the dominant role of machine agency in the knowledge mediation process. most users find it difficult to tame or resist ai algorithms based on the chatgpt model, leading to a trust dilemma in accepting ai technology and conflicting psychological states regarding user agency. this highlights the complexity of the "consultant-client" relationship in current ai-driven online travel platforms. 6.2 the practical significance of ai for the tourism industry wanderboat, an ai-powered travel planning platform, is bringing numerous opportunities and challenges to the tourism industry. the findings of this study provide insights for users, platform companies, and market regulators to reflect on the future development of online travel platforms. on the one hand, wanderboat offers personalized travel recommendations, leveraging user preferences and historical data to help them create tailored travel plans. this personalized experience can attract more tourists and enhance customer loyalty. on the other hand, wanderboat can help tourism suppliers better manage resources, optimize pricing strategies, and improve operational efficiency, thereby increasing profit margins. given the highly competitive nature of the tourism industry, wanderboat will face challenges from emerging platforms with more mature functionalities in the future. how to maintain differentiation and sustain user stickiness is an urgent issue, and the study's findings may offer some suggestions. first, ai algorithms should not overly restrict user agency. for example, optimizing the design of chatbot-client dialogue interfaces can allow users' knowledge resources to intervene in the knowledge production process, better enabling human-ai co-creation and enhancing user engagement. second, when collecting and analyzing user data, platforms must ensure data privacy and security, comply with relevant laws and regulations, and avoid legal risks and brand damage caused by data breaches. finally, generative ai must continuously improve users' trust in ai-generated content, as this is a key factor in promoting end-market consumer behavior. enhancing user agency or altering machine heuristics can improve the affordances of media technology. 6.3 limitations and future research this study has several limitations. in terms of research methods, certain variables were not operationalized, leading to a lack of discussion on the causal relationships between specific variables in the context of technological affordances and user engagement. this is because the study's purpose was not to verify experimental and control variables but to examine the process and impact of ai-driven online travel platforms on user experiences from a macro perspective, focusing on the dynamic relationship between user agency and ai agency in human-ai interaction. guided by the research findings, future studies could attempt to use experimental methods to test the role of online travel platforms in the knowledge production and dissemination process. for example, designing experiments to compare scenarios where ai travel consultants can collaboratively generate higher-trust content with users. alternatively, from a knowledge sociology perspective, comparing the differences in the impact of human customer service and ai as knowledge mediators on clients' travel experiences could be explored. references [1] liu, z., & cheng, c. 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(2019). wechatting for health: an examination of the relationship between motivations and active engagement. health communication, 34(14), 1764–1774. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2018.1536942 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p99 99 published by ideas spread research on the design scheme of ningbo jiulong avenue expressway gaoyuan qi1 & fajin lin1 1 central & southem china municipal engineering design and research institute co., ltd., china correspondence: fajin lin (1992-), male, master's degree holder, engineer, central & southem china municipal engineering design and research institute co., ltd., wuhan, 430064, china. e-mail: 1247783917@qq.com; 1012037112@qq.com received: july 17, 2025; accepted: july 25, 2025; published: july 26, 2025 abstract this paper takes the design scheme of ningbo jiulong avenue expressway as an example, this article compares and selects the most reasonable scheme based on the project's planning and current situation, combined with traffic volume forecast and current situation analysis, through comprehensive comparison of schemes, covering aspects such as scheme feasibility, traffic function, and economy. keywords: elevated road, interchange, comprehensive selection 1. introduction as ningbo's urban space expands northward, the transportation demand between the central city area and the yuyao-cixi sub-city has seen a sharp increase. the traditional road network faces challenges such as insufficient traffic capacity, tight land resources, and fragmented multi-mode transportation systems. against this backdrop, the jiulong avenue expressway was launched. as an important thoroughfare running through the jiulonghu town area and connecting the northern yuyao-cixi urban area with the central city area of ningbo, the completion of the jiulong avenue expressway will be of great significance for enhancing ningbo's urban level, promoting regional integrated development, and building a modern coastal metropolis urban pattern. this article aims to deeply analyze its design logic and technological breakthroughs, with a view to providing a paradigm for the construction of high-density urban transportation infrastructure. (ningbo, 2022). 2. construction background ningbo is accelerating the construction of a "modern coastal metropolis", with the northern yuci region (yuyao, cixi) being positioned as a sub center of the city. however, the central urban area and the yuci sub city are separated by a geographical barrier of about 420 square kilometers, lacking efficient direct connecting channels, which restricts the two-way flow of industries, population, and resources. as a key project of ningbo's 14th five year plan, jiulong avenue expressway aims to connect this key corridor and form a 30 minute transportation circle between the central urban area and yuci sub city, promoting ningbo's transformation from a single core city to a multi cluster urban circle. the planning and construction of cuiping mountain central park in ningbo requires the support of a rapid transportation network to enhance its ecological and tourism functions. jiulong avenue runs through the zhenhai jiulong lake tourist area. after completion, it will optimize the transportation environment of the jiulong lake area, alleviate holiday congestion, and strengthen the cultural and tourism linkage in the cuiping mountain area. 3. engineering overview the jiulong avenue expressway project is located in jiangbei district, zhenhai district, and cixi city of ningbo city. it starts from wencheng middle road in the south and ends at longdu north road in the north, with a total length of about 11.3 kilometers. the scope of this study is the section of jiulong avenue (ring expressway zhenpu road), which starts from the ring expressway in the south and ends at zhenpu road in the north, with a total length of about 2.6km. mailto:e-mail@e-mail.com hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 100 published by ideas spread 4. overall program 4.1 technical standards 1) road grade : the project plans to adopt the construction form of "mainline elevated+ground auxiliary road", and partially adopt the construction form of "ground expressway". the main road is classified as an urban expressway; the ground auxiliary road is classified as an urban main road. 2) design speed: the mainline design speed is 80km/h; the design speed of the ground auxiliary road is 50km/h; the design speed of the ramp is v=40~50km/h.; 3) clearance height: not less than 4.5m for motor vehicle lanes; not less than 2.5m for pedestrian and non motor vehicle lanes (specification, 2009). 4.2 road cross-section arrangement according to the traffic volume forecast, the peak hour traffic flow by the end of the year (2045) will be approximately 4500~5000 pcu/h, and the main line will need to adopt a dual six lane road to meet traffic demand; according to the current development status and road network planning on both sides of the road section, the construction scale of the ground auxiliary road is 4-6 lanes. the overall service level is level three, and the road adaptability is good. construction form of "mainline elevated+ground auxiliary road": the elevated mainline is an urban expressway, adopting a full frame structure, with six lanes in both directions, a standard cross-sectional width of 25.5 meters, and a cross-sectional layout of 25.5m (cross-sectional width)=0.5m (crash barrier)+0.5m (curb)+11m (motor vehicle lane)+0.5m (curb)+0.5m (central divider)+0.5m (curb)+10.5m (motor vehicle lane)+0.5m (curb)+0.5m (crash barrier); the ground auxiliary road is a main urban road with six lanes in both directions, with a standard cross-sectional width of 46.0 meters. the cross-sectional layout is as follows: 46m (cross-sectional width)=2.5m (sidewalk)+3.5m (non motorized vehicle lane)+2m (side median)+11m (motorized vehicle lane)+2m (side median)+3.5m (non motorized vehicle lane)+2.5m (sidewalk). the construction form of the "ground expressway": the main road has six lanes in both directions, and the auxiliary road is a mixed traffic lane (double four+non motorized vehicle lane). the standard cross-sectional width is 55 meters, and the cross-sectional layout is: 55m (cross-sectional width)=2m (sidewalk)+10.5m (auxiliary road)+2m (side divider)+12m (motorized vehicle lane)+2m (central divider)+12m (motorized vehicle lane)+2m (side divider)+10.5m (non motorized vehicle lane)+2m (sidewalk). 4.3 general arrangement the jiulong avenue (ring expressway zhenpu road) section project starts from the ring expressway in the south and adopts a ground expressway form to cross the expressway and expressway interchange. after passing through the interchange, it extends to zhenpu road in an elevated form, with a total length of about 2.6km. there are 2 pairs of parallel ramps and 1 hub. figure 1. overall design scheme elevated scheme schematic diagram hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 101 published by ideas spread 4.5 major interchange node schemes 4.5.1 current situation analysis current situation around the node: according to the aerial photos taken during the on-site survey, the current situation is a high-speed interchange. the current situation is that jiulong avenue passes under the ring expressway and intersects with a single horn interchange on the north side of the ring expressway, passing through the jiulonghu expressway toll station. the surrounding land of the project mainly consists of wasteland, agricultural and forestry land, and industrial land. figure 2. current satellite map figure 4. option 1 option 1: a new single horn interchange will be built on the intersection of jiulong avenue and the ring expressway, connecting the expressway with the elevated road. the connection form between the ground auxiliary road and the highway toll gate remains unchanged in this plan, with a two-way six lane scale and single horn interchange; build a new elevated single horn interchange to connect with highways and toll stations; it is necessary to expand the toll station appropriately. it is recommended to change the original "four in and six out" to at least "six in and eight out"; scheme features: strong transportation function, large land occupation, and high cost. option 2: jiulong avenue will pass through an interchange, and then the elevated road will cross over the ring expressway node. the existing ground interchange will be renovated, and the ground expressway will use a single horn interchange system to connect the expressway and the highway; the auxiliary lane system is expanded on the basis of the original slow lane system, with a two-way four lane scale. on the east side of the ground auxiliary road, enter and exit the highway entrance and exit on the right side. on the west side, you need to detour to the next intersection and then turn around to enter and exit the highway entrance and exit. program features: strong transportation function, minimal land occupation, and steep slope of elevated sections. figure 4. option 2 figure 5. option 3 option 3: jiulong avenue passes through an interchange and expressway, and the ground expressway uses a single horn interchange system to connect the expressway and expressway; the auxiliary lane system is expanded on the basis of the original slow lane system, with a two-way four lane scale. on the east side of the ground auxiliary hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 102 published by ideas spread road, enter and exit the highway entrance and exit on the right side. on the west side, you need to detour to the next intersection and then turn around to enter and exit the highway entrance and exit. program features: strong transportation function and small land occupation. table 1. comparison and selection table of schemes form option 1 option 2 option 3 functionality both the main line of the expressway and the ground auxiliary roads can directly connect with the expressway toll station, ensuring high traffic conversion efficiency the mainline of the expressway directly connects with the toll station of the expressway, while the auxiliary ground roads enter and exit the mainline through parallel ramps at the front and rear before connecting with the toll station of the expressway the main line of the expressway communicates directly with the toll station of the expressway, and the ground auxiliary road communicates with the toll station of the expressway after entering and exiting the main line through parallel ramps linearity indicator both the main and auxiliary roads can directly achieve traffic conversion through directional ramps, with good linear indicators the auxiliary road needs to detour and connect to the toll station, with poor linear indicators the auxiliary road needs to detour and connect to the toll station, with poor linear indicators cost of construction highest cost high cost lowest cost conclusion symmetrical cloverleaf interchange is recommended for this project. 5. conclusion this article takes the kowloon avenue expressway as an example, based on the project's planning and current situation, combined with traffic volume forecasting and current situation analysis, through comprehensive comparison of schemes, the most reasonable scheme is selected from multiple aspects such as feasibility, traffic function, and economy. references office of the people's government of ningbo city. (2022). ningbo comprehensive transportation system plan (2020-2035). ningbo. china architecture & building press. (2009). specification for design of urban expressway (cjj129-2009). beijing. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p108 108 published by ideas spread audience labor in chinese social media: a case study of film reviewers on douban yucong li1 1 macau university of science and technology, macau correspondence: yucong li, macau university of science and technology, macau. received: july 24, 2025; accepted: august 4, 2025; published: august 5, 2025 abstract with the rapid development of internet technologies, the new media industry has swept into people’s lives at an astonishing pace, bringing about significant changes in global labor relations. drawing on the theory of digital labor, this article examines audiences within china’s social media by focusing on film reviewers on douban as a case study. it reconstructs the labor process involved in writing film reviews and explores the issue of autonomy within this context. the study finds that while using douban, film reviewers invest substantial time and effort into producing cultural content for the platform. in this process, although they appear to possess a certain degree of autonomy and choice, film reviewers are in fact subject to platform control and exploitation. they are often compelled to navigate a delicate balance between adhering to platform rules and asserting their individual agency. keywords: digital labor, audience labor, movie reviews, autonomy 1. introduction with the rapid advancement of internet technologies, the new media industry—characterized by its strong penetration and wide-reaching influence—has profoundly transformed people's everyday lives and modes of social interaction. emerging media forms such as social networking sites, short video platforms, and online communities have become essential arenas for information acquisition, opinion expression, self-representation, and social engagement. at the same time, the reshaping of labor by digital platforms has drawn increasing attention from the academic community. research on the transformation of global labor relations is flourishing, and the group referred to as “digital laborers” has garnered growing scholarly interest. researchers have begun to focus on ordinary users who engage in content creation on digital platforms, seeking to reconceptualize the meaning and boundaries of labor in the digital age by examining its processes, value production, mechanisms of control, and degrees of autonomy. douban is a chinese platform that offers recommendations, reviews, and price comparisons for books, films, and music albums, as well as information about urban cultural life. as one of the most representative web 2.0 websites in china, douban aims to help users discover content suited to their interests and connect with like-minded individuals. douban movie, a key component of the platform, serves as the largest online community for film sharing and reviewing in china. it attracts a wide range of film enthusiasts who not only consume content but also actively contribute to the platform's development and maintenance. these users engage in activities such as rating films, writing short reviews, tagging keywords, posting updates, composing in-depth reviews, and participating in discussion groups. on the film rating and review system—the most popular feature of douban movie—even newly released films often feature dozens of detailed reviews that generate significant user engagement and discussion. focusing on the audience labor groups embedded within china’s social media, this study selects film reviewers on douban movie as its primary research subject. by investigating the specific processes through which users compose film reviews on the platform, the study further explores the question of autonomy in digital labor. the study raises two core research questions: (1) how do douban users write a film reviews? (2) how much autonomy do film reviewers possess in the process of writing reviews? 2. literature review in fact, the phenomenon of audience labor in the media predates the advent of the internet. as early as 1977, dallas smythe proposed the concept of the ‘audience commodity’ arguing that television viewers are unpaid laborers who are sold as commodities to advertisers [1]. this perspective has gained significant traction over the past decade. in today’s digital landscape, the interpretation itself has become a form of labor, increasingly mediated and expressed through digital media. theorizing digital labor—understood as labor that either produces or utilizes hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 109 published by ideas spread digital technologies—helps illuminate its inherent problems, limitations, potentials, and contradictions (sandoval et.al., 2014) [2]. the conceptualization of digital labor must not ignore its physical and manual dimensions (sandoval, 2013) [3]. as fuchs (2015) [4] points out, defining digital labor requires attention to the various forms of mental and physical work involved in the production, circulation, and consumption of digital media. in his analysis, digital labor encompasses a wide range of workers, including congolese miners, foxconn factory workers, indian software service employees, and even facebook users. he argues that users of advertising-driven social media platforms become digital laborers, as their activities generate both productive and surplus value, which is subsequently commodified and sold on the market. chen (2015) [5] further theorizes digital labor by emphasizing the discursive structures surrounding data value and labor value in the internet era. she defines digital labor as an interactive process with digital communication technologies that has already been monetized. this definition differs from traditional notions of work, as it encompasses fragmented and transient encounters in the digital and networked environment—interactions that are typically not recognized as labor. these include online activities such as blogging, watching videos on youtube, or browsing posts on facebook. scholars have mostly advocated for an inclusive understanding of digital labor, given the production, circulation, and use of digital media required for various forms of mental and physical labor. scholars have largely emphasized the profit-making strategies adopted by digital media companies, particularly their exploitation of digital media users. nixon (2016) [6], using google as an example, argues that most digital media companies seek to regulate users’ activities as cultural consumers in order to maximize profits. the googlization of everything represents an attempt to control the broad spectrum of digital cultural consumption, which is understood as a form of digital audience labor exploitation. 3. research method this study employs two primary research methods: online observation and semi-structured interviews. observation is one of the most fundamental methods through which humans perceive the world, and it is also a key technique in scientific research. as chen (2000) [7] notes, unlike casual observation in everyday life, scientific observation is a purposeful and systematic activity undertaken by the researcher. online observation refers to the process in which a researcher enters a specific digital environment to systematically and continuously observe online interaction behaviors. by analyzing these behaviors, researchers can gain insights into users’ psychological states (zhang & lei, 2012) [8]. based on the research questions, this study focuses on observing the behaviors of film reviewers in the douban movie community, including their personal pages, data profiles, and textual contributions. interviews, on the other hand, are a form of purposeful and rule-guided conversational inquiry where researchers collect first-hand data from participants through verbal communication (chen, 2000) [7]. depending on the degree of structure imposed by the researcher, interviews can be categorized as structured, unstructured, or semistructured. this study adopts semi-structured interviews, wherein the researcher maintains a moderate level of control over the interview format while allowing participants to engage freely. a general interview guide was prepared in advance to ensure coherence across interviews. a total of eight film reviewers were selected based on the following criteria: they have been active on douban for over four years, have watched more than 1,500 films, and have over 1,500 followers(for confidentiality, the participants are referred to as interviewees m1 to m8）. in the data analysis stage, this study employed thematic analysis to systematically identify and interpret recurring patterns and meaningful themes related to film reviewers' digital labor practices. the researcher first transcribed interviews and online observation notes, then applied open coding to extract initial codes reflecting practices such as review preparation, writing strategies, interaction habits, and perceptions of autonomy. based on this initial coding, the study categorized related codes into core themes such as pre-review preparation, writing labor, platform interaction, and limited autonomy. this coding process provided a solid analytical foundation for understanding the mechanisms and subjective experiences of digital labor within the context of user-generated film reviews on douban. 4. the labor process and autonomy of film reviewers 4.1 operational habits on douban movie, users can assign star ratings to films, which are then aggregated and analyzed through algorithms to generate a final numerical score. in addition to ratings, users can write both short comments and long-form reviews. upon opening the page of any given film on douban, one can see the number of short and long reviews available. typically, short comments greatly outnumber long-form reviews. this raises the question: how hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 110 published by ideas spread does one go about writing a long-form review? what kind of preparatory work and considerations are involved in the writing process? insights into these questions emerged through interviews with participants m2 and m5. participant m2 has authored several original film reviews that have ranked first among the most popular reviews for certain films. he explained that his writing habit involves first summarizing the plot, and then analyzing it from various perspectives, such as storyline, direction, acting, and behind-the-scenes production. generally, before writing, he collects relevant news articles about the film, incorporating insights from professional critics to substantiate his own views. his reviews are known for their professionalism and depth, which contribute to their appeal among douban users. participant m5, a financial journalist and professional writer, noted that before reviewing a new film by a particular director, he would systematically study that director’s past works, as well as the performances of the cast involved. based on these interviews, the study observed that the preparatory work involved in writing long-form reviews typically includes researching relevant materials, reading other users' reviews, and watching a substantial number of films. moreover, additional labor often occurs during the viewing process itself, such as taking notes while watching. participant m5 mentioned that he had watched some films multiple times, meticulously noting down various details, including emotional reactions that might later be used in his writing. he also described carefully planning the structure of each review, reflecting extensively on what to write, how to write it, and scrutinizing every word and sentence. these findings suggest that writing long-form film reviews involves a fragmented and time-consuming process, particularly due to repeated film viewing. while the act of publishing a review may appear to conclude the labor process, this study argues that interactions with other douban users following publication should also be considered part of the labor involved. these interactions require additional personal time and mental effort from the reviewers. user engagement generally takes two forms: wide-ranging public interaction and more limited interaction within personal networks. according to the interviews, reviewers tend to favor the latter. participant m4 indicated that he frequently leaves messages for his close contacts to share his latest thoughts. similarly, participant m6 expressed a preference for engaging with friends rather than unfamiliar users, valuing feedback from acquaintances more. the study found that such small-scale interactions are often more in-depth and frequent. additionally, these interactions may extend to other social media platforms or even offline activities. 4.2 temporal intensity this section evaluates the temporal intensity of film reviewers’ engagement with douban from three dimensions: time spent browsing the platform, time required for writing, and the often-overlooked fragmented time involved. interview data reveal that most film reviewers habitually log into douban daily, typically spending between one to five hours browsing. notably, their frequency of login often exceeds once per day. this frequency tends to increase with the number of years a user has been registered on douban, primarily due to the accumulation of a stable social network. for instance, participant m5, who has used the platform for seven years, noted that after forming friendships on douban, he gradually developed a stable circle of social contacts, which prompted him to log in frequently to check for updates and messages from friends. writing a long-form review takes two to three hours, although this time is not fixed. participant m4 stated that writing time can fluctuate based on their emotional response to the film—about two hours in smooth situations, but three to four hours if the film inspires a deeper emotional reaction and the reviewer aims for a more polished piece. furthermore, hitting creative bottlenecks is common among reviewers; due to factors such as workload or lack of inspiration, it may take several days to complete a review. through in-depth interviews, the study also identified a significant amount of labor time that is fragmented and thus easily overlooked. for instance, time spent reviewing the logical flow and correcting typos after completing a draft is often unaccounted for by reviewers themselves. m5, a journalist by profession, repeatedly emphasized his fast-writing speed and high level of textual control—claiming an output of 1,600–1,700 words per hour. however, based on prior discussions about his preparatory work, the study found that the actual time he spends on writing far exceeds this. after drafting a review, m5 typically revises the logical structure and performs line-byline proofreading to ensure coherence. much like the interactive behaviors discussed earlier, this kind of fragmented labor time constitutes an often ignored but essential part of the film reviewer’s work process. 4.3 the autonomy of film reviewers douban movie is the largest film-sharing and review community in china, attracting a vast number of film enthusiasts. as its rating system gains widespread recognition and dissemination, douban’s reputation for “strict” scoring has drawn public attention and has come to be regarded as a symbol of authority and fairness. therefore, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 111 published by ideas spread exploring film reviewers’ autonomy in the process of writing reviews is critical to understanding both douban’s rating and review system and the labor process of content contributors. the concept of autonomy is often associated with the political sphere. pressures on autonomy usually stem from political or commercial power (nygren, ostrowska & anikina, 2015) [9]. this study finds that douban’s review censorship system primarily affects reviewers’ creative practices. participant m3 noted that, after several years of encountering censorship due to sensitive keywords, he has become well-versed in navigating douban’s moderation policies. over time, he adapted his writing habits, consciously avoiding political, violent, or sexual themes, and now focuses only on more entertainment-oriented films. at the same time, autonomy is a fluid and shifting concept (sjøvaag, 2013) [10]. some participants pointed out that, compared to other platforms, douban still offers relatively greater autonomy, especially in allowing discussions around niche and marginal cultures. for instance, participant m8 observed that censorship on many online platforms is more stringent than on douban, and that fans of subcultures have ultimately found a space for dialogue on douban. interview data suggest that in response to platform-level constraints, film reviewers must make various compromises to retain autonomy—such as altering creative habits or abandoning personal cultural interests. although douban encourages original content creation and topic-based discussions, reviewers, as digital laborers, are constrained by structural limitations while producing cultural content under restrictive creative conditions, thus contributing both traffic and value to the platform. 5. conclusion in the past, watching television was considered labor. today, being online is labor. this study has explored the labor process of film reviewers on douban, demonstrating that the work they engage in is complex, timeconsuming, and often invisible to both the reviewers themselves and the broader audience. the labor involved not only includes the time spent writing reviews, but also the preparatory work, which involves researching, watching films multiple times, and organizing thoughts. these elements, although essential, are often underestimated in terms of time and energy expended. additionally, this labor includes subtle and fragmented forms of effort that are frequently overlooked, including proofreading, restructuring arguments, and maintaining user interactions. the ‘always-online’ nature of social networks, along with the accumulation of thousands of ‘likes’ and ‘shares’ enables advertisers not only to understand consumers purchasing patterns but also to access micro-level details such as their every move, buying habits, and geographic location. this phenomenon has been aptly described as exploitative (brown, 2014) [11]. as a platform that operates entirely on user-generated content, douban relies on film reviewers who invest significant amounts of personal time and effort to produce cultural products—without any form of compensation. this indicates that the content created by users is appropriated by the platform, thereby constituting a form of exploitation. the results of this study also highlight the dynamic between user autonomy and platform control. while douban’s review system provides a space for autonomy, especially in discussing niche and marginalized cultures, it also exerts significant pressure through content moderation and censorship. reviewers, therefore, navigate a delicate balance—adapting their content creation to fit platform rules while maintaining a sense of personal agency. this tension between autonomy and regulation is central to understanding the digital labor. as users, especially in creative and cultural sectors, continue to drive platforms' growth, their labor increasingly becomes a key factor in platform profitability. references [1] smythe, d. w. (1977). communications: blindspot of western marxism. ctheory, 1(3), 1–27. [2] sandoval, m., fuchs, c., prodnik, j. a., sevignani, s., & allmer, t. (2014). introduction: philosophers of the world unite! theorising digital labor and virtual work-definitions, dimensions, and forms. triplec: communication, capitalism and critique, 12(2), 464–467. https://doi.org/10.31269/triplec.v12i2.622 [3] sandoval, m. (2013). foxconned labor as the dark side of the information age: working conditions at apple’s contract manufacturers in china. triplec: communication, capitalism & critique, 11(2), 318–347. https://doi.org/10.31269/triplec.v11i2.481 [4] fuchs, c. (2015). digital labor: a comment on césar bolaño’s triplec reflection. triplec: communication, capitalism & critique, 13(1), 84–92. https://doi.org/10.31269/triplec.v13i1.675 [5] chen, y. (2014). production cultures and differentiations of digital labor. triplec: communication, capitalism & critique. open access journal for a global sustainable information society, 12(2), 648–667. https://doi.org/10.31269/triplec.v12i2.547 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 112 published by ideas spread [6] nixon, b. (2016). the old media business in the new: ‘the googlization of everything’ as the capitalization of digital consumption. media, culture & society, 38(2), 212–231. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443715594036 [7] chen, x. m. (2000). qualitative research methods and social science research. education science press. [8] zhang, g., & lei, l. (2012). current status and prospects of online research methods. psychological research, 5(3), 20–25. [9] nygren, g., dobek-ostrowska, b., & anikina, m. (2015). professional autonomy. nordicom review, 36, 79– 95. https://doi.org/10.1515/nor-2015-0018 [10] sjøvaag, h. (2013). journalistic autonomy. between structure, agency and institution. nordicom review, 34, 155–166. https://doi.org/10.2478/nor-2013-0111 [11] brown, b. (2014). will work for free: the biopolitics of unwaged digital labor. triplec: communication, capitalism & critique. open access journal for a global sustainable information society, 12(2), 694–712. https://doi.org/10.31269/triplec.v12i2.538 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v2n3p15 15 published by ideas spread the economic empowerment through entrepreneurship and cooperatives for the harmonization in society adhi iman sulaiman1, bambang suswanto2, masrukin3 & rili windiasih3 1 department of communication science, jenderal soedirman university, indonesia 2 department of political science, jenderal soedirman university, indonesia 3 department of sociology, jenderal soedirman university, indonesia correspondence: dr. adhi iman sulaiman, departement of communication science, jl. prof dr. hr boenyamin no.708, purwokerto sub-district, banyumas regency, central java province. e-mail: adhi.2005unsoed gmail.com received: september 3, 2019; accepted: september 15, 2019; published: september 17, 2019 the research is financed by institute for research and community service in university of jenderal soedirman and ministry of research, technology and higher education of the republic of indonesia. abstract the community has disharmony and potential conflicts caused by traumatic from terrorism arrests, so it requires anticipation in empowerment activities as a social and economic rehabilitation of the community. therefore, the study aims to create economic empowerment models in entrepreneur and cooperative institutions for the harmonization of society. study used qualitative research methods of participatory action research (par). data was collected through interviews, documentation, observation, and focus group discussion. informants have been purposive selected form each research location i.e. 25 people from the entrepreneurship group and cooperatives. research location binangun district of cilacap regency in central java and cikoneng district of ciamis regency in west java. the research analysis through triangulation, seeking diversity and investigation with society. the results showed the implementation of community economic empowerment model, it was succesful to set the spirit and togetherness to improve knowledge and skills of entrepreneurship and cooperatives, execute a program extension, training and comparative study. the successfully implemented to monitoring and evaluation in the form of assistance, expansion of market access and partnership, and then managed to become rehabilitation process of mental, social and economic from the traumatic, negative stigma and disharmony in the community after the event of arresing terrorism suspected. keywords: economic empowerment, entrepreneurship, harmonization, partnership, rural community 1. introduction the concept of village autonomy in village law is a manifestation of a participatory development concept embodied in the economic empowerment of the community into studies and programs that continue to be encouraged. because the village is the foundation of development that determines the strength, progress and welfare of the nation, because the village is the closest government representation to the community, thus knowing the problems, potential, needs and prospects of the village community. adi (2013) states that development in indonesia will be less meaningful if there is no development in the village ommunity because there are still many villages that have not been developed optimally. rangkuti (2011) states that the development paradigm is currently experiencing a shift where development emphasizes economic empowerment known as people centered development resource based development and institutional development. based on the spirit, support and seriousness of building the village, it is hoped that the village is not only the hometown that is loved and missed by its people outside the city or leaving the village, but the village can also be a friendly, comfortable, pleasant area and can ensure the welfare of its people, so it is not abandoned and ignored its builders. the latest paradigm emerged in 2013-2014, especially in central java province, the development campaign on the concept of "bali deso, bangun deso" means returning to the village and building the village. then in 2015 the term "village building" became "building the village", meaning that the development acor is no longer dominant from people outside the village, but the villagers themselves who have the desire, initiative and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 16 published by ideas spread work for the village to promote and prosper the village. the spirit and concepts of “return to the village and building the village "are the concept of participatory development, people centered development and empowering community. community economic empowerment becomes the main concept and program in conducting village development in line with the challenges of reform, democratization and village autonomy. village autonomy is realized with the enactment of law number 6 year 2014 on the village with its implementing regulations in government regulation number 43. in article 1 (8) rural development is an effort to improve the quality of life and life for the greatest welfare of the village community. article 78 (1) village development aims to improve the welfare of rural people and the quality of human life and poverty alleviation through the fulfillment of basic needs, the construction of village facilities and infrastructure, the development of local economic potential, and the sustainable use of natural resources and environment in paragraph (3) village development higlighs the spirit of togetherness, kinship and mutual cooperation to realize the mainstreaming of peace and social justice. based on a review of several research results that show problemsin village development especially in implementing economic empowerment among others (1) villagers do not have the ability to create economic empowerment program. (2) the process of developing the economic empowerment program is still dominated by certain stakeholders such as village government and public figure actors as well as institutions that are closely related to the village government. (3) the role of women in the economic empowerment program development process is still limited with little involvement, limited access to information and opportunities. (4) program and implementation of community economic empowerment is not comprehensive, sustainable, and tend to short term program, so that the community often get counseling and training, but less get assistance, monitoring and evaluation. (5) implementation of economic empowerment is still partial and lack of synergy between economic empowerment actors such as government, private party, non-governmental organizations and universities, so that economic empowerment programs run independently and less mutually supportive. (6) economic empowerment is less able to build and expand partnership and independence, so that society is still dependence, lack of institutional development, and product marketing. (7) development in villages with substantial budgetary support from village fund allocation and village funds is still oriented towards infrastructure development rather than community economic empowerment programs that can increase community motivation, capacity, institutions and economic welfare (hubeis 2010; harun & ardianto 2011; handoko et al., 2014; sulaiman et al., 2016a; sulaiman et al., 2016b). based on the problemfrom several research results, this research have novelty that to design an economic empowerment program that can provide more open opportunity for the community in a participative, collaborative, and comprehensive manner starting from the planning of program formulation, implementation, report and evaluation. society is no longer as the object of economic empowerment, but as the principal (subject) of development. participatory planned and implemented economic empowerment need to consider the potential of villages from human, natural resources, economic resources and cultural resources that have become an integral part of promoting the village and prospering the village community. potential community and village resources become the basis for planning and implementation of economic empowerment to be able to preserve and develop what has become uniqueness and strength of social capital of village community that is local wisdom. as according to vitasurya (2016) and soegiono et al. (2019) that local organizations and wisdom, which grow and develop in society, need to be given wide space in order to be able to express and articulate various needs of society as self-supporting society and active role in development, especially for social welfare development. likewise mardikanto & soebiato (2012) explain that the economic empowerment of society as: (1) the process of change and require innovation in the form of ideas, products, methods, equipment and technology with the study and development of customs, values, traditions on indigenous technology. (2) the process to facilitate and encourage the community to become the main actors in utilizing its strategic environment to achieve sustainable development (long term). the strategic environment in question is the production, economic, social and ecological environment, as in the following figure. christens (2012) asserts that participatory development requires economic empowerment that takes into account the psychological aspects of society such as the spirit, hope and recognition of the existence that must be achieved to develop community potential and participation. azis (2017) explained the local wisdom can be formed from social valuesin the social structure of societyand has a function as a guideline, controller, and rules for behaving in various fields of life both whenconnect with others and withnatural environment. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 17 published by ideas spread community economic empowerment does not stop until it successes in improving motivation, ability, and productivity. it requires assistance to establish and expand partnerships. according to popple and quinney (2002) strategic objectives in the economic empowerment of local communities are developing effective partnerships and participating in institutions as learning through government support to engage in social engineering in communities with low economic levels. the concept of participatory development (participatory development) is a process that involves the community actively in all substantive decisions related to life. mardikanto (2010) states that community economic empowerment is a participatory process that gives communities the confidence and opportunity to examine key development challenges and propose activities designed to address the issues faced dynamically, actual and potential based on regional, regional and national programs. based on this, the author is interested to conduct a study on the model of community economic empowerment in entrepreneurship and cooperative institutions located in the al muaddib islamic boarding school in pasuruhan village, cilacap, central java and nurussalam islamic boarding school in kujang village, ciamis, west java. the location is of concern to the national and international public after the arrest of terrorism in 2009-2012 which has an impact in the community, namely the existence of covert conflict, traumatic sense and harmonization of disturbed society. this study is the result of research the first stage from 2012 to 2015 starting from the discovery of problem identification and analysis and potential, economic empowerment program planning process, and second stage from 2017-2019 to implementation of economic empowerment such as counseling and training, establishment and development of community economic institution, assistance and expansion of marketing access and partnership. 2. method the research methods must be in accordance with the need to construct deeply the problems, potentials and solutions in the development of society, namely by participatory qualitative methods such as participatory action research (par). par have involving active participation of stakeholders and jointly taking action to overcome or correct problems experienced based on critical historical, political, cultural, economic, geographic and other contexts (mcintyre, 2008); (reason & bradbury, 2008). research location at binangun district of cilacap regency in central java and cikoneng district of ciamis regency in west java. data collection is taken by interview, direct observation, documentation and focus group discussion, with the determination of research subject (informant) each research location through prurposive that is 25 people as community worker from entrepreneurship group and cooperative group, practitioners and community economic empowerment economic empowerment. analysis of par data are: (1) performing triangulation principle used either on method, source or discipline. (2) seeking the diversity of both equations and differences. (3) investigating directly from and with local communities (adi, 2013) 3. results and discussion the research process is carried out in 2017-2019 to conducting research and implementation of economic empowerment for entrepreneurship development and village community cooperatives. the process stages of research has similarities that are important to assess the economic empowerment management as follows are: (1) introduction study by conducting literature review of academic research results, scientific journals, and mass media both print and electronic. (2) opening access to research sites for research permition, introductions, approaches and observations, as well as conducting interviews and documentation. (3) discussing the results of the literature study stage and opening access with research teams, practitioners, activists and community economic empowerment actors. discussion results are able to identify and formulate problems, focus, objectives, research benefits and research methods used. as in the community economic empowerment study process that initiates the introduction study phase, opening access and approaches to the community to build public support and openness with dialogue and openness about local social, economic and cultural conditions. so that community economic empowerment can be planned, made program and implemented based on identification and analysis of problem, potential and prospect in society both human resources, economic resources, environmental resources and socio-cultural resources. 3.1. community economic empowerment in institutional entrepreneurship and cooperatives the results showed that the people of pasuruhan village, especially in the al muaddib islamic boarding school and nurussalam islamic boarding school in kujang village have in common to felt traumatic with the three arrests of suspected terrorists, negative stigma and disharmony between people who avoided interacting with families related to the arrested. however, the mediation process supported and assisted by the village government hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 18 published by ideas spread through the dialogue by inviting the two sides, resulting in a mutual understanding and mutual agreement of shared hopes and desires to be able to shape and develop economic institutions according to potential and interest through community economic empowerment program. it requires a holding company in the form of a cooperative that provides agricultural needs such as seeds, fertilizers and agricultural medicines and agricultural equipment. then strengthening the entrepreneurship of micro business that has been running that are farmer group, livestock group of catfish and ducks, group of broom stick handicraft, and business group making of brick. windiasih (2002) asserted that in the implementation of economic empowerment can also be done to the targeted community that has special characteristics as a marginalized and traumatic community by approaching, assisting and providing dialogue room to express the problem, potential and the expected economic empowerment program. according to ardiana et al. (2010) the development of human resource competencies of small and medium enterprises (smes) must be considered, so as to create entrepreneurial workforce that can compete openly in the global market. increased human resources cooperative management is also indispensable for the development of smes in capital loans, facilitating business networks, procurement of raw materials and marketing of sme products. nurbudiyani (2013) states entrepreneurship and cooperative management as a model to foster learning and entrepreneurship skills. the outcomes of the workshop dialogue resulted in agreement of program plan, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of community economic empowerment for entrepreneurship and cooperative development. the next stage is the consolidation of the economic empowerment program plan as a result of community agreement, which involves practitioners, activists or observers of community economic empowerment. this is a form of community economic empowerment management to design the planning, implementation, assistanceto, monitoring, and evaluation of economic empowerment programs in an integrated, sustainable and comprehensive manner based on mutual agreement of community consultation. in the management of dialogue and participatory communication process economic empowerment in the workshop or deliberation becomes the determinant for the sustainability of activities, because the community must open to aspire, support and participate in economic empowerment activities. according to tattersall (2015), sahakian and dunand (2014) that social economics and solidarity in society have the potential to become sustainable economies by participating in developing and managing communities based on collective agreements for the public good and enhancing the capacity of community leaders to implement collective decisions that unite society. gruidla and hustedde (2015) emphasized the importance of dialogic, participatory, representative and egalitarian dialogue as a fundamental goal in community development to make sound and fair decisions. the next phase of community economic empowerment is the implementation of counseling and co-operative training on institutional cooperatives, management, administration, membership, capital, finance, and distribution of the remaining business results, as well as meeting mechanism. finally can be formed cooperative management form and named cooperative abdimas sejahtera in the al muaddib boarding school at cilacap regency, which provides agricultural needs such as seeds, fertilizer and pest control. likewise, in the nurussalam boarding school in ciamis regency a cooperative has been formed in the insan nuda mini market that provides basic needs, both cooperatives could be openly accessible to the public. cooperative management form as a pioneer team that initiated the implementation of financial administration and management invites community and entrepreneurship groups to become members and administrators. then the next step is to schedule board meetings and members to choose a formal stewardship for a period. the formation of cooperatives is very compatible with the social, cultural and economic of rural communities that still have the nature of mutual cooperation, solidarity and awareness. gemina et al. (2013) states that membership management and participation of members together or partially affect the benefits and competitiveness. the next step is to strengthen the cooperative institution in addition to provide mentoring activities, also conduct comparative studies to cooperatives that have been advanced to improve motivation, inspiration and access network partnerships. then it is necessary to conduct monitoring and evaluation through observation, non-formal dialogue and deliberation of the board and members of the cooperative. monitoring and evaluation indicators are administrative completeness, financial records and reports, sales circulation, the amount of capital and profit assets, records and smoothness of the loan, then the amount, membership and membership administration, and the cooperative development plan. the result of monitoring and evaluation is that it is necessary to combine economic business groups as entrepreneurship that already exist in the community to become members, administrators and business units within the cooperative structure. the evaluation of empowerment activities shows that abdimas sejahtera cooperative and insan nusa have succeeded in becoming cooperatives with legal status so that they can work together specifically in obtaining bank hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 19 published by ideas spread capital loans, and government and private assistance, even though insan nusa cooperative is a franchise from shariah cooperative business partners in tasikmalaya regency. khairunnisa et al. (2019) explains the importance of developing the institutional capacity of economic enterprises in the village with organizational management for capacity building, joint decision-making, leadership, and institutional facilities and infrastructure. institutional strengthening management by strengthening institutional vision, enhancing entrepreneurship capability, and building institutional cooperation network. according to christens (2012) economic empowerment process to support community development on local power management and community decision making. likewise pama and ganesha (2014) state that strengthening institutional economic empowerment is intended to produce sustainability of natural resources and various efforts to sustain life development activities, hence the necessary rural economic institutions can provide power for farmers. strengthening and development of cooperatives and community entrepreneurship is carried out by opening access to local governments in this case the department of cooperatives and small and medium business groups, food security service and counseling for a dialogue about the results of research. following the dialogue, the local government is willing to participate in the economic empowerment program that has been created and implemented by providing additional counseling, training and mentoring. then succeeded in opening access and facilitating the abdimas sejahtera cooperative to become a legal entity cooperative, and received a public business credit program socialization from the government bank to assist entrepreneurial capital and cooperatives. while the insan nusa cooperative independently partnerships by becoming a franchise business of the tasikmalaya regency sharia cooperative. pranoto and yusuf (2014), huda, et al. (2018), hilman and nimasari (2018), rodiah et al. (2018) that economic empowerment program has a purpose to solve the impact of social problems, but it requires the role of all parties such as government through its policy, business world with corporate social responsibility (csr) and community organization with its activity. according to hasim and remiswal (2009) the participative development is to implement: (1) empowering as an effort to realize the capability and independence of society, (2) transparency in every process and stages of planning, implementation and development control that can be accessed by all community, (3) the accountability of each development process can be well accounted for, (4) the development process must be sustainable, (5) participation is active and involve the community in the development process next stage of community economic empowerment management is the formation and development of entrepreneurship that already exist in the community such as farmers, catfish and duck farmers, craftsmen broomsticks and brick makers. their products have been purchased by the collectors and can be sold in cilacap regional markets. however, entrepreneurship is still separated or not in the form of business group, has not got counseling and training in improving the quality and quantity of production. economic empowerment management for entrepreneurship begins by opening a dialogue forum involving entrepreneurs and cooperative management who exist in the village of al muaddib in pasuruhan village and nurussalam in kujang village. the purpose of dialogue activities is to design and implement economic empowerment programs based on identification of problems that have been faced, to analyze the potential and prospect to improve the quality and quantity of products and the expansion of marketing networks. according to sulistiono et al. (2018) economic empowerment is a continuous process of participation to develop knowledge, skills and competencies in overcoming problems and common needs, bringing about changes in people's lives, and can control the interests of collectively both social, economic and political. nurcholis et al. (2009) state a model of development planning involving the community and all stakeholders known as participatory development planning. communities actively involve themselves in identifying, formulating, and finding alternatives to problems. then prepare the agenda of solving and the process of discussion, implementation and evaluation. similarly, according to mikkelsen (2011) the local communities involve in the selection, design, planning, and implementation of the program with consideration of perceptions, patterns of attitudes, thought patterns and values and knowledge owned by the community then feedback from development activities. the next stage of deliberation with entrepreneurs is to form groups according to the same field of business, the goal is to be able to support each other, cooperate, strengthen and develop business. finally they can form three groups of businesses namely farming groups, business groups of craftsmen, and groups of farmers who are part of the cooperative both as members and administrators. the three entrepreneurial groups are community development based on aspirations, potential, needs and agreement of village communities. as according to riosa and lachapelle (2015) community development is a commitment to equality in opinion and participation through a hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 20 published by ideas spread dialogue and fair deal. wibowo (2014) describe the most effective and quickest way to empower villagers to achieve the objective is to involve communities and government elements that are "pro poor" with development policies that are more actively prioritizing the needs of rural communities. subsequent activities are conducting surveys and observations to community entrepreneurs to conduct assessment or analysis of the condition, situation, potential and business prospects. the results of deliberations, surveys and observations were reviewed with practitioners and economic empowerment activists to design planning, implementation, assistance, monitoring and evaluation of entrepreneurship economic empowerment practices. implementation of economic empowerment begins by doing counseling and training to motivate, unify vision and mission. then add knowledge and expertise in member management, more effective and efficient production process, packaging and product labeling, promotion strategy and marketing. the process of execution of counseling, training and assistance involves the local government in this case the department of agriculture, livestock and small business groups, then colleges and students. the monitoring and evaluation phase of entrepreneurship processed with an informal approach through personal and group communication in each business group with the indicator of cooperation and cohesiveness, capital and profit, product quality and quantity, expansion of marketing network and activeness in cooperative. the results of monitoring and evaluation of entrepreneurship recommend mentoring activities about fund recording, profit sharing and venture capital, capital increase and partnership with the bank. so the next stage of economic empowerment management is to facilitate entrepreneurial groups to get socialization and access to business capital loans to the bank. 3.2 designing model of economic empowerment in entrepreneurship and cooperative institutions based on the implementation of community economic empowerment stage in entrepreneurship and cooperative institution of al muaddib islamic boarding school in binangun district and nurussalam islamic boarding school in cikoneng district. the identificaion and analysis result can be made as a foundation in designing community economic empowerment model (figure 1). the economic empowerment in entrepreneurship and cooperative institutionsamong them cooperatives economic empowerment, it have problems i.e.  cooperative has not yet legal  the cooperative administration has not yet been executed as it records the members of the cooperative, the membership card has not been given yet  manual administration and financial statements are not equipped with computerized backup  welfare rights of cooperative management has not reached  institutional economic empowerment groups are still not solid and have not developed or are still passive  underdeveloped promotion and marketing,  unscheduled partnership access  entrepreneurial and management cadres are still lacking  leadership regeneration in business groups is still inhibited  increase the quantity of membership potential owned i.e.  the board has high spirit and consistently wants to develop cooperatives  there is an entrepreneurship group and a cooperative as a group of economic empowerment  economic empowerment groups have followed the initial series of economic empowerment programs in the form of counseling and training.  potential communities become new members and managers in entrepreneurship and cooperative groups  cooperative abdimas sejahtera and insan nusa, farmer groups and other business groups have high interest and spirit to develop the business and follow the economic empowerment program  there are the management of business groups and sharia cooperative abdimas sejahtera and insan nusa  the type of business has been going on for quite a while and gets a clear market share  close to banking and economic centers such as the huge kroya and adipala markets as well as their strategic trading scale hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 21 published by ideas spread  support from village governments for strengthening and developing entrepreneurial and cooperative institutions analysis of program planning and implementation, i.e.  registering cooperatives to have permits and legal entities  control the administration of cooperatives both identity and membership card as well as financial manually and with computerization  planning to grant welfare rights in the form of honorarium for cooperative management  reinforce the concept of a comprehensive community economic empowerment program (complete) to economic empowerment groups ranging from counseling, training, mentoring and partnership with participatory-dialogical methods  make regular meeting activities at least once every 3 months to discuss about the development of economic enterprises  conduct membership recruitment openly and socialized in the community to join the entrepreneurial group  create upgrading program or capacity building of entrepreneurship group and cooperative group  conduct market survey for price, quantity and quality of product required  conducting comparative studies to other entrepreneurial groups  improve the quality and quantity of production to meet market needs  establish access to banks that provide business capital loans monitoring results and evaluation, i.e.  successfully conducted training and mentoring about the managerial improvement of cooperative management, membership administration and finance of cooperative.  reactivate board meetings and cooperative membership and successfully become a registered cooperative and incorporated  have a concept for the welfare of cooperative management  cooperative management, farmer groups and compact business groups conduct consultation/dialogue in developing institutions and their business  farmers groups and business groups agreed to become members of the syariah cooperative abdimas sejahtera and insan nusa  has facilitated the cooperative and small and medium business groupsof cilacap regency by counseling, and mentoring to entrepreneurship groups and cooperatives  the entrepreneurship group develops the business by successfully establishing credit access to the bank and stop getting the capital from the loan shark  the marketing of catfish group and broom have been growing very fast and they should increase their production because the market demands are very high  the bank has conducted counseling, approach and observation of the creditworthiness of the business loan that has finally given its trust and loan. the economic empowerment matrix in entrepreneurship and cooperative institutions can then be made the model presented in figure 1. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 22 published by ideas spread figure 1. economic empowerment model in entrepreneurship and cooperative institutions 4. conclusion there is a problem of disharmony and the potential conflict in the community due to traumatic, could be anticipated by the community economic empowerment model through entrepreneurship and cooperative institutions has stages (1) the research process by conducting introducion study from literature review of research result, journal, theory and case in mass media. (2) making economic empowerment program planning through participatory dialogue in the form of meeting with the village community to identify and analyze problems, human economic empowerment model in the village community entrepreneurship institution: participatory action research methods identify the problems of cooperatives and entrepreneurship groups in village communities analysis of solutions by designing and implementing empowerment programs for strengthening and developing economic institutions of cooperatives and entrepreneurship planning & programming identification and analysis of human, economic, social and cultural resources of rural communities implementation & assistance institutional formation, strengthening & development counseling training and assistance  motivation to develop entrepreneurship according to potential and resources owned  the function and position of the cooperative as the holding company of the village community  empowerment management for the strengthening and development of the village community's ecological  organizational and financial management training cooperative as well as entrepreneurship  training of livestock cultivation (catfish and ducks)  marketing and promotion management training  opening of capital access through investment and business loan to bank  taking care of the establishment permit of cooperative to cilacap regency cooperative office  facilitate an interactive dialogue between the cooperative and the business group with the bank  cooperatives and business groups have access to business capital lending from the bank and amend the motive to lend business capital to the loan shark  the bank gives trust to cooperatives and business groups to obtain business capital credit monev & partnership participatory comprehensive cooperative media social and economic media interaction and harmonization participatory and cooperative media improving socio-economic welfare and community harmonization hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 23 published by ideas spread resource potential, natural resources and economic, social and cultural resources of rural communities to strengthen the economic empowerment program through discussions with stakeholders, practitioners and activists of entrepreneurship and cooperative economic empowerment. (3) conducting economic empowerment programs through counseling, training and comparative studies on the establishment and development of entrepreneurship groups and cooperatives. (4) conducting monitoring and evaluation of economic empowerment program with mentoring activities, observation to business location and cooperatives, participatory dialogue with entrepreneur and cooperative actors, expanding marketing access and establishing partnerships. the model of community economic empowerment in entrepreneurship institution can be successfully implemented such as: (1) growing the spirit and togetherness in improving knowledge and skill about entrepreneurship and cooperative, (2) becoming process of mental rehabilitation, social and economics of society from traumatic, negative stigma and disharmony in society post-arrest incidents of suspected terrorism. (3) developing entrepreneurship into several institutional groups such as farmer group, and craftsmen group, then cooperative has developed into farmer cooperative that fulfill agriculture needs of rural community and become an officially registered legal entity and incorporated. (4) establishing partnership access either with private parties or the bank and local government to obtain business capital credit for entrepreneurship and cooperatives. the community economic empowerment model in improving entrepreneurship and cooperative needs to be carried out continuously by following up research, becoming a guided village for the implementation of community service program, real working lecture activity and student practicum. the village government can pay more attention to the development of cooperatives and entrepreneurship groups that are owned by the community to create business fields especially for the young generation as not to leave the village by providing financial assistance, facilitating economic empowerment program, assistance and partnership and capital either with private, local government, other institutions. cooperative and entrepreneurship boards actively socialize and conduct a persuasive approach to other communities, especially the young generation to participate to become members and administrators to further improve business opportunities and welfare and independence of village communities. the local government and people's representatives should pay more attention in the form of policy support for economic empowerment and assistance programs, capital assistance and marketing access to villages with economic potential. model of community economic empowerment in entrepreneurship and cooperative institution based on dialogical, participatory, and sustainable can be a pilot and pioneer for economic empowerment process in other area society. acknowledgments we are very grateful and say thank for your attention, support and policy to institute for research and community service in university of jenderal soedirman who has provided his research program and the humanities and social science research who published the results of this study. we would also to thank you the informants at the research location, the islamic boarding school, the village government and our research partners, who have supported the research process. references adi, i. r. 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice humanities and social science research; vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v2n4p13 13 published by ideas spread family-school connections: different theoretical perspectives and their implications for teacher education osama m. almahdi1 1 educational studies department, bahrain teachers college, university of bahrain, kingdom of bahrain correspondence: osama almahdi, edcuational studies department, bahrain teachers college, university of bahrain, p.o box 32038, kingdom of bahrain. tel: 00973-1743-7286. e-mail: oalmahdi uob.edu.bh received: september 17, 2019; accepted: october 5, 2019; published: october 18, 2019 abstract family-school connections had received increasing attention in the past decades due to their potential benefits for students’ learning. however, the educational and research community is still working to give a clear explanation for what family-school connections really stand for, which is understood to be a complicated concept. this paper begins by presenting different definitions of family-school connections. afterwards it discusses various theoretical perspectives in this educational area, which include: piaget cognitive development theory, vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, the funds of knowledge theory, bourdieu’s social capital theory, bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, the overlapping family and school spheres, hoover-dempsey & sandler framework, and the structural and relational theoretical approach in understanding family-school connections. the paper concludes with a discussion about the implications of these theoretical perspectives on research and on teacher education. keywords: family-school connections, parental involvement, educational theory, arabian gulf countries 1. background: defining family-school connections there is an extensive body of research that demonstrates the important role that family and school connections can play in students' overall functioning in different academics, behavioral, and social adjustments areas (e.g. desforges and abouchaar, 2003; ginsburg-block et al., 2010). many governments around the world (e.g. usa, uk, canada, new zealand, and australia) are introducing policies to encourage partnership between schools, families and communities (epstein et al., 2011, 2018). research suggests that children whose families engage actively in their education tend to have better attendance, higher school graduation rates, fewer grade retentions, increased level of satisfaction with school, reduced number of negative behavior reports and higher scores on reading and mathematics tests, and better psychological well-being (hinderson & mapp, 2002). bakker and denssen (2007) indicated that like many other concepts in the social sciences, parental involvement is a valueloaded term. kim and sheridan (2015) argued that despite a seemingly wide agreement on the importance of family-school connections, there is less agreement on how these connections are conceptualized and defined. first, there are many differences in terminology (e.g. different researchers use different terms such as home-school relations, home-school connections, family-school partnerships, parental engagement, participation or involvement). second, it seems that some researchers or educators may give more attention on a single perspective of such connections and overlook the complexity of whole picture of family-school connections (e.g. focusing only on one aspect such as school communication to parents). taking into account these various conceptualizations, kim and sheridan (2015) suggested that family-school connections must have two main features: (1) parents and teachers are mutually engaged in the educational process, and (2) efforts are aimed at supporting students' learning and positive development. parents can engage in various ways in their children’s education; these include behavioral engagement (e.g. attending school conferences, working with their children on homework or talk about school), cognitive engagement (e.g. parents’ attitudes, beliefs, aspirations for their children education), and relation engagement (e.g. establishing positive relationships with school staff). teachers can also engage with parents in similar ways: behavioral engagement (e.g. inviting parents to come to school, talking with them in conferences or sending written notes), cognitive engagement (e.g. when teachers showcase positive attitudes toward parents’ involvement), and relation engagement (e.g. establishing strong relationships with parents). these mutual connections serve to promote students' academic, social and emotional development. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 14 published by ideas spread edwards and kutaka (2015) discussed the terminology used to describe family-school relationship focusing on three terms: involvement, engagement, partnership. they indicated that ‘involvement’ is a broad term that categorizes various types of activities parents use to connect with schools in ways requested by school staff (e.g. school centered and teacher initiated). these activities were organized by joyce epstein et al. (2011, 2018) in a framework identifying six distinct types of parental involvement: (1) parenting: when families establish home environments to support children’s learning, the provision of school supplies, general support and supervision at home. (2) communicating: effective forms of school-family communication about school programs and children’s progress in their studies. (3) volunteering: recruit and organize parent help and support to the school. (4) homebased learning: when the school provide information and ideas to families of how to help children at home with homework and provide them with other helpful learning activities. (5) decision making: including parents in school decision making processes and encouraging parents to take leadership roles, governance, and advocacy. (6) collaborating with the community: when the school identifies and integrates resources and services from the community to strengthen school programs and students’ learning. yamauchi et al. (2017) noted that epstein’s model can be useful in promoting a culture of shared responsibilities among families, teachers, and other members of the students’ communities, a classification which can also be used as a framework for developing policies, improving leadership practices, and initiating new research agenda in the area of family-school connections. epstein’s model can be fairly easy to understand and implement; however, yamauchi et al. (2017) suggested that this model positions the school as the one who is in control of parents. this one-way control would contradict the idea of limiting the focus of family-school connections to the benefits of the children and their school related activities, rather than focusing on a real partnership that are valuable for all involved stakeholder: parents, community members, and teachers. this model also seems to overlook investigation of the different meanings that might be held by those stakeholders of each type of involvement proposed by epstein and the power distribution, relationships and changing roles of various players. edwards and kutaka (2015) indicated that engagement and partnership are the newer terms in the literature of school-family relationships. they defined family engagement as “involve[ing] genuine collaboration between families and schools/agencies whereby parents and teachers share responsibility for the healthy development and educational aspirations of children” (p. 38). the term engagement, according to this view indicates a less schoolcentric perspective on the school-family relationship and refers to the broad range of activities including all forms of family contribution, involvement, and partnerships. in the partnership model proposed by hornby (2011), parents are considered as the experts in regards to their children and teachers are the experts in their fields of education. partnership in this model is based on a set of principles such as trust, respect, competence, communication, commitment, equality and advocacy. teachers need to work in a professional way and attain knowledge, values and skills that enable them to create a strong relationship with the parents. in addition, christenson and sheridan (2001) defined school-family partnership as developing as “intentional and on-going relationship between school and family designed to directly or indirectly enhance children’s learning and development, and/or address the obstacles that impede it” (p.38). goos et al. (2004) summarized specific types of family-centered connections with school and community described in the literature: (a) creating supportive learning environments at home, which includes the supervision and structure that parents give children to support their education (e.g. by providing structured time for homework and learning, and limiting tv viewing). (b) parental support for the child, including emotional and academic support and the expression of parental aspirations and expectations regarding the child’s current school performance. (c) parents as role models for the value of education, where parents can serve as role models for why schools are important and share their own experiences that reinforce the value of education. (d) home practices that support learning development and parent-directed activities and discussions that connect children to out-of-school learning opportunities. for example, parents can enrich their children’s learning by linking what they are learning in schools with what they do at home. grolnick and raftery-helmer (2015) found that family-school partnerships are characterized by a number of features that ranges from a student’s focus, to the very belief that families and students are jointly important and must share responsibility for achieving student success, also an emphasis on active collaboration, and a preventative solution-focused approach where families and schools work together to create optimal learning conditions. bauch and goldring (1998) suggested a classification of four types of school governance based on parents’ and teachers’ empowerment: (1) bureaucratic: is the traditional mode of governance where neither parents nor teachers hold power. teachers will have nothing more than classroom autonomy here. (2) teachers’ professionalism: here parents have low participation while teachers have high empowerment. teachers’ power is based on their expertise and they might tend not to attempt to involve the parents as this may decrease their hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 15 published by ideas spread professional status. (3) parent empowerment: where parents are more active in schools and teachers have low empowerment. parents tend to challenge school practice and teachers feel disempowered. (4) partnership: here is where parents and teachers are both highly empowered. dual empowerment is seen as a feature of teachers’ professionalism that is based on collaboration with all stakeholders including parents and students (addi-raccah & ainhoren, 2009). family learning is a concept used in educational literature in the uk; it is defined as being “about families enjoying learning together. those who seek to promote family learning acknowledge the central role of the family in a child’s learning, validate the nature of that learning by engaging families in dialogue about learning, and facilitate the participation of families in the design and enjoyment of learning” (mackenzie, 2009, p. 9). 2. theoretical perspectives on family-school connections this section presents and discusses the following theoretical perspectives on family-school connections: piaget cognitive development theory (piaget, 1981), vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory (vygotsky, 1978), the ‘funds of knowledge’ theory (moll et al., 1992), bourdieu’s social capital theory (bourdieu, 1986), bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory (velez-agisto, et al., 2017), the overlapping family and school spheres (epstein, 2011), hooverdempsey & sandler framework (hoover-dempsey & sandler, 1995; 1997; 2005), and the structural and relational approach in understanding family-school connections (kim & sheridan, 2015). the implications of these theoretical perspectives for teacher education will be presented then. let us start with piaget cognitive development theory which is widely used in the educational research. the basic idea of piaget theory was that young children are active learners with a constant drive to match their internal constructions (their own view of the real world) and external realities they face in their surroundings (piaget, 1981). cognitive conceptions of learning stress that learning is an active, constructive, and goal-oriented process that is dependent upon the mental activities of the learner, piaget emphasized the children’s independent exploration of their environment. human cognition according to this theory develops through two processes: (a) assimilation, which includes the process of assimilating external actions into thoughts and fitting new mental models into the existing mental structures, and (b) accommodation, which includes the process of structuring the adopted mental ideas in the mind. this theory also offered broad stages for children’s cognitive development (sensory-motor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operations) to understand changes in children’s thinking from early childhood through adolescence (mcdevitt & ormord, 2013). battle-bailey (2004) suggested that parents play an important role in promoting their children’s learning through shared interactions. homework, for instance, can allow for parent/child interactions as this will facilitate children’s construction of knowledge. parents can also help their children in areas such as problem-solving, interactive tasks related to the learners’ environment, focusing on learners’ interests and encouraging them to independently monitor their learning while interacting with their parents. the cognitive development theory emphasizes parents’ and teachers’ contributions during the critical stages of child development especially in early years of a child’s life as an important stage for future success. personality and attitude towards learning are well established in the first five years of the child’s life therefore parents have to teach their young children needed skills, while arranging educational activities and experiences (epstein, 2011). another well-known theory in the educational field is vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory. the socio-cultural theory explains the learning process as an action that happens when the individual actively participate in in a wider circle of social practices. this active participation is mediated by two important processes: social interactions with other such as parents, peers or teachers; and cultural tools such as language, signs, symbols and learning aids. learning, according to this theory, is not merely a set of intellectual and mental processes detached from its social, cultural and economic contexts (eun, 2010). children according to this view learn through interacting with others, they communicate using language, signs and symbols and actively engage in various cultural and social meaningful activities. they also use different tools to organize and control their behaviors, all in which are tools created and developed in specific social, cultural and economic contexts. certain types of higher thinking abilities such as deliberative attention, verbal and conceptual thinking cannot develop without the constructive assistant of such social and cultural mediation (ivic, 2000). accordingly, by emphasizing the interrelations and strong dependence in learning and development, this theory supports the idea that children’s home environment is important in promoting learning and parents contribute greatly to the development of their children’s learning abilities (tekin, 2011). knowledge according to the socio-cultural theory is shared and created among experts (e.g. teacher, parent, peer) as they all engage in inquiry-based activities that serve to solve authentic and meaningful problems. knowledge is also seen as a human creation process rather than a given fact and its located in the cultural and social contexts hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 16 published by ideas spread of learning not just in the mind of the learner (eun, 2010). vygotsky (1978) defined the concept of the zone of proximal development (zpd) as “the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem-solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (p. 86). in other words, as the child develops cognitively, he or she takes more responsibility for learning or doing increasingly difficult tasks. the ‘funds of knowledge’ theory is based on vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory. it attempts to apply the sociocultural theoretical concepts to change and improve children’s meaningful learning. in line with vygotsky’s ideas (e.g. zone of proximal development and the role of mediation in learning) moll and his colleagues (gonzalez, moll & amanti, 2005) regarded every household as an educational setting with important educational potential. the term ‘funds of knowledge’ was used to describe forms of knowledge and skills which can be found in local households and “these historically accumulated and culturally developed bodies of knowledge and skills essential for households or individual functioning and wellbeing” (moll et al., 1992: 133). all this knowledge and skills attained are connected with authentic activities such as farming, construction, trade and business. their approach also focuses on how families develop social networks which can facilitate the development and exchange of resources including knowledge, skills and labor. in the uk, the home school knowledge exchange project (feiler et al., 2008) explored ways for enhancing primary literacy through exchanging ideas and skills between families and schools. the basic principles of the school program were: (a) all families possess important ‘funds of knowledge’ which can be drawn on to enhance children’s learning at home. (b) communication needs to take place in two directions, from home to school and from school to home. (c) diversity amongst children and families is an opportunity and not a problem. (e) exploring the richness of children’s home lives can be a highly motivating process for learning in school. yamauchi et al. (2017) noted that the ‘fund of knowledge’ theory can be helpful in shifting the representation of parents and families from a ‘deficit view’ – e.g. parents lacking education or awareness of the importance of schooling to one of having resources and are able to utilize everyday social and cultural experiences to enrich children’s learning. the theory gives recognition to family and community resources and the importance of including them into formal school learning. the theory also offers fairly accessible ideas for teachers to use when working with the students and their families, especially those of cultural and social backgrounds different from the teacher’s backgrounds. yamauchi et al. also noted some points that needs attention when using this theory. for example, the concept of ‘funds of knowledge’ can be misunderstood from a deficit viewpoint to say that some social, cultural, linguistic and economic groups of families would have more funds than others. the ‘funds of knowledge’ approach may also position teachers as the persons responsible to empower families. this may put the family-school relationship in an unequal position with the family as more dependent on the school instead of having an equal or balanced relationship. the social capital theory, developed by bourdieu, is widely used in the field of sociology. power is a central element in bourdieu’s concept of the social field. school can be interpreted as an arena for power fights between different actors, such as between parents and teachers. in the educational system, an increase of engagement between school and families will better enhance the overall relationship between the two parties and bring with it a potential for a levelling out of power balance between schools and families. in bourdieu’s words, this is the crises that may affect the structure of the field and; therefore, teachers’ monopoly, which may lead teachers to adopt a defensive discourse (baeck, 2010). according to bourdieu, academic success or failure in school is not just influenced by children’s cognitive abilities, but is also affected by the methods of production and investment in different types of cultural and social capital, for instance, attitudes, preferences, behaviors and social networks (bourdieu, 1986). for bourdieu, schooling legitimizes the inter-generational reproduction of inequalities, with the source of these inequalities lying in differentiated home backgrounds; as a result, teachers are accorded a more passive role. bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory looked at a child’s development within the context of the system of relationship that forms his or her environment. this environment consists of a number of complex layers and each of them has its own significant effect on the child. it has similar views with the socio-cultural theory that culture is not separate matter from an individual and culture itself is a product of human activity. bronfenbrenner defined ecological theory as the study of human development in context or enduring environments. for the child, this surrounding environment consists of different layers: the first layer is the microsystem which includes immediate settings such as home, school and playground. the second layer is the mesosystem, where two or more microsystems are connected. as to the third layer, the exosystem, which is similar to the mesosystem except that at least one setting is not directly related to the individual. the fourth layer is the macro-system, and it is the outmost layer that encompasses the customs, culture and beliefs of the community or larger society. therefore, the very essence hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 17 published by ideas spread of bronfenbrenner’s theory is the importance of daily interactions and experiences over time (velez-agisto, et al., 2017). yamauchi et al. (2017) argued that this theory emphasized the importance of understanding the accumulated experiences of the different stakeholders, and this idea plays a key role in understanding family-school relationships. understanding the influence of social contexts can help teachers and families in achieving meaningful and sustainable relationships and overcoming barriers to successful partnerships. epstein (2011) discussed three perspectives that guided researchers and practitioners in their thinking about family and school relations: (1) separate responsibilities of families and schools, which assumes that schools and families have separate responsibilities. teachers maintain their professional educational roles in the classrooms and parents maintain their personal attention to their children at home. (2) shared responsibilities of families and schools: this view emphasizes the coordination and cooperation between schools and families, encouraging communication and collaboration between the two institutions. teachers and parents are believed to share common goals for their children and they need to work together to achieve this goal effectively. (3) sequential responsibilities of families and schools: this perspective emphasizes the critical stages of both parents’ and teachers’ contributions to child development. the parents’ role in children’s socialization in the early years is critical to prepare children for school. at the time of the children’s formal entry into school, the teacher assumes the main responsibility of educating them. based on the previous idea, epstein (2011) developed a model of overlapping family and school spheres that accounts for families, schools and students in terms of their history, development and changing experiences. the external sphere of the model consists of overlapping or non-overlapping spheres which represent the family, school and community. the overlap among these spheres represents the level of partnership between all three institutions. these overlaps are influenced by many factors such as time, age and grade level and historical influences, experiences, philosophies, and practices of families, schools and communities. yamauchi et al. (2017) noted that this model takes into account the importance of these three contexts in a child’s development process and how they all share responsibilities in the process of children’s socialization. epstein acknowledged that some practices of school, family and community are needed to be done separately, but suggested for central practices to be done in a collaborative manner by individuals across the spheres. epstein also acknowledged that schools should be open to higher levels of partnerships from different stakeholders and that teachers should be open to share educational responsibilities for students’ learning with families and other community members. yamauchi et al. (2017) indicated that this model can be considered as an expansion of bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory with specific focus on family-school connections and it seems still to focus on school-centered activities and perspectives, thereby limiting the perspectives and voice of families. hoover-dempsey & sandler (1995, 1997, 2005) and, walker et al. (2005) proposed a theoretical model of the parental involvement process. this model generally indicates a relationship between parents’ perceptions and practices in relation to children’s education. they identified seven psychological factors that might influence parents’ decisions to become involved in their children’s education. parents get involved in their children’s education through ‘home-based’ and ‘school-based’ activities. parents’ choice of involvement is influenced by their ‘motivational and personal beliefs’, their ‘perceptions of invitations for involvement from others’, and their ‘perceived life context’. parents’ motivational/personal beliefs include ‘parental role constructions’ and ‘parental self-efficacy’. ‘parental role constructions’ refers to parental roles which parents believe they should play in relation to their child’s education. ‘parental self-efficacy’ refers to the outcomes parents believe they can bring to their children through involvement in their children’s education. another element in this framework is ‘parents’ perceptions of invitation for involvement from others’ which refers to parents’ perception whether their involvement is welcomed in the school or not. ‘invitation from others’ includes parents’ perceptions of general school invitations, perceptions of specific child invitations, and teachers’ invitations. the last element is ‘parents perceived life context’ which includes parents’ self-perceived knowledge and skills, as well as parents’ selfperceived time and energy (fan, 2012). yamauchi et al. (2017) thought that the previously mentioned model of parental involvement is helpful in understanding the psychological ideas related to why parents engaged in both home-centered and schoolcentered educational practices. the framework is comprehensive in its description of how families’ beliefs and experiences affect their involvement in their children’s learning or schooling and how these practices can influence children’s learning outcomes or behavior. it also shows the complexities of family-school connections and the different ways that families can be engaged because they come from different educational, social, cultural and economic backgrounds. yamauchi et al. (2017) discussed one of the drawbacks of this model as its so comprehensive and includes many factors that most of the research focuses on specific aspects of the model and can face difficulties in investigating the whole model at the same time, so that the complete model has yet to be fully tested. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 18 published by ideas spread kim and sheridan (2015) proposed a structural and relational approach to understand family-school connections. they suggested that researchers have investigated family-school connections across two areas: those focusing on the activities in which parents and teachers engage (structural approaches), and those focusing on the relationships which parents and teachers engage (relational approaches). structural approaches are often termed parental or family involvement, they are largely structural like when parents support children’s homework or when they volunteer in schools. these efforts can be school-based or home-based and are often guided by schools and are conducted systematically. one of the problems of the structural approaches is that there is more emphasis on structured or scripted activities rather than interpersonal processes that support learning within the parent-child interactions. whereas relational approaches emphasize the interpersonal relationships between parents and teachers who are responsible for different aspects of a child’s development. these approaches focus on partnerships, enhancing opportunities and success of children across social, emotional, behavioral and academic domains. bringing together structural and relational approaches would offer parents and teachers better opportunities to achieve their educational goals. 3. implications family-school connections received increasing attention by educators, researchers, policy-makers in many educational systems around the world. there is a general agreement in regards to the importance of these connections, however, the meaning of the theoretical concepts that underlie these connections are still not clearly defined or explained. various researchers explored this educational field and they reached interesting findings which can have positive impacts on educational practices. these conceptual bases can also help students in teacher preparation programs to reflect on their personal experiences and understand the complexities of their relationships with families. the previous literature can guide teacher education program to emphasize the importance of moving from school-centered parental involvement model to a partnership model, which promotes responsibility sharing between families and schools. these programs should also highlight the importance of children’s environments as sources for authentic learning environments and how parents and other family members can play key roles in their children’s learning in and out-of-school. these authentic home resources can support children’s learning if both family and school recognized their importance and work intentionally in connecting school formal learning with home informal learning. student teachers should be aware of how parents can play key roles in the social and personal development of their children and in preparing them with the social skills, attitudes towards learning, and the positive expectations and aspirations. student teachers should learn about the different theoretical perspectives that have been used by researchers to understand family-school connections. each of these perspectives has strengths and limitations. piaget cognitive development theory (piaget, 1981) and related literature focused on the cognitive development of the child and how family members can build the foundation for children’s personality and cognition especially in the first five years of childhood. when family members interact with their children and engage in problem-solving and active-learning with their children this will help them create their own authentic learning structures and experiences. therefore, student teachers should learn more about children’s homes and families and try to link school learning with out of school practices. in addition, vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory (vygotsky, 1978) gave much attention to the social and cultural mediation processes that takes place in the children’s environment with more expert members such as parents and teachers. children can achieve better learning outcomes when they work with others and interact with different cultural tools and social settings. student teachers’ knowledge of this theory is important as it would help them to understand the scaffolding learning methods that may take place at their students’ homes. moll et al. (1992) extended some ideas from the socio-cultural theory and proposed the funds of knowledge perspective, where teachers and parents work together to build upon the cultural and social resources available in the children’s homes and environments, and utilize them to offer an authentic learning experience that goes beyond the formal and traditional curriculum. teacher education programs need to give student teachers the opportunity to explore the ‘fund of knowledge’ of the students who come from different cultural and socio-cultural backgrounds and build on it in their classrooms. bourdieu’s social capital theory (bourdieu, 1986) highlighted the power issues that can hinder the relationship between families and schools especially when parents come from disadvantaged cultural, social or economic backgrounds. the ideas of social capital and social networks can be used by the student teachers to learn more about these disadvantaged communities and invest in their strengths instead of looking at them from a deficit view. bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory also gave valuable insights as it disassembled the components of the different environments that surround the child, and further explained the interactions between them and how they affect each other. the overlapping family and school spheres perspective proposed by epstein (2011) tackled familyschool relations from different levels and provided an overall picture of the complexities of such relationships. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 19 published by ideas spread hoover-dempsey & sandler (1995; 1997; 2005) framework focused on the psychological aspects of family-school connections while kim & sheridan (2015) offered a new perspective which explored the structural and relational approaches in understanding family-school connections. therefore, it is important for student teachers to understand the influence of social contexts which can help teachers and family members – or hinder them in implementing meaningful family engagement and overcoming barriers to successful partnerships. final remarks related to researcher’s educational context: engaging families in multiple aspects of the educational experience surfaces as critical work for schools especially nowadays as they are facing increasing levels of accountability. the researcher is currently working in the educational system in the kingdom of bahrain – bahrain teachers college which is giving more attention to promoting strong relationships between schools and families. creating strong relationship with the local community is one of the strategic goals of the ministry of education. in addition, bahrain quality assurance authority considers these relationships as an indicator of school success in creating positive learning environment, this is emphasized in the students’ support and guidance aspect of the school review framework developed by that authority. the researcher believes that in order to meet the national and international standards of education the educational system needs promote strong relationships between school, families and communities. schools in the region need to understand the social context of the diverse learners who come from different cultural, social and economic backgrounds and who may go through different inand out-ofschool learning experiences. educators and researchers also need to understand how school, parents and the community interact with each other and how these interactions can lead to better students’ outcomes. most of the theoretical perspectives discussed in this paper are predominantly western accounts. there is a lack of research, contextualized theoretical frameworks, and a need for further exploration into the topic of family-school connections in the gulf cooperation council (gcc) countries: saudi arabia, bahrain, kuwait, united arab emirates, oman and qatar. although all the gcc countries are reforming their educational systems, there have only been a few numbers of current research studies that are accessible for the international research community in the area of family-school relationships. for example, al-mahrooqi, denman, & al-maamari (2016) who studied omani parents’ involvement in their children’s english education. in addition, al-harrasi & al-mahrooqi (2014) investigated omani parents’ involvement in their children’s schooling. similarly, al-qaryouti & kilani (2013) studied the role of omani parents in fostering emergent literacy skills. in the united arab emirates, al-sumaiti (2012) wrote a theoretical paper which reviewed international research and, examined the impact of increased parental involvement on the education and development of children, with a particular focus on dubai schools. in another study in the united arab emirates, al-taneiji (2013) studied the role of leadership in engaging parents in the united arab emirate schools. in kuwait, al-daihani (2005) explored supervisors’ attitudes toward family involvement in middle schools around kuwait. also, in kuwait, al-fadley et al. (2018) investigated the views of the teachers working in kuwait’s public schools regarding the effectiveness of parental involvement in their children’s learning of english as a foreign language (efl) in primary school. in bahrain, al-mahdi (2010) explored ways of linking home and school mathematics in a bahraini primary school. future research on schoolfamily connections should be directed toward developing theoretical frameworks that are relevant to the social, cultural and educational contexts in the gcc countries. references addi-raccah, a., & ainhoren, r. (2009). school governance and teachers' attitudes to parents' involvement in schools. teaching and teacher education, 25, 805-813. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2009.01.006 al-daihani, s. (2005). supervisors’ attitudes toward family involvement in kuwait middle schools. (unpublished doctoral dissertation). virginia polytechnic and state university, blacksburg, virginia. al-fadley, a., al-holy, a., & al-adwani, a. 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(2010). parenting to foster achievement in reading and mathematics. in s. l. christenson & a. reschly (eds). handbook of schoolfamily partnerships (pp. 1752013). new york: springer. gonzalez, n., moll, l., & amanti, c. (2005). funds of knowledge: theorizing practices in households, communities and classrooms. nj: routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410613462 goos, m., lincoln, d., coco, a., frid, s., galbraith, p., & horne, m. (2004). home, school and community partnership to support children’s numeracy. australia: department of education, science and training. grolnick, w., & raftery-helmer, j. (2015). core components of family-school connections: toward a model of need satisfying partnership. in s. m. sheridan, & e. moorman kim (eds). foundational aspects of familyschool partnership research (pp. 15-34). new york: springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-13838-1_2 henderson, a., & mapp, k. 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(2017). theoretical and conceptual frameworks used in research on family-school partnership. school community journal, 27(2), 9-34. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v2n4p34 34 published by ideas spread the holistic rehabilitation model for drug addicts, phubbing and conduct disorder in boarding schools adhi iman sulaiman1, agoeng noegroho2, suryanto3 & sri weningsih4 1 department of communication science, jenderal soedirman university, indonesia 2 master program of communication science, jenderal soedirman university, indonesia 3 departement of public health, jenderal soedirman university, indonesia 4 indonesia open university in purwokerto, central java, indonesia correspondence: dr. adhi iman sulaiman, departement of communication science, jl. hr boenyamin no.993, purwokerto sub-district, central java province. e-mail: adhi.2005unsoed gmail.com received: october 22, 2019; accepted: november 18, 2019; published: november 23, 2019 the research is financed by institute for research and community service in jenderal soedirman university. abstract human resources are important for the process of achieving development goals in addition to natural and economic resources, but by the cases of drug abuse and addiction as well as phubbing and conduct disorder among children and adolescents make serious problems and threats to the progress of national development. the boarding school has the function as an educational and social institution that actively carries out prevention and rehabilitation of drug abuse and conduct disorders. the research aims to creat the holistic rehabilitation models for drug addicts, phubbing, and conduct disorder in boarding school. the study used qualitative research method of phenomenology by determining informants purposively including foundation management, clients or rehabilitation patients, and counselors or assistants. the research location took place at the nurul firdaus islamic boarding school as rehabilitation center in kertaraharja village, panumbangan district, ciamis regency, west java province of indonesia. data were collected by direct observation, dialogue and documentation. data analysis is carried out through interactive models with stages of data collection, reducing, verification, triangulation, categorization and making conclusions. the results of the study showed that nurul firdaus islamic boarding school (1) categorize and accept clients affected by drug abuse and addiction, phubbing, also conduct disorder. (2) perform persuasive and therapeutic communication in holistic rehabilitation methods including medical, non-medical such as spiritual, herbal, cupping, and acupuncture, as well as therapeutic methods with psychotherapy and hypnotherapy. (3) post rehabilitation as an important part in preventing further reusing of drugs, phubbing and conduct disorder by providing positive and productive media of interaction such as activities in the fields of education, entrepreneurship, sports, and becoming social activist organizations. keywords: drug addicts, education, boarding school, holistic rehabilitation, spiritual 1. introduction human resource development becomes a determining factor in the process and achieving development goals in addition to natural, social and economic resources. susanto (2009), widodo et al. (2012) and notoatmodjo (2015) stated that a nation's important and primary capital are human resources and natural resources, but human resources are more important in determining to utilize other resources and improve the welfare of the community. however, there are obstacles and threats in development, one of which is drug abuse among adolescents and is included in the category of extraordinary crime that threatens the world and can be used as a weapon in the proxy war to paralyze the nation's power, because the average number in indonesia is 40-50 people die per day (rri 2018) or 15,000 people per year in 2018. according to the 2017 of national narcotics agency executive summary survey of drug abuse indonesia had an estimated number of narcotic abusers of 3.8 million to 4.1 million people or around 2.10% to 2.25% of the total population and 3,376,115 people in the 10-59 year age group in 2017 and in 2018 the age range was between 15-35 years, and specifically among students in a sample of 13 provincial capitals in indonesia, 2.29 million people (source: bnn.go.id). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 35 published by ideas spread drug abuse has major implications for the health and social and economic losses of the country. all the informants had willing to quit by rehabilitation, but it was still difficult and they reused drugs. that was because they were still influenced by the environment in which they lived. according to hawari (2006), martono and joewana (2008) and noegroho et al. (2018) an individual who has a narcotics dependency will experience a mental disorder and no longer be able to control himself naturally in his life that is the destruction of the social function to interact with society normally, loss of work, school, and unable to control himself or being frustrated. people are prone to drug abuse and become worse at narcotics abuse. narcotics abuse has attacked the generation of children and young people (nur'artavia, 2017) who are the successors of development, thus this becomes a threat in the weakening of the nation. according to study results done by salatun and mina (2019) it is found that teenagers are vulnerable for drug abuse. sinring and aryani (2013) argues that the reasons are: (1) they are unstable, and quickly affected; (2) they have urge to try things; (3) they want to be accepted among their friends, (4) they get frustrated easily; (5) they want to escape from the problem. therefore the context of the study in this article is the importance of prevention as early as possible not only by strict law enforcement, but also by providing counseling and community empowerment from the government and civil society to provide motivation, understanding mindset and mental attitude for the general public, and addicts or ex addicts so as to prevent the danger of drug abuse. according to kurniawansyah (2014) it is impossible to carry out development individually especially in remote area, instead there must be colaboration between the government that must accommodate the aspirations and the community. the government has issued a serious policy in preventing narcotics abuse, namely presidential instruction no. 12 of 2011 concerning the implementation of national policies and strategies for the prevention and eradication of drug abuse and circulation in 2011-2015 to achieve "indonesia a drug-free country" by issuing program on the prevention and eradication of drug abuse which stands for national policy and strategy prevention and eradication of narcotics abuse and circulation. this is a form of seriousness and joint commitment of all elements of society, nation and state that focus on drug prevention so that students have mindset, mental attitude, and are able to reject and prevent the circulation of drugs. furthermore this implements empowerment to create an educational and campus environment that free from drug abuse and circulation. the research focuses on solving the problem of the drug abuse that is not only resolved by law enforcement but also by preventive efforts as early as possible both before and after the incident. on one side, former drug addicts as victims must be helped or rescued, they should not be exiled, given a negative stigma and become a marginalized community. if this continues, the former drug addicts will be increasingly distant, trapped and frustrated and become enemies of the community. the prevention for former drug addicts is not only through treatment with psychology and health rehabilitation, but also through social and economic rehabilitation in the form of implementing empowerment and mentoring programs that can restore the spirit of life, mental attitude, willing or life expectancy, creativity and productivity to continue a new, better life. based on this the author is interested in analyzing medical, non-medical (spiritual and herbal) holistic rehabilitation, psychology and hypnotherapy for drug abuse and addiction, social media and juvenile delinquency in the boarding school of nurul firdaus panumbangan, ciamis regency, west java province. the author has conducted a preliminary and advanced study on the prevention of drug abuse and addiction based on the results of the study and research of the author from 2016 to 2018. there are boarding school namely the nurul ichsan al islami foundation led by kh achmad ichsan in kalimanah and an nur foundation led by kh supono mustajab in bobotsari, purbalingga regency, central java, that play a role in the prevention, control and rehabilitation of drug abuse and mental disorders caused by technology negative influence. nurul ichsan al islami and an nur rehabilitate drug addicts and mental disorders by means of (1) medical where the drug addicts are examined by a special doctor and treated overnight or can also be treated routinely in a hospital that has been appointed by the national narcotics agency and the ministry of social affairs. (2) rehabilitation of drug abuse is conducted in institutions, foundations and boarding schools that have been officially appointed and become partners national narcotics agency and the ministry of social affairs, both in-patient and outpatient and nonmedical patient are given herbal and spiritual handling. (3) social and economic rehabilitation for former drug addicts who have been declared no longer addicted to narcotics, they are given theraphy of social and economic activities so that they have enthusiasm, knowledge and skills and can be accepted or resocialized with family, groups and communities. thus the main arguments can be made based on background, context and focus as well as preliminary studies that show rehabilitation with psychology, psychotherapy, medical and non-medical herbal and spiritual is a holistic hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 36 published by ideas spread rehabilitation that is important and comprehensive which needs to be examined specifically in the boarding school of nurul firdaus panoongan, kertaraharja village, panumbangan district, ciamis regency, west java province. 2. method research methods that are appropriate for the situation and condition of the subject as well as the research location at the islamic boarding school foundation for drug rehabilitation, are the constructivist paradigm and phenomenological methods so as to construct the meaning of reality experienced by research subjects in a dialogical and in-depth manner (kuswarno, 2009); (ghony & almanshur, 2012). the location of the study was determined based on preliminary study results, that was the rehabilitation of narcotics in nurul firdaus boarding school at kertaraharja village, panumbangan district, ciamis regency, west java province of indonesia as an alternative place for non-medical and spiritual rehabilitation of narcotics addicts. research subjects are determined by purposive sampling included the chairman and administrators of the foundation or boarding school, drug addict clients who were in the process of rehabilitation, former addicts and assistants such as addiction counselors and volunteer counselors. data collection is taken through persuasive and informal (dialogical) approaches and communication, documentation, and direct observation. research analysis is done through interactional analysis (miles & hubermen, 2013) by collecting data, reducing, verification, triangulation, categorization and drawing conclusions. 3. results the danger of drug abuse is a serious obstacle and threat to the development process, especially the development of human resources that will damage the mental psychology, common sense and behavior or character, especially generation of the nation and create increasingly massive marginal groups namely drug addicts and ex-addicts. therefore the responsibility of overcoming the problem of narcotics abuse is not only the responsibility of the government in this case the national narcotics agency in the region and the police , but also the universities. the active role of universities is needed as an educational institution that prevent and control the narcotics through studies, research and community service as well as partnerships with national narcotics agency and social education institutions such as islamic boarding schools. the result is that boarding school is not only an educational institution but also a social institution that has an important role in helping to overcome community problems in this case the problem of drug abuse and addiction, phubbing and psychiatric disorders. nurul firdaus islamic boarding school (ponpes) is located in panoongan, kertaraharja village, panumbangan district, ciamis regency, west java province. nurul firdaus islamic boarding school is a type of boarding based school that was inspired by shaykh abdullah bin nur muhammad, founder of suryalaya islamic boarding school. nurul firdaus was led by dr. gumilar in 2000 and was only able to open a formal education institution in 2009 by recruiting religious teachers from suryalaya islamic boarding school. nurul firdaus islamic boarding school not only provides a place for narcotics rehabilitation and addiction to social media and mental disorders but also has complete educational institutions (school) from early childhood religious education, elementary school, junior high school, and teaching training schools and islamic boarding schools . nurul firdaus islamic boarding school handles drug addiction rehabilitation and psychiatric disorders as in previous research (2016-2018) nurul ichsan al islami kalimanah and an nur bobotsari purbalingga district (noegroho et al., 2018). nurul firdaus accepts clients who are so addicted to social media such as online games and chatting that they forget time, duties or rights and obligations. they rarely interact directly and barely do activities in the real world. symptoms of social media addiction according to nurul firdaus is a dangerous disorder similar to drug addiction called phubbing. phubbing is a term refering to individuals who do not want to interact and mingle with families, groups, and communities with daily activities in the real world due to addiction in cyberspace or virtual with social media through the internet network on cellphones and computers or laptops. excessive dependence on social media or phubbing can cause other psychiatric illnesses such as cyberchondria, social addiction, nomophobia, pornography, and phobosocial. according to ahmadi and sulaiman (2009) the power of the mass media with its setting agenda can influence the thinking, attitudes and behavior of the public. hanika (2015), youarti and hidayah (2018), normawati et al. (2018) and guazzini, et al. (2019) state phubbing is an abbreviation of phone and snubbing as an attitude of hurting opponents of interaction by using smartphones excessively because he or she is addicted to cellphone and ignores direct social interaction. phubbing can damage interactions with others, this is the impact of new media with information technology and communication that affect people's culture. al-saggaf and o'donnel (2019) stated hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 37 published by ideas spread that phubbing is a negative impact of the addiction to use mobile phones that violates the basic needs of humans to interact socially. therefore it affects social change in the era of modern technology. nurul firdaus also categorized the misbehavior of children who were out of control as a form of threat of psychiatric danger and social interaction that had to be rehabilitated. so that nurul firdaus islamic boarding school deals with clients who have deviant behavior disorder from children aged 6-8 years called conduct disorder. it is a distorted behavior that violates ethics and norms both in the family and school environment, the examples are lying, stealing, committing acts of violence, and destructive behaviour. conduct disorder is generally carried out by children to their own friends than to their families, the cause is an unstable mentality, lack of attention and affection, wrong relations, venting out of revenge or disappointment. furthermore conduct disorder can also be caused by thoughts and mental attitudes influenced by free viewing on social media, especially in movies, youtube and games or online games. the formation of a free character without rules of value, the lack of communication or direct interaction with family and others, the almost unlimited freedom to freely release emotions in cyberspace (the internet) will make children rebel and disobey the rules in interacting in the real world where there are real norms, ethics, rights and obligations. as according to kearney (2003) conduct disorder is the behavior of children or adolescents that is repetitive but not in accordance with the values of truth, norms, and ethics that exist in society. novitasari and kumala (2009) stated that behavioral disorders in children and adolescents who are anti-social caused difficulties in interacting and following existing rules. they do not want to go to school and often experience conflict. rini (2010) explains conduct disorder violates ethics, norms and even laws. the examples are uncontrolled emotions by hitting and damaging (vandalism), fighting, and taunting. further wenar and kerig (2011) stated conduct disorder indicates the attitude and aggressive behavior towards humans and animals, damaging, lying, stealing and violating the rules. 4. discussion 4.1. the role of nurul firdaus boarding school in holistic rehabilitation based on research results, the nurul firdaus categorizes drug abuse and addiction and phubbing, as well as deviant behavior of children and adolescents (conduct disorder) as symptoms of social and psychological illnesses that must be anticipated, dealt with and seriously rehabilitated. this is caused by curiousity, negative influence of the invitation of friends and social groups, lack of self restraint, lack of social control both in the family, community environment and other environmental activities such as at school or work, have personal problems, stress and frustration , running from reality, the negative impact of influence and freedom of social media. based on the identification and analysis results, nurul firdaus handles rehabilitation as shown in figure 1. figure 1. categories of handling rehabilitation in nurul firdaus boarding school prevention of drug abuse is not only resolved by law enforcement, but also by early prevention, because it will damage the generation and the future of the nation. prevention of drug addicts, phubbing and conduct disorder is not only done by the therapy of mental and health or medical and psychological rehabilitation factors, but also by social and economic rehabilitation such as empowerment and assistance programs that can restore motivation, productivity and life expectancy. former drug addicts, including marginalized groups are isolated because of hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 38 published by ideas spread negative stigma, thus as victims they must be helped. if they aren’t given positive activities, former drug addicts will be trapped and frustrated and potentially cause social resistance in the community. the rehabilitation process at nurul firdaus ciamis for the initial stage is the same as the foundation that has been previously studied from noegroho et al. (2018) namely in the islamic boarding school nurul ichsan al islami in kalimanah purbalingga which only rehabilitates non-medical with spiritual and herbal. while an-nur clinic in bobotsari purbalingga in central java province mixes medical and non-medical treatment with spiritual and herbs. the similarities are the testing or checking process, each prospective patient or client of a drug addict who is going to be rehabilitated is examined first in a designated hospital as a reference for handling or rehabilitating narcotics or regional hospitals in the district. however, if nurul ichsan islamic boarding school kalimanah purbalingga is not too strict about this, the prospective patients will be immediately accepted and processed in the second stage : approach and dialogue. after a client had done a medical check-up, he got a doctor's certificate from the regional hospital that was officially appointed, in order to confirm and give more detail information and define diagnosis of the client's condition using the type of narcotics, the duration of using the narcotics and the impact that has been experienced. thus the patient gets an important note for the rehabilitation process. although according to the counselor, assistant and facilitator at the three research sites, the physical characteristics of drug addict clients can be known just by looking at the body condition, eyes and hands and body language, including from the recognition of the person closest to the client and the doctor who examined. nurul firdaus islamic boarding school as a rehabilitation place for drug addicts is still independent, has not yet become a report obligatory recipient institution which is officially appointed or a partner of the district national narcotics agency and or the ministry of social affairs. nurul firdaus has a social and independent role that not only rehabilitates drug addicts but also clients who are addicted to online games (phubbing) and conduct disorder that have the same behavior changes caused by drugs. personal and dialogical approach are conducted by the facilitators and counselors to approach, communicate or persuade dialogue with the people closest to the client who knows the history and events of the client falling into drug abuse and phubbing and mental disorders. the process starts from identifying the client about personality or personality traits, family circumstances, friends or groups of friends, causes and motives for drug use, social media and mental disorders to the impacts that have been experienced and the healing process that has been sought. after the personal history data had been collected, the causes and motives of the client, the companion, counselor, and facilitator focused on persuasive communication and therapeutic communication to the client or patient by introducing and passing an approach so that the patients will get to know each other, accept and feel close as well as build solidarity. according to devito (2016) the purpose of persuasive communication is to persuade and influence or change beliefs, thoughts, perceptions, opinions, attitudes and behaviors, by verbal and non-verbal behavior to the communicant. important elements that determine persuasive communication are the credibility and competence of the communicator, the message and information conveyed must be easily understood and rational so that it can be easily accepted by the communicant and environment. purnawan (2002) stated that the term persuasion came from the latin language that was persuasion and persuader which mean to persuade, invite and seduce. effendy (2009) describes persuasive communication in the form of messages that motivate, build good relations and opinions with individuals and groups. at this stage the facilitators and concelors carry out therapeutic communication that provides motivation, understanding and care in order to build close, open and confortable relation between between the client and his partner, advisor, and facilitator. persuasive and therapeutic communication done by counselors are very helpful in the rehabilitation process of patients, creating mutual respect and trust (kulikowski, 2013). therapeutic communication cannot be separated from informal persuasive communication with an emphasis on building motivation, advice and interaction accepting, trusting, being open, and comfortable in the context of building hope or optimism to recover, to resist, and be patient. concelors provide knowledge, understanding, and real examples of the causes and effects of health problems and the healing process that fosters optimism and healing advice. therapeutic communication according to mundakir (2006) and zen (2013) includes personal communication with the starting point of mutual understanding and needs between nurses and clients with the principles of open dialogue, empathy, lots of listening and understanding slings. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 39 published by ideas spread therapeutic communication has the function of helping clients to reduce the burden of feelings and thoughts, and further foster mental and attitude to take action, eliminate doubts and fears in changing situations for healing. next the patients can influence himself, others and the physical environment (evans & lindsay, 2014). therapeutic communication is very helpful in the rehabilitation process of a drug addict healing program to change the mindset, behavior, and lifestyle that is better, well organized and free of drug abuse. therapeutic communication is carried out with the principles of respect, sincerity, empathy, trust, and patient confidentiality (prasanti, 2017). therapeutic communication is related to spiritual communication as a strategy to train clients through verbal and nonverbal communication interactions in personal communication when guiding and consulting, as well as group communication when implementing naqsabandiyyah tariqat naqsabandiyyah, namely; talqin dhikr, bathing repentance, prayer, dhikr and completing reading al qur'an, in a hope that patient can create and regrow awareness, comfort and calm (muliawan, 2017). the next stage of persuasive and therapeutic communication process to the person closest to the client and especially to the client himself takes time, depending on the psychological and medical characteristics of the client himself, the more severe the experienced condition the longer the process will be. thus the main key of the rehabilitation process are determination and high motivation and client awareness to recover, including the support and attention of those closest to client that help to ensure comfort and healing at the rehabilitation site. therefore in the second process, it is very important and unseparated to conduct persuasive communication and therapeutic communication to those closest to the client and the client himself, the role, support and care of the people closest to the client with the counselor, mentor and facilitator. further the counselor and facilitator team identify and analyze the medical results, dialogue, observation and evaluation of the client specifically to determine the type of rehabilitation method that is suitable for the client. nurul firdaus has a rehabilitation method called shot (spiritual hypnosis therapy), a method that combines spiritual, hypnotherapy and psychological approaches in a holistic way to provide, build and increase motivation for clients who are addicted to drug abuse, social media (phubbing) and juvenile delinquency (conduct disorder). 4.2. holistic rehabilitation model in nurul firdaus boarding school the stages of the approach taken for rehabilitation are: (1) medical methods by doctors in the regional hospitals that are officially designated for drug rehabilitation by giving medicines strictly and gradually according to doctor's prescription. (2) non-medical rehabilitation as a spiritual approach such as disciplining the obligatory prayers in congregation and sunnah prayers, dhikr, chanting and following spiritual cleansing and ruqyah syar'iyyah by reading and or listening to verses of the qur'an healing or islamic exorcist to stimulate the brain simultaneously. (3) non-medical method with cupping or called hijamah (cupping blood) which function is to prevent blood clots and remove toxin in the blood. (4) non-medical methods with a full-blooded chines or acupuncture to improve blood circulation so that the body tissue can work normally. (5) non-medical methods with herbal therapies from certain plants as alternatives and substitutes for medicines. (6) hypnotherapy methods to enter, control and manage the subconscious mind to build positive suggestions and correct psychological disorders. (7) method of psychological rehabilitation by using persuasive and cognitive approaches, improving mindset, mental attitude and behavior, to foster awareness of the rights, obligations and responsibilities, in order to form and stimulate normal behavior. however, from various rehabilitation methods, it depends on the condition and suitability of the client to be successfully cured, for example with spiritual and medical therapy, there is also a spiritual method with ruqyah syar'iyyah (according to the purity of al qu'an) by using water, honey and olive oil as media of prayer that should be drunk, and salt to be sown. rehabilitation with the ruqyah syar'iyyah method is used for patients who are usually detected as affected by magic and negative aura so that their psyche is disturbed. this is as tambusai et al. (2013) and qodariyah (2015) mention that ruqyah syar'iyyah is a method of rehabilitation therapy and similar to the method of psychotherapy and become an integral part of holistic therapy that can reduce and cure anxious patient because of faith and belief that foster a sense of calm and optimism becomes stronger. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 40 published by ideas spread the ruqiyah method as a form of religious therapy based on religious teachings for patients can be done by a mentor or counselor as well as done independently accompanied by a counselor or companion. ruqyah's goal as a spiritual accomplishment is to be able to deepen belief (faith), motivation, to worship regularly, and to form good behavior, the material is like tausiah morals, worship (praying and reciting), remembrance and prayer (said & syafiah, 2017); (sya’roni & khotimah, 2018). the goal is to change negative thought patterns, mental and behavior into positive and productive behaviour. according to triantoro et al. (2019) rehabilitation with ruqyah syar'iyyah approach is an alternative form when medical treatment cannot cure the patient, muslim belives that there is the presence of unseen attacks. rehabilitation is conducted by psychotherapy and hypnotherapy methods. in this process the recovery of the client depends on the intention, determination and sincerity of the client who wants to recover, the support and assistance of those closest to him and his family, as well as the appropriate rehabilitation approach method which is usually medical and non-spiritual rehabilitation becomes the main method and requirements. nurul firdaus in rehabilitation of drug abuse and addiction as well as online games (phubbing) also conducts psychotherapy and hypnotherapy through a spiritual or islamic medical and non-medical approach. according to adz dzaky (2004), arifin (2009), and munir (2013) psychotherapy is the treatment and cure of an illness, whether mental, spiritual, moral or physical. in islam there is psychotherapy with the guidance of the qur'an and sunnah. corey (2009), bakri and barmawi (2017) state that psychotherapy helps patients to develop self-awareness on the reality that must be faced, treat depression by sharing experiences and feelings with counselors in order to find meaning and struggle to achieve a better life. vanderplasschen et al. (2014) stated that rehabilitation of drug addicts and psychiatric disorders can be done with a therapeutic approach that can not be separated from the psychological approach. muhtar (2014) emphasized the relationship between islamic psychotherapy methods and the functions of doing (1) understanding, (2) control, (3) prediction, (4) development, (5) education, (6) prevention, (7) treatment and healing, (8) sterilization, and (9) purification. these efforts help in rehabilitation by increasing monotheism, sincerity and loving the existence of oneself and the purpose of life. rajab et al. (2016) emphasized that psychotherapy can be a method of rehabilitation for psychiatric disorders such as stress, depression, phobia and traumatic by doing identification of the cause or background of the patient, personal approach, dialogue, following spiritual activities with prayer, dhikr, listening to lectures and reciting the al qur’an. moreover nurul firdaus conducted rehabilitation with medical, spiritual and psychotherapy, as well as hypnotherapy approaches. according to novrizal (2010) approach to hypnotherapy methods effectively reduce anxiety on patients. gunawan (2012) stated that hypnosis was an art of exploration of the subconscious and building conditions of the mind produced by suggestions to change certain perceptions and behavior. rakhmawati et al. (2014) stated that hypnotherapy was a persuasive and personal communication process to foster positive suggestions in patients in order to stimulate positive and constructive behavior that reduce and deal with posttraumatic stress. the hypnotherapy stage consists of (1) identifying and analyzing or studying, (2) inducing findings and facts, (3) deepening and exploring (deeping) into the subconscious, (4) cognitive or thought therapists by providing positive beliefs that eliminate trauma and stress, (5) incorporation, conclusions and decisions (termination). the stages of holistic rehabilitation both medical and non-medically such as spiritual, ruqyah, cupping, acupuncture and herbs, hypnotherapy and psychotherapy are complementary and holistical treatments conducted by nurul firdaus islamic boarding schools in ciamis and nurul ichsan al islami kalimanah and an nur bobosan in purbalingga. the boarding schools not only accept clients addicted to narcotics but also psychiatric disorders such as depression, stress and frustration. however, there is difference. nurul firdaus has campaigned that acute social media addiction is as dangerous as drug addiction, therefore the patient needs prevention through rehabilitation. because of addiction to social media by accessing the internet can cause people to forget about reality, forget about the time and will not carry out activities in the real life such as studying, going to school, working and interacting directly in the real world. this happens because people are to lost in cyberspace or in the virtual world, to play online games, watch youtube and movies and chat. according to head of nurul firdaus boarding school, the term social media addiction is called phubbing, which means busy with playing mobile phones and forgetting the activities and people around them. phubber (the subject of phubbing) become asocial or do not interact and do not mingle with others in social reality. watkins (2009) said that the development of social media technology networks decreased direct interaction because people prefer to use social medical that is easy, practical, and flexible. however, there is negative impact, namely : anti-social, addiction, misunderstanding, pornography, crime, and ignoring the environment. khairuni hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 41 published by ideas spread (2016) said that the negative impact of uncontrolled use of social media was that children were less socialized with direct activities, lazy, addicted to online games, imitating scenes of violence, and pornography. anstadt et al. (2013) emphasized that the development of information and communication technology should be able to be used for positive activities such as the development of knowledge, seeking information and references, becoming a medium for distance education, developing social networks and public services. in addition, flavián, et al. (2016) said that the development of information and communication technology media influences and changes individual and social interactions. therefore the rehabilitation method in nurul firdaus is holistic, both scientific through medical methods and psychotherapy and natural with a spiritual or divine approach (religious) such as ruqyah shari'yyah, prayer, remembrance and recitation, acupuncture, cupping, herbs as well as hypnotherapy methods. however, the herbal approach of using plants is not the main method, this is a complement and assistance to the ruqyah shari'yyah method to overcome the interference of magic and witchcraft. the herbal plants are recommended to be planted around the house to reject reinforcements to prevent attacks or disturbances of magic and witchcraft, the example of the plants are palm dates, bidara and moringa trees, yellow bamboo, red roses, cactus, and olive tree. nurul ichsan al islami kalimanah purbalingga uses herbal methods as the main treatment. herbs are procecced as drink. the ingredients are red coconut water (coconut for medicine) mixed with honey wasps, red ginger, turmeric, cardamom, betel leaves wulung and ajwa dates. the ingredients are mixed into drinks such as herbal medicine which is useful for treating patients who experience sakau or drug addiction, a substitute for drugs and vitamins. the similarity of the three islamic boarding schools rehabilitation is that there is a targeted standard of time, ranging from four to six months. patients can be cured if they follow the requirements of the rehabilitation phase on a regular basis. the boarding schools have similar process of assisting clients in post-rehabilitation phase. nurul firdaus can provide assistance through social media such as telephone and whatsapp with the clients and interact with the closest people or closest family assigned to provide assistance and monitoring clients at home and their activity environment. at this stage it becomes very important to determine the client's recovery. because if there is no assistance, especially in daily activities, both interaction with the friend environment and through social media that has no limits as long as it has devices and access, the client will easily fall back addicted to drug abuse and social media without control. clients who have just returned from rehabilitation are still vulnerable and addicted to potential, so they must be accompanied and provide a medium of interaction in the family and friendship environment that is open, close and harmonious. moreover they should be provided other media activities such as economic business activities or entrepreneurship namely: trade, agriculture, plantations, fisheries, opening cafes, and restaurants, or participating in sports activities, channeling hobbies such as arts, music and holidays. the point is the client should not be alone and lost himself or choose the wrong group of interactions. the causes of drug abuse and addiction, social media and deviant behavior, especially in the young generation (muhtar 2014) are curiousity, recognition from their friends, wrong relationships, negative influence of friends, escaping from personal and family or environmental problems, frustration , depression, free influence and easy access to social media and lack of family attention and the weak social control. therefore there must be an important concern in post rehabilitation. patients should be provided a medium of positive activity to keep busy or no longer fall to drug abuse, social media and choosing the wrong friends. in addition there should be provided space for interaction to be active and productive in educational activities in schools and boarding school, to participate in spiritual activities such as religious studies, spiritual lectures and social activities, conduct business activities, entrepreneurship and work. even clients who have recovered can actively become counselors, mentors and facilitators in rehabilitation institutions to share experiences, motivate and help rehabilitate. this stated in windyaningrum's research (2014) that commitment and support of patients' families are very important and needed not only during the rehabilitation process but also after rehabilitation or recovery even former patients can become role models and addiction counselors that help other patients. yolanda (2014) emphasizes that therapeutic communication in rehabilitation creates openness and closeness between counselors or companions and patients that are created on an ongoing basis. kulikowski (2013) stated that in rehabilitation there are six important elements, namely (1) informing patients, (2) organizing nursing, (3) communication models to patients, (4) care and service to patients, (5) physiotherapists, and (6) decision-making. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 42 published by ideas spread based on the identification and analysis of the rehabilitation process at nurul firdaus, a rehabilitation model can be made as in figure 2. figure 2. nurul firdaus rehabilitation model 5. conclusion drug abuse, social media addiction and deviant behavior, especially among children and young people can be a threat in improving the quality of human resources for development progress, thus it enters into extraordinary crimes that need serious prevention and treatment from various parties. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 43 published by ideas spread nurul firdaus boarding school has categorized and accepted clients to be rehabilitated aside from drug abuse and addiction as well as clients of social media addiction (phubbing), including deviant behavior of children and young people (conduct disorder). drug abuse and social media addiction (phubbing) and deviant behavior (conduct disorder) especially in the young generation are caused by curiousity, negative influence of friends, choosing wrong friends, wanting recognition from friends, unable to face personal and family problems, escaping from frustration, disappointment or depression, the influence of easy and free access to social media and lack of family attention and weak social control. nurul firdaus boarding school has the shot (spiritual hypnosis activity) method, which is a method that combines spiritual, hypnotherapy and psychological approaches, so that it uses holistic rehabilitation that is not only medical but also non-medical aspects such as spiritual, ruqyah, cupping, and acupuncture, and herbs. the process of medical and non-medical rehabilitation is very effective by using persuasive communication and therapeutic communication, so that clients can be open, close, comfortable and harmonious, as well as foster motivation, desire to heal and optimism. post-rehabilitation stages become an important part that cannot be separated in the whole process of the rehabilitation stages so that they do not fall back into drugs and social media and deviant behavior, which are the result of the assessment after being declared healed and returning home, so there is assistance, and monitoring of clients by counselors, mentors, especially people closest to clients and family. the post-rehabilitation stage will further provide media for active and productive activities such as opening an economic or entrepreneurial business, sports activities, channeling hobbies, entertainment and other spiritual activities such as recitation, schooling or boarding school, actively participating in social organization activities, becoming activists, counselors, and companion in the rehabilitation of drug addicts, phubbing and conduct disorder. acknowledgments thank you to institute for research and community service in jenderal soedirman university for providing opportunities and supporting research, then to the management and counselors at nurul firdaus islamic boarding school in ciamis west java for their cooperation so that the research can be carried out well. references adz dzaky, m. h. b. 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(2018). perilaku phubbing sebagai karakter remaja generasi z. jurnal fokus konseling, 4(1), 143-152. https://doi.org/10.26638/jfk.553.2099 zen, p. m. h. (2013). panduan komunikasi efektif untuk bekal keperawatan profesional. yogjakarta: d-medika. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 46 published by ideas spread copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v2n4p22 22 published by ideas spread the task and ministry of peacemaking in mindanao: understanding a peacemaker’s recipe for peace noel g. asiones1 1 university of santo tomas, espana, manila, philippines correspondence: noel g. asiones, university of santo tomas, espana, manila, philippines. e-mail: ngasiones ust.edu.ph received: september 15, 2019; accepted: october 20, 2019; published: october 20, 2019 abstract at a time when the role of religion in reducing global conflicts and the authority of its leaders are being questioned, studies that would link religion and conflict may fill in a gap in knowledge. to address this gap, this study seeks to gain an understanding of orlando cardinal quevedo’s task and ministry of peacemaking in the long-running conflict in the southern mindanao region. given the recent signing of the bangsa moro organic law as the highly expected solid basis for a peaceful and prosperous mindanao, it is timely to look back and pay closer attention to the key role that he played as a peace advocate. to achieve this end, it organized and conducted a content analysis of his writings and interviews about peace and its imperatives. findings show that his words, firmly rooted in the conflict’s historical past and yet open to the realities of the present, encompassed and helped disclose his practical wisdom, consensus-driven approach, and catholic perspectives of its underlying issues and challenges. the lessons and insights that are uncovered from his writings may serve as a grounded recipe for those who would follow in his footsteps to learn and re-appropriated in a hopefully not an unending task and ministry of peacemaking in today’s world. keywords: consensus-building, content analysis, a fusion of horizons, ministry, orlando quevedo, peace, peacemakers, strategies of peacemaking, understanding 1. introduction the celebrated book peacemakers in action: profiles of religion in conflict resolution narrates and shares the experience of 16 remarkable religious peacemakers hailed as "unsung heroes who have put their lives on the line in conflicts around the world, to help resolve some of the world's horrifying conflicts" (holbrooke 2007). they are, in the words of former american ambassador richard holbrooke, "stellar examples of religiously motivated peacemakers around the world; each of them is unique, but are all similarly motivated by a shared moral conviction and a religious calling to work until peace and justice are a reality. holbrooke asserted that their impacts and what they teach about resolving today's conflicts cannot be ignored. in this view, it is a bit a surprise that the book seemed to have overlooked our local peacemakers. if it’s any consolation, the book, mindanao: the long to peace and prosperity, listed one of them in the index even if as a mere footnote (stephens 2016). to address the apparent disregard of our own native peacemakers, this study decided to reflect on the peace and peacemaking advocacy of orlando b. quevedo, mindanao’s first and lone cardinal, the archbishop of cotabato and who is, among the catholic bishops of the philippines, widely considered as the most knowledgeable and actively engaged in the quest for peace in the country's second-biggest island (nan et al. 2001). his constituents call him as the “cardinal for peace.” as a longtime mindanawan, he witnessed the destructive effects of the conflict on the people’s quality of life, on the one hand, as well as envisioned the collective dream and promise of a long and lasting peace, on the other. seeing both the lights and shadows of the armed-conflict, he embraced the task of a peacemaker, spoke, and wrote extensively about it during the long process of the search for a principled and negotiated peace now believed to be within arms-reach given the recent signing of the bangsa moro organic law as the highly expected solid basis for a peaceful and prosperous mindanao and a watershed in philippine history. both moderate muslims and christians will most likely feel good about it. at a time when the role of religion in reducing global conflicts and the authority of its leaders are being questioned, this study seeks to answer one question skeptics like me asked about the practical side of this subfield of peace studies and interreligious dialogue (abu-nimer 2008). given the deep-seated mistrust, prejudice, bias, resentment, and anger by both parties in the armed-conflict, what can and must a peace advocate like cardinal quevedo hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 23 published by ideas spread possibly say and/or do? it will be guided by the following more specific concerns: “who is he, what did he say and do, how did he say or do it, and how did he keep going?” to obtain an empirical answer to these questions, it organized and analyzed the contents of his written communications about peace and peacemaking (note 1). it is assumed that they encompassed his manifest and latent perspectives of the protracted quest for peace in a region that, because of its rich biodiversity and natural resources, has been called the land of promise (fraenkel and wallen 2013). to bring it into focus and frame the wealth of data and information gathered, it employed david myers’ four strategies for peacemaking: contact, cooperation, communication, and conciliation (myers 1994). this study expects to uncover his perspectives of the challenges and opportunities that have underpinned the said conflict and, perhaps more importantly, of what can and must be done towards the widely shared desire for a just and sustainable peace in the island. furthermore, it can bring into light the general goals and specific objectives, processes, and contents of the peace negotiations for all stakeholders to consider and appreciate what the german philosopher hans-georg gadamer called the “fusion of horizons” (gadamer 2004). nonetheless, suggesting his awareness of the inherent limitations of words, quevedo admitted that: “it is by our lifestyle and our behavior that we can speak louder, more than words” (jayewardene 2014). but as ludwig wittgenstein once wrote: “words are deed, used not only to convey thoughts but to perform an activity” (as quoted in david 2018). thus, in the process of organizing and analyzing the contents of his words, the study can also weave a tapestry of his lived-experience of joys, hopes, and anguish in his ministry or service rendered in the church as a peace advocate. the lessons and insights it hoped to gain may serve as a grounded recipe for peacemaking which future peacemakers may learn from and re-appropriated in the seemingly unending task and ministry of peacemaking in today’s world. most importantly, it can provide a pattern of meanings into the theoretical and practical implications of peacemaking as, in the words of one author, “the art of the possible.” 2. findings 2.1 who is he? cardinal orlando b. quevedo, omi has performed his peacemaking task or ministry in the context of the longstanding conflict in the mindanao region. i have been a missionary among muslims for most of my priestly life. i have been a parish priest in jolo. i taught muslims and christians in a catholic university which now has a predominantly muslim student population. as a catholic leader, a christian disciple, he is convinced of his task and ministry in the conflict-ridden region: i am for peace, the peace that god grants to people of goodwill. i am for the peace that god gives through the collaborative work of men and women who work conscientiously for the good of the whole country. asked how he would describe himself, he answered: “simple, i don’t demand too many things, and i would like to be with people.” (note 2) figure 1. his excellency orlando cardinal quevedo in a peace-building mission source: http://abpquevedo.blogspot.com hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 24 published by ideas spread 2.2 what did he say and do? framing his words into consideration both of the conflicts' historical roots and present-day realities, quevedo has spoken and written broadly about the peace process which he described as “a long and tedious, arduous and difficult journey towards peace with many stops and detours?” (note 3) it is "the most dramatic chapter in the history of the philippines, a chapter written in blood and tears and nourished in pain and suffering," writes one of the foremost dominican historians pablo fernandez (1994). he also observed that, even during those conflictridden times, there were already intermediaries, diplomats and peace negotiators between the conflicting parties of muslims and christians. this only shows that “the island of mindanao has long been a contested territory in the philippines, beginning with spanish colonization 400 years ago and continuing through the recent decades of conflict between the government of the republic of the philippines (gph) and various rebel groups.”(brady, c. et al.2013; dida, g. r.2012). what has happened in mindanao across time is too well researched and documented to necessitate further retelling in this study. (aquino, r. m. 2009; gowing, p. g., & robert, d. m. 1974; estranero, d. e.et al. 2007; luga, a. r. 2002; ong, j. t. et al. 2009; david, r. a. 2003). suffice it to say that the long and bloody history of muslim-christian relations has weighed so heavily on the region's peace and progress that a comprehensive roadmap to a just and lasting peace is so much desired and longed for by its people. decades of armed conflict between the philippine government and muslim organizations made sulu, one of the poorest provinces in the country (ong, j.t. et al. 2009). quevedo expressed this succinctly when he wrote, “peace is the only solution to living together, developing a territory together. peace is the only option.” in a paper delivered at the 27th general assembly of the bishopsbusiness conference in taguig, metro manila on july 8, 2003, shortly after the buliok war, he identified the historic injustice perpetrated against muslim filipinos as the root cause of the conflict: “injustice to the moro identity; injustice to moro political sovereignty; and injustice to moro integral development.” he concludes by saying that: there is no peace without justice. peacemaking is about doing the truth and justice, walking in kindness and love, mercy and compassion. this is the way of the heart, the way to a just and lasting peace. specifically, he has argued and explained the “substantive questions and lingering doubts” about “the enduring aspirations of the bangsamoro for self-determination within a limited area.” he maintained that for the peace process to prosper two fundamental postulates must be accepted and agreed upon by both sides: the moro fundamental aspiration for self-determination and the philippine government’s right to national sovereignty and territorial integrity. at the very beginning of any peace negotiation, there has to be a clear and explicit recognition, mutually accepted: (1) of the national sovereignty and territorial integrity of the philippines as enshrined in the philippine constitution; (2) of the moro aspiration for self-determination and its concrete realization in a manner in accord with the philippine constitution. he repeatedly argued that “lasting peace can be achieved without sacrificing either right to self-determination or national sovereignty and territorial integrity.” although it seems to run against the popular understanding then, he held on to the view that the two interests are politically acceptable “because the paramount concerns of both parties – territorial integrity and national sovereignty for the government and right to self-determination (rsd) for the milf” are duly considered. he strongly believed that the memorandum of agreement on ancestral domain (moa-ad) crafted by the representatives of the two parties will provide an integral and holistic solution to the conflict and in his own words a “piece of paper” that could very well be a good working basis for lasting peace in mindanao. but the moa-ad, no matter how one looks at it, is a remarkable document. it is a very serious attempt to balance national sovereignty and bangsamoro aspirations for self-determination and freedom. for this reason, i believe that the moa-ad can bring lasting peace. throwing out this “piece of paper based on mutual misconceptions, prejudices, and misinformation” would cause the demise of the peace process and may most likely lead to an all-out war. (de jesus 2018). but to reject the moa-ad completely based on what it does not say could be a tragedy of incalculable proportion, possibly a death knell to lasting peace. the two panels have painstakingly worked out the peace documents for 11 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 25 published by ideas spread long years. i would give them the benefit of the doubt that they have been conscientious in their work, looking out for the interests of their constituencies. against those who advocated military or economic solutions to the conflict, he offered a comprehensive, holistic strategy as the most effective way to address a conflict situation that seems to have stood on thin ice: the road to lasting peace involves a holistic solution, political, economic, cultural, and religious. a political solution, much less a military solution, will not suffice nor will a simple economic one, without the political and cultural/religious. figure 2. the site of the proposed core territory of the bangsa moro source: http://www.mindanews.com › graphics this section of the study would now more closely examine the ‘how” of quevedo’s peacemaking process through the lens of myer’s four strategies of peacemaking. they are contact, cooperation, communication, and conciliation. 3. contact this strategy can exert an influence on the adversaries by putting them into close contact to enhance familiarity, mutual acceptance, and reduce mutual mistrust, bias, and prejudices against each other. it presupposes an “equalstatus contact” or contact made on an equal basis on a level playing field. it can be safely said that, at the grassroot or micro level, the moderate muslims and christians have managed to live together in mutual tolerance and respect for each other. both sides are firmly rooted in their religious traditions and yet are respectful and open to their similarities and differences. i have witnessed a harmonious dialogue of life among the students. many of our soldiers and high ranking officers studied in our catholic schools. so, too, did members and leaders of the milf. what we have is a beautiful dialogue of life among students, among ordinary people who mixed with muslims in the market, in the office, at work, in the neighborhood, there’s no problem between moderate muslims and christians. (note 4) he has been in contact with the muslims for many years. he remembered that he came from the context of a boy who “grew up in marbel, koronadal, cotabato in the late 40s and early 50s,” and whose parents “migrated from the crowded north to the vast and spacious south,” and who worked in mindanao for more than three decades (mercado 2014; vitug 2014). the up-close and personal contact with them made a significant impact on his viewpoint and understanding of the conflict. through the years i have gained some understanding of the moro viewpoint. that has significantly influenced, even altered, my christian viewpoint.” hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 26 published by ideas spread based on these contacts, he expressed the firm belief that, in spite of the political and military conflict in his archdiocese of cotabato, peaceful and friendly coexistence between moderate muslims and christians is realizable. we managed to remain friendly towards the muslims at the grassroots level. many of the rebel leaders are graduates of our catholic schools in the archdiocese and some were students of the notre dame university where i was the president. so the situation is sometimes over-publicized because the conflict is only in some parts of the archdiocese of cotabato and not everywhere. nonetheless, i am concerned because there is still so much bias and prejudice among muslims and christians alike. the relatively, albeit fragile, peaceful coexistence between the muslims and christians ended when, as quevedo observed, the former started to lose their ancestral lands to the settlers from northern philippines (abreu 2008). the loss of land was compounded by government neglect of the moro right to integral development during the commonwealth and post-independence governments. in all dimensions of human development, political, economic, educational, and cultural, the moro population continues to lag far behind its christian filipino counterparts. the latest national census bears this out in terms of educational improvement, political participation, and economic development. this is truly a tragic plight. asked about his plans and hopes as a newly installed cardinal for his archdiocese and the church as a whole, he replied: my first concern and hope would be peace; peace in our territory in central mindanao; peace in the archdiocese of cotabato. second, i hope to see better harmonious relationships among christians, muslims, and indigenous people through interreligious dialogue. my third hope for the people of cotabato is to see the economic development of all people irrespective of their faiths. but my most primary concern is to inject the dimension of faith, whether in christians or islam or indigenous people — to have a common ground for peace and interreligious dialogue based on one's faith. and i would like to press for that. 4. cooperation this strategy can exert a positive influence on the conflicting individuals or groups by allowing them to work together to face a common predicament or pursue a shared goal (myers: 283). thus, an important challenge facing conflicting individuals and groups is to identify and agree on superordinate goals defined by myers as “goals compelling for all in a group and requiring cooperative effort, and structure cooperative efforts to achieve them.” the shared superordinate goal is presumed to outweigh the differences between the parties leading to integrative win-win agreements that reconcile both parties’ interests to their mutual benefit. now and then, the search for the elusive peace in mindanao would require a joint and cooperative effort from all stakeholders and constituencies. that being said, the numerous negotiations between the two parties in conflict are a cooperative effort to reconcile the two superordinate goals as crucial to the attainment of a just and lasting peace in the region. likewise, he proposed to build constituencies to support the peace process believing that to make the peace process works all stakeholders must participate and enjoy their rights to speak and be heard. in the aftermath of the mamasapano tragedy, he again made this point when he said: truly we must seek the truth and justice. this search for truth and the pursuit of justice must be done with objectivity and without prejudgment. we need to gather all the facts from all sides, from civilian witnesses, from combatants on both sides. given a long history of bias and mistrust from both parties, cooperation must be built on mutual trust and done in good faith in pursuit of the common good. thus, efforts for cooperation can and must come from all the stakeholders. for me, peace is a goal for everybody -christians and muslims, lumads, peoples of other faiths, government and milf. peace is the only solution to living together, developing a territory together. peace is not acquired overnight. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 27 published by ideas spread there are ups and downs and this mamasapano tragedy may be the worst of the downs. but if any heart can lift itself out of the pieces of a broken peace, it would be the heart of a sincere peace advocate, with no hidden agenda but peace. the spirit of peace is the holy spirit of god. it can soar over ashes and shattered houses and give hope where seemingly there is none. 5. communication this strategy contributes to the achievement of peace through communication and dialogue (thamgaraj 1999). it is wise to consult, ask questions, and secure assistance regarding directions and goals from stakeholders, left, right and center. for the government – consult with the different branches of government and with the people directly affected by conflict. for the milf – consult with the bangsamoro people, with the mnlf, and with the armm. i am not sure that any of these consultations were done -and competently. the so-called “fusion of horizons” is the expected outcome of this strategy. it can be done in three ways: direct bargaining with one another, mediation, and arbitration (myers: 284). for the past 16 years at the macro-level, the malaysian government has played a prominent role as the third party or mediator in the peace talks between the philippine government and the moro islamic liberation front (milf) (iqbal 2004; makabenta 2015). however, quevedo, in his capacity as a long-time religious leader in the region, has also served as a highly respected “mediator” between the two parties. in early 2004, the united nations development programme (undp) experts along with muslim and christian leaders approached cardinal quevedo and asked him to lead a group of eminent persons to serve as high-level intermediaries and advocates and facilitate the relevant conversations with regard to legislation, as well as the wider cause of a lasting peace in mindanao. this led to the formation of a group called "friends of peace” which quevedo eventually led (kuma 2004). through his initiatives, he helped facilitate dialogues between and among the stakeholders especially when the peace process had been derailed or reached an impasse. the dialogue and negotiations for peace cannot be closed prematurely. experience has shown that the negative outcomes due to the absence or lack of a line of communication between the two parties may never be underestimated. the peace process has been derailed and almost died because one or both of the parties failed to communicate. there were many times when his words were said in direct reply to perceived misinformation and disinformation as well as to address deep-seated biases and prejudices and thus “restore rationality to the peace process.” in the face of outrage and calls for an all-out war, he asked the parties to go back to the negotiating table to rehabilitate the peace process. he called for consultation and dialogue, information and education as the key to the acceptability of the ill-fated moa-ad: moa-ad has a lot of ambiguity as well as questionable presentation. muslims, christians, lumad would want such issues to be clarified, before saying yes or no to the consensus points. perhaps, concepts need to be clearer. they can be made so in future steps of the peace process as both parties move towards a comprehensive pact. but the moa-ad need not be the document that should contain all the details that would resolve all questions and doubts. the peace process will continue even after it is signed. with goodwill, patience and wisdom --and consultation ---such further steps will surely resolve substantive questions. therefore, as a way out of the present impasse let organized and focused public discussions on the moa-ad be conducted for a specific and reasonable time so that the two parties may be guided accordingly. in the face of possible provocations, be persevering, patient and resolute until a fair and just final peace agreement is done. because of misunderstanding and mistrust from both side of the divide, quevedo strongly and many times suggested as an imperative: a serious and sustained effort to inform and educate all of the constituencies and stakeholders about “matter that is of utmost importance to them and their future” and about the mutual rights and mutual sacrifices needed by both parties.” there is certainly the imperative of educating all the various constituencies hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 28 published by ideas spread and stakeholders as to the contents (concepts and principles, territory, resources, and governance) of the moa-ad, their bases in history and in law, the steps still to be taken, the recognition of mutual rights, as well as the mutual sacrifices needed by both peoples, bangsamoro and non-bangsamoro. it would be to the interest of the common good for them (the peace panels) to explain the meaning and the rationale of provisions that are questioned and objected to. two immediate reasons for the negative reception of the moa-ad are lack of information regarding the contents of the document and the lack of previous consultation with various stakeholders as to what the document should contain. no serious effort was made to establish a supportive public constituency. having consultations, asking for directions, providing progress reports – these are proven ways to have people participate in any matter that is of utmost importance to them and their future. the words synonymous to communication are plenty: information, dialogue consultations, consensus-building, and reception in its ecclesiological sense (congar 1972). this study found that “consult” and “consensus” were quevedo’s most utilized words. strongly believing that a genuine consensus is possible, he argued that all stakeholders must be allowed to voice their views and demanded the mutual respect and attention of all. stressing the need for and importance of consensus-building through wide consultations, he said that: but there is a certain irreplaceable and indispensable benefit to people’s participation through consultation and information dissemination at various points in the peace journey. i am quite certain that both the milf and the grp have set a certain time for extensive consultations, perhaps when referendum and changes to constitution/law are to be made. but present reactions cannot wait for that time. in the wake of the many incidents that tend to derail the peace process, quevedo remained strongly committed to fostering a culture of dialogue, forging a unity of opinion – or consensus-based on all the above points through widespread consultations by both sides (rosario-braid 2000). in spite of the prevailing culture and history of mutual prejudices, he maintained this mindset throughout the search for peace. aggravated by lack of consultation and reinforced by anger, misinformation, misconceptions, biases, prejudices, and resistance to change, led to the present grave uncertainties regarding the peace process. due to lack of information resulting in the negative reception of the moa consultation, public discussions and dialogue with all the stakeholders are a must to arrive at a consensus on issues that divide. reception of the peace process intended outcome is the result of this consultation. one would think then that along the arduous and difficult journey, certain stops should be made to ask for directions, consult people, set goals and then obtain consensus points at the roadside negotiation table. 6. conciliation this strategy is designed to de-escalate tensions that may arise during the peacemaking between the two parties in conflict. this element of conciliation is based on what is nicknamed as grit or “graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension reduction” (myers: 291). based on the belief that the participants are equal, it is not so much retaliatory as it is conciliatory in mode. it requires no preconditions to the conciliation or the surrender of one’s original and non-negotiable position but only seeks a middle ground between the two opposing sides. three intervening events happened that threatened to derail the peace process, led to grave uncertainties, and compelled the urgent need to de-escalate the tensions triggered by them. they were the declaration by the supreme court supreme that the moa-ad as unconstitutional (august 2008), the buliok war (february 2003), and the mamasapano tragedy (march 2015). all three events re-escalated the conflict and triggered the deep historic biases and prejudices that lie in the dark corners of the two parties, quevedo said. as a participant of the peace process, he only knew too well how volatile everything can be in the region and did try his best to conciliate between the adversaries. to reduce the tension, he immediately proposed small de-escalatory actions such as the need to hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 29 published by ideas spread conduct participatory fact-finding investigations and to return to the negotiating table. after the mamasapano tragedy that seriously cast doubts on the peace process and increased the tensions, he said: the demand for wisdom is for us to hold back the natural response of revenge and desire to break off the peace process. the bloodbath in mamasapano should not end in the peace process in mindanao. to ease the tensions and resist the demoralizing results of the three events, he immediately proposed to establish verifiable conciliatory acts and challenged both parties to reciprocate without risking their security and selfinterests. as what exactly was needed at those tragic events, he earnestly proposed two steps to quickly bounce back and ease the pressure on the two sides: to return to the negotiating table and to organize focused public discussions on the moa-ad for a specific and reasonable time. it remains true that many things cannot be negotiated in public; otherwise, the plethora of opinions and suggestions, each one passionately presented and defended, would create disorder out of order. but there is a certain irreplaceable and indispensable benefit to people's participation through consultation and information dissemination at various points in the peace journey. i am quite certain that both the milf and the grp have set a certain time for extensive consultations, perhaps when referendum and changes to constitution/law are to be made. but present reactions cannot wait for that time. 7. how did he say or do it? quevedo’s words were attempts to answer a fundamental question: what is the wise thing to do in a conflict situation like mindanao? three words may be used to explain this domain of his peacemaking task namely: practical wisdom, consensus-driven, and catholic. 8. practical wisdom the french philosopher paul ricoeur's concept of phronetic or practical wisdom would help make sense of quevedo’s integrative and balanced approach to the peace process (vermeer and van der ven 2002). for ricoeur, practical wisdom is the ethical skill that helps one to determine the “good life with and for others in just institutions,” test it against the “right norm,” and strike a balance between the good and right in concrete situations.” applied to the concrete situation of the mindanao conflict, the image of the “good life” would be the collective desire to achieve a long overdue peace in general, and the right to self-determination of the muslims, in particular. to pass the critical test for the objectively good, however, the ethical aim needs to “pass through the sieve of the norm” as provided by the constitutional requirement that seeks to protect the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country. in line with rosario-braid’s (2002) suggestions, quevedo used constructive rather than adversarial communications; emphasized the commonalities rather than disagreements between the two adversaries, explored the multifaceted angles of a simple idea such as peace, justice, and progress. based on these concepts, it is clear that to succeed in his ministry as a peacemaker, it was imperative for quevedo to carefully navigate between the scylla of perpetuating a historical injustice and the charybdis of dismembering the republic. happily, he managed to stay on course and to strike a balanced and accurate account of the good life and the right norm is the concrete and complex situation of the mindanao conflict. 9. consensus-driven following jürgen habermas’ theory of communication, quevedo’s language and words about peace and its imperatives may be described as “that which seeks mutual understanding and possesses no strategic goal other than the achievement of a consensus or common understanding” of the “good life” and the norms of peacemaking (gallardetz 2002). it was a consensus-driven dialogue for peace based on the maintenance and promotion of the dynamic relationships between and among the stakeholders and constituents. when faithfully engaged in, the model can yield "shared truth” of a fusion of horizons between the conflicting parties. quevedo employed this communication model as a reciprocal act of sharing in which the intended recipients from both sides will actively and selectively appropriate that which is communicated. as a type of dialogue or conversation, his approach was a communicative and not a strategic approach to peacemaking, not a top-down strategic kind of communication geared only towards a successful resolution of the conflict. on the contrary, it was deeply rooted in the ground and oriented towards a holistic understanding of the collective search for peace and justice. quevedo’s single-minded purpose was to guide stakeholders to a shared understanding of the conflict through constant dialogues, consultations, negotiations and reception of their shared resolutions to establish peace. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 30 published by ideas spread 10. catholic finally, quevedo’s words manifest an approach that is clearly and distinctly “catholic.” it adopts the principle of complementarity, a this-as-well –asthat approach to reality and thus not dialectic either-or approach. first, it adopts an integrative perspective of all the issues and challenges that had bedeviled the peace process across time. second, both rooted in his religious tradition (the use of reason informed by faith) and yet open to the perspectives of the other, he saw to it that all the various constituencies and stakeholders were given a voice and a hearing whether they are left, right and center, whether they are muslims, christians or lumads, the government, and the bangsa moro, milf, mnlf. third, he consistently and respectfully paid attention to their common and self-interests, fears and prejudices, misconceptions and misinformation. with his sight singly-focused on the common good, he painstakingly tried to be both inclusive and integrative in the firm hope of achieving the fusion of horizons between the bangsamoro aspirations for self-determination and grp conviction to its national sovereignty. for a deeper and wider understanding and appreciation of the issues and challenges that had beset it, his words put into light the historical, cultural, legal, political, territorial, economic, and social dimensions of the conflict. this has helped diminished the ambiguities, doubts, and prejudices surrounding the peace process. 11. how did he keep going? what kept him going? it is a commonly known fact that peacemaking is a challenging and complex task. it is surely not for the fainthearted. amid the clear and present risks to their lives and limbs, peacemakers will need a lot of daring, courage, patience and optimism that at the end of the long and tedious path peace will be realizable. holbrooke said that it takes some qualities to be a peacemaker in a world torn apart by intractable conflicts: diligence and persistence, unique insight, credibility, passion, and a commitment to the idea that peace is possible. we may add courage to face the possibility of torture and death. not a few of our local peacemakers have lost their lives without seeing the peace and justice that they dreamed and pursued the people of mindanao. this sad reality makes us wonder: “what has kept peacemakers like cardinal quevedo going against the many odds of peacemaking?” what is his secret? in the seeming absence of manifest answers from his testimonies, we may therefore only make an educated guess: the secret lays both in the human and divine domains of peacemaking. following holbrooke's assessment of what enables individuals to be a peacemaker, i think it is in quevedo’s "moral conviction and religious calling to work until peace and justice are a reality" where his secret lies. moral conviction is defined as “a subjective assessment that one’s attitude about a specific issue or situation is associated with one’s core moral beliefs and fundamental sense of right or wrong” (bauman and sitka 2003). it is the subjective belief that something is fundamentally right or wrong which quevedo strongly asserted consists of the historical and social injustice that the muslims endured and suffered for centuries. although it seems an unpopular idea, he is morally convinced that unless the historical injustice and the basic rights of the muslims for selfdetermination are resolved through a principled negotiation between the two parties, the just and sustainable peace will most likely not come to mindanao. as a religious leader and a christian disciple, there is no doubt as to the second possible reason why quevedo kept going in spite of the seemingly insurmountable obstacles to peacemaking. he has said many times that he is into this advocacy because of his religious calling both as a parish priest and later on as an archbishop of a diocese that is 47% muslim and 48% catholic. although he believes that peace is god’s grace and gift, he is also convinced that for peace to become a reality he must perform his task as a christian and as a leader of his flock. because peace is both gift and task. ultimately it is a gift of god. but it is also our task. it is our task to be peacemakers rather than to be destroyers of peace. that we do not have peace is due to us. we have not done our task. i beg you as fellow disciples of christ, the prince of peace, to pray and work together for peace so that mamasapano will not repeat itself. it is the spirit of god that gives hope and infuses love and harmony among peoples of different faiths and cultures. with god's spirit, we can soar over tragedies, we can restore trust for one another; we can strive together for harmony and peace. ultimately it is in the enlightened heart where love and peace begin. may the god of justice, peace and love bless us all! he has always prayed for peace knowing that, regardless of his own human efforts peace, his faith tells him that it would ultimately remain a gift of god’s grace and mercy. in short, he is a peacemaker because he is a man of prayer, a man of faith, and ultimately a man of god. i am for peace, the peace that god grants to people of goodwill. i am for the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 31 published by ideas spread peace that god gives through the collaborative work of men and women who work conscientiously for the good of the whole country. 12. conclusion and research directions this study focused on orlando cardinal quevedo’s advocacy for peace and its imperatives in the southern mindanao region. a close and careful examination of his statements makes manifest an eyewitness understanding of the historical roots of the armed conflict and a comprehensive plan of action to uproot it to gain a just and sustainable peace in the region. it is crystal-clear that he knew exactly what he was doing and speaking about for years on end. moreover, they also speak volumes about his practical wisdom as well as his courage to “fight the good fight” even in the face of humanly insurmountable obstacles and risks to his life. though bereft of political power and armed only with his religious faith and moral conviction, he proved to be a credible and attractive voice in the public square where the choice between war and peace and life and death were being decided. as an advocate of peaceful strategies to make and build peace in southern mindanao, the extent of his influence and impact on the peace process may not be exactly measured. but by organizing and analyzing his words about peace and its demands, the long-running conflict is better understood and the issues and challenges standing in the path of a just and sustainable peace in the island cleared and flattened. the lessons and insights that this exploratory study has helped uncover may serve as a grounded recipe for future peacemakers to learn and re-appropriated in a hopefully not an unending task and ministry of peacemaking in today’s world. cardinal quevedo's case is merely illustrative though; there is a need to examine more closely the narratives of the other few good men and women who, like him, have courageously and selflessly performed the task and ministry of peacemaking and peace-building in the region. it will help would-be-peacemakers to better understand not only “who they are, what they do, how they do it, and what keeps them going” but also the fundamental challenges and opportunities facing the thousand-mile journey toward a just and lasting peace in mindanao. references a. articles in a print and online-only journal abreu, l. m. (2008). ancestral domain–the core issue. moro reader, 56. bacongco, k. (2010). "buliok 7 years after the war: painful imprints still linger". available online at mindanews. brady, c., agoncillo, o., butardo-toribio, m. z., dolom, b., & olvida, c. v. (2013). improving natural resource governance and building peace and stability in mindanao, philippines. livelihoods, natural resources, and post-conflict peacebuilding. clark, j. (2008). philosophy, understanding, and the consultation: a fusion of horizons. british journal of general practice 2008 january 1, 58(546), 58-60. https://doi.org/10.3399/bjgp08x263929 congar, yves-marie (1972). reception as an ecclesiological reality. concilium (gb), 77, 43-68. david, r. (2018). duterte’s language-games. philippine daily inquirer, public lives august 19, 2018, available @inquirerdotnet de jesus, edilberto (2018). birthing the bangsa moro autonomous region. philippine daily inquirer, november 03, 2018. available at inquirerdotnet. mohammad, i. (2012). peace talk: malaysia and its role in the gph-milf peace process. retrieved from http://www.mindanews.com jayawardena, shanil, o. m. i. (2014). interview with cardinal orlando b. quevedo. general house, rome. available at https://www.omiworld.org/interview/cardinal-orlando-b-quevedo-omi/ makabenta, y. (2015). malaysia’s role should be explained. retrieved from https://www.manilatimes.net/malaysias-role-should-be-explained/177169/ mercado, eliseo, o. m. i. (2014). cardinal quevedo: a prophet in mindanao. retrieved from https://www.rappler.com/.../47815-philippines-orlando-quevedo-cardinalmindanao rosario-braid, f. (2000). the lessons of the philippine peace process. retrieved from http://www.muslimmindanao.ph/peace_process/the%20lessons%20of%20the%20phil%20peace%20process .pdf hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 32 published by ideas spread vermeer, paul, and van der ven, johannes (2002) a students’ moral consciousness. journal of empirical theology, 15(2002), 54-75. vitug, m. (2004). a peacemaker on mindanao, newsweek. retrieved from atwww.newsweek.com/peacemakermindanao-168784 b. chapter in a book gallardetz, r. (2002) the reception of doctrine: new perspectives, from authority in the roman catholic church. bernard hoose (ed). ashgate. holbrooke, r. (2007) preface to peacemakers in action: profiles of religion in conflict resolution. david little (ed). tenenbaum center for interreligious understanding. cambridge university press. stephens, m. (2016) mindanao: the long journey to peace and prosperity. paul d. hutchcroft (ed). anvil publishing inc. c. books allen nan, s., mampilly, z. c., & bartoli, a. (2001). peacemaking: from practice to theory. volume 1. praeger. fernandez, p. o. p. (1979). history of the church in the philippines (1521-1898). metro manila: national book store. fraenkel, j., & wallen, n. (2013). how to design and evaluate research in education. mcgraw-hill inc. gadamer, hans-george (2004). truth and method. 2nd revised ed. london: continuum international publishing group. myers, d. (1994). exploring social psychology. mcgraw-hill, inc. thangaraj, thomas (1999). the common task: a theology of christian mission. nashville: abingdon press. d. thesis or dissertation aquino, r. m. (2009). land ownership and migration impact on the muslim secessionist conflict in the southern philippines (doctoral dissertation, monterey, california: naval postgraduate school). david, r. a. (2003). the causes and prospect of the southern philippines secessionist movement (doctoral dissertation, monterey, california. naval postgraduate school. luga, a. r. (2002). muslim insurgency in mindanao, philippines. army command and general staff college fort leavenworth ks. notes note 1. with his expressed permission, the data and information gathered for purposes of this study were mostly sourced or cited from cardinal quevedo's communications such as letters, interviews as well as newspaper and journal articles from 2005-2017 accessed from his blog archive http://abpquevedo.blogspot.com. note 2. interview with shane healy, july 2017. available at https://youtu.be/sv3avyuwkt8 note 3. two major wars occurred while quevedo was president of the catholic bishops conference of the philippines for two-year terms (1999 to 2003: the estrada administration's "all-out war" in 2000 which displaced nearly a million residents and the arroyo administration's 2003 buliok war which displaced nearly half a million residents. both wars occurred amid peace talks. (mindanews/05 february). more recently, the mamasapano tragedy happened when the moa-ad was about to be signed into law by the government. note 4. from an interview with thomas rosica, csb. march 9, 2017. available at https://youtu.be/xnbirdd-vpw biographical statement noel g. asiones earned his ph.d. in theology and m.a. in psychology from the university of santo tomas, manila, philippines, in 2005 and 1999 respectively. he teaches fundamental college theology with the institute of religion and is a researcher at the research centre for social sciences and education. his field of interests includes religion and youth, organizational assessment and evaluation, and church and social issues. he has done commissioned and national research projects for the catholic bishops' conference of the philippines-episcopal commission on youth (cbcp-ecy) and the catholic educational association of the philippines. as one of its hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 33 published by ideas spread co-authors, his most current published research for the cbcp-ecy is titled "the national filipino catholic youth survey 2014." email address: ngasiones ust.edu.ph copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 http://hssr.ideasspread.org 37 published by ideas spread reviewer acknowledgements humanities and social science research wishes to acknowledge the following individuals for their assistance with peer review of manuscripts for this issue. their help and contributions in maintaining the quality of the journal is greatly appreciated. humanities and social science research is recruiting reviewers for the journal. if you are interested in becoming a reviewer, we welcome you to join us. please find the application form and details at http://home.ideasspread.org/for-reviewers/ and e-mail the completed application form to hssr@ideasspread.org reviewers for volume 2, number 3 alicay calixto, cagayan state university, philippines amil maharramov, baku state university, azerbaijan bruno de souza lessa, federal university of rio grande do sul, brazil erna multahada, mercu buana university, indonesia kristine t. soberano, northern negros state college of science and technology, philippines maria jocelyn b. natividad, lyceum of the philippines university, philippines nilüfer pembecioğlu, istanbul university, turkey tasew tafese, addis ababa university, ethiopia tinashe chuchu, university of the witwatersrand, south africa humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p118 118 published by ideas spread the enlightenments for chinese higher education from positioning among functions and positioning internal functions in american and german universities he fei1, ye yongling2 & fan jiao3 1 chongqing open university, china 2 business school, hechi university, china 3 chongqing vocational college of applied technology, china correspondence: ye yongling, school of business, hechi university, no. 42, longjiang road, yizhou district, hechi city, guangxi postal code: 546300, china. mobile phone: 86-135-6676-9558. e-mail: 2023660074@hcnu.edu.cn received: july 14, 2025; accepted: august 5, 2025; published: august 6, 2025 abstract the positioning among function of chinese university/college is scientific research. the positioning internal function is explicit performance. the result of evolution is the niche of scientific research drives out teaching and the niche of explicit performance drives out tacit performance. according to the experience of the balanced positioning among function and the quality positioning internal function of american and german university/college, chinese university/college should stress on the balanced positioning among function and positioning internal function of teacher, so that realizes the evolution of positioning among function and positioning internal function of chinese university/college from the expansion in quantity to improvement in quality. keywords: university, college, positioning among function, positioning internal function, niche 1. introduction in the era of the knowledge economy, from the perspective of explicit quantitative indicators, the 2024 china science and technology paper statistics report shows that china continues to rank first globally in the number of influential journal articles across disciplines, the number of papers published in high-level international journals, and citation frequency. in 2024, china also topped the world in the number of international patent applications under the patent cooperation treaty (pct) and design applications under the hague system. from the perspective of implicit quality indicators, however, there remains a significant gap between china’s total factor productivity (tfp)-which generally measures productivity or innovation attributable to technological progress-and that of developed countries. china's annual tfp growth rate is less than 2%. notably, as of the end of 2024, only one domestic chinese scientist had received a nobel prize in the natural sciences, out of a total of 655 laureates worldwide. [1] developed countries such as the united states and germany have long led the world in the implicit quality dimension of scientific and technological innovation, particularly in nobel prizes in the natural sciences (as of the end of 2024, the u.s. had 414 laureates and germany 111). china still needs to draw on the successful experiences of the u.s. and germany to shift from quantitative expansion to qualitative improvement, transforming the focus from the quantity of papers and patents to substantive innovation. [2] 2. problems in the interand intra-functional positioning of chinese universities 2.1 inter-functional and intra-functional positioning in practice, universities are typically positioned around three core functions: teaching, research, and social service. the niche of full-time university faculty (hereafter referred to as "teachers") refers to their role within university performance assessments, which includes both material/ecological niches (benefits-based) and spiritual/ecological niches (recognition-based). differences in the value of different functions (i.e., how rewards or recognition are allocated) are referred to as inter-functional differences. when universities or teachers choose which function is most valuable, this is known as inter-functional positioning, aimed at maximizing inter-functional value. [3] hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 119 published by ideas spread even within the same function, there can be differences in the value of explicit achievements (recognized outputs in performance assessments) versus implicit achievements (valuable contributions not recognized in assessments, akin to organizational citizenship behavior). these differences are referred to as intra-functional differences. to maximize their value within each function, teachers must choose between emphasizing explicit or implicit achievements-this is known as intra-functional positioning. 2.2 problems in the interand intra-functional positioning of chinese universities from the inter-functional perspective, over the past two decades, many colleges have been upgraded to universities, and teaching-focused or teaching-research universities have increasingly aligned their positioning with research universities. chinese universities often use a points-based performance evaluation system covering teaching, research, and social services. because research is assigned significantly more value than teaching or service, both universities and teachers tend to prioritize research-i.e., the research niche crowds out the teaching niche. from the intra-functional perspective, because explicit achievements are rewarded more heavily, teachers tend to focus on explicit over implicit outputs. universities prioritize quantifiable results in rewards and promotions, driving teachers to pursue measurable achievements, while the quality of work becomes an afterthought. this has led to a phenomenon where explicit achievements grow rapidly, while implicit quality declines-the explicit achievement niche crowds out the implicit achievement niche. specifically: in research, teachers tend to focus on knowledge recombination (which produces quick and numerous results) rather than knowledge innovation (which takes longer and yields fewer, slower-growing outputs). in teaching, there is a shift toward rote lecturing (easier to generate measurable teaching outputs) rather than guidance and mentoring (which requires more preparation and long-term investment with minimal immediate output). 3. inter-functional positioning in u.s. and german universities and its implications 3.1 types and inter-functional positioning of u.s. universities as of 2024, u.s. higher education institutions can be broadly categorized as follows: comprehensive universities (universities): about 2,300 four-year institutions, including 326 research universities offering doctoral degrees. the rest are mainly teaching-oriented. liberal arts colleges: 606 four-year institutions granting bachelor’s degrees, with a focus on teaching. community colleges: 1,275 two-year institutions granting associate degrees. these include: academic community colleges: students may transfer to four-year universities. vocational community colleges: students enter the workforce directly. [4] the diversity and stability of institutional types and roles are protected by federal and state laws. for example, california’s 1960 state legislation classified public universities into three types: research universities, teachingfocused universities, and community colleges. institutions are not allowed to change their designated roles. expansion has focused on increasing the size of each type rather than upgrading one type to another. [5] 3.2 types and inter-functional positioning of german universities according to the 2024–2025 german study abroad report by the education international cooperation group (eic), german higher education institutions include: universities (universitäten, uni): 120 institutions offering bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degrees, with a focus on both teaching and research. universities of applied sciences (fachhochschulen, fh): 209 institutions offering bachelor’s and master’s degrees, focused on training applied professionals. academies of arts (kunstakademien): 57 institutions offering bachelor’s and master’s degrees, primarily focused on the arts. [6] germany’s inter-functional positioning traces back to wilhelm von humboldt, who founded humboldt university and led a major university reform in 1809. he argued that only research achievements based on creative activities qualify as knowledge to be taught, making scientific inquiry the foundation of university-level education. [7] in 2010, germany adopted the bologna process, implementing standardized degree structures and maintaining a strict distinction between research and applied institutions. no fh institution has been upgraded to a uni. each institution adheres to its designated role. [8] 3.3 implications for chinese universities ancient chinese philosopher laozi said: “the tao gives birth to one, one gives birth to two, two gives birth to three, and three gives birth to all things.” [9] the tao (fundamental purpose) of a university is to cultivate talent. initially, this was a single teaching mission, then evolved into dual functions (teaching and research), and later into three functions (teaching, research, and service), eventually branching into various specific roles. however, in practice, because the value assigned to research is significantly higher, the functional development in chinese hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 120 published by ideas spread universities has regressed from multi-functionality to a single research-centric model. as a result, research functions determine the ecological niche of teachers, and institutions of all types converge toward becoming research universities. the diversity and legal safeguards for institutional roles in the u.s. and germany, especially their resistance to homogenization, offer valuable lessons. the misalignment of roles in china-where universities of all types are skewed toward research at the expense of teaching-requires correction. overexpansion of the research function leads to negative correlations among the three performance dimensions, undermining education and service. 4. intra-functional positioning in u.s. and german universities and its implications 4.1 u.s. university evaluation systems and intra-functional positioning the academic ranks and research orientation in u.s. universities directly determine a faculty member’s professional positioning. the functions and time allocation of university faculty reflect the division between visible achievements and hidden contributions. 4.1.1 academic ranks in u.s. universities: "up or out" the academic ranks for faculty in u.s. universities are generally divided into three levels: assistant professor, associate professor, and professor. associate professors and professors typically hold tenured positions. most u.s. universities implement a tenure-track system, also known as the "up or out" system. faculty appointments in the professorial track are primarily evaluated based on years of service and the quality of academic achievements. assistant professors are generally expected to be promoted within seven years; failure to achieve a higher rank by the deadline may result in dismissal.[10] according to reports from the american association of university professors (aaup) and the national center for education statistics (nces), 42.4% of full-time faculty in u.s. universities have tenure, while 22.0% of all faculty (including part-time faculty) have tenure. the percentage of faculty with tenure varies by rank: 69.1% of professors, 47.4% of associate professors, and 13.8% of assistant professors hold tenured positions. at american university, a research-oriented institution, approximately 30% of assistant professors are promoted to associate professor, and around 50% of associate professors are promoted to full professor. [11] 4.1.2 research in u.s. universities: publish or perish "publish or perish" has become the prevailing career model for faculty at u.s. research universities. research aimed at publication, also known as the "scholarship of discovery," has become the central mission of these institutions. university reward systems and teaching workload arrangements are increasingly tilted in favor of research. however, in many non-research universities, such as comprehensive universities, liberal arts colleges, and community colleges, the core missions and available resources do not permit faculty to devote the majority of their efforts to research. imposing uniform research expectations and responsibilities on all faculty memberswithout considering the nature of the institution, the characteristics of faculty work, or the student population-can have serious consequences. this is particularly evident in undergraduate education, which has led to widespread dissatisfaction among american students and parents. [12] according to survey results from the aaup and nces, the number of papers published by faculty over the twoyear period from 2021 to 2022 is shown in table 1: table 1. the number of papers published by american university teachers (pieces) university type papers published by tenured faculty papers published by tenure-track faculty papers published by non-tenure-track faculty job focus research universities 14.2 7.9 5.3 research general comprehensive universities 6.9 6.0 2.8 teaching liberal arts colleges 6.5 3.8 2.8 teaching community colleges 2.7 3.6 1.2 teaching according to table 1, research universities within u.s. comprehensive universities produce twice as many publications as general comprehensive universities. the number of publications by faculty in general hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 121 published by ideas spread comprehensive universities is roughly equivalent to that of faculty in liberal arts colleges and community colleges. (since the data between public and private institutions are largely similar, table 1 does not distinguish between them.) the quality of academic papers in the u.s. is generally evaluated based on citation rate. on average, tenured faculty in the u.s. have 0.77 citations per paper, while non-tenured faculty average 0.73 citations per paper. according to the national science foundation (nsf) 2023 report, despite a continued increase in funding for university research (annual growth rate of 4%), the number of academic papers published in the u.s. grows by fewer than 10,000 annually (a growth rate of only 0.5%). on average, less than 0.4 papers per person were published in scie (science citation index expanded) journals over a two-year period. [13] 4.1.3 time allocation of u.s. university faculty according to an nces survey, in 2023, u.s. university faculty worked an average of 53 hours per week. about 45% of this time was spent on teaching and related work, and 25% on research and related activities. faculty at research universities taught about 6 class sessions per week; faculty at four-year institutions taught around 8–10 sessions per week; and community college faculty taught approximately 14–16 sessions weekly. a study conducted in 2014–2015 by the higher education research institute at the university of california showed that faculty teaching 9–12 sessions per week spent 25.2% of their time preparing for class (approximately 9 hours/week); those teaching 13–16 sessions spent 17.3% (about 6 hours/week); and those teaching 17–20 sessions spent 13.8% (around 5 hours/week). at american university, professors typically follow a "2–2" teaching load (two courses per semester, each with two hours per week), while lower-ranked faculty often follow a "3–3" or even "4–4" schedule. [14] 4.2 assessment and professional positioning in german universities 4.2.1 academic titles in german universities according to the 21st-century german higher education services law, universities (universitäten, uni) and universities of applied sciences (fachhochschulen, fh) follow the same salary structure. the professorship system consists of junior professor (w1), professor (w2), and senior professor (w3, tenured), similar to the u.s. system of assistant, associate, and full professors. the german professorship system is hierarchical. the entry point is a doctoral degree (up to 4 years, a prerequisite for w1), followed by postdoctoral research (2–3 years, not mandatory for w1). w1 is a non-tenured junior professorship (up to 6 years). w2 is tenured and designated as a civil servant or employee by the state. w3 is the highest professorship level, also tenured, with similar status designation. w1 professors undergo internal teaching evaluations and external research assessments during the first three-year term. a negative review results in dismissal within one year after the first term ends. a positive review allows for a second three-year term, during which w1 professors may apply for w2 positions. to move from w2 to w3, in addition to significant achievements in research and teaching, candidates must wait for vacancies at other universities, as internal promotions are not allowed in the german system-appointments must be made across institutions. [15] 4.2.2 research output and time allocation of german university faculty german universities prioritize quality over quantity in research. faculty are not required to meet quantitative research output standards. on average, each professor publishes one academic paper or approximately 100 pages of scholarly work per year. evaluations of faculty research and teaching are conducted every 5–7 years, focusing primarily on original research contributions and the scholar's ability to articulate their field of study. these evaluations influence salary adjustments and resource allocation. according to the standing conference of the ministers of education and cultural affairs (kmk), uni professors at the w2 and w3 levels are assigned 8 teaching hours per week (each session at least 45 minutes). w1 professors teach 4 hours per week during their first three-year term and 4–6 hours per week during the second term. fh professors have a teaching load of 18 hours per week. administrative heads (such as deans or department chairs) may receive up to a 50% reduction in teaching load, while vice presidents or equivalent positions may be granted up to a 75% reduction. [16] 4.3 implications for professional positioning in chinese universities although "publish or perish" has become the dominant model for faculty in u.s. comprehensive universities, 91% of u.s. higher education institutions-including non-research universities, liberal arts colleges, and community colleges-lack the resources or mission focus to support research as the primary faculty activity. outside of research universities, faculty in the u.s. publish an average of about two papers per year, a research output significantly lower than that of chinese universities, where research includes not only papers but also projects, monographs, and other scholarly work. universities in both the u.s. and germany clearly define teaching as a fundamental duty hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 122 published by ideas spread of faculty, and this is reflected in faculty promotions, performance-based compensation, and departmental incentives. this provides valuable insights for china. in the u.s., faculty spend significantly more time on teaching and related activities (45%) than on research (25%). faculty spend at least 15% of their time on lesson preparation. the research evaluation cycle is two years, and the average annual publication output is around two papers. in germany, the research assessment cycle is 5–7 years, and the average annual publication output is about one paper. these practices offer useful lessons for chinese universities, where the lack of differentiation in faculty roles and the emphasis on visible, large-scale "outputs" have led to an overemphasis on quantity rather than quality-often favoring visible over hidden achievements. universities should follow the laws of knowledge dissemination: faculty members' material (profit-based) and spiritual (reputation-based) ecological niches should not be determined solely by visible outputs (explicit achievements), but also by the quality of their hidden contributions (implicit achievements). for faculty, the ecological niches of "output" (explicit achievement) and "quality" (implicit achievement) do not always overlap. when output exceeds a certain threshold, the two may become inversely related. therefore, more output is not always better; it is essential to preserve the ecological niche of quality-based implicit achievements. 5. conclusion the research positioning among positions and the "achievement" positioning within positions in chinese universities have evolved to result in the research niche driving out the teaching niche, and the prominent achievement niche driving out the hidden achievement niche. the stability of the inter-job positioning of universities in the united states and germany has been legally guaranteed, and chinese universities have been assimilated into research-oriented universities. the expansion of research functions will lead to a negative correlation among the performance of teaching, research and social services. therefore, the inter-job positioning in chinese universities needs to be properly aligned. the scale of scientific research performance in american and german universities is relatively small, and the assessment cycle for scientific research is relatively long, leaving corresponding ecological niches for the hidden achievements of various functions in universities. this can serve as a reference for the "quality" positioning within chinese universities. chinese universities should draw on the experiences of the united states and germany, attach importance to the ecological niche balance between teachers' positions (teaching, research and service functions) and positions (visible achievements and hidden achievements), ensure the positive correlation between positions and positions, and ultimately achieve the evolution of university functions from quantitative expansion to qualitative improvement. acknowledgments 2024 chongqing municipal education commission humanities and social sciences project: "research on the mechanism and path of empowering the virtualization innovation of teaching forms in chongqing vocational colleges through education sharing economy" (24skgh435); 2024 chongqing higher vocational and technical education research association project: "research on the path of empowering the virtualization innovation of teaching forms in chongqing higher vocational colleges through education sharing economy" (293); 2024 chongqing higher education teaching reform research project: "practical research on the integration of ideological and political education in secondary and higher vocational courses under the background of 'red rock ideological and political education'" (z2241587s); guangxi education science '14th five-year plan' 2025 annual project: "innovative research on the virtual organizational structure of smart education in guangxi universities based on the law of knowledge transmission" (2025a032). references [1] wang, h., tian, r., sun, w., & chen, g. (2025). analysis of global competitiveness of chinese agricultural science and technology papers and patents in 2024. journal of agronomy, (4), 3–6. [2] jin, y. (2025). cultivating innovation capacity through the lens of nobel prize. science education in primary and secondary schools, (3), 4–9. [3] yu, c., & shi, x. (2025). the origin, positioning, and development of skill-oriented universities in china. vocational and technical education, (18), 30–37. [4] wang, h. (2024). historical decoding of american higher education an academic perspective on a history of american colleges and universities. peking university education review, (4), 156–168. [5] jiang, j., & ding, c. (2024). evaluation of sustainable development in universities: an important path to highquality development of american higher education in the popularization phase. higher education research, (6), 99–109. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 123 published by ideas spread [6] eic education. (2024). 2024-2025 eic german study abroad report [database/online]. retrieved from https://www.eic.org.cn/special/ge_2024_report_b [7] xiao, h., & mo, j. (2024). the significant value of humboldt university’s research philosophy: freedom, humanity, and the state. journal of education, renmin university of china, (6), 22–34. [8] yuan, d. (2024). organizational changes and functional reconstruction of modern german universities. higher education development and evaluation, (5), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1111/hequ.12550 [9] feng, g. (2024). on the essential connotation of laozi’s cosmogenesis theory a new interpretation of “the dao produces one, one produces two, two produces three, three produces all things.” literature, history and philosophy, (5), 136–144. [10] xie, w., & wang, s. (2024). the development, content characterization, and action logic of the pause-thetenure-clock policy in the u.s. comparative education research, (6), 64–72. [11] wang, x. (2024). evaluation criteria and procedural guarantees for faculty promotion at top u.s. research universities. shanghai education evaluation research, (2), 67–71. [12] li, j., hu, y., & yang, y. (2023). controversies and improvements in the u.s. tenure system reflections on china’s “pre-tenure to tenure” system. education development research, (19), 61–67. [13] wapman, k. h., zhang, s., clauset, a., & larremore, d. b. (2022). quantifying hierarchy and dynamics in us faculty hiring and retention. nature, 610(9), 120–127. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05222-x [14] xu, l., & qian, j. (2024). a multi-evidence based model for evaluating u.s. teacher effectiveness and its implications. shanghai educational research, (10), 37–45. [15] wang, m., wang, s., & lu, j. (2024). empowering faculty: a study on the tenure appointment system in german universities. journal of tianjin university (social sciences edition), (2), 125–132. [16] gao, s., & ma, y. (2025). background, typical cases, and impact of the ten-year quality improvement plan for teacher education in germany. contemporary teacher education, (1), 93–100. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n2p82 82 published by ideas spread "silence in 'blossoms” — an analysis of the chinese aesthetics of blank-leaving in the tv adaptation blossoms shanghai ni kailan1 1 shanghai film academy, shanghai university, china correspondence: ni kailan, shanghai film academy, shanghai university, shanghai, china. received: april 5, 2025; accepted: april 16, 2025; published: april 18, 2025 abstract the term"不响" (buxiang, "not speaking"/"silence") appears over 1,300 times in the novel blossoms, making it an indisputable keyword. director wong kar-wai interprets"不响" as a form of blank-leaving (留白), describing it as both the creative cipher of author jin yucheng and the key to his own adaptation. it is precisely by embedding" 不响" into every facet of the series that the tv adaptation blossoms shanghai has garnered widespread acclaim among audiences in shanghai and across china. this paper examines the manifestations of"不响" in the tv series from the perspective of blank-leaving aesthetics. keywords: blossoms, wongkar-wai, buxiang ("not speaking"/silence), aesthetics of blank-leaving 1. introduction the tv adaptation blossoms shanghai is based on jin yucheng’s eponymous novel. the literary blossoms explores the existential helplessness of ordinary individuals adrift under macro-historical currents, reconstructing the lives of shanghai’s common folk and their quotidian desires. through portraying civic communities across three distinct eras, it unveils the collective psyche of shanghainese while critiquing the interplay between historical memory and contemporary reality, ultimately revealing the symbiotic essence of “city and its inhabitants” in urban life. thus, the novel serves as both a spiritual chronicle of shanghai’s citizens and a bildungsroman of the city itself. to better depict shanghai’s transformative narrative under china’s reform and opening-up policy, the tv adaptation seeks to transcend the novel’s pervasive "buxiang" (silence) atmosphere, instead foregrounding a clamorous era of reform, opportunity, and collective striving. yet it simultaneously inherits the original’s contemplative core—its stable yet profound "buxiang" ethos. the novel employs a "storyteller" framework, weaving dual timelines (the 1960s-70s and 1990s) through protagonists hunsheng, ah bao, and xiao mao, who traverse between "upper corners" (shangzhijiao) and "lower corners" (xiazhijiao)—urban zones demarcating socioeconomic divides. this structure, devoid of conventional narrative propulsion, earned the 9th mao dun literature prize’s acclaim: "a vivid raconteur endows the world with a unique timbre, immersing readers into the interstices and folds of modern metropolitan life." in contrast, the tv series streamlines this complexity by excising the 1960s-70s timeline, sharpening narrative focus. centering on ah bao’s trajectory, it microscopically examines how ordinary individuals script urban legends amidst epochal shifts, sparking fervent debates between literary purists and adaptation advocates. the former critique its perceived divergence from the source material, while the latter defend its necessity for cinematic reinterpretation. despite narrative divergences, the adaptation’s production philosophy reveals a symbiotic relationship with the novel. it not only visually resurrects the novel’s urban texture but also spiritually perpetuates its "buxiang" essence. this aesthetics of silence is reimagined through blank-leaving techniques—manifest in chiaroscuro lighting, deliberate compositions, and diegetic music—to craft a distinctly shanghainese chronicle of time. 2. the "buxiang" flavor of shanghai in the variety show round table party, jin yucheng, author of the novel blossoms, explained the meaning of "不 响" (buxiang): "when narrating an event through shanghainese logic, the phrase '不响' inevitably emerges. these two characters encapsulate an omission. for instance, if everyone is already aware of a situation, and i approach a leader who remains silent—'the leader does not speak' (领导不响)—the silence itself conveys the atmosphere. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 83 published by ideas spread though the leader utters nothing, the possibilities are implicit, suggesting unresolved tensions or potential consequences. shanghainese unconsciously repeat '不响' countless times daily; it is an ingrained linguistic habit." "buxiang" is a phrase deeply embedded in the upbringing of shanghainese."buxiang" (不响), a common term in shanghainese dialect, signifies "not speaking"—a deliberate silence, refusal to respond, or a punctuated pause in speech. it can also function as a resonant blank-leaving (留白) in dialogue, imbuing discourse with unspoken depth. elders admonish with phrases like "侬先勿响" (you stay silent first) or "he’s competent, but seldom speaks up" (他做事可以，但平时不太响的 ). this reflects how "buxiang" epitomizes a quintessential shanghainese temperament, rooted in local cultural codes. literary critic xu zidong posits that "buxiang" serves as "a single phrase that speaks volumes" for shanghainese—a linguistic efficiency unique to their identity. the novel blossoms opens with the epigraph: "god does not speak, as if all is decided by me…" this line also appears in the trailer for the tv adaptation, foreshadowing the series’ commitment to inheriting and reinterpreting "buxiang". director wong kar-wai elaborates in the documentary from blossoms to blossoms: the silence chapter: "when i choose not to speak—whether to avoid self-contradiction or interpersonal conflict—that is 'buxiang'." in blossoms, "buxiang" functions as a deliberate blank-leaving technique. superficially, it manifests as calm reticence; beneath lies a torrent of unspoken tensions between characters. through masterful audiovisual storytelling, wong externalizes intricate inner worlds, replacing dialogue with atmospheric silence to achieve the effect of "soundless profundity" (此时无声胜有声). the tv adaptation blossoms shanghai interprets the city’s culture through an aesthetic of blank-leaving that prioritizes essence over form. by disembedding regional symbols from their material contexts and transforming them into floating semiotic fragments, the director abstracts the "shanghainese ethos" into a collective memory demanding active decoding. food emerges as an intimate chronicle of its era—bao’s ritualistic breakfast of rice porridge with six side dishes (fermented tofu, pickled radish, etc.) is magnified through close-ups that linger on the crimson hue of bean curd or the crisp sound of biting into preserved vegetables.conversely, the unresolved emotional tension between miss wang and ah bao crystallizes in the remnants of their unfinished pork chop rice cake rendezvous: a half-eaten 排骨 with visible bite marks, raindrops snaking down fogged windows—a sensory monument to petit-bourgeois romance’s quiet tragedies. the cadence of the shanghainese dialect itself becomes an auditory blank-leaving. when uncle ye admonishes ah bao in 沪语—“a suit should wear the man, not the man the suit”—the camera dwells not on his face but glides across the sartorial details: impeccably stitched cuffs, collar interfacing. the dialect’s rhythmic pauses and elongated vowels (“yī” in “yīfu”) intertwine with visual scrutiny of tailoring craftsmanship, encoding the laokel (old-school shanghainese connoisseurs)’s worldly wisdom into an audiovisual riddle. spatial politics lurk within partial symbols: the oppressive low-angle shots of exposed beams in shikumen attic rooms viscerally evoke proletarian constraints, while the geometric shadows cast by peace hotel’s venetian blinds map invisible hierarchies of power. the iconic bund customs house clock materializes seven times yet never fully—its face obscured by neon billboards or blurred in rain-mist, its chimes lingering as acoustic metaphors for clashing temporal orders. even sartorial details whisper unspoken identity narratives. lingzi’s evolving earrings—from japanese pearl studs to lao fengxiang jade-in-gold designs—trace her metamorphosis from repatriated émigré to local entrepreneur without expository dialogue. such blank-leaving strips cultural symbols of utilitarian functions, rendering the steam rising from a bowl of rice porridge, the tonal lilt of a shanghainese phrase, or the slatted light through blinds into free-floating signifiers. audiences must assemble the city’s essence like cryptographers piecing together morse code fragments. as the ambient hum of alleyway life (scissor-sharpeners’ scrapes, popcorn machines’ roars) fades beneath huanghe road’s neon cacophony, the director refrains from didactic critiques of urbanization. instead, the erasure of sound sources and the silencing of acoustic landscapes compel viewers to palpitate the scars of urban transformation through absence. the soul of shanghainese ethos, much like the bespoke suits uncle ye wears—devoid of brand logos—resides in the blank spaces between stitches, awaiting the discerning gaze of those who understand silence as the ultimate vernacular. while the novel never explicitly defines "buxiang", the tv adaptation demystifies it through a dialogue where the protagonist ah bao mentors miss wang in business strategy: "to succeed in business, first master two words: 'buxiang'. refrain from speaking when it is unnecessary, unclear, unplanned, or detrimental to oneself or others. always leave room for maneuver." this philosophy permeates blossoms: "acting decisively without fanfare" (闷 声干大事) in commerce, "tacit understanding" (心照不宣) in relationships, and "wordless 默契无言) in daily life. it is embodied in mr. bao’s calculated restraint during negotiations, withholding his trump card until the final moment; in the unspoken rivalry between li li and bao, who share no direct confrontations; and in the veiled truths lingzi and bao exchange at night tokyo. these artful blanks between relationships distill hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 84 published by ideas spread the "buxiang" essence of shanghai as portrayed in the novel. through "buxiang", wong kar-wai reconstructs his vision of shanghai—a city glittering within its golden age. it is precisely this inheritance and reinterpretation of cultural nuance that has earned blossoms shanghai acclaim and resonance nationwide. 3. the art of blank-leaving in audiovisual language blank-leaving (留白) is a quintessential technique in chinese artistic creation, deeply rooted in the nation’s aesthetic traditions. originating from classical chinese painting—where the omission of trivial details evokes profound artistic conception—it was later adopted in literary works through the deliberate exclusion of redundant dialogues, exhaustive character biographies, and explicit environmental descriptions, thereby granting readers expansive interpretative space. director wong kar-wai masterfully employs blank-leaving to articulate emotional subtexts, a strategy abundantly evident in blossoms shanghai. through layered superimpositions or obstructions of scenery and lighting, he subtly amplifies atmosphere and foreshadows narrative trajectories. visual blank-leaving often relies on wide shots. in blossoms, windows and blinds frequently dominate the foreground, framing characters positioned mid-tobackground to accentuate spatial depth. this frame-within-frame composition epitomizes wong’s signature aesthetic of stratified elegance, while simultaneously externalizing the emotional tensions between characters. a prime example occurs in the reunion scene between ah bao and xue zhi. in over-the-shoulder reverse shots, ah bao’s entrances are persistently shadowed by xue zhi’s silhouette, metaphorically reflecting her lingering presence in his psyche and his vulnerable position—a visual metaphor for their imbalanced relationship and power dynamics. when ah bao occupies the focal point, the camera maintains a seemingly static position but trembles with imperceptible vibrations, mimicking human breath to evoke unease, thereby mirroring his inner turmoil (fig. 1). figure 1. close-up of mr. bao the frosted glass patterns and xue zhi’s figure form a nested frame, while rising steam inside and outside the glass further obscures her features, enhancing mystique (figure 2). as the camera glides, ah bao gradually emerges, his presence now counterbalancing xue zhi’s dominance. this compositional equilibrium signals his psychological metamorphosis—a resolve to conquer his world. diagonal lines intersecting the frame intensify visual tension, foreshadowing their impending divergence (figure 3). wong’s use of architectural frames (windows, doorways) as voyeuristic lenses not only enhances visual allure and natural soft focus but also silently narrates subtext. figure 2. close-up of xue zhi hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 85 published by ideas spread figure 3. confrontation between mr. bao and xue zh "silence necessitates music"—as hong kong film critic law chun fung observed of wong’s cinema. when characters and narratives adhere to "buxiang", the soundtrack becomes the vocal surrogate. all ineffable stories and emotions find expression through music. wong has long exploited music to fill emotional, behavioral, and atmospheric voids in his films, a prowess fully manifested in his debut tv series. when lingzi returns to jinxian road from tokyo, wong employs peking opera excerpts to foreshadow destinies. the downstairs neighbor’s radio plays mei school’s the drunken concubine (《贵妃醉酒》), whose tale of a woman awaiting her lover’s vow parallels lingzi’s predicament. as lingzi settles into her room, the radio shifts to the locked phoenix casket (《锁麟囊》), its narrative of serendipitous kindness mirroring ah bao and lingzi’s storyline—all conveyed through restrained implication, demanding audience interpretation. beyond opera, blossoms curates a tapestry of 1990s pop anthems and film soundtracks. these collective-memory-laden melodies instantly evoke temporal context, character psyches, and motivations, embodying "buxiang" through cultural resonance. when mr. bao secures a life-threatening deal with counterfeit mogul ma in a ktv scene, the taiwanese anthem strive to win (《爱拼才会赢》 ) blares—a motivational anthem cherished by entrepreneurs of that era. when miss wang confesses her feelings to ah bao while eating pork cutlet rice cakes alone at her trading company, faye wong’s obsession without regret (《执迷 不悔》) underscores her candid resolve and foreshadows their tragic romance. characters remain silent ("buxiang"), while the soundtrack clamors. through this auditory alchemy, wong subliminally maps emotional landscapes and fates, immersing audiences in the golden age’s nostalgic aura 4. emotional entanglements under nonlinear narration nonlinear narrative stands in dialectical opposition to linear narrative. the latter, which aligns with human perception of chronological order and quest for structural coherence, has been canonized since aristotle’s era. characterized by story integrity and causality-driven progression through sequential time, linear narration dominates chinese television dramas as creators prioritize audience comprehension and production efficiency, often conforming to collective memory frameworks. blossoms shanghai defies this convention. here, time—like the lingering ambiguity of in the mood for love— recedes into the background of a fervent era bathed in kaleidoscopic light. it morphs into the "rhythm of shanghai" or "shenzhen speed", silently observing characters’ fates amidst societal upheavals. through interwoven recollections of ah bao’s (mr. bao) business conquests, the series deftly braids three timelines: 19781987, november 1984-1988, and post-1992. these temporal threads unravel ah bao’s mentorship under uncle ye, his romantic entanglements with miss wang, lingzi, and xue zhi, while chronicling the economic metamorphosis of shanghai and shenzhen. wong kar-wai’s innovative nonlinear approach employs analepses to rewind chronology, incrementally disclosing ah bao’s rags-to-riches backstory. this technique heightens dramatic tension without compromising artistic refinement, granting audiences interpretive latitude. since its premiere, the emotional webs binding ah bao, miss wang, li li, and lingzi have captivated viewers. yet blossoms delineates these relationships with surgical precision. unlike most tv dramas that accelerate emotional evolution into high-intensity arcs (prioritizing "life-or-death" stakes, betrayals, or separations), blossoms adopts a restrained blank-leaving narrative to portray individuals navigating historical tides. it minimizes overt conflicts, instead embedding emotional crescendos within quotidian interactions—a strategy that elevates the series’ epochal texture while achieving "thunderclaps from calm skies" dramatic potency. romance in blossoms is not articulated through grand vows but materializes in mundane symbols: pork chop rice cakes from a humble diner, fermented bean curd from zhujiajiao, or an upturned coat collar. when tao tao— introduced as ah bao’s childhood confidant—first appears, wong deliberately omits exposition of their shared hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 86 published by ideas spread past. though their bond ("having grown up sharing trousers") could fuel melodramatic flashbacks, the director leaves it unspoken. a pivotal moment occurs when tao tao’s loose tongue embroils ah bao in peril. while ah bao shields him despite threats, contrasting sharply with xiao liu’s factional "brotherhood", their reconciliation requires no verbal catharsis. a mere gesture—tao tao adjusting his collar—epitomizes wordless camaraderie (figs. 4, 5). figure 4. mr. bao adjusting his collar figure 5. tao tao adjusting his collar 5. conclusion li jingsheng, vice president of the china federation of radio and television associations, likened blossoms* to "a bomb detonating industry inertia," a statement that acutely captures the revolutionary significance of the series’ blank-leaving aesthetics. when li asserted that "this ingeniously crafted, intensely distinctive ‘bomb’ has upended the normalized mediocrity of creative practices,"he essentially pinpointed how blossoms employs "buxiang" (不 响, silence) as a methodological scalpel to dismantle and rebuild the industrialized production logic of chinese television dramas. this deconstruction manifests not only in its dissolution of conventional narrative density but also in its reconstruction of dialogic dimensions between image and audience, history and present, through a "poetics of silence" in audiovisual language. the subversion of "buxiang" aesthetics first emerges as a rebellion against the "information overload"syndrome plaguing contemporary television. amid the industry-wide anxiety over "three-second viewer retention" in the streaming era, blossoms defiantly channels the shanghainese linguistic logic of "勿响" (refraining from speech) into the respiratory rhythm of its imagery. in the 47-second wordless reunion scene between mr. bao and xue zhi, the fogged glass window, the subtle tremor of a adam’s apple, and the huangpu river wind tousling a suit jacket collectively orchestrate a silent hurricane. such blank-leaving is not narrative absence but a restitution of interpretive agency to the audience. as li jingsheng noted, what it "detonates" is not merely the safety net of linear storytelling but also creators’ arrogant presumption of viewers’ cognitive limitations. a deeper subversion lies in its reconstitution of television’s aesthetic hierarchy. when wong kar-wai deconstructs the "fast-food visual grammar" of tv traditions with cinematic lighting techniques—geometric shadows sliced by venetian blinds, multiplied reflections in elevator mirrors — "buxiang" becomes a cross-media lingua franca. the corporate duel between mr. bao and li li unfolds without verbal sparring; instead, neon lights ripple across tailored suit fabrics like liquid semaphores. this "speaking through light" approach reduces television from "storytelling lectern" to "sensory immersion," epitomizing what li jingsheng termed "intense distinctiveness": it redefines the medium’s aesthetic altitude through cinematic visual rigor. the "bomb effect" li emphasized also ruptures collective creative complacency. blossoms’ blank-leaving aesthetics reject industrialized tv’s assembly-line production of "emotional canned goods," instead weaponizing material details as mnemonic triggers: the crackling grease of miss wang’s pork chop rice cakes, the fading chime of lingzi’s japanese windbell, the steam spiraling from mr. bao’s daily rice porridge ritual…these moments— often dismissed as "transitional shot" in mainstream productions—become silent epics in blossoms. as li hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 87 published by ideas spread observed, this creative stance "detonates" not just narrative clichés but the industry’s systemic underestimation of audience discernment, forcing practitioners to confront a fundamental question: should television be a force-fed didacticism or an encrypted narrative co-authored with its viewers? the "thunderclap" achieved through "buxiang" ultimately constitutes an enlightenment movement on creative ethics. when li jingsheng metaphorized it as an industry bomb, the subtext resounding beneath the explosion demands attention: in an algorithmic winter gripping film and television, only reverence for "blank-leaving" can blast open fissures toward artistic dignity. within these cracks glimmers not merely the golden afterglow of 1990s shanghai but the chrysalis of chinese television’s metamorphic rebirth. references jin, y. (2019). blossoms [fan hua]. shanghai literature and art publishing house. li, w. j. (2015). fan hua lun [on blossoms] (master’s thesis). east china normal university. liu, m. (2024). from “buxiang” to “thunderclap”: on the cultural tension and cinematic adaptation of blossoms. southern literary forum, (6), 171–175. ran, h. (2019). extremization and formulaic tendencies: issues in emotional representation in chinese tv dramas. audio-visual, (9), 36–37. wen, x. (2023). avant-garde and mainstream: on the nonlinear narrative shift in domestic films. film literature, (3), 56–59. xiao, b. (2024). character plots, semiotic forms, and audiovisual composition: an analysis of aesthetic innovation in the tv series blossoms. movie review, (15), 107–112. wu, l. (2024, january 21). blossoms: a “bomb” shattering conventions. workers’ daily, p. 004. zhang, k. (2017). a brief analysis of the art of blank-leaving in blossoms. journal of huaihai institute of technology (humanities & social sciences edition), 15(2), 41–44. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v2n2p9 9 published by ideas spread ambushing basotho customary marriage louis manyeli1 1 department of philosophy, national university of lesotho, lesotho correspondence: louis manyeli, department of philosophy, national university of lesotho, lesotho. e-mail: louismanyeli2 gmail.com received: may 17, 2019; accepted: june 3, 2019; published: june 17, 2019 abstract this paper describes and evaluates basotho customary marriage as entailed in sesotho law. it argues that lobola (dowry) and polygamy permitted by sesotho law are detrimental to the dignity of women, and consequently ought to be obliterated. it also argues that under customary marriage the re-marriage of widows is a barricade caused by the customary practice of the bohali (the dowry). it further argues that the long standing practice of the bohali in customary marriage perspicuously does injustice to the family of the bridegroom. regarding polygamy allowed by customary marriage under sesotho law it is argued that this explicitly amounts to the dehumanization of women. ideally the paper is an attempt to rescue women from the long standing suppression by men lesotho in as far as basotho customary marriage is concerned. keywords: bohali (lobola), customary marriage, sesotho law, dual marriages, polygamy 1. introduction the problem of women subordination to men in basotho on-going customary marriage is of utmost importance because suppression of women by men in customary marriage is detrimental to the dignity of women, and it ought to be seriously addressed and obliterated. unfortunately, this problem has never been addressed. the literature found on basotho customary marriage, most of which was written by the first missionaries, only describes the actual situation and not a genuine evaluation of this deplorable customary marriage. this problem deserves a new research that attempts to rescue women from the unwanted conditions they encounter in customary marriage. prior to the attempt of this paper to endeavour solving this problem no one dared to explore the importance of this problem. first, most probably because the victims are voiceless in this country and are regarding their subordination as part of their culture, women never attempted to explore the importance of the problem. second, it is most probable because the oppressors enjoy their status. that is why the minimum literature available on this very important topic is not at a critique but rather a mere description of basotho customary marriage. russell doubts those who question whether it is the business of philosophers to indulge in customs. in our case here basotho customary marriage is such a custom likely to be doubted. according to russell, the person who doubts the impact of philosophy is as a matter of fact confined to the knowledge acquired from simple common sense. such a person is said to be naive of the philosopher’s mind, the mind that deploys deliberate reason in attempting to solve serious problems in life, in our case, studying gender equality advocacies. russell acknowledges that certainty of philosophy actually consists in its very uncertainty. a question that cannot be answered definitely forms the residue we call philosophy. this is why the value of philosophy consists to a great extent in its very uncertainty (russell, 1998, p. 1132). it is in this mode of thought that the present author attempts to suggest justifiable possibilities which will most probably enlarge our thoughts and free many people from the tyranny of basotho customary marriage. i concur with russell’s mode of thought that “while diminishing our feeling of certainty as to what things are, it [philosophy] greatly increases our knowledge as to what they may be; it removes the somewhat arrogant dogmatism of those who have never travelled into the region of liberating doubt, and it keeps alive the sense of wonder by showing familiar things in our unfamiliar light” (russell, 1998, p. 1133). the author of this paper, who incidentally by profession is a philosopher, intends to remove the arrogant dogmatism of those who have never attempted to travel into the region of liberating doubt in as far as basotho customary custom is concerned. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 10 published by ideas spread in my article “rejuvenating the ancient basotho rite of initiation”, i have shown some tyrannies of basotho customary initiation and proposed a far much preferable solution to be implemented. similarly, in the present paper i show some tyrannies of basotho customary marriage and propose a better solution to be implemented. omoregbe holds the view that “the essence of philosophy is not argument but reflection, and this does not have to take the form of the western-type argument. wherever there reflection on the fundamental questions about man or about the universe… there is philosophy (omoregbe, 2005, p. 8). i consummately concur with omoregbe’s view point that the essence of philosophy is reflection and his other contention that it is wrong to confine philosophy to western-type philosophy that is primarily focussed on argumentation. he correctly maintains that ‘philosophy is essentially a reflective activity’. furthermore, it is in this sense that the assumption once announced by the founder of moral philosophy, socrates (who lived around 470-399 b.c.) that the unexamined life is not worth living and that while hard thinking about issues disturbs, it also consoles, is still germane today. inspired by such sagacious men of great learning and thinking i deem it most appropriate to reflect on the custom of marriage amongst the basotho with the sole intention of attempting to perfect it. it is worth noting that current literature on the topic at stake is lacking. this is indicative of the fact that until to date no scholar in lesotho has either set down to write a paper appraising or challenging the customary practices of the bohali and polygamy. it is worth noting that the present author is the first to reflect on customary practices and dehumanization of women in lesotho, in as far as basotho customary marriage is concerned. this is wy the only literature on basotho customary marriage is written mainly by the first missionaries, and as such it is purely historical and descriptive. a question may correctly be asked: if women in lesotho are discontent with these practices, why are they silent? i presume that perhaps if one has been suppressed and oppressed for too long, one ends up not being aware of the suppression and oppression. so, a good samaritan (a man) must come from outside to their rescue. 2. the nature of customary marriage in the west marriage is a formal agreement between two adults who enter into a life-time partnership. this lifetime contract is made before a marriage officer, either an ecclesiastical minister or a magistrate. there are two conditions worth mentioning in as far as civil and ecclesiastical marriages are concerned: first, the condition of having civil and ecclesiastical marriages is such that the parties concerned should have reached at least the age of eighteen. second, both civil and ecclesiastical marriages require that there be a mutual consent between the two parties intending to enter into a marriage. even in the case of a family raising words of demurral to the marriage, as long as he parties have reached the age of eighteen and have duly consented to the marriage, such a marriage is regarded as being legitimate and legal before the law. in this case a marriage certificate, that is, a copy of the record of a legal marriage may be issued by the marriage officer. in both civil and ecclesiastical marriages the reckoning of the bohali is not required to vindicate the validity of the marriage. polygamy in both civil and ecclesiastical marriages is strictly forbidden. “so far as the husband’s legal capacity to marry a second wife polygamously is concerned, the clear answer is that he cannot do so” (poulter, 1981, p. 40). civil law allows the husband to marry the second wife while the first is still alive only if the civil court has granted a divorce. incongruously, in lesotho “a customary marriage… is ‘deemed’ to be completed when there is agreement between the parties to the marriage coupled with parental agreement both as to the marriage and as to the amount of the bohali, and when part, at least, of the bohali has actually been paid” (poulter, 1981, p. 61). initially, customary marriage was a formal agreement between the two families without the consent of the bride and bridegroom. later, with the influence of the church, the parties had to consent to the marriage. this agreement between the two families was sealed with the family of the bridegroom paying the bohali either in the form of cattle or money. the problem arises in the case whereby there is no parental agreement; in that case there is no marriage customarily. the inclusion of parental agreement is frequently perplexing when the families object to the decision of the parties to enter into a marriage. parents in customary marriage interfere with the choice made by the parties to the extent that one of the parties at times marries a partner chosen by the parents. in the case whereby a man is compelled by his parents to marry a woman of their choice he is directly or indirectly moved towards the direction of polygamy. sesotho customary law does allow a man to procure a second wife; and this time the husband does not need the permission and approval of his family. he now is entitled by customary law to marry freely a woman of his own choice. consequently, the first wife faces the worst scenario since she becomes an object that may be visited by the husband once in a while. unfortunately, while the husband is free to procure a second wife, the wife is never free and allowed to procure a second husband. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 11 published by ideas spread 3. the bohali sesotho customary marriage is such that it is fundamentally an agreement between the two families of the bride and the bridegroom. poulter correctly maintains that “the negotiations for the marriage are conducted through the traditional channels and family representatives settle how much bohali should be paid” (poulter, 1981, p. 35). it is of paramount importance to stress the fact that sesotho customary marriage is essentially and primarily an agreement between the two familiies. the bohali is just a seal signifying that an agreement has been made. this why the amount of money or cattle or money to be paid is secondary, the agreement is primary that there be a marriage customarily. the first missionaries vigorously attempted in vain to quash the paying of the dowry in lesotho. they were convinced that “this custom reduces the woman to a state bordering on slavery” (casalis, 1997, p. 182). indistinguishably, ellenberger maintains that “this custom degrades the woman, and places her in the position of a slave, and it is true that it is liable to abuse, and opens the door to cupidity” (ellenberger, 1997, pp. 272-273). they regarded the bohali as a purchase turning a woman into a commodity, and as such an object that could easily be used as a slave. this is why the first missionaries, namely, the paris evangelical missionaries society refused to countenance customary marriages and so accordingly expelled from the church membership forthwith anyone paying or receiving the bohali. but the same ellenberger commits the fallacy of inconsistency when he holds that: “to show that this system does not necessarily degrades the woman to the position of a slave or a chattel, one needs only point to the many famous women of ancient more recent times, such as mantatise, queen of the batlokoa, and many others who did not rule, who were all of them married according to it [i.e. sesotho customary law allowing the bohali]. the respect and obedience paid to them would hardly have been rendered to slaves or chattels” (ellenberger, 1997, p. 274). after more than a hundred years, as late as 1954, it was only then that the paris evangelical missionaries society ruled out banning the bohali payments. what had been going on behind the scenes for upward of a hundred years was only then officially countenanced. perspicously, this contradiction verifies that the poor missionaries misapprehended the sesotho customary marriage. casalis, one of the first missionaries provides the real reason why they resisted the sesotho customary marriage that permitted and encouraged bohali says: “this arrangement, so contrary to our customs and to the spirit of the gospel, appears quite natural to the african tribes” (casalis, 1997, p. 185). evidently the missionaries were antagonistic to this arrangement, not because it was immoral in itself, but simply because they misconstrued it as it was antipathetic to their own arrangement in france where they came from. it was in this way that any practice alien to their own culture was classified as pagan and therefore contrary to the gospel. but today the same church brought by the same missionaries approve and regard the bohali as passable, no longer contrary to the same gospel they preached. today the dominant churches in lesotho, influenced by inculturation accept the once vehemently rejected sesotho customary marriage with its inclusion of the bohali. the bohali is no longer conceived as being contrary to the gospe. these dominant churches admit that their pioneers misconstrued sesotho customary marriage avowing that it places the woman in the position of slaves. however, i am antipathetic to this custom , more especially to its main element, namely, the bohali. i argue for its abolition neither because it ‘reduces the woman to a state bordering on slavery’ nor since it is contrary ‘to the spirit of the gospel’ as the first missionaries proclaimed, but rather for the reasons i lay out below. in my view, the bohali violates the women’s fundamental human right to their freedom of choice. according to sesotho customary law, once the bohali has been paid, either in the form of money or cattle as agreed by the two families, the woman ipso facto becomes part of the family of the bridegroom. casalis correctly maintains that “the death of the husband does not liberate the wife. she falls by law to one of the brothers or to the nearest relation of the deceased” (casalis, 1997, p. 190). the woman is no longer free to marry a man of her own choice since the lobola has tied and incorporated her to the family of her deceased husband. sesotho customary law entitles the younger brothers of the deceased to marry her. however, “there are, nevertheless, some generous families who do not assert this right, but allow the widow to marry again as she pleases” (casalis, 1997, p.190). it is important to note that she has no right to re-marry, they are just doing her a favour to which they are not morally obliged to make. in this way the bohali deprives the woman of her right to choose another man after the demise of her husband. she now depends entirely on the generosity and mercy of her deceased husband’s family i partly agree with casalis that “the fact that the widoe is compelled to remain in the family, although she has already born children to the deceased, proves that the purchase of which she was the object is the chief obstacle to her liberation” (casalis, 1997, p. 190). i disagree with casalis that the bohali is the selling of the bride to the family hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 12 published by ideas spread of the bridegroom since there can still be marriage according to customary law without the bohali from the bridegroom’s family. the bohali is, as i have shown earlier a seal that the agreement between the two families has been reached. sesotho customary marriage is not concerned about buying of the bride by the family of the bridegroom or the bride’s family selling of their daughter, it is an agreement made by the two families. on the other hand, i concur with casalis that the bohali becomes an impediment for the woman to remarry a man of her own choice when her husband ceases to exist. this claim is attested by the fact that in the case whereby there was no bohali paid there is no hurdle hindering the widow to choose her new spouse. poulter also confirms that “it may well be that a widow whose first marriage was a customary one can only remarry customarily if she first obtains a divorce from her deceased husband’s family and if the bohali is restored to them” (poulter, 1981, pp. 46-47). if the marriage is a customary one, the woman is not only tied to her husband, but also to the husband’s family. so, if the husband dies, she is still considered as part of his family. what makes it most difficult for her to alienate herself from her late husband’s family is the bohali that in most cases if not all is hard to restore. i, therefore, conceive the best and only solution to liberate the woman as the complete abolition of the bohali. it is discriminatory and disreputable that an equal partner in marriage, simply because is now a widow whose marriage was sealed by a given number of cattle or a certain amount of money, must now depend entirely on the generosity and compassion of another family to gain her liberation. the discrimination and unscrupulousness consist in that while customary law proscribe the widow to marry as she pleases, it authorizes and even invigorates the husband to marry as he pleases. if the barricade for the poor defenceless widow’s liberation is the dowry, fairness requires that the bohali be obliterated. matsela, z. a. (1990, p. 28) on customary marriage specifies that traditionally customary marriage was essentially an agreement between the two families. as indicated earlier, lobola came into existence signifying that an agreement has been reached between the two families. that is why there was no fixed amount of cattle or money required for the bohali. the amount varied with the times, and, according to mr. abousset, “at one time two or three head was enough. today it stands at fifteen to twenty head” (ellenberger, 1992, p. 272). chiefs and wealthy families agreed on larger amount of money or many cattle. the main problem with the dowry is that it ultimately ties the woman to her husband’s family and she becomes a property of that family. ellenberger correctly maintains that “a woman ostensibly and in fact does marry her husband, but theoretically she belongs, not to him alone, but to his family, who indeed have generally contributed to her dowry” (ellenberger, 1992, p. 274). given the fact that lobola makes a woman part of her husband’s family, and given that even after her husband’s demise she is still tied to that family, clearly then the bohali turns out to be detrimental to one of her fundamental rights, namely, her basic right of freedom of choice. according to casalis, “the fact that the widow is compelled to remain in the family, although she has already born children to the deceased, proves that the purchase of which she was the object is the chief obstacle to her liberation” (casalis, 1997, p. 190). the dowry, which initially was just a symbol of agreement now turns out to be a barrier to the liberation the woman is rightfully entitled to. in his celebrated legal dualism in lesotho professor poulter writes: “it may well be that a widow whose first marriage was a customary one can only remarry customarily if she first obtains a divorce from her deceased husband’s family and if the bohali is restored to them” (poulter, 1981, 46-47). almost in most cases the restoration of the bohali is unfeasible, and the innuendo is that the widow’s tie to her late husband’s family is unbreakable. evidently, the widow’s liberation depends to the exclusion of everything also on the quashing of the bohali. generally, male domination in lesotho customary marriages is still prevalent, and this has led women to have inferiority complex in their relationships. the husband does not regard his wife as an equal partner. casalis correctly says that “the mosuto, in speaking of himself and his family, invariably says, ‘i and my children;’ and it is understood that the wife is reckoned among the latter” (casalis, 1997, p. 182). in my view, one of the main factors contributing to the prevailing and persisting male domination in sesotho customary marriages is the current practice of lobola. it gives the bridegroom the feeling of possessing the bride in the same manner that he possesses his children. i restate my claim, therefore, that lobola ought to be abolished. i conclude this section reflecting upon whether it is fair at all for the bridegroom’s family to pay the bohali. is a right to dowry a justified claim by the family of the bride on the family of the bridegroom? can the family of the bride on its claim to dowry provide sufficient reasons why the bridegroom’s family ought to respect such a claim? a brief background of the bohali may suffice to respond to the above mentioned questions. matsela (1990, pp. 2728) mentions that the amount of cattle determining the bohali varied. normally at a certain given time the bohali was complete when the bridegroom’s family gave twenty cattle. but for the princesses the bohali amounted to thirty to forty cattle. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 13 published by ideas spread matsela makes an important observation that since the bohali was essentially an agreement between the two families, sometimes even two cattle sufficed to complete the bohali. it is in this way that there is a sying that: ‘monyala – ka – peli o nyala oa hae’; that is to say, even with the little one has the bohali may be considered complete. about marriage, ellenberger has this to say: “marriage was effected by payment to the bride’s family of a consideration in cattle, called bohali (dowry). the amount varied with the times, and, according to mr. arbousset, at one time two or three head was enough. today it stands at fifteen to twenty head” (ellenberger, 1997, p. 272). the financial situation of ancient antiquity in lesotho, where families could with ease afford to give twenty to forty cattle for the bohali is far from being commensurate with the current unpalatable financial conditions. given the scarcity of cattle today, and given how poverty-stricken our nation is, i find no sufficient reason to compel the bridegroom’s family to comply with the costly demands of the bohali. besides, both families had equal binding parental responsibilities in the upbringing of their children. i do not see why one family should at one stage feel having a moral obligation to claim the right to dowry from another family. given the exorbitant value of education, it is disproportionate that at the end of their respective expensive training one family should feel duty-bound to comply with the demands of the bohali from another. in my view, the principle of justice or at least fairness is such that it is discriminatory for the bride’s family to clamour for dowry from a family that has equally sacrificed itself educating its own son. fairness requires that instead of the bride’s family clamouring for dowry, both families ought to join hands and furnish their newly married children with necessary requirements for the new family. 4. polygamy polygamy is a practice of having more than one wife or husband at the same time. in lesotho polygamy is a custom whereby a man has more than one wife at the same time. a polygamous man is not restricted to a certain fixed number of wives he wants to marry; he is allowed to marry as many as he can afford. a typical example is that of the founder of the nation, moshoeshoe i, in his old age he did not know the of his wives because they were too many. confined to lesotho customary marriage the definition of polygamy already denotes how gender biased this custom is. while allowing a man to have more than one wife, it forbids a woman to have more than one husband. one may out of curiosity and correctly ask a question: how did polygamy become so prevalent among the basotho? here i am writing about a custom that is legal by sesotho customary law until today. history attests that moholmi, the chief advisor and mentor of moshoeshoe i, who in turn was the founder of the basotho nation, recommended that moshoeshoe i should marry girls from neigbouring clans. the rationale behind the recommendation for polygamy was to ensure that lesotho was likely to have a lasting peace with its neighbouring countries. ellenberger attests that “mohlomi by his system of forming family ties with other tribes far and near, set the example of an unlimited polygamy. in fact, there is no limits except his means, to the number of wives a man may have” (ellenberger, 1997, p. 279). the advice of chief mohlomi to king moshoeshoe i makes sense and really worked for moshoeshoe i. understandably one cannot attack his son-in-law without directly attacking his own daughter and one’s grandchildren. however, it is worth noting that this motivating factor for polygamy uses women as mere shields, that is, as mere objects for maintaining and retaining peace. this custom emerged from the chiefs and the rich men took advantage of their wealth because they could afford to pay lobola. casalis mentions another motivating factor for polygamy: “the more wives a man possesses, the more lands he has at his disposal, and the more he may hope to see the number of these hands increase” (casalis, 1997, p. 188). it must be noted that land in moshoeshoe i days was in abundance, all that was required was manpower to till it. the chiefs and wealthy men who could afford to occupy land in abundance used their wives and children as free labour to till their grounds, draw water, provide fuel and the like for free. it is no uncommon occurrence that the custom of polygamy was and is still practiced mainly by the wealthy in lesotho. they marry many wives to further increase their wealth. incontrovertibly, here is another instance whereby women are used as mere instruments to meet the needs of men. this, undoubtedly amounts to violating the dignity of women and therefore perspicuously dehumanising them relegating them to the sphere of animals. however, i further altercate the missionaries’ repeated saying that “the chiefs who have visitors in abundance, and who owe hospitality to everyone, have so many wives, and display them as a proof of their opulence” (casalis, 1997: 188). rachels reminds us the eskimo custom turned out to be very different from our own. he says the men often had more than one wife, and they would share their wives with guests, lending them for the night as a sign hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 14 published by ideas spread of hospitality (rachels, 1986, p. 13). the practice of offering wives to visitors and friends was prevalent in eskimo of ancient antiquity, not amongst the basotho. the two reasons for polygamy mentioned above are the only ones accounting for polygamy in lesotho. a married mosotho man, even if incidentally happens to be a polygamist, cannot afford to offer any of his wives to other men. this is why we have ample examples of polygamists who either castrated or mercilessly murdered men caught having sex with their wives. taking the chiefs’ families as our model, ellenberger, for the purposes of description, divides marriages by the same husband into three main categories: first, “the great wife, the wife given to a man by his father. she stands alone among her fellows, and her position and dignity are unassailable” (ellenberger, 1997, p. 279). in lesotho’s ancient antiquity, the first wife, usually referred to as the great wife, was chosen by the family without the consent of the spouses. fortunately, this unwanted element no longer exists, the choice is now made by the bride and the bridegroom. the two families simply assist in the arrangement of the marriage as discussed earlier. i regard this first category of marriage, where the future spouses make a choice themselves as the only genuine marriage abiding by the principle of justice whereby they are treated as adults whose dignity is duly respected. second, “important wives married by the husband himself. these are women of position, and become the mothers of important men. they and their children take rank in accordance with the dates of their marriages” (ellenberger, 1997, p. 279). the second wife, third, and so on, are chosen by the husband himself, without reference to his parents. this time his parents have no moral obligation to actively participate in the dowry. it is in this category where only wealthy men feature marrying as many wives as they desire and sesotho customary law permits this practice. in this second category there are two points worth noting: firstly, even if wives in this category are classified as important wives, the fact still remains that they are subject to the domination and oppression of their husband. polygamy clearly relegates women to the secondary position. secondly, this category is gender biased because it does not accord ‘important husbands’ to be married by the wife herself. only men are privileged to marry wives and not vice versa. third, “the ngoetsi – these are married as servants, and as such attached to the houses of the more important wives…. she is lent to visitors, and forms intimacies of her own, as often as not with her husband’s growing sons” (ellenberger, 1997, p. 279). ellenberger further maintains that the husband once in a while has sex with them, and that all their children born of them bear his name. there are three points worth noting here: firstly, this category of servants being married by the husband in view of serving important wives is not known both in traditional and modern sesotho customary marriage. if a husband marries a wife primarily to enslave her to another wife, clearly this implies marrying her as a slave of another, particularly given the fact that these ngoetsi’s worked for the important wives without being paid. slavery of this type never existed in lesotho. secondly, the lending of wives by the husband to his visitors never existed in sesotho customary marriage. i have already shown emphatically that this allegation is unfounded. i presume that the missionaries assumed that given the increasing number of wives, and given the social character the basotho had, it was possible to assume that wives were offered to friends by the husband. but this presumed assumption had no basis. fidelity in both monogamous and polygamous marriages were considered as ideal. at times infidelity occurred in both monogamous and polygamous marriages, but this was regarded as being immoral. ellenberger presents his view as if only wives cheated; the polygamous husband also cheated on his many wives. regardless who cheated, infidelity was condemnable and regarded as being immoral. another misapprehension of the missionaries was their conception of the basotho as being amoral in sexual matters. the basotho recommended and regarded sexual intercourse as being moral only in marriage either monogamous marriage or polygamous marriage. cheating in as far as monogamous or polygamous marriages and pre-marital sex were concerned were always castigated as being immoral. clearly, it is inconceivable that the basotho could be amoral in sexuality while being so strict on behaviour in sexual intercourse. thirdly, to hold the view that these wives formed intimacies of their own with their husband’s growing sons imply that incest was accommodated in polygamous marriages. in sesotho the wife of one’s father’s younger wife is his mother. it is a taboo that is abhorred to have sexual intercourse with one’s mother either a biological or one’s younger wife. in fact, incest was and is still considered as a crime given a severe punishment. all in all, i consider polygamy as being morally condemnable because it regards women as objects of men. first, marrying a woman primarily to form a tie with neighbouring clans clearly demonstrates that she is merely being used as an object for maintaining peace with other tribes. second, to marry a woman in view of having more hands hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 15 published by ideas spread at one’s disposal is also using her as a mere tool. according to me, as used in these two senses the woman’s dignity as a person is violated. to use kantian terminology the woman in polygamy is not used as an end-in-itself as it should be the case, but rather she is being used as a means to an end. evidently, a woman should not be used as a mere tool since this amounts to dehumanizing her. 5. conclusion all in all, credit must be given to the first missionaries, particularly, to eugene casalis, for having put down in writing the tradition and customs of the basotho. however, i demonstrated against some misinterpretations they have made in as far as sesotho customary marriage is concerned. i have attempted to show that they misconstrued sesotho customary marriage because they compared it with their own customary marriage in france and thus found sesotho customary marriage pagan and immoral since it was alien to their own. in as far as sesotho customary marriage is concerned i have made a case against the bohali and polygamy. the laws of lerotholi stipulates that “a marriage by basuto custom in basutoland shall be deemed to be completed when: (a) there is agreement between the parties to the marriage; (b) there is agreement between the parents of the parties or between those who stand in loco parentis to the parties as to the marriage and as to the amount of the bohali; (c) there is payment of part or all of the bohali… (the laws of lerotholi, p. 29). first, i have attempted to show that the only plausible and acceptable condition for the completion of marriage is that there should be an agreement between the parties to the marriage. this in in line with respecting their dignity as adult as adult human persons who ought to be trusted to make decisions for themselves freely. second, the second condition of the families’ involvement in the agreement ought to be ruled out since marriage is going to be lived by the parties concerned alone. however, in this regard i have shown that from a cultural point of view, the families may be continue to be involved later in the arrangement of the feast and assisting of the parties, especially as difficulties arise later in life. the advantageousness of the social aspect of sesotho culture is that as time goes on the couple may need the support of the family, especially in gruelling moments in marriage. third, i have ruled out the third condition of the bohali. firstly, i have shown that this element of the bohali is to a great extent a contributing factor to the long-standing and persisting male domination and suppression of women in sesotho customary marriage. secondly, i have attempted to demonstrate that the bohali does injustice to the family of the bridegroom that has equally contributed in the expensive upbringing of their son. i have therefore suggested that the bohali be replaced by the two families contributing to finance the newly formed family to kick start. lastly, i have argued for the extermination of polygamy still permitted by sesotho customary law. i discussed the two motivating factors for polygamy: ensuring that the polygamous chief has a lasting peace with neighbours whose daughters he has married and ensuring that the polygamous man has more lands at his disposal and that he increases manpower for free. i have attempted to that in both cases women are perspicuously being dehumanized because they are merely being used as means to further men’s ends rather than being used as ends-in-themselves. references casalis, e. (1997). the bassutos. morija: morija museum & archives. ellenberger, f. (1997). history of the basuto: ancient and modern. morija: morija princing works. gill, s. (1993). a short history of lesotho. morija: morija printing works. laws of lerotholi. (1959). morija: morija sesuto book depot. matsela, z. a. (1990). bochaba ba basotho. mazenod: mazenod publishers. omoregbe, j. (2005). knowing philosophy: a general introduction, 2nd ed. lagos: joja press limited. poulter, s. (1987). legal dualism in lesotho. morija: morija sesuto book depot. russell, b. (1998). “the problems of philosophy”. in louis pojman (ed.). classics of philosophy, vol. ii. oxford: oxford university press. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 16 published by ideas spread copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p92 92 published by ideas spread research on the integration creation strategy of short video news in new media environment yirui jiang1 1 liaocheng university, china correspondence: yirui jiang, liaocheng university, liaocheng, shandong, china. received: july 14, 2025; accepted: july 25, 2025; published: july 26, 2025 abstract this paper focuses on the integration and innovation of short video news in the new media environment, systematically analyzes its development status, audience characteristics and challenges, and proposes a fourdimensional innovation strategy of content, technology, business model and communication. it is found that short video news, with its advantages of fragmentation, visualization and strong interaction, fits the information consumption habits of young audiences, but it also faces problems such as weak copyright protection and homogenization of content. based on this, this paper emphasizes that storytelling, interaction, personalization as the core to achieve content innovation and upgrading, and to improve user experience with the help of cuttingedge technology; at the same time, it explores multiple profit modes such as advertisement implantation, paid content, etc., and builds an all-media communication pattern. the case study shows that surge news and cctv news have realized differentiated competition through original content and technological innovation. the study points out that integration and innovation is the key path for short video news to break through the bottleneck and enhance credibility. keywords: new media, short video news, all-media communication, integration innovation, audience characteristics 1. introduction 1.1 the current situation of short video news in the new media environment with the rapid development of internet technology and the widespread popularization of intelligent mobile terminals, short video news, as an emerging form of communication, has rapidly risen and occupied an important position in the new media environment. with its characteristics of fragmentation, entertainment and socialization, short video news meets the information consumption needs of modern audiences in their fast-paced life, and also brings new challenges and development opportunities to the field of news dissemination. in the new media environment, the rise of short video news has benefited from various factors. first, the development of technology provides the necessary hardware foundation for the production and dissemination of short news videos. secondly, the booming development of short video platforms has built an efficient and convenient channel for the production and distribution of short news videos. in addition, the mutual infiltration and influence of traditional media and emerging media have formed an integrated communication pattern in which multiple media forms coexist. the rise of short video news in the new media environment is the result of the joint action of technological progress and market demand. with the continuous deepening of the theory of media integration and practical exploration, the integration and innovation of short video news will continue to promote the prosperous development of the news and communication cause, and make an important contribution to the construction of an all-media communication pattern and the enhancement of the influence of news communication. 1.2 research significance the integration and innovation strategy of short video news under the new media environment is not only a subversive innovation of the traditional news dissemination method, but also a profound adaptation to the law of information dissemination in the new media era. with the rapid development of internet technology, short video, as an emerging form of media, has rapidly occupied the high ground of information dissemination with its unique audiovisual advantages and interactive characteristics. however, the development of short video news is not smooth sailing, and it is faced with the challenges of content quality, communication effect, audience demand and other aspects. therefore, exploring the strategy of short video news integration and innovation is of great practical hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 93 published by ideas spread significance and far-reaching historical impact for enhancing the professionalism, authority and influence of news dissemination. 1.3 research methods in the current new media environment, the integration and innovation of short video news has become an important trend in the field of news communication. this study aims to explore how short video news can realize its improvement in professionalism and interactivity through the combination of media convergence theory, content production strategy, technology application and innovative communication theory, as well as how to enhance the communication effect and influence of short video news through the application of these strategies and technologies. first of all, this study adopts the method of literature review to gain a deeper understanding of the application of media convergence theory in short video news and its effects by analyzing existing academic literature, industry reports and actual cases. in addition, this study also adopts a case study approach, selecting some successful short video news cases for indepth research to reveal the key factors of their success. in terms of data sources, this paper analyzes in-depth specific cases of short video news, including its content, production process, dissemination effect and audience feedback, which provide empirical data for this study. in short, this study utilizes a variety of research methods and data sources in a comprehensive manner, with a view to promoting the transformation, upgrading and innovative development of short video news in the new media environment. 2. definition and characteristics of short video news 2.1 the concept of short video news short video news is an emerging form of news dissemination, which utilizes short video clips to report news events, adapting to the needs of users for rapid and intuitive information acquisition in the new media era. it breaks the text and picture presentation limitations of traditional news reporting methods and presents news events in a more vivid and graphic way, which injects new vitality and power into the news industry and promotes the innovative development of the news industry. 2.2 characteristics of short video news as an emerging form of news dissemination, short video news shows unique and distinctive new media characteristics in terms of content, form and dissemination. in terms of content, the core of short video news lies in "short" and "fine", which must deliver the most critical information within a limited time. therefore, short video news should keenly capture current hot topics, reflect social phenomena and public issues, and ensure the timeliness and social value of the content. at the same time, it also needs to continuously optimize content selection and production methods through data analysis and user research to meet the audience's browsing habits and interest preferences. in terms of form, short video news relies on strong visual and auditory stimuli to effectively capture viewers' attention through moving images, sounds and short text descriptions. in addition, short video news often adopts a non-linear or circular narrative, ensuring that audiences will not miss key information whenever they enter or exit. in terms of dissemination, short video news breaks the limitations of traditional news dissemination and realizes cross-media and cross-platform content production and dissemination. in addition, short video news also makes use of new technologies such as big data and artificial intelligence to achieve accurate dissemination and personalized recommendation, digging deep into the user's interests and preferences and providing news content that matches them. to summarize, the uniqueness of short video news in terms of content, form and dissemination not only reflects the innovation and change of information dissemination in the new media environment, but also demonstrates the strong vitality and broad development prospects of short video news as an emerging media form in adapting to and leading the trend of the times. 3. characterization of short video news audience in new media environment 3.1 audience age analysis with the arrival of the new media era, short video news, as an emerging communication method, has attracted a large number of young audiences with its unique form and content. according to the reference material, the main audience of short video news is young people, this group grows up with the internet, active thinking, desire for hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 94 published by ideas spread new knowledge, greater demand for information, and in the busy study and work gradually developed a fragmented reading habit. this reading habit is highly compatible with the production and dissemination of short video news. among the users of short video news, the proportion of youth groups aged 15-44 is as high as 75.8%, which fully illustrates the main position of young people in the audience of short video news. the characteristics of the youth group is that they have a high degree of acceptance of new things and the desire to explore, they tend to fast, intuitive way of obtaining information, which is exactly what short video news provides. 3.2 audience gender analysis in the current information age, short video news attracts a large number of users' attention with its unique form and communication efficiency. according to the data, among the gender of users of short video news and information platforms, there are slightly more female users, accounting for 52.7%, and male users account for 47.3%. this data reflects that short video news and information platforms have a certain gender advantage in attracting users. however, this does not mean that male users are less interested in short video news, but rather indicates that short video news and information platforms may be more in line with the preferences of female users in terms of content production and dissemination strategies. 3.3 analysis of audience geographical distribution in the new media environment, the audience distribution of short video news shows obvious geographical variability, which is influenced by a variety of factors. first of all, the economic development level of different regions has a direct impact on the audience distribution of short video news. in economically more developed areas, residents have a higher internet usage rate and a more urgent need for news information. compared with less economically developed regions, short video news has a broader audience base in these regions. secondly, cultural background is also an important factor affecting the distribution of short video news audience. cultural differences in different regions lead to differences in residents' preferences for news content. for example, some regions may prefer entertaining or life-oriented short video news, while other regions may pay more attention to political or economic news. again, education level is one of the key factors affecting the distribution of short video news audiences. residents of regions with higher education levels tend to have higher information acquisition and critical thinking skills, and they are more inclined to receive and disseminate news with both depth and breadth. finally, policy factors cannot be ignored. policies in different regions have different degrees of regulation on new media and short video news, which directly affects the dissemination scope and audience size of short video news. 4. content innovation strategy of short video news in new media environment 4.1 the necessity of content innovation in the new media environment, the content innovation of short video news has a strong necessity, which is not only an inevitable choice to cope with the industry change, but also a key path to improve the communication efficiency. first of all, under the new media environment, the information dissemination speed is extremely fast, the audience's attention is dispersed, short video news in order to break through in a large number of information, it must have innovative. this means that short video news needs to innovate in content selection, narrative mode, technology application and other aspects, in order to attract and maintain the attention of the audience. secondly, short video news content innovation is the key to meet the diversified and personalized needs of the audience. with the development of internet technology, the audience has shifted from simply obtaining information to pursuing diversified, personalized and in-depth content experience. therefore, short video news should constantly explore new forms of expression and narrative structure in content production to provide more in-depth and comprehensive news reports. furthermore, short video news content innovation plays an important role in enhancing the effect and influence of news dissemination. through innovative content forms and technical means, short video news can better convey information, provide audiences with novel information consumption experience, and enhance the attractiveness and dissemination of news. in summary, short video news content innovation is an important driving force to promote the transformation and upgrading of news dissemination. in the new media environment, only by adhering to content innovation can we help build an all-media communication pattern and enhance the effectiveness and influence of news communication. 4.2 strategies for content innovation in today's new media environment, short video news as an emerging form of communication, its content innovation strategy is particularly important. by analyzing the reference materials, we can find that storytelling, interaction and personalization are the key strategies to enhance the attractiveness and communication effect of short video news. first, storytelling is an important means of content innovation for short video news. by packaging news events into attractive stories, it can better capture the audience's attention and arouse their emotional resonance. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 95 published by ideas spread secondly, interactivization is another effective strategy to enhance the attractiveness of short video news. by utilizing the interactive functions of the short video platform, such as likes and comments. through this two-way interaction, short video news can strengthen the communication and exchange with the audience, and enhance the audience's sense of participation and stickiness. personalization, on the other hand, aims at the browsing habits and interest preferences of the audience, and continuously optimizes content selection and production methods through data analysis and user research. by providing news content that meets the interests of the audience, it effectively attracts the target audience and enhances the communication effect. through the implementation of these strategies, short video news can not only enhance its attractiveness and dissemination effect, but also enhance the timeliness and interactivity of the news, meet the audience's demand for high-quality content, and bring new vitality and vigor to the development of short video news. 5. technological innovation strategy of short video news in the new media environment 5.1 the necessity of technical innovation under the new media environment, short video news is facing unprecedented opportunities and challenges. with the continuous progress of technology and the diversification of audience needs, the technical innovation of short video news is particularly important. first of all, technological innovation is the core driving force for the development of short video news. in the new media era, technology has become the key to promote the innovation of short video news. the close combination of short video news and cutting-edge technology not only meets the diversified needs of the audience, but also provides more high-quality content services. second, augmented reality (ar) and virtual reality (vr) technologies have given short video news audiences an immersive experience. these technologies allow audiences to feel the depth of news events, enhancing their understanding and experience of the events. for example, vr technology provides audiences with a unique perspective to observe major events or historical moments, building an empathetic information consumption experience. in summary, under the new media environment, technological innovation can not only improve the quality of content and dissemination effect, but also meet the audience's higher requirements for information consumption experience, which in turn promotes the prosperous development of news communication. 5.2 strategies of technological innovation in the new media era, technological innovation has become the core driving force to promote the development of short video news. with the continuous progress of artificial intelligence, big data, virtual reality and other cuttingedge technologies, the production and dissemination of short video news is experiencing historic changes. first of all, the application of artificial intelligence technology in short video news has achieved remarkable results. the application of this technology not only improves the efficiency of news production, but also ensures the accuracy and timeliness of information communication. in addition, the introduction of natural language processing technology has made the process of news content generation and editing more efficient, greatly saving human resources. the application of big data technology, on the other hand, provides powerful data support and analyzing ability for short video news. through the collection and processing of a large amount of data, news producers can more accurately grasp the needs and interests of viewers, so as to produce news content that better meets the expectations of viewers. the introduction of virtual reality (vr) and augmented reality (ar) technology brings an immersive experience to short video news. viewers can experience news events as if they were there through vr technology, and this new viewing experience greatly enhances the attractiveness of the news and audience participation. for example, through vr technology, viewers can observe major events or historical moments in 360 degrees without any dead angle, a unique perspective and experience that is unmatched by traditional news. however, the application of technology is not without its challenges; while ai and big data technologies can improve the efficiency of news production and the relevance of content, they can also raise issues of privacy and data security. therefore, news organizations must strictly comply with relevant laws and regulations when using these technologies to ensure data security and privacy protection. in short, technological innovation provides a broad space and unlimited possibilities for the development of short video news. 6. business model innovation strategy of short video news in the new media environment 6.1 the necessity of business model innovation with the rapid development of internet technology and the transformation of user habits, short video news has become one of the important forms of news dissemination. however, while this emerging media form brings great opportunities, it also faces many challenges, such as serious homogenization of content, single profit model and other problems. therefore, exploring innovative business models is crucial for the sustainable development of short video news. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 96 published by ideas spread 6.2 strategies for business model innovation in today's new media environment, short video news, as an emerging form of communication, the innovation of its business model and operation strategy is particularly important. the integration and innovation of short video news not only needs to explore diversified profit models, but also needs to pay attention to user experience in order to realize sustainable development. first of all, advertising cooperation is an important part of the short video news business model. through accurate data analysis, advertisers are able to realize targeted placement and improve the conversion rate and benefits of advertising. at the same time, new forms of advertising, such as content implantation, can naturally integrate with the content of the report without destroying the user experience and enhance the acceptance of advertising. secondly, the user payment and content payment model also provides a new way of profitability for short video news. high-quality short video news content has begun to attract paying users, providing exclusive content and in-depth analysis for loyal audiences, ensuring that news organizations have a stable source of profitability. in short, the business model innovation strategy of short video news needs to comprehensively consider the two key factors of commercial operation and user experience, and through continuous exploration and optimization, achieve double harvest of economic and social benefits. 7.communication innovation strategy of short video news in the new media environment 7.1 necessity of communication innovation the communication innovation of short video news in the new media environment is particularly important, not only because short video news has the advantages of fast dissemination speed, wide coverage, strong interactivity, etc., but also because it can meet the modern audience's demand for immediacy, convenience and personalization of information acquisition. first of all, the communication innovation of short video news can effectively enhance the attractiveness of news content. in the era of information explosion, the audience's attention is dispersed, short video news through the concise and powerful audio-visual language, can quickly seize the audience's attention, improve the dissemination of information effect. secondly, the communication innovation of short-video news helps to build an all-media communication pattern. in the context of media integration, short video news needs to break the boundaries of traditional media, realize cross-platform and cross-media content production and dissemination, and expand the scope of news dissemination. furthermore, the communication innovation of short video news provides a key impetus for the transformation and upgrading of the news communication model. with the continuous progress of new media technology, short video news can utilize virtual reality, augmented reality and other technologies to create an immersive and interactive news experience and enhance user participation and interactivity. this innovative communication model breaks through the limitations of traditional news dissemination and opens up new communication spaces and paths. finally, the communication innovation of short video news is an inevitable choice to meet the diversified and personalized needs of the audience. with the development of society and the progress of science and technology, the audience's demand for news content is becoming increasingly diversified, short video news through innovative communication strategies and means, can provide more accurate and targeted news services. in summary, the importance of short video news communication innovation in the new media environment is self-evident. 7.2 strategies of communication innovation in the new media era, the innovative strategy of short video news dissemination has become the key to improve the communication effect and enhance the influence of the media. by comprehensively analyzing references, we can distill several effective communication innovation strategies. first of all, social media marketing is an important means to enhance the communication power of short video news. by releasing short video news on major social platforms and utilizing the high degree of social activity and large user base of these platforms, the influence and coverage of the news can be rapidly expanded. secondly, the application of accurate push technology is also the key to improving the dissemination effect of short video news. using big data and artificial intelligence technology, the accurate push and personalized recommendation of news content is realized according to users' interest preferences and viewing habits. finally, innovative communication theory also provides theoretical support for the integration and innovation of short video news. according to the characteristics of the platform and the habits of users, it constantly innovates the presentation and interaction of news content to enhance the participation and stickiness of users. to sum up, through social media marketing, cooperation of content distribution platforms, application of precise pushing technology and guidance of innovative communication theory, short video news can realize the improvement of communication effect. 8. case study on the integration and innovation of short video news in the new media environment under the new media environment, the rise of short video news platforms has provided new channels for information dissemination, among which the successful cases of "surge news" and "cctv news" are particularly hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 97 published by ideas spread prominent. these two platforms have not only improved the efficiency of news dissemination through integration and innovation, but also enhanced the attractiveness and influence of news content. relying on the powerful resources and professional team of shanghai newspaper group, "pengyuan news" is committed to creating "quality news short videos". in terms of content production, "surge news" focuses on originality and depth, and presents a series of high-quality news works through unique perspectives and exquisite production. these works have not only triggered a wide range of social repercussions, but also brought the audience closer and strengthened user stickiness through interaction with the audience. relying on the authority and influence of cctv, "cctv news" app has launched a series of original news works in the field of short videos. these works not only show china's cultural self-confidence and innovative vitality in the new era, but also expand the scope of short-video news through cross-platform cooperation and integrated media dissemination. "cctv news also actively explores the application of new technologies, such as virtual reality and augmented reality, to create an immersive news experience. from these two cases, it can be seen that short video news platforms focus on the originality, depth and interactivity of news content, as well as the diversification of communication channels and the innovation of operation modes, to stand out in the competitive new media environment, provide users with high-quality news content, and at the same time open up a new path for the development of the news industry. 9. challenges and countermeasures of short video news in the new media environment 9.1 challenges of short video news in the new media environment under the new media environment, short video news, as an emerging form of communication, has rapidly occupied the market with its short, simple and entertaining production, and has become an important channel for information dissemination. however, with its rapid development, short video news is also facing many challenges, especially in copyright protection and content quality control. first of all, the copyright issue is one of the most difficult problems in the development of short video news. due to the low production cost of short videos, some content creators often use other people's works without authorization in order to pursue a high click rate, which not only infringes on the copyright of the original creator, but also harms the healthy development of the whole industry. in addition, the algorithmic recommendation mechanism of short video platforms also exacerbates the problem of copyright infringement, as this mechanism tends to prioritize the recommendation of content that infringes on copyright, thus reducing the recommendation of original content. second, content quality control is also a major challenge for short video news. in order to attract viewers, some short video news over-pursues the eyeball effect, with inaccuracies and exaggerations. this not only misleads the public, but also reduces the credibility of news media. at the same time, due to the low threshold of production and dissemination of short video news, the phenomenon of content homogenization and vulgarization is serious, which affects the overall image and dissemination effect of short video news. 9.2 countermeasures for short video news in the new media environment in order to cope with these challenges, effective strategies must be adopted to enhance the quality and influence of short video news. first, strengthening copyright protection is the key to the development of short video news. since the copyright protection mechanism of short video platforms is not yet perfect, infringement occurs from time to time. therefore, the relevant departments should increase the publicity and education on copyright laws to improve the public's copyright awareness. at the same time, a sound copyright protection mechanism should be established to strengthen the monitoring and punishment of infringing behaviors and protect the legitimate rights and interests of originators. second, improving content quality is the core of short video news development. this requires that journalists should strengthen professional training, improve their own innovative consciousness and creative ability, and ensure the creation of short video news with high content quality and rich communication forms. at the same time, short video news producers should pay attention to the interaction with the audience, using the interactive features of the short video platform, such as likes, comments, etc., to strengthen the communication and exchange with the audience. through interaction, not only can we understand the feedback and needs of the audience in time and optimize the content production strategy, but also enhance the audience's sense of participation and viscosity, and promote the dissemination of short video news. in short, in the face of the challenges of short video news in the new media environment, the relevant departments and journalists should adopt a comprehensive response strategy in order to promote the healthy development of short video news and contribute to the prosperity of the news communication cause. 10. conclusion and prospect 10.1 research conclusion in today's new media environment, short video news, as an emerging form of communication, is gradually becoming an important channel for information dissemination. the journalism industry is also constantly exploring hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 98 published by ideas spread the innovation of media convergence, which is not only a technological innovation, but also a change in the concept of communication. it enhances the efficiency and effectiveness of news dissemination, and strengthens the social value and influence of news through cross-media integration, content innovation, and communication method innovation. this process not only promotes the transformation and upgrading of the media industry, but also provides the public with richer, more diversified and high-quality news information, which demonstrates the significance of the integration and innovation of short-video news in the new media environment. 10.2 future prospects with the continuous progress of technology and the diversification of audience needs, the development path and innovation strategy of short video news have gradually become the focus of attention in the industry. based on the in-depth analysis of the existing information, this paper puts forward the outlook for future research. first of all, future research should explore more deeply the innovative breakthroughs of short video news in content production and dissemination methods. with the continuous evolution of the new media environment, short video news needs to explore new paths of combining with advanced technology while maintaining content quality. secondly, future research should focus on the practice of short video news in cross-media and cross-platform content production and dissemination. how to realize the efficient allocation and integrated use of resources, as well as how to break the media boundaries to achieve true cross-media integration. in addition, future research should also emphasize the role of short video news in terms of social responsibility and influence. with the popularity of short video news, its role in social harmony, stability and development has become increasingly prominent. therefore, how to ensure the authenticity and authority of the content of short video news, as well as how to disseminate positive social values through short video news are also issues that future research needs to focus on. in conclusion, in the face of the rapid development of short video news in the new media environment, future research and practice should continue to explore and try new theoretical and practical methods to promote the healthy development and innovative breakthrough of short video news. references [1] liu, f. 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(2018). research on the status quo and innovation strategy of news short video. tv guide, (154), 275. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 http://hssr.ideasspread.org 48 published by ideas spread reviewer acknowledgements humanities and social science research wishes to acknowledge the following individuals for their assistance with peer review of manuscripts for this issue. their help and contributions in maintaining the quality of the journal is greatly appreciated. humanities and social science research is recruiting reviewers for the journal. if you are interested in becoming a reviewer, we welcome you to join us. please find the application form and details at http://home.ideasspread.org/for-reviewers/ and e-mail the completed application form to hssr@ideasspread.org reviewers for volume 4, number 1 entisar yousef smadi, the world islamic science & education university, jordan jameel al-ghaberi, thamar university, yemen jean-claude loba-mkole, university of the free state, kenya john mark r. asio, gordon college, philippines la ode ismail ahmad, universitas islam negeri alauddin makassar, indonesian leonardo la-rosa, universidad carlos iii de madrid (uc3m), spain nilüfer pembecioğlu, istanbul university, turkey yevhen samoilenko, sumy state university, ukraine humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n3p152 152 published by ideas spread the immediate relationship between hope and depression: the selfesteem as a mediator xiaoyun liu1 & changming chen1 1 chongqing normal university, china correspondence: xiaoyun liu, chongqing normal university, chongqing, china received: june 18, 2025; accepted: july 2, 2025; published: july 3, 2025 abstract the concepts of hope and self-esteem in positive psychology can help people resist psychological distress. but it's not clear how they interact to protect each other. this study used a cross-sectional survey of 1185 participants to explore the role of two factors of hope and self-esteem in reducing depressed mood. the results suggest that selfesteem plays a mediating role between motivational thinking and depression. this finding reveals the intrinsic role of motivational thinking and self-esteem in protecting well-being, and has positive implications for mental health interventions such as alleviating depression. keywords: positive psychology, hope motive, hope pathways, self esteem, depression 1. introduction depression is a heterogeneous disorder. major depressive disorder has a lifetime prevalence of up to 17% worldwide(kessler et al., 2007). in addition to the physical distress and personal debilitation associated with the individual, the high incidence of depression and its chronic nature can affect the patient's work efficiency, significantly increasing the socioeconomic burden(greenberg, 2003). symptoms of depression include low mood, loss of interest, loss of pleasure, inability to concentrate, lack of energy, sleep or eating disorders, feelings of worthlessness or guilt, and even suicidal thoughts and intentions (dsm-iv) (duman, 2010). the qualifying symptoms associated with the seizure are similar to those in the dsm-iv, but there is an additional symptom of loss of confidence or self-esteem(paykel, 2008). it becomes ever more important to investigate factors affecting the development of depressive symptoms. 1.1 model or framework hope is a core concept of positive psychology and is believed to have a positive impact on an individual's adaptation and development. snyder's theory of hope is the most widely accepted theory of hope(li et al., 2018).according to snyder and his colleagues, hope is defined as "a positive state of motivation that is based on a kind of agency and path."(reichard et al., 2013a; snyder et al., n.d.). the agency or "willpower" component of hope generates the determination to identify and achieve goals, and the path thinking or "path power" component refers to an individual's perceived ability to find one or more effective ways to achieve a goal, as well as the perceived ability to make alternative plans when encountering obstacles in the process of achieving a goal(arnau et al., 2007; reichard et al., 2013b; snyder, 2002). in previous studies, basic hope was inversely associated with depression(kaleta & mróz, 2020). however, the psychological mechanisms linking hope and depression are not well understood. the literature suggests that a sense of hope boosts self-esteem(du et al., 2015). in addition, self-esteem is an effective positive resource for coping with stress and depression(du et al., 2016). therefore, we hypothesize that the agent thinking of hope and the path of hope thinking can alleviate depression by enhancing self-esteem. in our model, self-esteem mediates the relationship between different thoughts of hope and depression. 1.2 hope and depression the variable hope has been shown to be strongly negatively correlated with many negative emotions and clinically significant depressive symptoms. this relationship has been proven across a range of cultures and geographical locations(ritschel & cassiello-robbins, 2023). the results of a longitudinal study suggest that a decrease in hope predicts worsening of depression and anxiety symptoms over time(germann et al., 2018). in another longitudinal study, only the desired motility component was significantly associated with a reduction in depression(arnau et al., 2007). as a result, research has shown that depression and hope are inversely correlated, and that different hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 153 published by ideas spread aspects of hope may have different effects on depression over time. a review of the literature showed that most studies focusing on the relationship between hope and depression were conducted cross-sectionally. however, a single measure indicates a correlation between variables, but does not confirm causality or prediction. in addition, the relationship between path thinking, agency thinking, and depression needs to be further explored(li et al., 2018). 1.3 hope and self-esteem the meta-analysis found that self-esteem is beneficial for important areas of life such as relationships, school, work, mental health, physical health, etc(orth & robins, 2022). self-esteem is a person's evaluation of their worth as a person(reitz, 2022). self-esteem is also how well people like and accept themselves(orth & robins, 2014; weber et al., 2023).self-esteem is an important positive psychological factor and a protective factor for mental health, specifically, self-esteem can influence an individual's assessment of the environment, thereby regulating the individual's stress response relationship(chen et al., 2023).self-esteem plays a key role in building resilience, shaping a positive self-concept(orth & robins, 2013).people with high self-esteem tend to use more effective coping strategies in challenging situations(orth et al., 2009).as the theory of hope suggests, people will focus on the goal-seeking process, and when they are able to achieve their goals, emotions and self-esteem can be developed(snyder, 2002). in addition, hope therapy shows that hope can promote life meaning and selfesteem(cheavens et al., 2006). therefore, self-esteem and hope may be interrelated(chan & huang, 2024). 1.4 self-esteem and depression various studies have reported a negative correlation between self-esteem and depression. high self-esteem is often considered an important part of mental health and well-being, and high self-esteem is a protective factor against depressive symptoms(donnellan et al., 2011; garaigordobil et al., n.d.). studies have shown that low self-esteem is a relevant and fragile factor in depression(orth & robins, 2013).cognitive theory suggests that negative selfbeliefs play a key causal role in the etiology of depression(orth & robins, 2022). people with low self-esteem are more likely to suffer from depression, regardless of clinical level or mild depression, and they are more likely to feel worthless and incompetent(garaigordobil et al., n.d.). moreover, low self-esteem predisposes individuals to mental health problems, which may increase depression and create a suicide risk(mashiach-eizenberg et al., 2013; orth & robins, 2013). 1.5 the present study based on relevant theories and previous studies, this study intends to use the questionnaire survey method to explore the relationship between the sub-dimension of hope and depression by constructing a latent variable mediation model, and further examine the role of self-esteem in it. 2. method 2.1 participants and procedure this study used a random sampling method to collect two waves of data in different parts of different cities in china in november 2022. a total of 1,185 people were validated at this time point, of which 715 (60.338%) were female, 956 (80.675%) were under the age of 26, 761 (64.219%) had a bachelor's degree, and 781 (65.907%) had a monthly income of less than 5,000 rmb. details can be found in table 1. this study was approved by the scientific research ethics committee of the institution. we obtained informed consent from all participants prior to collecting data and participants were informed that there were no correct or wrong answers, and that the data would only be used as a study. after the participant completes the answer, they will be rewarded with a minimum of 4 rmb. table 1. number of participants in study.(n=1185) variable category number percentage gender female 715 60.338% male 470 39.662% age < 26 years old 956 80.675% 26-30 111 9.367% 31-40 68 5.738% > 40 years old 50 4.219% education level ≤ high school 102 8.608% associate 150 12.658% hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 154 published by ideas spread bachelor 761 64.219% ≥ master 172 14.515% monthly income (yuan) < 1000 65 5.485% 1001-1500 127 10.717% 1501-2000 111 9.367% 2001-3000 178 15.021% 3001-5000 300 25.316% 5000—8000 210 17.722% 5000—8000 72 6.076% 10000-20000 96 8.101% > 20000 26 2.194% 2.2 measures hope: the measure of hope was the chinese version of the adult hope dispositional scale (chen et al., 2009), which was adapted from (snyder et al., 1991). the scale has a total of 12 items. four items are used to evaluate agent thinking, four items are used to evaluate pathways thinking, and four fill items are not used for analysis. participants rated these items on a 4-point likert scale, ranging from 1 (absolutely wrong) to 4 (absolutely right). one example item for pathways thinking reads: 'i can always come up with many ways and means deal with the difficulties in my life'. in this study, the cronbach's alpha coefficient in the agent thinking was 0.782, the cronbach's alpha coefficient in the pathways thinking was 0.802. self esteem: self esteem was assessed using the rosenberg self-esteem scale(rosenberg self-esteem scale (rosenberg, 1965), n.d.), which was translated into chinese by ji and yu (ji & yu, 1993). the scale is translated and revised to assess an individual's overall perception of self-worth and self-acceptance. rated on a four-point likert scale. from 0 (never) to 3 (absolutely), with higher scores indicating higher levels of self-esteem. one of the descriptions is that i feel that i have many good qualities. this scale showed satisfactory reliability in our study. the cronbach's alpha coefficient is 0.894. depression: depression was measured using the depression, anxiety, and stress scale (dass-21)(lovibond & lovibond, 1995), which was translated into chinese by wen and colleagues(wen & wu, 2012). participants rate each item on a four-point scale on how relevant it is to their situation during the past week. like what, i did not seem to feel happy at all. answers range from 0 (never) to 3 (always). higher scores correspond to more severe depression symptoms. in this study, the depression subscale had a cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.837. covariates: covariates included demographic variables. such as gender, age, education level, monthly income, etc. 2.3 statistical analyses spss 27.0 was used to analyze the correlation of the data, and then the structural equation model was used to analyze the mediated model. firstly, the motivational thinking of hope and the path thinking of hope were taken as independent variables, self-esteem was used as the mediating variable, and depression was used as the dependent variable, and the mediating effect model was analyzed by mplus8.30. secondly, the significance test was carried out by the bootstrapping method for the mediating effect, and the sample estimation size of bootstrapping was set to 5000, and the confidence interval was 95% standard. finally, the fitting index of χ², df, cfi, tli, rmsea, smr and other models was investigated. 3. results 3.1 common method bias, descriptive statistics and correlation artificial co-variation between variables can be caused by the same data source, measurement context, or rater characteristics, which can distort the results of the study and cause systematic errors. in this study, the common method bias was controlled by anonymous measurement and reverse scoring of some items. the harman one-way test was used to calculate and test all the items, and the results showed that there were 4 factors with eigenroots greater than 1, and the first principal component obtained before rotation accounted for 36.6% of the total load of the factors, which did not exceed the critical value of 40%, indicating that there was no serious common method bias in the questionnaire results in this study. the mean, standard deviation, correlation coefficient, and skewness and kurtosis between the variables are shown in table 2. there is a significant positive correlation between hope and self-esteem. there was a significant hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 155 published by ideas spread negative correlation between hope and depression, self-esteem and depression. in addition, the results in the table show that the skewness and kurtosis of each variable are less than 2 and 7(finney & distefano, 2006), respectively, and it can be assumed that these variables obey or approximately obey a normal distribution. to further understand the relationship between the sub-dimensions of hope, self-esteem, and depression, a mediating test will be performed in a follow-up study. table 2. descriptive statistics and correlations among key variables(n=1185) variable 1 2 3 4 5 1 gender (0 = male) 1.00 2 agent thinking -0.76** 1.00 3 pathways thinking -0.03 0.653*** 1.00 4 self esteem -0.018 0.562*** 0.528*** 1.00 5 depression 0.064* -0.456*** -0.354*** -0.580*** 1.00 mean 0.603 2.537 2.925 4.314 1.621 sd 0.489 0.559 0.526 0.543 0.473 skewness -0.423 0.158 -0.165 -0.429 1.073 kurtosis -1.824 0.139 0.565 0.103 1.939 note：***p < 0.001, **p < 0.01, *p < 0.05 3.1 the test of the mediating effect of self-esteem between the sub-dimensions of hope and depression the structural equation analysis of latent variables was performed using mplus8.30 on the data, with hope (including pathway thinking and agent thinking subdimensions) as independent variables, self-esteem as mediator variables, and depression as dependent variables. the entire model is shown in figure 1. after controlling for demographic statistical variables such as gender, age, education level, and economic income, the fit coefficient of the model is acceptable (χ² = 3088.645, df = 461, cfi = 0.825, tli = 0.810, rmsea = 0.069, smr = 0.062)(doll et al., 1994). the agent thinking of hope can significantly positively predict self-esteem (β = 0.489, p<0.001), selfesteem can further significantly negatively predict depression (β = -0.503, p<0.001), and the agent thinking aspect of hope can significantly negatively predict depression (β = -0.338, p<0.001). the path thinking of hope can significantly predict self-esteem positively (β = 0.209, p<0.001), and the self-esteem can prominently negatively predict depression (β = -0.503, p<0.001). using mplus8.30 to test the mediation effect of bootstrapping, it was found that the mediation effect of agent thinking of hope and depression is significant through self-esteem (β = 0.246, 95% ci = [-0.336, -0.167]). the direct effect of agent thinking of hope on depression is significant (β = 0.338, 95% ci = [-0.515, -0.173]), but the direct effect of path thinking of hope on depression is not significant (β = 0.160, 95% ci = [-0.006, 0.331]). figure 1. the mediating model of self-esteem between hope and depression hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 156 published by ideas spread 4. contributions and implications our research found that the agent-thinking aspect of hope and self-esteem can reduce depression, and current research shows that that self-esteem plays a vital role in the middle of agent thinking of hope and depression. therefore, this study reveals that hope and self-esteem can be valuable components of psychological intervention programs. this study also reveals the mediating role of self-esteem in the relationship between hope and depression. in addition, due to the fact that in the moderation model of depression. the impact of agent thinking goes beyond path thinking. therefore. in future interventions, special attention should be paid to this variable. participants should be motivated to work towards the long-term future, and an agency mindset can be fostered to create avenues for participants to express emotions, share experiences, and love, either through support groups or significant others(dee et al., 2020). 5. limitations and future directions there are some limitations in this study. first, the study was designed horizontally, which hindered the study of the longitudinal moderating effect of self-esteem. second, the variable scale is a retrospective measure of past experiences. retrospective reports may be affected by the individual’s current status, which may exaggerate the relationship between variables and experimental methods should be used to further examine the association between the dimension of hope, self-esteem, and depression. 6. conclusion summing up, the study extends the lines of previous research by addressing the need to understand mechanisms of the hope-depression relationship. this study explores the relationship between hope, self-esteem, and depression. the results showed that the motivational thinking dimension of hope could predict depression by the self-esteem. therefore, self-esteem is the psychological pathway from feeling depressed from hope, and these findings further support and expand the theory of hope, strengthening our understanding of the relationship between hope and depression. references arnau, r. c., rosen, d. h., finch, j. f., rhudy, j. l., & fortunato, v. j. 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(n.d.). the will and the ways: development and validation of an individual-differences measure of hope. weber, e., hopwood, c. j., nissen, a. t., & bleidorn, w. (2023). disentangling self-concept clarity and selfesteem in young adults. journal of personality and social psychology, 125(6), 1420–1441. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000460 wen, y., & wu, d. x. (2012). psychometric properties of the chinese short version of depression anxiety and stress scale in chinese adults. chinese journal of public health, 28(11), 1436–1438. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 158 published by ideas spread copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v2n1p21 21 published by ideas spread the local election amidst the oligarchs: case study jayapura regency of indonesia’s local election in 2017 nur hidayat sardini1 1 department of politics and government, diponegoro university, semarang, indonesia correspondence: department of politics and government, diponegoro university, 50275 semarang city, central jawa province, indonesia. tel: 628-131-969-1969. received: january 4, 2019; accepted: march 5, 2019; published: march 10, 2019 this research is funded by the funding scheme of the diponegoro university (dipa) in 2018. abstract this article scrutinizes the phenomenon of local government election (local election) of a regency at the easternmost province in indonesia, jayapura regency of papua. during the election period, there was a great number of violations against election rules which were not only sporadic but also designed on a structured, systematic and massive scale – using the term of indonesian constitutional courts. the violations were related to the role of the oligarchs who cooperatively worked hand in hand to win the political contestation. the activities of the oligarchs which involved clerical-technical issues are undoubtedly prohibited by the law of pilkada. the clerical-technical issues include unlawful activities such as replacing some officials of polling station a day before the election, manipulating the official report documents like voting and the calculation of the votes forms, certificates of results and holographic forms of the votes calculation details and records of the results of valid vote calculation at the polling stations in massive numbers. in the jayapura regency election, it is found that the practice of the election administration regime is defied by an electoral shadow structure played by the oligarchs. thus, this article argues that the political decentralization results in a powerful control of the local oligarchs on the local elections which must be solved for the sake of indonesia’s democratization. keywords: the role of local oligarchs, electoral integrity, structured, systematic and massive violations 1. introduction in the year of 2017, indonesia held the local elections (pilkada) simultaneously in 101 autonomous regions, including 8 provinces, 76 regencies, and 18 cities. the indonesian election authority stated that most of the regional elections had taken places in a democratic, safe and peaceful manner while there were some local elections stained by some political problems such as violations, fraud and physical conflicts among the supporters of each candidate. the 2017 local election is part of the democracy implementation in indonesia which commenced to emerge after the fall of soeharto’s new order. 1.1 the practice of local elections in indonesia since 2004, the mechanism of appointing the head of local governments in indonesia was not performed by the local parliaments but directly by the people. thus, the principle of one person, one vote and one value (opovov) has been implemented since that time. however, the mechanism of direct elections in indonesia’s regions raised a number of issues, especially outside the land of java which mostly was facing social problems such as educational lags, economic gaps, and social group tensions. with those occurring problems, they were forced to practice the political liberalization, resulting in the practices of manipulative supports by the local political elites in the implementation of local elections. instead of strengthening the process of institutionalization and the institutions in the regions, the local political elites demonstrated the practices of unhealthy politics. as time went by, the practices of political manipulations had decreased significantly at local elections in the following years. however, at some regions like the province of papua, the easternmost province of indonesia, those kinds of political manipulations still stained the practice of local elections in indonesia. 1.2 electoral democracy post-soeharto in 1998, after the reform had successfully deposed the power of soeharto, indonesia commenced feeling the spring of democracy. people’s demands, especially of the university students, urged the constitutional reformation in hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 22 published by ideas spread indonesia, the autonomization of regions, the removal of the military in national and local politics and the eradication of corruption, collusion and nepotism. with the first general election held in 1999 after the fall of soeharto, indonesia commenced entering an aimless political liberalization. the subsequent elections were not more than the practices of procedural democracy to appoint the leaders. it can be said that indonesia has not found the form of substantial democracy even after conducting the general elections four times after the fall of soeharto. 1.3 the election day one troublesome local election of those 101 simultaneous local elections in 2017 was the local election of jayapura regency. in this election, the involvements of external parties, especially from the structure of local government, were strongly indicated. those involvements even touched the area of electoral processes. although the case had been resolved by the national state institution which especially was assigned to resolve election issues, the case of jayapura regency local election had stained the history of the contemporary practice of general elections in indonesia. the election day of jayapura regency was held on february 15, 2017. the election contested five pairs of candidates (note 1), each of whom had divergent social, economic, educational and political backgrounds. the number of voters was 131.283 people, spread across 139 villages and 19 districts. at the election day, the voters were provided with 347 polling stations by the jayapura regency general election commission. in each district, there were five members of the district election committee (ppd). thus, the total member of ppd is 475 people (5x95). in each village, there were three members of the voting committee (pps). thus, the total number of pps is 1443 people (3x342). the law of election in indonesia required election supervision by the election supervisory agency (panwaslu). in the case of jayapura regency election, there were 3 people of panwaslu at the regency level, 57 people at the district level (3x18) and 432 people at each polling station. (note 2) 1.4 malpractice in local election of jayapura regency the local election of jayapura regency staked the concept of integrity in the practice of general election. the electoral crisis in the local election had been indicated at the early stage. on the 29th of august 2017, the incumbent candidate replaced three officials in the regency government of jayapura (note 3), prohibited by the law of pilkada in indonesia. at the d-1, there was a turnover of 160 people of voting committee group (kpps) at 234 polling stations, which was not recognized by the local general election commission (kpu). (note 4) after receiving a report from the candidate number 1, panwaslu conducted an investigation whose result was recommended to the kpud for the re-voting in 17 of the 19 districts. at the judgment of panwaslu, the voting and the counting on the 15th of february 2017 was invalid. (note 5) the panwaslu recommendation was opposed by the 19 district heads in jayapura district and the jayapura regency kpu with the arguments that the re-election (psu) did not have a clear legal basis. the kpu further argued that this was an imaginary decision of panwaslu. (note 6) in the assembly of the election organizers honor council (dkpp), which was scheduled to examine alleged violations of the code of ethics, the ranks of the kpu and panwaslu were found guilty. (note 7) 1.5. literature review the application of the integrity of elections is a necessity in the implementation of elections. the inevitability of the integrity of this election in the context of achieving the election objectives such as to elect officeholders in the government, who will later determine the course of the state / regional government. the practice of elections that do not have integrity aside from not encouraging the adoption of internationally recognized democratic election standards with the honest and fair electoral principles, will delay and even fail to reach the goals of the election itself (maisel & buckley, 2005, pp. 56). it is an inevitable fact that not all elections meet expectations. most elections that take place and end without integrity, are indicated with several indicators. some of the most damaging indicators of election integrity are the ballot boxes filled by those who are not officials, the election results figures manipulated either reduced or added, the involvement on the vote counts, election participants rejecting the results of the election process, and officials misusing the sources of state power (norris, 2014, p. 3). elections without integrity are also characterized by negative traits in elections, such as election malpractice, defective elections, manipulated contests, and election fraud. these negative signs should be countered by positive signs such as credible elections, acceptable elections, originality of election processes and results, and fair and honest elections (norris, 2012, pp. 3-4). in all concepts of election with integrity, the electoral process avoids the possibility of defective and failed elections, with clear standards and consistent benchmarks to assess the quality of each contestation. the quality of elections with integrity also refers to contestations that respect international standards and global norms that contain the regulation of elections leading to the implementation of appropriate elections (norris, 2016, pp. 3-4). the former secretary general of the united nations, who before his decease was active in chairing the global commission for elections, democracy, and security, urged the importance of the role of civil society organizations hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 23 published by ideas spread to monitor the performance of the government so that the elections were expected to meet the integrity of the election. the stance of the government in elections must be with civil society organizations. furthermore, the government should contribute to the development of electoral integrity, election funding, and protection of free media (annan, et al., 2012, p. 8-9). following the urgency of global commission under annan, the international institute of idea described how important regional organizations are in the effort to create elections with integrity. in addition to overseeing the electoral process damaging election integrity through election malpractice, it is recommended that elections must be held with true integrity (cordenillo & ellis, et al. p. 15). the influences of the political environment in the relationship between the center (national government) and the regions (local government) on the local dynamics in indonesia is also presented in this research. since the fall of the soeharto’s new order in 1998, the political constellation has continued to change. on one hand, the fall of the new order became a landmark of the end of the new order's autocratic, despotic and bureaucratic power (winters, 2011, pp. 135-207). on the other side, the power structure in indonesia transformed to be decentralized, democratic and pluralistic forms (nordlholt & klinken, 2007, p. 20) in a political constellation known as the reform order. habibie, who succeeded soeharto, loosened repression in the context of relations between the center and the regions. this policy was taken by habibie to answer the demand on the largest possible autonomy of most regions, as well as to dispel the demands of other regions that were strict in demanding an independence from indonesia, while the remainder was due to proposals from a number of political elites at the national level suggesting the reformation of unitary state to become federal state (lane, 2014, pp. 7-19). how habibie led the state after the fall of soeharto exceeded the predictions and expectations of many. in the relations between the center and the region, habibie transformed indonesia, which was originally known as the most centralized country in the world, to become one of the most decentralized countries. the world bank dubbed habibie's radical policy as "the big bangs decentralization" (shah & thompson, 2004, p. 317). this epithet is meant to describe two things relating to the radicalism of decentralization policies. first, the radicalism of the increasing number of the local government administration in indonesia, which before the implementation of the decentralization policy was originally merely 208 autonomous regions, consisting of 25 provinces, 151 regencies and 32 cities (pratikno, 2008) later became 516 autonomous regions, consisting of 32 provinces, 388 regencies and 96 cities. after two decades of implementing decentralization policies, as of july 2018, the country of indonesia has 542 autonomous regions, consisting of 34 provinces, 415 districts, and 98 cities (kemendagri, 2018). secondly, along with the proliferation of autonomous regions, the transfer of funds from the center also increased to regions, increased from 2001 to 2006 by 30 percent through a number of general allocation fund schemes, special allocation funds, and revenue sharing funds (fengler & hofman, p. 245). in 2017, the fund transfer schemes from the center to the regions have become more significant. those funding schemes included a general transfer fund of idr 503.6 trillion, a special transfer fund of idr 173.4 trillion, a regional incentive fund of idr 7.5 trillion, moreover a village autonomy funding scheme of idr 60 trillion. decentralization in the form of government administration, which is supported by fiscal decentralization, in addition to supporting the capacity of the local economy, and coupled with political decentralization has succeeded in dynamizing the locals' life and local political constellation. (note 8) decentralization in the form of administration governance, which is supported by fiscal and political decentralization, besides supporting the capacity of the local economy has succeeded in dynamizing the social and political constellation in regions. concerns about the negative impacts on radical implementation of decentralization have emerged along with the introduction of these policies. these concerns are formulated as "the decentralization of grafting", with characteristics of (i) the absence of transparency and accountability in traditional local governance values; (ii) the safety of the people who assume that local politicians and administrators are generally more open to local needs and complaints, and are subsequently surprised by the contradicting reality; and (iii) the fragmentation of the state civil apparatus and the apparently uncontrolled authority of the gatekeepers of the services, that is, the head of regional government and the apparatus, due to the system of patronage (hofman, et al, pp. 99-113). this concern was in fact proven because, in a number of regions, negative phenomena emerged due to the fragility of political institutionalization in the process of decentralization, such as the "congregational" corruption by the members of the west sumatra local house of representatives (dprd), and the following corruption case of the governor of aceh and the chairman of the banten provincial dprd (crouch, 2010, pp. 223-229). it has been two decades since the implementation of decentralization. in only 2018, the corruption eradication commission (kpk) determined 108 people as suspects with various profiles of public figures such as legislative members, law enforcement officers, and regional heads. (note 9) other negative effects are the birth of political gangster phenomena (wilson, 2010, pp. 199-216), "small kings" at the local level as political corruption combatants (hofman et al, pp. 99-113), political champions (romli, 2007), and bossism and local strongmen (sidel, 2004, pp. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 24 published by ideas spread 51-74). another more dynamic aspect was the formation of the sultanistic oligarchs of soeharto's autocratic heritage (winters 2011, winters 2012, p. 30), and those that exploited fragility or even caused the increasingly fragile political democratization at the local level (hadiz & robison, 2013, pp. 35-57). in the formation of this oligarchic power, the political phenomenon of jayapura regional election is associated with the resource dependence theory, with emerson (1962, pp. 31-41) as its main proponent, which basically stated "the entanglement" of the election regime in the midst of oligarchic co-optation on the power structure. 2. method the focus of this study is to scrutinize the phenomenon of the local election (pilkada) in jayapura regency which was located at indonesia's easternmost province, papua province in 2017. this study aims to answer why many problems which were related to the aspect of election integrity in the jayapura still exist in the regency election. to explore answers, the researcher uses a case study method, while the approach utilized in this research is a qualitative approach, an approach that emphasizes the procedure for collecting, organizing, understanding, analyzing, and presenting systematically. hence, the results of the studies conducted can be expected to be more contextual and able to describe the conditions more intact and answer what actually happened (yin, 2018), in the event of the 2017 jayapura regency election disintegrity. in addition to relying on in-depth interviews with a number of informants which was considered as primary data sources, this research also utilized official documents, legal decisions, court decisions, jayapura regency general election commission (kpu) office, kpu of papua province, supervisory jayapura regency election (panwaslu), election supervisory body (bawaslu) of papua province, and kpu at the central level and bawaslu at the central level, as well as decision of election organizers honorary board (dkpp) election ethics council whose duty and authority was to examine, hear, and decide cases based on the code of ethics for election organizers. sources of data from mass media news, which are considered as secondary data, are also taken into consideration in this study. the research location, not only in papua but also in the offices of the institutions mentioned above, as well as the central office in jakarta. 3. results and discussion 3.1 election candidates the jayapura regency election in 2017 contested five pairs of regent and vice-regent candidate pairs. (note 10) the first candidate is yanni, a muslim woman who is also the chairperson of the papua gerindra party. the figure was described as a trusted person of gerindra party chairman prabowo subianto in papua. prabowo is a presidential candidate who failed to win over president joko widodo in the 2014 elections and re-nominate himself in this 2019 election against president joko widodo. yanni paired up with zadrah afanya, a senior manager in the sinar mas group business group owned by chinese blood tycoon eka tjipta widjaja. this pair is politically endorsed by the gerindra party. the party is in coalition with the national awakening party (pkb), a party made by tolerant muslim leaders including the former indonesian 4th president abdurrahman wahid (1999-2001). this candidate was also supported by the national mandate party (pan), the party made by the main figure of the most important reform and the opponent of soeharto's new order, prof. amien rais, a figure who once both promoted and impeached abdurrahman wahid from the presidency. this pair is carried by six seats in the jayapura regency dprd. the second pair of regent and vice-regent candidate are mathius awoitauw and giri wijayantoro. awoitauw is an incumbent of the regent leading jayapura regency from 2012 to 2016. he is also the brother of the chairperson of the jayapura regency dprd, edison awoitauw, who was later appointed by his younger brother as the head of the campaign team and experienced in holding elections for he had served as the chairman of the local kpu for two periods. the incumbent stood with giri wijayantoro, described by the local media as an "active and successful figure in clearing forests in development region iv of jayapura regency, covering yapsi, kaureh, and airu districts jayapura regency, but backed by jayapura regional police chief, regent mathius awoitauw, and chairperson of the local dprd also incumbent brother, edison awoitauw." (note 11) the main supporters of this candidate pair are the nasdem party, a party made by surya paloh who is the owner of the biggest news television channel in indonesia, metro-tv. the party was in coalition with the hanura party, a party made by the former abri commander when indonesia entered the transition of power from president soeharto to president b.j. habibie, namely general (ret.) wiranto. other coalition members are parties whose general chairperson is former president susilo bambang yudhoyono (2004-2009 and 2009-2015). the pair was supported by eleven local dprd seats. the third pair of regent and vice-regent candidate are godlief ohee and frans gina. with the social background as indigenous rulers and social activists, the pair of candidates of ohee and gina nominated themselves as the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 25 published by ideas spread candidates with the full support of the indigenous people of ondofolo leaders and yeheskiel wally living around danau sentani, jayapura. this candidates pair promises to bring changes for the indigenous people in jayapura regency, especially for the improvement of the future of the (beradat) norm-based young generation. as the children of the land of jayapura, in their point of view, the development of jayapura has not yet touched indigenous peoples. if they succeed in winning the elections, they promise to raise the dignity of the indigenous people for a better life. their candidacy in the jayapura regency regional election is performed through independent way (without the support of political parties). the fourth pair of regent and vice-regent candidate is siska yoku and marselino waromi. like the previous candidate, these papuan female leaders nominated themselves as individual (independent) candidates. siska is the chairperson of the local indonesian employers association (apindo). she has been active in the management of the indonesian justice and unity party (pkpi). as an alumnus of the law faculty of the cendrawasih university in jayapura decided to stand with waromi, who had once established and even served as chair of the papua regional unity party (ppd). previously, she was a deputy chairperson of the jayapura city golkar party dpd. but in the 2014 general election, she became a legislative candidate for the indonesian justice and unity party (pkpi). as independent pairs of the candidate, their vision was to advance the papua people, especially the people who live in jayapura regency. the fifth pair of regent and vice-regent candidate are jansen monim and abdul rahman sulaiman. monim managed to obtain a degree in engineering and completed a master degree in management at the widya jayakarta college of economics, jakarta. he is also a functionary of the indonesian national sports committee (koni) in papua, precisely as the regional chairperson of the indonesian paddle sports association (podsi) of jayapura city. monim once had a career in the papua province government bureaucracy, with the last position being the head of the public works office of the papua province. in this election, monim stood with a local muslim leader, who is also a member of the jayapura regency dprd for the period of 2017-2022 from the golkar party faction, abdul rahman sulaiman. as a papuan muslim leader, sulaiman easily obtained a great number of supports with the prosperous justice party (pks), so the pair of candidates pocketed 11 seats in the jayapura regency dprd. 3.2 the crisis of the jayapura regency regional election 3.2.1 before the election day according to the law of pilkada, incumbents are prohibited to conduct a change of office personnel six months before the date of the candidate pair confirmation until the end of the term of office unless having obtained a written approval from the minister of home affairs, and if the candidate proved to do so may be disqualified from the nomination and/or winning results. (note 12) the incumbent of jayapura regent was sued by candidate pair number 5 jansen monim and abdul rahman sulaiman because the action of changing regency high officials at the middle period of pilkada was considered as a violation against the rules. (note 13) the number 3 candidate pair godlief ohee and frans gina also filed a lawsuit to bawaslu, with the same argument as the claim of the candidate pair number 5. (note 14) the incumbent on august 29, 2016 replaced three high-ranking officials within the jayapura regency government, namely (i) head of the department of industry, trade and cooperatives (perindagkop); (ii) head of industry in the department of industry and trade; and (iii) director of the yowari hospital in jayapura regency. the central bawaslu, after receiving and reviewing reports from candidate number 5, states that what was done by incumbents was illegal, and further ordered the kpu of papua province through the central kpu to disqualify the nomination of the incumbent, mathius awoitauw. one day before election day (pre-election), there was a change of officers at some of the polling station (tps). this change is very ironic because it is not recognized by the local kpu ranks, as stated by the chairperson of the local kpu in the dkpp session (note 15). this recognition was denied by the papua provincial kpu in the trial. members of the kpu papua stated that there was actually a meeting of the head of the kpu of jayapura regency with one of the candidates on february 18, 2017, and arranged for the replacement of kpps officers. the provincial kpu admitted, 160 voting committee groups (kpps) at 234 polling stations (tps) in jayapura district did not have the appointment decision letter during the implementation of the february 15, 2017, regional election. the papua provincial kpu considered that the implementation of the jayapura regional election was not legitimate or illegal. in the direct sentence, "we got the candidate campaign number 1 report that out of 348 polling stations in jayapura regency, there were 234 polling stations for which kpps and pps were replaced without legal procedures" (note 16). pair candidate number 1 stated, from 348 polling stations spread across 19 districts in jayapura regency, the day before the election day, there were 1,002 officers at 240 polling stations who carried out the voting and counting process at 240 polling stations which were illegal (note 17). 3.2.2 the voting day hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 26 published by ideas spread at hinekombe polling stations number 10, two voters had 129 forms of the c6-kwk and shared with at least four other people. this form is a letter of invitation issued by the voting committee (pps, in each village), as a requirement to attend and be able to use the right to vote. in order to hear the report, the panwaslu immediately conducted an investigation and its results stated that they were eligible to be processed to court. (note 18) the panel of judges of the jayapura district court in the trial on march 15, 2017, sentenced two defendants for an imprisonment of 1 year 3 months and a fine of 14 million idr. the defendants were proven legally and convincingly to have misused the invitation letter. (note 19) the results of the election on february 15, 2016, showed that candidate number 1 obtained 17,177 votes, number 2 obtained 42,286 votes, number 3 earned 5,190 votes; number 4 gets 775 votes; and number 5 gets 15,752 votes (note 20). but the results of the vote count provoked the other four candidates to protest. on february 23, 2017, the four candidates raised objections. along with their protests, panwaslu recommended the psu. finally, the recapitulation was stopped for several weeks. the recapitulation process on february 24, 2017, was chaotic, due to the replacement of the kpps officers one day before the voting. the protests from the four candidates were also due to unavailability of the forms of ckwk model, c1-kwk model, and the attachment c1-kwk hologram model, but those of photocopies at all 348 polling stations. (note 21) the three types of forms should be fully held and filled by kpps and the witnesses of the candidate pairs at the polling station. but, at the later days, the legal team of the candidate number 1 was reported that they were in the local kpu office. a few days later, the suspecting activity was also reported to the local panwaslu. with the video evidence included, the legal team of the local kpu secretariat was seen to fill in the forms of the c-kwk model, c1-kwk model, and attachment of the holographic c1-kwk model, (note 22) while also stating the filling of the three types of forms was massive. this is proved by a signature and a fraudulent signature of the kpps and candidate witnesses in the form model c-kwk document, the ordinary c1kwk model which is not holographic and attached to the witness paslon after the vote count at the polling station. (note 23) this is not only an extraordinary crime that violates the law and injures democracy but also affects the results of the vote counting to be legally flawed and unguaranteed. (note 24) in the plenary meeting of the district level vote recapitulation on february 24, 2017, panwaslu recommended the need for a re-voting day (pemungutan suara ulang – psu) in 236 out of 248 polling stations in 17 districts, (note 25) arguing that kpps officers were not listed in the appointment decrees, but they are totally new names. (note 26) the psu is a re-election mechanism at the polling station if the voting and counting process in a polling station is found when it is proved that there are irregularities, frauds or riots. dkpp in its decision strengthened the recommendations of the election supervisory committee and ordered the provincial kpu to take over the process of the ongoing stage, (note 27) moreover since the supervisory committee's recommendation to conduct the psu made the election phase continue. however, the recommendations of the panwaslu above were initially opposed by the jayapura regency kpu while stating that the panwaslu’s psu recommendations were unfounded and were merely imaginary forms because they were baseless. (note 28) the opposition to the psu was also indicated by the district heads. the district heads of 19 different districts held a meeting in the deputy regent of jayapura regency meeting room on march 3, 2017, to draft a letter which essentially rejected the implementation of the psu recommendations submitted by panwaslu. the letter was given a header with the term of "association of district heads" organizations judged not having a legal basis for its formation signed by the 19 district heads in jayapura regency and who were given number 06 / akd-iii / 2017 march 3, 2017 concerning the stance statement on the recommendation of the district head association. (note 29) the letter from the district heads was addressed to the chairperson of the indonesian dkpp in jakarta, containing: (i) the polemic that developed after the pilkada was deliberately carried out by the two election management institutions; (ii) explicitly reject the psu in 236 districts in 17 districts that are not based on the rules and results of a thorough study and supporting factual data; (iii) if point 2 above is forced to be implemented, as a political coach at the district level we are not responsible for horizontal conflicts that will occur; and (iv) the implementation of psu without a clear legal basis is a form of professionalism and accountability of the organizers. (note 30) the action taken by the 19 district head above was investigated by panwaslu and sentra gakkumdu. after conducting a series of hearings, in the reading of the verdict, the panel of judges of the jayapura district court convicted the 19 district heads in jayapura regency. they are judged to be legally and convincingly proven to have committed criminal offenses as stipulated in the provisions of article 188 of act number 1 of 2015. the judges sentenced them with a one-month prison and a fine of rp600 thousand and 15 (fifteen) months subsidies. (note 31) in the consideration of the assembly's decision, they judged that (i) the defendants as district heads are regional officials or asn officials who are prohibited from involving themselves or being involved in the political process, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 27 published by ideas spread especially the jayapura regency regional election in 2017, as stated in the provisions of article 71 paragraph (1) law number 10 of 2016; (ii) defendant's actions were beneficial for the candidate of the regent and deputy regent number 2 mathius awoitauw and giri wijayantoro, because the defendants knew that from the vote count results on february 15, 2017, at 346 polling stations and on vote counting at the 19 district level candidate pair number 2 has the most votes from the other 4 candidates, so the defendants reject the psu with the intention of continuing the stages of recapitulation of the vote counts that already existed at the regency kpu level, and this situation will make candidate number 2 win or, in other words, be re-elected as a regent and deputy regent of jayapura regency; (iii) by rejecting or opposing the recommendations of the jayapura regency election supervisory committee, the defendants have not yet or did not obtain the certainty of vote acquisition as a result of administrative violations as the panwaslu recommendation letter number 094/panwas.kab.jjp/ii/2017 dated february 23, 2017; (iv) the panel of judges also assessed that the defendants as district heads or regional officials or asn officials had clearly made their alignments, when they and their wives took pictures together with paslon number 2 using blue uniforms and brandished 2 (two) fingers as a symbol of paslon mathius awoitauw and giri wijayantoro. therefore, according to the assembly, the defendants made decisions and/or actions that were beneficial and/or detrimental to pairs of the candidate. (note 32) on july 28, 2017, the regent candidate number 1 yanni reported the chairperson and members of the kpu of papua province with report no. 29/lp/pgbw/vii/2017, which basically stated that the problem after the kpu papua only stipulated 229 polling stations of 348 polling stations in 19 districts resulting in 119 polling stations, not in the psu considered invalid (note 33). after conducting an in-depth study, bawaslu through letter number 0604/ k.bawaslu/pm.06.00/viii/2017, recommended to the national kpu and kpu papua to (i) conduct an examination of 40 polling stations in 2 districts, namely namblong and kaureh, if there were differences in names names that sign on the c1-kwk model form with the names listed in the kpps decree, then the psu is carried out together with 229 predetermined polling stations; and (ii) ensure that there is no change in the acquisition of votes at 79 polling stations outside the polling stations conducted by the psu and polling stations conducted by scrutiny. (note 34) on august 16, 2017, candidate number 1 yanni reported the chairperson and members of the bawaslu papua to the republic of indonesia bawaslu through a report number 22/lp/pgbw/viii/2017 dated august 16, 2017, which basically stated the contents of the report regarding the notification of the status of the report issued by the papua election supervisory body on the report number 21/lp/pgbw/viii/2017 with a review of the findings of the jayapura panwaslu number 005/tm/pilbup-kab. jpr/ii/2017. again, bawaslu on august 21, 2017, issued a recommendation number 0648/k.bawaslu/pm.06.00/viii/2017, in essence, the need to examine 39 forms of model c-1 kwk which was signed by people not listed in the photocopy of the kpps decree. finally, the day after, bawaslu issued a letter number 0651/k.bawaslu/pm.06.00/viii/2017 containing directions to the bawaslu papua to resolve the disputed issue. 3.2.3 election settlement the crisis of jayapura regency election in 2017 ended after the constitutional court (mk) decided to reject the dispute over the election results submitted by paslon number 3. the mk argued that all the riots had been resolved when the kpu followed up the dkpp decision to conduct the psu, while the vote after the result of the psu was obtained: number 1 candidates were 9,255 votes, number 2 was 34,630, number 3 was 2,078 votes, number 4 was 686 votes, and number 5 was 11,582 with a total of 58,231 votes (note 35). thus, from the results of the vote acquisition of the psu on august 23, 2017 exceeded the 2 percent threshold as the minimum requirements for vote difference determined by the election law, so the constitutional court refused (dismissal) the candidate number 5 request on the grounds that the applicant had no legal standing (note 36). according to the indonesian constitution, the constitutional court's decision is final and binding. 3.3 local election: the test of integrity the jayapura regency regional election in 2017 stakes the integrity of the elections in indonesia. the objectives of pilkada are indeed achieved such as the appointment of regional heads and deputy heads of the local regions, who are now inaugurated and run the wheels of local government. however, at the pursuit of the objectives of the elections, it is run in inelegant ways. the word of "inelegant" manifests through a proliferation of objections, frauds, and irregularities in the elections. the holding of elections that do not have integrity, in the case of the jayapura regional head election, does not encourage the validity and fairness of the principles of the general election. the election process does not show credibility, because besides full of the obvious violations, the involvement of outside parties the election organizers stained the integrity as well. these outside parties should be prohibited from being involved in elections. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 28 published by ideas spread 3.3.1 integrity at election stages in general, the stages of the election consist of voter registration and updating the voter list, nomination, election campaigns, voting and counting, and determination of election results. at the first three stages, there is no fraud reported and it was handled by election stakeholders. however, the stages of voting and counting, which are at the main core of the general election, indeed have a lot of election malpractice. first, the abuse of the invitation letter. on election day, there is a distribution of notification letters or invitation letters to names that do not have rights to receive them. the number of invitation letters held, not in a small number, is as many as 129 pieces. this number shows half more than the number of voters in a polling station. if the perpetrators are not quickly arrested and then not processed by local election supervisors, the malpractice of this election will definitely undermine the integrity of the voting and counting process. fortunately, election supervisors move quickly and process it as a matter of election crime. in the rules of elections in indonesia, the provision applies that the misuse of invitation letters, which should fall into the name of the voters, is a criminal act in the election. secondly, the replacement of kpps officers a day before the general election day. the results of the panwaslu investigation stated that 1,002 of the 3,132 kpps members in 240 polling stations and spread across 19 districts throughout the electoral district in the jayapura regional election were not the official names appointed by the jayapura regency kpu. it is very ironic if the head of the local kpu, as the main person in charge of the elections, does not know the replacement of his subordinates. in the dkpp assembly, the head of the jayapura regency kpu stated that there were indeed several names replaced due to illness and other reasons, but it did not change the names of the new kpps. they further stated that they did not know about the change. thus, it becomes an intriguing question, how could the local kpu not know the change, while the replacement of kpps members in large numbers. then who does the change, and for what motive or purpose is the change? things that cannot be done by merely anyone, if the change is true and of course whoever makes the change is those who have a power that cannot be matched by the local kpu. the researcher believes that those who make changes are not just anyone, and who are certain that the perpetrators are those who have very strong access to power. thirdly, on the d-day of election, kpps in 240 out of 324 polling stations do not hold the original forms of three types, but they only hold blank photocopies, all of which contain vital documents in the process of voting and counting, namely a form for recording minutes of collection and counting, votes at polling stations, certificate of results and details of vote counting at polling stations, and attachments to the notes on the results of legal holographic votes. according to the provisions, the three forms are held, filled, and accounted for by the kpps as well as signed by the witnesses participating candidates in the elections. the three forms are the measurement of the integrity of the elections. if all of three forms do not exist or only slightly get damaged, furthermore if they are held by parties outside the kpps, then the credibility of the voting and counting process in the polling station is no longer accountable. if the process at the polling station can no longer be accounted for, then it influences the recapitulation processes at the next stages. this is tantamount to the damage of the integrity of the election administration. later it was revealed that the three blanks were in the local kpu secretariat, and were filled by some staffs by transferring the results of filling out photocopies to three types of original blanks. 3.3.2 the integrity of the election organizer in the tradition of elections in indonesia, the organizers of the general election consist of the ranks of the election commission (kpu) and the election supervisors (bawaslu). performing their tasks, they are bound by the code of ethics of the election organizers. if there is evidence of partiality, they can be examined in the sessions of the election organizers honor council (dkpp). in this jayapura regency election, the organizers of the general election were not only involved in the conflict but also showed partiality to the participants of the election. the kpu at regency level rejected the panwaslu recommendation regarding the psu, while in the panwaslu body of jayapura regency consisting of three people, with a conflict map that the chairman was suspected of siding with candidate number 1 and the other two members sided with candidate number 2, as well as two members of the local kpu including the chairman leaning towards candidate number 1, while only one person who is neutral and impartial, while three other members tend to side with candidate number 2 (note 37). in the hearing on june 8, 2017, dkpp imposes a temporary termination of sanctions to the chairperson and kpu members, also to the chairperson and panwaslu members. in addition, the dkpp also imposed sanctions on no less than 25 election organizers including dismissing 15 chairpersons/members of the election organizers in jayapura regency. (note 38) 3.4 local election in the landscape of political decentralization the fall of the new order in 1998 was immediately followed by political liberalization in indonesia. the relationship between the center and the regions on the authority delegation was immediately affected by hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 29 published by ideas spread liberalization in the regions. in the general sense, decentralization is defined as the regional liberalization. the strengthening regional dynamics is also supported by the transfer of material resources from jakarta to regions in the form of money, people and goods. with decentralization and facilitated by fiscal policy, local actors are more comfortable to make the regions as an arena for political fights. with decentralization policy that including the form of administrative power of government, it encourages political actors in the regions to seize political value in the form of the implementation of regional elections. on the other hand, after the fall of soeharto's new order state, political actors who were under soeharto's control spread to a number of political positions, and some of them survived at golkar and transformed golkar into a "new golkar party." some established new political parties, but not a few also joined the new party made by a number of former military elites, former bureaucrats, or businessmen, and some of them joined pdi-perjuangan led by megawati soekarnoputri. at the context of political diffusion, they spread to the regions to nominate themselves as members of the regional representative council (dpd) representing the area from which the actors were born and were active in the new order period. this dpd is a state high institution, which in each province is represented by four members of the election results. it is not a few of them to spread to their home to run for regional elections (governors, regents, and mayors). in the first decade after the fall of the new order, the local political actors who were most prepared to face political decentralization were the bureaucrats who had previously, since the new order era, mastered the local power structure which had become involved in the candidacy of the regional elections. local entrepreneurs who were initially allergic to political life, because during the new order period they were only used as "cash cows" by the new order authorities who allied themselves with the military, later gained the opportunity to be involved in political activities and some of them registered or invited by local politicians and involved in political games in the elections. local entrepreneurs have mastery of extractive resources at the local level, and such figures are most prepared with material to become rulers at the local level. it was seen in the decade of the early 2000s, at the local level, especially by taking the opportunity to become regional heads (governors, regents, and mayors), many regional heads with backgrounds from the senior bureaucrats of the new order, with local entrepreneurs and/or opposition activists from the new order. in the second decade after the 2010 reforms, a number of young generations who had held election management positions such as the kpu and/or panwaslu, also eventually became candidates in the regional elections. the phenomenon that could be observed at the beginning of the introduction of decentralization policy was that political dynamics at the local level were not sufficient to be politically institutionalized. at the formal level, the delegation of authority as a consequence of the implementation of decentralization of government administration, which was immediately followed by material transfers with various schemes and are also part of the implementation of fiscal decentralization, encouraged regional level political actors to fight for positions of regional heads and deputy's heads area. in the first half of the decade of the 2000s, in line with the implementation of political decentralization in the form of regional head elections (pilkada), political actors were encouraged to compete in the regional election contestation. the effect that later raised is that the regions become attractive political playing fields, in other words, the provinces, districts, and cities are dynamic political playing fields. the tug-of-war between political powers, sometimes colored by bringing issues of local sons, tribes, religions, races, and between groups. 3.5 structured co-optation and the role of oligarchs starting from the description above, what happened in the pilkada in jayapura regency showed the role of the oligarchs' power and the role of the subordinate powers of the election regime. in this case, the election regime, which was formatted institutionally according to the indonesian constitution, proved to be powerless in the front of the actions of the local oligarchs. the election regime that works with the influence of the local oligarchic regime in such a way creates such acute dependence sacrificing the integrity of the election organizers. in the case of pilkada, it appears that the organization managed by the election regime works with a high dependence on local oligarchic games with material motives. social interactions between organizations produce mutually beneficial values. parties depend on each other, while both benefit from the value of mutually beneficial material. in the case of the jayapura regency election, the political actors in the jayapura regency during the pilkada had a strong structure which was able to co-opt other forces, including within the ranks of government organizers and even the election administrators. the most powerful actors are the one controlling the structural power of government like the ranks of the state civil apparatus (asn) including their officials. if this thesis is related to the actions of 19 district heads in jayapura regency during the pilkada, as the jayapura district court verdict convicted of actions beneficial to candidate number 2, then the theory of resource dependence is relevant to explain the problems of jayapura regency election. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 30 published by ideas spread on the other hand, political co-optation can take an involvement in the structural power of the jayapura regency election. as known, the most important and strongest political actors in each region, especially with the absence of function of public control, the state-based political actor is the only one that is most powerful in a region. the role of the most powerful political actor can be played by the head of the region. then, how to explain the turnover of 1,002 kpps a day before the jayapura regency election day? the new kpps can only be appointed through the involvement of lower-level officials, or under the district, namely the subdistrict level. with regard to the explanation above, the role of regional heads and deputy regional heads, especially those who are running for office, have a very strong position. in other cases, other stakeholders also have an important role, but in areas with no adequate control functions, political actors sometimes instead play a balance function, but in many cases, it is actually part of the actor who is directly co-opted by the oligarchs both in direct and indirect ways. in the case of this regional election, the oligarchs were played by state and non-state-based actors with political resources and finally found their playing arena in this election. with a network of wealth, family, or connections with key holders within the local political structure, they urged officials and organizers of the local elections to win their political candidacy. in this case, the reason why the pilkada in jayapura full of chaos is due to the actions of oligarchs who play electoral democracy. borrowing a term from winters, who developed the concept of oligarchy more extensively, what happened in the jayapura regional election was "the power of few people to control many people," but became the material basis and their efforts to continue to control all games and rules through the control of material resources, resulting in inequality in accessing material resources. thus, it is tantamount to giving births to inequality in the context of accessing political resources. this happened because the limited access to economic resources by most people in the regions resulted in limited access to decision-making in indonesia. in the case of the jayapura regional election, which is the proxy of the latest indonesian electoral democracy, new oligarchs have emerged, accompanied by democratization as a negative symptom. weak political actors with limited resources of power structures have succeeded in being co-opted by oligarchs holding political monopoly rights due to economic motives. one of the most observable political phenomena in indonesia lately is that actors at the top of power must adjust to the new democratic game. they not only do it easily but also dominate electoral democracy. starting from the description above, the election regime is unable to deal with the onslaught of the structure of cooptative power and oligarchs in jayapura regency. the second influence above dictates the power next to it, namely the election regime, which although designed independently in a vertical structure, but in fact is unstoppable by the co-optation of the power structure and fraudulent practices of oligarchs. in other words, the dependence of the election regime on local co-optation and oligarch regimes turned out to be stronger and even broke down the independence of election organizers. following the theory of resource dependence, the reliance on a (the local co-optation and oligarchs authority regime) played by b (the local election regime), has succeeded in taking in the example of jayapura district election disintegration. dependency b is balanced with interests b placed above goal a indirectly and vice versa balanced with the usefulness of these objectives on b outside of relationality between a and b. the case of disintegration in the jayapura election can be read as a major part of the destruction of democracy in the local level. 3.6 national political constellation perspective compared to the regime of soeharto’s new order, the relations between local and national government is much more advanced due to more democratic approaches of the national government. the policy of contemporary political decentralization has stimulated the political participation which deemed a must in growing democratic and developing countries like indonesia. the development is also encouraged by the systemic change on the people’s representation and region’s representation, another implication of indonesia’s constitutional amendment in indonesia’s reform era (2006, pp. 123). the amendment successfully eliminated the new order's centripetal pattern which became the root of the political strain between jakarta and the regions. the strain is because of the repression of national government towards the regions along the period of new order which is also worsened with the corrupted behavior of the jakarta. the vanished strain between the national and local government, however, led to the radicalization of the decentralization since some parties understand that the fall of new orders would leave the local political acquisition to no one. within the year of 1997 to 2001, there was a huge various social movement against the rulers of new orders, as shown by the increasing offensive of free papua movement (opm). with regard to counter all political pressures, the national government transformed the relations between center and regions, which was originally in the pattern of centripetal since new order, to be centrifugal in the era of reform (freedman, 2006, pp. 125). with a centrifugal pattern of policy, the national government transferred the concentration of political power, which was all in the center, to regions. with this pattern, the center allocated a huge portion of power to regions so that the understanding, attention, and resolution towards local problems should hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 31 published by ideas spread not be done by the national government but by the local government. the effect of this transformation is the strengthening of local capacity diffusions spread throughout all autonomous regions in indonesia. with this paradigm, the establishment of a strong central government is only possible if the autonomous regions are able to maximally utilize the local resources. this phenomenon is fathomed as the political decentralization in the form of local autonomy which was introduced and applied in more comprehensive manners in contemporary indonesia politics. along the implementation of the local election, the dynamics of local politics have been running up and down constantly. mostly, the implementation of the local election has gone excellent, fair, peaceful and democratic – a sign of democracy maturity of its people. however, there is still some regions' election conducted and finished in negative ways such as the rise of horizontal conflicts, social clash or social furry which might lead to involving the local oligarchs' power causing numbers of deaths. the rise of those negative political traits, in spite of being a consequence of the political participation significant increase, is also part of the consequence of the power distribution between state-society relations because of the political reform. when the state-based political power (governing-elite) and the non-state power (non-governing elite) or other pressure groups were faced to run for local political power with different intentions to win the local election, then horizontal social frictions are inevitable. thus, those negative political traits are, besides a part of the consequences of the implementation of political decentralization, caused by the shift of interaction pattern between state and society in the contemporary state structural power post-new order. the phenomenon of local election as explained above are part of the political excesses of the political shift from centered-government to decentralized-government which has not yet reached political maturity. the phenomenon is merely the manifestation of the explosion of political participation which was deemed natural in a country which is still in the process of democratic transition. conceptually, in the life of democracy, it is possible for the public to have control, to solidify public opinion and to mobilize the mass power with only one intention which is to influence the process of decision making by the elites. in the case of papua, the easternmost province of indonesia which was treated unfairly by the central government, the democracy institutionalization only creates a conducive political atmosphere for segmented and particular political groups. however, it has not yet strengthened a proper political institutionalization and resulted in established political structures and institutions, which potentially unable the political groups to pursue their aspirations, innovations, and interest in a proper way. furthermore, in the case of the 2017 jayapura local election, the construction of democratic institutions has not yet strengthened the role of critical groups which should be balancers of state power. 4. conclusion the explanation of the jayapura regency election in 2017 is the imagery description of the official electoral structure run by the election administration regime, alongside the operation of the shadow structure run by the local oligarchy regime. even though the election administration regime was designed with independent structures, regulated by work functions in the law, and provided with a code of ethics, it was mercilessly attacked by the actions of the oligarchy regime as seen in the case of jayapura regency election. in organizing elections, the first regime was mocked by the second regime, through a number of steps, which in principle succeeded in undermining the principles of integrity of the election, through the replacement of most polling stations in all districts, manipulation of voting and counting documents at polling stations , opposition by district heads to psu recommendations, and other previous efforts such as the involvement of a number of officials. this assumption justifies the old thesis that developed in election organizers, who stated that the integrity of the election administration, which consists of the integrity of the stages and the integrity of the election results is largely determined by the integrity of the election organizers. in the perspective of the interests of the oligarchs, regional posture is an area that belongs only to the oligarchs, as a result of the policy of political decentralization since the beginning of the fall of the new order state, while the character of oligarchs at the local level is actually a group well-established arena for local games, even though in fact it is not the true oligarchs, which in many european countries are in close proximity to the controls of the middle class and civil society. in the perspective of the interests of electoral democracy, as far as it appears in the jayapura regency election, it is only a chain of long chains of mastery of extractive resources and political resources. nevertheless, this pilkada can be ended by the involvement of state institutions such as the constitutional court and the honorary council of election organizers, which carry out according to their duties, authorities, and obligations. through their decisions, they succeeded in ending the crisis of the jayapura regency election. furthermore, the political liberalization, especially in the case of jayapura regency election in 2017, indicates that the political constellation after the fall of the new order was inevitably dominated by local oligarchs. however, other political institutions such as non-governmental organizations still were deemed insufficient to hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 32 published by ideas spread challenge the power of local oligarchs. in other words, the phenomenon of jayapura local election is a manifestation of the failure of electoral democracy.• references annan, k. a., et al. 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(2018). case study research and applications: design and methods sixth edition. california: sage publications, inc. notes note 1. the decision of kpu jayapura regency number 74/kpts/kpu-kab.jpr/030.434090/2016 note 2. the decision of kpu jayapura regency number 324/kpu/vi/2016 note 3. court decision of state’s court jayapura number 34/g/2017/ptun.jpr february 8, 2018 note 4. kpps tak miliki surat keputusan, pilkada di 234 tps kabupaten jayapura dianggap ilegal— https://news.okezone.com/read/2017/02/23/340/1626412/kpps-tak-miliki-sk-pilkada-di-234-tps-kabupatenjayapura-dianggap-ilegal | accessed: november 23, 2018 note 5. recommendation of election supervisory committee (panwaslu) of jayapura’s regency number 094/panwas.kab.jyp/ii/2017 note 6. the decision of the court number 1-a jayapura:101/pid. sus/2017/pn-jap note 7. the decision of dkpp number 46 and 88/dkpp-pke-vi/2017 note 8. dana transfer ke daerah. direktorat jenderal perimbangan keuangan, kementerian keuangan — http://www.djpk.kemenkeu.go.id/?ufaq=dana-yang-ditransfer-ke-daerah-mencakup-dana-apa-saja. accessed: december 20, 2018 note 9. capaian dan kinerja kpk di tahun 2018 — https://www.kpk.go.id/id/berita/siaran-pers/717-capaian-dankinerja-kpk-di-tahun-2018. accessed: december 27, 2018. note 10. kpu jayapura’s decision number 74/kpts/kpu-kab.jpr/030.434090/2017 note 11. “jayapura blog cyber network – blog berita asli tanpa rekayasa”— https://jayapurablog.wordpress.com/2016/07/09/mathius-awoitauw-gandeng-mafia-kayu-jadi-calon-wakilbupati-jayapura/ | accessed: november 12, 2018 note 12. law number 10/ 2016, kpu’s regulation num 9/2016, home minister regulation 73/ 2016 note 13. court’s decision number 34/g/201/2017/ptun.jpr note 14. bawaslu’s decision number 0835/k.bawaslu/pm.06.00/ix/2017 note 15. the decision of dkpp’s number 46/dkpp-pke-vi/2017 and nomor 88/dkpp-pke-vi/2017 note 16. interview with members of kpu of papua’s province izak rk hikayobi, 12 november 2018 note 17. interview with the lawyer of candidate number 1, muchlish betaubun, 14 october 2018 note 18. interview with panwaslu’s member, 15 november 2018 note 19. court decision number ia jayapura nomor 101/pid. sus/2017/pn-jap note 20. complain to dkpp number 85/vip/l-dkpp/2017 ke dkpp note 21. document of complaint from candidate number 1 ke dkpp tanggal 17 mei 2017 note 22. document of complaint from the lawyer of the candidate number 1 note 23. interview with a member of campaigning team candidate number 1, muchlis betaubun, 14 october 2018 note 24. interview with the chairman of kpu of papua's province, adam arisoi, 15 november 2018 note 25. recommendation of election supervisory committee (panwaslu) of jayapura’s regency number 094/panwas.kab.jyp/ii/2017 note 26. kpu jayapura’s decision number 324/kpu/vi/2016 note 27. the decision of dkpp’s number 46/dkpp-pke-vi/2017 dan nomor 88/dkpp-pke-vi/2017 note 28. kpu’s letter number 75/kpu/02/03069733/2017 note 29. interview with robert sugedy, 12 november 2018 note 30. letter of district head association kabupaten jayapura number 06/akd-iii/2017 note 31. court decision ia jayapura nomor 146/pid.sus/2017/pn.jap hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 34 published by ideas spread note 32. ibid note 33. bawaslu’s report r.i. number 19/lp/pgbw/vii/2017 note 34. bawaslu’s recommendation number 0604/k.bawaslu/pm.06.00/viii/2017 note 35. kpu’s decision number 71/kpts/kpu-kab.jpr/030.434090/2017 note 36. decision of constitutional court number 59/php.bup-xv/2017 note 37. interview with the chairman of kpu of papua province, adam arisoi, 15 november 2018 note 38. dkpp’s decision number 46/dkpp-pke-vi/2017 and number 88/dkpp-pke-vi/2017 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n5p171 171 published by ideas spread interest-based ethics and the moral status of economic and experimental animals xinyu ye1 1 shanghai pinghe school, china correspondence: xinyu ye, shanghai pinghe school, shanghai, china. received: october 19, 2025; accepted: october 29, 2025; published: october 30, 2025 abstract this paper examines the ethical foundations for the moral treatment of non-human animals, arguing that an interest-based approach provides greater nuance and practical adaptability than the rigid animal rights framework. while animal rights theory requires animals to meet certain cognitive thresholds to qualify for moral protection, interest theory acknowledges the diverse cognitive and sensory capacities across species, allowing for flexible moral consideration based on sentience and observable interests. drawing on cases from economic and experimental animals, as well as the evolution of welfare standards in fields like equestrian sports, this paper demonstrates how interest-based ethics can both improve animal welfare and accommodate real-world complexities. through the perspective of sensory thinking, particularly temple grandin’s work, the paper further highlights how animal interests can be practically interpreted and addressed. ultimately, the interest-based framework better aligns with scientific research, societal realities, and species-specific needs, offering a more comprehensive guide for ethical decision-making in animal welfare. keywords: animal interests, animal rights, sentience, animal ethics 1. introduction earlier this year, in hong kong, several racehorses were euthanized due to severe injuries, poor prognosis that could not be saved during races (lees, 2025; lees, 2025). though such decisions followed veterinary protocols, images of black cover erected mid-track and horses collapsed under pain quickly flooded social media, triggering public outrage about ethics. critics condemned the horse racing industry for profits” and called for abolition. others, however, defended the decision, advocating that euthanasia in such cases minimize pain, serving as the best choice considering the horses’ life quality. these thoughts expose the deeper ethical debate of the well-being and moral status of animals. while advocates for animal rights hold that animals have inviolable moral rights, animal interests emphasize that sentience, such as the capacity to suffer, demands equal consideration. animal rights theory often collapses when faced with the complex realities of legal system and social relationships (duckler, 2007). therefore, i argue for interest only, because rights fail to address the differences in animal species and perceptions. i will argue for the nuanced complexity of interest, the reality about economic and experimental animals based on sentience, and varying animal needs in section 1, 2, and 3, respectively. 2. the nuanced complexity of interest in animal ethics beyond animal rights facing the discussion of whether non-human animals deserve moral protection, philosophers have proposed varying criteria to define which animals morally matter, and how to treat them properly. tom regan, one of the most influential figures in animal ethics, asserts the animal rights theory. his theory was built on the idea of moral rights and the threshold of being a “subject-of-a-life:” animals who possess “belief”, “desire”, “perception”, “memory”, “a sense of future”, and “emotional life.” in fact, these beings ought to be granted rights equivalent to those of humans, and thus should never be treated as a means to an end, being used for benefiting humans or other animals (regan, 1983). this includes abolishing all forms of animal agriculture, experimentation, and hunting. however, regan’s criterion about the “subject-of-a-life” introduces serious ambiguities—which one/ones among episodic memory, reasoning, or planning, etc. serve as the criteria for judgement. research on domestic mammals such as cows and horses, reveals evidence of emotional complexity, ability to understand cues, and stable social relationships (marino & allen, 2017; proops et al., 2013), yet questions remain about whether they possess a future-oriented self-concept. for instance, horses display anticipation behaviors and memory of past handlers hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 172 published by ideas spread (d’ingeo et al., 2019), but there appears to be no evidence showing that they fully understand the concept standing for the ultimate future: death (mendonça et al., 2020). whether this can be translated to “desires” and “sense of future” in regan’s framework is unclear. this set such animals in the grey area between bonds. to be specific, these animals, despite exhibiting signs of sentience and cognition, failed to enter a certain ethical zone within the rights framework, either they qualify for full protection and respect or none. thus, i believe that the definition of being “subject-of-a-life” in animal rights is vague, which undermines the complexity of animals and risks reintroducing speciesism. this is where interest theory presents a more nuanced framework since it recognizes that animals occupy a range of cognitive capacities, and moral obligations should scale accordingly. an interest, according to singer (2011), is any stake an animal has in its own flourishing: the desire to avoid pain, experience comfort, to socialize, or to engage in natural behaviors. hence, they are grounded in observable behavior and physiological response. thus, a cow’s preference for gentle handling, or a pig’s engagement with environmental enrichment, are ethically significant even if we cannot prove they have desire or sense of future. interests warrant moral consideration for animals without the relying on requirement of advanced cognitive ability. yet, regan’s theory does not provide tools to assess their vastly different needs and levels of sentience, which means that they require varying moral treatment. for example, the moral obligations we owe to an octopus, an intelligent, emotionally responsive cognitive animal, differ fundamentally from those owed to a fruit fly, a basic sensory animal, despite both being under the kingdom of animalia. the growing body of ethological research supports this spectrum approach. recent studies defend the sentience of not only mammals and birds but also fishes (balcombe 2017), cephalopods (mather 2020), crustaceans (crump et al. 2022), and even some arthropods (mikhalevich and powell 2020). considering the scientific and ethical richness of the interests framework, i believe that the interest theory is more complex and adaptive since it can grow alongside evidence, while rights theory remains locked in rigid binaries. furthermore, sentience-based interest theory finds support beyond utilitarian circles. korsgaard (1996), writing from a kantian perspective, emphasizes that “it is a pain to be in pain. and that is not a trivial fact” . when we witness an animal in pain, we perceive a moral reason, an immediate demand for action. this perceptual grounding makes interest-based ethics more attuned to how moral decisions are actually made: not through cognitive thresholds, but through empathetic recognition. as singer (1993) argues, “any being that has an interest in not suffering deserves to have that interest taken into account” . unlike rights theory, which demands that animals be like us in specific capacities, such as cognitions and intelligence, to qualify for concern, interest theory begins from the fact that they are different from humans, and their variability can still be taken into consideration. 3. economic animals and experimental animals many animals central to human society, such as racehorses, dairy herds, and pets, are products of human design, serving the economic interests of humans. these animals are not merely "used" by humans; their continued existence depends on structured market systems that provide them with great care. hence, they paradoxically often live longer, healthier lives. racehorses, for instance, receive veterinary treatment, structured nutrition, and highly regulated stable conditions, whereas almost all horse species do not have the ability to survive in nature. if we adhere strictly to rightsbased approach that any use of animals as instruments is prohibited (regan, 1983), then an ethical paradox exist: the so-called protected resulted in removing the system for them to survive. an interestbased approach, by contrast, acknowledges the complexity of real world animal species, including both wild and domesticated ones. it can work within economic systems to improve welfare, ensuring these animals not only survive but also live well under human stewardship. the evolution of fei dressage objectives offers a paradigmatic illustration of how interest ethics functions in such industries. prior to 2004, article 401.1 of the fei (fédération equestre internationale) dressage handbook defined the object of dressage as “harmonious development of the physique and ability of the horse,” implicitly emphasizing obedience. in 2004, however, the objective was revised to “the development of the horse into a happy athlete through harmonious education,” emphasizing the horse’s subjective welfare (the chronicle of the horse, 2005; fédération equestre internationale, 2025). indeed, the emphasis was on a horse who enjoys its work instead of simply obeying commands (the chronicle of the horse, 2005). therefore, i argue that this change reflects interest-based reasoning. human interests are no longer placed above those of animals, as reflected in singer’s equal moral consideration. for example, dressage no longer allows the use of sharp spurs, which prioritize horse welfare and place animal’s interest at the center of the sport’s norm. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 173 published by ideas spread meanwhile, the moral dilemma of using experimental animals in research remains one of the most contested areas in animal ethics. in practice, the selection of laboratory animals is rarely based purely on their capacity to suffer. instead, factors such as cost-effectiveness, ease of handling, reproductive rate, and evolutionary similarity to humans are all taken into consideration (bennett & ringach, 2016). to deal with this, proponents of animal rights, such as regan (1983), argue that the industry for experimental animals should be abolished. yet, it fails to account for cases where animal experimentation is not purely for human purpose but aims to enhance animal welfare, which would be morally permissible. consider the innovation of faysport bridle, which avoid essential facial neurons, muscles, and bones, leading to the improvement of comfort and behavior of horses. an extensive research into the anatomy of the horse’s head has been done to reach this (faysport bridle | presteq, n.d.). similarly, there are also some groundbreaking treatments for nonhuman animals veterinary biomedical research, such as cancer immunotherapies for dogs (dogs and scientific research, n.d.). without these studies and animals, the advancement of horse and dog welfare in this context would not exist. in contrast, the interest-based view permits animal experimentation under strict ethical conditions and costsbenefits analysis. singer (1985) argues that experimentation on animals might, in some cases, cause less suffering than similar experiments on humans. plus, experiments are only ethically acceptable if they offer significant human benefits, outweighing the animals' pain, minimized suffering and have no alternatives—guided by equal consideration of interests. still, it risks outweighing the value of humans to animals. therefore, considering the multiple purposes of animal experiments, i propose that these experiments that have direct benefits to animals is morally permissible. in this case, the experiments, under the framework of interest, are no longer a form of pure exploitation of animals. 4. interpreting varying needs through sensory thinking the rights-based approach values animals’ inherent worth by banning their use, but it risks becoming disconnected from reality. on the other hand, an interest-based ethical framework allows for a more perceptually grounded understanding of animals, which aligns with the practical realities of co-existence. therefore, i propose that animal interests, especially when understood through the lens of sensory perception, offer a more effective and morally meaningful foundation for sharing the planet. here, temple grandin’s theory and applications of sensory thinking is inspiring in how animal interest can transition from theory to practical improvement. grandin described herself as “sensory thinker” due to autism, meaning that she processes information primarily through images and physical sensations rather than language. she states that animals are also sensory beings who understand the world through visual, auditory, and tactile cues (grandin, 2010). while most human beings perceive the world in an abstract way, animals are detail-oriented. in particular, when a ball appears, normal humans will think of the concept “yellow ball”, but animals will think about the super-specific visual category “things that are round, big, 30 centimeters in diameter, and probably yellow.” such detailed observations make animals extremely sensitive to the environment they lived in and more vulnerable to environmental disruptions, leading to emotional stress when the conditions unfamiliar. as a result, she proposed that the right goal of animal welfare is to literally put oneself in the place where animals live and try to make animals in good emotions with the enriched environment (grandin & johnson, 2010). grandin’s theory equips us with conceptual tools towards differentiate moral duties across species and settings. for economic animals, such as dogs and horses, should not be confined to the same sensory environment. instead, they require variation in stimuli and task to fulfill their perceptual and emotional needs. experimental animals, subjected to invasive procedures like injections, experience additional stress that should be mitigated through acclimation, such as using mock trials with fake needles and positive reinforcement, to reduce fear. any distressing items, such as collected blood samples, should be removed immediately to avoid triggering negative emotions. by contrast, a wild animal’s primary interest might be non-interference, allowing it to live according to its natural behaviors. infrastructure like roads or pipelines can introduce huge difference in these habitats, disrupting natural behaviors and inducing chronic stress. zoo animals, while not truly wild, still deserve environments that mimic natural ones in complexity. the broader implication is that moral obligations must be responsive to species-specific needs, cognitive capacities, and modes of life. unlike the purely “hands-off” approach proposed by animal rights theory, interests accommodate abundant moral responses. as yeates (2011) notes, animal welfare is not about minimizing use but maximizing well-being within use. this requires understanding species-specific behaviors and affective cues, a goal that is best served by the animal interest theory. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 174 published by ideas spread in conclusion, a rigid animal rights approach risks oversimplifying the moral status of animals by ignoring the complexity of species, and such differences can be flexibly accommodated without the arbitrary definition like “subject-of-a-life” in the framework of interest. for many experimental or economic animals, living under under careful regulation may not be a torture but an enhancement of their whole welfare. finally, the abundant needs across species are best understood through sensory thinking that is against the absolute prohibitions imposed by rights theory. interest-based ethic guides us how to treat animals. 5. conclusion in sum, an interest-based ethical framework offers a more flexible and realistic approach to animal welfare than rigid rights theory. it accommodates the diversity of animal species, cognitive abilities, and sensory needs, allowing for nuanced moral consideration. by focusing on sentience and observable interests, this framework provides practical guidance for improving the well-being of economic, experimental, and wild animals alike. ultimately, it bridges theory and practice, promoting animal welfare in a complex, shared world. references [1] balcombe, j. (2017). what a fish knows: the inner lives of our underwater cousins (reprint ed.). scientific american / farrar, straus and giroux. [2] bennett, a. j., & ringach, d. l. (2016). animal research in neuroscience: a duty to engage. neuron, 92(3), 653–657. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2016.10.034 [3] crump, a., browning, h., schnell, a., burn, c., & birch, j. (2022). sentience in decapod crustaceans: a general framework and review of the evidence. animal sentience, 7(32). https://doi.org/10.51291/2377-7478.1691 [4] d'ingeo, s., quaranta, a., siniscalchi, m., stomp, m., coste, c., bagnard, c., hausberger, m., & cousillas, h. (2019). horses associate individual human voices with the valence of past interactions: a behavioural and electrophysiological study. scientific reports, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-47960-5 [5] dogs and scientific research. (n.d.). understanding animal research. retrieved from https://www.understandinganimalresearch.org.uk/fact-checking/factsheets/dogs-and-scientific-research [6] duckler, g. (2007). two major flaws of the animal rights movement. digitalgeorgetown. lewis & clark law school. [7] lees, j. (2025, april 28). triple crown-winning racehorse suffers tragic death after breaking down in front of stands. daily mirror. https://www.mirror.co.uk/sport/horse-racing/liberty-island-death-hong-kong-35131179 [8] lees, j. (2025, june 25). three jockeys rushed to hospital as horse dies in horror racing incident. express.co.uk. https://www.express.co.uk/sport/horse-racing/2073475/hong-kong-horror-horse-racing-incident [9] marino, l., & allen, k. (2017). the psychology of cows. animal behavior and cognition, 4(4), 474–498. https://doi.org/10.26451/abc.04.04.06.2017 [10] mather, j. (2022). why are octopuses going to be the 'poster child' for invertebrate welfare? journal of applied animal welfare science, 25(1), 31–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888705.2020.1829488 [11] mendonça, r. s., ringhofer, m., pinto, p., inoue, s., & hirata, s. (2020). feral horses' (equus ferus caballus) behavior toward dying and dead conspecifics. primates; journal of primatology, 61(1), 49–54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-019-00728-x [12] mikhalevich, i., & powell, r. (2020). minds without spines: evolutionarily inclusive animal ethics. animal sentience, 5(29). https://doi.org/10.51291/2377-7478.1527 [13] proops, l., walton, m., & mccomb, k. (2013). the use of human-given cues by domestic horses. animal cognition, 13(2), 197–205. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-009-0257-5 [14] regan, t. (2004). the case for animal rights (2004 ed.). university of california press. (original work published 1983) [15] singer, p. (1985). ethics and the new animal liberation movement. in p. singer (ed.), in defense of animals (pp. 1–10). basil blackwell. [16] singer, p. (2011). practical ethics. cambridge university press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511975950 [17] the chronicle of the horse. (2005, july 6). is this really the age of the happy athlete in dressage? https://www.chronofhorse.com/article/really-age-happy-athlete-dressage/ [18] yeates, j. w. (2011). animal welfare in veterinary practice. wiley-blackwell. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 175 published by ideas spread copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v1n1p9 9 published by ideas spread toleration, tolerance, or intolerance in the works of the young martin luther the issue with jews in early sixteenth-century christian world view albrecht classen1 1 the university of arizona, united states correspondence: albrecht classen, the university of arizona, united states. e-mail: aclassen@email.arizona.edu received: april 11, 2018; accepted: april 23, 2018; published: may 3, 2018 abstract martin luther’s hateful and anti-judaic sentiments have attracted much attention especially because they have often been identified as highly influential on modern anti-semitism. but in his early years, luther could harbor quite different attitudes. a critical reading of his treatise daß jesus christus ein geborner jude sei from 1523 will allow us to gain important insights into the delicate and yet impactful approach to toleration as it had developed throughout the middle ages. while luther espoused a specific form of toleration, he cannot be identified as a defender of tolerance in the modern sense of the word. tragically, however, despite his early attempt at reaching out to people of jewish faith, the famous reformer quickly changed his mind and embraced a most aggressive strategy against jews at large. this article will highlight the intricate and fragile nature of toleration as it was pursued by many medieval and early modern intellectuals and writers, and demonstrate that this ideal was highly appealing, but also subject to quick changes to the opposite. keywords: martin luther, jews, anti-judaism, tolerance, intolerance, toleration, protestant reformation, paradigm shift 1. introduction hardly any other topic has attracted so much attention from luther and reformation scholars as the question whether he harbored a tolerant or an intolerant attitude toward non-christians. in particular, the issue focuses on luther’s relationship with jews, a very problematic and often rather painful topic that has both historical and modern relevance. after all, the protestant reformation is often popularly associated with the beginning of modernity, with the rise of rationality, and with freedom, at least from the catholic church. enlightenment and the triumph of the human intellect are commonly said to be based on the revolutionary contributions by luther and his companions. indeed, there is universal consensus that the reformation represented an enormous watershed in the sixteenth century, bringing about the establishment of a new reformed church, which in turn forced the catholic church to retreat, retrench, reinvigorate itself, and subsequently to endeavor its counter-reformation, relying heavily on the newly founded jesuit order (1540). on the protestant side, clerical celibacy was finally lifted, and the individual was strongly encouraged to search for god himself, at least according to the new principles of sola fides and sola gratia. however we would view the reformation era today, it was certainly a time of a major paradigm shift leading us away from the middle ages and into modernity. (note 1) nevertheless, we have to be very careful in our modern assessment of luther as the figurehead for an assumed wave of secularization, individual freedom, and desacralization since the early sixteenth century. (note 2) we can hardly claim the protestant reformation as the basis for the rise of the modern, rationally determined state, for instance, as matthias pohlig now argues convincingly. (note 3) 2. method this study is primarily concerned with a major paradigm shift in martin luther’s thinking and attitude about nonchristians, especially jews. the majority of luther scholars have focused on his later writings in which he developed increasingly negative, even hostile perspectives regarding jews whom he then wanted to be eliminated, almost in a precursor to the holocaust in the twentieth century. (note 8) but we should not ignore the fact that in his early years he was fully capable and willing to acknowledge jews as valid contemporaries and worthy cohssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 10 published by ideas spread religionists. in fact, we could call luther’s intellectual approach to this larger issue as ‘toleration,’ though certainly not ‘tolerance,’ as i will outline below. 3. current research in previous years we also assumed that luther and his fellow reformers succeeded in liberating women from their traditional constraints, granting them freedom from the world of convents, allowing nuns to marry and to have children. however, the dissolution of monasteries mostly meant that women had hardly any alternative left but to marry and to submit under a patriarchal husband, whereas their traditional access to intellectual education, which commonly took place in convents, was suddenly cut off. (note 4) there are many other issues in daily life and in the history of mentality that were deeply affected by the reformation, though it has become exceedingly clear in recent years that we have to be rather skeptical regarding the traditional optimism and idealization of the movement launched by luther. history is not necessarily progressive, as much as the modern generation likes to view itself compared to the past. (note 5) this also applies to the history of the protestant church, which quickly developed into a highly orthodox, hierarchical organization with very little interest in tolerating any minorities, heretics, or deviants. (note 6) nevertheless, on october 31, 2017, during a church service in st. lawrence in nuremberg, celebrating the quincentenary of luther’s nailing of the ninety-five theses on the door of the castle church of wittenberg, heinrich bedford-strohm, chairman of the ekd, a german umbrella organization of protestant, lutheran and reformist churches, while praising luther’s actions as liberating in many ways, also warned: areformation 2017 das heißt auch, den alten unseligen christlichen antijudaismus hinter uns zu lassen, der den tödlichen antisemitischen rassenlehren nahrung gegeben und so viel leid angerichtet hat@ (reformation 2017 b that also means to leave behind the old unholy christian antijudaism, which provided food for the deadly anti-semitic race theories and caused so much suffering). (note 7) in an article published in the frankfurter allgemeine zeitung on nov. 23, 2017, salomon korn, famous architect and president of the jewish community in frankfurt a. m., voiced his great concern about the seeds which luther’s anti-jewish comments planted and which contributed to the rise of modernanti-semitism, the nazi ideology, and subsequently the holocaust. not by accident did luther’s treatises directed against the jews experience a tremendous revival during the 1930s, and korn is correctly warning against the afunkenschlag des antisemitismus@ (incendiary power of anti-semitisim) which could easily challenge the basic democratic principles of the western world. (note 8) historians, scholars of religion, art historians, and others have systematically and thoroughly plowed through luther’s life and works, and it almost seems as if no stone has been left unturned in our efforts today to understand what really happened at that crucial moment five hundred years ago. in 2017 alone, many monographs appeared dedicated to this outstanding figure and his contributions to the global transformation of the traditional catholic church and hence to early modern society. (note 9) as to be expected, many aspects pertaining to luther’s teachings have been viewed rather controversially, and hardly any other has been discussed, as we have seen already, so acrimoniously as his attitude toward jews. (note 10) we might go so far as to identify the individual positions vis-à-vis jews as a litmus test for all early modern intellectuals, determining whether they pursued a hostile or a peaceful attitude, and whether they approached the essential social tasks of their time in an inclusive or exclusive fashion. (note 11) was the new protestant church tolerant, and would this term even make sense in its historical context? the purpose of this paper cannot be to open this old pandora’s box again and either rally to luther’s defense by pointing out maybe positive comments he might have made about jews, or to lean heavily on some of his later texts where he increasingly turned hateful against jews and undoubtedly transformed into an anti-judaist, as peter von der osten sacken alerted us already in 2003. (note 12) considering the flood of pamphlets, broadsheets, plays, poems, and other media where strongly anti-judaist concepts found an outlet during the sixteenth century, it would not come as a surprise to recognize in luther a full member of this movement, maybe even one of its most outspoken representatives, giving much legitimacy to those hateful ideas about the jewish population in germany. (note 13) this would definitely be true in light of his later publications, which scholarship has scoured already at great length, often in an explicit attempt to >demystify= this great personality and to expose him in his more aggressive and hostile character, especially vis-à-vis jews. (note 14) most great writers, thinkers, philosophers, and other intellectuals throughout time have undergone significant changes in his/her worldview, concepts, understandings, attitudes, opinions, and conclusions. those changes have been at times rather subtle, but at other times also rather radical, which forces us to make a decision at some point which one approach pursued by the individual under investigation deserves more or less of our attention. we could also, which will be the emphasis of this paper, distance specific texts from the author and accept them as part of a hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 11 published by ideas spread larger discourse at a specific moment in time, irrespective of the writer’s later positions regarding special issues. this would allow us to decouple the philosophical and philological investigation from the biographical perspective and grant us more objectivity on a narrative-analytic level. virtually every text has been composed within a specific traditional framework from which it emerged either in approval or in rejection of the majority viewpoint. consequently, it proves to be rather helpful to focus on the individual text and recognize it as part of a larger chain, instead of evaluating it both in light of the author’s outlook in his/her younger and older years. it would be useless, for instance, to try to draw connections between the ideas formulated by a young writer with those formulated at his old age. for instance, goethe’s die leiden des jungen werthers has to be evaluated independently from his much later faust, even if there might be interesting correlations. this applies to luther as well; hence i will subsequently turn the attention to a famous early treatise by him regarding jews: daß jesus christus ein geborner jude sei (1523), (note 15) but leave aside the most hateful writings of his later period, such as his wider die sabbater (1538), ein sendbrief rabbi samuelis (1538), von den juden und ihren lügen (1543), von den letzten worten davids (1543), vom schem hamphoras und vom geschlecht christi (1543), and eine vermahnung wider die juden (1546). (note 16) already in 1911, in his doctoral dissertation, reinhold lewin had outlined the three phases of luther’s relationship with jews, divided into the early phase of mostly detached ignorance, the middle phase being determined by luther’s hope that all jews would convert to christianity, and the last phase being a time of bitter disappointment and growing hostility. lewin received considerable support for his assessment, but he was also criticized for his presumed overly >psychologizing= approach which would egregiously leave out theological concepts. yet, the global division between the early and the late luther can certainly be upheld until today, despite many attempts at discriminating the entire issue further by modern scholarship. (note 17) before we proceed, however, it would be necessary to clarify our terms a little, without going into a lengthy debate because tolerance itself constitutes a highly complex topic. toleration indicates that the individual holds steadfastly to his own religion, ideology, or conviction, but does not severely object to other positions, even if s/he disapproves of them. tolerance, by contrast, takes one big step forward and makes the own position available as something debatable because other perspectives are recognized as possible and worthy as well, as long as the opposing side does not intend to destroy the one who pursues tolerance. toleration maintains a marked distance, but does not reject the other; tolerance includes the other as an enrichment of the own world and invites the other to debate the issues as they arise in a friendly and constructive manner. as gotthold ephraim lessing’s famous play nathan the wise (1779), with its ring parable addressing the issue of the three world religions in competition with each other, already indicated, there are many ways of searching for god and to practice different rituals and customs in that process. god, however, loves them all and happily embraces every religion because they all pursue the same goal, the worship of the divine, and this irrespective of their differing religious rituals and formal criteria. (note 18) the individual is called upon to approach the other and to acknowledge that we are all members of the same universal family. toleration, by contrast, as we can find it quite commonly already in the middle ages and beyond, still perceives clear borders between the religions and identifies christianity, for instance, as the only true religion, even though the presence of other believers cannot be denied. those who embrace toleration sympathetically acknowledge the very noticeable differences among people, but they do not take serious measures in dealing with representatives of other cultures and in possibly trying to incorporate them. (note 19) as i will outline below, we encounter in the young martin luther a man who was well attuned to the intellectual and theological debates in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries and was personally searching hard for ways how to reach out to those who held different beliefs and to bring them into his own fold, that is, especially, jews, whom he wanted to convert to the natural family of the true faithful. the very essence of luther’s teachings, and this would be a highly consistent element in all of his thinking, found its most famous and insightful expression in the phrase sola fide. in the face of god, as heiko a. oberman noted, the human creature would have to defend and justify itself, irrespective of his/her religion here on earth. this apocalyptic perspective reduced the formal differences between, say christians and jews, and demanded a direct confrontation of the individual with god.(note 20) the young luther actually viewed the jews as important partners in a religious dialogue which the christians would have to win in order to find their own true position. (note 21) undoubtedly, the jews’ position in germany during the early sixteenth century was dire and dangerous, complicated and precarious, but they were not entirely outcast and found a variety of ways of living within the christian society which defies many of our modern assumptions concerning their ghettoization, expulsion, and the numerous pogroms. (note 22) the very hostility displayed by the late luther actually indicates how much hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 12 published by ideas spread jewish life was still very present at that time and that jews and christians enjoyed fairly close contacts on many different levels. many historical, literary, social-political, and religious documents from the entire sixteenth century confirm that luther’s railing against the jewish community during his old age did not amount to much, as vitriolic as his comments proved to be. (note 23) intriguingly, in his young days he harbored very different perspectives, but then he became hardened increasingly in the course of time. although luther’s tract daß jesus christus ein geborner jude sei has been discussed many times before, it deserves a much closer analysis in order to identify the specific character of the author’s sense of toleration. (note 24) following, i will offer a close reading of the text, mirroring the relevant scholarship indirectly, whereas the writer’s comments will stand in the foreground. in the process of our analysis i will try to apply the different definitions of toleration vs. tolerance in order to establish a more objective perspective on luther’s writing. after having rejected all kinds of accusations against himself, obviously raised by his catholic opponents who tried to categorize him as a heretic and who seemed to harbor a variety of strange ideas about mary, the mother of god, and her virginity, for instance, luther turns to more serious matters and begins with his reflections on the observation that christ originated from a jewish family. this, in turn, motivates him to ponder on the possibility of converting some jews to the christian faith (314). as is very common in his strategic approach, he bitterly complains about the catholic clergy that has treated the jews in such a mean-spirited way that any good christian might have rather considered converting to judaism to escape from such evil authority figures (314). in fact, he imagines that if he had been a jew and had witnessed the terrible performance by the christian authorities and teachers, he himself would have rather turned into a pig than into a christian (315). essentially, luther uses the jews to strengthen his own stance against the catholic church, arguing that its representatives have treated the jews like dogs, but not like people (315). in the case of a conversion to christianity, the church authorities entirely neglected to demonstrate true christian values, behavior, and understanding. in any theological debate, jews would have realized quickly that their own understanding of god was thoroughly scripture-based and learned, while the clerics resorted to empty chatter only: awie haben sie doch mugen yhr hertz stillen und recht gutte christen werden?@ (315; how would they have been able to please their hearts and become good christians?). luther strongly argued that it would be necessary to talk to jews in a friendly manner and to instruct them properly based on the biblical text if one wanted to convince them to convert to christianity (315). arrogance and hubris would not achieve anything and should be condemned; and then luther draws the interesting analogy to the apostles who also had been jews. if those had similarly engaged with the other people, auns heyden@ (315; us heathen), no one would have accepted the new faith. instead, the apostles’ strategy had been predicated on brotherly love for the heathens. consequently, the christians at luther’s time ought to reach out to the jews, whom he identifies as their brothers: abruderlich mit den juden handeln@ (315; interact with the jews in a brotherly fashion). in a short, often overlooked side remark, luther alerts his readers that even the present christians would have to struggle hard to achieve true faith and to accept christ. in essence, aso sind wyr dennoch heyden@ (315; we are still heathens). he recognizes jews as descendants from christ, while the christians are their brothers-inlaw. in terms of blood relationship, the jews would be even closer to christ than the christians, especially because god had selected the jews from early on as the only recipients of the holy scriptures (315). in a funny twist, luther then addresses the catholics and encourages them to label him not simply a heretic, but, more appropriately, a jew (316). in the subsequent section, the author investigates the relationship between the soul and the devil, revisits the history of adam and eve, and god’s promise not to abandon his people (316-17). he also demonstrates, once again, that christ was god’s son and not a human, hence not descendant from flesh, or a material condition (318). moreover, luther then engages with the issue of mary’s virginity, which, according to st. paul, was of no relevance for our understanding of christ’s nature. the notion of virginity pertains to a person’s character and is not to be confused with biological virginity since aeyn mutter kan nicht denn nur eyn weybs bilde seyn@ (319; a mother can be nothing but a woman). apparently, luther brings up all those issues because they force him to engage with jewish interpretations of the old testament as the anticipation of christ’s nativity (321). this also implies linguistic challenges as to the proper translation of hebrew words for a virgin. insofar as the jews do not acknowledge the gospels, luther turns to the text by the prophet isaiah and debates with his opponents in a purely intellectual fashion about the true meaning of important terms. luther mocks the jews a little, observing their extreme insistence on a strict reading of every word for the virgin mary, when the real issue would be her virginity in her person: ajungfraw an der person@ (322). laughing about the ridiculous word pinching, he offers the compromise, in german, to call mary a amagd@ (322; maid), meaning that she was nubile but still young and honorable. for him, the term ‘virgin’ would be too amorphous and could apply to all kinds of women of different age (322-23), whereas virginity really implies a state of mind, that is, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 13 published by ideas spread virtues and honorability. luther’s text thus demonstrates its character as a learned treatise dealing with etymology and the proper translation of the hebrew word for >virgin, but in that context it also reveals the extent to which the author was prepared and willing to engage with jewish intellectuals about the correct method of rendering the hebrew expression for a pregnant woman into german (323). the basic conflict or disagreement between christians and jews thus suddenly boils down to basic philological issues pertaining to the proper analysis of biblical comments on the virgin mary. subsequently, luther returns to his initial concern and explores how he might be able to reach out to jews and convince some of them to convert to christianity, or at least to return back to the faith of their fathers (325). moreover, as he underscores, awollen wyr weytter mit yhn handeln und den ihenigen, szo mit yhn handeln wollen, eyn weyße und spruch fur legen, der sie gegen yhn gebrauchen sollen@ (325; we want to continue to engage with them and with those who are willing to engage with them, and present them with statements and comments which they should use against them). luther’s arguments against the jews entirely remain on the level of a philological analysis of the biblical text according to which their own interpretation appears to be misleading. luther subsequently enters into a narrow interpretation of jewish history, such as the babylonian captivity (326). the critical question both for him and the jews would be whether the messiah has arrived already or is still to come, but both sides would agree that the promise itself amounts to a glorious projection of human destiny in the afterlife, but now already here on earth (326). luther defends his belief in christ as the promised messiah, whereas the jews reject this interpretation, which all amounts to the question of how to read certain biblical statements (327). the jews’ historical perspective, as luther reads it, is limited to a long series of kings who ruled and then passed away again, whereas the christian teaching pertains to the last king, the messiah, whose rule would be eternal and beyond all material limitations (328). the belief in the transformation from death to everlasting life, as in the case of christ, would differentiate the christian from the jew, which luther argues on the ground of the new testament (328), which leaves, however, no room for his imaginary jewish opponent: adrumb mags niht eyn leiplich konigreich seyn ym sterblichen vergenglichen guttern und weßen@ (328; therefore it cannot be a physical kingdom determined by temporary goods and nature). drawing the attention to the metaphorical expression in scripture that people in the future would wash their clothes in wine and tie the ass to a wine stock, he asserts immediately that all this would not make much sense in reality, so the careful reader would be forced to translate this image and search for the deeper truth (329). undoubtedly, luther does not want to grant any room to his jewish counterpart and insists that christ is the longpromised messiah, and he urges his listeners to accept his own reading of the biblical text, which hence amounts to a philological argument, above all, although he also aims at offering a strong theological teaching: adoch diße außlegung werden die juden nicht achten, bis sie zuvor erbey komen und erkennen, das christus komen seyn musse nach dißem spruch@ (330; but the jews will not acknowledge this interpretation until they will have changed their mind and recognized that christ must have already come according to this statement). luther tries his hardest to convince his listeners that the prophecy about the coming of shilo (genesis 49: 10-12) must be applied to the arrival of christ, and this both in theological and practical historical terms (330). luther relentlessly insists that the entire historical development following the life of christ would confirm his divine nature, and it would be impossible not to acknowledge him as the long-prophesied messiah (331). nevertheless, he also recognizes that the debate about the true meaning of the promised rebuilding of jerusalem has been ongoing, with no solution in sight, pitting jews and christians against each other. luther himself is trying now to solve the problem, but it is an intellectual effort predicated on the assumption that rational arguments would work best in this case. he obviously works very hard to gain the upper hand in this philological and theological exchange and is determined to develop a convincing case in order to convert the jews. as to gabriel’s announcement of the messiah, he concludes: adas ist yhe, meyn ich, gewiß und klar gnug@ (332; this is now, i believe, certain and clear enough). in other words, luther engages in an intensive debate and trusts that his textual analysis will gain the upper hand. he believes that the jews actually have already understood the same truth for a long time but continue to hang on to their old convictions and resort to amutwillige ausfluchte on allen grund@ (332; wilful prevarication without any foundation). luther even draws on historical reflections and makes a strong case for his own interpretation, sorting through the various arguments brought forth by the jews, with whom he seems to have had multiple direct contacts, debating these specific points, as he outlines, over and over again (332-33). he relies on a rational approach, above all, and rejects the jewish claims, convinced that his arguments are watertight: aschliessen wyr und uberwinden der juden hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 14 published by ideas spread yrthum mit gewallt, das der rechte messiah komen sey nach dem widdergebawten hernach und fur dem tzustoreten jerusalem@ (333; we conclude and reject with full force the jews’ error, claiming that the true messiah had come after the rebuilding of jerusalem [by nehemiah] and prior to its destruction [by titus]). however, luther himself realized how complicated this historical calculation might be, so he backtracks and explains further details, entering an extensive analysis of data and names in biblical times. most interestingly, luther also reflects on christ’s crucifixion, but at first he does not associate his passion with the jews specifically (335), and only refers to some individuals adie yhn creutzigen und auß dißer wellt treyben@ (335; who crucify and chase him away from this world). what matters for the author in this context is to compile exhaustive evidence to prove christ’s true nature as the messiah. only when luther can adduce enough proof, does he hope to win the debate about the only valid faith: awyl denn schrifft und geschicht so geweltiglich mit eynander uber eyn treffen, haben ja die juden nichts, das sie da widder mugen sagen@ (335; insofar as scripture and history agree with each other so forcefully, the jews have nothing to argue against it). in short, luther makes every possible effort to convince the opponent with philological, theological, logical, and historical arguments and thus to prove that christ must be acknowledged as the long-anticipated messiah. only here, at the end of his treatise, does luther resort to the traditional charge against the jews, claiming that they had crucified christ (336). but he also observes that the jews are aware of their own shortcomings and their errors in the proper understanding of the biblical texts, especially the prophecies because they do not comprehend the metaphorical messages and do not figure out the historical specifics related in the old testament: aden yhr verstorung fulen sie ja wol, die unmeßlich grosser ist denn sie noch yhe erlitten haben@ (335-36; they certainly feel their destruction which is infinitely larger than what they have ever suffered). as hostile as this statement certainly sounds, it is based on luther’s conviction that he has successfully made rational points and can claim to be the winner in their debate. as a debater, however, like countless predecessors in the late middle ages, he heavily relied on the evidence of his own discourse and was convinced that his words would be powerful enough to reach out to the other side. luther feels completely certain that the jews would be irritated about the christians’ claim that jesus was both a human being and also the true god. however, he is also sure about his own ability to adduce more evidence based on scripture to complete his rational endeavor to convert jews to the christian faith. intriguingly, he admits at the same time that his own arguments so far might have been too harsh and difficult to achieve the desired effect on the jews: aaber es ist zum anfang tzu hart, laß sie tzuvor milch saugen und auffs erst dißen menschen jhesum fur den rechten messiah erkennen. darnach sollen sie wyn trincken und auch lernen, wie er warhafftiger gott sey@ (336; for the beginning this is too difficult; let them first suckle milk and and recognize this man jesus as the true messiah. thereupon they shall drink wine and learn that he is the true god). reaching out to the jews, once again, luther admits that they seem to have been misled for much too long a time with respect to the coming of the messiah. it would be virtually impossible for jews to accept that god could take on human shape, i.e., transform into christ (336). consequently, luther requests from his christian audience to take a soft approach and to work carefully with the jews, teaching them the >truth= on the basis of scripture, aso mochten yhr ettliche herbey komen@ (336; then a good number of them might join us). he adamantly rejects the traditional strategy pursued by the catholic clergy, attacking jews for all kinds of wrongdoings and blaming them for many different faults. this would all be nothing but anarren werk[ ]@ (336; foolishness). treating them like dogs would not achieve anything, and forbidding them to live among the christians, to carry out an ordinary profession, and denying them the right to participate in the larger community would only force them to turn to the practice of usury as the only way out of their misery. full of aggravation, luther exclaims: awie sollt sie das bessern@ (336; how can this improve them!). certainly a deeply paternalistic attitude, but also one informed by a certain degree of sympathy (toleration!). in order to reach out to jews in a constructive manner would require not to follow the papal strategies, but to embrace them with achristlicher liebe gesetz@ (336; the law of christian love). they should receive the legal rights to live within the christian community and to pursue a regular job: asie freuntlich annehmen@ (336; accept them in a friendly manner). once they would be around long enough, they would begin to understand and to appreciate the christian teachings, and hence eventually to convert. luther is fully prepared to recognize that some would never pursue that path and would stubbornly remain jewish, especially because he knows fully well that many christians do not live up to the basic religious standards of their church either. although this treatise belongs to the shorter ones from luther’s quill, it consists of several very distinct parts and carries many different messages of great significance. at first he defends himself against various types of malignment, and then he turns to the question of how christians should operate with jews. this provides him with hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 15 published by ideas spread an opportunity to criticize the members of the catholic clergy who treat jews in a most abject, hateful, and derogatory manner. luther, instead, insists, both at the beginning and at the end of the treatise, on the great need to communicate with them in a friendly fashion. but he does not assume a tolerant attitude, such as represented by nathan in lessing’s play from 1779, and strongly endeavors to demonstrate that christianity is the only true faith. the central part of his treatise consists of historical, theological, and philological investigations, comparing and contrasting various types of interpretations of central scriptural passages. he claims, at the end, to have proven satisfactorily and exhaustively that the christian teaching regarding jesus as the true messiah deserves full recognition. he laments, subsequently, that jews have lived for too long in their self-imposed ignorance and misunderstanding of the true messages offered by christ. however, and this constitutes the remarkable conclusion, luther urges his readers to pursue an approach toward their jewish neighbors which we would call toleration today. aggressive confrontation, hostile opposition, and violent repression of jews would not achieve anything and only harden the fronts between both sides. instead, as luther insists, anyone interested in reaching out to jews and in trying to convert them would have to acknowledge them first as neighbors in their midst. a friendly tone among both christians and jews would create the foundation for both sides to approach each other constructively. undoubtedly, luther acknowledged all such strategies as appropriate because he was firmly convinced that the christian teachings were the only ones to be regarded as concerned spreading the religious truth. we would call this >toleration’ today, but not necessarily >tolerance.’. in his later life, luther was to turn to radical anti-judaism and hence to embrace an ugly form of intolerance, as we have seen above already. but this early treatise from 1523 presents to us a thinker who was willing to address the religious opponent, to include him/her in his own discourse, to acknowledge jewish opinions, which he, however, subsequently discredited through a careful analysis of the social conditions for the members of that minority group. in this essay, at least, luther strongly and explicitly advocated for open communication and friendly relations across the dividing lines between christianity and judaism. his ultimate desire was to convince jews that their own interpretation of the old testament was flawed and that the christian teachings ought to be acknowledged and accepted. as scholars have observed, however, this was not to last very long, since luther soon began to shed his early positions and to assume an increasingly hostile attitude, which we certainly would be justified to call anti-judaic. as long as we do not search for evidence that luther might have been a tolerant thinker, then this and other tracts allow us to acknowledge a definite element of toleration in his early thinking. unfortunately, this feature in the mindset of the young man luther was not to last, and strongly anti-judaic terms, images, phrases, prejudice, and even open xenophobia entered the picture in the subsequent years. nevertheless, toleration, which clearly emerges in this early treatise, proved to be a remarkable phenomenon, especially for the early protestant reformation, as heiko a. oberman had indicated already in his seminal study from 1981/1984. (note 25) luther defended, and how else could it be, his own faith as the only true one, and he resorted to all of his biblical, philological, theological, and historical knowledge and understanding. but he pursued his task to reach out to jews and to convince them that the christian teaching was right and the jewish faith wrong by means of a rational, analytic discourse. he explicitly predicated this discourse on the assumption that only a friendly, cooperative, even tolerant attitude would achieve the desired effect. we know that in his later years he left all this far behind himself and turned into a rabid anti-judaist, but the treatise daß jesus christus ein geborner jude sei speaks a very different language and deserves to be included in the religious discourse determined by toleration. (note 26) without including explicit references, we can read this treatise as the protestant continuation of an old discourse extending as far back as to the twelfth century. peter abelard (d. 1142) set the tone with his dialgoue, and this was then followed by such late medieval intellectuals as ramon llull (1231-1316), marsiglio of padua (12751396), and nicholas of cusa (1401-1464). we would also have to consider treatises such as the dialogus inter iudaeum requirentem et christianum respondentem by petrus damianus (1007b1072) or annulus sive dialogus christianum et iudaeum by rupert of deutz (d. 1135), and each time we would discover the fundamental principle that the authors acknowledged their opponents’ rational abilities to carry out a reasonable and logical debate over the religious differences. all those scholars and writers were driven by a strong intention to convince their opponents to convert to christianity, but their efforts were systematically determined by their own willingness to acknowledge their averstandespotenzen@ (potentiality to utilize one’s reason). (note 27) tragically, as we might conclude, at least from our modern perspective, luther, in his older age, abandoned this medieval and early modern tradition and also ignored the counter-development among the sixteenth-century spiritualists and anabaptists to focus on the own inner soul and to tolerate deviant approaches to god in order to establish a peaceful society (sebastian franck, valentin weigel, sebastian castellio). while the relevant research hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 16 published by ideas spread has already acknowledged the deep tensions between luther’s own binary positions, we should recognize, with all due respect, that the treatise from 1523 was predicated on the rational exchange with jews and the possibility for both sides to reach an agreement regarding the proper reading of the biblical text (toleration). the philologist and logician in luther still trumped the theologian, which was later no longer the case (intolerance), when he simply assumed that all jews lied and could not be trusted within his own christian universe. previous research has amply demonstrated the true extent of luther’s hatred of the jews (note 14), but the key issue for us consists of the intriguing paradigm shift that occurred in his early life as a highly respected theologian. this thus sensitizes us to the problem all major religious leaders throughout world history might face and which might address also the countless contradictions in the fundamental scriptural texts, whether the bible, the torah, or the koran, where we find, just as our interests drive us, both statements of love and statements of hatred. if such an intellectual giant as luther could change his opinion about the jews so easily and so quickly, replacing his toleration with strong intolerance, it is easily conceivable that other major religious figures could also have gone through rapid transformations. the quest for true toleration, if not tolerance, thus proves to be very tenuous, as important as it will always be for humanity to survive. the transformation, however, occurred rather quickly and can specifically be traced to luther’s personal meetings with a group of rabbis in 1525/1526 who had tried to establish a religious conversation with him. during the 1530s, luther was confronted with numerous but spurious reports about successful jewish missionizing in moravia, and proved to be open to highly negative opinions by converted jews about their former co-religionists, such as johann pfefferkorn (1469-1523). the willingness of the various princes to pursue openly anti-judaic policies, such as the expulsion of jews from saxony in 1536, strengthened luther’s resolve no longer to engage with jews in any tolerant fashion. (note 28) 4. results nevertheless, luther’s hostile stance and aggressive rejection of jews later in his life do not undermine the value of his early writings (1523), in which he still allowed rational and interpretive strategies to dominate his entire approach to judaism. curiously, the early luther can be viewed clearly in the tradition of nicholas of cusa, for instance, as meticulously examined by cary j. nederman, (note 29) whereas the older luther represents the much more repressive world of the sixteenth century. human history does not necessarily ‘progress’ steadily toward better interhuman relations, and luther himself was a dramatic case considering his almost shocking change of mind regarding jews. however, reading daß jesus christus ein geborner jude sei within the context of marsiglio of padua’s defensor pacis, ramon llull’s book of the gentile, nicholas’s de pace fidei, or pico de la mirandola’s oration on the dignity of man suddenly allows us to identify it as a significant contribution to the constant pursuit throughout the middle ages and the early modern age to identify >moral’ principles acapable of providing for >peaceful coexistence and thus for >basic human rights, to borrow michael walzer’s terminology.@ (note 30) while luther’s tract in its original german was printed nine times in 1523, and three times until 1525, it did not experience any further appeal and hence no additional separate reprinting, here disregarding the publication of luther’s collected works (1552, 1556, 1573, 1588, etc.). (note 31) it might well be that the book market changed along with luther and turned more anti-judaic. however, in 1523, luther still stood strongly in the tradition of the late medieval discourse on toleration and hoped that he could reach out to his jewish contemporaries. scholarship has already demonstrated clearly this shift in his thinking, but we should not throw the proverbial baby out with the bathwater and ignore that luther was much more open-minded in early years than later. not even the ideas of great men are simply written in stone, and luther changed considerably in the course of time. references (select) anselm, s. (2017). aeine frage der freiheit: das dialektische erbe der reformation,@ ritter, bauern, lutheraner: katalog zur bayerischen landesausstellung 2017 veste coburg und kirche st. moriz, 9. mai bis 5. november 2017, peter wolf, evamaria brockhoff, et al. (ed.). darmstadt: wissenschaftliche buchgesellschaft, 22-28. beihefte (2017). säkularisierungen in der frühen neuzeit: methodische probleme und empirische fallstudien. zeitschrift für historische forschung. stuttgart: steiner, 2017. christoph, n., & tobias, w. (ed. 2017). matthias pohlig, aeine neuzeit ohne reformation?@ eine andere deutsche geschichte (1517-2017). was wäre wenny. paderborn: ferdinand schöningh 2017, 20-36. classen, a. (2007). the power of a woman’s voice in medieval and early modern literature: new approaches to german and european women writers and to violence against women in premodern times. fundamentals of medieval and early modern culture, 1. berlin and new york: walter de gruyter, 2007. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 17 published by ideas spread dietrich, g., roger, p., & udo, p. s. a. (ed. 2016). for more optimistic perspectives, see reformation und toleranz brücken über jahrhunderte, 13. bonn and hermannstadt: schiller verlag, 2016. duncker, & humblot (2008). säkularisierungen in der frühen neuzeit: methodische probleme und empirische fallstudien. zeitschrift für historische forschung, beiheft, 41. matthias, p. (ed. 2015). stuttgart: franz steiner verlag, 2015. frankfurter allgemeine zeitung. (2017). samuel korn, akritik am reformator: luthers judenhass und die pogrome.@ retrieved nov. 23, 2017. from http://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/inland/luthers-judenhass-wird-zu-selten-thematisiert-15287981.html?print pagedarticle=true#pageindex_0 merkel, a. (2017). aohne religionsfreiheit nimmt die gesellschaft schaden.@ frankfurter allgemeine zeitung, oct. 31, 2017. retrieved from http://www.br.de/nachrichten/landesbischof-bedford-strohm-zum-reformationstag-100.html miriam, b. (2006). aa jews in a divided christendom.@ a companion to the reformation world. r. po-chia hsia ed. blackwell companions to european history (malden, ma, oxford, and carlton, victoria, australia: blackwell, 2006), 471-85. susan, c. karant-nunn, (2007). areformation society, women and the family.@ the reformation world. andrew, p. (ed. 2000). (2000; london and new york: routledge, 2002), 433-60. thomas, e., & stephanie, a. (ed. 2017). luther, kolumbus und die folgen: welt im wandel 1500b1600. nuremberg: verlag des germanischen nationalmuseums. notes note 1. luther, kolumbus und die folgen: welt im wandel 1500b1600, ed. thomas eser and stephanie armer (nuremberg: verlag des germanischen nationalmuseums, 2017). note 2. see the contributions to säkularisierungen in der frühen neuzeit: methodische probleme und empirische fallstudien. zeitschrift für historische forschung, beiheft, 41 (berlin: duncker & humblot, 2008); and to reformation, ed. matthias pohlig (stuttgart: franz steiner verlag, 2015). note 3. matthias pohlig, aeine neuzeit ohne reformation?,@ eine andere deutsche geschichte (1517-2017). was wäre wenny, ed. christoph nonn, tobias winnerling (paderborn: ferdinand schöningh 2017), 20-36. note 4. susan c. karant-nunn, areformation society, women and the family,@ the reformation world, ed. andrew pettegree (2000; london and new york: routledge, 2002), 433-60; albrecht classen, the power of a woman’s voice in medieval and early modern literature: new approaches to german and european women writers and to violence against women in premodern times. fundamentals of medieval and early modern culture, 1 (berlin and new york: walter de gruyter, 2007). note 5. see now the contributions to säkularisierungen in der frühen neuzeit: methodische probleme und empirische fallstudien. zeitschrift für historische forschung, beihefte (stuttgart: steiner, 2017). note 6. for more optimistic perspectives, see reformation und toleranz brücken über jahrhunderte, ed. dietrich galter, roger pârvu, and udo puschnig. seria academia, 13 (bonn and hermannstadt: schiller verlag, 2016). note 7. amerkel: ohne religionsfreiheit nimmt die gesellschaft schaden,@ frankfurter allgemeine zeitung, oct. 31, 2017, online at: http://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/inland/angela-merkel-spricht-beim-festakt-zum-reformationstag-15271558.ht ml. see also http://www.br.de/nachrichten/landesbischof-bedford-strohm-zum-reformationstag-100.html. note 8. samuel korn, akritik am reformator: luthers judenhass und die pogrome,@ frankfurter allgemeine zeitung, nov. 23, 2017; http://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/inland/luthers-judenhass-wird-zu-selten-thematisiert-15287981.html?printpage darticle=true#pageindex_0. for the great interest which the nazis demonstrated in luther’s anti-judaic treatises for their own propaganda, see manfred gailus, aluthers >judenschriften= und ihre rezeption im protestantismus der ns-zeit,@ stiftung topographie des terrors: aüberall luthers worte...@: martin luther im nationalsozialismus. catalogue of the eponymous exhibition (berlin: stiftung topographie des terrors; gedenkstätte deutscher widerstand, 2017), 225-33. it seems dangerous to me, however, to draw conclusions about the way how the nazis viewed luther as indicative of luther’s own thoughts. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 18 published by ideas spread note 9. see, for instance, richard rex, the making of martin luther (princeton, nj: princeton university press, 2017); paul dieterich, mehr licht als schatten!: martin luther damals und heute. blaubeurer geographische hefte, 62 (nürtingen: denkhaus verlag, 2017); detlev brockes, allein der glaube: martin luther und der reformationstag. 4th ed. (kiel: lutherische verlagsgesellschaft, 2017); hans heinz, endzeit und endziel: martin luther und die zukunft der welt. hoffnung heute, 2 (zürich: advent-verlag, 2017). martin luther im widerstreit der konfessionen: historische und theologische perspektiven, ed. christian danz and jan-heiner tück (freiburg: herder, 2017); oxford encyclopedia of martin luther, ed. derek r. nelson and paul r. hinlicky (new york: oxford university press, 2017); lyndal roper, martin luther: renegade and prophet (london: the bodley head, 2016). this list could be easily expanded; it is truly legion by now. note 10. for a good summary of the historical conditions for jews and how they fared under the protestant reformation, see miriam bodian, ajews in a divided christendom,@ a companion to the reformation world, ed. r. po-chia hsia. blackwell companions to european history (malden, ma, oxford, and carlton, victoria, australia: blackwell, 2006), 471-85. note 11. see now anselm schubert, aeine frage der freiheit: das dialektische erbe der reformation,@ ritter, bauern, lutheraner: katalog zur bayerischen landesausstellung 2017 veste coburg und kirche st. moriz, 9. mai bis 5. november 2017, ed. peter wolf, evamaria brockhoff, et al. (darmstadt: wissenschaftliche buchgesellschaft, 2017), 22-28. note 12. peter von der osten-sacken, martin luther und die juden: neu untersucht anhand von anton margarithas ader gantz jüdisch glaub@ (1530/31) (stuttgart: kohlhammer, 2002); see also thomas kaufmann, adie theologische bewertung des judentums im protestantismus des späteren 16. jahrhunderts (1530-1600),@ archiv für reformationsgeschichte 91 (2000): 191-237. kaufmann emphasizes, above all, that the protestant societies since the 1530s had to come to terms with the jewish population living in the cities. note 13. winfried frey and andrea frölich, das judenbild in den flugschriften des 16. jahrhunderts: kontinuität und wandel. cd-rom, johann wolfgang goethe-universität frankfurt a. m., 2008 (also: nordhausen: bautz, 2008). note 14. martin luther und die juden: luthers judenschriften und ihre rezeption: ein projekt zum reformationsjubiläum (frankfurt a. m.: gemeinschaftswerk der evangelischen publizistik, 2016); dorothea wendebourg, die reformation und die juden: eine orientierung (wittenberg: staatliche geschäftsstelle luther 2017). the topic, however, has already been addressed much earlier; see, for instance, ernst schäffer, luther und die juden. christentum und judentum: serie 5: geschichte der judenmission, 2 (gütersloh: bertelsmann, 1917); heinz kremers, ed., die juden und martin luther martin luther und die juden: geschichte, wirkungsgeschichte, herausforderung (neukirchen-vluyn: neukirchener verlag, 1985). note 15. d. martin luthers werke: kritische gesammtausgabe, vol. 11 (weimar: hermann böhlaus nachfolger, 1900; rpt. weimar: verlag hermann böhlaus nachfolger, 2003), 314-36. see also online at: http://www.glaubensstimme.de/doku.php?id=autoren:l:luther:d:luther-dass_jesus_jude. see also luther’s works, vol. 45: the christian in society, vol. ii, ed. walther i. brandt (philadelphia: muhlenberg press, 1962), 199-229. see also online at: https://www.uni-due.de/collcart/es/sem/s6/txt09_1.htm. i have preferred, however, my own translations, though i have compared them with those in brandt’s volume. despite many legitimate concerns with wikipedia, the relevant page is highly informative and detailed: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/martin_luther_und_die_juden (all last accessed on nov. 5, 2017). note 16. for a good summary, see ekkehard stegeman, ajudenschriften,@ das luther-lexikon, ed. volker leppin and gury schneider-ludorff (regensburg: verlag bückle & böhm, 2014), 323-27. note 17. most significant proves to be thomas kaufmann, luthers ajudenschriften@: ein beitrag zu ihrer historischen kontextualisierung (tübingen: mohr siebeck, 2011); peter von der osten-sacken, martin luther und die juden (see note 12). see also die juden und martin luther b martin luther und die juden. geschichte, wirkungsgeschichte, herausforderung, ed. heinz kremers et al. 2nd ed. (1985; neukirchen-vluyn: neukirchener verlag des erziehungsvereins, 1987); c. bernd sucher, luthers stellung zu den juden: eine interpretation aus germanistischer sicht. bibliotheca humanistica & reformatorica, xxiii (nieuwkoop: b. de graaf, 1977); for a selection of relevant texts by luther, with quick summaries and background information, see walther bienert, martin luther und die juden: ein quellenbuch mit zeitgenössischen illustrationen, mit einführungen und erläuterungen (frankfurt a. m.: evangelisches verlagswerk, 1982). cf. also johannes brosseder, luthers stellung zu den juden im spiegel seiner interpreten: interpretation und rezeption von luthers schriften und äußerungen zum judentum im 19. und 20. jahrhundert vor allem im deutschsprachigen raum. beiträge zur ökumenischen theologie, 8 (munich: max hueber, 1972). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 19 published by ideas spread note 18. kuschel, karl-josef, ajud, christ und muselmann vereinigt@? lessings anathan der weise (düsseldorf: patmos verlag, 2004); müller nielaba, daniel, die wendung zum besseren: zur aufklärung der toleranz in gotthold ephraim lessings nathan der weise (würzburg: königshausen & neumann, 2000); markus pohlmeyer, lessing, anathan@ und die toleranz: philosophisch-theologische utopie in literarischer gestalt!?; ... und weitere essays, fragmente und/oder aufsätze; aus der schule, für die schule und schon ein wenig jenseits davon. didaktik, 10 (berlin: lit, 2007); h. b. nisbet, gotthold ephraim lessing: his life, works, and thought (oxford: oxford university press, 2008); steven d. martinson, projects of enlightenment: the work of gotthold ephraim lessing. cultural, intercultural, and transcultural perspectives. hermeia. grenzüberschreitende studien zur literaturund kulturwissenschaft, 11 (heidelberg: synchron, 2013). again, there is a legion of studies addressing lessing’s famous play. note 19. discourses of tolerance and intolerance in the european enlightenment, ed. hans erich bödeker, clorinda donato, and peter reill. ucla clark memorial library series, 8 (toronto: university of toronto press, 2009). kelly james clark, abraham’s children: liberty and tolerance in an age of religious conflict (new haven, ct: yale university press, 2012); forst, rainer. toleranz und fortschritt. sitzungsberichte der wissenschaftlichen gesellschaft an der johann-wolfgang-goethe-universität frankfurt am main, 52.2 (stuttgart: franz steiner verlag, 2015). note 20. heiko a. oberman, adie juden in luthers sicht,@ id., the roots of anti-semitism in the age of renaissance and reformation, trans. james i. porter (1981; philadelphia, pa: fortress press, 1984), 136-62; here 139-40. note 21. kaufmann, luthers ajudenschriften@ (see note 17), 12. note 22. ein thema zwei perspektiven: juden und christen in mittelalter und frühneuzeit, ed. eveline brugger (innsbruck: studien-verlag, 2007); ashkenazi jews in early modern europe, ed. predrag bukovec (mainz: institut für europäische geschichte, 2012); revealing the secrets of the jews: johannes pfefferkorn and christian writings about jewish life and literature in early modern europe, ed. jonathan adams and cordelia heß (berlin and boston: walter de gruyter, 2017). note 23. for a rather unusual, jewish perspective toward luther’s anti-judaic opinions, see pinchas e. lapide, astimmen jüdischer zeitgenossen zu martin luther,@ die juden und martin luther (see note 11), 171-85. for concrete historical investigations of sixteenth-century jews, see rex rexheuser, juden im öffentlichen raum einer christlichen stadt : posen im 16.b18. jahrhundert. deutsches historisches institut warschau: quellen und studien, 33 (wiesbaden: harrassowitz verlag, 2017); juden und ländliche gesellschaft in europa zwischen mittelalter und früher neuzeit (15.-17. jahrhundert): kontinuität und krise, inklusion und exklusion in einer zeit des übergangs, ed. sigrid hirbodian and torben stretz. forschungen zur geschichte der juden : abteilung a, abhandlungen, 24 (wiesbaden: harrassowitz verlag, 2016); albrecht classen, acomplex relations between jews and christians in late medieval german and other literature,@ jews in medieval christendom: aslay them not@, ed. kristine t. utterback and merrall llewelyn price (leiden and boston: brill, 2013), 313-38; ein thema zwei perspektiven: juden und christen in mittelalter und frühneuzeit, ed. eveline brugger and birgit wiedl (innsbruck, vienna, and bozen: studien-verlag, 2007); renate overdick, die rechtliche und wirtschaftliche stellung der juden in südwestdeutschland im 15. und 16. jahrhundert: dargestellt an den reichsstädten konstanz und eßlingen und an der markgrafschaft baden. konstanzer geschichts-und rechtsquellen, 15 (constance: thorbecke, 1965). the literature on this topic is expansive, which by itself indicates the true extent to which jewish life continued to flourish in many parts of germany, specifically despite luther’s bitter diatribes against them. note 24. hans-martin kirn, aluther und die juden,@ handbuch luther, ed. albrecht beutel (tübingen: mohr siebeck, 2012), 217b24; here 219-20. this handbook is now available in its 2nd rev. and expanded ed. (2017). see also ekkehard stegeman, ajudenschriften@ (see note 16). note 25. the most seminal study in this field continues to be heiko augustinus oberman, the roots of anti-semitism (see note 20). cf. also henry kamen, intoleranz und toleranz zwischen reformation und aufklärung. kindlers universitätsbibliothek, 15 (munich: kindler, 1967). see also the recent contributions to recounting deviance: forms and practices of presenting divergent behaviour in the late middle ages and early modern period, ed. jörg rogge. mainz historical cultural sciences (bielefeld: transcript verlag, 2016). most recently, see hein retter, azur frage der toleranz in der epoche zwischen reformation und aufklärung: on the question of tolerance in the epoch between the reformation and enlightenment,@ international dialogues on education. past and present 4.2 (2017): 62-77. nevertheless, we also can still draw on karl völker, toleranz und intoleranz: im zeitalter der reformation (1912; grafrath: boer, k, 2016). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 20 published by ideas spread note 26. luther is not included, for instance, in the anthology wege zur toleranz: geschichte einer europäischen idee in quellen, ed., intro., and explained by heinrich schmidinger (darmstadt: wissenschaftliche buchgesellschaft, 2002). note 27. norbert winkler, atoleranz im mittelalter?@ deutsche zeitschrift für philosophie 8 (1991): 853-67; here 857. see also the contributions to beyond the persecuting society: religious toleration before the enlightenment, ed. john christian laursen and cary j. nederman (1998; philadelphia, pa: university of pennsylvania press, 2011). i have explored this larger corpus of theological and philosophical approaches to the question regarding toleration and tolerance in a new monograph, history of tolerance and toleration in the middle ages and early modernn time (new york and london: routledge, 2018). i do not, however, engage much with luther there. note 28. kirn, aluther und die juden@ (see note 24), 220. note 29. cary j. nederman, worlds of difference: european discourses of toleration, c. 1100-c. 1550 (university park, pa: the pennsylvania state university press, 2000). he mentions luther once, but only in passing and in a different context. nevertheless, luther’s treatise from 1523 would have well fit into the discourse as outlined by nederman. note 30. nederman, worlds of difference (see note 29), 118. note 31. d. martin luthers werke, vol. 11 (see note 15), 308-10. i have also checked the vd16 online, with no additional data found. in fact, there only seven printings are listed. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). albrecht classen1 copyrights humanities and social science research; vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v1n2p23 23 published by ideas spread the phenomenon of homelessness during the greek economic crisis 2009-2018 symeon n. mavridis1 & savvoula i. mouratidou1 1 department of social administration and political science, democritus university of thrace, komotini, greece correspondence: symeon n. mavridis, department of social administration and political science, panagi tsaldari 1, pc 69100, komotini, greece. e-mail: s.mavridis@hotmail.com received: august 22, 2018; accepted: october 11, 2018; published: october 29, 2018 abstract this research focuses on the phenomenon of homelessness in greece, especially during the deep economic crisis that has lasted from 2009 until this day. unfortunately, in large part, homelessness also affects welfare policy, as well as social cohesion and healthcare. the significance of the study lies in the fact that there are no official data from governmental institutions concerning the number of homeless people across the country. for this reason, this study attempts to collect all available data in order to present the evolution of the phenomenon of homelessness from 2009 to present. homelessness is examined in relation to poverty and other factors of deprivation. in addition, countermeasures addressing homelessness, adopted by both public and private organizations, are also examined. public institutions usually provide small pensions, only for seniors over sixty-seven years old, meal cards, free soup kitchens and several shelters. at the same time, a large number of private organizations, such as ngos, provide free accommodation, meals, and showers. unfortunately, the rising number of homeless people during the ongoing socioeconomic crisis and the lack of communication among institutions deteriorate the problem. on these grounds, this research analyzes the phenomenon of homelessness in greece in order to provide the appropriate solutions for its containment. keywords: unemployment, homelessness, housing, poverty 1. introduction greece has been facing serious financial problems since 2009. the general turmoil in the global markets has led to an unprecedented local debt crisis lasting until this day. according to the eurostat data in 2009 greece’s debtto-gdp ratio had reached 126.7%, which meant that the general government gross debt had amounted to €301 billion. in 2016 the greek debt reached 180.8% of gdp, namely over €315 billion. despite the fact that three international economic programs, as well as massive reforms, have been introduced by the greek governments, the country still fights for its economic and financial stability (mavridis 2018:1). unfortunately, the impact of the crisis was devastating in real life. the welfare reforms brought about major cuts in pensions and wages, thus, deepening poverty (petmesidou 2011:4-5, 2012:8-10, 2013a:2, 2013b:7-10, 2014:16). in reality, social conditions have significantly deteriorated resulting into homelessness, poverty, migration, unemployment, suicides and generally speaking social exclusion (mavridis 2018:1). “growing unemployment and falling income have increased vulnerability to homelessness as more people are unable to meet housing costs. austerity measures and cuts have had a major impact on service capacity at a time of growing demand” (feantsa 2012:25). the rise of unemployment affects both homelessness and family relationships (fitzpatrick et al. 2012:11, 2017:2). in greece, poor households spend 75% of their disposable income on housing (feantsa and the foundation abbé pierre 2018:53). data is impressive. “more than 40% of the population and almost all poor households (91.9%) were overburdened by housing costs in 2016, i.e. an increase of 380% between 2010 and 2016 for non-poor households” (feantsa and the foundation abbé pierre 2018:55). what is more, since 2016 eu has closed the borders to immigrants through greece. the closing of greek borders has caused an additional negative impact on general homelessness. on 30 november 2016, 32,535 people were registered in the greek refugee camps (feantsa and the foundation abbé pierre 2017:16). according to the ministry of digital policy, telecommunications and media on 1 january 2017, 62,784 refugees were registered in organized camps and on 30 july 2017, 62,407. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 24 published by ideas spread 2. methodology the research uses secondary data, in particular previously written data, reports, articles and other relevant literature sources such as books and the internet. precious statistical data was drawn from eurostat, oecd, the ministry of justice and the court of first instance of thessaloniki. also, data from five older surveys on greek homelessness were compared. the former surveys were conducted by the city of athens reception and solidarity center for the homeless (kyada), ngo klimaka and panteion university of athens with the collaboration of the ministry of labour, social insurance and social solidarity. it should be noted at this point that there is no official information or published data from government agencies concerning the phenomenon of homelessness. furthermore, it should be taken under consideration that there is both visible and invisible homelessness since many vulnerable people, who are at obvious risk of homelessness, are accommodated by friends and relatives. limitations are related firstly to the lack of a consistent definition of homelessness and there is also a difficulty in measuring homelessness, specifically for those who are either temporarily accommodated by relatives and friends, invisible homeless people or people at risk of homelessness. 3. international and constitutional protection of housing homelessness is a dangerous situation for society. it promotes poverty and social exclusion. in legal theory adequate housing is traditionally regarded as a social right. in the past the uno tried to mitigate the global repercussions of homelessness. first, in 1948 the universal declaration of human rights (udhr) defined in article 25 that: “everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control”. moreover, in 1966 the united nations general assembly adopted the international covenant on economic, social and cultural rights (icescr). ιcescr is a multilateral treaty which defines in article 11, paragraph 1 that: “the states parties to the present covenant recognize the right of everyone to an adequate standard of living for himself and his family, including adequate food, clothing and housing, and to the continuous improvement of living conditions. the states parties will take appropriate steps to ensure the realization of this right, recognizing to this effect the essential importance of international co-operation based on free consent”. in the european union, the eu charter of fundamental rights defines in article 34 (social security and social assistance), paragraph 3 that: “in order to combat social exclusion and poverty, the union recognizes and respects the right to social and housing assistance so as to ensure a decent existence for all those who lack sufficient resources, in accordance with the rules laid down by union law and national laws and practices”. furthermore, with regard to the greek constitution with its amendments (1975-1986/2001/2008), the right to housing is clearly guaranteed in article 21, paragraph 4. in particular, constitutional article 21, paragraph 4 stipulates that: “the acquisition of dwelling for those that deprive it or those inadequately sheltered is subject to special care by the state”. also, the greek legislation protects to an extent main residence (first residence) from auctions by law 3869/2010 and its amendment (l. 4336/2015 and l. 4346/2015). the protection covers only natural persons who are not traders/merchants. “some 60,000 households were placed under the protection of this law between 2011 and 2013” (feantsa and the foundation abbé pierre 2017:85). besides, to some extent, both natural and legal persons, either with commercial status or not, are protected by law 4469/2017 which establishes a permanent out-of-court debt settlement mechanism. in addition, law 4320/2015 on “measures to deal with the humanitarian crisis” mentioned that vulnerable households facing extreme poverty were exempt from paying electricity up to 1,200 kwh per bill (article 1). also, this law’s article 2 granted rental allowance to up to 30,000 people, individuals or families, living in extreme poverty conditions. every month, an individual could receive up to €70 and families up to €220 in benefits. benefits were directly paid to the home owner (article 2) while article 3 concerned food support (food cards). in mid 2016 the provisions of law 4320/2015 were practically replaced by law 4389/2016 (official government gazette α΄ 94/27.05.2016, especially as to article 235) on the social solidarity income (in greek kea). the ssi mainly provides at least €200 per month to every individual with very low or zero income facing extreme poverty. half of the amount is mandatorily given via prepaid bank cards. as of 11 july 2018, 4,871 homeless people received the ssi. moreover, according to law 4387/2016 (art. 93), the state provides a special pension of €360 to uninsured seniors over 67 years old (social solidarity allowance). finally, according to ministerial decisions (γ3/οικ2615/22-051985, official government gazette 329 b΄/29-05-1985 and γ3/οικ2435/08-07-1987, official government gazette 435 β΄/19-08-1987) based on legislative decree 162/1973 (on measures for the protection of the elderly and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 25 published by ideas spread chronically ill), homeless people over 65, uninsured and poor, single or married, may only receive a rental allowance. if married at least one of them must be over 65. of course, the fact that aid is linked to a specific age threshold causes problems since the homeless less than 65 years old are de facto excluded from financial support. finally, according to law 4472/2017 (official government gazette 74 a΄/19-05-2017) the state provides a special rental allowance to up to 600,000 households paying rent or burdened with the cost of servicing a first home mortgage loan (art. 3). 4. who is considered homeless? who is considered as homeless? there are various definitions of homelessness (eddowes and hranitz 1989, chamberlain and mackenzie 1992, roth et al. 1992, jencks 1994, edgar et al. 2004, wyly and hammel 2005, toro 2007, minnery and greenhalgh 2007, ravenhil 2008, mcnaughton 2008, murphy and tobin 2011). “homelessness is defined as including anyone whose night residence is either in a shelter, on the street or in another public place” (eddowes and hranitz 1989:197). jencks (1994:4) supported that “the homeless can be divided into two groups: those who sleep in free shelters (the ‘shelter homeless’) and those who sleep in places not intended for human habitation, such as bus stations, subway trains, automobiles, doorways, and abandoned buildings” the ‘street homeless’. according to murphy and tobin (2011:9) “homelessness is the absence of a home or lack of a stable, dependable, source of housing”. the united nations economic commission for europe (2009) classifies homeless people into two categories: a) primary homelessness or rooflessness (people living on the streets without a shelter) and b) secondary homelessness (people with no place of usual residence). according to greek law 4052/2012 (article 29, paragraphs 1 and 2): 1. the homeless are recognized as a vulnerable social group, which is provided for by social protection. the homeless are defined as all persons legally residing in the country with no access, or with unsafe access to adequate, privately owned, rented or bestowed housing that meets the required specifications and has basic water services and electricity. 2. the homeless include especially those who live on the street, in hostels, are hosted, out of necessity, temporarily in institutions or other closed structures as well as those living in inappropriate accommodation” (theodorikakou et al., 2013, 204). apart from the greek legislation, in 2005 the european federation of national organizations working with the homeless (feantsa) launched a european typology on homelessness and housing exclusion (ethos). the ethos typology distinguishes four basic categories: roofless, houseless, insecure and inadequate (featsa 2006:1, stamatis 2012:5-6, arapoglou et al. 2005:22). in a survey conducted by arapoglou and gounis in 20132014 in attica (arapoglou and gounis 2014) the data followed the ethos typology on homelessness. figure 1. homelessness in attica 2014 based on ethos – european typology on homelessness and housing exclusion source: arapoglou and gounis 2014, arapoglou et al. 2015:25-27, authors’ editing hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 26 published by ideas spread table 1. homelessness in attica 2014 based on ethos – european typology on homelessness and housing exclusion conceptual category operation category people roofless 1 people living rough 2,360 houseless 3 people in accommodation for the homeless 15,436 insecure 8 people living in insecure accommodation 25,700 inadequate 11 people living in temporary / non-standard structures 93,820-514,000 source: arapoglou and gounis 2014, arapoglou et al., 2015:25-27 in 2015, in attica province (including athens) the number of homeless people according to the ethos typology was 500,000 (feantsa and foundation abbé pierre 2018:98). 5. housing problems in europe in europe it is estimated that there are approximately 4 million people who are homeless (saltou 2016). “homelessness, once considered a problem confined to third world nations and to periods of war and economic depression, has recently emerged as a major social issue in most developed nations” (toro 2007:461). the basic problem in europe is that homelessness is not confronted as a serious problem. “in europe there are very few strategic approaches to homelessness. in fact, homelessness is often not considered as worthy of a policy response in its own right and may be relegated to the periphery of both housing and social policy arenas” (minnery and greenhalgh 2007:650). as far as the world is concerned, the homeless are estimated at 100 million. greece is not the only eu member confronting problems with the phenomenon of homelessness. in many countries people cannot afford the high costs of home maintenance and face the dangers of housing deprivation. figure 2. severe housing deprivation rate in europe % (total) source: eurostat, authors’ editing figure 2 shows that states from the former eastern bloc, such as hungary, romania, latvia, bulgaria, are significantly affected from housing deprivation. on the other hand, the abovementioned states have significantly progressed between 2008 and 2016. mediterranean states, such as greece, italy and portugal, are also vulnerable to housing deprivation but to a lesser extent. in 2006 6.3% of the population in greece faced severe housing deprivation problems. the severe housing deprivation rate is the percentage of population living in a dwelling considered to be overcrowded, while also exhibiting at least one of the housing deprivation measures. housing deprivation is a measure of poor amenities and is calculated by referring to those households with a leaking roof, no bath/shower and no indoor toilet, or a dwelling considered too dark. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 27 published by ideas spread figure 3. housing cost overburden rate in europe (total in percent) source: eurostat, authors’ editing figure 3 shows that many citizens in greece, amounting to 40.5% of the population in 2016 (the highest rate in europe), face serious problems in affording housing costs. the housing cost overburden rate (%) is the percentage of the population living in a household where total housing costs (net of housing allowances) represent more than 40% of the total disposable household income (net of housing allowances). figure 4. difficulties in keeping the dwelling warm 2010-2014 (except germany) source: oecd, authors’ editing figure 4 depicts the percentage of households that cannot afford to keep their dwelling adequately warm, presenting the bottom quintile of the disposable income distribution. figure 4 is related to figure 2 with the exception of bulgaria. greece’s residents are the most affected by the economic crisis and mainly express inability to keep the dwelling warm. what is worse, although bulgaria year after year has improved income and living conditions, greece’s statistics have deteriorated between 2010 and 2014, especially for the bottom quintile of the population. approximately, one in two people from the poorest categories of the greek population (bottom quintile) cannot afford the costs of keeping their dwelling warm. also, the phenomenon of homelessness, during 2010-2014, has deteriorated in almost all countries where special economic adjustment programs were implemented such as hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 28 published by ideas spread greece (2010), cyprus (2011), spain (2012) and ireland (2010), while in portugal (2011) conditions have been critical. it is confirmed that some welfare regimes in europe provide significant support to homeless citizens while others do not. the extent of homelessness depends on the support of each welfare regime. specifically, in northern and richer states homelessness is dealt with better than in the mediterranean states. similarly, in the post socialist states the measures against homelessness are in large part inadequate (busch-geertsema et al. 2010:17, fitzpatrick et al. 2012:12). 6. homeless in greece 6.1 categories of homeless people at the beginning of the 1990s, homelessness in greece was related to foreigners, especially immigrants (theodorikakou et al. 2013:205). today, and especially after the adoption of the first memorandum of understanding between greece and its creditors, the majority of homeless are greeks (kyada 2016, panteion university and ministry of labour, social insurance and social solidarity 2018). although homelessness has been traditionally related mostly to uneducated poor people, people with mental disorders, drug addicts, alcohol addicts, violent people, unhealthy people and people with family problems, the prolonged greek economic crisis has brought additional features to homelessness. specifically, apart from the traditional long-term model of the homeless which mainly consists of drug addicts, alcoholics, compulsive gamblers and people with mental disorders, a new category of homeless people emerged, called the ‘neo-homeless’ or ‘new homeless’. neo-homeless are people who have been adversely affected by the economic crisis. many of them were well educated or well-trained and simply lost their jobs (feantsa 2012:54, theodorikakou et al. 2013:206). “the ‘new’ homeless are characterized by higher levels of qualifications and work experience and do not have complex needs apart from not being able to meet housing costs” (feantsa 2012:32). during crisis the phenomenon of homelessness has changed because it has incorporated people who enjoyed a good standard of living in the past, such as freelancers and entrepreneurs). moreover, except for the unlucky entrepreneurs, many ‘new’ homeless are simply women and children (busch-geertsema et al. 2010:15-16, 55). “the ‘new homeless’ are defined as families, women, children, youth, seniors, and marginalized ethnic or migrant groups” (minnery and greenhalgh 2007:643). also, in the last decade, both ‘visible’ and ‘invisible’ or ‘hidden’ homeless people increased in such levels which are unfamiliar to society (fitzpatrick 2012:23, 2017:17). hidden homelessness refers to people who try to find at first temporary accommodation through friends or family relatives (fitzpatrick et al. 2012:82). the major problems which trigger homelessness are economic failures, poverty, high cost of living, housing market conditions, unemployment, and family breakdowns. 6.2 active organizations against homelessness the state, the official orthodox church, municipalities, regions, non-profit organizations (npos), private organizations such as non-governmental organizations (ngos) as well as independent groups of individuals try to alleviate the problem of homelessness on a daily basis. specifically, thousands of free meals are offered by many institutions on a daily basis, such as the church of greece, municipalities and ngos. in 2016, only in the region of attica, at least 200 organizations were responsible for providing free meals. for instance, in 2017 ngo “we can” provided 20,000 meals on a daily basis (mavridis 2018:9). only in athens the reception and solidarity center for the homeless (kyada) provides 1,200 meals on a daily basis (saltou 2016). moreover, some private and public organizations provide free accommodation, night shelters or showers. following the 2016 ministerial decision δ23/οικ.19061-1457 (official government gazette b΄ 1336 12.5.2016) there are only four official types of homeless shelters: a) open day shelters for the homeless, b) dormitories, c) transient hospitality hostels, and d) supportive apartments. the direct housing provision is very important. larimer et al. (2009:1355) confirmed that direct housing of citizens, e.g. with alcohol addiction, reduces healthcare costs as well as probable legal costs (court costs, police involvement, etc.). according to the survey of panteion university and the ministry of labour, social insurance and social solidarity (2018), the majority of homeless people use soup kitchens which provide free meals. 6.3 the homeless population data shows a steady rise in the number of homeless people from 2009 to 2018. it should be noted that the survey of the national centre for social solidarity ncss (2009) excluded migrants and travelers (ncss in feantsa and the foundation abbé pierre 2017:16). unfortunately, illegal immigrants cannot usually be registered for social hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 29 published by ideas spread services and so are not identified in certain homelessness surveys based on access to such services (minnery and greenhalgh 2007:644). table 2. the homeless in greece, 2009-2018 year homeless sources 2009 7,720-11,000 ncss (2009), feantsa and foundation abbé pierre (2017:16), ngo praxis in void network (2013) 2010 17,000-20,000 fondeville and ward (2011:13-14), european observatory on homelessness in zarafonitou (2012:9), feantsa, ngo klimaka in reuters (2011) 2011 17,000-20,000 fondeville and ward (2011:13-14), feantsa, ngo klimaka in reuters (2011) 2012 20,000 feantsa (2012:25), stamatis (2012:5, 11), ngo klimaka 2013 20,000 feantsa, ngo praxis in void network (2013) 2014 25,000 ngo praxis (mavridis 2018:9) 2015 20,000 homeless world cup foundation (more than 20,000) 2016 40,000 saltou (2016) 2017 no data 2018 40,000 diem25-gr (2018) data in table 2, as well as figure 5, show that greece has witnessed a serious rise in homelessness over the past years (feantsa 2012:21). in greece, homelessness has increased especially in large urban centers (theodorikakou et al. 2013:206). in 2018 the political party diem25 (democracy in europe movement 2025) supports that there are over 40,000 homeless people. from 2009 to 2018 homeless people have doubled or even quadrupled. table 3. the homeless in athens, attica, 2010-2018 year homeless sources 2010 9,000 european observatory on homelessness in zarafonitou 2012:9 (attica) 2011 10,000 mpoulia 2011 (athens) 2012 10,000-13,000 10,000 klimaka (athens), more than 11,000 ngo praxis in stamatis 2012:12 (athens), 13,000 ngo praxis in the daily star lebanon 2012 (athens) 2013 9,100 arapoglou and gounis 2015:2 (greater metropolitan area of athens) 2014 no data 2015 17,000-20,000 17,000 feantsa 2017b (attica), 20,000 kottasova 2015 (athens) 17,000 feantsa and foundation abbé pierre 2018:98 (attica province) 2016 9,000 feantsa and foundation abbé pierre 2017:16 (athens) 2017 25,000 migreurope 2017 (athens) table 3 depicts the tremendous rise in homelessness in the greater metropolitan area of athens. in 2017 the observatory migreurope counts homeless population at 25,000. especially in athens, according to feantsa and the foundation abbé pierre (2017:16), “the findings show that 71% of the athens homeless were forced to live on the streets in the past five years”, which corresponds to 1.4% of the athens population. in 2017, in athens, “1 in 70 people are now homeless, most becoming homeless since 2011” (feantsa 2017a). in the near future the issue of homelessness will probably become further deteriorated (mavridis 2018:9). 6.4 major causes of the phenomenon of homelessness from a legal point of view the phenomenon of homelessness is on the rise because social rights cannot be judicially enforced. this means that due to a weakness of putting social rights in force the right to housing is practically ineffective (theodorikakou et al. 2013:203-204). in other words, the homeless cannot make the state provide shelter. apart from that, in greece the overall housing policy further deteriorated after the abolition of the former main housing funding body, the worker’s housing organization (in greek oek) in 2012, which had been established in 1954! moreover, during the greek crisis the property costs for both owned and rented properties further augmented. in order to collect more revenues, the state introduced new taxes on property such as “enfia” which means “unified hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 30 published by ideas spread property ownership tax”. this practically means that according to the independent authority for public revenue almost one out of two taxpayers owes to tax authorities, namely 4,068,857 taxpayers in december 2017 (kouros 2018). figure 5. tenure structure of low-income households with difficulty in keeping the dwelling warm (2014) source: oecd, authors’ editing as emphasized in figure 5, in greece 60.25% of the people, who have their own private property, find it difficult to keep their dwelling warm. the calculations are based on the european survey on income and living conditions (eu silc 2014) except germany. moreover, the rise in property taxes has led to a tremendous increase in waivers of succession (figure 6), namely statements renouncing inheritance (there are only estimations for 2017). figure 6. waiver of succession in greece (2019-2017) source: ministry of justice, transparency and human rights 2017 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 31 published by ideas spread moreover, apart from the tremendous rise in inheritance renunciations, the state increasingly proceeds to enforcement measures against taxpayers who cannot pay private debts to tax authorities. these measures have deteriorated the phenomenon of homelessness. table 4. private debt to tax authorities/state, 2009–2016 (independent authority for public revenue) year 2014 2015 2016 2017 debts 75 bil. € 86 bil. € 95 bil. € 102 bil. € taxpayers who owe to tax authorities/state 3,939,353 4,305,153 4,146,483 4,068,857 enforcement measures against taxpayers: e.g., seizures, auctions no data 695,074 839,056 1,050,077 source: mavridis 2018:10 table 4 presents the dire situation in greece. in 2017, the debt to tax agencies was €102 billion. furthermore, in 2017 the total number of taxpayers owing to tax authorities reached 4,068,857 on many (1,050,077) of whom enforcement measures by the state such as seizures and auctions were imposed. this practically means that almost one out of two taxpayers owes to tax authorities. in addition, there are serious problems with private debt, the total bank debt (red loans) and the debt of social security organizations (mavridis 2018:10). in addition, from 2009 and onwards several households find it difficult to pay off home loans due to regressive reductions in salaries and pensions (louzis et al. 2011: 22-24, matsaganis 2013:16). figure 7. trends in evictions in greece, 2010-2013 estimations of eviction applications to courts for private rented housing source: oecd 2017, authors’ editing figure 7 shows that in the beginning of the crisis evictions increased. paradoxically, after 2012 there was clear reduction in evictions. both figure 7 and table 5 illustrate a paradox. although the number of homeless people has steadily increased, the number of evictions as well as landlord/tenant disputes has not. a possible answer is that a moratorium has been issued by banks and greek governments protecting a number of debtors with mortgage arrears (sapounakis and katapidi 2017:150). also, the protective law 3869/2010 helped many people to avoid bank auctions. the newly elected government of syriza (coalition of the radical left) empowered this trend up to a point when it came to power in 2015. finally, the decrease of evictions and property lawsuits is possibly due to massive youth immigration abroad as well as to individuals’ return of to their parental homes. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 32 published by ideas spread table 5. applications to the court of first instance of thessaloniki for landlord/tenant disputes (lawsuits and orders), 2006-2016 year lawsuits (codes 201-208) orders (codes 262-263) total 2006 1,887 75 1,962 2007 1,889 43 1,932 2008 1,832 84 1,916 2009 2,258 392 2,650 2010 2,559 638 3,197 2011 2,024 1,006 3,030 2012 1,458 604 2,062 2013 1,079 545 1,624 2014 861 418 1,279 2015 908 395 1,303 2016 575 349 924 source: court of first instance of thessaloniki 7. comparing previous surveys on homelessness in greece the following five surveys were conducted in greece: two of them were conducted by ngo klimaka (2006 and 2012) in certain areas of greece, another two surveys were conducted under the supervision of kyada (2013 and 2016) in athens and one survey was conducted in seven municipalities of greece on may 2018 under the supervision of panteion university of athens and the ministry of labour, social insurance and social solidarity (panteion university and ministry of labour, social insurance and social solidarity 2018). klimaka is a private organization established in 2000 with a view to address social problems especially regarding vulnerable groups. on the other hand, the city of athens reception and solidarity center for the homeless (kyada) is a public and social agency which officially belongs to the municipality of athens. in particular, in 2006 ngo klimaka conducted a survey by questioning 200 homeless people from march 2015 until march 2016 (klimaka 2016). in 2012, ngo klimaka conducted anew a similar survey by questioning 214 homeless people (ngo klimaka 2012 in theodorikakou et al. 2012). in 2013 a similar survey was conducted and presented by the city of athens reception and solidarity center for the homeless (kyada) by questioning 480 homeless people from june to august 2013 (kyada 2013). furthermore, in 2016 kyada presented a survey, funded by the norwegian government, after questioning 451 homeless people from march 2015 until march 2016 (kyada 2016). finally, panteion university and ministry of labour, social insurance and social solidarity conducted a survey by questioning 1,645 homeless people in 2018 (panteion university and ministry of labour, social insurance and social solidarity 2018). 7.1 gender figure 8. gender, ngo klimaka 2006, 2012 source: ngo klimaka 2006, 2012, authors’ editing hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 33 published by ideas spread men are usually more than women among the homeless. in the years following the outburst of the crisis homelessness seems to be more of a men’s problem (panteion university and ministry of labour, social insurance and social solidarity 2018). as emphasized in figure 8, in 2006 25% of the homeless were women and 75% men (ngo klimaka 2006, 2012). similarly, in kyada surveys in athens, homeless men are more, namely 77% in 2013 and 85.4% in 2016. all surveys show a clear rise in homeless men. 7.2 age figure 9. age, ngo klimaka, 2012 source: ngo klimaka 2012, authors’ editing figure 10. age, kyada, 2016 source: kyada 2016, authors’ editing at first, it should be noted that certain data should not be mixed in one diagram for statistical reasons. the surveys of klimaka (2012) and kyada (2016) clearly show that the majority of the homeless are over 40 years of age (figure 9, figure 10). furthermore the survey of panteion university and the ministry of labour, social insurance and social solidarity (2018) shows that the majority of the homeless are between 18-44 years of age. a possible explanation is a job loss or an economic failure in relation to parental death (parental support is traditional in greece), especially in the mediterranean countries. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 34 published by ideas spread 7.3 homelessness duration figure 11. homelessness duration, ngo klimaka, 2006, 2012 source: ngo klimaka, 2006, 2012, authors’ editing figure 11 shows how the economic crisis has directly affected the homeless population. in 2012, in the beginning of the crisis, people who were homeless 1-6 months almost doubled in relation to 2006. the newcomers reached from 18.60% of the total homeless population in 2006 to 31.40% in 2012. another serious problem is that the number of people who remain homeless for a period of up to 2 years is considerably high (klimaka 2006, 2012, kyada 2016). 7.4 education figure 12. education, ngo klimaka, 2006, 2012 source: ngo klimaka 2006, 2012, authors’ editing hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 35 published by ideas spread data in figure 12 confirms that in 2012 the homeless population is more educated than in 2006. it is normal over the years that people are more educated. on the other hand, it appears that the low educational level is a typical characteristic of homeless people. the state, therefore, should focus on skill-learning for the homeless as a practical method to reduce homelessness (ngo klimaka 2006, 2012). 7.5 causes of homelessness figure 13. causes of homelessness, ngo klimaka, 2012 source: ngo klimaka 2012, authors’ editing the three main causes for homelessness are constantly: a) financial problems (29.80%), b) unemployment (17.30%) and the lack of family support (17.30%), which total 64.4% (ngo klimaka 2016). the above three factors are exactly the same in the previous survey of klimaka conducted in 2006. the survey of kyada (2013) confirms klimaka’s data of 2006 and 2012 (figure 13). it is clear that economic (unemployment) and financial problems are the major factors which trigger homelessness (47.1% in total). apart from that, family breakdowns and personal isolation from family (namely no family support and divorces) play a secondary role which cannot be considered to be negligible (24% in total). on the other hand, serious addictions, such as drug use, gambling and alcohol, account only for 9.5%, which is relatively low. finally, the complexity of the causes of homelessness is visible as 8.9% of the respondents selected the vague category “other problems”. figure 14. the causes of homelessness, kyada, 2013 source: kyada 2013, authors’ editing hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 36 published by ideas spread 7.6 familial attitude unfortunately, in greece the traditional mediterranean family model became westernized very rapidly. as a result solidarity among family members has weakened. when the debt crisis broke out, the problem of lack of solidarity became obvious. the weakening of familial safety clearly worsened housing conditions (papadopoulos and roumpakis 2012:209, 219-220, 2013:211-212). figure 15. familial attitude, ngo klimaka, 2006, 2012 source: ngo klimaka 2006, 2012, authors’ editing figure 15 depicts the tranfromation of society into a more faceless and untouchable form. specifically, during the last economic crisis, familial attitude towards the potentially homeless has dramatically worsened. in 2012 three quarters of relatives (75%) tend not to support family members who become homeless. unfortunately, the family structure rapidly lost its prestige even in mediteranean states such as greece. between 2006 and 2012 familial attitude towards homeless relatives became significantly worse by 7.5% (ngo klimaka 2006, 2012). similarily, in 2016, according to the survey of kyada (2016), the percentage of supportive relatives amounted only to 25.5%. 7.7 health insurance figure 16. health insurance, ngo klimaka, 2006, 2012 source: ngo klimaka 2006, 2012, authors’ editing figure 16 points out the failure of social programs combating homelessness. unfortunately, the state not only is incapable of finding appropriate accommodation for the homeless but cannot even provide the necessary medical assistance. homeless people excluded from health insurance have steadily accounted for a percentage of 58%. what is worse, the areas where the homeless live are usually disease hotbeds. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 37 published by ideas spread 7.8 begging figure 17. begging, kyada, 2013 source: kyada 2013, authors’ editing unfortunately, according to kyada’s data (2013), almost one in two (49%) of the homeless begged (figure 17). begging naturally derives from economic obstacles. an additional problem is that begging often entails court proceedings, creating a vicious cycle of isolation and stigmatizing citizens. for example, according to article 407 of the greek penal code, begging is punishable by up to 6 months in jail and up to a €3,000 fine. 7.9 change of personal situation figure 18. change of personal situation, ngo klimaka, 2006, 2012 source: ngo klimaka 2006, 2012, authors’ editing figure 18 clarifies that the homeless became more optimistic in the middle of the economic crisis. in 2012 almost 80% of homeless people believed that their situation could change (klimaka 2012). the respective 2006 percentage was approximately 66%. paradoxically, for the large majority of the homeless their future was promising. a possible answer is that they did not expect the prolongation of the crisis. unfortunately, up to now, the general economic situation in greece has drastically deteriorated. 8. solutions the phenomenon of homelessness is connected with the broader implementation of social policy. in the last decade the greek economy has significantly deteriorated due to the socio-economic crisis. the crisis obviously affected the greek welfare state. as a consequence, due to the lack of financial resources, the state apparatus, private organizations and the official orthodox church should co-operate with each other in order to eliminate the existence of homeless people, no matter if they are greek or foreigners. also, there needs to be close collaboration with european associations and organizations such as feantsa. better management is the only way forward. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 38 published by ideas spread more specifically, at first, specialized shelters should be constructed across the country for the homeless where they will be able to find temporary general help, free medical assistance and food, on a case by case basis. officially the social shelters would be open day shelters for the homeless, dormitories, transient hospitality hostels, and supportive apartments. moreover, apart from receiving a small monthly benefit, the homeless should have the right to free education in the state educational structures. unfortunately, there is a strong relation between the lack of education and homelessness. thirdly, every homeless person should be enrolled in a special state list and all social shelters should be closely interconnected. the purpose behind the interconnection would be to provide every available source of assistance towards homeless people. finally, there is significant need for additional research, political commitment, strategic planning, investing of fiscal and human resources and voluntary activity. unfortunately, up to now, the usually implemented policies have intended to support solely the basic needs of homeless people, such as food. there is a lack of appropriate housing shelters. furthermore, people, especially those with mental or other disorders, need to be handled in a flexible manner that includes crisis intervention, a well-functioning social safety net and actual housing availability (busch-geertsema et al. 2010:5, 71). tsemberis and eisenberg (2000:488-489) have suggested a three-stage program called “continuum of care”, especially for homeless people with mental disorders or addictions. at the first stage, beneficiaries are encouraged to stay in a shelter so as to abandon their former way of living. in the shelter, the homeless receive health services and general aid. in the second phase, they learn to live alone at home and in the final stage, if standards are met, accommodation is provided in places of permanent residence where they receive sufficient support and particular treatment. another solution is the “housing first” scheme which is intended to immediately re-house the homeless and then provide other assistance (economic, medical, education technical or even administrative). of course, the program is organized in a voluntary manner so that people living rough can freely chose whether to participate in the program or leave (gulcur et al. 2003:182-183). in greece, there was an attempt to implement the “housing first” program in 2015. in 2017 the program was replaced by kea (social solidarity income) which offers a way out only to vulnerable citizens that are not accommodated by friends or family members. the achilles heel of the abovementioned programs is bureaucracy. many times homeless people are unaware of their own rights. what is worse, without additional help homeless people cannot afford the cost of living in houses and as a result they do not easily abandon the streets. homeless people need proper advice on a regular basis by specialized permanent staff which will “patrol” the streets, helping the homeless. 9. conclusions the traditional weakness of the greek welfare state in relation with the continuous welfare cuts introduced during the crisis has significantly reduced household incomes. even middle income households have to cope with precarious jobs or unemployment. in greece cuts, economic stagnation, as well as the high housing costs, have increased homelessness. in addition, the replacement of family as a social safety net has further aggravated the situation of homeless people. despite the fact that the reasons for which people sleep rough have not changed during the crisis (e.g. economic reasons, unemployment and lack of family support), the personal profile of the homeless has changed. after the crisis, men are affected more than women and young people more than older people. even more, university graduates end up on the streets more often than before the emergence of the crisis. moreover, the group of immigrants or refugees has gradually increased the homeless population, especially the vulnerable group which resides in non-decent accommodation. regarding the duration of homelessness it seems that after the crisis it has increased up to six months. consequently, it is evident that the governments during the last recession could not solve or contain the problem of homelessness. governmental countermeasures have only been temporary and fragmented. therefore, the adopted countermeasures have been ineffective. the failure to cope with the rise of homelessness is probably correlated with the lack of data and resources, weak personalization approaches and inadequate policy design. however, the legal framework for the protection of the main residence has acted as an obstacle to a further increase in the rate of the homeless. acknowledgments the authors would like to thank the reviewers of this journal for their suggestions that improved the presentation of the herein discussed topic. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 39 published by ideas spread references arapoglou, v., & gounis, k. 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(eds.) gentrification in a global context: the new urban colonialism. new york: routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203392089_chapter_2 zarafonitou, c. (2012). victimization, insecurity and registration of the needs of the homeless people of the municipality of kallithea, july. retrieved april 14, 2018, from http://docplayer.gr/1032834-thymatopoiisianasfaleia-kai-katagrafi-anagkon-ton-astegon-toy-dimoy-kallitheas.html electronic sources eurostat. retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database oecd. retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/ copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v1n1p73 73 published by ideas spread reviewer acknowledgements humanities and social science research wishes to acknowledge the following individuals for their assistance with peer review of manuscripts for this issue. their help and contributions in maintaining the quality of the journal is greatly appreciated. humanities and social science research is recruiting reviewers for the journal. if you are interested in becoming a reviewer, we welcome you to join us. please find the application form and details at http://home.ideasspread.org/for-reviewers/ and e-mail the completed application form to hssr@ideasspread.org reviewers for volume 1, number 1 agustinus hermino, kanjuruhan university, indonesia akin aksu, akdeniz university faculty of tourism, turkey albrecht classen, university of arizona, united states amil maharramov, baku state university, azerbaijan cesar t. medula, saint mary’s university, philippines elena a. ogneva, belgorod national research university, russia erna multahada, mercu buana university, indonesia gholamreza azarbouyehdinaki, shiraz art university, australia i ketut sariada, indonesian institut of the arts, indonesia imran ali, the islamia university of bahawalpur, pakistan imron w. harits, university of trunojoyo madura, indonesia irina kuprieva, russian university of cooperation, russia jonas jakaitis, vilnius gediminas technical university, lithuania marouf noura, islamic azad university, iran mercedes llorent vaquero, universidad de sevilla, spain muhammad rehan masoom, united international university, bangladesh p. malyadri, rayalaseema university, india rose matete, the university of dodoma, tanzania ryan dwi puspita, stkip sebelas april, indonesia sam mahidlawon, northern negros state college of science and technology, philippines solomon ochepa oduma-aboh, kaduna state university, nigeria thomas georgas, institute of education, united kingdom tinashe chuchu, university of the witwatersrand, south africa zarinah arshat, universiti putra malaysia, malaysia humanities and social science research; vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v2n4p1 1 published by ideas spread implementation of ecotourism empowerment in coastal border of west kalimantan toto sugito1, adhi iman sulaiman1, ahmad sabiq2, bambang kuncoro2 & muslih faozanudin3 1 department of communication science, jenderal soedirman university, indonesia 2 department of political science, jenderal soedirman university, indonesia 3 department of public adminsitration, jenderal soedirman university, indonesia correspondence: toto sugito, department of communication science, jenderal soedirman university, indonesia received: september 27, 2019; accepted: october 13, 2019; published: october 17, 2019 the research is financed by ministry of research, technology and higher education of the republic of indonesia and institute for research and community services of jenderal soedirman university. abstract development must be an important and strategic priority, especially in the coastal border village area to prevent economic disparity, community conflict, and national disintegration. the research aims to analyze the implementation of the empowerment of coastal border of west kalimantan. the research used qualitative methods of participatory learning and action (pla), data were collected through in-depth interviews, observation, documentation analysis, and focus group discussion (fgd). the research took place in the coastal border area of temajuk village, paloh district, sambas regency, west kalimantan. informants heve been purposively selected namely activists, students, community leaders, village government, business groups, academics, and tourists. the research analysis through interactive models by collecting data, reduce, verification, categorization and conclusions. the results showed that (1) implementation of empowerment can be carried out by conducting counseling and training so as to increase awareness, motivation, knowledge, skills and solidarity between participants from the younger generation who form ecotourism community development. (2) community development has been successfully formed from a young generation with the name "the borneo tail" to become an activist who preserves and manages the potential of ecotourism by having the spirit of being a public relations (tourism guide), promotional and marketing services, and typical food and beverage entrepreneurs. (3) development must continue to be improved, namely road infrastructure, availability of electricity and access to telecommunications networks (internet) as a support in the development of ecotourism, especially in temajuk village which is still limited and dependent on malaysian territory. (4) the village and regional governments, academics, activists of empowerment, environmentalists and tourists need to collaborate in carrying out sustainable ecotourism empowerment programs for borneo tails as community development. keywords: coastal border, community empowerment, development, ecotourism, participatory 1. introduction development in the outer areas of the coastal border becomes important and strategic because it involves the image of the country in the frontier, remote and backward areas of social security, strengthening of the coastal economy, food sovereignty and maritime affairs. according to several studies, such as according to van geenhuizen and rietveld (2011) land borders and coastal sea areas become important and interesting studies to be able to construct historical differences, the development process, the process of interaction between border areas and economic development, so that they can be an important note for consideration and planning for the future. excerpts from dharmasaputra (2009), khairunnisa et al. (2017), firdaus and rahadian (2018) showed that there a lot of economic potential, especially fisheries and tourism commodities in the prospective coastal border areas. therefore they need to be developed seriously and wisely by maintaining, preserving and developing the potential to create prosperity for the community, moreover the development in the coastal border areas is so important, strategic and characterizes the development of a nation. based on the results of the author's in 2018-2019 namely the potential of natural beauty and coastal-based tourism and fisheries have not been optimally developed, it only meets daily needs, less managed into a large-scale hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 2 published by ideas spread professional fisheries business according to export market demand, has not yet processed fishery products into restaurants or special foods for tourists, especially residents of temajuk village only work as workers in tourist sites for lodging and restaurant owners come from outside the area, thus it has not produced economic prosperity in the village community. the economy of rural communities is still dependent on malaysia's neighboring countries, namely as farm laborers in oil palm plantations, rubber plantations, livestock, construction laborers, carpenters, and domestic servant. many ecotourism potentials such as mangrove forests, and processing of food from mangrove fruit, sea turtle breeding, were unplanned, unwell-managed and unwell-organized beach tourism. there are problems in the border area development infrastructure such as the gap of transportation road facilities that are still not good. according to nugroho (2011) assert that there are still problems with the lack of infrastructure that can support to increase economic productivity for welfare and security guarantees as well as the lack of implementation of empowerment programs in the outer border areas. according to witarsa (2015) there are some complex problems in the coastal border areas such as lack of knowledge and ability in managing coastal resources, especially from socioeconomic, biophysical, market, technology and institutional and technological aspects. while hassan and rahmat (2016) emphasize the vulnerability of environmental damage and the potential threat of disasters in coastal areas will hamper people's economy, thus local communities must be prepared to anticipate this. various attempts have been made by the government to issue law number 26 of 2007 concerning spatial planning, which is followed up in republic of indonesia government regulation number 26 of 2008 concerning national spatial planning, that border areas are strategic areas and their spatial planning priorities are prioritized in the implementation of development. furthermore, law number 6 of 2014 concerning villages, particularly article 13, states that the government can initiate the formation of villages in areas that are specific and strategic in the national interest, meaning the outermost areas within border regions between countries. according to the master plan for the acceleration and expansion of indonesian economic development (mp3ei) 2011-2025, indonesia as a maritime country has a target, among others, to focus on basic services in disadvantaged, remote and border areas in the framework of equitable development by increasing connectivity, inclusive and equitable development. so that researchers are interested in analyzing the empowerment of young people in the development of ecotourism in the coastal border area in tamajuk village, paloh district, sambas regency, west kalimantan province, which has the potential for natural tourism and a very beautiful beach that borders directly with the sarawak region of malaysia. 2. method preliminary studies have been conducted by researchers in 2018, there are potential threats and disruptions of bilateral relations at the border on security and political aspects, especially regarding violations in the management and exploitation of natural resources across national borders, national boundaries and land boundaries of plantations and fishing areas. the young generation in this case students in the village community still lack of knowledge, understanding and skills in the management and development of the economic potential of environmental tourism of temajuk village cost which is very prospective. so as further research, carried out the qualitative research methods of participatory learning and action (pla) that are relevant to research activities for the learning process, planning, counseling, training, mentoring, and developing that involve groups and communities in a participatory manner to explore issues and potential in depth and foster participation (pretty et al. 1995); (kumar 2002). data were collected through in-depth interviews, observation, documentation analysis, and focus group discussion (fgd). participatory research is designed to construct experiences, knowledge, and skills and learn together in joint activities based on research questions such as problems, potentials and prospects about the preservation and development of ecotourism. the informants who participated in the implementation of ecotourism empowerment were 25 people from student high school of temajuk village . while the expert informants from activists and academics who also became the instructors of empowerment activities were 4 people, and informants from the village apparatus there are 4 people and from community leaders 5 people. the study uses interactional analysis by collecting data, reducing, verification, categorizing and drawing conclusions. the research analysis through interactive models by collecting data, reduce, verification, categorization and conclusions (miles et al. 2014). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 3 published by ideas spread 3. results 3.1 reserach process of the ecotourism empowerment in the coastal border village the research used qualitative research methods of participatory learning and action (pla), the stages process of program planning to implementation and monitoring and evaluation of implementation are important set of results, analysis and research discussion. this can be constructed based on the results of the 2018-2019 study which contained several major problems, namely the community of temajuk village still has a dependency in meeting their daily basic needs and earning a living by working in malaysia as a farm laborer, fisherman, carpenter and building maker. the potential of natural and beach tourism as well as marine fisheries income has not been maximized as a community economic endeavor, but rather is being utilized by investors who buy land for lodging and restaurant services at tourist sites, while local people are only employees. then the researchers conducted further research by first socializing and discussing empowerment programs as a recommendation for the results of the 2018 research to community leaders, empowerment activists, academics as experts and colleagues and village government using the participatory decision making (pdm) method. the result is recommending to carry out ecotourism empowerment to form young groups concerned about the environment and tourism with the target of student high school in tmajuk village with the aim of (1) students have high motivation, attention, concern and participation in participating in the empowerment process for the preservation and development of ecotourism-based tourism. (2) students as the next generation have the opportunity to determine the future, namely protecting, preserving and developing the potential of the environment, tourism and rural economy, so that they are no longer dependent on neighboring malaysia. (3) the village government, schools and activists of empowerment strongly support the activities of ecotourism empowerment among students. various references refer to the importance of the role of the young generation in development and empowerment, according to wibawa (2013) youth have characteristics as people who have high spirits, idealism, dynamic, and are quick to accept changes so that they can be used as good development cadres. okoli and okoli (2013) stated the need for entrepreneurial empowerment for young people as a way to equip the skills needed to start a business independently and reduce the high unemployment. itika (2011) states that the youth generation is the hope of the future and the nation's assets to be able to increase human resources through empowerment and education. oyekan (2015) states that the youth generation is the hope of the future and the nation's assets to be able to increase human resources through empowerment and education. el hasanah (2015) and raheem (2016) explained that the younger generation is a productive and creative resource so that they can open self-employment or sustainable self-employment as to reduce the unemployment rate and increase economic development. wulandari (2016) states that the younger generation needs to be given wider opportunities to be motivated in bringing out creative ideas and developing their potential and interest in the process of development and empowerment. bintari and darmawan (2016) explain that youth are given learning to be able to know, understand and appreciate cultural traditions as values of local wisdom, then given a variety of education and training to develop their potential and interest to work. ashary (2016) suggests that youth need to be given many opportunities to get empowerment through entrepreneurship training that is more applicable to skills in opening economic businesses and employment. the research process to design and develop an ecotourism empowerment program on the coastal border villages is carried out through several participatory stages, namely: (1) formulating a program based on preliminary studies both literature review results of journal reviews, research results, mass media report, and scientific discussion studies with colleagues, experts and practitioner. (2) opening access and licensing of activities to the location in order to get permission, support and participation of all parties, both village government, schools and community leaders or activists. (3) the third stage is designing an empowerment program through observation, documentation, study and dialogue with the community, community leaders and activists, academics and business people. (4) socialization of empowerment programs that have been designed to target empowerment, namely schools and empowerment activists. (5) implementation of ecotourism empowerment for young generationin coastal border villages to increase motivation, knowledge, understanding, care, ability to maintain, preserve and develop the potential of natural tourism (ecotourism), special food (culinary) and promotional and marketing strategies ecotourism. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 4 published by ideas spread (6) assistance, monitoring and evaluation of activities are carried out when the process of implementing empowerment is done by direct observation, informal and formal interviews or dialogue in a special evaluation forum, distributes the evaluation questionnaire to be processed, analyzed and the results presented to participants for further action. moreover after the completion of activities are made important notes for improvement of the implementation of further better empowerment. (7) opening partnership access with local empowerment activists and schools so that they can continue the results of the economic empowerment and ecotourism program in temajuk village as a coastal border area. (8) creating a model of developing economic empowerment and ecotourism in coastal border villages based on technological innovations such as for the provision of solar-powered electricity facilities, processing of organic and non-organic waste, packaging and labeling of business products, promotion strategies and marketing through social media or information media. as according to similar studies by ginting (2013), sulaiman (2013), raheem (2016), wulandari (2016), silmi (2017), puspaningrum & agustina (2017), zakaria et al (2018), sulaiman et al (2019) that the research process that uses participatory methods, has similarities in the stages of the process such as (1) the activity of opening access, approaches and permits to the research location, this is to establish closeness, acceptance, openness and there is no distance between the researcher and the informant. so that the research process will be smooth, get support and obtain the expected results. (2) interview, observation and documentation data collection activities are carried out in a closer, dialogical, informal, participatory and harmonious way. (3) research activities based on the results of deliberation, agreement and involvement of all parties, so that starting from the planning, implementation, and evaluation of the activities carried out together. (4) research establishes a close relationship, continued sustainability. although the research activities are finished. thus an illustration of the participatory research process can be made as follows in figure 1. figure 1. research process of ecotourism empowerment in coastal border village hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 5 published by ideas spread 3.2 implementation of the ecotourism empowerment model in the coastal border village temajuk village has the potential and attractiveness as a unique natural tourist destination, so that it can be developed, such as the location of the tugu garuda monument, surya beach tour, coral reef location, maludin beach, mangrove forest, gunung pangi waterfall, camar bulan pier, atong bay, batu grandma, batu bajula pasir plaik, and tanjung datok. the location is in one area in temajuk village which is still natural, beautiful, and comfortable. this is supported by the potential of abundant marine fish products that can be used as a typical tourist food. sambas regency, west kalimantan province was designed in a participatory manner by community and youth leaders, environmental activist empowerment activists, business actors, village government, and academics to deepen and construct the problems faced, potentials and prospects that can be developed. the target of ecotourism empowerment is students high school in temajuk village that were chosen as representatives of the younger generation, the next generation, as activists and pioneers who will mobilize other youth communities to be able to protect, preserve and develop the potential for ecotourism in temajuk village as a coastal border area. before implementing the ecotourism empowerment model, the researcher conducted further identification and analysis especially on the participants or research informants of 25 students with a participatory method through the problem based learning (pbl) approach, discovery leanrning and the project based learning method. the results are namely (1) having knowledge and understanding of tourism potential and its environment as proven to be able to mention and full describe such as the type or category of tourism, tourist routes and locations in temajuk village. (2) having a high motivation and motive to be able to play a role as a tourist business by protecting, preserving and wanting to develop the potential of ecotourism that is to become a tour guide, culinary business and promotion and marketing team. (3) being able to identify existing problems regarding the development of ecotourism while providing a concept of solution. (4) willing to form a tourism-conscious generation group with the name borneo tail groups to carry out the role of a tour guide, culinary business and promotion and marketing team. (5) able to simulate the process of creating an ecotourism development program. implementation of the empowerment of ecotourism were not only in the form of socialization, counseling, simulation and training, but also emphasizing the research subjects to carry out ecotourism development. they require assistance and cooperation or partnerships among all stakeholders such as government, community, educational institutions and non-governmental organizations, and business actors. according to purnamasari et al. (2016) and arismiyanti (2017) strategies that can be applied in the development of sustainable marine ecotourism in indonesia are: regional development and marine ecotourism products through empowering local communities; network development of the marine and tourism industry; infrastructure development; marketing marine ecotourism products; marine spatial planning; increasing the security of marine tourism; and the development of institutions and human resources. sabahan and evita (2017) state that sebubus and temajuk villages in paloh sub-district have prospective tourism potential, thus they require local government policy to establish a coastal ecotourism area with more attention to nature protection and cultural preservation, as well as the empowerment of ecotourism for the community in order to be able to further enhance community participation and welfare. dewi and rachmawati (2018) suggest strategies in empowering coastal border communities, are (1) increasing participation, especially youth and women, (2) forming and developing tourism-aware groups in the community by monitoring, evaluating and assisting (4) developing arts festivals , culture and economic endeavors on the border as a medium for promotion, interaction, marketing and cooperation. whereas rhama (2018) emphasized that global ecotourism has become an alternative for the tourism sector while still protecting and preserving the environment, as well as being beneficial to improve the living standards of local people. therefore in the implementation of ecotourism empowerment, it can be formulated and given the assistance and partnership program recommendations in table 1 below: table 1. implementation of the coastal border community empowerment model empowerment program assistance and partnership  study and fgd on previous research findings (2018-2019)  socialization of the outer coastal border empowerment model to empowering participants who are  partnership from the center for rural and border area development studies from lecturers / colleagues of tangjungpura university (untan) by conducting research fgds and recommending empowerment of young people in coastal border villages  partnership from the village government to allow and support hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 6 published by ideas spread students high school  group discussion on identifying and analyzing ecotourism issues, potentials and prospects in temajuk village  apply brainstorming, problem based learning (pbl),discovery learning, and project based learning extension activities and ecotourism management training  the paloh 2 public high school in temajuk village supports and hosts ecotourism management education and training activities  empowerment activists at pelangi agriculture groups became instructors and resource persons in ecotourism training and training activities.  the activists of tanjungpura university (untan) alumni empowerment, who are native of the sebubus and temajuk villages, are the assistants in the development of ecotourism.  counseling and training in strategy management and ecotourism development  counseling and training in culinary entrepreneurship management typical of both drinks and food  formation of youth tourism awareness groups (ekor borneo groups)  discovery learning, and project based learning method  the village government allows and supports activities and by sending representatives  empowerment activists at pelangi agriculture groups became instructors and resource persons in ecotourism training and training activities.  the paloh 2 public high school in temajuk village supports and hosts ecotourism management education and training activities  the activists of tanjungpura university (untan) alumni empowerment, who are native of the sebubus and temajuk villages, are the assistants in the development of ecotourism. source: author’s own work the implementation of research using the participatory action research (pla) method through the implementation of ecotourism empowerment for students as young generation is very important and effective because of high motivation, curiosity and solidarity as evidenced from the enthusiasm and active role of students as participants in the series of stages of empowerment activities, including the process and evaluation results with participants. the younger generation is expected to play an active role in continuing and developing and become agents of change for the development process in rural communities in this case the development of ecotourism potential. however, in the implementation of empowerment, there are still obstacles that must be overcome, namely (1) implementation of empowerment must be carried out sustainably, comprehensively, synergistically and collaboratively, meaning that the implementation so far is only partial in nature, both from the implementer or organizer, the material program and the time of implementation. so that it needs to be periodically carried out by all stakeholders both the village government, empowerment activists, academics, non-governmental organizations and the private sector. (2) empowerment programs are technocratic programs, meaning that they are not based on participatory approaches based on the results of studies or research on the problems, potentials, needs and prospects of the community. so that research-based empowerment needs to be designed. (3) empowerment is not just an increase in motivation, knowledge and skills, but there is the formation, development and strengthening of institutions, the ability to create and propose empowerment programs, able establish partnerships or cooperation. empowerment can create jobs for young people themselves and society in general, reducing urbanization and migrant workers to neighboring malaysia. there is an integrated concept of coastal management as an effort to unite government with the community, science with management, and sectoral interests with the interests of the community in implementing integrated program planning for the protection and development of coastal ecosystem resources so that there is an improvement in the quality of life of the communities in the coastal area as well can maintain the biodiversity and productivity of coastal ecosystems (darmawan 2001). the empowerment is not only to increase motivation or determination and willingness, as well as knowledge, skills, but also can maintain the preservation of nature and the environment (ecology) that is natural, balanced and maintained (pigawati 2005). empowerment can also create productive economic activities in the border region based on local resources that are carried out in a sustainable manner by paying attention to resource capacity (lasabuda 2013). ecotourism development programs in coastal areas must also be in accordance with efforts to protect and preserve the environment or overall conservation (witomo 2019). then the form of empowerment hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 7 published by ideas spread cannot be separated from cooperation or partnership to achieve prosperity and independence and eventually become an empowerment actor (sulaiman et al. 2019);(kour 2018). economic empowerment and ecotourism on the border coast as a prospective local potential, has not been a serious concern for village and regional governments which generally in infrastructure and development programs are more inclined to the development of commercial areas. so that the government can focus on the development of regional development, especially road access facilities, electricity and telecommunications media (internet) in the coastal border areas and educational institutions such as high schools and vocational schools can make economic empowerment and ecotourism into additional, optional and compulsory subjects as local content that is unique and has characteristics as local wisdom. coastal border areas are actually a reflection of developmental development and betting on national sovereignty, as according to djunaedi (2002) development in coastal border areas that have potential problems and conflicts need to run the intergrated coastal zone management model or manage the whole program as a whole. adam et al. (2012) describes development in border and outermost coastal areas concerning national sovereignty. moreover, the development of the coastal border areas of the border is not only about regional sovereignty, defense and security, but also must realize food, economic, and social sovereignty that guarantees the welfare and independence of the nation. muazir and hsieh (2013) emphasized that cooperation and competition between the kedia regions in sarawak malaysia and west kalimantan cannot be avoided, but promoting cooperation is better, such as from the tourism and economic sectors with the provision of markets that can mutually benefit and support each other. druzhinin eta al. (2016) stated that the problem of the outermost border region must receive serious attention and be evaluated because it is related to the crisis and changes in the geo-political and geo-economic situation that will have an impact on the regional economy. likewise according to kotsoni et al. (2017) it requires seriousness of government decisiveness with its policy regulations as well as public awareness and control of the development of tourist facilities in the coastal boundary, in order not to damage the environment and ecosystem. therfore the implementation of empowerment program and further research can be formulated as in table 2 below: table 2. implementation of empowerment program and further research  empowerment research program  implementation of the coastal border ecotourism empowerment research in temajuk village  business management in the form of all-round cooperative business  increase motivation, role and ability in strategies to increase income, promotion and marketing of community products in the form of a joint venture that is cooperative  the development of the borneo tailed young tourism group is better able to adopt information technology innovations on social media and community radio  improved group dynamics and ecotourism management, especially promotion and marketing  the establishment of community radio by forming an editorial team from the borneo tailed group for public information and communication media  waste management becomes a waste bank business group  analysis and comparative study to build a waste bank and waste management  providing electricity facilities with solar power  conduct a feasibility study and the realization of the installation of solar powered electricity as energy independence source: author’s own work based on the process stages, implementation, monitoring, evaluation, analysis and discussion of results, as well as an advanced empowerment research agenda, it can be made the development of a model of coastal border ecotourism empowerment in tamajuk village, paloh district, sambas regency, west kalimantan as a recommendation for development and research, study, community service and public activities. the development of the outer coastal border areas are very important and strategic, according to pauwelussen (2016) and obidzinski et al. (2007), such as the case of forest destruction on the border requires serious attention between the two regions of the border indonesia and malaysia so that the preservation of the environment and the reforestation of the ecosystem is maintained. putra (2010) emphasized that there are substantial values in border hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 8 published by ideas spread areas such as the value of sovereignty, integrity, agreement, ideology, equality, cooperation, legal certainty, and mutual respect, the value of state development and cooperation, economic values and welfare, social, cultural, politics, security, geographical, spatial and technological value. the development of the ecotourism-based coastal border area is important especially in the development there needs to be a balance of protection and preservation of natural resources or the environment, especially marine biota such as coral reefs and animals (pranajaya & wardhani 2012), because the growth of coastal tourism will affect the development of other sectors such as economic and social issues, including the threat of environmental damage (latif et al. 2012). policies are needed in various sectors and levels regarding the impacts of climate change and the environment in coastal border areas which have been prioritized in the fields of marine, fisheries and disaster management (bengen & tahir 2013). yet it should be highlighted the basic needs of the community that needs support from development policies to realize integrated coastal autonomy that can improve economic life by becoming a center for production, processing and marketing, especially fisheries and the service sector (darmanto 2013) (sutrisno 2014). moreover the development of the coastal border areas can realize a prosperous and independent coastal border area (widodo et al. 2015). the strategy of developing ecotourism in coastal areas is by empowering based on the utilization of natural potential such as mangrove forests, mangroves, fisheries and the beauty of the coast and is supported by the preservation of local wisdom of the community (hakim et al. 2017); (talib 2018). the development of the coastal border empowerment model is as follows: figure 2. the development of the coastal border empowerment model hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 9 published by ideas spread 4. conclusion problems and challenges in the coastal border areas of temajuk village still require serious attention, especially road access facilities, availability of electricity, and information telecommunications networks (internet) that are still lagging behind neighboring areas namely melano in malaysia. more over the people of temanjuk are still dependent on finding work in neighboring malaysia to become farm laborers in oil palm plantations, rubber plantations, livestock, construction laborers, carpenters, and domestic servants, including dependence on daily needs that are more complete, inexpensive and easily available in melano malaysia. planning and implementing empowerment of the outer coastal border ecotourism in temajuk village is still partial and technocratic, so that it requires participatory, research-based and synergistic empowerment among stakeholders, namely village and regional governments, academics of higher education, communities, business groups, empowerment activists and the private sector. empowerment can be designed and implemented continuously based on studies and research so that it is in accordance with the problems, potential, needs and prospects of human resources (the community), environmental (natural) resources, socio-economic and cultural resources. the young generation can become the successor of tourism awareness groups under the name of pokdarwis ekor borneo through an empowerment program to increase motivation, awareness, knowledge, and natural expertise to protect and preserve the potential of the outer coastal border ecotourism. empowerment of the younger generation is expected to be carried out comprehensively starting from participatory planning, counseling, training, monitoring and evaluation, comparative studies, mentoring to partnerships, increasing welfare, independence and the formation of new empowerment agents. continuation of the empowerment program for the development of coastal border ecotourism is carried out by counseling and training cooperative management as a community economic institution, management of the waste bank as a new business unit, management of tourism promotion and marketing strategies, and technological innovations in the provision of solar powered electricity. development in the coastal border villages is a reflection of the advancement of development and betting on national sovereignty, not only mandatory to uphold regional sovereignty, defense and security, but also to be able to realize food, economic, and social sovereignty that guarantee the welfare and independence of the nation.the results of the research, academically, are that community empowerment is not only intended for economic development, economic equality, and the establishment of economic business institutions. but empowerment can aim for social engineering, strengthening nationalism and environmental awareness. the practical implication is that empowerment becomes a development medium that unites participatory community interests with the interests of technocratic elites. then the novelty of this research as a contribution of research results is to creat the development of empowerment models in the coastal border villages by forming institutions of the young generation as the next generation to be able to protect, preserve and develop the potential of ecotourism in their villages.so far, there has never been any research that focuses on this, mostly research into the territorial and infrastructure, government policies and economic business groups. the results of the study are very useful in providing recommendations for policy making especially school education curricula that must include environmental awareness, coastal economy, ecotourism and tourism management materials. the results of the study are very useful in providing recommendations for policy making in government and leaders in schools, especially school education materials to become educational curriculum as a choice subject or local content, namely environmental, coastal economy, ecotourism and tourism management. suggestions for the government, schools, researchers and practitioners that need to focus interest of the younger generation as the next generation to be targeted by empowerment programs. so that it will form a cadre of the next generation of development in the village. theoretically, research on coastal borders can also be examined in terms of intercultural communication theory, dependency theory, and development theory. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 10 published by ideas spread acknowledgments thank you for ministry of research, technology and higher education of the republic of indonesia and institute for research and community services of jenderal soedirman university in indonesia for providing opportunities and support for our applied research. hopefully it could be contribute to the development of science, scientific studies, community service and further research. we would also thank for the support and participation of the village government, research informants from the empowerment activists, empowerment participants from students high school and the headmaster of sebubus high school in west kalimantan. references adam, l., sihombing, l., pujiyanti, a., haryanti, d., & nainggolan, p. p. 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(2016). generasi sadar wisata (pemberdayaan pemuda dan pendidikan duta wisata di kabupaten tenggalek). jurnal sosiologi pendidikan humanis, 1(2), 140-148, https://doi.org/10.17977/um021v1i22016p140 zakaria, z., sophian, r. i., & khoirullah, n. (2018). modifikasi konsep participatory rural appraisal untuk pembekalan kuliah kerja nyata mahasiswa di jawa barat indonesia. dharmakarya: jurnal aplikasi ipteks untuk masyarakat, 7(1), 38-45. https://doi.org/10.24198/dharmakarya.v7i1.14592 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p103 103 published by ideas spread enhancing tobacco control policies among youth and college students: limitations and future directions xiao huang1 1 chongqing university of posts and telecommunications, china correspondence: xiao huang, chongqing university of posts and telecommunications, chongqing, china. received: july 24, 2025; accepted: august 3, 2025; published: august 4, 2025 abstract tobacco use is still a serious issue among youth and college students in the united states. although the government, especially the department of health and human services, has made efforts through policies like taxation, smokefree laws, and advertising bans, these methods have not been effective enough. this paper discusses the main problems of each policy: the tax rate is not high enough to stop students from buying cigarettes, smoke-free policies are not fully enforced especially in outdoor areas, and advertising bans are not strict or complete. to improve the situation, the paper suggests raising the tax on cigarettes nationwide, making all college campuses completely smoke-free (both indoors and outdoors), and banning all forms of tobacco advertising and promotion. these changes could help lower the smoking rate among youth and college students, protect their health, and reduce future harm. though these contributions may seem small at first, they are necessary steps toward solving a longterm public health problem. keywords: tobacco control, youth smoking, college students, nicotine addiction, public health 1. introduction smoking, which was first invented as a ritual for spiritual enlightenment around 18,000 years ago in ancient asia, has long been regarded by the public as a harmful and highly addictive behavior [1]. according to the centers for disease control and prevention, smoking remains one of the leading and most preventable causes of death both in the united states and around the world [2]. an even more striking and concerning fact is that approximately 480,000 deaths each year are directly caused by smoking, making it one of the top public health concerns for both the u.s. government and various national health organizations [3]. specifically in charge of addressing this issue, the department of health and human services has been working diligently over the years to introduce and carry out a variety of acts and policies related to tobacco control. as smoking is a habit that most often develops during the early stages of adulthood, especially among young people, controlling tobacco consumption among youth and college students should be viewed as one of the primary goals of any general tobacco control act or initiative. although, according to statista, smokers are more commonly found among older citizens, college students still account for approximately 12 to 15 percent of the total smoking population in the united states [4]. that is to say, approximately one out of every seven friends a person has is likely to be a smoker, assuming that the person themself is a non-smoker. the department of youth services, under the larger umbrella of the department of health and human services, in cooperation with other policymakers, has been responsible for enforcing numerous laws and policies aimed at controlling the tobacco consumption rate among youth and college students. taxation, smoke-free laws, and advertising and promotional bans are three of the major policy approaches currently being implemented in order to reduce the tobacco consumption rate among young people. however, the current tax rate on tobacco products is not high enough to significantly discourage purchases among young consumers; the smoke-free policy is not broadly or uniformly enforced across different campuses and public spaces; the bans on tobacco advertising and promotion are implemented in a loose and inconsistent manner, leaving many loopholes behind. this paper will discuss the reasons why these policies have not been effective enough and propose possible improvements, including increasing the tobacco tax rate, expanding the enforcement of smoke-free policies, and strictly banning all forms of tobacco advertising and promotion. 2. taxation imposing an excise tax on tobacco products—which was first proposed by alexander hamilton as early as 1794— has become one of the most widely adopted policies in the regulation of tobacco consumption [5]. rooted in the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 104 published by ideas spread basic economic principle that an increase in price can reduce the demand for a product to some extent, taxation is expected to serve as an effective method for controlling tobacco use, especially in the case of youth and college students. since the majority of youth and college students either do not have a regular income or only earn a small amount, they tend to be more price-sensitive compared to older individuals with stable and higher incomes [6]. however, the actual effectiveness of the taxation policy has turned out to fall below policymakers’ original expectations and assumptions. one major problem with this policy is that the current tax rate is not high enough to stop a large number of young people from purchasing tobacco products. nicotine, which is the main addictive chemical component in cigarettes, damages the brain development of young individuals and causes these smokers to become highly dependent on continued consumption [7]. as a result, these young smokers often perceive the value of cigarettes to be higher than the price level that existing tax policies had originally assumed would be enough to prevent them from smoking [8]. another issue related to taxation involves the uneven and unfair differences in cigarette tax rates across different states. the fluctuation in tobacco tax rates from state to state creates strong incentives for individuals to smuggle tobacco products from regions with lower taxes to those with higher ones [8]. for example, according to the state system excise tax fact sheet published by the centers for disease control and prevention, in 2024, the average tax for a pack of cigarettes in new york state is $5.35, whereas in neighboring pennsylvania, the tax is only $2.60 per pack [9]. it is easy to imagine that smuggling activities could be quite common in such border areas where the tax gap is significant. to better improve the current taxation policy, the department of health and human services should collaborate with other departments to impose a higher and more uniformly applied tax rate on tobacco products across all states. what these departments need to do is revise the existing tobacco tax law and formally pass new legislation that legitimizes a higher and more consistent tax rate on tobacco products nationwide. nowadays, the highest cigarette tax in the united states stands at $5.35 per pack in new york, while the lowest tax rate is only 17 cents per pack in missouri [9]. it would be very helpful if those departments in charge could raise the average tax rate to more than $5 per pack across all states. a high-tax policy on tobacco products could compel a significant number of people to quit smoking simply because they can no longer afford the high cost of cigarettes. imposing high taxes on tobacco products is particularly effective in reducing smoking rates among youth and college students. as statistical data suggests, a 10 percent increase in the price of tobacco products could lead to an 11 to 12 percent decrease in consumption among young adults [10]. raising cigarette taxes to a level that students simply cannot afford serves as a direct and effective approach to cutting down tobacco consumption [6]. in addition to raising tax rates, uniformity must be enforced through a national equal-tax law. with the implementation of such a law, it would no longer be possible for people to seek out and purchase cigarettes at significantly cheaper prices across state lines. in other words, this would also help prevent smuggling activities that arise from tax differences between states. imposing higher and consistent taxation on tobacco products in each state is a useful policy tool for controlling tobacco consumption, especially among price-sensitive groups like youth and college students. government departments need to revise the current laws that allow for low tax rates on tobacco products in certain regions. furthermore, the government should pass legislation requiring a fair and uniform tobacco product tax to be enforced in every state. 3. smoke-free policies the smoke-free policy has become one important aspect of the broader smoke-control movement in recent years [11]. the basic idea behind this policy is to restrict people from smoking in specifically designated areas. because individuals are no longer allowed to smoke in these areas as they were before the policy was implemented, they are forced to reduce their tobacco consumption, and over time, they may even give up smoking altogether. one example taken from several workplaces shows that smoke-free laws in the workplace can reduce smoking prevalence by approximately four percent [8]. this policy is regarded as one of the most effective and widely used strategies in tobacco control, but there are still several problems that interfere with its full effectiveness. although smoking is widely prohibited in all indoor areas across the united states, people can still find numerous other places where smoking is permitted. most of these remaining smoking spots are public outdoor areas. in the case of youth and college students, this means that although they are not allowed to smoke in enclosed areas such as classrooms and restaurants, they are still free to smoke in outdoor spaces like public walkways and campus pathways. simply banning indoor smoking is not effective enough to make a real difference. as long as smoking areas remain accessible, not many students will feel the pressure to quit. as of april 2019, approximately only 55 percent of college and university campuses in the united states had implemented smoke-free policies, not to mention that some still allow e-cigarette consumption in certain areas [12]. without a strong, centralized act from the department of health and human services, the implementation of uniform tobacco control policies continues to remain fragmented and inconsistent across states and educational institutions. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 105 published by ideas spread to improve the effectiveness of smoke-free laws among youth and college students, a comprehensive campuswide policy that prohibits smoking in both outdoor and indoor areas is urgently needed. by banning smoking not only in indoor locations but also in outdoor areas, students would no longer have access to smoking spaces during school hours. this significant change would compel a large number of students to reduce their tobacco consumption, and in many cases, eventually quit smoking altogether. a successful example can be seen at indiana university, where statistical data from 2011 suggests that the implementation of a campus-wide smoke-free policy reduced smoking behavior among students by approximately four percent and increased their positive attitudes toward smoking regulations by about six percent [13]. also, in order to effectively enforce a campus-wide smoke-free policy, clearly visible ground markings and signs should be placed in key areas for students to notice, and positive reinforcement cards and flyers should be distributed to strengthen students' awareness and impression of the policy [14]. in general, the department of youth and human services should collaborate with the department of education to formally legitimize a mandatory campus-wide smoke-free law. these government departments should be responsible for supervising and ensuring that all schools across the united states implement this smoke-free policy consistently. the decision to implement a campus-wide smoke-free policy should no longer be left to the discretion of individual school policymakers, but should instead be established as a strict law that every school is required to obey. such a strong and comprehensive smoke-free policy could significantly help reduce tobacco consumption and lower the smoking rate among youth and college students to a meaningful degree. 4. advertising and promotional bans back in the old days, tobacco companies used to be one of the major forms of television advertising. however, since the introduction of advertising and promotion bans on tobacco products in 1969, tobacco advertising has been removed from television broadcasts [5]. as widely recognized by the general public and confirmed by experts from the world health organization, tobacco advertising can “attract non-smokers to smoke,” “increase the amount of tobacco consumption among current smokers,” “reduce a smoker’s willingness to quit,” and “encourage former smokers to smoke again” [15]. in this sense, advertising and promotion bans do help reduce smoking behavior and overall tobacco consumption. however, these bans are still not comprehensive enough in their current form. in other words, not all forms of tobacco product advertising and promotion—such as those involving cigarettes—are fully prohibited. as a group especially vulnerable to marketing influence, youth and college students are still exposed to a large amount of tobacco promotion in various forms. in fact, research shows that out of approximately 210 countries worldwide, only 39—such as eu member states, australia, new zealand, south africa, and thailand—have enacted laws that restrict all forms of tobacco advertising [16]. in order to further reduce the smoking rate and overall tobacco consumption among youth and college students in the united states, a comprehensive ban on all forms of tobacco advertising and promotion is urgently needed. what the u.s. government should do is strictly ban all forms of tobacco advertising across all areas and platforms. the government should not only establish laws that ban traditional forms of tobacco advertisements, such as those on television and radio, but also prohibit less regulated forms like cigarette flyers and tobacco sponsorships. in addition, government departments should enforce strong penalties against any illegal advertisements and promotional activities related to tobacco products. as shown by studies [17], tobacco advertising causes young people to overestimate the prevalence of smoking in society and distorts their understanding of social norms. this misconception leads young people to believe that smoking is socially “desirable,” which increases the likelihood that they will start smoking and purchase tobacco products [18]. by blocking all types of tobacco advertising and promotion, the smoking rate has been shown to decrease by approximately six percent [19]. a comparative study involving students from two schools—one in finland, where tobacco advertising is completely banned, and one in the united states, where it is only partially banned—concluded that there is a significant positive correlation between exposure to tobacco advertisements and smoking prevalence [18]. all of these facts and examples suggest that the government must not only block explicit forms of tobacco advertising, but also prohibit more implicit forms such as sponsorships of concerts, festivals, and sporting events. a strong push for comprehensive bans on all tobacco advertising and promotion is expected from both the department of health and human services and the federal government as a whole. 5. implications and conclusions tobacco products harm both physical and mental health, and they have particularly strong negative impacts on youth and college students. the department of health and human services should cooperate with other policymaking departments to further improve the acts and regulations related to the tobacco control movement. more intensive and equitable taxation policies, comprehensive smoke-free laws covering both indoor and outdoor spaces, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 106 published by ideas spread and complete bans on all forms of tobacco advertising and promotion are the essential first steps that need to be taken to further reduce smoking and tobacco consumption rates, especially among youth and college students. in addition, refinement and revision of other existing tobacco-related policies and laws should also be carefully considered. teenagers and young adults are a vital part of the country's future development. reducing smoking and tobacco consumption among them is a way to improve their overall physical and mental performance. statistical data shows that lung cancer has been the most common type of cancer worldwide for several decades [20]. smoking, which increases the likelihood of developing lung cancer by about 15 times compared to non-smokers, is responsible for one-eighth of all cancer-related deaths worldwide [20] [21]. controlling and reducing tobacco consumption and smoking rates is ultimately an act of saving lives. from an economic perspective, reducing tobacco consumption would eventually lead to a decrease in tobacco production, allowing resources and labor to be redirected toward the production of more beneficial and socially valuable goods. in the long run, lowering tobacco consumption would contribute to a more efficient and sustainable economic system. even though this contribution may not seem particularly remarkable at first, it could still bring meaningful improvements to the society. controlling and reducing tobacco consumption, especially among youth and college students, is an important mission that the department of health and human services and other related agencies should actively pursue. to achieve this goal, these departments need to improve their current policies and devote greater energy and effort throughout the entire process. references [1] world health organization. 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(2001). the impact of price on youth tobacco use. national cancer institute. [7] kong, a. y., & king, b. a. (2021). boosting the tobacco control vaccine: recognizing the role of the retail environment in addressing tobacco use and disparities. tobacco control, 30(e2), e162–e168. https://doi.org/10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2020-055722 [8] warner, k. e., & mendez, d. (2010). tobacco control policy in developed countries: yesterday, today, and tomorrow. nicotine & tobacco research, 12(9), 876–887. https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/ntq125 [9] centers for disease control and prevention. (n.d.). state excise tax fact sheet. retrieved july 28, 2025, from https://www.cdc.gov/statesystem/factsheets/excisetax/excisetax.html [10] chaloupka, f. j., & liccardo pacula, r. l. (n.d.). the impact of price on youth tobacco use (monograph 14, chapter 12). retrieved july 28, 2025, from https://cancercontrol.cancer.gov/sites/default/files/202006/m14_12.pdf [11] centers for disease control and prevention. 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(2008). who report on the global tobacco epidemic, 2008: the mpower package. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241596282 [16] freeman, b., watts, c., & astuti, p. a. s. (2022). global tobacco advertising, promotion and sponsorship regulation: what’s old, what’s new and where to next? tobacco control, 31, 216–221. [17] reid, j. l., manske, s. r., & leatherdale, s. t. (2008). factors related to adolescents’ estimation of peer smoking prevalence. health education research, 23(1), 81–93. [18] burton, d., graham, j. w., johnson, c., uutela, a., vartiainen, e., & palmer, r. f. (2010). perceptions of smoking prevalence by youth in countries with and without a tobacco advertising ban. journal of health communication, 15(6), 656–664. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2010.499595 [19] saffer, h., & chaloupka, f. (2000). the effect of tobacco advertising bans on tobacco consumption. journal of health economics, 19, 1117–1137. [20] bray, f., laversanne, m., sung, h., et al. (2024). global cancer statistics 2022: globocan estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. ca: a cancer journal for clinicians, 74(3), 229–263. https://doi.org/10.3322/caac.21834 [21] mackay, j. (2006). the cancer atlas. american cancer society. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 3, no. 2; 2020 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v3n2p18 18 published by ideas spread impact of tourism policy implementation in the development of regional tourism strategic area (case study: nambo beach in kendari city, indonesia) sitti hairani idrus1 1 faculty of social and political science, halu oleo university, kendari, indonesia correspondence: sitti hairani idrus, faculty of social and political science, halu oleo university, kendari, indonesia. e-mail: sitihairani uho.ac.id received: march 21, 2020; accepted: june 15, 2020; published: june 16, 2020 abstract this paper aims to analyse the impact of national and regional tourism policy implementation in the development of nambo beach tourist destination as one of the regional tourism strategic area (rtsa) in kendari city, southeast sulawesi, indonesia. three baselines of government policy are discussed in this paper, namely 2009, 2011 and 2016 baseline due to the government regulation issued in these specific years. government policy is required regarding improvement of amenity and accessibility of a tourist destination. the method of the research is literature study and observation in the tourist site, the nambo beach. in the literature study we conducted analysis the regulation which supported the tourism sector in both national and regional level. through field survey, we collected primary data from field survey and secondary data from kendari statistic agency regarding the development of tourism infrastructure in and outside the nambo beach. the result showed that the regulation established in 2009 and 2011 for national level and 2016 at the regional level have been supporting the development of tourism sector in kendari particularly the nambo beach rtsa as indicated by the growing of the facilities in the nambo beach at least 60% as well as the external facilities such as hotels and rooms which growth up in average more than 100% and roads infrastructure was about 150% in the last ten years. keywords: regional tourism strategic area, kendari, tourist destination, nambo beach, government policy 1. introduction tourism is defined as an activity which cuts across conventional sectors in the economy. it requires inputs of an economic, social, cultural and environmental nature (lickorish and jenkins, 1997, p.1). in all countries, tourism sector plays important role for national income (webster and ivanov, 2014) development of the tourism sector will have a positive impact on people's welfare. according to bank of indonesia press release, indonesia has established tourism as a leading sector. as a leading sector, tourism is targeted to reap foreign exchange up to 17.6 billion us dollars and visited by 20 million foreign tourists until the end of 2019 (puspita 2018). tourism sector opens up many jobs, fosters household economic activity, generates other related sectors and impacts on poverty reduction in a country. however, the readiness of a tourist area to bring visitors is very dependent on many factors including its amenity and accessibility. the existence of physical infrastructure such as amenity and accessibility is very influential in improving the tourism sector (mandić et al., 2018). however, the development of amenity and accessibility of a tourist destination is depending on the government policy. over the last two decades due to 1998 economic crisis, the tourism industry in indonesia has been undergoing substantial change (suparwoko, 2012). the existence of supporting facilities both in and outside of a tourist site will encourage increased capacity in accommodating tourist activities. furthermore, tourism infrastructure includes a large number of services, necessary to meet the needs of tourists and increase satisfaction during their stay at the destination (jovanović and ilić 2016). thus, the existence of infrastructure such as hotels and transportation network will not only support the tourism activities during their visits but also encourage the rise of business and the economy of the community around the infrastructure. nambo beach is one of the interesting tourist destinations in kendari city, the capital of southeast sulawesi province. this beautiful white sand beach is located approximately 12 kilometers at southern part of kendari. nambo beach is one of several beautiful beaches in kendari. since the last seven years, nambo beach has been improved by completing various facilities and infrastructures that should be available in every tourist destination. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 2; 2020 19 published by ideas spread analysis of the impact of the government policy is useful for making decision about improving quality and quantity of supporting tourism infrastructure (penrose 2011). in indonesia, the amenity and accessibility factors are also applied to the management of a tourism destination as mentioned in the indonesia tourism act no. 10 year of 2009. the development of amenity and accessibility in a tourism destination is also associated with environmental carrying capacity, control of public infrastructure, construction of public facilities, and tourism facilities for tourism destinations which have exceeded the carrying capacity threshold (imss 2009). furthermore, in the government regulation no. 50 year of 2011 concerning the indonesia master plan for national tourism development, the amenity and accessibility infrastructure development of a tourism destination must be in line with a strategy to control facilities and supporting infrastructure of tourism destinations (imss 2011). in line with that policy, in regional regulation, the development of amenity and accessibility has also been regulated clearly in article no. 9 of the provincial regulation (perda) of southeast sulawesi no. 5 year of 2016 concerning the master plan for regional tourism development in southeast sulawesi province for 2016 to 2031 (sesrb 2016). the perda embraces the nambo beach as one of the tourist destinations which needs to get attention (sesrb 2016). in the regulation, the nambo beach area and its surrounding, together with bokori island and its surrounding, are becoming the regional tourism strategic area (rtsa). the rtsa is an area which has main function as a tourism destination or potential for national tourism development and has important influence in one or more aspects such as economic, social and cultural growth, empowerment of natural resources, environmental carrying capacity, and defence and security. in the context of development of nambo beach as one of the rtsas in southeast sulawesi, an analysis of impact of the national and regional policy implementation is required. this paper aims to analyse the impact of national and regional tourism policy implementation in the development of nambo beach tourist destination as one of the rtsa in southeast sulawesi after regulation issued in 2009, 2011 and 2016. 2. method the location of this study is nambo beach in kendari city, southeast sulawesi province, indonesia. nambo beach becomes one of the mainstay tourist attraction which is visited by tourists both inside and outside of kendari. this location is located in nambo sub district and on the coast, which has abundance of mangroves and coconut trees. this location began to open in the early 1990s. the site map of the location can be seen in figure 1. figure 1. map of nambo beach in kendari city southeast sulawesi hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 2; 2020 20 published by ideas spread this study combines literature study and field survey. the literature study was carried out through a review of government regulations on national tourism based on three baseline analysis namely 2009, 2011 and 2016 baselines. the first baseline is after the introduction of the tourism act in 2009. the second baseline is in 2011 after the establishment of the national tourism master plan, while the third baseline is after 2016 regional tourism master plan. all baselines are analysed and associated with statistical data from the kendari statistics agency. the field survey was carried out in august 2018. the survey was conducted to map supporting facilities in nambo beach. figure 2. the research method the amenity is associated with the inand out-side infrastructure which supporting the tourism site including hotels and rooms, while the accessibility will associate with external infrastructure; the roads. in this part an analysis of the availability of amenities in the nambo beach, the number of hotel accommodation, the number of tourists and the average length of stay with the assumption that both domestic and foreign tourists also visit the nambo beach are conducted. the analysis of road availability to reach the nambo beach is also presented based on statistical data. the research method can be seen in figure 2. 3. result and discussion the development of tourism destination has been mandated by indonesia national tourism act no. 10 year of 2009 (imss 2009) and implemented through master plan for national tourism development (imss 2011). in the regional level, the government has formed provincial regulation no. 5 year of 2016 concerning the master plan for regional tourism development in southeast sulawesi province for 2016 to 2031 (sesrb 2016). the strengthening of local policy lies on determination of tourism potential zones, development of tourist attractions, development of tourism accessibility, development of public infrastructure, public facilities and supporting tourism facilities, community empowerment through tourism and development of investment in tourism. one of the tourism potential zones is the nambo beach (figure 3). figure 3. nambo beach in kendari city: (a) a view from the coastal with background of kendari new port, (b) view from the sea, (c) road infrastructure and (d) gazebo facilities hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 2; 2020 21 published by ideas spread nambo beach is one of the leading tourist destination objects in kendari city. nambo beach has been developed around 20 years ago (kta, 2018). this white sandy beach is a tourist attraction which is often visited by both local and foreign visitors. this place is not the only attractive tourist area in kendari. there are several other tourist attractions around this nambo beach. people can visit another tourist destination, for example, batu gong and toronipa beach in konawe district, taipa beach and labengki island in north konawe district, wakatobi marine tourism destination, liang kabori tourist destination in muna island and rawa aopa watumohai national park in south konawe district. nambo beach itself has become the rtsa as determined in the regional regulations of the southeast sulawesi tourism master plan. nambo beach is not only used to relax enjoying the beautiful panorama souround, but also sometimes used as a place of religious ceremonies such as hindus who celebrated the melasti holiday in celebration of nyepi. according to kendari statistic agency, visitors the nambo beach showed a fluctuating trend. in 2011, the number of tourists reached 31,000, while in 2012 it decreased to 19,681. in 2013 there were 12,493 people, in 2014 and 2015 the number of tourists again increased to 15,437 and 19,684 people respectively (bps kota kendari 2018) as shown in the figure 4. figure 4. amount of tourist visited to nambo beach during 2011 to 2015 (bps kota kendari 2018) taking point of view from the side of government support for tourism, there are three baselines that need attention, namely the first baseline in 2009, the second baseline in 2011 and the third baseline in 2016. the first and the second baseline are based on the national tourism act which regulates the general management of the implementation of national tourism. whereas the third baseline on a local scale is the southeast sulawesi tourism master plan. almost ten years after the first baseline and two years after the third baseline must be considered as supporting policy by the government for the development of tourism sector. the support of the government's policy towards tourism has been seen from the growing number of hotels in kendari city in the past ten years after the tourism act was issued (figure 5). hotel accommodation can’t be separated from tourism sector as well as restaurant and other amenities factor. the room capacity is in line with increasing the hotels. figure 5. increasing number of hotels and rooms available in kendari city during period 2008-2017 (bps kota kendari 2018) hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 2; 2020 22 published by ideas spread the red dash line indicates tourism national act 2009, the blue dotted line indicates national tourism master plan 2011 and the green line is the regional master plan. based on figure 5, there is a significant development in the number of hotels in the past ten years with almost 100% growth. moreover, the number of rooms increased more than twice since 2008. thus, we may state that the growing of hotels and rooms in kendari city is caused by the implementation of national and regional policies in the tourism sector. figure 6. average length of stay of visitors in kendari city during period 2008-2017 (bps kota kendari 2018) average length of stay of visitors both foreign and domestic are also having a positive trend. for ten years it increased about 25% for foreign visitors and 6% for domestic. this might be achieved through the suitability of the development of tourism destinations with existing spatial planning policies, characteristics of availability and distribution of tourist attractions, public facilities, and tourism supporting facilities, the availability of transportation infrastructure and facilities and tourism supporting infrastructure in the site. road infrastructure also plays important role for increasing the visitors. based on statistic data, during 2008 to early of 2018 there was development road from 12 to 30 kilometers connected the central town of kendari to reach the nambo beach as seen in the table 2. it increased almost 150% of establishment the new road network during ten years. table 2. road infrastructure development for supporting nambo beach during 2008 to 2018 (bps kota kendari 2019) year kilometers explanation 2008 12 existing road 2009 12 existing road (1st baseline) 2010 25 addition of new road network 2011 25 improvement of existing road (2nd baseline) 2012 25 improvement of existing road 2013 25 improvement of existing road 2014 28 addition of new road network 2015 28 improvement of existing road 2016 28 improvement of existing road (3rd baseline) 2017 30 addition of new road network 2018 30 addition of new road network in 2017, there was a development of additional amenities in nambo beach. some gazebos, villas and clean facilities were developed by kendari tourism office. table 3 shows the facilities established in nambo beach until august 2018. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 2; 2020 23 published by ideas spread table 3. facilities availability in nambo beach no. facilities yes no 1 location nameplate √ 2 reading room √ 3 location map √ 4 gazebo √ 5 villa √ 6 direction signs √ 7 pedestrian √ 8 hazard warning signs √ 9 clean facilities √ 10 mosque (prayer room) √ 11 bathroom √ 12 restaurant √ 13 security office √ 14 guard tower √ 15 washing facilities √ 16 parking area √ 17 entertainment facilities √ 18 tourism information centre √ (under construction) 19 open space √ 20 locker/safety box √ 21 emergency facilities √ 22 facility for disabilities √ 23 information system (website, booklet) √ 24 cctv √ 25 wifi (communication facilities) √ 26 breastfeeding room √ 27 bank or atm √ 28 souvenir shop √ source: field survey, 2018 we made a list of 28 facilities that must available in the tourist location. we found that there were only 19 facilities (67.8%) available in the location. some important facilities that should be available in common tourism site such as emergency facilities and souvenir shop were not found. there was one facility under construction namely the tourism information centre. what also needs attention is the absence of facilities for disabilities persons, for example disability-specific bathrooms or pedestrian routes specifically for disabilities. this needs attention so that in the next few years, all these facilities can be built either by the government itself or through collaboration with private parties or companies. the implementation of regional regulations which states that nambo beach as a strategic area has been followed up with the improvement and addition of facilities in the nambo beach area. however, the recent built infrastructure such as information centre needs to be improved to gain a benefit to the community around and tourists as well. several other facilities such as gazebos, villas, pedestrian, clean facilities, bathrooms, and restaurants also still need to be improved both in quality and quantity. it is hoped that through the increase in the number of tourists, the investment can also increase in kendari as well as the welfare of the people around the nambo beach. for the city of kendari, the results of this study can be a reference for the further development of other tourist destinations around the city. the infrastructure developments have proven to be able to increase the number of tourist visits in kendari city, at least it can be seen in the 2011-2015 period. the government also needs to empower communities around tourist destinations to maintain the infrastructure and at the same time can increase their welfare. 4. conclusion the development of amenity and accessibility plays important role for tourism sector since it can give high impact to the sustainability of the tourism destination. the amenity and accessibility of a tourist destination will bring hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 2; 2020 24 published by ideas spread satisfactory for the visitors. in general, according to this research, the implementation of national and regional policy to strengthen tourism destination has been carried out. the southeast sulawesi tourism master plan has regulated the supporting factor of tourist destinations for the development of nambo beach in the future. from the research, it shown that the increase in the number of hotels and rooms, improvement of road network and development of facilities in nambo beach are completed after implementation the policies in each baseline. it also has been shown that within 10 years there has been a significant development of improvements and additions to facilities on the nambo beach tourism destination. however, in the perspective of current and future needs, the existing facilities are still lacking. facility construction only reaches 67.8% which means it still needs to be increased to satisfy the tourists. the government support through the policy and the budgeting still need to be increased. acknowledgment this research was conducted as a part of young lecturer research funded by dipa blu universitas halu oleo year of 2017 and 2018. we thank to rector uho and head of research and community services institution of uho for their support. references bps kota kendari. (2018). kendari statistic agency publication on 2012-2017. bps kota kendari. (2019). kendari statistic agency publication year of 2018. indonesia ministry of state secretary (imss). (2009). indonesia national act no. 10 year of 2009 concerning indonesia tourism regulation. indonesia ministry of state secretary (imss). (2011). government regulation no. 50 year of 2011 concerning the indonesia master plan for national tourism development 2010-2025. jovanović, s. and ilić, i. (2016). infrastructure as important determinant of tourism development in the countries of southeast europe, ecoforum, volume 5, issue 1 (8). kendari tourism agency (kta), kendari mid term plan on tourism 2012-2017. lickorish, l. j., & jenkins, c. l. (1997), an introduction to tourism, butterworth-heinemann, oxford, isbn 0 7506 1956 2 mandić, a., mrnjavac, z., & kordić, l. (2018). tourism infrastructure, recreational facilities and tourism development. tourism and hospitality management, 24(1). https://doi.org/10.20867/thm.24.1.12 penrose, j. (2011). government tourism policy, department for culture, media and sport of great britain. puspita, s. (2018). six steps of indonesia government to increase tourism sector, https://travel.kompas.com southeast sulawesi regulation board (sesrb). (2016). provincial regulation no. 5 year of 2016 concerning the master plan for regional tourism development in southeast sulawesi province for 2016 to 2031. suparwoko (2012). tourism development in indonesia, towards responsible tourism: a community-based approach to tourism development in indonesia chapter: iv, publisher: lap lambert academic publishing. webster, c., & ivanov, s. (2014). transforming competitiveness into economic benefits: does tourism stimulate economic growth in more competitive destinations? tourism management, 40, 137-140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2013.06.003 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 http://hssr.ideasspread.org 95 published by ideas spread reviewer acknowledgements humanities and social science research wishes to acknowledge the following individuals for their assistance with peer review of manuscripts for this issue. their help and contributions in maintaining the quality of the journal is greatly appreciated. humanities and social science research is recruiting reviewers for the journal. if you are interested in becoming a reviewer, we welcome you to join us. please find the application form and details at http://home.ideasspread.org/for-reviewers/ and e-mail the completed application form to hssr@ideasspread.org reviewers for volume 2, number 2 anatolii cherniavskyi, cherkasy institute of banking, ukraine elena a. ogneva, belgorod national research university, russia erna multahada, mercu buana university, indonesia i ketut sariada, indonesian institut of the arts, indonesia ihsan sa’dudin, jenderal soedirman university, indonesia imran ali, the islamia university of bahawalpur, pakistan irina kuprieva, russian university of cooperation, russia irwan abdullah, gadjah mada university, indonesia janpha thadphoothon, dhurakij pundit university, thailand khang duy nguyen, vinh long community college, vietnam malimpho seotsanyana, national university of lesotho, lesotho maria victoria gonzaga, philippine society for educational research and evaluation, inc., philippines marwa essam eldin fahmi, misr university for science & technology, egypt michael estremera, sorsogon state university, philippines muhammad rehan masoom, united international university, bangladesh ruhan i̇ri̇, niğde ömer halisdemir üniversitesi, turkey vivien l. chua, sorsogon state university, philippines humanities and social science research; vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v2n3p1 1 published by ideas spread touchy issues in muslim west relations: an attempt at an overview aliyu abdullahi jibia1 1 phd., department of political science, bayero university, kano, p.m.b. 3011, buk, kano, nigeria correspondence: aliyu abdullahi jibia, phd., department of political science, bayero university, kano, p.m.b. 3011, buk, kano, nigeria. e-mail: mizbauhameed2010 gmail.com received: april 17, 2019; accepted: june 1, 2019; published: july 2, 2019 abstract this paper seeks to explore the sour relationship underlying muslims and their western counterparts; a relationship that spanned several centuries and traversed regions and climes. the paper surveys the long years of contact between islam and the west and shows how, despite the long years of contact and interactions, the relationship has continued to remain sour, not so cordial and often replete with conflict, clashes and at times, wars and bloodshed. the paper surveys this age-old relation and shows how it is punctuated by animosity, mutual distrust, bigotry, fear and uneasy calm. the paper concludes by debunking the treachery, the sinister motives as well as the pathological hatred of anything muslim and islamic that is often exhibited by the west on the nation of islam. keywords: islam, west, muslim-west relations 1. introduction relations between the muslim world and the west has for long been sour, perhaps worsening right from the opening years of the twentieth century to date. this souring of relations between islam and other revealed or even man-made religions has taken quite some time, perhaps it could be dated to the very dawn of the religion when islam first made its debut. but right from the appearance of islam in the seventh century, perhaps up till today, neither christianity nor judaism the world’s two major religions ever accepted islam as a religion, nor does any of them ever recognized the prophet hood of muhammad right from the time he declared his call up to the present day. while islam has continued to recognize these two major religions and dealt with them justly and fairly with all sense, of decorum, christianity and judaism continued to treat islam and the old muslims to this day, with disdain. the religion, islam, is often considered backward, the shariah, the very way of life of the muslim, is seen as archaic and moribund; while the muslim, the adherent of the religion is often viewed by the two religions with contempt. often the muslim view point is considered fanatical, rigid, unscientific and heretical. the judeo christian world could tolerate the turban of a sikh but at the same time question that of the muslim. 2. world religions and tolerance as regards religious tolerance, the religion of islam, perhaps more than any other religion, grants more religious freedom and is more tolerant than perhaps any religion practiced anywhere on this planet. this, arguably, makes it more tolerant and more accommodating than the other older religions. no muslim will have a complete faith if he does not believe in moses and his torah, nor is his islam complete if he does not believe in jesus and the bible. if he speaks ill of these prophets or their books then he has blasphemed and; to come back to islam, he has to renew his faith and seek god’s forgiveness. the rabbi could keep his beard up to arm’s length and travel unmolested to the four comers of the globe; but a muslim’s beard is subject to serious scrutiny right within the confines of his home country. all these things happen in a scientific, civilized, twenty first century world that believes in all the democratic ideals of human right, social justice, equality and empirical objectivity. it leaves one dumbfounded to go into the polemics of what turban could rightly be accepted as the turban and what beard could be accepted as the correct beard. this pathological intolerance or hatred of islam appeared to have no bounds as is often exhibited by these two religions. even the computer, a harmless, neutral, scientific, inventive genus of mankind has been infected by this incurable virus of bias and prejudices. a little example will shade some light. type the following words on any computer (especially such as are equipped with the spell-correct software): christianity, christians, judaism, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 2 published by ideas spread islam, muslim, shariah, and muhammad. find out which of these words have been accepted by the computer as a proper noun and therefore begins with a capital letter. you will find to your dismay, all begin with capital except the last four: islam, muslim, shariah and muhammad. the computer is taught to accept the first three christianity, christian and judaism; just as it has equally been taught to question the last four islam, muslim, shariah and muhammad. it has been taught to mark them by underlining each with a red ink to indicate to you that the computer does not recognize them. 3. muslim west relations in essence, islam, or shariah, is a global phenomenon which has a universal appeal. it emerged, spread and flourished in an atmosphere of increasing hostility, then and now. the fall of communism which signaled the end of the cold war brought islam into the limelight of disfavour and exposed it and its adherents to the excruciating crucibles of the west. today despite the hatred and the ever increasing hostility, it is the energy of the muslim world which is powering western industrial technology. a fact, which no amount of hatred can deny. it is in the light of this development that i wish to make a survey of the touchy issues in muslim west relation, an issue which makes headlines in the media, often blown out of proportion, sometimes bringing the two sides to the point of confrontation. the paper attempts to analyse these issues and show how they variously affect the two ideological blocks. the study arguably sees dialogue, tolerance and greater cooperation as important avenues to cement over differences and move towards healthier relationship. 4. the uniting force it needs no gainsaying that today the muslim world produces over 70% of the world’s oil and more than 50% of its gas needs. this concentration of over one billion people unfortunately could not be redeemed by the succor and bounties provided by these tremendous resources. in the final analysis, the ummah continues to remain increasingly backward; and its people becoming chronically poor, disease-stricken and impoverished. 5. touchy issues in muslim west relations. in order to understand the shariah in its global context, there is the need to analyse some of the touchy issues in the muslim-west relations each of which brings the two sides often to the brink of confrontation. age-old denigration of islam, muslims and muslim institutions since its inception in the seventh century, islam, its adherents and its sacred institutions have suffered various forms of denigrations in the hands of its adversaries. the personality of the holy prophet indeed suffered the most. this trend did not change despite the tremendous transformation human civilization has undergone over the centuries. history bears witness to the tremendous confidence the holy prophet enjoyed in his youth among the meccan inhabitants. it was because of his honesty he was nicknamed -al-ameenthe trustworthy. but ironically, this degree of confidence started to change immediately he began to call his people to the new religion. the society that was hitherto calling him al-ameen, quickly began to shift gear. not long afterwards, the same community began to address him in a new garb as someone who is “possessed”, “mad”, “lost”, etc. one would wonder at this sudden change of attitude. when things reached crisis however, the meccan aristocracy decided to bribe prophet muhammad with a meccan title and a shareholding entitlement in the city’s booming idolatrous pilgrimage proceeds, an offer, the prophet flatly rejected. next come threats, marginalization, blockade, ostracization, persecution and eviction. the question one may ask is what has so far changed when compared with the way islam and muslims are treated in present day world? as a matter of fact, today quite a lot has remained in form of sanctions, threats, missile attacks, occupation, and detention in maximum security prisons across the globe -guantanamo, abu ghareb, and such others in pakistan, afghanistan, and morocco. 6. secularism and irreligiousness secularism is today the most dominant culture in the west. it is based on the most common adage, “render unto caesar what is caesar’s and unto god what is god’s.” in the christian-dominated western societies the secularist thesis of the separation of religion and politics is, despite the voices of dissent, an established fact of the public sphere. similarly, the avowed religious basis or orientation of the state of israel does not, in practicalthat is, in matters of law and policynegate that principle. muslims have to explain, in more than simplistic terms, where they stand on the issue. according to the secularist philosophy, religion stands distinct from politics and the two are separate one from the other. under this dispensation, religion and by inference christianity, would not enjoy such position of prominence as it were once enjoying in the middle ages. before christianity imposes the stringent laws of the inquisition, it hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 3 published by ideas spread was enjoying an enviable place in the lives of people, regulating all aspects of spiritual as well as mundane aspects of life. but from the moment christianity began to descend its sledge hammer on the inquiring spirit of the early men of science galileo, copernicus etc, it became quite obnoxious in the lives of people and indeed a very fearful thing. many opted to abandon christianity than to be identified with its primitive, reactionary and backward postulations on life and modem scientific inquiry. is it any wonder if the modern man, and by inference, the modem christian westerner, shuns such a religion and abhors such a god that tends to deny life and by extension puts it in harm’s way? no wonder then the west, in the first half of the twentieth century fought two wars that cost humanity no less than one hundred million lives and scores of communists revolutions (russia and china) which swept along with it more than seventy million souls. the remaining 146 little wars which were fought from 1945 to date, despite its staggering rise and geographical spread, led to the death of thirty million people in all. secularism today has become a universal principle, a sovereign ideology for almost all nations of the world. religion, hitherto condemned by karl marx as the opium of the masses, occupies a secondary place and in some more advanced nations of the west, a third place; it plays quite an insignificant role in the life of the average westerner. no wonder, churches are empty and often times, sold, rented or auctioned. marriage, -them important institution in all human societies, is now seen, as marx once said, “a club trap”, of little or no consequence and therefore no longer necessary. the family, fundamental as it is at all times and in all ages, is today broken down in the west; and the single parent, an aspect unknown in all human civilizations of old, is today resurging in the west to the point of forming a cartel. in other words, the single parent is gradually becoming a prominent element in western societies. all these developments happen because of the state of irreligiousness in which the western society has found itself. in lieu of religion, western societies have now found solace in promiscuity, licentiousness, drug addiction, crimes and violence. these elements have now become the cardinal principles of western religion. 7. arab israeli conflict the middle east has been home to many conflicts and crises over a long period of time. it has been a region with one of the longest history, stretching over 7,000 years. it is equally believed to be the cradle of human civilization as it houses the ancient mesopotamia, the region where the euphrates and tigris two great important rivers are situated. there were indeed age old crises in the distant past as ensued between pharaoh and the children of israel as well as wars involving nations in the region. but the point of conflict in recent times has to do with the creation of the state of israel inside palestine in 1948. from that time till today, the region has enjoyed very little peace. at various times since then, the region has witnessed several fratricidal conflicts as well as full scale wars. wars ranging from those that took many months to those that take days-like the six days war. the last war that was fought in the region was between israel and hezbollah of lebanon in 2006 which lasted thirty two days. since 1948, both sides, israel as well as the arabs, have recorded serious losses of both human and material resources. no side could claim, with any degree of certainty, the achievement of any meaningful victory over the other in the final analysis. in her desperate bid to exist, or perhaps to prevail, israel is unfortunately creating conditions that may jeopardize its very existence. the 2006 war with hezbollah and the december 2008 encounter with hamas are cases in point. 8. the war in afghanistan the u. s. traced the september 11 attack to osama ben laden who, through american pressure in 1996, was forced to leave the republic of the sudan to afghanistan, then under the rule of the taliban, a pakistani supported muslim afghan group that had taken over power at that time. america attacked afghanistan because the regime has failed to handover osama ben laden. the ousting of the taliban government did not see the end of the conflict nor end the “terror” posed by the taliban. what followed went beyond what the americans and their allies ever anticipated-that by destroying the afghan military capabilities and dealing their soldiers deadly blows, then within a week all will be over. the war is now in its seventh year and despite the proxy stance of the nato which is currently fighting the war on behalf of the u.s. (that first started the war), the taliban controlled more than two third of afghanistan today. security is at itslowest ebb, karzai (u.s. imposed president of afghanistan) and the coalition forces fall easy preys to booby traps, assassination attempts and incessant suicide bombings almost on a daily basis. at every hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 3; 2019 4 published by ideas spread passing hour, afghanistan is increasingly becoming a pariah, or to say the least a failed state while nato forces continue to suffer serious reversals both at the war front and inside their military bases. the tragedy of the afghan conflict is that the country is more and more impoverished while basic infrastructures have been virtually destroyed and peace continues to elude all. in addition, the united states government is spending one hundred million dollars daily to fight the afghan war. the recent call by the nato secretary on member states to send more forces to afghanistan is an indirect admission that despite the colossal amount that is daily spent and the large military presence, the west is gradually losing the war; a fact attested by the outgoing british military commander. 9. the iraq war of 2003 before the 2003 war, iraq was a victim of an allied attack in 1991. when iraq invaded kuwait, operation desert shield was coined to tag a military gang up comprising of america, britain, france and their allies from more than thirty countries in order to dislodge the iraqis out in a devastating war which lasted nearly a month and a half. the war left the country totally devastated; its economy crippled, its currency devalued and its population (especially children and infants) highly impoverished. it took the iraq twelve years of great struggle before it could stand on its feet again as a sovereign nation. again in march 2003 iraq, without the mandate of the security council, came under a heavy, this time more devastating attack by the u.s. and her allies in a war which is still persisting. the reasons this time were many and varied. the foremost reason why iraq must be fought was the allegation that saddam hussein possessed weapons of mass destruction, wmd (something which was later proved wrong). next was the fundamental necessity to unseat saddam hussein whose “reign of terror” and “undemocratic rule” were “causing untold hardship on his people especially the kurds”. another reason was that, the ruling sunni groups who were at that time “a minority” were continually pursuing a terror rule over a “helpless” shia majority and tiny pockets of kurds; this balance of power, so said george w. bush, must change. the undeclared reason ofcourse being, iraqi’s tremendous oil wealth; a fundamental necessity to a nation that guzzles three-quarter of the world’s resources. as a matter of fact, the u.s. and her allies carried out this attack in 2003, without the mandate of the security council; nor was such a mandate ever granted at any point in time. speaking about the unjust war in iraq, enver mas'ud has this to say: war planes aboard the uss enterprise, combined with more than 200 cruise missiles from eight navy warships converged on iraq targets....300 strike fighters, bombers and support aircraft flew 600 sorties, more than half of them at night. another 40 ships took part in the attack with 10 of them firing cruise missiles. more than 600 bombs were dropped, 90 cruise missiles fired from the air and another 300 from ships at sea. all these were done to a country that was having less in population than four out of the fifty american states, whose defense budget is only 1% of america's. in terms of size, where america is the third largest in area in the world, iraq is 57th. questioning this naked savagery on innocent people, one of america's presidential candidates, patrick j. buchanan says: it is time to ask how grave a threat iraq is to america. we launched the round-the-clock air strikes with 2,000 planes for six weeks; iraq fired back a handful of scuds. iraq killed scores of americans; we killed thousands of iraqis. yes, saddam "makes war on his own people", but who inflicts the greater suffering saddam or us-led embargo that has claimed the lives of 239,000 children, 15 years old and under, since 1990? references buchanan, j. p. (2012). in his own words. a special report. encarta. (2007). microsoft corporation. masud, e. (2010). the war on islam. usa: the wisdom fund. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false /parseiccprofilesincomments true /embedjoboptions true 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice humanities and social science research; vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v1n1p39 39 published by ideas spread the contrast of political development and the environment hamid s1 & roghayyeh v2 1 ph. d of political science, department of politics and law, science and research branch islamic azad university, tehran, iran 2 ph. d student of political science, department of politics and law, central islamic azad university, tehran, iran correspondence: hamid s, ph. d of political science, department of politics and law, science and research branch islamic azad university, tehran, iran. e-mail: hamedsarmadi2000@gmail.com received: february 12, 2018; accepted: march 14, 2018; published: may 19, 2018 abstract political development has played an important role in the development of environmental law indirectly. mechanism linking political development to environmental change is that political development provides an opportunity for different groups and civil society, including environmental advocacy groups, academic & scientific pressure groups to influence on political decisions and legislation. establishing new academic disciplines particularly the environment international law, and trying to play a constructive role in the protection of the environment largely influenced by the pressure and influence of civil society. new social movements, particularly the greens, diverted attention from economic development and class struggles to the environmental issues and through this; they were effective in the formation of convections and pro-environmental laws. keywords: political development, environment, environmental social movements 1. introduction environmental and political issues in the developing world often have close relationship with each other. in this regard, environmental groups may consider the targets of their own time with pale positions of their own political band members. governments may also use violent means to achieve the control of valuable natural resources. however, the issue isn’t as simply as one of the ((good)) against ((bad)). local environmental groups are trying to defend their own local ecology and foreign governments or bad business interests are trying to destroy for their own interests. in fact, all the poor people or powerless people do not support environmental groups or don’t wish to join them. some of them earn their income through work in polluting industries or are applied by breaking ground for anti-ecological farming medals. there is no doubt that 35 years after the stockholm environment conference global members of environmental non-governmental organizations have been increased. "now there are, tens of thousands" of them in developing countries. relatively speaking, many of them have been established in latin america, india and east asia; there are few in sub-saharan africa and much fewer than those in the middle east and north africa, the african communist countries (china, laos, vietnam) and with regard to the development of civil society in these regions, it is not surprising the heterogeneous expanding the pro-environmental groups in the political developing world. environmental non-governmental organization in developing countries often attract the attention of most poor and powerless people such as youth and women which may completely reach to a common understanding that the current situation is unfavorable for their interests (fals bodra 1992 : 311-316), in short… the aim of this research is considering the contrast of political development and the environment. 2. environment the term environment can be called to the limited region or an entire planet and even into outer space that surrounds it. biosphere term or the critical layer applied particularly by unesco corresponds to one of the widest definitions, including: human life environment or that part of the world, according to current knowledge of all human, life is in the continuation there. in fact, biosphere or critical layer is the thin layer which has surrounded the earth. biosphere includes earth and thousands miles higher and depth of earth and oceans. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 40 published by ideas spread various definitions of environment have been presented in civil rights texts and international documents. among them, the legal texts adopted by the council of europe economic community, on 27 june 1967 that says in the definition of the environment: ((environment includes water, air, soil and internal & external factors related to the life of every living creature)). in the introduction of the united nations conference statement is announced to the governments about the human environment in stockholm in 1972: human kind creates and forms his own environment, the environments which awards him physical survival, spiritual growth opportunities (social, moral and spiritual). referring to “human forming environment” means that the man-made environment should also be considered, in such a way that it should be taken into account some part, or at least a major component of the natural environment. a notable example in this regard is article 1 in the uk environmental protection law act 1990. talking about pollution control, broshni presents a definition of environment and says: “environment comprises all or part of elements that make up natural environment, including water, air and soil either in the surface or in the depth naturally or man-made” . another definition with more integrity about the environment has been applied in the convention of civil liability of damages caused by dangerous acts in the environment. its proposal has been adopted by the council of europe, which is a regional organization in europe on 21 june 1993 in lugano. according to article 2 of convention: in terms of this convention environment includes the following sections: renewable and non-renewable natural resources such as water, air, soil and all creatures and plants and mutual interaction of these factors on each other; properties that are part of the cultural heritage; and specific perspectives; thus, man-made environment such as buildings, monuments, diverse buildings or specific landscapes and perspectives should be protected against damage as part of the environment (case et.al 2005, volume 1, 5-7). 3. political development in recent decades, political development has been one of the main axes of the social science literature. now days, it can be seen overall attention in thinker’s ideas and opinions & political theorists toward the importance and complexity of development and political one which can’t be seen in predecessor’s perceptions (pie et.al, 2001). classical thinkers such as tocqueville, marx, durkem knew the development as a linear & western process and had rather simplistic approach toward political development phenomenon (jaguaribe 1973, 26-35). the failure of attempts to model european countries and inattention to thinker’s social fields led this area to this understanding that the issue is deeper and more extensive than the classics and predecessors think about it (badie 2000, 17-24). today, unlike the past, the development is not seen as a one-dimensional phenomenon, but it is considered as a quite multifaceted, cohesive issue and political, social and cultural dimensions of development has special place along its economic dimension in endogenous development, human development and sustainable development issues and in almost all of these issues, "political development aspect" is considered seriously. 4. environment and political development in rio conference a distinct theory on rights and making decisions about the environment in international level was introduced with rio de janeiro conference in 1992 about environment and political development. for the first time, in this conference environment issue was placed in “development stability” perspective. its basic was common general belief of most international community based on that there is a definite link between protecting the environment and promoting development. hence, the ((sustainable development)) was placed at the forefront of policy-making discussions relating to environment. general assembly of the united nations adopted holding international conference about environment and development & during that the un secretary general was asked to organize this conference introduction. accordingly, the preparatory committee of the conference was formed with the active participation of representatives of all member states and representatives of non-governmental & international organizations & within four meetings examined the topics which should be discussed in mentioned conference. subsequently, the un conference on environment and development began in rio de janeiro, brazil in june 1992 with more than 30 thousand people from 176 countries, including 116 heads of state and representatives of 1400 active non-governmental international organizations in environment and 900 reporters and various topics related hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 41 published by ideas spread to the environment and development was discussed as current problem against human by 14th june. two other significant legal documents such as the un convention on climate change (climate change), new york (1992), convention on biological diversity, rio de janeiro in 1992, which was prepared before conference, was opened for states signatures (case et.al 2005, volume 1, 36). rio conference discussing environmental issue as a global problem emphasized on the necessity of coordination of developing countries trend with the environment protection and introduced environment protection as an important and international issue for future century and by proposing to establish an international environmental regulation to achieve sustainable development created a new evolution in developing process of the international law of environment. the conference gave more coherence to international community actions to protect environment in international institutions framework by strengthening existing institutions and new ones. rio conference included three non-binding documents comprising final statement of the conference (an introduction and a bit and seven principles), agenda 21 (a charter for the future) and adopted the principles of forest conservation. rio declaration of 1992 is considerable and notable from 2 perspectives: one, this text reflects the difference of developed and developing countries and another is considered attempt to give aim to the formulation and development process of environment international law. thus, the legal principles contained in this declaration, such as having physical and mental health and ability to adapt with nature (the environment right) (article i), in this case it is necessary to note that the rio declaration on environment and development, in its first article implies transition towards an approach in which the human is given priority toward environment in combination with the development. this principle says that human beings are ((in the center of concerns about the sustainable development)) and they deserve ((healthy and productive life in harmony with nature)) (mohsen zadeh, 2009, 197). government’s sovereignty in taking advantage of the natural resources under their jurisdiction in a fairly controlled way (principle two), the right for the development by compliance with the requirements of present and future generations (principle three), eliminating poverty (principle five) , noting to circumstances and needs of developing countries (principle six), more responsibilities of developed countries in environment protection (principle seven), exchanging information and new access of technologies (principle nine), reflect the views of developing countries. on the other hand, principles such as changing production and consumption patterns, population growth for their compatibility with environment and sustainable development (principle eight) , people’s right to access environmental information and the right of access to judicial and administrative authorities and courts and applying for penalties and compensation for environmental damage (principle ten), supporting economic free systems without imposing arbitrary and unjust actions for exploitation of others (principle twelve) and emphasis on the critical & vital role of women cooperation in environment (principle twenty) reflect industrial and developed countries’ ideas in environment protection and sustainable development in sustainable development process. the second document of the rio conference, the basic principles statement of international consensus regarding conservation management and sustainable development of all types of forests consist of an introduction and fifteen articles. this document is a non-binding one and suggests governments how and based on what mechanism manages national forests which is considered the first global consensus on forests. non-binding document is action plan for the twenty-first century called agenda 21, adopted by other conference in rio in 1992, which considers the various aspects of environment and sustainable development and recommends solutions and executive methods for each of them by identifying existing problems. agenda 21 was compiled in 40 chapters (115 threads) and 800 pages that were put in governments. in this document in the aspect of conservation and management of resources such as air, forest, water and strengthening national states legislative role is of elementary materials of this principle. in fact, agenda 21 is an action for protecting the global environment. the effects of the rio conference on international law of environment are as follow (pour hashemi & arghand 2013, 33): the government should be concern about preserving and protecting the environment in economic, political, industrial growth and globalization development and address sustainable development as an approach in their own national development plans. the governments should mention ((principle of sustainable development)) in developing program rules and usual ones as well as the formulation of bilateral or multilateral legally binding documents. the governments should recognize the role of social groups, institutions, ngos in preserving national, regional and global environment. so the third period of the development of environmental international law process can be called realism, comprehensive review, reforms and the emergence of different countries’ conflicts about environment. in this hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 42 published by ideas spread course, international environmental rules & regulations are evolved in sustainable development framework and they are reformed if necessary to be coordinated with global realities and are applicable in practice as well as new regulations are formed. in this course, agenda 21 as an international action plan was welcomed by a lot of countries and some were entered in countries’ domestic rules. in this historical period, several international conventions were established on environmental protection & the most important was earth summit + 5 and declaration of the world summit on sustainable development in south africa, johannesburg, 2002. five years after the rio conference in 1992 & based on decision taken at the conference by attending leaders and representatives of 185 countries to consider and analyze rio conference achievements, to evaluate the way of implementing its adopted agreements and decisions for necessary actions to prevent further damage of environment and to achieve sustainable development, it was held in the form of nineteenth special session of the un general assembly from 23 to 27th june 1997 in un headquarter in new york. this session was ended following conflicts between developing countries and industrial ones in preparing financial resources and transition of needed technologies to developing countries and also dispute over renegotiate about agenda 21 from one side, and conflicts between america and europe union to set a timetable for reducing emissions of greenhouse gases from other side, without access to a conclusion and by issuing a statement entitled to run applications beyond agenda 21. in 2002, the fourth statement and non-legally binding document adopted in johannesburg, south africa. johannesburg declaration isn’t seen as a successful statement for repeating rio statement principles and not presenting legal approaches to preserve global environment. although, on one hand, international law of environment in involved in conflicting between developed countries which destroyed their environment and earth to reach to an extreme economic growth and now they claim to preserve it & on the other hand, developing countries which don’t have enough motivation to preserve environment in term of being costly and lack of access to modern technologies. failure to reach agreement on the copenhagen meeting in 2009 to review and revise the kyoto protocol is one of the problems facing contemporary environment international law. rio summit + 20 haven’t been able to heal conflicts between developed and developing countries and haven’t put a solution for economic growth and environmental protection paradox. so the development & evolution of environmental international law in this historical period is owed to common understanding of developed and developing countries regarding preserving global environment (molaee, 2007, 278-280). political development impacts on environment rights evolution & preserving & promoting environment health; in a way that political open and decentralized space enables forming civil institutions, social movements and new & competing ideas. 5. the contrast of political development and environmental issues from the perspective of social movements in democratic countries, most of civil institutions, social movements and new ideas have focused on environmental issues. these groups have pressure on governments, large producing companies and industries’ owners via education and information, establishment of new academic disciplines, building networks and new media, mobilizing resources to follow environmental rules and in this regard, they use the resort to appeal to public opinions. these groups activities isn’t limited to attempt for following pre-existing rules but they try to propel governments to ordain new rules and regulations in internal level and to conclude new conventions and treaties in international level. most of conventions related to environment & establishing environment rights discipline has been the result of these groups pressure and attempts directly and indirectly. the main concern of social movements is changing in social relations and distributing political and economic power, most leaders and fans of social movements have accepted that changing in economic, social and political structures must be accompanied by changes in cultural and recognition structures and fields (moshir zadeh, 2011, 323-325). hence, entering environment issue to social and legal issues is the result of movement’s attempts and pro-environment civil groups. in fact, these groups and civil institutions have more chance to assert themselves and to influence policies. entering environment issue in political, legal and social issues is the result of the emergence of new social movements, especially the radical environmental movement. prior to the emergence of these new movements, the labor movement and other movements and political parties were mainly focused on economy and sought to maximize their economic growth and their share of social and political benefits. environmental activism is seen as primarily a social movement. social movements are considered ((a collective effort to transform the social structure)) which sometimes use ((ultra-characteristic methods)). german sociologist, lorenz von stein entered ((social movement)) term in the academic issues related to popular political issue in his book, named the history of french social movement from 1789 up to now 1850. at first, this hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 43 published by ideas spread term embodied continuous and integrated process idea through which the whole worker class got to the collective consciousness and the power via that. when von stein wrote these, the communist manifesto (1848) marx and engels have recently mentioned this concept in their declaration based on that "all previous historical movements were movements of minorities, or in the interest of minorities. proletariat movement had expressed self-conscious, independent movement of mass majority is in favor of mass majority (tilly, 2009, 24). a distinctive form of following public policy was formed in the late eighteenth century in western europe and they were widely accepted in the early nineteenth century in western europe and north america, in the middle of that century it came together in an enduring set of elements, then evolved into a more slowly & growing form, it developed in all over west and was named social movement. that political set combined three elements: 1. campaigns related to group claims which a aimed officials; 2. range of functions related to allegedly plan, including the establishment of special purpose associations, public meetings, media statements and protests; 3. public representations of worthiness, unity, numbers and commitment of a movement (tilly, 2009, 28). social movements as we know today proliferated in the late eighteenth century in england, and it began his racing roots during the nineteenth century in europe, north america and elsewhere. we should consider many related changes to understand the reason of this issue: powerful sovereignty but weak kingdom, people who organize against that sovereignty to claim, political elites susceptible to such a claim who govern in the name of people. the start of forming extensive literature and new communication medium which cause people isolated in space moves with a common song and become a member. social movements combine three types of claims: program, identity, and status (validity). claims about program include support or opposition regarding real or imagined actions of the objectives of movement claims (tilly, 2009, 26-36). claims about identity include emphasis on this issue that ((we)), claimants form a unite power and you should consider us united. claims about status emphasize on links and similarities between movement activists and other political ones, such as deprived minorities and well-formed citizen groups or faithful supporters of the regime. then for instance, they go through the status of other political activists by deporting refugees or taking their citizenship rights. claims about program, identity and status adapt with various codes created from particular political history of that regime. the relative importance of the claims related to the program, identity and status is different within the social movements, current claimants within those movements, and among various courses of movement. in fact, a considerable amount of discussion may focus within the social movements around the relative importance of different claims. democratization and political development will strengthen the formation of social movements. democratization means forming regimes whose characteristics are existing broad and equal citizenship, binding consultations with citizens about government policies, personnel and resources, and a minimum amount of protection for citizens against arbitrary acts of government agents. in fact, the democratization will limit the scope of effective popular collective action. for instance, democratic institutions prevent violent popular uprisings. however, empowering citizens through competitive elections and other forms of consultations are combined with the support of civil liberties such as creating association and holding assemblies to flow popular claims into forms of social movements. shapes, personnel and the claims of social movements evolve throughout history. three distinctive but interacting resources cause diversity in place and time to make changes in social movements. first, the general political environments (democratization and de-democratization) are involved in the relative autonomy of social movements and affect its fortune. second, in the interaction which occurs within social movements (e.g., interactions between demonstrators and police), changes can occur as a result of continuous innovation, dialogue and conflict in a way of growing. third, participants in social movements including not only activists, but officials and other targets of claims communicate with each other by borrowing and adapting ideas, personnel, support, rhetoric, and practice models. they also borrow, adapt and innovate while competing to get privilege and sponsor. this borrowing and adaptation are often occur in far distances and between social movements completely isolated from each other. the changes in political environments, growing changes within the realm of social movements and transition between movements in interacting with each other create considerable variation & change in the nature of social movements. pro-environment movements and green parties that are highlighted in the past two decades have given a marvelous range of interpretations about the depth and nature of the environmental crisis we are facing and how to save ourselves from effects. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 44 published by ideas spread radical environmental movements reject the communities’ belief to the current economic growth and they know this as one of the main reasons of most issues related to environment in today’s world because all perishable and non-renewable resources are exploited greatly. greens criticize competitive and individualism moods of these communities which lead to granularity of community and the most important lead to deep alienation from nature. they criticize dominant intellectual culture & customs of the west communities why the see justifications for exploitative considerations toward nature in the west political theory and philosophy which has been changed to institutions in these communities. hence, they blame these political & ideological communities and organizations for the current crisis of environment. the greens say that without a fundamental change in this regard the deep crisis that we face in environment issue will be worse (peterson, 2012, 344). in other words, the greens stand up against assumptions behind social images which industrial modern communities’ ideologies lay ahead, specially the images which allow free market. the greens are placed for a community consists of rational and autonomous individuals with a market providing a context for economic affluence to have safe social relations and beneficial from both sides, in the present society, which is way far away from that ((medina misguided)) sees, we, its members go through the destruction of earth. following economic growth without reason & making sure about human capacity strengthen this issue to repair more evident every day damages which industrial modern community bring for natural environment. most followers of the green movement think that the gap between communities as it is and as the way it should be, are deep and their hostility with technology and industrialism believing organs which are taken into account as a dominant basic design, is led from here. 6. conclusion in general, in any country where there is a higher degree of political development, pro-environmental groups, including social movements and pressure groups, the green parties and the scientific community can better force the governments to enact and enforce suitable environmental rules. in this regard, democratic countries have better environmental performance indicators. in fact, political development cause political decision exit from focused, personal, arbitrary, secretive and behind the scenes, irrational and destructive mode and is based on the participation of different groups, including proenvironment groups, thus enabling legislation to protect the environment. political development provides open space in community and creates reasonable grounds to criticize and supervise the activities of governments and companies. in political closed space in which governments and officials close all discussion and cooperation facilities and take all the powers, the possibility of forming movements, civil institutions and free press and non-governmental groups are removed and politicians with having resources prevent diffusing proper and knowledgeable news to public. instead, they mobilize public behind their destructive irrational policies to suppress any types of oppositions. the policies lead to irreversible effects in various areas including environment. besides what was said political development ensures universities & scientific centers independency and it will be effective to open space for free academic discussions & away from governmental orders in developing new disciplines related to environment (including environment rights). developing these disciplines provides the possibility of professional and deliberate political decision on environmental issues. references badie, b. (1997). political development, translated by naghib zadeh ahmad, tehran, ghoomes publication. case, a. (2005). environment law, translated by habibi, mohammad hasan, 2nd edition, tehran, tehran university publication. fals, b. o. (1992). "social movements and political power in latin america" in a, escobar and s, alvarez, the making of social movements in latin america identity: strategy and democracy, boulder, co, westview, pp. 303-316. jaguaribe, h. (1973). political development: a general theory latin america case study, new york, harper & row publishers. mohsen, z., & ahmad, a. et al. (2009). environment law, theories and practices, tehran, khorsandi publications. molaee, a. (2009). essay, "environmentally sustainable development principles in the constitution of islamic republic of iran” in environment book, theories and practices, law office and parliament affairs of epa. moshir, z. h. (2002). an introduction to the theory of social movements, tehran, imam khomeini research institute. peterson, m. (2012). the green politics field, translated by talebi, rooho llah, in perchil scott et.al, theories of hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 45 published by ideas spread international relations, translated by moshir zadeh, homeira & talebi, roho llah, tehran, mizan pulication. pie, l. (1991). political culture, political development, translated by majidi majid, encyclopedia, no 5 & 6. pour, h., seyed a., & arghand, b. (2013). environmental international law, tehran, dadgostar publication. tilly, ch. (2009). social movements, translated by morshedi zad, ali, tehran, imam sadegh university publication. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). microsoft word p12-15 humanities and social science research; vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v4n4p12 12 published by ideas spread academia as an incubator of oppression and violence: a closer look at academic mobbing and bullying offline and online constance iloh1 1 azusa pacific university, usa correspondence: constance iloh, ph.d., azusa pacific university, school of behavioral and applied sciences, department of higher education, 901 e. alosta ave., azusa, ca 91702, usa. e-mail: ciloh apu.edu received: october 18, 2021; accepted: october 31, 2021; published: november 4, 2021 abstract academic mobbing, bullying, and cyberbullying are pervasive and interconnected harms in academe with scarce conversation and intervention devoted to them. the author discusses what these phenomena are and asserts academia and its institutions are incubators of oppression and violence as well as protectors of these abuses. the text illustrates some of the destructive consequences for targets of these attacks, refuting other conceptualizations that downplay the severity of academic mobbing and bullying. the author also contends that understanding of academic mobbing and bullying must be multimodal and extend to cyberspace. the text concludes with how both gross negligence and the illusion of the academy as a just exemplar sustains these harms. keywords: academia, institutional culture, academic mobbing, academic bullying, organizational culture, abuse, aggression, harassment, humiliation, smear campaign, cyberbullying, toxicity, social murder, harm, suicide, violence, health risk 1. introduction on the 12th of april in the year 1994, justine sergent was found dead in her garage from carbon monoxide poisoning (cran, 2018). sergent, a professor and cognitive neuroscientist at mcgill university, endured over two years of intense scrutiny, humiliation, and degradation of her work and personhood that stemmed from research allegations within her institution (ratelle, 1994; seguin, 2016). in advance of her death, sergent detailed in a letter “the “nightmare” and “harassment” she believed had “no end in sight” (westhues, 2005, p.25).” justine’s battle concluded with a suicide many have attributed to academic mobbing. while there are numerous brutal activities in the ecosystem that is academia, among the most enduring, deadly, and destructive are academic mobbing and bullying. the purpose of this text is to offer a nuanced and critical perspective of academic mobbing and bullying. in doing so, i both extend and challenge extant conversations by suggesting that academic mobbing and bullying are violent, incubated through academia’s culture, and permeates to the internet. 2. academic mobbing and bullying to be sure, while understudied and typically unaddressed, academic mobbing has already amassed multiple definitions. as metzger, petit, and sieber (2015, p.139) report, “the chronicle of higher education defined academic mobbing as bullying where members of a department gang up to isolate or humiliate a colleague.” similarly, khoo (2010, p. 61) discusses it as “‘non-violent” attacks where “one or a few academicians threatened by a target launch a desperate campaign, infecting person after person with the desire to eliminate,” harass, harm, humiliate, and tear down that target. while those definitions are useful in outlining some behaviors in academic mobbing, they either position this behavior as non-violent or are limiting in conveying its devastation (iloh, 2021c). seguin’s definition (2016) is particularly instructive as it states that academic mobbing is “strategic,” “led by a group of instigators/recruiters,” and often involves “fabrications, anonymous accusations, hateful messages, rumors, intimidation, public humiliation, withholding information, tampering with work, downplaying accomplishments, defamation, secret convenings to discuss target, and police-like surveillance and scrutiny” that makes target out to be a problem. ultimately, seguin (2016) sees academic mobbing as a “social murder a person can’t survive.” in addition, targets likely experience threats, “rhetoric that borders on hysteria in its exaggerations and fabrications,” as well as outright violations and unfairness within the target’s “adjudication and evaluation processes (friedenberg, 20018).” academic bullying, while in some ways similar to academic mobbing, should not be conflated with academic mobbing. academic bullying is a form of attack usually carried out by one person, particularly with positional or social power such that this perpetrator faces no consequences for inflicting harm on hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 13 published by ideas spread a specific target (keashly, 2019; westhues, 2005). thoughtful exploration of mobbing and bullying separately could warrant specific forms of intervention and action. targets of academic mobbing and bullying are especially likely to be racially minoritized, younger, and women (lampman, 2012; 2016; prevost & hunt, 2018). these targets also typically have less power, allies, and resources than their aggressors. perpetrators and initiators of academic and mobbing and bullying often possess multiple sociopathic characteristics (khoo, 2010; westhues, 2005) and are also more likely to be men (hoenigman meyer, 2021). accordingly, academic mobbing and bullying are enabled in academia through multiple forms of abuse as well as power, resource, and information asymmetries in higher education (iloh, 2019; 2020; 2021b). those impacted by academic mobbing and bullying can find themselves struggling to navigate, let alone survive, the spiritual, professional, emotional, and psychological assaults they are experiencing within their workplace and beyond (iloh, 2021a; 2021c; 2021d; williams, 1991). additionally, due to the complicity of others in the academic setting, a target may find any attempts to address such behavior exhausting and futile. perpetrators are likely to even recruit harassers and saboteurs from other spaces and institutions to magnify harm to a target. initial perpetrators might also continue attacks against their target even after the target exits the environment. thus, the aggression and relentlessness of academic mobbing and bullying pushes targets to adopt the belief that they will have no relief and a spectrum of suffering, torture, and loss is imminent. 3. academic mobbing, bullying, and the internet given all that has been detailed about academic mobbing and bullying, it is no surprise that they can extend to the world wide web. with the prevalence of social media accounts, websites, and blogs dedicated to the stalking, trolling, harassing, defamation, and bullying of certain academics; mobbers and bullies have help in spreading the reach of their harm. moreover, academics can seek the help of such harmful and biased platforms to aid them in targeting their colleagues. for example, enlisting a blog/website to surveil, troll, and harass a scholar is a way to amplify mobbers and bullies’ attempts to defame, publicly humiliate, demoralize, and terrorize their target. not only can the academic mobber or bully continue to covertly harass their target with anonymous comments of vitriol; the readership or followership of that platform can join the mobbers/bully in doing so as well. these attempts to direct hatred, animosity, and discrediting to a target can also lead to heightened visibility of the target such that they also receive threats of harm and violence from strangers. 4. outcomes of academic mobbing and bullying academic mobbing and bullying, whether online or offline, can lead to a plethora of personal, professional, and life consequences for targets. as it relates to potential professional outcomes, mobbing and bullying can be a catalyst for a variety of forms of withdrawal or departure from the organization or profession as a whole. this can include, “resignation, denial of tenure, taking permanent or recurring sick leave, job dismissal, or having all their responsibilities withdrawn (seguin, 2016).” additionally, targets may find it hard to persist in their profession, as attacks on their work and ability to work impact their productivity. academic mobbing and bullying can leave targets struggling psychologically, emotionally, spiritually, and physically. specifically, academic mobbing and bullying can prompt high levels of anxiety, stress, feelings of distress, depression, self-harm, suicidal ideation, outside threats of harm from others, and even suicide (cassell, 2011). according to seguin (2016), over 12 percent of academically mobbed professors die of suicide. the aggregate of prolonged stress from academic mobbing and bullying can also lead to health challenges and illnesses that result in premature death. as such, framing academic mobbing and bullying as non-violent is not only irresponsible, it minimizes severe consequences and fatalities. 5. academia as an incubator and sustainer of oppression and violence one might ask why these forms of violence are so prevalent within academe. academia is a breeding ground and facilitator of mobbing and bullying (barratt-pugh & krestelica, 2019). specifically, it is an ecosystem that establishes and sustains an oppressive and hegemonic culture with power asymmetries that embolden perpetrators. moreover, it is also an incubator and protector of abuse, aggression, whiteness, professional jealousy, epistemic violence, cruelty, nepotism, retaliation, competition, hazing, and harassment that multiple members of its ecosystem uphold, from students to senior leaders. for example, a young black early career professor could be a target of mobbing and bullying that involves coordinated harassment and discrediting from students, faculty, and leaders whose identities are privileged and weaponized. poisonous forms of leadership, colluding, antiintersectional understandings of maltreatment, toxic positivity, and groupthink also support and elevate the harms of mobbing especially. “if professors aim to put a colleague down, one strategy could be to wear the target down by shunning, [humiliation], bureaucratic hassles, [discrediting and sabotaging work], and withholding of deserved rewards (khoo, 2010, p. 61).” through academic mobbing and bullying, any vitriol for a target that perpetrators possess can be transformed into material damage in the target’s life. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 14 published by ideas spread the unwillingness of academia to take action against academic mobbing and bullying takes many forms, including ignorance and unbelief (cassell, 2011). through her dialogue with senior scholars, erika marin-spiotta finds, “many view harassment as an injustice that happens somewhere else, not in their field or institution (2018).” because of refusal and denial; targets of academic bullying and mobbing are left vulnerable to even more harm, gaslighting, retaliation, or silencing if/when they do consider addressing these conditions. academia, or those most protective of its culture, might be intentionally slow or unwilling to address academic mobbing and bullying. ignorance and negligence of academic bullying and mobbing means institutions can avoid accountability for their harmful rituals and conditions. those who raise concerns about an institution, problem, department, or leadership may be bullied or mobbed, which then quiets and/or invalidates voices advocating for change. moreover, institutions addressing these forms of misconduct would mean an interrogation of their own abuses of power, whiteness, anti-blackness, racism, discrimination, ageism, sexism, misogynoir, xenophobia, punitiveness, and systems of oppression. additionally, through academic mobbing and bullying, a target who could pursue legal options for institutional wrongdoing may be too exhausted, maligned, ill, or fearful to do so after extensive attacks. 6. conclusion my premise here is that we must situate academic mobbing and bullying as more than just footnotes in the understanding of academic organizational culture, but as the violent, destructive, and multi-modal phenomena that they are. moreover, in framing these aggressions as health threats, it is my hope that society can elevate concerns about the egregious ways those in academia harm others. in reviewing the legacy of justine sergent, there exists only a paucity of articles that name the brutality sergent experienced. additionally, countless minoritized scholars who too have suffered irreparable harm harbor stories unknown. refusing to identify, confront, and eliminate academic mobbing and bullying not only disguises what lies within academic spaces, it sustains a culture that jeopardizes lives. short biography of the author constance iloh is a social scientist committed to identifying the abuses and inequities embedded within the culture of social institutions such as higher education. dr. iloh works at azusa pacific university where she is an associate professor in the department of higher education within the school of behavioral and applied sciences. as a multidisciplinary scholar, iloh finds possibility in working from the lenses of anthropology and business especially. some of professor iloh’s recent work includes “do it for the culture: the case for memes in qualitative research” which appears in the international journal of qualitative methods and “the broken yellow brick road: a narrative exploration of the college-going decisions and trajectory of a low-income single mother of color” published in education sciences. dr. constance iloh received the honor of being listed as a forbes 30 under 30 as well as having her work featured by nbc universal, npr, diverse issues in higher education, the chronicle of higher education, politico, and others. constance’s website is www.constanceiloh.com. references barratt-pugh, l. g. b., & krestelica, d. (2019). bullying in higher education: culture change requires more than policy. perspectives: policy and practice in higher education, 23(2-3), 109-114. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603108.2018.1502211 cassell, m. a. (2011). bullying in academe: prevalent, significant, and incessant. contemporary issues in education research (cier), 4(5), 33-44. https://doi.org/10.19030/cier.v4i5.4236 cran, b. (2018, march 2). the academic mob and its fatal toll. quillette. https://quillette.com/2018/03/02/academic-mob-fatal-toll/ friedenberg, j. (2008). the anatomy of an academic mobbing: two cases. edwin mellen press. retrieved from https://www.icos.umich.edu/sites/default/files/lecturereadinglists/friedenberg%202008a.pdf hoenigman meyer, e. (2021, october 19). higher education’s bullying problem is bad for business. higher ed jobs. https://www.higheredjobs.com/articles/articledisplay.cfm?id=2854 iloh, c. (2019). an alternative to college “choice” models and frameworks: the iloh model of college-going decisions and trajectories. college and university, 94(4), 2-9. iloh, c. (2020). a spectrum of what is predatory: how information, information deserts, and information asymmetries shape college-going ecologies and inequities. college and university, 95(4), 22-30. iloh, c. (2021a). do it for the culture: the case for memes in qualitative research. international journal of hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 15 published by ideas spread qualitative methods, 20. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069211025896 iloh, c. (2021b). the broken yellow brick road: a narrative exploration of the college-going decisions and trajectory of a low-income single mother of color. education sciences, 11(10). https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11100601 iloh, c. (2021c, february 24). the genre is horror: academia as a never-ending scary movie for black people. medium. https://constance-iloh.medium.com/the-genre-is-horror-academia-as-a-never-ending-scary-moviefor-black-people-ef30f6010b00 iloh, c. (2021d, july 20). the violence of academia helped me see one thing clearly. diverse issues in higher education. retrieved from https://www.diverseeducation.com/opinion/article/15109682/the-violence-ofacademia-helped-me-see-one-thing-clearly keashly, l. (2019). workplace bullying, mobbing and harassment in academe: faculty experience. special topics and particular occupations, professions and sectors, 1-77. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5154-8_131 khoo s. (2010). academic mobbing: hidden health hazard at workplace. malaysian family physician: the official journal of the academy of family physicians of malaysia, 5(2), 61-67. lampman, c. (2012). women faculty at risk: us professors report on their experiences with student incivility, bullying, aggression, and sexual attention. naspa journal about women in higher education, 5(2), 184-208. https://doi.org/10.1515/njawhe-2012-1108 lampman, c., crew, e. c., lowery, s. d., & tompkins, k. (2016). women faculty distressed: descriptions and consequences of academic contrapower harassment. naspa journal about women in higher education, 9(2), 169-189. https://doi.org/10.1080/19407882.2016.1199385 marin-spiotta, e. (2018, may 9). harassment should count as scientific misconduct. nature. https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-05076-2 metzger, a. m., petit, a., & sieber, s. (2015). mentoring as a way to change a culture of academic bullying and mobbing in the humanities. higher education for the future, 2(2), 139-150. https://doi.org/10.1177/2347631115584119 pheko, m. m. (2018). autoethnography and cognitive adaptation: two powerful buffers against the negative consequences of workplace bullying and academic mobbing. international journal of qualitative studies on health and well-being, 13(1), 1459134. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482631.2018.1459134 prevost, c., & hunt, e. (2018). bullying and mobbing in academe: a literature review. european scientific journal, 14(8). https://doi.org/10.19044/esj.2018.v14n8p1 ratelle, l. (1994, april 27). montreal researcher commits suicide. the chronicle of higher education. retrieved from https://www.chronicle.com/article/montreal-researcher-commits-suicide/ seguin, e. (2016, september 19). academic mobbing, or how to become campus tormentors. university affairs. retrieved from https://www.universityaffairs.ca/opinion/in-my-opinion/academic-mobbing-becomecampus-tormentors/ westhues, k. (2005). the envy of excellence: administrative mobbing of high-achieving professors. edwin mellen press. williams, p. j. (1991). the alchemy of race and rights: diary of a law professor. harvard university press. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p154 154 published by ideas spread traveling through the music time machine: digital memory practice in annual listening reports on music-based social media platforms yuxin wu1 1 school of digital media and design arts, beijing university of posts and telecommunications, china correspondence: yuxin wu, school of digital media and design arts, beijing university of posts and telecommunications, beijing, china. received: august 1, 2025; accepted: august 13, 2025; published: august 14, 2025 abstract this study focuses on the "annual listening reports" generated by music-based social media platforms as a form of digital memory practice. it investigates how such reports influence the construction of individual memory and the formation of collective memory. using participatory observation and semi-structured interviews, the research analyzes listening reports from qq music and netease cloud music over the past three years and includes interviews with eight young users. the findings reveal that both platforms employ multimodal presentations and emotional narratives to evoke user resonance, though issues such as narrative homogenization and slow innovation in format persist. users actively engage in the construction of digital memory by utilizing everyday listening records to bridge memory gaps and by negotiating with platform algorithms through "pre-arranged playlists." these reports also function as social media artifacts that enable self-presentation and emotional resonance in the foreground, while facilitating strong social ties in the background. in doing so, individual memories are embedded into broader networks of collective memory. this study provides insights into user behavior on music platforms and social media. it contributes a novel theoretical perspective on the interaction between individual and collective memory in the context of social media. keywords: digital memory, social media, listening reports, self-presentation, collective memory 1. introduction memory serves as a crucial bridge that links the past, constructs the present, and allows for the imagination of the future. it embodies not only individual experiences but also collective identity. in the context of increasingly pervasive digital technologies, memory practices are being reshaped by technological mediation, with individuals gradually—whether actively or passively—delegating memory to technological systems. as the media environment becomes more platformized and data-driven, users' everyday behaviors leave continuous traces online, which are systematically archived and algorithmically processed, reorganized into new, visualized forms of memory. within this digital turn, social media platforms have emerged not only as vital arenas of digital life but also as multifunctional spaces for the preservation, stimulation, creation, and reconfiguration of memory. user behaviors are persistently tracked and processed by algorithms, which consolidate fragmented data into annual "year-inreview" reports, turning mundane personal records into ritualized and identity-laden narratives. in the domain of music-based social media, this practice takes on particularly emotional and cultural dimensions. as a powerful medium of memory, music can both evoke artistic perceptions of everyday life and reflect broader cultural shifts embedded in historical contexts. in recent years, china's two major music social media platforms— netease cloud music and qq music—have launched annual listening reports that exemplify this digital memory practice. these reports, akin to apple music's "replay" or spotify's "wrapped," are generated through algorithmic modeling of a user's yearly listening data, presenting their musical preferences, stylistic inclinations, and time-based listening patterns. this paper focuses on the phenomenon of annual listening reports on music-based social media platforms. it aims to explore how these reports are embedded within digital memory systems and how they shape the construction of individual memory and the emergence of collective memory. through this lens, the study seeks to offer a novel perspective on the mechanisms and cultural practices of memory in the social media era. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 155 published by ideas spread 2. literature review 2.1 research on music-based social media and self-presentation the concept of "self-presentation" was first introduced by sociologist erving goffman (1959), who employed a dramaturgical metaphor in his seminal work the presentation of self in everyday life. he distinguished between the "front stage," where individuals perform idealized versions of themselves in social interactions, and the "back stage," where they retreat to their private, authentic selves. building on this, leary and kowalski (1990) further developed the theory into a two-component model of impression management, encompassing both impression motivation and impression construction. with the proliferation of social media, self-presentation has become more controllable, multidimensional, and sustainable, attracting considerable scholarly attention. some researchers have turned their focus specifically to music-based social platforms to explore how users express their identities through music selection and sharing. for instance, johnson (2018) observed that users on music and film platforms selectively present their preferences to convey their actual selves, ideal selves, or the selves they believe others expect of them. in the chinese academic context, scholars have examined the semiotic construction of identity on music social platforms. zhang ru (2019), for example, explored how users construct "musical personas" through playlist creation and comment interaction, framing this as a cultural practice of self-identification. wang li (2024) analyzed the motivational drivers of music-sharing behavior, arguing that such behavior is often rooted in the desire for self-expression and constitutes a significant form of self-presentation. however, most existing studies on music-based social media focus on everyday user behavior and community culture. research on platform-generated content, particularly annual reports, is scarce, and systematic examinations of the mechanisms of self-presentation within these reports are even more limited. this gap provides a valuable entry point for the present study. 2.2 research on technology and digital memory the term "digital memory" was first proposed by dutch scholar josé van dijck (2007) in her book mediated memories in the digital age. she argued that in an era when digital media are deeply embedded in everyday life, the processes of producing, preserving, and disseminating memory are increasingly mediated by technology. digital memory, she posits, is not merely a passive recording mechanism but a socially and culturally negotiated process. moreover, digital memory is a product of human-machine collaboration that mediates relationships between individuals and others, and between individuals and the collective. andrew hoskins (2011) further expanded on this with his "connective turn" theory, emphasizing that memory formation has become increasingly reliant on the connectivity between people and digital devices. media platforms act as structural containers of memory, rendering it real-time, networked, and fluid. in the chinese context, chen zhenhua (2016) approached collective memory from a communication studies perspective, highlighting how the integration of technology transforms memory into a space for power reproduction and ideological negotiation. in recent years, with the advancement of algorithmic recommendations and data visualization technologies, yearend content generated by platforms based on user behavior has emerged as a new vehicle for digital memory. some scholars have begun to explore how such reports function as "external memory devices" that assist users in reconstructing cognitive and emotional memories. zeng yani and xu hangyan (2024) pointed out that annual reports use labeling, visualization, and temporal sequencing to transform fragmented user behaviors into emotionally resonant digital archives. huang shunming and chen zhaobo (2024) examined the "on this day" feature on qq space, analyzing how algorithms trigger user reminiscence and re-mediation actions—such as deleting old posts or modifying privacy settings—in response to the psychological tension between memory and reality. despite these contributions, most existing research centers on textand image-based social platforms, with limited attention given to how auditory symbols—especially music—contribute to digital memory. music, as a time-based and symbolically rich medium, possesses a powerful capacity to evoke memory, often serving as a trigger for deeply personal emotional recollections. the annual listening reports produced by netease cloud music and qq music exemplify this phenomenon, enhancing auditory memory through visual means and linking individual music preferences to shared emotional atmospheres. therefore, this study selects music-based social media as its focus and analyzes annual listening reports as case studies, aiming to fill a gap in the current literature on digital memory practices. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 156 published by ideas spread 3. research design 3.1 research questions this study seeks to investigate how digital memory is constructed and negotiated on music-based social media platforms, with a particular focus on users' interactions with annual listening reports. to conclude, the study addresses the following three core research questions: 1. how do music-based social media platforms construct personalized digital memory through annual listening reports? 2. in algorithm-driven music platforms, how do users participate in the reconstruction of digital memory? 3. how do users engage in online self-presentation through listening reports, and how is individual memory linked to collective memory in this process? 3.2 research methods to explore these questions, the study employs two qualitative research methods: participatory observation and semi-structured interviews. first, a close analysis was conducted of the annual listening reports released over the past three years by qq music and netease cloud music. this involved examining the narrative structures and presentation formats used in the reports, with a focus on how platforms construct personal digital memories. in addition, user interactions with these reports were observed on social media platforms, especially red note, to understand how users respond to and present themselves through these reports in a broader social context. second, eight active users of qq music and/or netease cloud music were recruited for semi-structured interviews. participants were selected based on their visible engagement with listening reports on red note, ensuring relevant insights into their listening habits, attitudes toward annual reports, motivations for self-presentation (e.g., posting image carousels or sharing playlists), and perspectives on the practice of curating "pre-arranged playlists” in anticipation of the reports. table 1. interviewee information id age platform(s) used listening frequency a1 20 qq music occasionally, 30 minutes/day a2 20 qq music, netease cloud daily, 5 hours/day a3 21 qq music daily, 3 hours/day a4 21 qq music(main); netease (less) daily, 9 hours/day a5 20 netease cloud music daily, 20 minutes/day a6 21 qq music irregular, up to 10 hours on some days a7 20 qq music daily, 3 hours/day a8 20 qq music daily, 2 hours/day 4. research findings 4.1 narrative features of music-based social media annual listening reports on music-based social media platforms use algorithmically extracted data to highlight emotionally resonant listening moments, constructing a personalized narrative of the user's musical year. both qq music and netease cloud music consistently present core metrics such as total listening time, favorite artists, and genre preferences, while continually experimenting with new narrative formats. the reports exhibit two key narrative characteristics: first, the narratives on music-related social media exhibit the characteristics of multimodality and concrete representation of user profiles. both platforms adopt a "theme-first" narrative strategy, framing reports within motifs such as journeys, exhibitions, or virtual avatars to infuse storytelling into raw data. qq music emphasizes positioning the user as the "protagonist" of the musical year, with features such as musical train rides and personalized albums. netease cloud music, by contrast, focuses more on emotion and social interaction—for example, the 2024 "dual report" function was introduced to enhance emotional connection between users. these platforms integrate text, data, and charts into a multimodal, interactive presentation. however, despite innovations hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 157 published by ideas spread in form, narrative homogenization remains a problem: thematic creativity and visual diversity are limited. based on the annual music listening reports covering three years, we have summarized the narrative themes, page colors, and innovative features (as shown in the following figure). table 2. key features of annual listening reports on two major platforms year platform theme color scheme key innovation 2024 qq music exclusive annual album black & silver personalized albums emphasizing memory uniqueness 2024 netease cloud music life is a wilderness, so is music dopamine colors "dual report" to promote interpersonal connection 2023 qq music music exhibition gray mbti musical personality fusion with pop culture 2023 netease cloud music we meet in music eventually dopamine colors "cloud village: ten years of memory" for nostalgia 2022 qq music musical journey on a train blue-green "top 10 songs" for linking personal and collective 2022 netease cloud music every emotion is real light blue taste distribution map to highlight individuality second, the narratives on music-related social media exhibit the characteristics of multi-dimensional emotional narratives in memory texts. the reports are structured along a temporal axis and convert data into memory texts imbued with emotional resonance. by highlighting specific moments—such as late-night listening sessions or songs placed on repeat—they help users recall fragmented experiences and associate songs with personal life contexts. platforms also convert personal symbols into collective ones through social diffusion. for example, interviewee a4, a gaming enthusiast, and a7, a k-pop fan, reported discovering strong alignment between their top songs and those of their communities, fostering emotional resonance. a7 noted: "i realized that tens of thousands of people also love seventeen. it proves our shared taste in music." in recent years, netease cloud music has increased intimacy with users by including handwritten letters from top artists in its reports. most notably, the platform introduced its "dual report" in 2024, analyzing mutual favorite artists, songs, and shared listening time to calculate "compatibility scores," thereby fostering social bonding and user loyalty. 4.2 media algorithmic limitations and user negotiation while annual reports aim to personalize memory narratives, they often suffer from algorithmic bias and structural limitations that distort users' actual listening patterns. despite creative features like musical mbti, many users found the personalization inaccurate or oversimplified. qq music, for example, infers personality based on user comments, search behavior, and genres. one user (a7) complained: "i listen to k-pop a lot, and the algorithm labeled me as a 15-year-old estj. it even said my psychological age is too young—completely ridiculous." similarly, netease cloud's "monthly mental state" often overuses generic buzzwords like passion, failing to reflect users' emotional nuance. a5 commented: “i only listen to music when i'm feeling down. yet the algorithm labeled my mood as ‘passionate.' that's inaccurate." other issues include the premature cutoff of data in early december, which excludes high-frequency listening in the year's final weeks. a1 lamented: "i looped a background track all night, but it didn't make the report. instead, a song i barely listened to—some aerobics track—got listed as my annual top song." moreover, cross-platform listening habits—such as watching live performances on bilibili or hearing trending songs on tiktok—aren't captured by single-platform algorithms, leading to fragmented and incomplete memory portraits. rather than passively accepting algorithmic results, many users actively engage in "negotiation" tactics to align reports with their self-image. two primary strategies were identified: firstly, daily reports can help fill in the gaps between annual reports and actual events. the annual report, due to its highly generalized nature, often fails to accurately restore the emotional context and temporal sequence of the listening behavior. users supplement the generality of annual reports with detailed weekly or monthly reports. for example, qq music offers six time-segmented data visualizations showing listening patterns throughout the day. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 158 published by ideas spread a8 reflected: "sometimes i check my daily reports. they remind me that i was looping those songs because i was obsessed with a variety show at the time." secondly, users will take advantage of the algorithm's limitation of only considering the duration and quantity of playback to "pre-create playlists" in advance, towards the end of the year. when the algorithmically generated musical persona deviates from the user's ideal self-image, individuals often engage in strategic behaviors to reconstruct their musical preferences. these strategies include curating specific playlists, repeatedly playing songs by particular artists, and deliberately streaming music during specific periods to influence algorithmic output. this study argues that such "pre-arranged playlists" represent a form of deliberate frontstage performance on social media. through these orchestrated actions, users construct an idealized self, engage in impression management, and continuously reinforce their socially situated identity and sense of group affiliation by sharing specific musical tastes. one interviewee (a2), who had created a pre-arranged playlist the previous year, explained: "to make my annual report look more organized and to showcase my loyalty, i ensured that the same artist appeared as my top artist every year." however, none of the other interviewees endorsed this behavior. some described it as a "waste of time," "performative personality," or even "self-deception." to some extent, the act of using pre-arranged playlists as a means of self-presentation can lead users into a cycle of social comparison, causing them to lose touch with their authentic selves in the process of "performance." in summary, while algorithms aim to generate personalized digital memories for users, tensions remain between technological logic and the complexities of user behavior. through active participation and strategic adaptation, users not only compensate for systemic shortcomings but also demonstrate agency and reflexivity in their interaction with technology in the digital age. 4.3 self-presentation through concealment and sharing users' self-presentation via listening reports operates in two primary modes: private archiving for strong-tied networks (backstage), and public performance for broader social exposure (frontstage). among the eight interviewees, three shared reports on social media, two shared only with close friends, and three opted not to share at all, revealing differentiated self-presentation strategies. these self-presentation practices generally fall into two categories: the first characteristic is social concealment: the self-archiving of memory. some users choose not to share their annual listening reports publicly, either because they regard music as a personal form of entertainment or due to privacy concerns. for those who share their reports only with close friends, such selective disclosure often stems from shared interests and interpersonal trust. friends who share similar musical tastes are more likely to understand and resonate with each other's listening preferences. one interviewee (a4), a player of online games, stated: "i think my playlists are quite private, but i still share parts of them with other onmyoji players, because my top artist for three consecutive years has been associated with that game." users who post their reports to semi-public spaces like wechat moments often limit their sharing to key highlights such as top artists or songs. in these cases, sharing serves as a way to document life moments and archive digital memories. another interviewee (a1) mentioned sharing only one surprising or ironic page from the report, stating:" to spark interaction, i just shared a page that stood out—my top song was an aerobics track. i hoped my friends would laugh at the absurdity with me." such forms of segmented sharing reflect a conservative mode of self-presentation. users selectively display their unique musical tastes to specific groups to gain recognition, while simultaneously protecting their privacy. this enables individuals to maintain differentiated identities across various social contexts, reducing the risks of overexposure while fulfilling emotional needs for resonance and belonging. whether through refusal to share or hidden modes of disclosure, these users prioritize self-archiving of musical memories over public performance or impression management. the second characteristic is collective remembrance: sharing as social resonance. other users openly share their listening reports not only to enrich their digital memory, but also to initiate a broader circulation within affinity groups through the algorithmic push of platforms such as red note. this process helps generate collective resonance and gradually contributes to the formation of collective memory. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 159 published by ideas spread although several interviewees were more oriented toward private memory practices, red note's visually friendly and report-compatible format has led to a proliferation of public posts. users often share screenshots of their top artists and songs, prompting like-minded commenters to "assemble" in the comment section. in doing so, they actively seek out interest-based communities, engage in interaction, and gain social validation by showcasing their musical identity. in this process, each retrieves fragments of emotional experiences and cultural memory within the digital space, and through resonance with others, participates in constructing a shared memory environment. emotional resonance allows individual memory to radiate outward and evolve into collective memory. by sharing screenshots of beloved artists and songs, users embed long-term affective associations into shared social rituals and symbolic exchanges. in this way, certain songs and performers transcend temporal and spatial boundaries, serving as bridges between different generations and cultures. these shared musical references not only strengthen emotional ties between the individual and the collective but also offer a common language and memory framework that fosters cultural continuity and societal cohesion. 5. conclusion and discussion this study explored the digital memory practices associated with annual listening reports on music-based social media platforms, focusing on qq music and netease cloud music. using participatory observation and semistructured interviews, the research analyzed how these platforms construct memory narratives, how users negotiate with algorithms, and how self-presentation strategies shape both individual and collective memory. the study also reveals a dual mechanism of self-presentation: backstage practices centered on memory archiving and strong-tie sharing, and frontstage performances that aim for emotional resonance and identity signaling in broader social circles. listening reports serve not only as a tool for self-expression but also as a medium through which individual experiences are woven into collective memory. public sharing on platforms like red note allows users to connect with affinity groups, fostering shared emotional narratives and contributing to the construction of collective musical memory. these findings offer practical implications for music platforms and social media developers. understanding user strategies and emotional needs can inform the design of more nuanced and inclusive memory features, enabling platforms to serve better users' identity construction, social interaction, and emotional expression. that said, the study is limited by the relatively small and homogeneous sample of interviewees, which may not capture the full diversity of user experiences. future research could broaden the demographic scope, incorporate longitudinal methods, or explore cross-cultural comparisons to deepen understanding of digital memory practices in different musical and social contexts. references [1] goffman, e. 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(2018). when goffman meets the internet: self-presentation and performance in social media. news and writing, (1), 56–62. [7] huang, s., & chen, z. (2024). returning to posts and multitudinous memory: taking qq space's "on this day" as an example. journalism & communication, (10), 49–63. [8] zeng, y., & xu, h. (2024). tailor-made memories: digital mnemonic practices in platform annual reports. modern communication (journal of communication university of china), 46(5), 32–42. [9] huang, j., & chen, x. (2024). the vanishing newsstand: user comments, digital nostalgia and the "nearby in memory." media observer, (9), 55–66. [10] zhan, y., & lai, y. (2024). digital albums: digital memory and forgetting in social media. modern hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 160 published by ideas spread communication (journal of communication university of china), 46(6), 78–84. [11] chen, z. (2016). the communication-oriented approach to collective memory research. chinese journal of journalism & communication, 38(4), 109–126. [12] liu, x. (2018). music socialization in the mobile internet era [master's thesis, shandong normal university]. [13] zhang, r. (2019). research on community identity in music social media [master's thesis, beijing university of posts and telecommunications]. [14] wang, l. (2024). research on factors influencing music sharing behavior of social media users [master's thesis, guizhou minzu university]. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p131 131 published by ideas spread housing in china: institutional cornerstone and demographic shackle for family formation cai zhengrong1 & rusmawati binti said1 1 school of business and economics, universiti putra malaysia, malaysia correspondence: rusmawati binti said, school of business and economics, universiti putra malaysia, selangor, malaysia. e-mail: ags62161@student.upm.edu.my, brusmawati@upm.edu.my received: july 28, 2025; accepted: august 6, 2025; published: august 11, 2025 abstract china's housing system has undergone profound changes, and its core function has transcended its mere residential attributes, it has become a key institutional foundation for shaping family structure and population development. with the advancement of urbanization and marketization, housing not only serves as the material space for families but also deeply influences social foundations such as intergenerational support and marriage and childbearing decisions. however, the current housing system is increasingly at odds with the rapidly changing trends of family downsizing, low birth rates, and an aging population, as well as diverse housing needs. rising housing costs, structural gaps in affordable housing, and institutional barriers are quietly transforming into significant obstacles that inhibit family formation and development and exacerbate population structure contradictions. it is imperative to examine their deep-seated impacts and optimization directions from the perspective of institutional interdependence. keywords: housing system, family development, population change, policy interaction, support function 1. introduction housing policy design and implementation play a pivotal role in china's social transformation. it is not merely a provider of physical space but is deeply embedded in the family life cycle, serving as the material foundation and social symbol for marriage, child-rearing, and intergenerational support. as modern family structures accelerate toward smaller, more nuclear units, and the population enters a new phase characterized by both low birth rates and aging, the traditional housing supply model centered on scale expansion and property acquisition is facing unprecedented challenges in terms of adaptability.the path dependence of institutional design perpetuates the traditional orientation toward prioritizing the scale of housing supply, creating tension between the resource allocation model formed historically and the contemporary trend toward smaller family sizes. the coverage gaps in the housing security system are most evident in the rigid frameworks of household registration thresholds and income recognition standards, which fail to align with the fluctuating income characteristics and cross-regional mobility needs of new employment forms. the high cost of housing continues to erode the wealth accumulation capacity of young people, weakening the material foundation and intergenerational support potential for new married couples' reproductive decisions. the interplay of these three factors has led to a structural shift in the supportive function of housing, with the cost of housing reinforcing the feedback loop of delayed marriage and childbearing. mismatches in affordable housing supply exacerbate housing pressures in areas with population inflows, while institutional barriers hinder the optimal spatial allocation of labor according to market principles. 2. the interdependent theory of housing systems, family development, and population change 2.1 the function of housing as the material foundation of families and a vehicle for intergenerational support housing systems profoundly influence the allocation of living space at different stages of the family life cycle through property rights arrangements and spatial distribution mechanisms, laying the material foundation for the daily lives and reproduction of family members. a stable residence serves as the core arena for intergenerational interaction, directly influencing key aspects such as adult children's independent living arrangements, newlywed couples' family formation, and the care and support of elderly parents. differences in institutional design profoundly shape the ability and methods by which different generational groups access housing resources, thereby impacting the spatial accessibility and functional sustainability of family support networks. the physical and social attributes of housing are highly integrated in this context. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 132 published by ideas spread 2.2 the evolutionary logic of housing policies under institutional change theory the evolution of housing policies in china has been guided by a dual logic of institutional path dependence and adaptation to external environmental changes, shaping the transformation of china's housing system from welfare distribution to market-based allocation. policy adjustments have responded to the economic development goals and social structural changes of different periods, gradually establishing an institutional framework that combines market-based housing supply with a safety net of affordable housing. this framework accommodates the practical needs of smaller family sizes and accelerated population mobility, driving adaptive innovations such as the protection of rental rights and shared ownership models. continuous institutional adjustments balance efficiency and equity objectives, seeking dynamic stability between property rights incentives and the protection of housing rights, resulting in a spiral-like evolutionary characteristic of policy development [1]. 2.3 the transformation of housing demand due to changes in family structure the fragmentation of family structures is profoundly reshaping the underlying logic of residential space. policy design must address the demand from childless couples to reduce bedroom space, which is forcing building codes to lower minimum room width standards. the frequent medical needs of elderly couples are driving elevator configuration standards to be strictly linked to a three-kilometer radius of community medical resources. developers' product r&d systems are being forced to respond to the mini-unit revolution driven by the single economy, with youth apartments eliminating traditional living room designs and instead pre-installing adjustable pipeline interfaces in mezzanines. the four-year growth cycle of two-child families requires that children's rooms be pre-equipped with load-bearing wall removal points and reinforcement plans, which must be filed simultaneously. the existing housing renovation market has seen a rigid demand for intergenerational functional compensation. children living in other regions who purchase elevator-equipped housing for their parents must simultaneously resolve the settlement channel blockage for housing provident fund payments for elderly-friendly renovations. multi-child families face institutional barriers linked to fire safety inspection standards and educational household registration when dividing rooms within existing school district housing. community governance structures are under pressure from innovations in family mutual aid models. when elevator installation projects in old residential areas encounter resistance from lower-floor residents, an automatic compensation adjustment mechanism for adjacent units' elderly-friendly renovations must be triggered. the demand for independent water and electricity meters among young people sharing accommodations is forcing property management companies to upgrade the physical carrying capacity of the main network of their household metering systems. 2.4 the deep-seated constraints of population change on housing supply the dynamic evolution of population structure directly reshapes the spatio-temporal distribution characteristics of family housing demand. changes in intergenerational population ratios give rise to differentiated functional requirements for housing types. the accelerated aging process has created a widespread need for elderly-friendly bathroom renovations. areas with concentrated migrant populations face significant pressure from the concentrated supply of short-term rental housing. policy makers' planning adjustment logic must identify the impact of fluctuations in birth rates on construction cycles. the growth curve of newborns requires mandatory standards for childcare facilities to be embedded in newly developed communities to be rapidly updated. fluctuations in the peak population of school-age children force the restructuring of the supply rhythm of residential land for educational facilities. the delayed marriage and childbearing cycle of young people drives the dynamic increase in the land allocation ratio for small-scale residential units. the self-regulatory functions of market mechanisms are insufficient to address regional imbalances caused by population migration. the absorption of vacant residential stock in labor-exporting areas must align with elderly care integration renovation plans for the aging population. the strained rental market in population-inflow areas urgently requires the delegation of approval authority for collective land use in affordable housing construction. the growing commuting demand within urban clusters necessitates relaxing existing technical standards on floor area ratios for residential developments near transit stations. the response mechanism of the housing supply system has long been constrained by institutional lags in population forecasting and land development. the conversion of census data into residential construction indicators involves at least a five-year mismatch, and the pace of renovating existing housing cannot keep pace with the trend toward smaller family structures. the waiting period for affordable housing exceeds the window of opportunity for newly employed groups to marry and purchase homes. the rigid spatial resource allocation model conflicts with population mobility characteristics. public service provision constrained by household registration systems hinders the release of genuine demand for rental housing. school district division rules restrict the flexible adjustment of living space for families with multiple children. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 133 published by ideas spread the pace of renovation in old urban areas lags behind the demand for aging-friendly renovations in areas with a high concentration of elderly residents [2]. 3. the practical dilemmas of housing systems in supporting family development and population constraints 3.1 the inhibitory effect of high housing costs on marriage and childbearing decisions and family formation the pressure of housing costs significantly delays the time when young people achieve housing independence and economic autonomy, which weakens the economic foundation and psychological expectation for them to form new families. the continuously rising housing purchase burden and rental expenses squeeze the disposable income space of families, forcing potential marriage and child bearing groups to extend their career accumulation periods to reach a safe threshold for housing. the dual pressures of housing affordability and child rearing costs interact, objectively prolonging the waiting period for marriage and child bearing decisions. additionally, some people of the right age passively adjust their family development paths, postponing marriage registration and the birth of their first child to match the improvement of their housing conditions. moreover, the imperfection of the tiered housing consumption system further restricts the feasibility of family housing upgrades. the short term contracts and frequent relocations in the rental market exacerbate the instability of the child bearing environment. 3.2 insufficient coverage of diverse family types by the affordable housing system the eligibility criteria for affordable housing are not adequately aligned with contemporary changes in family structure, leaving some non-resident households and new urban residents outside the scope of the current affordable housing system. the system's design has lagged in responding to emerging living arrangements such as single-person households and multi-generational cohabitation, resulting in a lack of effective channels to meet the transitional housing needs of young adults and the housing needs of elderly empty-nesters. the proportion of rental-type affordable housing is too low, and its spatial distribution is too far from employment centers, weakening its ability to provide stable support for the housing needs of migrant families. there is a tendency to overly focus the allocation of affordable housing resources on property-ownership-type housing, thereby neglecting the role of rental housing in providing a safety net for families at critical junctures in their life cycles. 3.3 institutional barriers hindering family stability and mobility the changes in the population structure have profoundly reshaped the core housing space needs of families. the miniaturization of family size and the diversification of living forms have become the main features of the current market. the housing system supply faces obvious challenges of insufficient adaptability. some product design standards fail to fully meet the different needs of single people and empty nest families, and there is room for improvement in the precise support of policy tools for the transformation of the family life cycle. young families face significant pressure when trying to obtain an affordable first home. the high entry thresholds in first tier and core cities limit the initial ability of new urban residents to settle down. the separation between work and living spaces exacerbates their commuting burden and living costs. the current household registration policy and management processes indirectly inhibit the efficient flow of human resources. cross regional employment groups often encounter obstacles in accessing supporting public services, which structurally restricts the decision making of urban and rural families to migrate to regions with better employment opportunities. the housing security system needs to expand its coverage. the entry and exit mechanisms of affordable housing do not fully match the complex nature of the dynamic changes in family income, leaving some vulnerable groups facing temporary housing difficulties. the real estate market regulation policies still need to increase their support for families' improvement oriented housing needs. the lack of effective financial policy support for the concept of tiered consumption restricts the channels for families to reasonably adjust their housing conditions according to their actual needs [3]. 3.4 mismatched housing resources exacerbating population structure contradictions urban planning concepts have shown a certain degree of lag in responding to rapidly evolving family structures. traditional residential area planning has insufficient foresight regarding changes in population age distribution, leading to misallocation of spatial resources. the layout of supporting facilities in newly developed residential areas has failed to adequately adapt to the diverse life cycle needs of modern families. the cross-regional reallocation of labor resources faces substantial obstacles. the cost of living in regions where industrial development is concentrated is significantly higher than in surrounding underdeveloped areas, creating an invisible barrier that restricts the rational flow of talent and exacerbates structural imbalances in regional human capital. the uneven spatial distribution of educational and medical resources reinforces families' inertia in settlement choices. regions with highly concentrated high-quality public services objectively drive up housing premiums, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 134 published by ideas spread forcing middleand low-income families to extend their commuting distances or sacrifice their quality of life. the resource allocation system has shown insufficient flexibility in addressing the trend of population aging. the renovation of old residential areas has struggled to meet the growing demand for aging-friendly renovations, and regions with strong elderly care needs face shortages in specialized care facilities. there is a spatial mismatch between the layout of affordable housing construction and industrial clusters. in some employment-intensive areas, the supply of rental housing lags behind actual labor demand, forcing new employment groups to bear the comprehensive costs resulting from the separation of work and residence. 4. optimization pathways for housing systems to promote family development and adapt to population changes 4.1 establishing a lifecycle-based housing support system the evolution of household size and changes in intergenerational structure are constantly reshaping the core demands for housing forms. this dynamic development characteristic requires the housing system to possess the inherent adaptability to meet the housing needs of different life stages. therefore, establishing a housing support framework that spans the entire life cycle has become a foundational institutional design direction in response to demographic changes. institutional design must precisely cover the entire trajectory of family structure evolution. land allocation conditions must incorporate rigid constraints for differentiated housing unit configurations. land supply structures should proactively adapt to the demand for small-scale living units during the single stage of life and reserve flexible space for functional upgrades in multi-generational cohabiting households. housing development standards should prioritize age-friendly design principles. new residential projects must ensure the basic configuration of accessible pathways, with plumbing interfaces pre-installed in bathroom spaces to accommodate future aging-friendly renovations. housing unit designs must also consider the need for independent living spaces as children grow older. the housing policy toolkit should establish a demand-driven response mechanism. in the process of determining eligibility for home purchases by young families, explore a model linking points-based scoring with social insurance contributions. the supply plan for talent apartments should be seamlessly integrated with the period for cultivating the purchasing power of commercial housing. for families with two or more children seeking to upgrade their housing, tax incentives may be activated. public service resource allocation strategies are closely aligned with the characteristics of the housing life cycle. education authorities need to dynamically adjust the distribution of childcare facilities based on the proportion of infants and toddlers in newly built communities. community health service centers should integrate family doctor contract services to enhance support for home-based elderly care [4]. 4.2 promoting reforms in related institutions the root causes of the current housing problem transcend a single domain, and only multi-dimensional institutional adjustments can break through the dual constraints of demographic changes and upgrading housing needs. institutional reforms should focus on eliminating the regional fragmentation of public service provision. education authorities should promote the establishment of a dynamic adjustment model for school enrollment based on the permanent resident population. the allocation mechanism for medical resources should prioritize addressing the shortage of community hospitals in large residential areas. cross-regional medical insurance settlement services should cover all provincial-level administrative regions. land management regulations need to enhance their responsiveness to population flows. national land use planning should establish flexible floor area ratio adjustment authority for urban-rural integration areas. pilot areas for the entry of collectively-owned operational construction land into the market should set a minimum ratio for the construction of talent apartments. the approval list for the conversion of idle commercial and office buildings should include the renovation of affordable rental housing. financial policy tools should focus on repairing the supply-demand transmission chain. differentiated housing credit policies should extend the interest rate discount period for families with multiple children. rules for crossregional withdrawal of housing provident funds should be relaxed to include all employed individuals who have continuously contributed for six months. commercial banks issuing specialized bonds for rental housing development should enjoy a priority approval channel. local governments play a central role in the integration of real estate information. housing and urban-rural development departments aggregate property registration data and connect it to tax systems to verify the ownership of multiple properties. household registration management platforms share rental registration information to support the substantive implementation of “equal rights for renting and purchasing,” and the waiting list database for affordable housing is linked to credit systems to identify asset concealment. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 135 published by ideas spread 4.3 strengthening synergy between housing policies and population policies in the face of challenges posed by rapid changes in demographic characteristics, deep coordination between housing policy design and demographic dynamics has become the key to breaking through the current bottleneck. the policy coordination framework should anchor housing supply indicators to census forecast data. urban planning departments need to adjust the site selection logic for new residential areas based on models of permanent resident population changes. the scale of housing construction must be dynamically aligned with trends in regional birth rates to ensure that land development pace aligns with the future trajectory of household size growth. data integration platforms serve as information-sharing hubs, with civil affairs departments regularly updating family structure databases and feeding them into housing and urban-rural development decision-making systems. affordable housing layout strategies in areas with high population mobility immediately align with the occupational attributes of migrating populations, while household registration management systems automatically trigger adjustments to rental housing quotas. implementing a coordinated mechanism to strengthen the resource allocation capabilities of grassroots organizations, local governments dynamically release public rental housing quotas based on birth support policies, school district adjustment plans integrate school-age population data in advance to determine the priority of housing supply, and community service agencies collect aging index data to automatically optimize the budget allocation for elderly-friendly housing renovation projects. this integrated approach will enhance the internal resilience and response efficiency of policies in the face of demographic changes [5]. 4.4 exploring new residential models for intergenerational mutual aid and community integration in the face of demographic shifts that have weakened the traditional family's role in elderly care and childcare, the reconstruction of new community relationships has emerged as an innovative breakthrough to alleviate intergenerational pressures. specifically, community organizational models activate the latent value of informal support networks. for instance, neighborhood offices lead the formation of intergenerational living collaboration groups to encourage younger seniors to participate in community childcare services. meanwhile, the approval of shared kitchen and community canteen facilities grants elderly households eligibility for dining subsidies, while a neighborhood mutual aid points system allows intergenerational assistance behaviors to be exchanged for property fee reductions. in this context, spatial design standards are redefining the physical infrastructure for intergenerational interaction. this is manifested in new residential projects being required to include all-age shared activity floors with accessible reading zones and child-friendly play areas, supplemented by movable care seats installed in unit stairwell rest platforms to address elderly resting needs. additionally, outdoor walking systems connect children's playground facilities with elderly fitness equipment to form a circular interactive corridor. furthermore, innovative sharing mechanisms unlock the time value of family resources. for example, the property registration system includes a “time bank” module to record the duration of family mutual aid services, while the community operation platform offers a booking function for idle family spaces to match after-school childcare needs. this ultimately materializes in a cross-generational co-rental agreement template that clarifies the equitable details of elderly housing resource exchanges for young people's household labor. 5. conclusion the complexity of china's housing issue lies in its deep embedding within the broader narrative of family formation and demographic transition. addressing the suppression of marriage and childbearing by high costs, bridging the gap in affordable housing coverage, breaking down institutional barriers hindering mobility, and correcting structural contradictions caused by misallocation of resources are challenges that cannot be resolved through mere policy adjustments. the government's fundamental solution lies in redefining the supportive role of the housing system, establishing a flexible support framework that spans the entire life cycle, and promoting coordinated reforms across critical sectors such as household registration, land management, and social security. society at large must explore innovative living models like intergenerational mutual aid and community integration to endow the housing system with the resilience to adapt to demographic shifts and nurture family development. references [1] sun, w., & zhang, x. (2025). spatio-temporal variation in housing wealth inequality among urban households in china. china real estate finance, (2), 10–19. [2] chen, j. (2025). basic principles and key points of the relationship between market and security in the housing supply system. social sciences frontline, (4), 11–20. [3] ministry of human resources and social security, national development and reform commission, ministry of education, ministry of public security, ministry of civil affairs, ministry of justice, ministry of housing hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 136 published by ideas spread and urban-rural development, ministry of agriculture and rural affairs, people's bank of china, & allchina federation of trade unions. (2025). opinion on further strengthening the service and protection of migrant workers issued by the ministry of human resources and social security, the national development and reform commission, the ministry of education, the ministry of public security, the ministry of civil affairs, the ministry of justice, the ministry of housing and urban-rural development, the ministry of agriculture and rural affairs, the people's bank of china, and the all-china federation of trade unions. gazette of the state council of the people's republic of china, (4), 66–68. [4] huang, k., & yang, d. (2024). from housing construction to community development: a re-examination of china's urban development model. urban architecture, 21(24), 34–39. [5] han, a., & gao, h. (2024). the evolution and effectiveness analysis of china's affordable housing policy and lessons from singapore's hdb mechanism: reform recommendations from a policy tool perspective. shanghai real estate, (12), 10–14. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v1n2p1 1 published by ideas spread a systemic model proposed for the management of local environmental education, awareness and protection: a case study evangelos c. papakitsos1 & anastasios mavrakis2 1 center for counseling & career guidance of elefsina, western attica, greece 2 environmental education, secondary education directorate of western attica, greece correspondence: evangelos c. papakitsos, dim. ralli 28, athens, gr 11144, greece. e-mail: papakitsev@sch.gr received: june 2, 2018; accepted: june 27, 2018; published: july 31, 2018 abstract the present study proposes a systemic model for the operation of small local environmental centers, as a key factor for the implementation of environmental policies that are close to local communities. the presentation and analysis of the required activities of local environmental organizations and the duties of their staff highlights their complex and demanding multidisciplinary character. the consequent necessity to optimize their operation, in order to respond more holistically and effectively to their complex mission, has been the motivation for the present study, proposing a planned operation based on techniques from systems science. keywords: environmental science, environmental awareness, systems inquiry, systems methodology 1. introduction the environmental science concerns the study and applications of protecting the natural environment on governmental, organizational or individual levels, for the benefit of both the people and the environment. the natural environment is endangered because of various human activities, including overpopulation, overconsumption and pressure on natural resources, extensive usage of chemicals etc. since the 1960s, a gradually increasing environmental movement caused awareness of the various environmental issues (lytle, 2007; murphy, 2005) that eventually forced governments and organizations to recognize the problem and proceed both to participate in international environmental agreements (mitchell, 2003) and to establish a relevant national legislation or practices for environmental protection (blackman, 2008; karamanos, 2010). from these latter practices, it becomes indirectly obvious that without the environmental awareness of local communities any protective policies and technologies will be less effective. yet, the issues of environmental science are so many and diverse that require a multidisciplinary approach, on behalf of the local environmental organizations. a typical example of this approach, focusing on developing and retaining environmental awareness to local communities, is the centers for environmental education (henceforth cee), which are local organizations of the hellenic ministry of education, research & religious affairs (henceforth hmerra: www.minedu.gov.gr). their mission is not restricted to the local educational communities, but also include the broader local societies (hmerra, 2011). according to the relevant legislation that determines the mission of cees (hmerra, 2016, pp. 23-25), their topics include a wide range of subjects, divided into 15 thematic axes that will be presented in the next subsection. 1.1 environmental topics the topics of cee are practically identical to the topics of environmental science, in general, with the exception of some of them that obviously concern specifically an educational context. each thematic axis (see 1.1.1-15) includes a number of topics between two to eight. 1.1.1 sustainable school courtyard of school 1) energy sources in school and the school community’s behavior to save energy. 2) initiatives to improve the quality of the relationships between school community members and the environment at school. 3) marking for cleanliness. 4) care and responsibility for the courtyard and the classroom. 5) envisioning the school of the future. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 2 published by ideas spread 1.1.2 sustainable residence 1) design of buildings, settlements and cities within the planet’s carrying capacity. 2) bio-climatic architecture. 3) material safety and hazards, e.g., of furniture, oil paints etc. 1.1.3 energy issues: ecological/energy footprint at school and at home 1) individual daily transports. 2) transportations. 3) alternative forms of energy for heating/cooling. 4) what do we spend on energy? 1.1.4 local environment (home, school, community) 1) acquaintance with the local ecosystem. 2) waste management in the city i live in. 3) personal and collective responsibility for protecting the flora in our immediate environment. 4) activities and everyday habits that affect the bearing capacity of gorges, forests and beaches. 1.1.5 free spaces: exploitation configuration protection 1) playgrounds – sports and entertainment venues. 2) suitability of premises in terms of cleanliness, materials, care, voluntary participation to their control and maintenance. 3) adopting and protecting a grove or a beach of our country. 1.1.6 conservation and protection of urban and suburban green areas 1) change of land use. 2) urbanism and unemployment. 3) ecological burden. 4) the importance of land registry in land use management. 1.1.7 biotechnological applications and the environment 1) genetically modified organisms (gmos): production of food from genetically modified organisms; hybrids, wild plant varieties, genetically modified plants; effects of gmos on the environment, health, economy and society. 2) traditional local crops and their relationship to the local economy and the environment. 1.1.8 natural resources management 1) intensive forms of exploitation of natural resources. 2) forests, deforestation, soil erosion. 3) water resources. 4) agriculture, livestock farming, overexploitation; the relationship between economy and the protection of the local environment; the emergence of exemplary local economically-friendly land uses with respect to the environment. 1.1.9 the concept of conservation of the natural environment 1) ecosystems: structure and operation of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. 2) biodiversity, threatened species and protected areas. 1.1.10 the concept of environmental degradation 1) atmosphere, air pollution, greenhouse effect, ozone hole. 2) water pollution. 3) soil pollution. 4) radioactive pollution. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 3 published by ideas spread 5) waste and waste management. 1.1.11 environmental risks 1) climate changes. 2) natural disasters and human intervention. 3) environment and war. 1.1.12 space organization and use 1) urban environments, urban development, uses, urban and suburban green, road networks, noise pollution, school and indoor environment. 2) residential development, public space and the environment. 3) natural environment, space planning, rural development, tourism, alternative tourism and ecotourism, area adoptions. 4) environment and monuments, archaeological and historical sites. 5) landscape and habitation, degradation of the landscape. 6) geological monuments and monuments of nature. 1.1.13 anthropogenic environment: parameters & degradation 1) environment and communication, paths – natural routes, transportation. 2) environment and history: local history, movement history, natural history, history of towns and rural facilities, natural elements, mythology, folklore. 3) the environment as a source of inspiration and a forum for dialogue: environment and arts. 4) the environment as an exhibition: museums of natural sciences and technology, natural history, collections, exhibits, environmental data in collections, permanent and periodical exhibitions of museums. 5) the environment as a narration: nature and environmental issues in literature. 6) environment, perceptions and ideas: nature and religion, environmental ethics, democracy, environmental actions and environmental consciousness, consumerism and the environment. 7) the environment as the meeting-place of cultures – intercultural references. 1.1.14 quality of life 1) suitability-risk of materials and structures. 2) safety at school and at home in relation to objects. 3) environmentally friendly materials – ways of precaution. 4) industrial pollution, agricultural pollution. 5) heavy metals, insecticides, pesticides, bioaccumulation. 6) solar radiation, electromagnetic radiation. 7) noise pollution, sound volume, noise map. 8) hidden pollution: sick buildings, indoor pollution, combustion systems, smoking, building materials, radioactive radon, cleaning materials. 1.1.15 human rights – democracy 1) problems of poverty and illiteracy. 2) democratic rights, citizens’ and children’s rights. 3) social exclusion, equal opportunities, gender equality, racism, xenophobia etc. 1.2 necessity for multidisciplinarity the scientific diversity of the afore-mentioned topics (including natural and social sciences, arts and humanities and technology), is more than obvious and highlights the urgent need for a rational planning of the functions of cees and any other environmental organization. this kind of planning should take into account the multidisciplinary character and tasks of an environmental organization, facilitating an appropriate allocation of duties to its members, so as the mission of the organization to be best served. for this purpose, systems science hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 4 published by ideas spread has to offer useful methods and conceptual tools. 2. method a system is defined as a complex set of elements, characterized by their properties, relationships and processes, the latter transforming properties and relationships. in a closed system, these elements interact only with each other. in an open system, they interact with their environment. the systemic study of natural phenomena (systems science) originates from the classical work of bertalanffy (1968). this idea was later applied to social phenomena, as well (laszlo & krippner, 1998; luhmann, 1995; parsons, 1977), thus defining the two major categories of general systems: • the natural systems, being popular in physics, chemistry, biology and mathematics; • the social systems, alias systems of human activity (stichweh, 2011). therefore, either natural or social phenomena are considered as systems, described by equivalent mathematical models (heylighen & joslyn, 1992). environmental protection comprises both, as previously demonstrated (see subsection 1.1). in this respect, systems inquiry is perhaps the most comprehensive conceptual framework for the study of systems (papakitsos et al., 2017b). 2.1 systems inquiry systems inquiry includes three cognitive areas: systems philosophy, systems theory and systems methodology (bánáthy, 1997), the latter being directly related to applications. specifically: • the issues of systems’ implementation in the study of both theoretical and practical problems are explored by systems philosophy, in more general terms. • the principles and models of description of the phenomena are explored by systems theory in an interdisciplinary way, regardless of their nature or scale of existence (heylighen & joslyn, 1992). this is the oldest area historically, which firstly appeared as general systems theory (henceforth gst), linked to cybernetics as defined by wiener (1948). • the discovery of methods, models and techniques for the study of complex systems and the methods of knowledge production for systems are explored by systems methodology (banathy & jenlink, 2001). systems methodology includes a variety of conceptual techniques, such as the cognitive maps, that provide a conceptual representation of a particular natural or social environment (laszlo et al., 1993). in this case, such a conceptual technique, called organizational method for analyzing systems (henceforth omas-iii) (papakitsos, 2013), is suggested and applied herein for environmental planning and studying purposes. 2.2 conceptual technique omas-iii originates from the evolution of two previous popular techniques in information systems (ross, 1977; grover & kettinger, 2000). it has been developed as a conceptual technique for the study and description of general systems. furthermore, it is combined with concepts of human communication models (lasswell, 1991), in order to facilitate the application of systems inquiry for the study of general systems. omas-iii has been already proposed and/or used in a large number of applications, mainly in educational context (papakitsos et al., 2017a). according to the descriptive model of omas-iii (figure 1), the defining elements of a system are seven. these elements identify the issues of (papakitsos, 2013, p. 180): • “causality”, dealing with the purposes of the system; • “outcomes”, describing the results (“output”) of its functions; • “means”, describing the input of the system; • “rules”, defining natural conditions, regulations or legislation that dictates the functions of the system; • “people”, who play a monitoring role; • “place”, defining spatial aspects of the system; • “time”, defining temporal aspects of the system. these concepts have been applied for modelling an environmental organization, in terms of functions, tasks and activities, considering a localized multidisciplinary context. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 5 published by ideas spread figure 1. the basic block diagram of omas-iii 3. results the existence of a local environmental center, being part of a larger regional, national or international organization, may have three specific goals as a system (systemic “causality”) in a holistic manner: • to monitor the condition of the local environment (systemic “place” and “time”); • to propose actions and solutions for the protection, restoration and development of the local environment (systemic “outcomes” and “rules”); • to contribute to the environmental awareness of the local communities (systemic “people”), through educational and informative activities that should sensitize both the general public and the local authorities. the usually small size and limited resources (“means”) of such a local environmental center makes the necessity of its optimum structure even more imperative. the following description for the accomplishment of the aforementioned goals will be presented according to the classification of omas-iii, in two categories of the environmental organization’s features: thematic fields (see subsection 3.1) and personnel duties (see subsection 3.2). 3.1 thematic fields the proposed systemic classification of thematic fields differs from the one presented previously (see subsection 1.1), as we may observe that the previous one includes thematic axes (e.g., see 1.1.3-4, 1.1.8, 1.1.12) with topics scattered or incompletely covered (e.g., see 1.1.6), according to the concepts of systems taxonomy. the herein classification of thematic fields is based on five systemic elements, according to omas-iii (see subsection 2.2). 3.1.1 natural field the natural field (systemic “place”) regards the presentation and description of the local natural environment (the local ecosystem). it includes the natural resources (e.g., forests, flora and fauna), the geophysical relief (mountains, valleys etc.), wetlands (springs, rivers, lakes and lagoons), protected areas (land and marine parks), the coastline, sea, atmosphere, weather conditions etc. (note 1). 3.1.2 social field the social field (systemic “people”) regards the presentation and description of residential areas, land use, social conditions (e.g., unemployment) and social behaviors (e.g., the degree of environmental sensitization and the daily habits/practices) that affect the natural environment (note 2). 3.1.3 technological field the technological field (systemic “means”) regards the presentation and description of the methods of production and consumption-use of products, services and energy, how they affect (positively or negatively) the natural and social environment, along with the associated protection and restoration actions required (note 3). 3.1.4 institutional field the institutional field (systemic “rules”) regards the presentation and description of the national legislation on environmental protection, international treaties (such as the kyoto protocol) and international organizations that are active in protecting the environment and biodiversity (e.g., greenpeace, wwf etc.) (note 4). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 6 published by ideas spread 3.1.5 communicational field the communicational field (systemic “outcome”) regards (partially in this particular occasion) the related activities to the last goal of the system, namely, the contribution of the local environmental center to the environmental awareness of the local community, through educational and informative activities that should sensitize both the general public and the local authorities. in this respect, it is important to emphasize the role of sustainable development for the protection of the local environment. 3.2 personnel duties ideally for staffing a small local environmental center, one expert would be required for each thematic field (see subsection 3.1). furthermore, each expert should be assigned an additional administrative duty (figure 2), practically typical of any organization, which will be systemically classified and presented once again according to omas-iii (papakitsos, 2013, p. 186-187). figure 2. matching between thematic fields and personnel duties 3.2.1 operational planning in operational planning, the local environmental issues are considered and dealt with, namely, natural attractions, environmental problems and protective actions. this duty can be best assigned to a qualified environmental engineer, expert in the technological field (see 3.1.3), due to the need for submitting protection and restoration proposals. 3.2.2 financial management the financial management and maintenance of the infrastructure can be assigned to a scientist, specialized in environmental economy, sustainable development and/or sociology, also expert in the social field (see 3.1.2). 3.2.3 public relations public relations regard the cooperation and contacts of the local environmental center with national and international educational, scientific and environmental organizations, both private and non-governmental, as well as public authorities and the local community, obviously by an expert in the communicational field (see 3.1.5). 3.2.4 secretarial support the secretarial support deals with the management of correspondence, the classification and updating of all kinds of documents, either in printed or digital form (archives and database). this particular duty can be assigned to the expert in institutional field (see 3.1.4), who may have a good idea not only of the kinds of documents but also of their content. 3.2.5 administration last but not least, the coordinator of the entire function of the local environmental center has to be an expert in the natural field (see 3.1.1), for having a good/overall picture of the area, being also and necessarily specialized in human resources management, to deal effectively with the internal relationships of the team members. 3.3 discussion regarding the rational relationship and continuity of the previous thematic fields (see subsection 3.1): • the knowledge of natural field/environment (see 3.1.1) is a prerequisite for analyzing the impact of the social field/environment (see 3.1.2) on the first. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 7 published by ideas spread • knowing the social field/environment (see 3.1.2) is a prerequisite for analyzing how technology (see 3.1.3) affects the two previous fields/environments. • the knowledge of technologies used (see 3.1.3) is a prerequisite for assessing the suitability and adequacy of the institutional framework (see 3.1.4) to protect the environment. • finally, the knowledge of the first four thematic fields (see 3.1.1-4) is a prerequisite for the development of relevant awareness programs and campaigns (see 3.1.5). the above composition of thematic fields (see subsection 3.1) and personnel duties (see subsection 3.2) creates an optimum organization for the staffing and operation of a small local environmental center, by at least five team members. this systemic organization can theoretically cover the full range of environmental activities, since each team member is responsible for a specific thematic field and a group of operational duties, so that no team member is disproportionately charged with workload compared to another. 4. conclusion small local environmental centers (like the cees in the greek educational context) may become a key factor for the protection of the local environment. by having presented the issues and tasks of these organizations, their complex and demanding multidisciplinary character has been highlighted. further quantitative research on their activities may demonstrate their contribution to the local environmental education, awareness and protection. in this respect, a typical case is the cee of elefsina city (western attica, greece) that conducts environmental education seminars for approximately the 5% of the local pupils’ population annually. the prospect of an optimum planning of the operation of local environmental centers, in order to respond more effectively to their complex mission, has been the herein motivation to formulate proposals for their structure and tasks, based on systems science techniques. for this purpose, the application of systems inquiry has been suggested, which is the most complete theoretical framework of systems science. being the applied cognitive area of systems inquiry, systems methodology provides powerful conceptual tools, such as omas-iii, for organizing the environmental protection activities and the assigning of tasks among the members of the local environmental center, towards a qualitative and holistic upgrading of their functions. acknowledgments the authors would like to thank the reviewers of this journal for their suggestions that improved the presentation of the herein discussed topic. references bánáthy, b. h. (1997). the evolution of systems inquiry. systems, 2(1), techn. univ. wroclaw, poland. banathy, b. h., & jenlink, p. m. (2001). systems inquiry and its application in education. in d. h. jonassen & j. c. belland (eds.), handbook of research for educational communications and technology: i foundations for research in educational communications and technology. bloomington, in: association for educational communications and technology. retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255658947_systems_inquiry_and_its_application_i n_education. bertalanffy, von l. (1968). general system theory: essays on its foundation and development (rev. ed.). new york: george braziller. blackman, a. (2008). can voluntary environmental regulation work in developing countries? lessons from case studies. policy studies journal, 36(1), 119-141. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-0072.2008.00249.x grover, v., & kettinger, w. j. (2000). process think: winning perspectives for business change in the information age. igi global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-878289-68-1 heylighen, f., & joslyn, c. (1992). systems theory. in f. heylighen, c. joslyn & v. turchin (eds.), principia cybernetica web. brussels: principia cybernetica. hmerra. (2011). staffing procedures and tasks of teachers in the centers for environmental education (cee). protocol no 83691/g7/22-07-2011: government gazette 1981, issue b, 7-9-2011 (in greek). hmerra. (2016). design and implementation of school activities programs (environmental education, health education, cultural issues), career education and european programmes (erasmus+, etwinning, etc.) for the school year 2016-2017. directorate general for primary and secondary education: protocol no 170596 / gd4 / 13-10-2016 (in greek). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 8 published by ideas spread karamanos, p. (2010).voluntary environmental agreements: evolution and definition of a new environmental policy approach. journal of environmental planning and management, 44(1), 67-84. https://doi.org/10.1080/09640560124364 lasswell, d. h. (1991). the structure and functioning of communication in society. in k. livieratos & t. frangoulis (eds.), the message of media, the explosion of mass communication (pp. 65-83). athens: alexandria (in greek). laszlo, a., & krippner, s. (1998). systems theories: their origins, foundations, and development. in j. s. jordan (ed.), systems theories and a priori aspects of perception (ch. 3, pp. 47-74). amsterdam: elsevier science. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0166-4115(98)80017-4 laszlo, e., & masulli, i. (1993) with artigiani, r., & csányi, v. (eds.). the evolution of cognitive maps: new paradigms for the twenty-first century. new york: gordon & breach. luhmann, n. (1995). social systems. stanford, ca: stanford university press. lytle, m. h. 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(2017a). the contribution of systems science to planning in local educational administration. european journal of education studies, 3(3), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.265909 papakitsos, e. c., karakiozis, k., & foulidi, x. (2017b). systemic methodology for inclusive education policies in areas with acute social problems. european journal of alternative education studies, 2(1), 32-47. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.345186 parsons, t. (1977). social systems and the evolution of action theory. new york: free press. ross, d. t. (1977). structured analysis: a language for communicating ideas. ieee trans. software engineering, january 1977, 16-34. https://doi.org/10.1109/tse.1977.229900 stichweh, r. (2011). systems theory. in b. badie et al. (eds.), international encyclopedia of political science. new york: sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412959636.n597 wiener, n. (1948). cybernetics: or control and communication in the animal and the machine. cambridge, ma: mit-press. notes note 1. previously corresponding to: 1.1.4, no 1; 1.1.8, no 2-3; 1.1.9; 1.1.12, no 6. note 2. previously corresponding to: 1.1.1; 1.1.3, no 1; 1.1.3, no 4; 1.1.4, no 2-4; 1.1.5; 1.1.6, no 1-3; 1.1.8, no 1; 1.1.8, no 4; 1.1.11; 1.1.12, no 1-5; 1.1.13; 1.1.15. note 3. previously corresponding to: 1.1.2; 1.1.3, no 2-3; 1.1.7; 1.1.10; 1.1.14. note 4. previously corresponding to: 1.1.6, no 4. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n2p19 19 published by ideas spread analysis of regional country studies and international communication pathways hui wang1 & wenjie xu* 1 global and area studies, yonsei university, gangwon state, republic of korea * international research centre of the grand canal & school of cluture and tourism, zhejiang international studies university, china correspondence: wenjie xu, international research centre of the grand canal & school of cluture and tourism, zhejiang international studies university, china. e-mail: xuwenjie zisu.edu.cn received: february 18, 2025; accepted: march 13, 2025; published: march 13, 2025 abstract as globalization is continuously expanding, the position of area country studies and international communication in multicultural exchanges is being emphasized. this paper is intended for analyzing the consequences of regional country studies on the international communication network via the description of cultural communication in different regions and examining the types and obstacles of such communications. with the theoretical backgrounds of regional country studies, this paper has further worked out in the direction of specific case studies, thus examining their diverse manifestations and communication pathways of regional cultures in international communication. according to the article, global communication can be seen as a tool for abolition of cultural borders as well as a bridge of communication and understanding globally. finally, the paper brings to light the points that regional country studies shed on the future international communication pathways and underlines the fact that unique expressions of regions should be a part of cultural diversity and mutual understanding promotion in a global cultural communication. keywords: regional country studies, international communication, cultural communication, communication pathways, cross-cultural exchange 1. introduction globalization is a factor that influences local cultural development all around the world in a very complicated way. the disparities between historical, cultural and societal backgrounds ensure that the information highways and the influence of various regions are alternatively conventional. this study is aimed at examining how the uniqueness of a regional country culture and its way of communication on an international stage are formed and at the same time, determining the factor of cultural differences that can influence communication effectiveness in a negative manner and by applying strategies that promote effective communication. they will be able to delve into the communication channels of diverse parts of the world; as a result, they can ascertain what is actually happening in the information stream that flows globally and even supply theoretical findings and practical strategies for crosscultural communication[1]. 2. theoretical foundations of regional country studies 2.1 definition and scope of regional country studies regional country studies is a scientific project that refers to the study of a specific geographical regions or countries and conducts detailed analysis of their socio-cultural, historical, political, and economic aspects. the research considers the connections and interactions among various countries in a common region and examines the roles of these countries in the global stage instead of the study of a single region or country. lorem ipsum through the detailed analysis of regional cultures, social structures, and political systems, regional country studies offer a unique perspective for understanding the characteristics of various countries and regions, while also providing a necessary theoretical foundation for international communication. on a broader scale, the regional country studies can be seen as a specific example of the study of various geographical regions-which in the world could be found everywhere from the east asia to the middle east. each region has a layered cultural structure and different developmental paths and regional country studies nerd out on these discrepancies to reveal how different regions lead and work during the global process[2]. obtainment of research through practice aims to reaffirm how disparate hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 20 published by ideas spread cultures and social systems impact intercontinental communication; in addition, it warrants the required knowledge for cross-cultural communication and the international dispersion. the diversity of country cases from around the world shows that the in the different categories and it is a crucial factor in understanding multicultural communication, diversity, and the different communication mechanisms in the regions. 2.2 theoretical perspectives of regional country studies regional country studies as a branch of academic discipline have developed a network of varied analytical frameworks. in the course of this examination, the crucial question is the role of the existing theoretical constructs in the regional country studies as a sphere of knowledge. the results derived from the research of the theory enable personalities to make use of analytical appliances, which are of different types to analyze and read the regional differences and their roles in the global media. despite the fact that the theoretical perspectives are various, culturalism, political economy, historicism, and social structure are the common ones in the regional country studies. the first theory, which is the culturalism perspective, deals with the issue of the role of culture in the regional country studies. as such, culture is what determines the differences in attitudes, and the country's ways, values, customs, mode of interaction, and behavioral patterns are a result of the same. this perspective particularly focuses on communicating and the exchange of cultures which emphasizes the culture through the discussion of themes such as city soundscapes, cultural identity and the like[3]. contrarily, it is a fact that cultural tension and its resolution are frequently existing issues in international communication, while the culturalism approach enables the understanding of the cultural origin and communication means behind these happenings. the second theory, on the other hand, is the political economy perspective that concentrates on the power of the political entities through control of the economy and leading to economic growth in a particular region. this angle approaches the issue of how the political and economic structure of a region influences its cultural and emotional well-being very often. for instance, the principle of discourse authority of diverse countries in international communication, the movement of information, and the production of cultural issues are commonly intertwined with their politicaleconomic systems, and so, the application of this approach is useful to discover the relation between economic growth and international communication demographical mixtures. the historistic perspective underscores that the historical foundation is the reason for the differences between the regions. according to this point of view, historical background has the most significant influence on regional development. there are such things as colonialism, wars, and political changes that are shaping the culture and social structure in that region[4]. this is the historistic view of the situation that the writers took. it highlights that now it is possible for the investigators to follow the way history was created for the regional cultures and communication which displays us in which period and region language change and how the historical inheritance has greatly played a role in the language exchange of today. eventually, the sociopolitical aspect of this paper looks at how the existing hierarchical boundaries related to various social classes, ethnic groups, and social structures themselves influence the regionally defined countries. the angle of observation shifts to inequalities of social and economic status, differences in terms of class, and the dynamics in terms of race and ethnicity which combined give a country/region both its cultural identity and communication style.for instance, whereas some culture and social groups are very dominant in cultural communication, others hang out on the side and are so marginalized or ignored. in concise terms, relative regional studies perspectives can develop a multidimensional analysis model providing a vast spectrum of factors through cultural, political, historical and social dimensions. these theories not only help the academics in doing research but also are strong supporters of the practices of international communication[5]. 3. theories and practices of international communication the international communication itself is a bridge across countries, continents, and languages through which data is passed. it is an exchange of ideas and at the same time a meeting of different cultures, ideas, and values. the globalization era has led it to become an important tool in fostering cultural collaboration, enhancing economic developments, and solving the political communication issues. international communication has been an area where theory and practice have been significantly involving different fields such as communication studies, cultural studies, and international relations. the framework of international communication is determined by such issues as the complex situations within the world of information flow, the trend of cultural diffusion, and the exchange of information among nations. the early "one-way communication theory" that stands for the essence of international communication theory underwent further evolution to the current "multi-directional interactive communication theory." this theory was formulated by lasswell with the one stemmed idea about the one-way transmission from the source to the audience, and during this process, what the transmitter is doing. in the time of the cold war, this theory was generally employed for propaganda and state information control that were in the ideological struggle framework, where the government used the national media to disseminate political ideologies to the country and other nations. however, as a result of the fast growth of globalization and instant information hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 21 published by ideas spread technologies, the flaws of the one-way communication theory are more visible, especially the multiculturalism, the internet, and social media issues, where information conglomerates and flows are more complicated and uneven. in particular, 21st-century international communication theory has moved from unified and interactive models[6] to diversified models. for instance, the global communication theory directs that in a globalized environment, communication is the two-way exchange of information, and not just the output of a single country, but rather an engaging transnational exchange of cultures and data. this idea underlines that, in a globalized world, the movement of information is just like a network with a complex structure, in which different cultures and ideas all over the planet are not limited only to one party s platform. global media, in particular, the internet and social media, chipped away at the traditional communication barriers, which made the flow of information more diversified and dynamic.conversely, cultural imperialism theory argues that regardless of the actual bidirectional flow of information, more often than not, the rich countries dominate global communication while the poor countries can be begging for some tidbits of information, hence the situation of cultural dependence and cultural colonization becomes exacerbated.rather than keep to a standard way of communication, nations and areas often alter their means of communication through the years, either adjusting to the technological changes or attempting to be in line with global culture. the countries are the ones who bring cultural diversity back by communicating among each other with the other nations who they seek to impress, and often, they leverage their greater influence over the other countries. china has resorted to launching the "chinese story" campaign, which has been proved by the state media, diplomatic channels, and cultural exports in the last few years. they are being given a straw to draw inspiration from which includes right of media and language diversification as well as the strengthening of local and national identity through intelligence. more so, these outreach materials are also designed to keep the youth reminded of the people and culture that belong to their country and let them know that they are part of the global community. moreover, the chinese cinema, literature, paintings, and sports are examples of the diverse cultural exchange between the two countries that also contribute to chinese cultural global awareness and acceptance.generally, the more media and the other languages china uses through global communication, the stronger they will be as an idea or history.in recent times, the sudden and the steady rise of the internet and social media have made a revolutionary change in the way international communication is done. the old boys' network of the traditional media like television and radio has been challenged by the new generations of digital platforms. the emergence of social networking sites has allowed people to share and receive information, and it has also made them more active. twitter, facebook, and youtube being the most prominent, are now the focal point of international networking, which implies that the access to global interaction is instant and wide. besides this, this new way of connecting also has disadvantages such as, different people not able to ascertain the truth about some stories, the existence of cyberbullying, and the manipulation of the public view, hence, and the effective government and international organizations are obliged to look for new solutions to this problem.however, all through the process of globalization, the theory and practice of international communication have been undergoing various development stages.with the uprising of information technologies, the world is changing towards global multipolarity, and in a new direction towards cultural diversity. international communication no longer remains only, the means of transmitting information between different countries but also more importantly as the tool for transmitting cultural identity, national interests, ideologies, and values to them[7]. in the following years, the question of both international communication theory and practice will be, how to blend the diversity and the fairness in communication as well as, how to refine the world communication environment to be more equitable and transparent. 4. regional country culture's communication characteristics the fact that each region has at least one special quality that separates it from the others is called a cultural conflict because of this fact, local people come up with different strategies for international communication. cultural discrepancies can involve language, legislations, habits, and belief systems, whereby, each of them is considered to be as important as the issues and the positive side of the cross-cultural communication as well. the communication quality of different regions is not only dependent on the resources on these cultural factors, it can also be confirmed by different methods such as, for example, communication misinterpretation rates and the adaptability of the culture positively or negatively.language is one of the highest areas of communication abroad, the contradiction of which is always visible to everybody. many and different interpretations, as well as slang, regional accents, and coded cultural artifacts, can introduce accidental misinterpretations. therefore, such a specific phrase or act that exists in people's daily habits is generally taken at face value and does not bring about the same interpretation in another language, and thus, it may reduce the communicative transparency. for instance, table 1 presents the misinterpretation rate of various languages in the world, which makes exclusion of accent as the main difficulty in communication between different languages. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 22 published by ideas spread when it comes to language, value differences are the most important factors affecting the formation of communication strategies. most of the time is the western world first and foremost related to personal freedom, while the eastern countries are more socially social. there is ink for the message when it comes to communication, culture, building or every characteristic. table 2 describes the differences in cultural values (e.g., individualism and collectivism) across regions and analyses how these values influence communication strategies in diverse fields.mover is an integrated element of religious religious culture, and as a result, they affect both personal behavior and social norms. due to the high level of religion in the middle east and south asian countries, people in these regions cannot withstand religious misconceptions that may be aggressive to them, but always prefer respectable communication. therefore, it is necessary to be able to identify dialogue between different religious groups to describe multi -level concepts of 'holy'. table 1. regional language misinterpretation rates region primary language(s) misinterpretation rate (%) north america english, french, spanish 12 east asia mandarin, japanese, korean 15 middle east arabic, turkish, persian 18 data collected from cross-regional communication surveys (2022–2023), revealing the misinterpretation rates tied to language differences in various regions. table 2. regional value systems and their influence on communication region dominant value system influence on communication strategy (%) north america individualism, self-expression 70 east asia collectivism, social harmony 65 middle east family, social responsibility 80 europe individualism, community focus 75 data derived from global cross-cultural studies (2023), indicating the influence of regional value systems on communication approaches, particularly in advertising and public messaging. one of the defining characteristics of every place, which requires a specific mode of communicating, is that of culture. language is not simply a set of rules that encode sentences properly but incorporates cultural identities. this point is illustrated by the fact that in many cases direct ways of speaking is the norm in western societies since it is thought to be more thoughtful and polite, while in most eastern cultures, being polite and indirect are the most common forms. therefore, for such a multilingual audience, the intercultural communications demand is getting higher and in particular people that want to promote their strategic success, need to utilize language and tone more deeply and make style more inspiring not forgetting to use the favorite features of each zone. digital communication is widely regarded as one of the most significant advancements in contemporary crosscultural communication. the global spread of digitalization, coupled with the decline of traditional mass communication channels, has dramatically reshaped the digital landscape. as shown in table 3, internet platforms, social media, and mobile technologies—despite uneven adoption—have redefined global connectivity in the digital era, particularly in advertising and business practices. concurrently, localized product development has emerged as a key strategy for global engagement, requiring companies to tailor offerings to diverse cultural values, social norms, and religious practices. by prioritizing such adaptations, organizations can foster deeper audience connections, ensuring messages resonate not only intellectually but also emotionally within local contexts. table 3. digital communication penetration rates by region region internet penetration (%) social media usage (%) mobile internet usage (%) north america 92 85 88 east asia 89 80 91 middle east 75 65 70 europe 90 82 85 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 23 published by ideas spread data from global digital communication studies (2023), illustrating the regional differences in digital infrastructure and adoption, which significantly influence international communication strategies. 5. analysis of regional country communication pathways in international communication international communication is becoming more and more the main way to transfer culture, information, and values between different countries due to globalization. it is especially significant because it affects which countries will advance the whole process. because of the varying influences of history, culture, politics, and economics, there are regions that operate in totally different ways in global communication. this research will focus on the communication routes of the regional countries from three perspectives: the pathway of diversity, communication barriers and capabilities, and cross-cultural communication strategies.firstly, the communication path of regional countries in the global sphere is highly diverse. in the initial stages, the countries basically used the official media, cultural exchange programs, international exhibitions, and academic exchanges as the source of information that is to be exported. more precisely, the digital communication channels forced their way through the new media system and internet technologies which resulted in some mild but inescapable rises both and the traditional communication model changed. in western countries, the main media pathway is no longer in the global media network, it has been replaced by the new internet platforms that distribute multilingual and multimodal content which allows the promotion of national values around the world. some underdeveloped countries have technical restrictions, financial deficiencies, and insufficient communication channels as the main obstacles to international communication; therefore, their communication links are largely government-led and based on regional cooperation, which is their unique characteristics that are promoted through cultural festivals, educational exchanges, and regional media. by doing so, the whole communication structure of the regions will be arbitrated and the communication pathway will be developed. the third point is that countries typically host the international forums themselves, in order to be more powerful and better than fellow weaker nations and regions that have limited information resources and inadequate communication platforms. meanwhile, the variations in economic strength and technological capabilities of some parts of the world can cause a great communication gap and the content production that in its turn dropout the balance and diversity in global cultural exchange. the best solution to these problems is based on a detailed and radical approach regarding multiple and diverse communication strategies. communicators are initially supposed to convert the language as well as the pattern according to the cultural aspects and reception patterns of the target audience in order to break down the cultural barriers and to prevent misunderstanding. crop is technology that can be used at the same time in different regions, it is the tendency as a communication means that has boundlessly improved the global communication process. unless the contacts between various countries are promoted by network structures and communication platforms that operate trans-culturally and intra-nationally are available, mutual support and long-term democratic development would be impossible. finally, the rapid usage of the digital and social media instances can bring new means of communication to the regional countries. through webcast lectures and short videos, communicators have been able to challenge the traditional media frontiers and provide more accurate and efficient information dissemination to the global audiences. the writing informed readers about technology or interaction channels that had taken place. the development of digital technologies has caused the communication sector to experience a significant expansion over the past few years.the outcomes revealed that there is an immediate need for consideration and alteration in organizations where communication is possible through understanding of each region's unique cultural backgrounds. this can be done by unraveling the communication barriers and taking advantage of the new technological advances that thus make cultural exchanges more effective and hence add more value to being a main principle in reviewing the principles of building a wider and more equitable worldwide communication system. 6. conclusion the paper comes to the end with the idea of the importance of communicating locally the content and the use of technology in solving the international communication challenge. however, the fact that the history uniqueness, values, and culture of different regions or countries act as the bondage that segregates communication among the people is undeniably true. to promote better international communication the delivering of the communication content should incorporate more cross-cultural collaboration and technological innovation. currently, the internet and digital media are wider platforms on which not only social networks and international enterprises but also all the people and places in the world are. it is only in the future that we can achieve better cultural exchanges and international understanding in global communication, after being able to recognize and respect cultural differences and to be able to flexibly adjust our communication strategies. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 24 published by ideas spread references [1] gao, j., & o’neill, b. c. 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(2021). pathway outta pigeonhole? de-contextualizing majority world countries. media, culture & society, 43(1), 189–197. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443720926042 [9] candela, m., luconi, v., & vecchio, a. (2021). a worldwide study on the geographic locality of internet routes. computer networks, 201, 108555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2021.108555 [10] lehtonen, h. s., huttunen, s., & rikkonen, p. (2021). shared socioeconomic pathways for climate change research in finland: co-developing extended ssp narratives for agriculture. regional environmental change, 21, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-021-01795-1 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v2n1p15 15 published by ideas spread holistic education: blending the botho, human factor ethos of basotho traditional education, with the scientific perspectives of 21st century western education ilongo fritz ngale1 & mahlatsi monaheng1 1 national university of lesotho, lesotho correspondence: ilongo fritz ngale, dr. national university of lesotho, lesotho. received: february 2, 2019; accepted: february 12, 2019; published: february 25, 2019 abstract this paper posits that it is the blend of botho, or human factor ethos of basotho traditional education with the scientific perspectives of 21st century western education, that can effectively lead to holistic education. the methodology is basic research, while the theoretical framework is critical theoretical analyses articulated around triple axes of the traditional basotho educational system, the modern western educational system, and a hypothetical third perspective or holistic education. this paper will highlight the botho tenets of basotho traditional education, 21st century skills, and resultant holistic education. this paper proposes educational transformation or holistic education through the integration of both the experiential, participative, and social learning orientation of traditional basotho education, with the scientific, virtual, technological and entrepreneurial perspectives of modern western education. the paper proposes policy recommendations for the development of holistic education in modern lesotho. keywords: basotho traditional education, botho, experiential and participative approaches, entrepreneurship, human factor, holistic education 1. introduction this paper aims to address the notion of holistic education, which is premised on the blending of both botho, or human factor ethos of basotho traditional education, with the scientific orientations of 21st century western education. holistic or total education which is proposed by this work is an attempt to integrate the homocentric and scientific perspectives of traditional african educational systems exemplified by botho, and the 21st century skills and competencies of western education. it is the firm conviction of the researchers that only holistic education can resolve issues of unemployment, underemployment, and unemployability that plague graduates from the modern, westernized basotho educational system. this paper posits that the way forward is through holistic education, that is, the harmonious symbiosis between both the experiential, participative, and social learning orientation of traditional basotho education, with the scientific, virtual, technological and entrepreneurial perspectives of modern western education. 2. purpose of the study the purpose of the paper is to propose holistic education as an educational paradigm which unites the botho or human factor ethos in basotho traditional education, with the scientific tenets of western education. in other words: • what are the contributions of botho to holistic education? • what are the contributions of 21st educational skills and competencies to holistic education? 3. research questions the following are the research questions of the paper: • what is holistic education? • how does the human factor element of botho contribute to holistic education? • how do the 21st century skills and competencies contribute to holistic education? hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 16 published by ideas spread 4. methodology the methodology of the study is basic research, while the theoretical framework is critical theoretical analyses articulated around the traditional basotho educational system, 21st century skill of the modern western educational system, and holistic education. 4.1 basic research basic research, also called pure research or fundamental research, has the scientific research aim to improve scientific theories for improved understanding or prediction of natural or other phenomena (national science foundation, 2014). basic research in this paper is descriptive and exploratory, in relation to highlighting the tenets of the human factor ethos in basotho traditional education, and the scientific 21st century skills and competencies of western education. this paper also generates a new educational paradigm or holistic education, which is a hybrid perspective for educational research and policy. 4.2 critical theoretical analyses critical theory is a social theory oriented toward critiquing and changing society as a whole, in contrast to traditional theory oriented only to understanding or explaining it. critical theory basically seeks ‘to liberate human beings from the circumstances that enslave them’ (horkheimer, 1982). this paper utilizes critical theory as a ‘research lens’ through which holistic education, the blend of both traditional african and western educational systems, is proposed as the most realistic, effective, and efficient educational system for present day lesotho. 5. holistic education holistic education as defined within the context of this paper implies a blend of ‘homocentric and scientific’ perspectives derived from the basotho traditional education and western education. holistic education posits the combination of learner centeredness, character transformation, and 21st century skills and competencies. botho or human factor ethos in basotho traditional education. botho is the ‘vital energy and substance’ whose quantity and quality are indispensable for the ‘humaneness’ of human persons. according to shutte (2001, p. 2), … the concept of botho embodies an understanding of what it is to be human and what is necessary for human beings to grow and find fulfillment. for shutte (2001), although people are born human (have the botho potentials), their humanness can either be enhanced or depreciated by the individuals themselves or by other people. in other words, the quantity and quality of botho determine the degree of expression and experience of humanness. the preceding is confirmed by ntsiki (2015) when he states that the basotho considered the essence of being a human being, botho, to be the embodiment of spiritual values demonstrated in life through deeds. he further affirms that those whose botho was highly developed were closer to god both in this life and in the next, while those oblivious and negligent of their botho strayed far from god and risked sinking lower than animals. botho hinges on the following maxim, motho ke motho ka batho (a person owes his/her social being to other social beings). according to mahao (2010), the latter aphorism is the epistemological paradigm and cornerstone of a homocentric, sustainable, and resilient social and ecological equilibrium. in other words, botho is never the fruit of a spontaneous generation, as much as it is the logical product of peace and reconciliation, or the reintegration of all energies and vital forces at the individual and collective levels. botho is essentially the imperative transpersonal call to form caring relationships, co-creations of intersubjective space in which each and all patiently and in a disciplined fashion listen for the reverberations of soul, while carefully attending to the resonances that emerge (rieger, 2009). according to matsela (2006), prior to the nineteenth century and even early twentieth century, the indigenous basotho education consisted of prerequisite rites of passage from adolescence to adulthood. the indigenous basotho education system had a pragmatic orientation, because it envisaged cognitive, affective, practical, social, and consciousness transformations (matsela, 2006). from the aforementioned, basotho traditional education placed emphasis on maximizing personal and group effectiveness, socio-culturally responsible and accountable behaviour, as well as cooperative and collaborative efforts in all community undertakings. by extension and deduction, the indigenous basotho education system prioritized the human factor element as primordial in the development process (adjibolosoo 1999, 1998, 1995, 1994, 1993). the central tenet of the human factor literature which is inseparable from botho in basotho traditional education, states that qualities such as responsibility, accountability, trustworthiness, integrity, motivation, commitment, emotional maturity, honesty, love, tolerance, loyalty and personal caring, hold the key to all forms of authentic hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 17 published by ideas spread development (adjibolosoo 1999, 1998, 1995, 1994, 1993; chivaura and mararike, 1998). in other words, the traditional basotho educational system essentially highlighted human factor variables which are fundamental prerequisites for individual and collective flourishing. characteristics of human factor ethos in basotho traditional education include (adjibolosoo, 2000): • knowledge of one’s rights, privileges, duties, and responsibilities as a member in a community • willingness to contribute to societal integration and nation building • extensive personal loyalty and commitment to trust in a common and/or shared historical civilization • development of well-adjusted and robust citizens • development of the virtue of hard work, commitment, integrity, trustworthiness, responsibility, dedication, loyalty, and self-respect • development of worthy citizens guided by decent moral precepts, that is, good citizens who can live, work, contend and cooperate in a civilized way, and who are loyal, patriotic, filial, respectful to elders, law-abiding, and humane, caring of family, parents, neighbours, friends, tolerant of all people, and well mannered. in other words, the foundations of holistic education as rooted in the botho human factor ethos of basotho traditional education, consist of character transformation, social education, positive ethics, and higher order cognitive and behavioral skills. for the researchers, the kingpin of basotho traditional education is individual character transformation, which is the principal behavioural driver forged through the botho human factor ethos for ‘creating a person out of the untamed and unmoulded body of a child’ (masolo, 2010:242). secondly, in relation to social education, the basotho youth were taught about the structure of their social environment, their place in that structure, and how they were expected to behave towards everyone within it (marah, 2006:15; masolo, 2010:251). in other words, the ‘african youth’s ethnic group and community were held by rules and regulations, values and social sanctions, approval, rewards and punishments, etc., into which he was inducted’ (marah, 2006:17). thirdly, concerning positive ethics in basotho traditional education, mapesela (2004:322) argues that basotho indigenous education inculcated good ethics, morals and values such as humaneness (ubuntu), neighbourliness, responsibility, and respect for self and others. it is his view that basotho indigenous education ‘can still be used to encourage people to become better members of society, as well as to help curb certain social problems like the lack of neighbourliness, heartlessness, theft, killing and rape, uncaring and unpatriotic attitudes, and lack of good ethics.’ lastly, the basotho traditional education inculcated into learners, higher order cognitive and behavioural skills, such as thuto-kelello (cognitive engagement) or the ability to think strategically and at the highest level through a pragmatic problem-based education; makhabane (virtues), which included industry or hard work; leruo (wealth), makunutu a sechaba (national secrets or classified information), bonatla (warriorship), and boqapi le bokheleke (creativity and eloquence) (letseka, 2013). now, the question arises: is it possible for the basotho to dissociate themselves from the prevailing western educational system? the answer to the question is clearly no, because the world is now a global village where cultures co-exist (welsch, 2004). according to mosweunyane (2013:57), africa will never escape from the western globalized educational system, but that the basotho can employ the latter to effectively and efficiently address and further african issues and interests. moreover, the western education system could also be used as a scientific prism through which learners can critically reflect on the botho worldview. literature and critical reflections on botho philosophy will result in its continuous refining, adaptation, development and effective application within lesotho, africa and beyond. in this manner, the teaching of botho worldview in association to the 21st century skills will effectively foster the development of holistic education. thus, the latter becomes the result of a judicious blend between moral regeneration acquired from botho worldview and scientific enlightenment through mastery of the core skills of western education. in the light of the foregoing, the teaching of botho worldview from primary to tertiary levels is ethically good and worth doing. the philosophical justification for the teaching of botho worldview rests on the utilitarian point of view. according to this view, an action is morally good as long as it promotes human happiness. britton (1969:59) observes that ‘utilitarians profess to hold that there is one and only one basic moral law: that it is right to promote human happiness’. this means that, an action is good as long as it promotes the well-being of people. on the contrary, this moral law implies that, an action or behavior is bad as long as it produces pain or suffering. therefore, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 18 published by ideas spread the teaching of botho worldview from primary to tertiary levels in africa in general, and lesotho in particular can significantly contribute to the promotion of african and basotho well-being. at this point, we shall consider the 21st century skills, which derive from modern western education, as the complementary axis of holistic education. 6. 21st century skills core 21st century skills include: critical thinking and problem solving; communication and collaboration; creativity and innovation; information literacy; media literacy; ict literacy; flexibility and adaptability; initiative and selfdirection; social and cross-cultural; productivity and accountability; leadership and responsibility (anderson & krathwohl, 2000). the revised version of the ‘taxonomy for learning’ uses the updated terms remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, and create, which “… processes can be learned at the same time or even in reverse order” (anderson & krathwohl, 2000). 21st century skills can be summarized as follows: 1. communication and collaboration or the ability to communicate clearly and collaborate with others. 2. creativity and innovation or the ability to think creatively, work creatively with others, and implement innovations. 3. information literacy skills or the ability to access and evaluate information, and use and manage information. 4. media literacy skills or the ability to analyze media and create media products. 5. ict literacy skills or the ability to apply technology effectively. 6. flexibility and adaptability, entail the ability to adapt to change and be flexible. 7. initiative and self-direction are the aptitudes for managing goals and time, work independently, and for becoming self-directed learners. 8. social and cross-cultural skills or interacting effectively with others, and working effectively in diverse teams. 9. productivity and accountability skills involve the ability to manage projects and produce results. 10. leadership and responsibility skills imply the ability to guide and lead others, and be responsible to others. on the basis of the positive values of botho and human factor ethos found in the basotho traditional education, and the scientific, virtual, and entrepreneurial core skills associated with western education, the blend of these two educational systems, will lead to holistic education. in other words, the teaching of botho worldview will lead to acquisition by learners of the following botho virtues: responsibility, honesty, competence, (shutte, 2001), unity, respect, compassion and human dignity, (murove 2013:233), moral regeneration metz (2011), and happiness and well-being (britton, 1969). the aforementioned virtues should be blended with the core subjects and the following 21st century themes: global awareness (multicultural awareness and understanding); environmental literacy (ecological awareness and understanding of energy and resource sustainability); financial literacy (economic, business, and entrepreneurial knowledge); health literacy (health care, nutrition, and preventive medicine); and civic literacy (civic engagement, community service, ethics, and social justice); learning and innovation skills; information, media, and technology skills; life and career skills. 7. policy implications of holistic education this paper proposes policy reforms in the case of lesotho, which will act as drivers of the holistic education project: 7.1 quality assurance and strengthening partnerships there is need to strengthen existing partnerships as well as scouting for new partnerships to enhance the effective blending of traditional and modern curricula elements. mechanisms should be put in place to involve employers and businesses in needs assessment and development of inclusive curricula. 7.2 research and database management research and credible database development and management, in line with the specificities of both traditional and western educational systems. coordination and networking for purposes of identifying capacity building and training needs for learners, graduates, decision makers, and potential employers. government should facilitate the compilation and sharing of best practices, by encouraging public and civil society stakeholders to plan events to develop awareness of the mutual interdependence of core values and skills of both traditional and western educational systems. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 19 published by ideas spread 7.3 graduate networking clubs graduates should organize themselves in establishing organized structures like graduate clubs which can facilitate projects like networking and capacity building programs that focus on highlighting core traditional and modern life skills development. 7.4 development of graduate development and employment programs graduate development and employment programs should facilitate holistic education through mentoring and counselling programs. 7.5 policy on technical, industrial and vocational education and training (tivet) there is need to promote technological proficiency by training learners to develop skills to produce competitive products for domestic and international markets. this will imply the development of training systems and mechanisms to facilitate linkages of the informal sector and standards of skill acquisition with those of the formal technical and vocational system. there is need to improve access and relevance of education and training provided to the youth with more focus on technical and vocational skills as well as development of soft skills. 7.6 government commitment through budgetary provisions there is need for the lesotho government to promote policies that increase awareness, development, and valorisation of both the homocentric values of basotho traditional education, and the scientific skills of western education. 8. conclusion this paper concludes that botho is an authentic african basotho worldview which can be understood in terms of the establishment of a continuous relation of interdependence and interconnectedness between individual human beings. in this regard, botho worldview is characterized by the notion of relatedness. botho worldview was important since it traditionally introduced children to real life issues so that learners could pragmatically, effectively and efficiently solve their individual and social problems. western education, on the other hand, lays emphasis on scientific, virtual, technological, and entrepreneurial considerations. the way forward, as proposed by this paper is the development of holistic education, which entails a harmonious symbiosis between both the experiential, participative, and social learning orientation of traditional basotho education, with the positivist and pragmatic values of modern western education. holistic education entails a judicious blend between core botho values that lead to moral regeneration and character transformation, and 21st century skills, which are the bases for logical and rational enlightenment. references adjibolosoo, s. (1993). the human factor in development. scandinavian journal of development alternatives, xii(4), 139-149. adjibolosoo, s. (1994). the human factor and the failure of economic development and policies in africa. in f. ezeala-harrison and s. adjibolosoo, (eds) perspectives on economic development in africa. new york: praeger publishers. adjibolosoo, s. (1995). the significance of the human factor in african economic development. westport, ct.: praeger. adjibolosoo, s. (1998). global development the human factor way. westport, ct: praeger. adjibolosoo, s. (1999). rethinking development theory and policy. a human factor critiques. westport, ct: praeger. aikman, s., unterhalter, e., & challender, c. (2005). the education mdgs: achieving gender equality through curriculum and pedagogy change. london: oxfam. britton, k. (1969). john stuart mill. new york. dover publications, inc. broodryk, j. (2008). understanding south africa: the ubuntu way of living. pretoria: ubuntu school of philosophy. herz, b. (2006). educating girls in south asia: promising approaches. kathmandu: format printing press. horkheimer, m. (1982). critical theory selected essays. new york: continuum pub. kimane, i. (2005). protecting orphaned children through legislation: the case of lesotho. paper presented at the 4th world congress on family law and children’s rights, cape town. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 1; 2019 20 published by ideas spread mahao, n. l. (2010). ‘o se re homorwa ‘morwatowe!’ african jurisprudence exhumed. comparative and international law journal of south africa, 43(3), 317-336 matsela, z. a. (2006). 40 years of administration “reflections and prospects”. development of education in lesotho. lapam celebration conference for the 40th year of independence of lesotho. mcgee, r. (2000). meeting the international poverty targets in uganda: halving poverty and achieving universal education. development policy review, 18(3), 85-106. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7679.00101 metz, t. (2011). an african theory of dignity and a relational conception of poverty. in j. w. de cruchy (ed.), the humanist imperative in south africa (pp. 233-242). stellenbosch: sun press. mosweunyane, d. (2013). the african educational evolution: from traditional training to formal education. higher education studies, 4(3), 50-59. https://doi.org/10.5539/hes.v3n4p50 murove, m. f. (2013). african ethics: an anthology of comparative and applied ethics. pietermaritzburg. university of kwazulu-natal press. ntsiki, m. (2015). a plea for prosperity. morija: morija printers. rieger, j. (2012). theology and mission between neoand post colonialism. mission studies, 2(21), 202-27. shutte, a. (2001). buntu: an ethic for the new south africa. pietermaritzburg: cluster publications. what is basic research? national science foundation. retrieved 2014-05-31. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p8 8 published by ideas spread challenges and solutions for occupational injury protection of workers in new forms of employment yang peng1 1 school of politics and public administration, guangxi normal university, china correspondence: yang peng, school of politics and public administration, guangxi normal university, guilin, guangxi, china. received: june 23, 2025; accepted: july 5, 2025; published: july 7, 2025 abstract with the rapid development of the digital economy, an increasing number of people have joined the ranks of workers in new forms of employment. however, the current work injury insurance system cannot cover this group, leaving them with weak resilience against risks when facing accidents. platforms, as the employing entities, also shirk their responsibilities.given the growing size of this workforce, urgent interim measures for occupational injury protection should be introduced to fulfil the role of work injury insurance. subsequently, relevant laws and regulations should be gradually amended to decouple entitlement to work injury insurance benefits from the strict requirement of establishing a formal labor relationship.this would expand coverage to more workers, effectively transforming work injury insurance into a de facto occupational injury insurance scheme. keywords: workers in new forms of employment, occupational injury, work injury insurance, social security 1. introduction in recent years, propelled by the rapid development of china's 'internet plus' initiative, workers in new forms of employment under various new business models have emerged rapidly, marking a new phase in china's economic development. accompanying these novel economic and employment patterns are significant challenges to the work injury insurance system posed by complex labor environments, alongside platform workers' substantial need for protection against occupational injuries. due to the tightly coupled relationship between work injury insurance and formal labor contracts in china, platform workers lack recognized insurance status compared to traditional enterprise employees, rendering the current work injury insurance system largely inapplicable[1]. establishing occupational injury protection is therefore of paramount importance for this increasingly substantial workforce in new forms of employment. on march 15, 2021, at the ninth meeting of the central financial and economic affairs commission, president xi jinping emphasized that china's platform economy has experienced rapid growth in recent years, with its status and role in overall economic and social development becoming increasingly prominent. he called for fostering an innovation conducive environment, resolving prominent contradictions and issues, clarifying labor protection responsibilities for platform enterprises, and promoting the standardized, healthy, and sustainable development of the platform economy.in july 2021, eight ministries including the ministry of human resources and social security (mhrss) and the national development and reform commission (ndrc) jointly issued the guidelines on safeguarding the labor rights and interests of workers in new forms of employment. this document implements the decisions of the cpc central committee and the state council, supporting and regulating new employment forms while effectively protecting the labor rights of new-economy workers to facilitate the standardized, healthy, and sustainable growth of the platform economy.according to the national bureau of statistics, by the end of 2021, china had approximately 200 million flexible workers, a figure projected to rise further. this situation underscores the urgent need to develop feasible occupational injury protection systems. 2. research regarding employment relationships of new economy workers under china's current legal framework, scholarly debate persists regarding the classification of employment relationships within the new business economy, primarily centering on the criteria for determining labor subordination. some scholars advocate moving beyond the traditional labor law framework, instead applying the civil code and contract law to regulate platform-based work relationships. others propose expanding the scope of traditional employment relationships and adapting the assessment methodologies to accommodate the characteristics of the new economy[2]. there are also suggestions to introduce the concept of "atypical hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 9 published by ideas spread employment relationships" and establish specialized protection mechanisms[3]. additionally, certain research defines specific platform-based work arrangements as collaborative business relationships, emphasizing features like risk-sharing and profit-sharing[4].these debates underscore the complexity of classifying employment relationships and the challenges in legal application under new technological conditions. 3. the challenges in occupational injury protection for workers in new forms of employment 3.1 the tight coupling of employment injury protection and labor relations china's current primary mechanisms for mitigating employment-related risks consist of employment injury insurance and supplementary commercial insurance. the major social insurance programs—pension, medical, maternity, employment injury, and unemployment insurance—are typically bundled as an integrated package during enrolment. it can be argued that the entire social insurance system is predicated on the establishment of labor relations. this signifies a tightly coupled relationship between the social insurance framework and labor relations: once the prerequisite of an employment relationship ceases to exist, workers lose access to their entitled benefits. under these conditions, china's current regulatory framework requires workers in new forms of employment to establish formally recognized labor relations with their platforms through signed labor contracts to access employment injury insurance benefits.compared to traditional employees' fixed work patterns, these workers exhibit significant flexibility and unpredictability in working hours, locations, and task assignments, retaining substantial labor autonomy.recognized labor relations would entitle workers not only to employment injury insurance but to all social insurance benefits—including pension, medical, and maternity coverage.this would substantially increase labor costs for new-economy enterprises, a scenario they strongly oppose, and could significantly impede the industry's development.the "platform + individual" employment model fundamentally weakens workers' economic and personal subordination to platforms.some even engage in such work part-time after regular employment to supplement income. in such cases, occupational injuries sustained may nullify eligibility for pre-existing employment injury coverage. the current tight coupling of employment injury insurance with labor relations creates a binary confrontation: addressing occupational injury risks for workers inherently impedes the development of the new-economy sector. if this dichotomy remains unresolved, workers in new forms of employment will continue to fall outside the social protection framework. given their rapidly growing workforce, this situation now constitutes a grave risk to both economic expansion and social stability. 3.2 "coerced involvement phenomenon" among workers in new forms of employment although workers in new forms of employment may appear to enjoy significant autonomy in their work, they often face a phenomenon of "being coerced" in their actual labor process, where they are required to perform tasks beyond their current job scope. they frequently find themselves entrapped by platform algorithms, economic incentives, and customer "coercion." new business model enterprises often implement highly rigid rules and regulations for calculating wages, where any violation directly results in pay deductions. these platforms establish distinct pricing and remuneration systems for peak demand periods versus regular hours. while peak periods offer higher rates and apparently more lenient time allowances, this allotted time is consistently insufficient for workers to safely and punctually complete assigned tasks. food delivery riders, for example, frequently resort to running red lights during peak hours to shorten delivery times. the nature of control exerted by these companies has shifted from spatial supervision to temporal constraints. this method aligns with the flexible work patterns characteristic of gig economy workers but constitutes a form of control intensely focused on outcomes. payment is guaranteed solely upon completing tasks within the stipulated time frame, with no restrictions on how the work is done. the seemingly 'relaxed' time allowances are, in reality, meticulously calculated by corporate algorithms analyzing vast order data to produce a superficially reasonable time frame. in practice, however, workers aiming to maximize earnings during high-pay peak periods often feel compelled to 'cut corners' to save time and complete more orders. furthermore, these workers typically interact directly with customers. during service delivery, some customers make requests beyond the defined task scope. fulfilling these extra demands introduces unnecessary risks. for instance, a rider asked to 'quickly pick up an extra item' faces even greater time pressure, compounded by the threat of negative customer ratings. this often forces riders to adopt riskier methods, such as frequent traffic violations, to meet deadlines. consequently, the perceived labor autonomy of gig economy workers is largely illusory. beneath the veneer of freedom, they remain entrapped by platform algorithms, economic incentives, and customer 'coercion'. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 10 published by ideas spread although gig economy workers enjoy the freedom to set their own working hours, their income dependency on platform-allocated orders leads most full-time workers to log 8 hours or more daily. a survey of 422 food delivery riders in hubei province revealed that 87.4% work 8 hours or longer per day, with 5.5% exceeding 12 hours. similarly, research involving 1,214 couriers in beijing showed only 11.5% worked fewer than 8 hours, while over 50% worked 8 hours or more. this study also identified widespread overwork among couriers, with 78.8% experiencing labor intensity at dangerous or high-risk levels. full-time gig workers consistently exceed standard working hours – sometimes surpassing statutory maximums – dedicating virtually all waking hours beyond essential rest to work in pursuit of higher income[5]. 3.3 occupational injury coverage faces systemic dilemmas platform workers universally face significant occupational risks. china's regulations on work-related injury insurance stipulate that compensation requires meeting the 'three-work criteria' (work-related, during work hours, at workplace), yet gig workers often have irregular schedules and undefined work locations. for instance, food delivery riders follow unpredictable routes and schedules. even dedicated riders struggle to prove compliance with the 'three-work criteria' during accidents. while routes assigned by platforms could theoretically define workplaces, algorithmic constraints sometimes produce sub optimal paths. when riders take shortcuts and accidents occur, determining work-related injury status becomes legally complex. at present, many workers in emerging employment forms, in order to mitigate occupational risks, often need to purchase commercial insurance, such as personal accident insurance. however, such commercial insurance typically has high premiums, complex claims procedures, compensation limits, and numerous exemption clauses. these limitations make it difficult for such insurance to provide effective treatment and assistance comparable to work-related injury insurance. therefore, in response to the flexible employment model, which is a non-standard employment arrangement, we need to re-examine the structure of occupational injury protection. should we adjust the existing work injury insurance system by creating special provisions for flexible workers, or should we establish an entirely new occupational injury protection system? if we choose to extend the current work injury insurance scheme, considering that the premiums are paid by employers, how should the cost of occupational injury protection be shared in a way that reflects fairness? if new-type workers are working for multiple platforms at the same time, could a cost-sharing model between individuals and enterprises enhance corporate responsibility, encourage employers to fulfill their obligations, and increase workers’ willingness to contribute? is it possible that enterprises might transfer these costs in other ways? currently, the regulations on work-related injury insurance provide legal protection for employees in the event of occupational accidents, but they do not apply to new-type workers. the social insurance law, as a superior law, also lacks corresponding provisions. this may lead to questions of legality for pilot programs implemented in different regions. 4. paths for tackling occupational injury protection issues for workers in new forms of employment according to regional pilot outcomes, occupational injury insurance for workers in new forms of employment represents an insurance model integrated within china's existing work injury insurance framework. it maintains comparable benefit levels while introducing tailored per-order contribution mechanisms designed for these workers' distinctive needs. this approach preserves the stability of the current system while adapting to the characteristics of new employment forms. consequently, the system should explicitly stipulate provisions in the following aspects. 4.1 fundamental principles of occupational injury protection first, delineation of primary responsibilities within the occupational injury protection system.the most critical element of occupational injury protection is establishing clear accountability boundaries. in constructing this system, the state must assume responsibility for institutional design and financial safeguards. the rapidly expanding scale of workers in new forms of employment, coupled with their high occupational risk exposure, has evolved into a systemic socioeconomic threat. consequently, the state should establish corresponding occupational injury protections to mitigate this escalating risk rather than allowing it to accumulate unchecked.while the state bears responsibility for establishing the institutional framework, this does not imply direct state provision of benefits. market forces may be leveraged for operational delivery mechanisms. nevertheless, the state must retain authority over three core functions: initial system design, nationwide implementation oversight, and postdeployment iterative refinements.state intervention remains imperative given the system's coverage of an increasingly significant economic demographic, its direct impact on expanding populations' welfare, and the inherent power asymmetry between workers and digital platforms within this emerging employment paradigm. second, the state's financial safeguard responsibility for occupational injury protection.given the distinctive nature of platform work, workers themselves should bear partial contribution obligations. concurrently, since hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 11 published by ideas spread occupational injury protection fundamentally mitigates work-related risks for platform workers and generates positive externalities for societal stability, the state is obligated to provide fiscal subsidies. as this system will safeguard growing numbers of platform workers, the state must also establish a financial backstop to prevent systemic collapse and mitigate large-scale societal risks. third, platform enterprises and workers must jointly contribute to occupational injury protection.platform enterprises exercise de facto control over workers through algorithmic governance and economic incentives. given that platform workers are indispensable to the platform economy, enterprises should bear the primary contribution burden. concurrently, as workers enjoy substantially greater autonomy than conventional laborers, they too must share partial contribution obligations. furthermore, since such algorithmic control mechanisms inherently carry risk-generating potential, the state must impose regulatory discipline requiring enterprises to fulfill risk prevention and mitigation obligations. fourth, occupational injury determination.workers covered by occupational injury insurance may generally follow the assessment procedures outlined in the current regulations on work-related injury insurance when establishing occupational injury claims. however, the application of the "three work principles" (work-related time, place, and cause) must be adapted to platform workers' distinctive operational context rather than mechanically applied. 4.2 rolling out the optimal implementation approach currently, in the absence of a comprehensive occupational injury protection system, achieving full commercial insurance coverage for platform workers is imperative to mitigate occupational risks during this policy vacuum period. however, such coverage remains merely a stopgap solution, as commercial insurance fundamentally fails to meet the occupational injury protection needs of platform workers.some scholars propose establishing a dedicated occupational injury insurance system for this workforce. yet given that platform workers represent a minority compared to china's vast conventional labor force, creating a separate insurance framework would contradict the core principles of china's social insurance system—which prioritizes higher-tier pooling and operational synergy. such fragmentation would inevitably lead to inconsistent administration and benefit disparities. both the "innovative approach" and "integrated approach" currently represent more viable pathways.the innovative approach—establishing a government-led occupational injury insurance scheme for platform workers administered by commercial insurers—constitutes the path of least institutional friction given the ongoing ambiguity in platform workers’ employment relationships. under government stewardship, this model can effectively reduce premium contributions while enhancing benefit levels. moreover, its exceptionally low roll out costs and minimal operational disruption to platform businesses translate into negligible industry resistance. conversely, the integrated approach of incorporating platform workers into the existing workers’ compensation system delivers the most comprehensive protection scope. however, this model requires precise delineation of responsibilities between platforms and workers, potentially triggering significant market realignment. its implementation entails substantially higher costs and complexity. regardless of the chosen pathway, mandatory participation remains non-negotiable. only through compulsory enrollment can the occupational injury protection system achieve sustainable operation, thereby addressing the growing occupational risks faced by china’s expanding platform workforce. 4.3 revise and refine relevant laws and regulations to establish a robust legal foundation 4.3.1 amendments to relevant provisions of the social insurance law as the higher-level legislation governing the regulations on work-related injury insurance, the social insurance law should prioritize expanding coverage through amendments to its work injury insurance chapter[3]. being a cornerstone of china's social security system, work injury protection should not be confined to employees with formal labor contracts. given the critical importance of safeguarding workers, those without established employment relationships merit equal protection. since universal coverage has been achieved for basic pension insurance and basic medical insurance, work injury insurance should likewise permit individual contributions— decoupling coverage from employment status to integrate platform workers into the work injury compensation framework. concretely, article 33 of the social insurance law should be amended by adding: 'platform workers, flexible employment personnel, and other non-standard workers may voluntarily participate in occupational injury insurance and contribute occupational injury insurance premiums in accordance with relevant regulations. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 12 published by ideas spread 4.3.2 amendments to relevant provisions of the regulations on work-related injury insurance the regulations on work-related injury insurance also need corresponding amendments regarding coverage scope and recognition criteria. when revising the regulations, non-standard workers should be included in the coverage. firstly，for article 1, the phrase "to ensure that employees suffering from work-related accidents or occupational diseases obtain medical treatment and economic compensation..." should be amended to add "as well as nonstandard workers sustaining work-related injuries."for article 2, the following should be added: "platform enterprises providing services to non-standard workers shall proportionally contribute occupational injury insurance premiums for laborers without established employment relationships."this maintains consistency with china's legislative terminology while expanding protection to platform workers and flexible employment personnel. the translation follows standard legal drafting conventions for social insurance regulations. secondly, the criteria for recognizing work-related injuries require corresponding amendments. given the uncertain working hours and locations characteristic of non-standard workers, accident injury assessments for this group cannot strictly follow the traditional "three-work principle". take food delivery riders as an example: every delivery initiated when they activate delivery services through their apps should be recognized as working time.regarding article 10: the provision stating "employees do not contribute to work-related injury insurance premiums" should be revised to require proportional cost-sharing between non-standard workers and platforms for occupational injury insurance. this approach not only enhances platform accountability but also exempts individuals from full payment, thereby increasing their willingness to contribute.for article 18, which currently requires submitting "proof of an employment relationship with the employer", such documentation mandates should be waived for non-standard workers to accommodate flexible employment arrangements.all other regulatory provisions shall continue to apply to non-standard workers where contextually appropriate. 5. conclusion and future perspectives as a rapidly expanding labor force in the digital economy, non-standard workers remain vulnerable to occupational accidents due to their exclusion from conventional work-related injury insurance systems. given their growing population, a transitional approach should be implemented: occupational injury insurance must first emerge as a subsystem of the existing work-related injury insurance framework, then progressively merge with it, ultimately transforming work-related injury insurance into a de facto occupational injury insurance system. this new scheme must retain its social insurance attributes while gradually expanding coverage through pilot programs that adapt to non-standard workers' unique needs. concurrent amendments to relevant provisions in the social insurance law and work-related injury insurance regulations will provide legal grounding for these pilots, enabling their phased nationwide scaling. references [1] ai, l. (2021). protection of the rights of online platform employees in case of occupational injuries. journal of shenzhen university (humanities & social sciences), 38(04), 98–105. [2] chang, k., & zheng, x. (2019). employment relationship or equal partners? — an analysis on the nature of employment relationship in the internet economy. journal of renmin university of china, 33(02), 78–88. [3] tu, y. (2021). research on labor rights and interests of gig workers: comments on extraterritorial practice and its references to china. journal of political science and law, (02), 64–76. [4] bluestone, b., & harrison, b. (1982). the deindustrialization of america: plant closings, community abandonment, and the dismantling of basic industry. new york: basic books. [5] wang, z., & chen, y. (2022). theoretical basis and system construction of occupational injury security system in new business. journal of xi'an university of finance and economics, 35(02), 74–83. [6] huang, l., & han, r. (2022). the dilemma and countermeasures of occupational injury protection for platform worker — on the enlightenment of occupational disaster insurance system in taiwan. journal of north china electric power university (social sciences), (01), 82–92. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v3n3p21 21 published by ideas spread the effectiveness of nul programmes in creating the social responsibility ‘malimpho elsie seotsanyana1 1 department of language and social education, national university of lesotho, lesotho correspondence: ‘malimpho elsie seotsanyana, department of langauge and social education, national university of lesotho, lesotho. address: p.o. roma 180, fax: 266-2234-0000. orcid no. 0000-0001-7914-5365. e-mail: mseotsanyana yahoo.co.uk received: july 17, 2020; accepted: august 28, 2020; published: september 1, 2020 abstract the employer’s views have been sought on the quality of the national university of lesotho (nul) programmes in relation to addressing the concept of social responsibility. the employers’ views were sought through observing the quality of performance of the nul graduates at the workplace and at the community engagements. the nul designed programmes that are expected to address the societal needs, hence the reason why it is important to find out whether the programmes that prepared the graduates for the workplace have a successful outcome. a total of 150 employers in the lesotho ministries of education and training as well as local government and chieftainship in three of the ten districts of lesotho formed the sample of the study. a two part questionnaire with four point likert scale of strongly agree and strongly disagree; highly satisfied and highly dissatisfied was designed to find out information on the employers’ perceptions on the performance of the nul graduates in relation to social responsibility. frequency counts analysis with descriptive statistics was employed to indicate the results of the study. research results confirmed that the nul programmes have deficiencies in moulding all graduates with competence in social responsibility. it was observed that there were graduates that have achieved the social responsibility skills, but there are those graduates who still require further training on the issue of social responsibility. it is therefore recommended that the nul should periodically review its programmes in order to prepare a well rounded graduate that could be a community developer. keywords: the national university of lesotho (nul), social responsibility, employers’ perceptions, work place, ministries of education and training and local government and chieftainship 1. introduction several studies, worldwide, have been conducted on higher education and social responsibility. this is to find out whether universities have adopted and integrated social responsibility issues to fulfil the needs of the societies. according to unesco document of 1995, higher education institutions are to address societal needs and produce graduates with a sense of civic responsibility who could apply the theory of their disciplines to local government issues. specifically in the unesco document it is stated that the “aim should be to make higher education more responsive to the general problems facing humanity and needs of economic and cultural life and more relevant in the context of specific problems of a given region, country or community” (unesco, 1995, p. 21). the idea that higher education institutions should show social responsibility to humanity was emphasised in the 1996 unesco declaration on higher education and social responsibility. in this declaration, it was stated that “higher education solely for personal development cannot be considered acceptable nowadays” (1996 unesco declaration in ratto and giufre, 2014, p. 232). but the “intellectual advancement of individual must be related also with the broader goals of sustainable development, poverty reduction poverty, peace and human rights” (giuffre and ratto, 2014, p. 232). as it seems one of the characteristics of higher education institutions is to “play a crucial role in creating knowledge societies” ibid (p. 232) that would be involved in the development of their own communities. in 2005, higher education institutions worldwide formed the talloires network at tufts, in france. this was the foundation of an international alliance specifically garnered to understand the social role of the universities. (www.tufts.edu.talloiresnetwork). the talloires network grew up to 200 universities in membership worldwide. its focus was on the promotion of civic roles and social responsibility of their member institutions as well as to deepen engagement with local and global communities (weiss, 2016). and further indicates that “more and more hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 22 published by ideas spread universities in the world are integrating social responsibility into their mission statements, including their research and teaching missions, arguing that higher education is better off when it gives back to the society that is responsible for funding it” and members of talloires network rose up to 363 in 77 countries in 2016 (weiss, 2016: unnumbered) the national university of lesotho (nul) is no exception to this issue. if the nul has to instil social responsibility in its graduates, it must face up to change. it has to structure the learning environment to suit the analysis and action needed to build a healthy society. in other words, does the nul in its programmes expose and provide its graduates with the information on social responsibility and practice? how are the programmes organised to meet the challenges of civic engagement and social responsibility? and is the nul responsible for the social well being of the citizens? it is therefore the core business of this study to explore the key issues facing the nul in the 21st century specifically on the theme of social commitment. the employers from the government ministries were the major source of information and by no means the only external stakeholders that can give their perceptions of nul graduates and the impact of academic institution on social responsibility. the employers can further explain the link between the corporate vision and graduates educational background. 2. literature review and social responsibility according to bokhari (2017), social responsibility can be used interchangeably with other concepts such as social responsiveness, social performance, social responsible business, and corporate social responsibility, just to mention a few. in this study, social responsibility will be used more often than other related terms, not withstanding that other terms are not important. in that way, social responsibility will be addressed in the context of a university – university social responsibility (usr). there are many definitions of social responsibility. one of them is that a university educates “participative citizens and become involved in civic activities related to the communities in which it operates and on international level” (wigmore alvarez and ruiz – lozano, 2012, p. 480). in the same manner, mohamed (2015: 2394) defines university social responsibility as “the accountability of establishing and maintaining an ethical approach of the management of university’s internal and external stakeholders, strengthening societal citizenship and commitment to society and providing services to local community…” the reports written by the university of cape town (2004) on social responsiveness explain social responsiveness as a promising tool that addresses challenges of a better society and broaden social responsibility issues (favish, 2005). according to these above mentioned definitions, there is a rationale to talk about university social responsibility in a country. with this understanding, it is often assumed that there are several issues that require social responsibility such as high social inequalities, unemployment, illiteracy, highly skilled labour force, drug and alcohol abuse, hiv/aids, crime, homelessness and poverty. in this case lesotho, like other countries expects and calls for new responsible actors who are the national university of lesotho graduates. the graduates are the responsible actors that could curb the existing community and national problems and create a better society with little or no problems in the 21st century arena. but in this study, the concept university social responsibility will be emphasised. it defines the role of the universities in the development of a society. clark (2004:1) is aware of the role of universities and social responsibility according to him: universities around the world found themselves under increasing pressure to change the way they operate. alert universities gradually recognised that they had to respond to profile rating new demands of government; industry, societal groups, while maintaining and improving their traditional field of research, teaching and student learning that become more complicated with every passing year. the national university of lesotho, with its programmes it is argued, need to be aware of the world wide context of change. the vital role is to produce graduates who are capable of facing transitions, and under pressure to respond to changing national needs with shrinking national resources. they should also be capable of reflecting change assumptions about human development. it is indeed that the nul is expected to quickly adapt and develop programmes of service to meet the rapidly changing customer expectations. in short, the nul is “expected to spearhead the production of skilled manpower required to manage both public and private sectors” (ayaya, 1997, p. 1) in order to build a healthy society. the issue of healthy society is also mentioned by favish (2005) in his research. she found out that the importance of higher education institution is to “produce graduates who are capable of critical and creative thinking and who can also contribute to economic needs, meet diverse social needs and build vibrant civil society and consolidate democracy” page 2 of 4. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 23 published by ideas spread it is worth pointing out that growing discontent with the education system in a time of rising unemployment is not new. the type of education offered at the nul has attracted numerous complaints from employers .employers felt that school standards in basic skills were very low. there is a concern to make education more relevant to employment and the needs of the industry. several people informally, over the air, and in news papers have a concern for the standards and criticism of the poor relationship between nul and industry. one question asked is the very function of schooling suggesting that nul does not provide the necessary skills. according to jongbloed, enders, and salerno (2008), one of the key missions of higher education institutions (hei) is to become an instrument of change that provides necessary skills to the youth to make them adaptive, adaptable and transformative in order to reduce the rate of unemployment. it means that hei should expand its activities beyond the mission of teaching and research. probably it has to include lessons on service learning in order to serve the communities where they are situated. to them, the understanding is hei should take into consideration the importance of partnership with surrounding communities and stakeholders. however, wigmore – alvarez and ruiz – lazano (2012) emphasise the need for universities to embark on research studies in the societies in order to get their needs. such needs would be a guide towards the accomplishment of university social responsibility. in their words: the universities should be capable of assessing the needs of society as a whole and providing a solution for its problems in addition to contributing to its well being and social and human development … the university should educate participative citizens and become involved in civic activities related to the communities in which it operates and on international level p 480. the very function of the university learning, as it seems, is about knowledge and skills. acquiring knowledge and skills in turn “promote socially responsible citizens” (wigmore – alvarez and ruiz – lazano, 2012: 481) and be fully involved in the socio – economic development of their communities. as it seems universities are expected to give graduates learning abilities that make them adjust to new market changes and new technology and be much more for the society in solving their social and economic problems. in short, universities should provide learning that gives them abilities to solve problems. in conclusion, the understanding is that higher education institution should educate future citizens that would be more responsive to general problems of humanity. this being the case how is the nul graduate in relation to solving the problems of humanity? a few examples of how universities address social responsibility can be read in the paragraphs that follow. 2.1 the case studies about university social responsibility the literature comprises studies that have explored different ways that universities have integrated and implemented social responsibility in their curriculum and activities. for instance; mohamed (2015) conducted an inquiry with twelve (12) vice deans from south valley university (svu) in egypt. mohammed (2015) indicates that the objective of the study was to find out whether there was an integration of social responsibility in the university activities such as: “vision, mission, values, goals and management systems; policies and provision of actions, evaluation of services; and development of social collaboration with stakeholders…” p 2400. themes that emerged from the research are that svu seemed to have received and integrated social responsibility activities. but, it had policies that lacked appropriate structure as well as specific budget to call on board all university stakeholders to participate. further research was recommended in order to develop university social responsibility frame work that would work for all universities in egypt. in a study of dahan and senol (2012), the inquiry was to find out whether university of instabul bilgi, turkey has been successful in integrating social responsibility in its activities. information was gathered through in depth interviews with two secretary generals of the university research centres. additionally a deeper analysis of university documents such as students’ handbook, reports, unpublished reports, university evaluation reports, community outreach surveys, university research centres and action plans were viewed and analysed. the report indicated that instabul bilgi university had several social responsibility activities and several courses designed around social responsibility subject (dahan and senol, 2012). therefore, the success of the istanbul bilgi university is said to be through: the role of management’s involvement and willingness in supporting and implementing social responsibility actions. in general management involvement and interest is an important signal to faculty, staff, students, alumni, and other stakeholders that the institution’s citizenship engagement is an operational priority (dahan and senol, 2012: 102). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 24 published by ideas spread it is at the instabul bilgi university that social responsibility activities and several courses were designed such as “free educational lessons given to high school graduates – first level english and computing, computer accounting, community outreach programmes, educational supportive activities for women and children and youth who live under severe social discrimination and poverty and business ethics” (dahan and senol, 2012, p. 101). it is concluded that though the university has commitment on the academic activities, but it also seems to concentrate its efforts on community engagement activities that are beneficial to the community at large. in jerusalem, at the hebrew university faculty of law, the status of social responsibility and implementation was explored. the outcome was that social responsibility in a form of community service is highly practised (case studies presentation at the taillores, 2005 conference) “some community engagement is part of the formal curriculum.” according the hebrew university presentations of 2005 and 2018 at the taillores conferences, there is a unit of social involvement with a social involvement committee where faculty members and staff are involved in preparing graduates in four leadership programmes namely: social leadership, arab – jewish leadership, women leadership and educational leadership. furthermore, the hebrew university has other activities such as university students provide high school students with knowledge and skills on handling the matriculation examination. the high school students are also guided on the selection of relevant university courses. in each curriculum, as indicated, the hebrew university integrates four hours of community engagements such as in the dental health and nutrition where participation is said to be mandatory (case studies presentation at the 2005 taillores conference). and lastly, the hong kong polytechnic university has developed an alliance with the community. a motto that cherishes social responsibility is “to learn and to apply for the benefit of mankind” (tong, 2017: unpaged). this means the university has reviewed its programmes to incorporate the elements of community engagements. as it seems, the hong kong polytechnic university has research as the integral part of academic life that helps them serve the needs of the society. in conclusion, the idea of social responsibility in universities is twofold. there are universities that are active in promoting social responsibility in the teaching and learning. at the same time, there are those that have an idea of the concept but are not so active in fulfilling its needs. 2.2 research questions two research questions that were addressed in this study are as follows: 1. do nul graduates in employers’ supervision show knowledge and practice on the concept of social responsibility? 2. what relevant features do employers detect that show incorporation of social responsibility knowledge as far as community engagement is concerned? 3. methodology 3.1 research design this is an employer survey that adopted the qualitative paradigm, though certain data was analysed quantitatively through descriptive statistics of frequency counts and percentages. the focus was on two ministries: the ministry of education and training, local government and chieftainship. the key issue of selecting the two ministries was that they have the highest number of employer constituencies, and have employed a large number of nul graduates as these are the biggest ministries.. additionally the two ministries are fully involved in the activities of community engagement and development. they both serve people even at the nation’s grass roots in the rural areas. hence the nul graduates’ knowledge and practice of social responsibility could be easily detected. in each of the ministries, a total of seventy five (75) employers were purposively selected. it should be clear that only those employers that had nul graduates in their departments were subjected to selection. therefore, a total of one hundred and fifty employers formed the total sample of the study. in the ministry of education and training, the following formed the set of employers: the head teachers, deputy head teachers, and heads of departments in schools as well as the ministry of education and training officers : curriculum officers, education inspectors, and chief education officers.. while in the ministry of local government, heads of divisions, human resource directors, and immediate supervisors were consulted. the information on the employers’ perceptions was sought through the use of a questionnaire. this employer questionnaire was divided into two parts namely; the first part was on the rating items specific for employment practice, while the second part was on community engagements. on the first part of the questionnaire that described employment practice, items were designed and rated on the 4 point likert scale type of strongly disagree, disagree, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 25 published by ideas spread agree and strongly agree. and the second part of the questionnaire on community engagements, items was also rated on the four point likert scale of highly satisfactory, satisfactory, unsatisfactory, and highly unsatisfactory. several questions on the employer and community engagements questionnaire were adopted from the inventory tool for higher education civic engagement. this is a tool that watson (2004) developed. it was designed for the association of commonwealth universities to explore the involvement of universities in imparting social responsiveness concept to the students. of the 30 items from this tool that were rated, only 12 were adopted for use to assess the national university of lesotho graduates. the selected items are shown in the analysis section under research question one and two in the forth coming paragraphs. furthermore, the questions were developed to seek information on the graduates’ knowledge and understanding of social responsibility activities. the self-administered questionnaire was distributed to 150 employers at their work places in the ministry of education and training and local government and chieftainship. each respondent was given a maximum of five days to read and complete the questionnaire. where there was a possibility of an immediate response, it was preferably accepted. it was not easy to collect a hundred percent response. at later days after examining the data, further classifications of the responses were requested. on this occasion, three districts were selected e.g. mohale’s hoek, butha-buthe and maseru. these are the districts that were used in the previous study on the evaluation of nul programmes using the graduates’ views. the results found in the three districts were put together to get the analysis and conclusions on the issue of social responsibility. two groups of employers, 20 in a group, were randomly selected to respond to the pilot study. this was to find out if the instrument to be used is valid and reliable in order to yield successful results. the first group responded to the pilot test and the results were analysed. a further pilot study was undertaken with the second group in order to find out if the results of the second group would yield similar or different to those of the first group. the two pilot test results seemed similar. therefore, it could be concluded that the instrument, if used properly, would give valid and reliable results. several researchers, such as sekaran and bougie (2013) emphasise the importance of content validity and stability measures in research studies, and they say with the consideration of validity and reliability, results become consistent. 3.2 analysis of data in responding to two research questions on page 5 that read: do nul graduates in employer’s supervision show knowledge and practice on the concept of social responsibility? and what relevant features do employers detect that show incorporation of social responsibility knowledge and practice as far as community engagements are concerned? frequency of response analysis was adopted. according to maliyamkono (1982, p. 11), frequency of response analysis is a simple technique which is useful for accumulating data on specific topics. it might be vital to know the percentages of employers in two ministries combined. it may also be useful for examining the perceptions of different employers on what impact has the nul curricula given to its graduates on social responsibility. in general, frequency response analysis is useful for providing a summary of information contained in the questionnaire. 4. ethical consideration the ethical consideration was also considered when involving participants in the study. this was to make them feel free to respond to the research items. first, a memorandum was written and distributed to the employers that had been selected to be in the study. in the memorandum the nature of the research was introduced, permission to undertake research study was also requested. second, employers were asked to participate in the research study. in the memorandum, participants were also given freedom to accept or decline the request. last, employers were asked to give the information about the research study to the nul graduates employed in their institutions because they are at the centre of information. 5. the findings the analysis in this research study was done in accordance with the research questions as stipulated in page (5). the first research question reads as thus: 5.1 research question 1 do nul graduates in your supervision show knowledge and practice on the concept of social responsibility? in order to get information on the above mentioned research question, 6 items were selected and rated on a scale of strongly disagree as (1) to strongly agree as (4). the items that got rated are as follows: graduates’ desire to achieve, effective communication, graduates’ willingness to learn and continue learning, respect for management hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 26 published by ideas spread and taking orders, use of theory into practice, and attainment of service learning. the items are presented from table 1 and 2 showing frequency counts. table 1. items related to administrative issues in the ministries nul graduates desire to achieve graduates’ effective communication graduates willingness to learn and continue learning ratings frequency and percentages frequency and percentages frequency and percentages strongly disagree 17 (11.3%) 10 (6.8%) 7 (4.7%) disagree 26 (17.3%) 32 (21.9%) 29 (19.5%) agree 89 (59.3%) 83 (56.8%) 81 (54.4%) strongly agree 18 (12 .0 %) 21 (14.4%) 32 (21.5%) total 150 (100%) 146 (100%) 149 (100%) note: tables in this paper may not add up to a total of 150 participants since the analysis focused on the available responses. 5.1.1 nul graduates’ desire to achieve table 1 reveals that employers’ ratings on nul graduates’ desire to achieve vary. for example, some employers rated nul graduates positively (12%) and (59.3%) on strongly agree and agree respectively with the idea that nul graduates have the desire to achieve, while 17.3% on disagreed and 11.3% of the respondents strongly disagreed. though a large percentage of respondents agree with the item on the desire to achieve, there is still a significant cumulative percentage of (28.6) that indicates that nul graduates do not have the enthusiasm to achieve. at this point, one may argue that perceptions about desire to achieve may depend on the individual frame of reference. that is, one cannot really know if the desire to achieve has been perceived similarly by all respondents. probably there is need to get further perceptions from those employers that have a contrary response to the desire to achieve. 5.1.2 nul graduates’ effective communication the nul graduates effectively communicate their ideas as shown by (71.2 %) on agree and strongly agree. on other hand, (28.7%) of the respondents seemed to disagree with the fact that nul graduates can effectively communicate ideas at work. from the respondents’ perspectives, one important aspect could be deduced here that, despite the shortcomings of some of the graduates on the issue of effective communication, a large number of graduates communicate well. however, there is still need to improve the university education on effective communication in order to achieve greater success. 5.1.3 nul graduates’ willingness to learn and continue learning the employers’ opinions seem to differ in regard to willingness to learn and continue learning. the (4.7%) and (19.3%) strongly disagree and disagree respectively that nul graduates have the willingness to learn and continue learning. on the other hand, (54%) and (23.3%) positively agree and strongly agree with the issue. if (24% ) of the graduates still have problems in long life learning of issues at work, it seems quite appropriate to pay attention to and review the programmes of study to enhance the capacity of graduates to perform duties effectively. one would assume that there are graduates that have not been exposed enough to the idea of continuous learning even after university training. at this juncture, much has to be done by the university to create a programme that would work as a strategy to connect university teaching and the world of work. table 2 below still follows the trend whether graduates cope with activities of the work place. the items that were rated on a four point likert scale are: respect for management and taking orders, use of theory into practice, and attainment of service learning as shown in the table. table 2. further expansion on the administrative duties in the ministries respect for management and taking orders use of theory into practice attainment of service delivery ratings strongly disagree 6 (4.1%) 8 (5.6%) 11 (7.6%) hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 27 published by ideas spread disagree 36 (24.0%) 30 (21.0%) 27 (18.6%) strongly agree 86 (57.3%) 86(60.1%) 87 (60%) agree 18 (12.0%) 19 (13.3%) 20 (13.8%) total 146 (100%) 143 (100%) 145 (100%) 5.1.4 respect for management and take orders although the employers differ in opinion as far as respect of management and taking orders is concerned, nul has exposed the majority of the graduates to the importance of respect for management and taking orders. for instance, 69.3 percent combined (on 12 % strongly agree and 57% agree respectively) have scored positively on the issue. moreover, the fact that the majority of employers applaud nul most graduates on the understanding of the administrative issues shows that graduates have been exposed to the rationale of the corporate administration and activities. for the graduates who failed to understand the rationale of respecting management and taking orders: 28% combined on (4% strongly disagreed and 24% disagreed) may result from two issues. first, it may be through the problem of the learning principles. that is, how one correlates the acquired learning and skills appropriate to the workplace. second, it also depends on individual’s character and willingness to learn. it means such graduates did not have the opportunity to practice/assimilate various strategies in relation to workplace administrative issues while still training. as it seems, nul programmes, if they prepare graduates to succeed in the workplace, should carry an element of work place expectations in them as a way of exposing the graduates to all workplace activities. 5.1.5 use of theory to practice the research results in this table determine that there is a significant number of employers that translate that university teaching and learning is beneficial to graduates as far as use of theory to practice is concerned. a cumulative analysis of (73.4%) on agree and strongly agree shows that a high proportion of respondents confirmed that nul graduates actually use theory they have learned to help them cope with practice at the workplace. it gives an idea that theoretical knowledge and skills acquired through their four year schooling facilitates effectiveness at the workplace in production and communication. the idea of theory into acquisition of skills is translated by jongbloed, enders, and salerno (2008)’s writings that students should be equipped with the basic skills at the training in order to do the job well. however, (25.3%) has actually declined that they disagree and strongly disagree with the fact that nul graduates use theory to help them acquire the workplace practices. the (25%) on disagree and strongly requires nul to popularize the translation theory into practice as far as work preparation is concerned. this might give them office work and community engagements aspects. 5.1.6 attainment of service learning 0n graduates’ attainment of service learning highlights the differences in opinion among the respondents. attainment of service learning has been scored high (73.8%) on agree and strongly agree. the respondents seem contend with the way nul graduates have been prepared to do proper service at the work place. on the other hand, a total of 26.2% did not agree that nul equips its graduates with appropriate and proper skills of service learning. comparing the two responses, it is revealed that learning might have been perceived differently by graduates. in the process of learning it seems, there were those students who considered classroom content to prepare them for the place of work. there were also those who never connected the classroom teaching and learning with activities at the workplace. the fault here lies with the national university of lesotho. although, a high percentage of graduates seem to have attained high standard of competence as expected on service learning. but there is a number that does not excel in service learning. this indicates that studies should be carried out in order to explore factors which might be detrimental to preparing students for service learning. 5.2 research question 2 tables 3 and 4 that follow give an analysis of the collected data on research question two that says: what relevant features do employers detect that show incorporation of social responsibility as far as community engagement is concerned? table 3. ratings on community engagements nul graduates participation in community projects graduates relationship with members of the community graduate volunteer activities among the community ratings frequency and percentages frequency and percentages frequency and percentages hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 28 published by ideas spread highly satisfactory 23 (15.6%) 20 (13.7%) 23 (15.6%) satisfactory 63 (42.9%) 79 (54.1%) 54 (36.7%) unsatisfactory 50 (34.0%) 41 (28.1%) 61 (41.5%) highly unsatisfactory 11 (7.5%) 6 (4.1%) 9 (6.1%) total 147 (100%) 146 (100%) 147 (100%) 5.2.1 participation in community projects the evidence in table 3 suggests that the nul programmes have an impact on the graduates. that is, 58.5% (on highly satisfactory and satisfactory combined) of the respondents indicate satisfaction towards nul graduates’ participation in community projects. employers are aware of programmes’ activities and that the programmes have contributed significantly to the graduates, not only in the classroom, but also socially and otherwise. it looks like the programmes have enabled the graduates to see themselves as having the necessary abilities to participate meaningfully in community projects. however, a total of (41.5%) respondents did not view the nul programmes as having effective instruction as far as participation in community development is concerned. a question that could be asked is that: how can nul programmes be said to be good in preparing graduates in participating in community development when 41.5% (on both highly unsatisfactory and unsatisfactory) still lack skills towards social commitment. at this point one may assume that effort has to taken in the programme activities to increase the number of graduates that would contribute significantly to community participation if the intention of the country is geared towards development. 5.2.2 relationship with members of the community in comparison, employer analysis indicates highly satisfaction and satisfaction of the nul graduates’ relationship with members of the community. this is rated by (67.8%) of the respondents. it is also evident from the employers’ ratings that there is some dissatisfaction and highly dissatisfaction (32.2%) with the way nul programmes do not prepare graduates to interact with the community. the reluctance to interact with the community could be that graduates at the preparation did not acquire knowledge, skills and understanding in general community involvement and commitment. 5.2.3 volunteer activities among the community two aspects are raised up in this table. first, employers (53.3%) rate nul graduates as people who value volunteering activities among the community. this is a way of showing the commitment to duty of the graduates. second, a slightly lesser percentage (46.7) considers nul graduates inability to volunteer activities among the community. it turns out once again that nul programmes have both significant positive and significant negative effect as far as community engagement is concerned. though there is a higher percentage of graduates with skills positive and understanding of community engagements, but the fact that (46.7%) have no interest in community problems and slightly displays less commitment to community engagements. probably the university seems to stress academic learning and ignores the learning for practice. perhaps this may be the reason they are unable to volunteer work with the community. according to tong (2017), working with the community is an important issue that deserves an attention. one recommendation is that nul needs to modify and refine its programmes in order to produce effective and competent graduates who could appreciate to volunteer work with the community. also, there is need for the university to have a written policy in the initial students’ preparation in line with community engagement. table 4 is a continuation of employers’ perceptions of nul graduates’ involvement in community engagement. this is rated on the following items: nul graduates interest in work community cooperation, graduates awareness of the changing institutional needs and sharing resources and graduates always active in the work that serves the nation. table 4. further ratings on community engagements interest in work community cooperation awareness of the changing institutional needs and shrinking national resources always active in the work that serves the nation ratings frequency and frequency and percentage frequency and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 29 published by ideas spread percentage percentage highly satisfactory 21 (14.0%) 18 (12.0%) 17 (11.4%) satisfactory 68 (45.3%) 83 (55.3%) 57 (38.2%) unsatisfactory 48 (32.0%) 35 (23.3%) 64 (42.7%) highly unsatisfactory 13 (8.7%) 13 (8.7%) 11 (7.3%) total 150 (100%) 150 (100%) 149 (100%) 5.2.4 interest in work community cooperation the majority of the respondents (59.3%) have indicated that nul graduates show interest in work community cooperation and also have commitment to work with surrounding community on issues and problems. the fact that nul have interest with community cooperation is an indication of gaining an independent mind and positive attitudes, probably from the classroom instruction. it appears that the classroom instruction instilled some measure of change in the graduates to perform better at work. on the contrary, a statement can be made that nul has failed to prepare students to meet the challenges in their workplaces. this is clearly visible through a (40.7%) respondents that have specified its negativity as far as interest in community cooperation is concerned. it is understandable, therefore, that some programmes do not emphasise in their learning knowledge and skills in community engagement and involvement. alternatively, it could be said that the non – participation in community cooperation reveals that the type of attitudes that individual graduates have, do not assist him/ her to work with the community. 5.2.5 are nul graduates aware of the changing national needs and shrinking national resources? shrinking resources centralise around national needs and references. as a result, it is assumed that teaching might have been effective in helping graduates with information and knowledge on changing national needs and shrinking resources. on the other hand, most graduates might have been keen to learn the details on the national needs and resources. that is why the issue was rated highly satisfactory and satisfactory by (67.3%) respondents. however, (32%) were still dissatisfied and highly dissatisfied on the way graduates do not have a close look at the national needs and shrinking resources. this means that the classroom situation has failed to give an impact on the graduates to realise the need of understanding the country’s economic status. 5.2.6 always active in the work that serves the nation? again, there was no clear indication of whether or not nul graduates are always active in the work that serves the nation. this is close to half of the respondents (49. 6%) who indicated satisfied and strongly satisfied with the way nul graduates activities that serve the nation. while the other half (50%) indicated that they were not at all satisfied with inappropriate handling of activities towards serving the nation. this is the only category that shows a significant percentage of negative response. in a case where half of the respondents are not satisfied with the way graduates operate at the workplace means that a lot has to be done in relation to educating all those who are going for employment to improve their actions specifically those who would definitely work with the people. this could suggest that they should participate in community engagements, and be exposed to the variety of work related issues, such as a new course that connects the university and the world of work. 6. discussion the analysis in this study gives insights regarding the status of the nul programmes as far as preparing students for social responsibility is concerned. on one hand, the analysis shows that there are a number of positive responses attributable to nul programmes in contributing to social responsibility. the positive outcomes are realized on each of the items used to inquire about social responsibility. on the other hand, the analysis indicates that the nul programmes of study have areas of concern that warrant a closer look especially with community engagements. the discussion on the analysis follows in the next paragraphs and will be related with the research questions: as previously indicated, the results of the study seem to support nul programmes on administrative issues such as graduates desire to achieve, effective communication, willingness to learn and continue learning, respect for management and taking orders, use of theory into practice, and attainment of service learning. all the above mentioned items have scores rated over (70%) on agree and strongly agree combined (see table 1 and 2). this hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 30 published by ideas spread shows that the nul programmes in them have concepts that are geared towards helping the graduates to be accommodated in the world of work and job market. although the employers rated all the items on administrative issues high, the most popular and positive items are willingness to learn and continue learning, readiness for service and use of theory into practice. but, the same employers seem to be dissatisfied with nul programmes that still fail to prepare some of the graduates for the world of work. this is evidenced in their ratings of some of the items of around (30%) on disagree and strongly disagree combined (see table 1 and 2). this means that the nul still has to refine programmes that will be suitable for moulding graduates for what they are expected to do. with this type of rating, it means that some graduates still lack knowledge and confidence to act appropriately at the workplace. certain, without the sound understanding of the workplace, it creates serious doubts about the effectiveness of nul programmes. the results of the study on community engagements also seem to support nul programmes. the ratings are all above (+50 %) on community engagements such as participation in community projects, graduates relationship with the members of the community, graduate volunteer activities among the community, graduates interest in the community work and cooperation, awareness of institutional needs and sharing resources. but the item on graduates always active in the work that serves the nation has been scored closely equal (49.6%) on satisfied and highly satisfied with (50%) on dissatisfied and highly dissatisfied. it gives the idea that some employers are dissatisfied with the way the programmes prepare the students on the desire to serve the nation. it suggests that students in their training be made to participate in community engagements and exposed to the variety of work related issues. alternatively, a new course that connects the university and the world of work would be beneficial to the institution. 7. conclusion this is an evaluation study. the goal of the study was to seek social responsibility initiatives in the nul programmes. data was sought on two research steams namely; administrative and community engagements issues. there are valuable insights depicted from the responses that indicate the nature of integration of social responsibility in the nul programmes. as it seems, graduates have been equipped with knowledge and skills that fit the nature of the workplace. this is indicative of the employers who rated all the subsidiary items on the administrative issues at the workplace very high (+70%) on agree and strongly agree combined on issues of desire to achieve, effective communication, willingness to learn and continue learning, respect for management and taking orders, use of theory into practice, and attainment of service learning. the frequency counts analysis converted into percentages reveals positive responses to the following items relating to community engagements: participation in community projects, relationship with members of the community, volunteer activities among the community, interest in work community cooperation and awareness of the institutional needs and shrinking national resources. these entire subsidiary items mentioned above, have scored higher than (50%) on satisfactory and highly satisfactory combined. the exception is on the item; readiness to serve the nation that has scored less than (50%) on satisfactory and highly satisfactory. in summary, as it seems, the nul in its strategic planning has important issues and methods that allow the achievement of social responsibility activities. it means that the university has echoed its vision, mission, values, and organisational structure with social responsibility initiatives because most employers seem positively satisfied about the provision of knowledge and skills. however, the university still carries a lion’s share of blame regarding those graduates that are identified as incompetent who could neither act appropriately at the workplace nor in community engagements. probably, the nul has to refine its programmes to accommodate every individual and promote responsible citizens who could fruitfully become involved at the workplace, local community and the world at large. references ayaya (1997). multi-variable analysis of academic success. factors among accounting and management students at the national university of lesotho. boleswa educational research journal, (14), 1-5. bokhari, a. a. h. (2017). universities social responsibility and sustainable development: a conceptual framework. ssrg international journal of economic and management studies, 4(12), 8-16. https://doi.org/10.14445/23939125/ijems-v4i12p102 clark, b. r. (2004). sustaining change in universities – continuities in case studies and concepts. society for research into higher education and open university press. dahan, g., & senol, i. (2012). corporate social responsibility in higher education institutions: instabul bilgi university case. american journal of contemporary research, 2(3), 95-103. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 31 published by ideas spread favish, i. (2005). portraits of practice: social responsiveness in teaching and research at the university of cape town. https://doi.org/10.5130/ijcre.v2i0.1159 gruiffe’, l., & ratto, s. (2014). a new paradigm in higher education: university social responsibility (usr). journal of education and human development, 3(1), 231-238. jongbloed, b., enders, j., & salern, c. (2008). higher education and its communities: interconnections, interdependencies and research agenda. higher education, 56(3), 303-324. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734008-9128-2 maliyamkono, t. l., shutri, a. g. m., & wells, s. s. (1982). higher education and development in eastern africa. heinemann. mohamed, a. t. e. (2015). a framework for university social responsibility and sustainability: the case of south valley university, egypt. international journal of social, behavioural, educational, economic, business, and industrial engineering, 9(7), 2393-2402. sekaran, u., & bougie, r. (2013). research methods for business. italy: john wiley and sons ltd. tong, t. m. (2017). promoting social responsibility among students should be key to university mission in young universities summit 2017: higher education must promote social responsibility. unesco. (1995). world declaration on higher education for twenty-first century vision and action. world conference on higher education. unesco. university of cape town. (2008). social responsiveness document. retrieved 7/18/2008 from http://ww.uct.ac.za/about/introsocialresponses. watson, d. (2004). inventory tool for higher education civic engagement. retrieved 9/6/2019 from http://www.tufts.edu/talloiresnetwork/downloads/inventorytoolhighered.civicengagement.pdf weiss, b. (2016). the rise of social responsibility in higher education in university world news. university world news. the global window on higher education. retrieved from http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20160811095808959 wigmore alvarez, a., & lozano, m. r. (2012). university social responsibility usr in the global context: an overview of literature. business and professional ethics journal, 31(3-4), 475-498. https://doi.org/10.5840/bpej2012313/424 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 3, no. 1; 2020 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v3n1p10 10 published by ideas spread experience perception, deepen cognition: the innovation of college english teaching mode in independent colleges wen lanfang1 & luo xiaoyu1 1 foreign languages school, hunan university of technology and business, china correspondence: luo xiaoyu, foreign languages school, hunan university of technology and business, no.569, yuelu road, 411104, changsha, hunan, china. e-mail: cathyluo1981 gmail.com received: march 13, 2020; accepted: march 26, 2020; published: march 29, 2020 abstract as an indispensable part of higher education in china, independent colleges bear the responsibility of talent training in the new era. optimizing college english teaching environment in independent colleges is important for the healthy growth of college students. to explore new ideas of college english teaching in independent colleges, this paper applies the cognitive teaching model to the entire process of college english teaching, by deepening their cognition and comprehension with the flexibility of the cognitive teaching model, this enhances college students’ experience of english learning. keywords: independent college, college english, experiential cognitive teaching 1. introduction from the perspective of education modernization, more diversified teaching methods are being integrated into the teaching environment, promoting teaching reform. as an important source of training, english teaching is of great importance in independent colleges. with the development of the society and economy, the demand for highquality graduates has grown significantly. as such, creating new teaching methods had become a major problem for english teachers. a novel direction in experiential cognitive teaching is based on students’ perception and comprehension, enhancing their full cognition of english as a language and using english as a communicative tool. 2. current situation of college english teaching in independent colleges independent colleges have added special value through their outstanding contributions to the expanding higher education and improving the education system in china. college english, as a fundamental course, is especially importance because it improves the basic ability of high-quality talents in the new ear. however, from the current situation of college english teaching in independent colleges, teaching outcomes are not ideal, embodied in the following aspects. first, students have distinct individual differences. in the practice of college english teaching, students' individual differences should be respected, and teaching methods should be optimized accordingly. however, the current college english teaching still adopts the "large class teaching" mode, which pays little attention to the individual students, and the teaching process is a mere formality. second, teaching content and method innovation is not enough. teaching content is key to support teaching innovation and development. most college english teaching in independent colleges follows closely to textbooks, resulting in the limited content innovation. in terms of methods, english teaching does not provide necessary interaction, so students lack experience and deep perception in the classroom setting. , therefore, they retain only the most superficial understanding of content, which seriously affects the effectiveness of teaching. third, teaching evaluations lack of effectiveness and do not function in the educational system. teaching evaluations that aim at students are mainly based on the results, while performance in the learning process and the individual's relative improvement is not valued. furthermore，evaluation results cannot be used in teaching practice, leading to the lack of teaching innovation, rigid methods, unreasonable evaluation and other supervision problems. to solve the above problems, to the present paper uses modern and advanced teaching methods to solve this problem, realizing that the application of a novel teaching mode can effectively solve the above problems (sun, 2019). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 1; 2020 11 published by ideas spread 3. the advantages of the experiential cognitive teaching model in independent colleges as a new method, the application of the experiential cognitive teaching model is "student-based", which conforms to the fundamental requirements of today's education reforms. the application and trial of this model not only brings about a teaching innovation, but also a comprehensive optimization of the whole teaching process (ding, 2019) .combined with the practice of experiential cognitive teaching mode, improvement of college english teaching in independent colleges will be mainly reflected in the following aspects. 3.1 the innovation of the traditional teaching mode the old teaching mode of college english in independent colleges does not pay much attention to students, which has been made clear in the above survey. the old style of teaching focuses on the imparting of knowledge, achievement of course objectives, and formal course requirements. in the process of learning, students aim to get credits and have little awareness of the knowledge deepening. cognitive teaching, on the other hand, is different. this new model emphasizes the perception of experience, enhances the process of deep understanding by participating in the experience while integrating into english teaching. only when students fully understand the contents of english teaching can they recognize that english teaching is effective, comprehensive and threedimensional. experiential cognitive teaching mode improves traditional college english teaching, carries out teaching practice with students as the core, realizes self-development in teaching innovation. the reform of the old model and optimization of the teaching framework constructed under the traditional ideas are of positive significance to the innovative development of college english teaching in independent institutions (hu, 2019) . 3.2 enhancement of students' english literacy contemporary college students promote social development and civilization progress. the core of the gradual popularization of higher education is to improve the comprehensive skills of the people, so that quality education can be popularized. in traditional college english teaching, students' professional competence has not been taken as core content, leading to unclear teaching focus and comprehensive lack of teaching content. under the mode of experiential cognitive teaching, it system focuses on strengthening students' experience and perception. in addition, the application of new methods and the selection of contents become more flexible. students' enthusiasm in english learning can be mobilized by focusing on content that students are interested in, actively participating in the english class and cooperating with teachers to complete the learning of english. the experiential cognitive teaching model has brought more new content, which has a significant effect on enhancing students' english professional literacy (wang, 2019)... 3.3 promotion of teachers' professional growth college english teachers in independent colleges are the guiders and organizers of teaching, teachers' understanding of experiential cognitive teaching mode is directly related to the teaching effect. in the new era, the improvement of students' personalized learning needs has put teachers' professional knowledge to the test. teachers' self-learning and professional training in face of new challenge is the main way to achieve professional self-growth. it is necessary for teachers to have a deep understanding of teaching processes，students’ abilities, and in turn, conduct in-depth research. this paper endows cognition teaching with new connotation and tries to integrate new methods to enhance students' cognition of english and highlight the intrinsic value of cognition teaching. students' pragmatic competence in english has become a key point of today's teaching. in rational analysis, it is necessary to optimize and explore feasible scheme, to fully present teaching value and provide support for the innovation of english teaching. of course, the whole process includes teachers' self-growth and self-learning, realizing that experiential cognitive teaching has its unique advantages in promoting teachers' professional growth (wei, tao & li, 2019) . 4. innovative application strategies of english experiential cognitive teaching mode in independent colleges 4.1 establishment of english teaching objectives with "awareness" as the core experiential cognitive teaching refers to the teaching mode based on students' experience and cognition, teaching objectives in this mode should be emphasized. objective 1: deepen students' comprehensive cognition of english teaching contents by using experiential cognitive teaching, and to complete basic english teaching tasks. objectives 2: give students broad space for autonomous learning in the classroom. teachers can allow students to take the initiative to participate in english class through multiple teaching forms. these include problem situations and group cooperation, instead of simply passing on knowledge and grasping the main points of english in a highquality atmosphere. objectives 3: develop students’ habit of autonomous learning and independent thinking. through experiential cognitive teaching, students can be guided to learn independently, making english learning hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 1; 2020 12 published by ideas spread become one of the main contents of their learning schedule. this enhances their willingness to spend more time on english learning, feeling the growth brought by english learning in continuous autonomous learning and independent thinking, and finally falling in love with english. the establishment of multiple objectives should attach great importance to the individual development of students and adapt to the basic requirements of autonomous learning and independent thinking teaching (zhi, 2019) . 4.2 supplement of english content for experiential cognitive teaching the application of experiential cognitive teaching mode is a comprehensive innovation of college english teaching in the new era. therefore, it is obviously difficult to achieve the requirements only by relying on the content of english textbooks if the teaching model is to play a role. to expand research, it is necessary to optimize the teaching content. as such, college english experiential cognitive teaching puts more emphasis on students' sense of experience in learning and improves their awareness through experience. in the selection of content, teachers can choose some teaching resources with strong appeal. for example, in english listening teaching, teachers can prepare popular english songs familiar to students, classic clips of english movies and so on, while students actively participate in english learning because of interest, mastering the skills of oral expression. another way is to choose the english video, which not only attract students' attention, but also can exercise students' listening and reading ability. in addition, by role-playing in class students play a role in content creation. as a language, english learning involves many aspects, but pragmatic competence is still the core. traditional teaching content doesn’t require interaction, so it’s impossible to carry out experiential cognitive teaching. by way of the convenience, teachers can take advantages of scripts which have distinct roles and arrange students to complete dialogue exercises through role-playing. this experience-centered college english class will elevate students' cognition of english to a new level. 4.3 innovation of implementing experiential cognitive teaching mode the construction of experiential cognitive teaching mode is a process of comprehensive innovation in comparison traditional english teaching. experiential cognitive teaching refers to experience and cognition as the core, emphasizing and highlighting teaching experience and cognition. in the innovation of methods, we should abandon the traditional explanation teaching and try the application of new methods actively. in the new educational environment, the application of information technology has attracted much attention and gradually become the fundamental driving force for the development of education in the new era. the attempt of micro-course teaching in college english teaching is the main means to realize the effect of experiential cognitive teaching mode. micro-course teaching focuses on the micro-video, which makes teaching resources diversified by making and creating micro-videos before class. with the help of information dissemination platform, the micro-videos teaching resources are effectively transmitted to students. for instant, micro-video can show the teacher himself, or it can be a comprehensive form composed of music, pictures and films. the ultimate goal is to help students understand english and enhance students' learning experience (yang, 2019) . in addition, more diversified teaching methods can also be applied. as long as they have positive effects on students' experience and cognition, these various forms can be actively tried. 4.4 the evaluation of the experiential cognitive teaching mode scientific evaluation is of great significance to the growth of every student, and teaching model are also highly concerned with the process of teaching evaluation. in the process of carrying out the evaluation, the focus will be on each student's experience and cognition. the implementation and outcomes from the experience and cognition is the critical part of evaluation, instead of just making the score as the measurement basis. moreover, the evaluation is directly applied and fed back into teaching practice, which provides a basis for the optimization of teaching. the key is to evaluate college english teaching model scientifically. in short, experiential cognitive teaching mode of college english in independent college should penetrate the whole process of college english teaching practice, teaching goals, teaching contents, teaching methods and teaching evaluation. when designed around the experiential cognitive teaching, these methods will inevitably bring about the particular mode of college english teaching, and promote college english teaching innovation. hence, independent colleges provide support for the healthy growth of society, teachers and students. acknowledgments this work was supported by the hunan provincial educational science planning project fund (xjk168yy07), hunan province education scientific research project grant xjt(2019)no.291(724), and science fund of hunan province no. 16wlh07. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 1; 2020 13 published by ideas spread references ding, w., & du, j. (2019). analysis on college english teaching reform in independent colleges in the new era of science and technology. education and culture forum, 5, 114-118, in chinese. hu, j. (2019). exploration of college english graded teaching in independent colleges: taking boda college of jilin normal university as an example. journal of chongqing vocational college of electronic engineering, 5, 118-122, in chinese. sun, j. y. (2019). study on the hybrid teaching model of "advanced english" for english majors in independent colleges based on micro courses. education and teaching forum, 44, 199-200, in chinese. wang, j. y. (2019). application of metacognitive strategies in english reading teaching in independent colleges. international public relations 10, 31-32, in chinese. wei, m., tao, y. y., & li, m. f. (2019). investigation and enlightenment on the current situation of college english teaching in independent colleges during the transition period: a case study of 12 independent colleges in shaanxi province. overseas english, 17, 106-107. in chinese. yang, s. (2019). application of micro-course in basic english teaching in independent colleges. research and practice of innovation and entrepreneurship theory, 14, 59-60. in chinese. zhi, k. n. (2019). application of interactive teaching mode in english teaching of international classes in independent colleges. overseas english, 16, 180-181. in chinese. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n2p10 10 published by ideas spread challenges and pathways for the aging neighborhood renovation from the perspective of participatory governance: a case study of x community in h street, yinchuan city lv sifan1, wang siying1, tan biao2 & han yongjing3 1 school of law, ningxia university, yinchuan, china 2 school of economics and management, ningxia university, yinchuan, china 3 school of ethnology and history, ningxia university, yinchuan, china correspondence: han yongjing, school of ethnology and history, ningxia university, yinchuan, china. e-mail: hanyongjing@nxu.edu.cn received: february 21, 2025; accepted: march 7, 2025; published: march 11, 2025 fund project: supported by the innovation and entrepreneurship training program of college students in ningxia university (s202410749035). abstract the renovation of aging neighborhoods faces challenges such as governance imbalance and insufficient resident participation, leading to low renovation efficiency. based on the theory of participatory governance, this paper constructs an analytical framework of "power structure—participation mechanism—governance efficiency" to reveal the causes of dilemmas in the renovation cases of coal sheds and markets in x community, h street. the government-led "power structure imbalance" marginalizes residents' demands, the "breakdown of formalized participation mechanisms" exacerbates negotiation failures, and conflicts of diverse interests lead to the "dissipation of governance efficiency." to address these challenges, this study proposes a four-dimensional optimization strategy: adopting differentiated renovation strategies to balance safety concerns and resident needs, establishing a clear legal framework to clarify property rights, building institutionalized consultation platforms to strengthen residents’ decision-making power, and promoting community cultural integration to enhance collective recognition. by reconstructing the governance logic of "government-community-residents" co-governance, this study promotes the shift of residents from symbolic participation to substantive decision-making, providing a new paradigm for resolving conflicts of interest and implementation obstacles in aging neighborhood renovation, thereby contributing to the modernization of grassroots governance. keywords: participatory governance, aging neighborhood renovation, property rights disputes, consultation mechanism, governance optimization 1. introduction in in recent years, the aging neighborhood renovation has become a crucial issue in china’s urban renewal and the modernization of social governance. at the policy level, the chinese government has introduced a series of relevant policies, such as the guiding opinions on comprehensively promoting the aging neighborhood renovation and the 14th five-year plan for the construction of urban and rural community service systems, emphasizing that neighborhood renovation is not only an upgrade of physical spaces but also an essential tool for modernizing grassroots governance. however, many renovation projects often meet only superficial engineering requirements while neglecting the deeper transformation of actual needs, resulting in the dilemma of "difficult renovation." this is specifically manifested in outdated infrastructure, maintenance difficulties and high renovation complexity, financial constraints, low resident participation, and difficulties in reaching consensus, ultimately leading to post-renovation results that fail to meet residents’ expectations. from the perspective of governance actors, these challenges can be attributed to three main factors: first, the government-led financial planning issues before renovation; second, policy distortions and implementation deviations arising from communities’ mechanical execution of administrative directives during renovation; and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 11 published by ideas spread third, the marginalization of residents throughout the process, leading to ineffective participation. one of the core difficulties in the aging neighborhood renovation is the lack of effective resident engagement, which results in projects struggling to be implemented or failing to align with residents' actual needs. currently, academic research on the aging neighborhood renovation can be broadly categorized into three approaches: government-led approach–this examines the government's dominant role in driving renovation and policy implementation. through centralized financial investment and administrative orders, the government can quickly initiate projects. however, this approach often overlooks grassroots realities, leading to "hollow policies" and fragmented renovation outcomes[1]. community-coordinated approach – this advocates for treating the community as a governance unit, promoting self-governance and collaborative management through neighborhood committees and community organizations. studies have found that communities serve as crucial intermediaries between the government and residents, playing an irreplaceable role in coordinating diverse interests and establishing co-governance mechanisms. however, in practice, communities often face challenges such as insufficient organizational capacity and limited resources[2]. resident-centered approach – this focuses on the importance of direct resident participation. however, in reality, resident involvement often remains superficial due to information asymmetry and the absence of effective consultation mechanisms. this is particularly problematic for elderly residents, who constitute a significant portion of aging neighborhoods. their limited access to information and weaker negotiation abilities make it difficult for their opinions to be effectively incorporated into decision-making[3]. existing research on the aging neighborhood renovation by domestic and international scholars has extensively explored three key aspects: the justification for renovation (why renovate), the scope of renovation (what to renovate), and the methodological design (how to renovate). however, there has been a lack of in-depth analysis on the challenges in the renovation process (why renovation is difficult)[4]. taking x community in h street, yinchuan city, as an example, conflicts arose in the renovation project due to the demolition of coal sheds and the relocation of markets, exposing deficiencies in the current governance model. the main issues include:power structure imbalance: government-led decision-making limits residents’ voices, leading to low acceptance of renovation plans.lack of participation mechanisms: residents can only express their demands through protests due to the absence of formal consultation channels.low governance efficiency: due to insufficient communication, renovation plans were repeatedly revised, resulting in slow progress. the three existing models—government-led, community-coordinated, and resident-centered—identified in previous studies essentially remain within a "center-periphery" governance paradigm. none of them have effectively resolved the issues of insufficient resident participation and low governance efficiency in aging neighborhood renovation. the theory of participatory governance advocates for a multi-stakeholder governance model that involves the government, community, and residents. by establishing formal consultation platforms and dynamic feedback mechanisms, this approach ensures that residents—particularly the elderly—have their interests fully represented, thereby enhancing the scientific validity and execution efficiency of renovation plans. it offers a new perspective for addressing the current challenges in the aging neighborhood renovation. therefore, this study, based on the case of x community, explores the governance dilemmas in the aging neighborhood renovation and proposes optimization strategies, aiming to provide practical insights for urban renewal[5]. 2. theoretical basis 2.1 participatory governance participatory governance, rooted in arnstein’s "ladder of citizen participation" theory[6], presents significant advantages over traditional governance models in three key dimensions: empowerment mechanisms, consultation platform development, and governance efficiency feedback. it emphasizes the shift from "symbolic participation" to "substantive decision-making" through empowerment and negotiation mechanisms. this theory advocates constructing a "government-society-residents" collaborative framework[7] to overcome the structural contradictions of "power monopoly" and "participation suspension" in traditional governance. participatory governance operates through two interconnected pathways: institutionalized consultation platforms, capacity-building for key stakeholders[8]. its core principles include "openness in governance processes," hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 12 published by ideas spread "redistribution of decision-making power"[9], and a closed-loop mechanism of demand identification, resource integration, and consensus building[10]. these aspects aim to activate residents' agency and engagement, mitigating conflicts of interest in the aging neighborhood renovation. due to the complexities of property disputes and diverse interest demands, this study adopts the "power structure—participation mechanism—governance efficiency" analytical framework to examine governance dilemmas and explore potential solutions within the context of participatory governance, with the ultimate goal of strengthening community governance capacity. 2.2 the "power structure—participation mechanism—governance efficiency" analytical framework the "power structure—participation mechanism—governance efficiency" analytical framework (as illustrated in figure 1) focuses on the governance practices and operational logic of aging neighborhood renovation, highlighting the role of participatory governance in these processes. power structure refers to the distribution of authority among the government, community organizations, and individual residents. the government is responsible for policy formulation, resource allocation, and regulatory oversight, while community organizations act as intermediaries, facilitating coordination and information dissemination. as the direct beneficiaries of renovation projects, residents' opinions and level of participation directly influence the feasibility and sustainability of renovation plans.participation mechanism refers to the formal channels and operational methods through which different stakeholders express their demands and engage in decision-making during the renovation process. these mechanisms include public hearings, surveys, and online consultation platforms, which help break away from traditional top-down governance and enable multi-stakeholder co-governance.governance efficiency is evaluated based on the execution of renovation projects from planning to implementation. key performance indicators include policy alignment, resident satisfaction, and long-term sustainability. figure 1. the "power structure – participation mechanism – governance efficiency" analytical framework the power structure, participation mechanism, and governance efficiency interact dynamically. a well-allocated power structure lays the foundation for multi-stakeholder collaboration, an effective participation mechanism promotes information sharing and consensus-building, and efficient governance feedback further drives the dynamic optimization of power structures. this interplay provides a holistic and systematic theoretical framework for addressing the deep-seated governance challenges in the aging neighborhood renovation. 3. practical cases of aging neighborhood renovation in x community, h street 3.1 coal shed renovation the coal sheds in x community, h street, were originally built as supporting facilities for worker residences in the 1970s, primarily for storing heating coal. however, with changes in heating methods, their functionality gradually declined. some sheds were repurposed by residents into storage rooms, small shops, or even rented out for profit. these coal sheds have long posed fire hazards, illegal expansions, and encroachments on public spaces, making them a key challenge in community governance. due to limited living space, many residents still rely on these sheds for storage, and some ground-floor residents have even incorporated them into their housing units. the coal shed issue is not only related to residential safety and environmental management but also involves property rights disputes and benefit distribution, making it one of the most difficult challenges in the renovation of aging neighborhoods. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 13 published by ideas spread since 2008, the government has launched multiple initiatives to demolish and renovate the coal sheds. however, ownership disputes, disagreements over compensation standards, and strong resident opposition have consistently hindered progress. in 2021, the community selected buildings 53 to 56 as a pilot site and conducted a resident survey and policy outreach campaign (see table 1), proposing a "government compensation + centralized demolition" plan. however, survey results showed that 57% of residents explicitly opposed demolition, arguing that the coal sheds were their personal property and refusing non-compensated demolition. some residents also demanded an increase in compensation to over 30,000 rmb. in particular, ground-floor residents were strongly opposed, as their coal sheds had already been integrated into their homes, complete with electricity, water, and heating, making them an essential part of their living space.meanwhile, some residents agreed to the demolition but were concerned about the post-demolition use of the space, believing that the government had not provided a reasonable alternative plan. ultimately, due to widespread opposition, the coal shed renovation project was forced to halt, and the issue remains unresolved. table 1. summary of the pilot survey on coal shed demolition summary of the coal shed demolition survey for residents on the second floor and above in buildings 53-56, north gate (total: 150 households) demolition opinion staff housing employerallocated housing residents self-purchased homeowners total households percentage(%) agree to demolition 18 22 44 31 disagree with demolition 29 51 80 57 follow the majority opinion 11 15 26 13 the renovation of coal sheds is not merely an issue of spatial governance but also reflects deeper disputes over property rights and residents' emotional attachment. the government, citing article 70 of the property law, asserts that the coal sheds are public supporting facilities and should be demolished as public assets. however, residents presented original invoices and payment receipts for these sheds as housing facilities, arguing that they hold personal usage rights. this legal-practical conflict led to a significant divergence in property recognition between the government and residents. moreover, for elderly residents, coal sheds are not just storage spaces but an integral part of their life memories. having lived in the community for decades, they perceive these sheds as symbols of their family history and community identity. demolishing them would mean a complete disruption of their familiar living environment. thus, the intense opposition to coal shed renovation stems not only from economic compensation concerns but also from resistance to the disappearance of familiar spaces. the government’s failure to adequately address both property rights concerns and emotional needs in the renovation plan resulted in significant obstacles to project implementation. 3.2 market renovation the market in x community, h street, initially operated as an open street market, which, despite issues such as road congestion and poor sanitation, was highly convenient and met residents' daily shopping needs. however, community administrators viewed this model as disruptive to traffic and neighborhood cleanliness. since 2015, three renovation attempts were made to improve market order through centralized management, but none succeeded: first attempt: a fully enclosed market was established, but its location was inconvenient for residents, leading to poor business performance and eventual abandonment. second attempt: a semi-enclosed model was introduced with designated stalls within the community, but stall locations did not align with residents' shopping habits, and merchants opposed fixed rental fees, leading to the model's abandonment. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 14 published by ideas spread third attempt: a regulated stall system was introduced, restricting business hours and implementing stricter sanitation controls. however, merchants felt this limited their operational flexibility, and customer traffic did not significantly improve, making this model difficult to sustain. after three failed attempts, the community administration failed to find a balance between governance requirements and business sustainability. as a result, the market never established a stable management model, and merchants returned to street vending, rendering governance efforts ineffective. during the renovation process in x community, communication and coordination between merchants, residents, and the community administration were significantly lacking. a survey revealed that all 15 fixed-stall merchants opposed the government’s market renovation plan. their primary concern was their long-standing dependence on street vending, which aligned with residents' daily routines—most residents preferred making quick purchases on their way home rather than traveling to a closed market. as a result, the centralized market model failed to generate sufficient foot traffic, while the enclosed stall layout restricted merchants' operational flexibility, directly affecting their profitability. additionally, elderly residents showed low support for the enclosed market model. while it improved sanitation, it lacked shopping convenience, leading to a significant gap between residents' expectations and the actual outcomes of the renovation plan. 4. governance challenges in the renovation of x community, h street 4.1 imbalance in power structure in the coal shed renovation project, the government, as the primary decision-maker, relied on the h street office list of responsibilities to define a hierarchical division of duties between government departments and community organizations. the higher authorities led the renovation plan, taking charge of policy formulation, resource allocation, and supervision, with a strong emphasis on demolishing illegal structures and improving public safety.community organizations were responsible for reporting, coordination, and publicity. however, during the initial survey on coal shed demolition, these organizations unilaterally endorsed the demolition and attempted to persuade residents to accept it. this approach provoked strong opposition, leading to repeated protests and disturbances. as a result, the community organizations lost residents’ trust, making future negotiations increasingly difficult and preventing them from playing their intended role as intermediaries. residents, as direct stakeholders, had long relied on coal sheds for storage or running small businesses. however, the government’s decision-making process prioritized visible infrastructure projects as key performance indicators (kpis), while community organizations focused on fulfilling government-mandated renovation tasks, ignoring residents' concerns about property rights and the historical significance of the coal sheds. a similar power imbalance occurred in the market renovation. the government aimed to regulate market operations, but the community organizations only implemented a formalized management approach. merchants were required to operate in designated areas, with no flexibility. residents and merchants were only allowed to select a location for the new market in a survey, but their opinions on the centralized market model itself were never considered. this ignored the merchants' existing business models and residents’ daily shopping habits, particularly their reliance on purchasing goods along their commuting routes[11]. merchants naturally tended to set up stalls along high-traffic commuting paths and frequently visited areas. most residents were accustomed to making quick purchases on their way home rather than traveling to a distant enclosed market[12]. however, community organizations failed to accommodate these behavioral patterns, nor did they delegate power or responsibilities to merchants and residents. ultimately, the unequal distribution of power left residents and merchants with little real influence in decision-making. this led to a renovation plan that lacked broad public support, creating a "strong government, weak residents" governance structure that hindered the overall progress of the renovation. 4.2 breakdown of participation mechanisms although public hearings, household surveys, and online questionnaires were formally implemented during the renovation process, actual participation mechanisms were fundamentally flawed. in the coal shed renovation project, community organizations used a "public notice–survey–home visits" approach to collect opinions. however, under the existing autonomous governance model of the street office and neighborhood committee, resident participation was reduced to a mere formality, essentially serving as a one-way notification and opinion collection process. the unidirectional flow of information and the absence of feedback mechanisms meant that concerns from vulnerable groups, such as the elderly, were largely ignored[13]. the lack of effective participation channels resulted in low engagement from residents, making them increasingly passive hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 15 published by ideas spread and resistant to the renovation project. without institutionalized negotiation mechanisms, residents could only express dissatisfaction through protests, relying on non-institutionalized resistance rather than formal dialogue. a similar issue arose in the market renovation. community organizations attempted to implement a fixed-stall system and a closed-market model, but the approach failed to integrate merchants' and residents’ actual needs. multiple merchant protests occurred during the public consultation phase, signaling deep-seated opposition. in a survey of 122 residents and 15 stall merchants, the community organization did not ask about their overall satisfaction with or opinions on the centralized market model. instead, they were only given the option to select a location for the new market, effectively excluding them from the fundamental decision-making process. the household survey was ultimately abandoned because all merchants opposed the centralized market plan. as a result, participation channels remained largely symbolic, and feedback mechanisms were entirely disconnected, making it impossible for residents' and merchants’ actual concerns to influence the renovation plan. this led to frequent policy adjustments and delays, ultimately preventing the renovation project from being effectively implemented. 4.3 dissipation of governance efficiency the imbalance in power structure and the breakdown of participation mechanisms directly contributed to governance inefficiency. in the coal shed renovation project, the policy failed to align with residents’ needs: residents' demands for property rights recognition and control over their living spaces were marginalized. the renovation plan underwent repeated revisions, and resident opposition increased from 60% to 73%. ultimately, the pilot renovation failed, and the coal shed issue remained unresolved as a historical problem. similarly, in the market renovation, merchants’ and residents’ priorities conflicted with the government’s governance objectives: merchants prioritized business flexibility and customer traffic, while the government focused on environmental order and regulatory control. this misalignment of goals led to fragmented stakeholder interests, eroding mutual trust and cooperation. the enclosed market model resulted in declining merchant revenues and insufficient foot traffic, forcing vendors to return to street vending, rendering the renovation ineffective. beyond wasted administrative resources, governance inefficiency also significantly undermined trust between the community and residents: future renovation projects faced repeated mass protests, as residents became increasingly skeptical of governmentled initiatives. when residents resorted to collective resistance to force policy adjustments, renovation projects fell into a cycle of "repeated revisions–reapproval–renewed opposition." this delayed response not only wasted resources but also weakened the authority of grassroots governance[14]. 4.4 governance failure: the paradox of policy implementation this case study demonstrates that residents' strong demands for property rights recognition and the preservation of market functions fundamentally reflect an assertion of "sovereignty over living spaces." when renovation projects are treated as administrative tasks rather than public affairs, residents are reduced to passive governance subjects. this role misalignment is reinforced through three mechanisms: technocratic discourse constructs residents' concerns as "irrational resistance," leading to the devaluation of their demands at a cognitive level. community grid-based management fragments individual concerns, preventing the formation of collective action. project evaluations prioritize quantifiable kpis, pressuring officials to focus on visible infrastructure while neglecting deeper social needs, such as elderly-friendly renovations and public space enhancements[15]. this structural dilemma exposes a fundamental paradox: although aging neighborhood renovation is intended to improve residents’ well-being, policymakers often reduce public participation to a risk-control strategy rather than treating it as a core governance value. as a result, renovation projects become a stage for power display, where the government spends money to meet kpi targets, while residents resist to defend their living spaces. this ultimately leads to "governance failure," where government spending results in public dissatisfaction. to break out of this cycle, it is essential to reconstruct the governance link between power, participation, and efficiency. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 16 published by ideas spread 5. optimization strategies for aging neighborhood renovation 5.1 innovative differentiated renovation: optimizing power allocation and enhancing adaptability in the coal shed renovation of x community, h street, the one-size-fits-all demolition plan failed to consider residents' actual usage needs, leading to strong opposition. to address this, the power structure should transition from a top-down administrative directive to a collaborative governance model involving the government, community organizations, and residents. the government should provide resources and establish renovation standards, while community organizations act as intermediaries to coordinate resident concerns, and residents actively participate in decision-making through consultation mechanisms[16]. specifically, the community can categorize coal sheds based on resident input—demolishing and repurposing sheds that pose severe safety hazards or have been long abandoned, converting the space into green areas or parking lots, while upgrading sheds that are still used for storage but are aging, transforming them into standardized public storage units or small commercial spaces. a resident participation platform should be established to ensure that residents have a real say in decisions regarding shed categorization, compensation schemes, and alternative facility locations, making policies more rational and enforceable. this approach has proven effective in shanghai’s y community, where a similar strategy of differentiated renovation increased resident support by 40%. such an approach balances safety concerns with residents' actual needs, reduces opposition rates, improves project implementation, and minimizes frequent policy revisions and resource waste[17]. 5.2 clarifying the scope of property rights: establishing a clear legal framework for rights and responsibilities the dispute over coal shed ownership is the core obstacle to the renovation of x community. from a power structure perspective, the government should take the lead in improving the legal framework while granting community organizations a certain degree of property rights coordination authority to reduce conflicts between administrative enforcement and residents’ perceptions. drawing from the experience of shanghai yangpu district’s “housing reform legacy hearing,”a property rights assessment committee should be established, composed of government representatives, legal experts, community organizations, and resident representatives[18]. this committee should determine the ownership status of the coal sheds based on purchase contracts, historical documents, and on-site investigations, deciding which sheds should be demolished as public facilities and which should be preserved and repurposed for functional upgrades, with the results compiled into an official report to serve as the basis for compensation and renovation policies. in terms of participation mechanisms, the community should establish a legal consultation platform and organize policy discussion forums to ensure residents fully understand the legal basis of renovation policies while developing a standardized procedure for resolving property disputes. making the property rights assessment process transparent and legally grounded would help reduce resident resistance, enhance the legitimacy of renovation policies, and improve their implementation efficiency. 5.3 establishing a community consultation mechanism: strengthening institutional guarantees for resident participation during the renovation process, residents' opinions are often reduced to mere notifications and questionnaire collections by community organizations, leaving their participation at a superficial level. from a power structure perspective, a multi-stakeholder coordination mechanism should be established to break the government's unilateral decision-making model and enable partial delegation of decision-making power[19]. the community can form a consultation committee composed of residents, merchants, community organizations, and government representatives, with a fixed agenda and schedule to institutionalize resident participation in policy-making. in terms of participation mechanisms, diverse channels should be adopted to enhance resident engagement, such as publicly recruiting resident representatives, holding regular online and offline meetings, and establishing a transparent renovation information-sharing system. regarding governance efficiency, the pilot program in qinhuai district, nanjing, demonstrated that by transferring 40% of decision-making power to the community co-governance committee, the alignment between renovation plans and resident demands increased from 32% to 68%, and the project timeline was reduced by 41%[20]. this approach minimizes policy revisions caused by information asymmetry and superficial participation, ensuring a more efficient and transparent renovation process. 5.4 strengthening community cultural construction: enhancing renovation sustainability through a sense of belonging the renovation of x community in h street faced resistance partly due to residents’ long-term reliance on coal sheds and markets, which have acquired social and cultural significance. from a power structure perspective, the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 17 published by ideas spread government can empower community organizations to take the lead in cultural development, integrating residents’ collective memories into renovation plans to reduce psychological resistance to change. specific measures include establishing community history exhibition areas and multifunctional activity centers, while incorporating community identity elements into renovated public spaces, such as cultural walls and historical photo displays[21]. in terms of participation mechanisms, residents, especially the elderly, should be encouraged to actively engage in cultural development through activities such as community festivals and cultural lectures, fostering a stronger sense of belonging to the renewed neighborhood. regarding governance efficiency, the case of tieliu community in guiyi town, miluo, demonstrated that promoting community identity through cultural activities increased resident satisfaction by approximately 35%, effectively facilitating the smooth implementation of renovation projects. 6. conclusion the renovation of aging neighborhoods is not only an effort to improve physical spaces and living environments but also an essential field for modernizing grassroots governance. through an in-depth analysis of the coal shed and market renovation cases in x community, h street, this study found that imbalances in the power structure among the government, community, and residents led to the marginalization of residents’ demands, the formalization of participation mechanisms, and ultimately the dissipation of governance efficiency. while government-led "power monopoly" can accelerate decision-making, neglecting resident empowerment triggers strong resistance, ultimately undermining governance effectiveness. this finding validates the core premise of participatory governance theory—that substantive resident participation is the key to achieving co-construction, co-governance, and shared benefits. 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(2023). energy-saving smart city: an edge computing-based renovation and upgrading scheme for old residential areas. international journal of computer applications in technology, 71(3), 251–257. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijcat.2023.021 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v4n1p27 27 published by ideas spread reception of bicultural identity in arabic diaspora literature: the works of elia abu madi in qisshat al-adabi al-mahjary fadlil munawwar manshur1 1 faculty of cultural science, universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta, indonesia correspondence: fadlil munawwar manshur, faculty of cultural science, universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta, indonesia. received: january 10, 2020; accepted: january 26, 2021; published: february 3, 2021 abstract literature by the arab diaspora in the united states has promoted dialectical interpretations of authors' cultural identities, balancing their ancestral cultural identities with those of their new country. in regards to the bicultural identity found in the arabic-language poetry of elia abu madi, it can be seen that the poet produced several discourses portraying a bicultural reality. the historical essence of arabic diaspora literature is found not only in its social expressions and representations, but also in the interactions of arabic and american culture that have produced a bicultural identity. it consists of five key concepts: sign analysis, which functions to reveal the meaning of signs or symbols in the material object; interpreter analysis, which functions to discover the correlations between authors' intents and readers' horizons of expectation; effect analysis, which functions to reveal the influence of literary works on their readers; reference analysis, which functions to reveal authors' repertoires; and context or conditions analysis, which functions to reveal the bicultural identity of authors. this research concludes that, in the author's bicultural identity, the united states is positioned as a prosperous country of dynamic multiculturalism, where people are passionate in their work and art. meanwhile, lebanon is positioned as a country where people live mechanically, facing hardship and minimal productivity owing to their lack of security. conversely, although the united states is prosperous and safe, owing to its orientation towards religious pluralism, its people are more positivistic and material in their lives. they thus tend to ignore spiritual aspects. keywords: reception, bicultural identity, diaspora arab poetry, authors, readers, sierc 1. introduction the cultures of various societies have diverse levels of development. however, every culture has essential characteristics, which apply universally to all members of that culture—no matter where they are. these essential characteristics are: (i) culture is manifested in and channeled through human behavior, (ii) culture exists before a generation's birth and lives on after that generation's death; though it may change, it will never disappear entirely (laderman, 2003, p. 203), (iii) culture is practiced by humans and manifested in their behavior, and (iv) culture includes a number of unwritten rules and obligations, behaviors accepted and rejected, and actions recommended and prohibited (berger, 1964). likewise, arab culture: (i) emerged as a result of arab behavior, channeled through various cultural works, (ii) was preceded by an existing arab culture, (iii) is practiced by arabs in their everyday lives, and (iv) contains specific obligations, recommendations, and prohibitions. in this, arabic literature functions strategically, helping the arab people understand how to behave and act in their relations with others and in their own lives. more simply, arabic is intended to (i) guide interactions between arab individuals and social groups, (ii) offer a means of channeling their feelings and life experiences, (iii) guide the arabs in their lives, and (iv) distinguish between humans and animals (berger, 1964).the core functions of arab culture is to create meaning, guide the spirit and mind, and expand arabia from a geographical region into a set of mutually supportive nations. the arab people have long been known for being unsatisfied with permanent residence in one place (i.e. one specific country), and are characterized as living highly transient lifestyles. why have they become such a transient and migratory people, prone to diaspora, moving from place-to-place or even country-to-country? the answer has deep roots in arab history. racially, the arabs are a caucasian people, part of the mediterranean group of peoples that trace their roots to the mediterranean, north africa, armenia, arabia, and iran. living in the desert, the arabs were traditionally a nomadic people, moving from place to place in search of water. their wanderings followed the sporadic growth of the stepa (grass), which could be found near oases or pools of water formed by rainfall. in hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 28 published by ideas spread terms of heritage, the residents of the arabian peninsula may be divided into two major groups: the qahtanites (descendants of qahthan) and the adnanites (descendants of ismail ibnu ibrahim as).the middle east, geographically, includes both arab and non-arab countries, such as turkey, iran, and israel. as turkey practices turkish culture and iran practices persian culture, these countries are not considered arab. the arabic culture sphere, rather, consists of parts of the middle east and north africa, including morocco, algeria, tunisia and lybia, which haikal (1980, p.76) argues experienced no cultural or civilization intersection, except through the acculturation and assimilation of islam (bakalla, 1984). islamic civilization and arab culture are inseparable, as they have interacted extensively through (for example) culture and language. according to albert hourani (2010), "the arab people are a people with greater awareness of their language than any other people on earth". arabislam civilization enjoyed its golden era owing to the contributions of arab culture and the arabic language. arabic literature, as part of the culture created by the arabs, has experienced rapid growth over its history, as it has been supported by the arab literary tradition and love of beautiful language, particularly poetry. this arab literary tradition became more polished because of its interactions with islam and its teachings of beauty and goodness. essentially, the culture and civilization of islam are derived primarily from arab culture, including both the modern arabic literature produced by arab countries and the literature that has been produced by and developed among the arab diaspora in non-arab countries. arabic diaspora literature is the literature produced by arabs who have traveled from their homelands to non-arab countries. arabic diaspora literature, known in arabic as mahjar,is thus arabic literature produced in non-arab countries. as a literary entity, arabic diaspora literature is interesting and important to research as it is produced by authors who live and grow between two cultures. as such, authors of arabic diaspora literature play two roles simultaneously; they are arabs who have long lived in their homelands, but also arabs who have lived and made lives in foreign lands. the bicultural identities of authors of arabic diaspora literature thus influence their works, be they poems, novels, short stories, dramas, etc. how do authors, as individuals, express their thoughts in these cultures (lambropoulos, 1987, p.125)?in this case, how did elia abu madi, as a writer, express his thoughts on his native lebanese culture and on the culture of his new home, the united states? 2. method the research method used herein relies on the researcher as a reader. in this article, the researcher is positioned within the constellation of readers; the researcher is a reader of the last ranks. a researcher can be categorized as an ideal reader, as manifested through the realized function. here, objectivity in the scientific method is not the same as in other disciplines. as a reader, the researcher cannot ignore his own subjectivity. in the selection and collection of data for literary research, it is thus important to consider the existence of specific elements. the corpus of literary research is thus partial and open (chamamah-soeratno, 2001, p.166). it is a close reading of selected text. a qualitative research approach is applied in this research. this approach is inspired by the philosophy of rationalism, which promotes the use of a holistic and systemic approach to revealing the meaning hidden behind sensual empiric fact. epistemologically, research using such a rationalistic approach requires that the research object be included within its context, or at least examined with a specific accentuation or focus without ignoring contextual considerations. borrowing from moleong (2002), it may be said that qualitative research departs from a naturalist paradigm, meaning that it assumes that empirical reality occurs within a specific socio-cultural context, the aspects of which are mutually related. as such, every social phenomenon must be discussed in a holistic manner. in this research, the data collected are the arabic-language poems collected within muhammad abdul mun'in khafâjy's anthology qisshah al-adabil-mahjary (1986). furthermore, secondary data has been collected from written references relevant to the formal object of the researcher. the material object of this research is the arabiclanguage poetry of elia abu madi collected in muhammad abdul mun'in khafâjy's anthology qisshat al-adabi al-mahjary. its formal object is the bicultural identity presented in elia abu madi's works collected in muhammad abdul mun'in khafâjy's anthology qisshat al-adabi al-mahjary. based on literary reception theory, which focuses on how readers understand a text, this article holds that it is appropriate to apply the sierc method proposed by rien segers. in this method, sierc is an initialism, with each letter defined as follows:smeans signorsymbol, imeans interpreter, emeans effect, rmeans reference, and cmeans contextor conditions (segers, 1978, p.15). the reading process involves readers' subjective impressions. however, readers' understandings and perceptions are directed by the textual signs (jauss, 1983) included in works by literary works by authors. this includes, for example, poems produced and published by the arab diaspora. segers' analytical model, in the context of this research, can be understood as follows. signs are content, analysis of which (in this case) expresses and reveals the symbols in elia abu madi's poems. interpreters, meanwhile, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 29 published by ideas spread functions to correlate authors' intentions with readers' horizons of expectation; as such, both authors and readers are interpreters, who explain the potential meaning of a text rather than limit its interpretation to a singular meaning. the entire potential of a text is never realized through reading. as such, it is important to understand specific meanings of the text, as they will recognize the factors that precede the composition of meaning (jauss, 1983, p.22). effect, meanwhile, refers to the cultural object being studied by the author. cultural objects—in this case, literature (poetry)—are products that have certain effects on their consumers (kristeva, 1979, p.55); effect analysis, thus, seeks to reveal the effect of arabic diaspora literature (poetry) on readers, broadly defined. referenceanalysis, meanwhile, serves to reveal authors' repertoires of knowledge and experience—in this article, the repertoires of knowledge and experience of elia abu madi.context or conditions analysis, meanwhile, functions to identify the bicultural identity of elia abu madi, formed through the intersection of his native culture and the culture of his new country. this analytical method is operated as follows: (i) the researcher expresses the signs (symbols) contained within arabic diaspora literature, particularly those used by elia abu madi in his poems to express his bicultural activity, (ii) the researcher reveals the intentions of elia abu madiand his background, as well as the reader-researcher's understanding of the works, (iii) the researcher reveals the effects of arabic diaspora literature on the development of modern arabic literature, (iv) the researcher reveals the references, i.e. the repertoires of knowledge and experience, used by elia abu madiin writing his poems, and (v) the researcher reveals the bicultural identity of the community that backgrounded the literary process. 3. results and discussion 3.1 the arabic diaspora literature in america arabic diaspora literature developed in non-arab literature when the arabs first migrated abroad, primarily in the 19th and 20th centuries. at first, these people migrated from syria and lebanon to canada, the united states, and south america—primarily brazil, argentina, chile, and venezuela. through their migration to the west (in the case of elia abu madi, to the united states), arab writers found new homes and inspirational climates. the earliest years of immigration from arabia, lebanon, and syria to the united states are known as a time of romanticism, and lasted from 1878 until the late 19th century (adonis, 2009, p.157). through their migration, they influenced arab culture and the arabic language through literary works that expressed their feelings, thoughts, traditions, and their longing for their beloved homelands. in these works, authors wrote of the lives they enjoyed in their new countries (khafâjy, 1986, p.8). over time, arabic diaspora literature developed rapidly, not only in terms of works produced but also in terms of content. they wrote of lifestyles, national identities, ideologies, and philosophies, all of which belied their mental turmoil in their new lands. this rapid growth in arabic diaspora literature produced a new school of modern arabic literature, which provided fertile ground for arabic literary criticism.known as the diaspora literary community (al-jamâ’atuladabiyyahfil-mahjar), it consisted of several groups. perhaps most prominent was ar-rabithatul-qalamiyyahyang, established in 1920 by jubrân, nu'aymah, abdul-masih haddâd, nadrahhaddâd, ilyas athâillah, william katsiflis, nasîbarîdah, rasyîdayyûb, elia abu madi, and wadi' bahûth (adonis, 2009:159). other groups included al‘ushbah al-andalusiyyah(established in sao paulo, brazil, by syukrullah al-jarr), al-jamâ’atul-adabiyyah, jâmi'atul-qalam, and an-nawâdy al-adabiyyahfil-mahjar(khafajy, 1986). of the arab writers who migrated to the united states, this study focuses on elia abu madi, particularly the poems he wrote while living abroad. the arab writers in the united states used the mass media to express their thoughts, establishing their first newspaper kaukab amerika in 1892. seven years later, in 1899, the newspaper mir'ah al-arabwas founded to promote arab nationalism and challenge turkish power. in 1912, the newspaper as-sâ`ihwas founded by abdulmasîhhaddâd in new york. this newspaper offered space for poets and columnists, be they members of the arrabithatul-qalamiyyahor not (adonis, 2009, p.158). in this situation, several arab writers gained an international reputation in arab literature, and they produced numerous critically and popularly acclaimed works. these writers included jubrân khalil jubrân, michailnu'aymah, and elia abu madi, as well as muhammad luthfyjam'ah, amir musthafa asy-syihâby, khalîlhandawy, abu syâdy, muhammad mandûr, as-sahraty, and khafâjy(khafajy, 1986, p.12). several famed anthologies of arabic poetry were produced by these authors, including: (i) dîwânun minassamâ`iby abu syâdy (new york, 1949), (ii) dîwânul-arwâh al-hâ`irah, by nasîbarîdhah, (iii) dîwânur-rawâfid, by syukrillah al-jarr, (iii) aghâni ad-darwîsy,by rasyîdayyûb,and (iv) al-khamâ`il, by elia abu madi (khafajy, 1986). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 30 published by ideas spread these writers developed their own unique characteristics, which they exhibited in their works through their stocks of knowledge and experiences, both in their homelands and in their new countries.writers such as elia abu madi, as part of the arab diaspora, lived between two cultural situations (arab and the united states); this makes them interesting for study. as such, this research has taken as its formal object the bicultural identity presented through arabic diaspora literature, while its material object is the muhammad abdul mun'in khafâjy's qisshat al-adabi al-mahjary. drawing from this historical background, research on arabic diaspora literature is important because it presents several problems: (i) how do the symbols in the arabic diaspora literature produced by elia abu madipresent a bicultural identity? (ii) how did the author function as a translator of his intentions and readers' horizons of expectation? (iii) how do the works of arabic diaspora literature produced by elia abu madi influence readers?, (iv) how do referential aspects of the poems serve to voice the author's stock of knowledge through literary production?, (v) why is the socio-cultural context important for understanding elia abu madi's bicultural identity? works of arabic diaspora literature produced by arab authors who had lived in foreign country can be seen as reflecting their thoughts and social experiences in their new lands. in this context, works of arabic diaspora literature are nothing other than expressions and representations of the arab diaspora in the united states and south america. to borrow from orthodox marxist aesthetics, this situation invites a dialectic interpretation of the concept of reflection. the historical essence of a work is rooted not only in its expressive and representative functions, but also in its connections with other works. these connections lead to interactions between works and their readers, as well as coherence with works in their historical environments, which may be seen as reciprocal relationships between production and reception (reading) (jauss, 1983, pp.11-15). in this context, the arab culture of the arabs in the united states invites dialectic interpretation of authors' reflections and their cultural realities, as well as between their native cultures and the cultures in their new lands. it is important to consider, as "identity is not something that exists; it is not something of universal and essential content;but rather a discursive construct, a product of discourse or directed discussion about the world" (barker, 2006, p.12).regarding the bicultural identity expressed in the diaspora poems of elia abu madi, it is apparent that he (the author) produced discourse regarding the intersections between two cultures. authors of literary works rely on specific ideologies, while literary works depend on the horizons of expectation in their social group (jauss, 1983, p.26).as such, in writing his poems elia abu madi included a particular ideology, while the text relies on the horizons of expectation of its arab readers as well as readers from the united states. likewise, the historical essence of arabic diaspora is based not only on its expressive and social representative functions, but also on the interactions between arab culture—the native culture of the author—and american culture—the new culture that promoted the emergence of a bicultural identity in elia abu madi. how, then, is the reciprocal relationship between arabic diaspora literature and its reader reception? the above question has implications for the perspectives of authors living in a global environment, in a new country—in this case, the united states. authors live in a global context, as cultural globalization has become a reality. globalization, viewed as a means of increasing human interconnectivity, has influenced various aspects of their everyday lives. because of globalization, culture has become more complicated and distributed, taking various forms (held, 2004, p.55).bicultural identity, in a globalization context, serves as the formal object of this research, which will contribute an understanding of the development of arabic diaspora literature in the united states. the theoretical goal of this research is to apply reception theory, which is oriented towards readers, to understand the poems of elia abu madi from a bicultural identity perspective. the practical goal of this research, meanwhile, is to reveal the individual and cultural motivations of arab authors who migrated to the united states and to explore the bicultural identity present in the poems written by elia abu madiin the united states. this research also seeks to reveal the collective awareness (or, as roman jacobson terms it, "collective ideology") underlying this situation. collective awareness is defined as a system of norms found, in the form of actualized language, within every literary work (jauss, 1983).in this case, that refers to the collective ideology of the people of lebanon and the people of the united states, as voiced by elia abu madi through his poetry. this article offers at least two benefits, specifically a depiction of the individual and cultural motivations of the arab writers living in the united states, and its revelation of elia abu madi's bicultural identity as revealed in his arabic diaspora poetry, using him to trace the developmental history of arabic diaspora literature.furthermore, these research results also provide a reference for discussion regarding bicultural identity in arabic diaspora literature, particularly those written by arab writers in the united states. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 31 published by ideas spread this research is important as little research has examined the concept of arab writers' bicultural identity within the context of arabic diaspora literature. to date, research into arabic diaspora literature (poetry) has focused on the migration of arab writers from arabia to non-arab countries, particularly the united states and south america. this research into bicultural identity using literary reception theory is hoped to offer a new perspective on the authors of arabic diaspora literature and their works, both poems and novels. this research takes as its material object the manuscript qisshat al-adabi al-mahjary, which includes a number of poems written by elia abu madi. previous research intoarabic diaspora literature has included, for example, the following. one is an article by ahmad atho'illah (2009:219), titled "sejarah perkembangan masyarakat dan sastra diaspora arab-amerika (sebuah tinjauan sejarah)", included in adabiyyat(volume 7, number 2). it argues that the development of arabic diaspora literature cannot be separated from the development of the arab-american community. arab-americans, and their literature, have their own unique characteristics. their lifestyles and literary creativity differ significantly from those of the arabs in the middle east. syahril, in his article "adab mahjar (sastra arab diaspora)", writes that the term diaspora is frequently equated with the arabic term asy-syatât (الشتات). etymologically, the word diasporacan be traced to the greekdia, meaning 'through', and spora, meaning 'spread'. in the encarta digital dictionary, the word diaspora is defined as the spread or migration of people, languages, and cultures that were once concentrated in a certain place. initially, the word diaspora referred to the migration of jews out of israel. however, since the early 20th century this word has come to refer the general migration of people out of their homelands (microsoft encarta reference library 2005). butler distinguishes between six times of diaspora, namely (i) imprisonment, (ii) exile owing to governmentsponsored eradication, (iii) voluntary or involuntary exodus, (iv) personally initiated emigration, (v) migration, and (vi) imperialism. edward said, meanwhile, identifies four types migrants, namely (i) exiles (manfîy), (ii) refugees (lâji'), (iii) expatriates (mughtarib); (iv) emigrants (muhâjir). my jelly (2014), in the article "sastra diaspora", writes that diaspora literature emerges as a result of a numerous factors, including (i) the migration of palestinians following the arab–israel war of 1948, (ii) the migration of arabs to australia, western europe, and the united states, and (iii) the rise of limited communities in foreign countries, who established their own media and journalistic organizations—including ar-rabithatul-qalamiyyah, jami'atul-adab al-araby, and al-ushbah al-andalusiyyah—to convey their thoughts. furthermore, the characteristics of arabic diaspora literature cannot be separated from the influences of authors' experiences, be they political, religious, sociological, or psychological. these experienced realities were influenced by the authors' eastern cultures, as well as their traditions, habits, paradigms, and obsessions maintained in their new countries.authors of arabic diaspora literature also expressed broad knowledge of classical arab literature, as well as cultural experiences, longings for their homelands, no matter how politically or socially beleaguered. however, on the other hand, they also had their own understandings of their new countries and languages, and were influenced by the liberty, cultural and social development, and politics found therein. here, symbols of bicultural identity refer to the signs of both cultures existing within the poet elia abu madi, namely arab culture (as the author's native culture) and american culture (as the author's second identity).the following offers the textual data. ji`tu la ‘alamu min aynawalakinnyataytu walaqadabshartuamamytharîqanmasyaytu wasa `abqasâ`iran in syi`tuhadza am abîtu kayfaji'tu? kayfaabshartutharîqy? lastuadry innanyji`tuwaamdhywaanâ la ‘alamu (khafajy, 1986:217). i know not whence i came, but i have come verily before me lay a path, and thus i walked i would walk on, or stop if i so wish how did i come? how did i see the path? i know not verily my comings and goings, i know not the first line, "i know not whence i came, but i have come", indicates that the author (elia abu madi) is telling readers that he has left his homeland (lebanon) for a new place (country), the united states. however, the poet has seemingly forgotten than he is a lebanese man who has migrated to the united states. the poet's seeming ignorance of his country of origin indicates that he views his country as being very small, incomparable to the large, progressive, and modern united states. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 32 published by ideas spread the second line, "verily before me lay a path, and thus i walked",emphasizes to readers that the poet has truly migrated to a new country, the united states, specifically new york city. the author has walked its streets, seen the splendor of its skyscrapers (representative of modern progress), spoken with its heterogeneous and multicultural residents; and observed their disciplined, orderly, and punctual behavior. the third line, "i would walk on, or stop if i so wish", conveys to readers that the poet perceives the united states as a good country to live, a second home after lebanon. as such, he will live in his new city, experience happiness and sorrow in new york city.however, he also realizes that he will someday leave the united states if he can no longer endure the longing he feels for his native land. as such, the poet fully recognizes that he will never forget his native land, where he was raised and where he developed as a man of letters. the fourth line, "how did i come? how did i see the path? i know not", indicates that the poet is not certain of his reasons for migrating from lebanon to the united states. he does not view his country negatively, let alone allow such perceptions to drive his migration. indeed, he has no clear reason for migrating to the united states. he is also not sure of what he must do upon arriving in new york city. he can only walk its streets and see its sights. the fifth line, "verily my comings and goings, i know not", indicates to readers that the author's arrival in the united states and migration fromlebanon does not guarantee that he will not live in his second country forever. he certainly would always remember his native land, for he remains an arab, and inherited noble arab culture and a strong arab identity. as such, the poet has begun to sow the seeds of bicultural identity in his speech and in his thoughts. this does not appear to have been deliberate; rather, it is natural for persons who have migrated to another country to find themselves at the intersection of two different cultures.from the above discussion, it appears that the poet has attempted to present lebanon as a small country and the united states as a big countrythrough his symbols, and to understand these countries through the concept of bicultural identity. 3.2 religious pluralism and paradox religious pluralism, inthis context, refers to the american people's tendency to respect citizens with diverse religious backgrounds. meanwhile, paradox refers to statements that appear on the surface to be contradictory or absurd, but are ultimately logical (abrams, 1981:127).in this context, the culture of the united states is presented as paradoxical or contradictive. for example, a careful study of religious pluralism will enable readers to recognize that religious perspectives are frequently ignored in modern society (kumar, 2006:10), particularly in the united states, but this religious practice is incongruent with the poet's own understanding. this is evident in the text. anâ laghazzun wa dzihaby kamiji`iy thalsamu. wa alladzy aujada hâdza al-ghazwa laghazzu ‘adzamu. la tujadildzul-hajjy man qâla: lastuadry. anâ la unkirusyay`an min hayâty al-mâdhiyah. ana la `arifusyay`an ‘anhayâty al-`âtiyah. ly dzâtaghayrin `annylastuadry ma hiyah. fa matâta'rifudzâtykinnatundzâty? lastuadry. (khafajy, 1986:217). i come for war, and come like the coming of a tattoo they started this battle for a greater war debate not with the raiders who claim, "truly i do not know" i will not tell the story of my past i know not the least of my life to come i have essence, but i know not what it is when you know me, is that my essence? i know not. the first line,"i come for war, and come like the coming of a tattoo", depicts the poet's surprise at seeing the people of new york, plural in color and religion, living in social harmony and cultural dynamicity. the word "war", a cultural context, refers to a society's ethos to promote harmonious and peaceful living, far from conflict and enmity. the word "tattoo", in a cultural context, also refers to physical "power", which references the diligence with which americans work and create, be it in the field of economics, culture, politics, or even religious pluralism. religious pluralism must be defined carefully, as it functions to promote interfaith interactions between the religious groups found in society and in politics. religion is understood broadly, as covering not only individual faith and charity, but also the social and institutions that bind religious groups. in the united states, pluralism informs the interactions between religious groups in civil society and state institutions. the term religious pluralism indicates a specific social and political phenomenon, but does not imply that the american government is more correct or excellent than the governments of other countries (banchoff, 2007:16). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 33 published by ideas spread furthermore, pluralism can rapidly transform into relativism, a view that 'truth' only applies to those who believe it, that what is true for one religious group is not true for another religious group. this can perhaps be understood simplest as meaning that what one group believes to be true is not true for other groups; however, relativism is more than that. at its most basic, it holds that our world is what we think it is (trigg, 2007:14).as such, for americans, religious pluralism and relativism simultaneously provide them with intellectual and spiritual energy. the second line, "they started this battle for a greater war",informs readers that his new life requires hard work and serious dedication. the poet has seen the hustle and bustle of new york city and its diverse population, quite different from the relatively homogenous arab society of lebanon, and thus transformed it into an interesting literary object. the third line, "debate not with the raiders who claim, 'truly i do not know'",indicates that the poet seeks to avoid debate with people who do not understand the complexity of modern life. in other words, no matter how developed a society, it will still have its shortcomings. even the united states, considered a developed and industrial nation, there are still criminals who seek the destruction of modern society. the fourth line,"i will not tell the story of my past",indicatesthat the poet does not want to compare the shortcomings of his native country with the shortcomings of his new country.the poet also seeks to avoid revealing the flaws of american society, as doing so would not be nationalistic. he wants to live peacefully and harmoniously in the united states, without constantly worrying about its flaws. the fifth line, "i know not the least of my life to come",indicates to readers that the author does not know what will happen to him in his time in the united states, for life in american society is so complex.rather, the poet seeks to lead his life in the united states with a spirit of optimism, no matter the challenges he faces. the sixth line, "i have essence, but i know not what it is", illustrates the poet's views of the unique and paradoxical condition of american culture. the word "essence", here, implies a constructive perspective regarding a large country, one referenced by other countries that seek to develop cultures of democracy and egalitarianism. however, this constructive perspective does not guarantee that american culture—representative of western culture—will always be suited to other countries, such as those in the middle east. the seventh line, "when you know me, is that my essence? i know not", emphasizes that, for readers who want to understand the poet's views of the paradoxicality of american culture, he seeks a country that truly cares for humanitarianism, social welfare, peace, and equality for all citizens. however, the poet is also concerned that many people have limited knowledge of american culture.in this, the government of the united states has applied public policy regarding humanitarianism, social welfare, peace, and equality for all citizens, all an implementation of religious pluralism. in a liberal country such as the united states, where religious pluralism is important, the government plays a role—i.e., promoting values—that should be fulfilled by religion (guinn, 2006:22). from the above discussion, it can be seen that the poet elia abu madiproduced works that conveyed views of the importance of religious pluralism for americans, as well as the uniquely paradoxical nature of american culture. 3.3 traditional–mechanic society versus organic-modern society modern cultural phenomena, in this case the religious pluralism in the united states and multiculturalism embraced therein, are seen as having an influence on authors' paradigms and expressions, as manifested through arabic diaspora poetry. the following is the textual data. nasiyaath-thînusâ’atanannahuthînun, haqîrufishâlintayhan wa ‘arbadu. wa kasa al-khazzu jismahu fa tubahy wa hawa al-malu kaysahu fa tamarradu. anta la tashna’u al-harîra alladzy talbasu wa allu`lu` alladzy tataqalladu. anta la ta`kulu an-nidhâra idzâ ji’ta wa la tasyrabu al-jimâna al-midhada. anta fi al-burdati al-muwassyâti mitsly fiy kasâ1iy ar-radîmi tasyqy wa tas’adu. laka fiy ‘âlami an-nahâari amâny wa ru`un wa addzalâmu fauqaka mumtaddu. wa liqalby kamâ liqalbika `ahlâmu hisânin fa innahu ghayru jalmadin(khafajy, 1986:238–239). clay forgets when it was mud, wet, dirty, and simple and wealth, from the body dumbfounded, and money its bag,and it fought back you did not make the silk you wear and did not make the gems you drape on your necks you are on the most beautiful path, as am i, in the fog hanging over ruins and joys you do not eat fruit when you hunger, and you do not drink the gems you string the world of dayis my desire, my dream, and the darkness spread above you my heart has its dreams, as hearts have dreams, and our hearts are not boulders hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 34 published by ideas spread the first line, "clay forgets when it was mud, wet, dirty, and simple", indicates toreaders that the poet remembers his hometown in lebanon, an undeveloped yet traditional society. after arriving in new york city, he experienced a stark contrast. the situations in the village and city, in lebanon and the united states, were very different. in the poet's mind, the situation experienced by the arab people in his homeland is one of simplicity, traditionalism, and mechanical living. meanwhile, after living in the united states for several years, he has constructed an understanding of the country as developed and modern, with an organic society. the second line, "and wealth, from the body dumbfounded, and money its bag, and it fought back,"reflects the socio-economic situation of the american people, who are never left wanting in terms of property, wealth, or title. however, the poet also recognizes that some americans have protested (fought back) these socio-economic conditions, where the wealthy take pride in their wealth, where the powerful exert their power, and the poor are left wailing in poverty. this is one aspect of american life that indicates paradoxicality. in this, the poet has been influenced by his observations of the united states' modern and often hedonistic society, where worldly and bodily pleasures are sought and success is measured by material achievement. the third line, "you did not make the silk you wear and did not make the gems you drape on your necks",depicts the situation of the arabs of lebanon, who seek equilibriumbetween the worldly or spiritual. as such, the lebanese arabs, even when their material needs are fulfilled, do not display their wealth or brag about it to others. in this, the poet is influenced by the paradigm that worldly happiness need not be realized through physical means that are transient and easily broken. the poet recognizes that the american people seem to place great stock in materialism, in physical and material culture, and apply it in their socio-cultural lives. in the fourth line, "youdo not eat fruit when you hunger, and you do not drink the gems you string", the poet depicts the socio-economic conditions of the lebanese arabs in his homeland, where they cannot eat the foods they desire owing to their economic troubles. they also difficulty attaining prosperity, given the economic conditions of lebanon. the fifth line, "you are on the most beautiful path, as am i, in the fog hanging over ruins and joys",depicts the conditions in the poet's new country. he likens life in the united states to a journey that offers him the potential to live a better life, made more democratic owing to the freedoms of expression and opinion guaranteed by law. however, on the other hand, the poet also criticizes his homeland (lebanon), which he believes does not provide sufficient space for people to express themselves and their opinions. the sixth line, "the world of dayis my desire, my dream, and the darkness spread above you",depicts the poet's deepest desire to promote prosperity and development among the lebanese arabs. furthermore, the poet also urges the prosperous and wealthy members of lebanese society to help reduce the sufferings and burdens of their less well-to-do compatriots (my dream, and the darkness spread above you). the seventh line, "my heart has its dreams, as hearts have dreams, and our hearts are not boulders",again emphasizes that thepoet, as a representative of his people, has a fond desire that the lebanese arabs find prosperity and success in all fields and aspects of life. the poet hopes that they will no longer be static, apathetic, stagnant, or lazy in facing the challenges and obstacles in their lives, behavior to which he attributes the failure of previous attempts to lift up the lebanese arab people. from this discussion, it may be concluded that the effects of the socio-economic and cultural situations of lebanon and united states are among the factors determining the creation of literary works by authors such as elia abu madi. the bicultural identity of elia abu madi is readily apparent in his poetry, an identity created by his living in two different cultures and presented well in his work. 3.4 national conflict versus welfare state here, national conflict versus welfare staterefers to the depiction of lebanon as being plagued by horizontal conflict and the depiction of the united states as achieving socio-economic prosperity. this is presented in the poetry of elia abu madi, where he compares the conditions in his native land and in his new country. the textual data is presented below. inna qashran samaktahu saufa yundika, wa tsauban haktahu saufa yunqidu. ji’tu wa al-khubzu wafîrun fiy wathâby wa as-sinâ hauly wa rûhy fiy dhabâbin. wa syaribtu al-mâ`a ‘adzban sâ`ighan wa ka`any lam adzuq ghayra sarâbin. laysa biy da`un wa lakinny umru`un lastu fiy ardhi wa la bayna shahaby. marrati al-ayyamu tatlû ba’dhahum li al-warâ dhahky wa liy wahdy ikti`abiy. kullamâ istawaladtu nafsy `amalan maddat ad-dunya lahu kaffu ightishabi. aflattu minyy halawâtu ar-ru`yâ ‘indamâ `afalat min kaffy syibâby(khafajy, 1986:247, 255). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 35 published by ideas spread truly the palace you occupy will crumble, and the clothes you wear will fall you will hunger, while bread and bounty overflow; a fork beside me, my soul hazy. i will drink fresh mineral water, as though i have never tasted anything but drink i am no disease, but i am also a person does not (live) on earth, but also not in the clouds the days will pass, as some read my laughter behind me, while i truly sorrow while my soul births dreams, truly the world does violate me in my mind, joy has vanished, and when it vanished, so ended my youth. the first line, "truly the palace you occupy will crumble, and the clothes you wear will fall,"depicts the social reality of the united states, which has attained material prosperity and become a world superpower through its economic and military might. however, according to the poet, the country will one day lose this prosperity if they remain arrogant in dealing with smaller countries with weaker economies. furthermore, the poet also perceives the american people as frequently showing off their wealth but not being concerned by the suffering of those around them. he argues that such tendencies must be avoided by the people of the united states. the second line, "you will hunger, while bread and bounty overflow; a fork beside me, my soul hazy,"conveys the poet's criticism of lebanon, where the poor are unable to eat while the wealthy people around them live lives of plenty. many wealthy lebanese have closed their hearts to their fellows and become unwilling to share with their less fortunate fellows. the third line, "i will drink fresh mineral water, as though i have never tasted anything but the drink,"describes the situation experienced by the author while living in new york, where he drinks mineral water every day, as he did when he was living in his native land. unlike americans, he does not consider it necessary to drink alcoholic beverages. however, he occasionally does drink alcohol, attempting to adapt himself to the culture of this modern society. the fourth line, "i am no disease, but i am also a person does not (live) on earth, but also not in the clouds,"indicates that the poet perceives americans as being unwilling to accept criticism from anybody or any country; they consider themselves the most correct, given their country's grandeur and prosperity. they feel themselves bored with life on earth, but they lack the ability to realize life elsewhere. the fifth line, "the days will pass, as some read my laughter behind me, while i truly sorrow,"indicates the poet's perception of the situation in his native land, which he views as enjoying no respite from conflict between the lebanese arabs and the palestinians fleeing their interminable fighting with israel. the poet feels upset, as he sees this conflict as disturbing and destabilizing the lives of the lebanese arabs. furthermore, lebanon has been plagued by conflict with israel, a jewish state that accused lebanon of sheltering palestinians.historical records of the conflicts in the middle east indicates that, after the united states announced its sale of phantom jets to israel, israeli commandos attacked the beirut airport in response to arab guerrillas' destruction of 13 israeli jets in athens. this incident brought lebanon, as well as the rest of arabia, in direct confrontation with israel (lea, 2002:37).furthermore, between 1975 and 1990 the lebanese civil war—fought between muslims and christians—led to the deaths of 120,000 people. for years, lebanon offered a classic example of a fragmented society. during their fifteen-year civil war, the lebanese killed each other purely for religious reasons, as elsewhere whites and blacks had killed each other and protestants and catholics had killed each other (edwards, 2008:79). the sixth line, "while my soul births dreams, truly the world does violate me,"presents the poet's horizon of expectation and his desire for his people to emulate the work ethic, discipline, and nationalism of the united states. the poet has observed the progress made by the american people, made possible by theirculturally embedded work ethic, discipline, and sense of pride. as a result, they are expected—or coerced, even—to be correct and orderly in their everyday lives. the seventh line, "in my mind, joy has vanished, and when it vanished, so ended my youth,"presents the poet's perspective after living in the united states. lebanese culture has long emphasized values of togetherness and mutual assistance. however, in new york, the poet witnessed a society that promoted individualism, with different members of society existing on their own. although the american people live in such a manner, they have enjoyed prosperity and an advanced economy. american individualism is characteristic of its pluralism, where individual and collective ideals are valuable means of realizing individual freedoms. according to habermas' theory of morality, such individualism represents an affirmation of individual autonomy and pluralist values(brink, 2000:106). the economic power of the united states is apparent in its millionaires, more than one million in number. many of them gained their wealth through real estate speculation and the stock markets over the past several decades. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 36 published by ideas spread however, americans view the world economy as unbalanced, as the wealthy become wealthier and the poor become poorer. although humanity has made great progress in agriculture, hunger affects more than a billion people worldwide (sinagatullin, 2003:23). based on the above discussion, it may be concluded that the poet has portrayed the socio-economic realities of two countries: lebanon, a land torn apart by conflict, and the united states, a hegemonic and economic global superpower. from a theoretical perspective, it may be concluded that the referencesof elia abu madi, his repertoire of knowledge and experience, are apparent in his arabic-language poems. 3.5 fatalism versus positive-physicalism here,fatalism versus positive-physicalismrefers to the social realities of the lebanese and of the americans, as presented by the poet through his diaspora poems. the positivistic paradigm holds that reality is organized by certain universal rules and standards. truth can be ascertained through probability (susanto, 2015:595). for americans, truth is something found in possibility, not in a permanent and final belief. however, for the lebanese arabs, truth is something costly, something that cannot easily be "bought". the textual data is presented below. ayyuha asy-syâky wa ma bika dâ`un, kayfa taghdû idza ghadauta ‘alilan? inna syarra al-jinâti fiy al-ardhi nafsun tatawakkhy qabla ar-rahili. wa tarâ asy-syauka fiy al-wurudi, wa ta’my `an tarâ fauqahâ an-nadâ aklîlâ. huwa ‘ub`un ‘alâ al-hayâti tsaqîlun, man yadzunnu al-hayâta ‘ib`an tsaqîlan. wa alladzy nafsuhu bi ghayri jibâlin, la yarâ fiy al-wujudi syay`an jamilan.(khafajy, 1986:258-259). oh, you the lamenter, you are no disease; how do you bring the day if your morning is one of illness? truly the depravity of the worldly garden is the lust for expectation before realization you see the thorns on the roses, but are blind to the beads of dew atop them that is the heavy burden of life, for whosoever believes life to be pointless truly understands not. and a soul, not high as a mountain, it cannot see the slightest hint of worldly beauty the first line, "oh, you the lamenter, you are no disease; how do you bring the day if your morning is one of illness?" conveys an impression that some lebanese are too quick to complain about the situations they face. these lebanese people may seem lazy, the poet implies, but this is not their natural state; indeed, the lebanese people have a good work ethic. however, he warns that this laziness may spread throughout society if the minority inflicts it upon the majority. the second line, "truly the depravity of the worldly garden is the lust for expectation before realization,"depicts the condition of the lebanese elites, who seek power ambitiously and are willing to use any means to realize it. as such, the poet sought to leave his native land because he felt disgusted by the behaviors of its political elites, who seek power while ignoring the suffering of lebanon's poor and downtrodden. meanwhile, the third line, "you see the thorns on the roses, but are blind to the beads of dew atop them,"presents the egotism and individualism exhibited by some americans in their social lives (you see the thorns), even as they live in a land of wealth and dignity (on the roses). however, these americans also have their shortcomings, as they fail to consider the guidance offered by religion and are unable to see the spiritual; as a result, they lack balance in their lives, with the worldly being given greater weight than the spiritual and heavenly. for americans, 'spirituality' is sometimes difficult to distinguish from religion; simultaneously, it has become increasingly divorced from religious tradition (sheldrake, 2007:1). as such, americans have difficulty practicing the teachings of their religions as well as the concepts of spirituality as they understand them. gunther (in hicks, 2003:29) views religion as spirituality, and argues that work is a means of conducting spiritual practices. these spiritual practices influence their means of doing business. as such, in the american worldview, the act of attaining worldly prosperity is part of spiritualism, but is not part of religion. in the history of philosophy, meanwhile, the term 'spiritual' has generally not been linked to 'faith', but rather to 'practice' (cottingham, 2005:17), or more specifically worldly practices intended to attain worldly prosperity. the fourth line, "that is the heavy burden of life, for whosoever believes life to be pointless truly understands not, "reinforces the previous line, underscoring americans' tendency to belittle the afterlife. for them, life on earth is difficult, and thus requires a strong work ethic; how could they imagine life in another realm, a realm in which many no longer believe. in the united states, there are understandings of the hermeneutics of memory and the hermeneutics of skepticism. the hermeneutics of memory is sympathetic to religion, and as such assumes that human belief is connected to something real and tangible. their duty is to remember, to manifest 'something' in current times, to convey a message that requires attention. conversely, the hermeneutics of skepticism rejects the possibility of a sacred or hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 37 published by ideas spread religious reality, which it positions instead as an illusion. it holds that it is humanity's intellectual obligation to be skeptical regarding these matters, which it sees as lacking tangible elements for consideration (phillips, 2003:16). americans have embraced such an attitude because the positivistic philosophy that has become deeply rooted in their minds, such that they do not believe in things intangible or invisible. furthermore, in their everyday lives, americans tend to embrace a physicalist philosophy in their everyday lives. although this philosophy may not appear popular, it is nonetheless deeply entrenched in the life philosophies and everyday practices of americans. physicalism offers a religious understanding derived from diverse world cultures, positioning the physical world as replete with questions (mawson, 2005:14). as such, the everyday realities of americans are essentially questions that require answers. the socio-ideological condition of the united states cannot be separated from the global situations that have influenced its development. today, global communities have entered a phase of "personal moating". they are torn apart, wallowing in mud. their souls and emotions are shorn asunder, and their bodies are weak owing to their burdensome worldly struggles. they seem not to concern themselves with ending their spiritual angst (briggs, 2006:21), one rooted in their positivism. the fifth line, "and a soul, not high as a mountain, it cannot see the slightest hint of worldly beauty", provides a detailed characterization of americans, who consider the afterlife to be unimportant. they allow their souls (spirits) to be empty, even though the afterlife is joyous, exciting, and beautiful. for them, a happy life can only be realized positively, through worldly life. for americans, happiness, pleasure, and beauty cannot be attained through an uncertain reality (i.e. through the afterlife). from the above discussion, it is evident that the poet has sought to expose the fatalist social conditions in lebanon as well as the positivistic and fatalist conditions in the united states. in this condition, it is apparent that the poet has succeeded in writing works of diaspora literature to express his thoughts and bicultural identity. 4. conclusion in this concluding chapter, several conclusions may be drawn. first, in the author's bicultural identity, lebanon is understood as too small, particularly in comparison to the united states, a super-modern superpower famed for its progress and its weapons. second, the united states, as the new country of the author, is viewed as one of religious pluralism and dynamic multiculturalism, passionate in their work and their art; this is seen as having enabled the united states to become a large and prosperous nation. third, lebanon is positioned as a traditional country with a people who act mechanically, while the united states is depicted as a modern country with diverse socio-cultural conditions and an organic society. fourth, although the united states has become prosperous and a global superpower, this status cannot be maintained forever, as prosperity will fade as american society becomes increasingly arrogant.fifth,some lebanese face hardship in life as a result of their lack of security, such that they surrender and accept their situations, despite their productive potential. meanwhile, americans feel themselves safe and prosperous, but after embracing religious pluralism they have become more positivistic and material, ignoring the spiritual aspects of life. references abdel-meguid, abdel-aziz (1994). the modern arabic short story.cairo: al-ma'rif press. abrams, m. h. 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(2008). conflicts in the middle eastsince 1945. london: routledge. phillips, d. z. (2003). religion and the hermeneutics of contemplation.cambridge: university press. segers, r. t. (1978). the evalution of text. auckland: peter de ridder press, 1978. sheldrake, p. (2007). a brief history of spirituality. london: blackwell publishing. sinagatullin, i. m. (2003). constructing multicutural education in a diverse society. new york: lanharn. trigg, r. (2007). religion in public life: must faith be privatized?.oxford: oxford university press. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p1 1 published by ideas spread a three-dimensional study on the modernity construction of cultural confidence in the new era qingbo cai1 1 school of marxism, guangxi arts university, china correspondence: qingbo cai, school of marxism, guangxi arts university, nanning, guangxi, china received: june 22, 2025; accepted: july 3, 2025; published: july 4, 2025 abstract against the backdrop of the interwoven wave of globalization and technological innovation, the modern transformation of traditional culture and the contemporary reconstruction of advanced culture have become the core propositions of "firm cultural confidence". starting from the dimensions of historical depth and current context, this paper delves deeply into the multi-dimensional practice of upholding tradition and innovation in the modern transformation of traditional culture, involving not only the historical excavation of cultural roots, but also the practical innovation of traditional genes in intergenerational inheritance, and even the deep-level construction of the value core of cultural confidence. based on this, the discussion focuses on the contemporary innovation of marxist cultural theory, the value guidance of advanced socialist culture, and the global significance of cultural thought in the new era, ultimately revealing the modern construction mechanism of cultural confidence and its spiritual support for the great rejuvenation of the chinese nation. keywords: cultural confidence, modernity construction, coping strategies 1. introduction "the great social transformation of contemporary china is not a simple continuation of the original version of our country's history and culture, nor is it a simple application of the template envisioned by marxist classic writers, nor is it a reprint of the socialist practice of other countries, nor is it a copy of the modernization development of foreign countries. there is no ready-made textbook to be found." [1] we should explicitly place cultural development at the strategic height of promoting the rejuvenation of the chinese nation, emphasizing that we must always hold fast to the roots of fine traditional chinese culture and propose the fundamental path to carry forward fine traditional chinese culture. culture, as the product of "sensual human activities", is accompanied by the great progress of modern science and technology and the rapid development of the economy and society. when technologies such as big data and artificial intelligence reconstruct the cultural communication ecosystem, the metaverse breaks the boundary between the virtual and the real, and emerging media technologies are deconstructing the traditional cultural production paradigm this technological innovation brings the challenge of reconstructing cultural identity, [2] it also offers unprecedented technological possibilities for the creative transformation of cultural genes. at such a historical juncture, re-examining the modern construction path of cultural confidence is not only about the historical proposition of the inheritance of civilization, but also directly related to the spiritual foundation of chinese-style modernization. 2. adhere to the principle of upholding tradition and innovation, and promote the modern transformation of traditional culture the general secretary emphasized that "the chinese nation is a nation that adheres to tradition and innovation." we must adhere to upholding the right path and innovation, promote the adaptation of fine traditional chinese culture to socialist society, and showcase the unique spiritual identity of the chinese nation." [3] this points out the direction and provides fundamental guidance for the modern transformation of traditional culture. in the context of the deepening of globalization and the intensification of the collision of multiple civilizations, the anxiety of cultural identity brought about by social transformation and the transformation of communication paradigms brought about by technological innovation together constitute the fertile ground and realistic context for the construction of cultural confidence. it is worth noting that this transformation is not a simple interweaving of the past and the present, but a systematic project involving the deep integration of cultural genes, the contemporary activation of historical elements, the intergenerational inheritance of practical paths, and the modern reconstruction of value cores. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 2 published by ideas spread 2.1 historical dimension: the deep excavation of cultural roots "the power of culture runs through the historical course of human social development from beginning to end and is the soul of the progress of a nation and a people." [4] the philosophical thoughts, moral ethics and artistic creations accumulated by the chinese nation over five thousand years of civilization are like cultural mines buried deep underground. when we touch the material remains of the xia, shang and zhou civilizations in the archaeological discoveries at the erlitou site in henan province, and listen to the echoes of medieval thought in the fragments of dunhuang manuscripts, these historical remains are no longer cold artifacts, but cultural life forms that can engage in dialogue with the present. the assertion that chinese culture was created under conditions that were "directly encountered, established and inherited from the past" profoundly reveals the ontological significance of the historical dimension in the construction of cultural confidence, that is, the excavation, inheritance and innovation of national culture must respect history, respect facts and return to the essence. [5] [6] therefore, it is necessary to re-explore and re-examine the roots of culture from a historical perspective and objectively recognize the core essence of the reconstruction of cultural confidence in the context of modernity. this kind of excavation is not an indiscriminate retrogression and nostalgia, but follows the dialectical principle of "taking the essence and discarding the dross". for instance, our modern interpretation of the idea of harmony between man and nature retains the core of traditional ecological wisdom while incorporating the contemporary connotations of ecological civilization construction, making the ancient philosophical thought the cultural foundation of the green development concept. another example is the transformation of the palace museum's "a thousand miles of rivers and mountains" into digital immersion through modern technology and the rebirth of the thousand-year-old painting in modern audio-visual technology. this transformation is essentially the decoding of cultural genes and the inheritance and development paradigm achieved through modern media. this mechanism of dialogue between history and reality is the underlying logic that establishes cultural confidence. 2.2 practical dimension: the intergenerational transmission of traditional genes national leaders emphasized during their visit to the longmen grottoes: "we must protect, inherit and disseminate the treasures of chinese culture." [7] the inheritance of culture is not simply the continuation of the old content, but the continuous infusion of new vitality and connotation as the generations change. traditional genes are like the roots of culture, deeply rooted in the soil of history, providing nourishment for the continuous development of culture. from all levels of society, the inheritance of traditional genes from generation to generation is reflected in many aspects of daily life. for example, the elders in the family teach by word and deed, the school education system sets up cultural courses, and the society widely conducts cultural activities, all undertake the mission of passing on traditional genes. the family is the first place for cultural inheritance. elders pass on the family's cultural traditions and values to the younger generation by telling stories and passing on skills, thereby shaping their understanding of the cultural roots. systematically arranging cultural courses in school education enables students to delve deeply into knowledge of history, literature, art, etc., thereby understanding the profoundness and vastness of traditional culture and laying the foundation for the inheritance of traditional genes. social and cultural activities attract people of all ages to participate in more diverse and vivid forms, thus allowing traditional genes to spread and continue on a broader social level. the intergenerational transmission of traditional genes is not just about preserving the past culture, but about rejuvenating it in modern society. with the passage of time, traditional culture faces numerous challenges and opportunities. in the process of intergenerational inheritance, the younger generation reinterprets and innovatively applies traditional genes with unique perspectives and creativity. this innovation is not about discarding tradition, but about respecting tradition and combining it with the demands and aesthetics of modern society to give traditional culture new forms of expression and value connotations. for instance, some young people combine traditional folk art with modern design concepts to create works that are both fashionable and culturally rich, giving traditional art a new life in contemporary society. with each generation passing on the traditional genes, the cultural connotations are constantly enriched and developed to fit the spirit of the times. this intergenerational inheritance connects the past, the present and the future, and forms a bond of cultural identity among different generations, providing a deep social foundation and a powerful spiritual impetus for building cultural confidence and pushing the culture of the new era to new heights. 2.3 value dimension: the deep logic of cultural confidence cultural confidence is "a more fundamental, broader and deeper form of confidence [8] at every turning point in history, culture always changes according to the national conditions, stays ahead of the times, gives the most effective voice, and guides the way for the construction of the country and the happiness of the people. in essence, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 3 published by ideas spread cultural confidence is a deep understanding and firm identification with the value of the culture itself. this value is not an abstract concept but is rooted in the history, practice and spiritual pursuit of the nation. "without a high level of cultural confidence, without the flourishing of culture, there will be no great rejuvenation of the chinese nation." an in-depth analysis of the value dimension of cultural confidence reveals that it is essentially an important link connecting history and reality, theory and practice, embodying the spiritual pursuit of the nation and being the intrinsic force for the inheritance and development of the nation's culture. in the new era, the value dimension of cultural confidence has taken on new connotations and missions. it should both "inherit the essence of the values of fine traditional culture and innovate in line with the demands of the times to provide strong support for the development of advanced socialist culture." [9] exploring the construction of cultural confidence from both historical and realistic perspectives reveals that cultural confidence is not only an inherent requirement for carrying forward the national spirit, but also an inevitable path to safeguarding national cultural security and moving towards a socialist cultural power. we need cultural confidence as the foundation to build an impregnable barrier of cultural security. by strengthening cultural roots and nurturing innovative branches, we can fully unleash the spiritual guiding power of culture. only in this way can we resist the risk of multiculturalism infiltration, maintain cultural subjectivity in the exchange and mutual learning of civilizations, continuously enhance the radiation and influence of chinese culture in the new era, promote the overall leap of the country's cultural soft power with rich cultural achievements, and let chinese civilization shine even more brightly on the world stage. the deep logic of valuing the dimension helps us better grasp the direction of cultural development, achieve the organic integration of traditional culture and modern civilization, and provide a powerful spiritual impetus for the chinese dream of the great rejuvenation of the chinese nation. 3. highlight value leadership and bring together the elevation of advanced culture in the new era it was pointed out at the symposium on philosophy and social sciences that "culture is the soul of a country and a nation. the fine traditional chinese culture nurtured in the 5,000-year-old civilization of the chinese nation, the revolutionary culture and the advanced socialist culture nurtured in the great struggle of the people, accumulate the deepest spiritual pursuit of the chinese nation and represent the unique spiritual identity of the chinese nation. in the new journey, value-driven creative development is not only the key path for advanced culture to achieve a contemporary elevation, but also the logical inevitability of the innovative development of marxist theory and the manifestation of the practical value of socialist culture. guided by the new cultural thought of the new era, we should be confident in our culture, integrate the new cultural mission of building a culturally strong country and a modern civilization of the chinese nation into the great practice of chinese-style modernization, provide strong value guidance, cultural cohesion and spiritual impetus for realizing the great rejuvenation of the chinese nation, and jointly promote the creative transformation and innovative development of advanced culture. build a leading system for the modern construction of cultural confidence. 3.1 theoretical innovation: inheritance and innovation of marxist theory [11] marxist theory is the foundation of our century-long journey and the basis for developing our national culture and enhancing cultural confidence. passing on marxist theory is an important prerequisite for consolidating the foundation of cultural confidence. the basic principles of marxism, when combined with china's specific realities and fine traditional chinese culture, have produced theoretical achievements with chinese characteristics. these achievements are both an inheritance of marxism and an innovative development in the context of china. to elaborate on marxist theory in terms of "transcending time and space, transcending nations, having eternal charm, and having contemporary value[12]." innovating marxist theory is an essential need to keep cultural confidence up-to-date. with the development of the times, new problems and challenges continue to emerge, and marxist theory needs to constantly adapt to new circumstances and carry out theoretical innovation. in the new era, based on the great practice of socialism with chinese characteristics, we should use marxist positions, viewpoints and methods to deeply analyze new cultural phenomena and problems and put forward new theoretical viewpoints and judgments. in the digital age, artificial intelligence, big data, etc. occupy our time and space. in an informationized and diverse society, for instance, the combination of the inheritance and innovation of marxist theory with digital communication has given rise to new technologies that are applied in people's lives. shanghai has implemented the "metaverse manifesto" project in the memorial hall of the first national congress of the communist party of china, using modern technology vr to allow viewers to personally "step into" historical scenes and experience the entire process of the birth of the manifesto, which has attracted a large number of young users. this innovation can both enrich the marxist theoretical system and provide new ideas and methods for building cultural confidence modernity. the inheritance and innovation of marxist theory can provide a solid hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 4 published by ideas spread theoretical support for cultural confidence, allowing it to unleash strong vitality in the new era and promote the continuous development of chinese culture. 3.2 practice nurtures: the value guidance of advanced socialist culture it was pointed out at the national conference on propaganda, ideological and cultural work that "we should revitalize culture, adhere to the path of cultural development under socialism with chinese characteristics, promote the creative transformation and innovative development of fine traditional chinese culture, inherit revolutionary culture, develop advanced socialist culture, stimulate the cultural innovation and creativity of the entire nation, and build a strong[13] socialist country in culture." marxist theory is the "medicine" for cultural development. china's advanced socialist culture, guided by marxism, is rooted in china's fine traditional culture, based on china's reality, and integrates the essence of foreign cultures. through reform and innovation, it has formed an advanced culture with distinct national characteristics. it fits the characteristics of the times, follows the pulse of the times, guides people to respond to changes, stimulates innovative thinking, and provides new solutions to social problems. at the same time, it pays attention to the inheritance and promotion of traditional culture, making it thrive in the new era, achieving an organic combination of tradition and modernity, laying a solid cultural foundation for social development, and promoting society to a higher level. this advanced culture is based on the long-term evolution of historical culture and has played a crucial role in social development, especially since the reform and opening up, leading society forward, shaping the national spirit and nurturing the national culture. scientificity, contemporaneity and people-oriented nature are the benchmarks of advanced socialist culture and the "sails" that guide social development. it is characterized by its close alignment with the demands of the times and its continuous absorption of new ideas and concepts, providing a powerful spiritual impetus and intellectual support for social development. for example, in the field of education, advanced culture is organically integrated into the curriculum system to cultivate fertile ground for students' innovative spirit and lay a solid foundation for their sense of social responsibility; in the propaganda work, we will continue to spread positive energy and vigorously promote the core socialist values, thereby creating a strong and positive atmosphere for society and gathering the powerful force to forge ahead in the new era. this comprehensive infiltration makes advanced socialist culture an important force for building social consensus and promoting social harmony and development. 3.3 world responsibility: a chinese solution for mutual learning and mutual benefit among civilizations the global civilization initiative was first proposed at the high-level dialogue between leaders and the world: "in today's world where the future and destiny of all nations are closely intertwined, the inclusive coexistence and mutual learning of different civilizations play an irreplaceable role in promoting the modernization of human society and enriching the garden of world civilizations, advocating respect for the diversity of world civilizations, promoting the common values of all mankind, attaching importance to the inheritance and innovation of civilizations, and strengthening international people-to-people exchanges and cooperation [14]." in this dialogue, we have presented the chinese solution to the neighboring major countries on a historical dimension, demonstrating cultural confidence and highlighting the responsibility of a major country. the plan is based on china's own development needs and takes into account the global cultural exchange and development pattern. the chinese solution is derived from the guidance of china's fine traditional culture and marxist theory. the proposal of the chinese solution not only demonstrates chinese wisdom but also reflects the high regard for mutual learning among civilizations around the world. we respect the unique wisdom and values of the cultures of each country and nation. in the context of cultural exchanges and integration among countries around the world, china actively participates, shares its own cultural achievements, and absorbs excellent cultural elements from other countries to enrich its own content, laying a solid cultural foundation for building a community with a shared future for mankind. china is well aware of the importance of cultural development to the nation and the nation, as well as the overall relevance of global cultural development. therefore, the chinese plan attaches great importance to promoting the common development of global culture. "in cultural development, china focuses on cooperation projects with other countries to explore new models and new paths. through forms such as cultural industry cooperation and cultural and educational exchanges, china and other countries achieve resource sharing and complementary advantages, and jointly enhance cultural soft power to achieve mutual benefit and win-win [15] results in the cultural field." practice has shown that the chinese approach demonstrates cultural confidence and vitality. it is committed to developing the inheritance and innovation of marxist theory culture within the country, while also injecting wisdom into global cultural development with an open and inclusive attitude. based on the new journey, adhering to the concepts of "mutual learning among civilizations" and "mutual benefit and common hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 5 published by ideas spread progress", china will continue to refine and improve the chinese plan, contribute to the diversity and prosperity of world cultures, and add luster to the progress of human civilization. 4. highlight cultural confidence and unite the spirit with the new era's cultural ideology in october 2023, the new era cultural thought was formally proposed at the national conference on propaganda, ideological and cultural work, marking a milestone in the history of the development of propaganda, ideological and cultural undertakings. the birth of new era cultural thought further interprets the chinese solution for the development of sinicization of marxism, showcases the unique charm of chinese culture on the world stage, and lays a solid foundation for realizing the chinese dream of the great rejuvenation of the chinese nation. practice has shown that the formation of new era cultural thought is a clear sign that historical confidence and cultural confidence have reached new heights. "with deep historical insight and profound cultural insight, and with a broad vision of the grand view of history and the grand view of civilization, we are good at extracting the essence and drawing energy from the treasure house of chinese culture, constantly consolidating the deep foundation of chinese spirit, chinese values and chinese strength, and contributing [16] to the vigorous rejuvenation of the chinese nation and the colorful prosperity of human civilization." at the same time, with an open and inclusive attitude, we showcase the eternal charm and contemporary value of chinese civilization to the world. 4.1 the establishment of the subjectivity of cultural thought in the new era "any culture must have its own subjectivity [17] in order to stand firm and go far, to have the power to lead, to unite, to shape and to radiate." its subjectivity does not arise out of thin air, but is deeply rooted in the course of the times and closely related to many aspects of the construction of socialist culture with chinese characteristics. new era cultural thought leads the construction of people's happiness in the new era through multiple dimensions. among them, the establishment of subjectivity is particularly crucial. it is like a solid foundation that provides guidance for people to clearly recognize their core position in cultural inheritance, innovation and development, thereby laying a solid ideological foundation for building cultural confidence and helping people find a sense of belonging and value in the cultural field. guided by marxism, it delves deeply into the rich connotations of chinese culture, integrates the basic principles of marxism with the fine traditional chinese culture, profoundly explains the significance of the "two combinations", builds a cultural theory system with chinese characteristics, style and spirit, clarifies the unique position of chinese culture in the world cultural pattern, and demonstrates the autonomy and independence of chinese culture. new era cultural thought has a powerful leading role, guiding the construction and practice of advanced socialist culture and promoting the vigorous development of cultural undertakings and industries. through the implementation of a series of policy measures and cultural activities, this ideology prompts culture to better serve the people, enrich the people's spiritual world, and enhance the people's spiritual strength. this practical foundation is not only reflected in the process of theory formation, but also in all areas of cultural practice in the new era. for example, in the development of cultural variety shows in the new era, we can see that under the guidance of new ideas, the shows, by delving deeply into traditional cultural elements, not only present the spirit of the times but also enhance their own cultural connotations and aesthetic values. this innovative practice is a vivid manifestation of its ideas in the cultural field. the establishment of subjectivity, on the one hand, enriches and develops the marxist view of culture in theory, and on the other hand, promotes the flourishing of the cultural cause of socialism with chinese characteristics in practice, which can provide a powerful spiritual impetus for the realization of the great rejuvenation of the chinese nation. 4.2 methodological considerations for the innovation of the contemporary cultural governance system at present, the state has put forward a series of important discourse on cultural construction, emphasizing: "we should explore effective mechanisms for the integration of culture and technology, achieve digital empowerment and information transformation of cultural construction, and convert cultural resource advantages into cultural development advantages. at the same time, it is necessary to improve the system and mechanism for the protection and inheritance of cultural heritage, accelerate the improvement of the legal and institutional system, and promote the legalization and standardization of cultural governance. [18] these important statements provide scientific methodological guidance for the innovation of the cultural governance system. among them, the new era further establishes the subjectivity of cultural thought in the new era, laying a solid theoretical foundation for the innovation of the cultural governance system and pointing out the direction of progress. it strongly supports the grand journey of the great rejuvenation of the chinese nation. from a practical perspective, different regions and different groups have different cultural demands. how to fully consider and meet these demands in the governance system is the focus of innovation. for example, at the community level, the development of new era community ideological and political work practices provides hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 6 published by ideas spread numerous cases and experiences for cultural governance, promoting the dissemination and development of culture in the community through effective ideological and political work, and enhancing residents' cultural identity and sense of belonging. in addition, when innovating the cultural governance system, attention should also be paid to integrating with the development of the times. new forms and channels of culture are constantly emerging in the process of rapid social change. the cultural governance system actively uses new technologies and means to enhance the efficiency and quality of governance. and in the context of increasingly frequent international exchanges, the innovation of the cultural governance system should also have a global perspective, draw on the excellent cultural governance experiences of other countries, promote the dissemination and exchange of chinese culture on the world stage, and achieve mutual learning, mutual benefit and common progress among civilizations. this is a complex and systematic project that requires in-depth exploration and practice from multiple dimensions such as theory, practice and the times. 4.3 an extension of the value theory of a community with a shared future for mankind at the centenary conference, it was emphasized that "we will continue to work with all peace-loving nations and peoples to promote the common values of all mankind, namely peace, development, equity, justice, democracy and freedom, to uphold cooperation without confrontation, openness without closure, mutual benefit and win-win without zero-sum games, and to oppose hegemonism and power politics. push the wheel of history towards a bright goal[19]." countries should carry forward the purposes and principles of the un charter, build a new type of international relations with win-win cooperation at its core, and create a community with a shared future for mankind. in the context of the new era, the axiological extension of the concept of a community with a shared future for mankind has multi-dimensional implications. politically, it advocates equality and mutual consultation, breaking the old order dominated by powerful countries; in terms of security, we advocate a vision of common, comprehensive, cooperative and sustainable security, and work together to deal with diverse threats; pursue an open, innovative, inclusive and mutually beneficial development model, such as the belt and road initiative; culturally encourage exchanges and mutual learning among civilizations and abandon the wrong western view of civilization; ecologically, it emphasizes respecting nature, green development, and addressing global ecological challenges. under the guidance of the cultural ideology of the new era, the value theory of a community with a shared future for mankind extends to contribute chinese wisdom and solutions to global governance, highlighting the important role of culture in national development. with this idea in mind, countries can promote the progress of human civilization and achieve world peace and prosperity. as the idea spreads and is put into practice, china's say in global cultural governance and the international influence of chinese culture will be further enhanced, and china will contribute more to building a better world through various cultural exchange activities. 5. conclusions the modern construction of cultural confidence in the new era is a systematic project that integrates historical inheritance, current innovation and future prospects. from the modern transformation of traditional culture to the era elevation of advanced culture, and then to the leading support of new era cultural thought, these three dimensions constitute the complete logical chain of cultural confidence construction. in this process, we have seen the historical continuity of cultural roots, witnessed the vitality of cultural innovation in the times, and felt the spiritual power of ideological guidance. this construction is not a simple cultural restoration, but a creative transformation based on a profound understanding of the laws of cultural development; not a closed selfappreciation, but an open development in the exchange and mutual learning of civilizations; not an empty theoretical deduction, but a real movement deeply rooted in the practice of socialism with chinese characteristics. the modern construction of cultural confidence is of particular significance in the journey towards the great rejuvenation of the chinese nation. it is both a spiritual symbol of national rejuvenation and an important support for the country's soft power. by achieving the modern transformation of traditional culture through upholding tradition and innovation, we are able to establish cultural identity in the dialogue between history and reality; by leading values to elevate advanced culture in an era, we can gather spiritual strength in the combination of theory and practice; we are able to demonstrate cultural confidence in the interaction between the local and the global by promoting the implementation of the new era's cultural thought through the soul-casting of ideas. these three dimensions support and promote each other, together forming the practical path of cultural construction in the new era and laying a solid cultural foundation for building a culturally strong country and achieving national rejuvenation. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 7 published by ideas spread looking to the future, the modern construction of cultural confidence is an ongoing historical process. it requires us to grasp the roots of culture while adhering to the right path, to activate cultural vitality through innovation, and to broaden cultural horizons through openness. references [1] xi jinping. 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(2019). firmly upholding cultural confidence and building a socialist cultural power [j]. qiushi, (12), 4–12. [10] the cpc central committee held a symposium to commemorate the 130th anniversary of mao zedong's birth. (2024). communist party member, (01), 6–9. [11] xi jinping. (2014). xi jinping on governance. beijing: foreign languages press, 106. [12] china jiangsu network. (2022). xi jinping: fine traditional chinese culture is the root and soul of the chinese nation [eb/ol]. [13] xi jinping. (2023, march 16). join hands to walk the path of modernization [n]. people's daily, (002). [14] hu, x., yu, m., & ruan, s. (2024). shouldering new cultural missions with firm cultural confidence and selfstrengthening [j]. qiushi, (24), 78. [15] xi jinping. (2023). speech at the seminar on cultural inheritance and development [j]. qiushi, (17), 4–11. [16] party building. (2024). party building, (11), 6–7. [17] xi jinping. (2021). speech at the celebration of the 100th anniversary of the founding of the communist party of china [j]. qiushi, (7), 4–9. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n2p39 39 published by ideas spread implications and recommendations for the implementation of the marrakesh treaty in china in the context of safeguarding the health of dyslexic groups yang huikang1, chen xiaoye2, lin cenmin2 & wang qi3 1 law school, university of glasgow, glasgow, united kingdom 2 school of intellectual property, east china university of political science and law, shanghai, china 3 school of law, qufu normal university, rizhao, china correspondence: chen xiaoye, school of intellectual property, east china university of political science and law, shanghai, china. received: march 12, 2025; accepted: march 26, 2025; published: march 30, 2025 abstract the marrakesh treaty, in response to the difficulty of visually impaired people and other reading-impaired people in obtaining works that they can read, enjoy and study, stipulates limitations and exceptions to copyright, which guarantees the basic rights of special groups to access information and ideas, and safeguards the physical and mental health development of these groups from the perspective of human rights. as one of the parties to the marrakesh treaty, china has actively promoted the implementation of the content of the treaty, expanding the scope of beneficiaries and accessible format versions and adding exceptions to technological measures in the copyright law amended in 2020, in order to prepare for the fulfillment of international treaty obligations. however, there is still a gap between the current legislation of china and the requirements of the treaty, and the problems are specifically reflected in the unclear qualifying conditions for circumventing technological measures, disputes over the types of restricted rights, and the absence of provisions related to cross-border exchange. in order to implement the provisions of the treaty, china should adjust the existing legislation to address the problems, reasonably interpret the term "normal way" in the provisions of the circumvention of technical measures, and clarify the types of restricted rights, including the right of reproduction, the right of distribution, the right of dissemination in the information network, the right of modification, the right of translation, and the right of exhibition. separate regulations should be established for the cross-border exchange system. keywords: marrakesh treaty, right to health, technical measures, rights limitations 1. introduction visually impaired people and other dyslexic people have high reading costs and narrower access to information than the general population. the world blind union estimates that there are approximately 180 million visually impaired people in the world. for humanitarian reasons and to ensure healthy physical and mental development, it is widely accepted that visually impaired people and other reading disabled people need to be provided with the necessary accessible versions of books to increase their access to the written word. however, only about 5 per cent of the books currently published are in alternative formats accessible to the visually impaired. [1]this is not conducive to the healthy physical and mental development of the visually impaired. the question of how to guarantee the basic right of the visually impaired to equal access to and reading of cultural products has become a matter of strong international concern. the marrakesh treaty to facilitate access to published works for the blind, visually impaired and other persons with print disabilities (the "marrakesh treaty") was concluded in 2013 under the auspices of the world intellectual property organization ("wipo"), following tireless efforts by international organisations such as the international union of the blind ("iub") and other parties, and entered into force in 2016. "marrakesh treaty"), which entered into force in 2016. this treaty is a historic attempt to explore the issue of how to guarantee the fundamental rights of visually impaired persons and other persons with print disabilities. meanwhile, china, as one of the initial states parties to the marrakesh treaty, has been taking a positive attitude to promote the implementation of the treaty in china. the purpose of this paper is to analyse and discuss the interface problems that may exist in the process hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 40 published by ideas spread of interpreting or implementing the marrakesh treaty in china's existing relevant laws, and to put forward further ideas and suggestions. 2. significance of the conclusion and implementation of the marrakesh treaty the parties to the marrakesh treaty, recognising the social problem of unequal access to and reading of cultural products by persons with visual impairments due to the impairment of the right to health, and with a view to guaranteeing freedom of access to information and reading for persons with visual impairments in order to achieve equality of opportunity in society and to safeguard the greater public good, in the light of the convention on the rights of persons with disabilities, which establishes the principles of non-discrimination, equal opportunity, accessibility, and full and effective participation and inclusion in society. after several rounds of negotiations, the parties concluded the marrakesh treaty on the basis of the principles set out in the united nations convention on the rights of persons with disabilities, with a view to guaranteeing freedom of access to information and reading for visually impaired persons in the territories of the parties, thereby safeguarding the physical and mental health of the visually impaired population as a whole. 2.1 treaty guarantees the right of access to information and the right to read for people with visual impairments the number of people with impaired health is currently huge, and among them, visual impairment is very common. the world health organisation has published the world sight report, which states that at least 2.2 billion people worldwide are visually impaired or blind. [2] the right to access information and the right to read of visually impaired people has not been fully realised. according to surveys, blind people and other visually impaired groups generally have a low level of education, and their difficulties in reading, access to information and communication stem to a large extent from the limited availability of reading products, which make it difficult to meet the needs of this group. [3] the marrakesh treaty guarantees the right of access to information and the right to read for the visually impaired. the marrakesh treaty is a landmark agreement on limitations and exceptions to the international copyright regime. firstly, it establishes, through mandatory obligations, a "minimum standard of protection" for access to works by visually impaired persons and other persons with print disabilities in order to address the "book shortage" of hundreds of millions of such persons around the globe; and secondly, it adopts the concept of "accessible communication" to encourage the "dissemination of information". secondly, the treaty adopts the concept of "accessible communication" to encourage parties to adopt more user-friendly standards to guarantee the fundamental rights of visually impaired persons and other persons with print disabilities. [4] finally, the treaty's provisions on the cross-border exchange of works in accessible formats provide an international treaty basis for the acquisition of accessible versions between countries, especially developing countries, from developed countries at lower import costs. [5] 2.2 guaranteeing the right to accessible reading for the visually impaired contributes to the healthy development of the individual and the community guaranteeing the fundamental rights of the visually impaired requires guaranteeing the right to read for the visually impaired. australian academics have found that people with disabilities have the same or similar experiences to those of able-bodied people in all aspects of life, which greatly affects the realisation of their fundamental rights. [6]. the realisation of the right to read is essential to guaranteeing the basic rights of this group of visually impaired people. guaranteeing the right to accessible reading for the visually impaired contributes to the healthy development of the individual. education is essential for the survival and development of the individual and is a major factor in personal growth. however, the visually impaired generally receive only compulsory education, and only 1 per cent of the total number of blind persons enrolled in higher education. [7] the national human rights action plan (2021-2025) stresses the need to "improve the mechanism for guaranteeing special education." [8] therefore, guaranteeing the right to read for the visually impaired is conducive to helping them acquire relevant knowledge, safeguarding their right to education and cultural rights, affirming their personal values, and helping them to develop in a healthy manner both physically and mentally. guaranteeing the right to accessible reading for the visually impaired contributes to the healthy development of society. guaranteeing the right to read not only indirectly contributes to the sustainable development of a country's economy. reading not only helps visually impaired people to better understand the job information, preventing them from being disadvantaged in the job application; it also helps visually impaired people to obtain higher level of knowledge and education or professional skills training, so that they can seek for a better salary. therefore, reading can indirectly protect the labour rights of visually impaired workers, improve their economic level and promote the economic development of the country [9]. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 41 published by ideas spread the guarantee of the right to read can also indirectly contribute to the development of national human rights. reading helps visually impaired people to be informed of national policies and to exercise their political rights. article 21 of the convention on the rights of persons with disabilities stipulates that states parties shall take all appropriate measures to ensure that persons with disabilities have access to the right to express their views freely. [10]. guaranteeing the right of free expression for the visually impaired can enable them to speak out more for the visually impaired on the government platform, thus further improving the measures for the protection of human rights in china and promoting the development of the human rights cause in china. in conclusion, by guaranteeing the right to read to the visually impaired, the treaty is safeguarding the healthy development of the visually impaired as individuals as well as the sustainable development of society. 2.3 implementation of the treaty has contributed to the achievement of guaranteeing the right to read for the visually impaired population the marrakesh treaty guarantees the physical and mental integrity of the human rights of the visually impaired. the marrakesh treaty pays more attention to the actual objective status of the beneficiaries in terms of the existence of dyslexia. the treaty has diluted the "able-bodied-disabled" dichotomy, making it possible to assist special groups in a more humane manner, focusing more on the physical health of the social group than on the physical impairment, and breaking down the barrier between the visually impaired and the able-bodied. [11] it is also clearly stipulated that the privacy of the beneficiaries should be protected, so that the self-confidence of the visually impaired and other reading-disabled persons will not be undermined while they are provided with facilities. [12] information and knowledge are essential to enable people to live freely and realise their potential. the marrakesh treaty guarantees, among other things, the right of visually impaired people to access information and reading. following the entry into force of the treaty, wipo established the accessible books consortium (hereinafter referred to as the "abc organisation") as a permanent organisation within wipo, and clarified the rules on accessible formats and encouraged publishers to develop accessible formats. the abc organisation has established regulations on accessible formats and encourages publishers to produce accessible editions. these measures have led to an increase in the number of producers of accessible publications, and [13] has expanded the sources of reading for the visually impaired. with cross-border exchange provisions, the exchange of works in accessible formats between parties is facilitated and cultural sharing is promoted. 3. impact of the marrakesh treaty on china's copyright act china signed the marrakesh treaty on 28 june 2013 and formally ratified the marrakesh treaty on 23 october 2021, and the treaty entered into force on 5 may 2022 for china. in order to bring china's copyright law into line with the provisions of the marrakesh treaty, certain amendments have been made to the relevant provisions of the existing copyright law, including the expansion of the scope of beneficiary and accessible format versions, and the addition of exceptions to technological measures. 3.1 expanded range of beneficiaries article 3 of the marrakesh treaty defines the beneficiaries as "persons with low vision who, despite correction, are unable to achieve the vision necessary for the normal reading of books, as well as persons who are unable to read books normally because of other impediments or physical disabilities". however, the original copyright law and the relevant provisions of the regulations on the protection of the right to information network dissemination only limit the beneficiaries to blind people who use "braille", which obviously narrows the scope of beneficiaries of the marrakesh treaty, and there is a certain distance between the two. [14] article 24 of the current copyright act addresses this issue by stipulating that among the limitations and exceptions to the right is the right to "make published works available to persons with print disabilities in accessible formats that they can perceive". the amendment of this article brings our provisions on beneficiaries more in line with the provisions of the marrakesh treaty. 3.2 expanded scope of accessible format versions format-accessible versions are defined broadly in the marrakesh treaty to include "versions of a work that enable the beneficiary to use the work as practically and comfortably as a person without a visual impairment or other print disability". however, the limitations and exceptions of the copyright act 2010 provide for accessible format versions only in braille, which is a far cry from the requirements of the marrakesh treaty. in response, the current copyright act was amended to no longer limit the version of a work that can be made available to persons with print disabilities to braille, but to include "large print" paperbacks, e-books, and audio books, by providing that they be made available "in an accessible format that can be perceived by a person with a print disability", instead, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 42 published by ideas spread by stipulating "in an accessible format that is perceivable by persons with print disabilities", the scope of accessible format versions is greatly expanded to include "large print" paperbacks, e-books, and audio books, thus further fulfilling the requirements of the treaty. [15] 3.3 increased exceptions to technical protection measures the copyright act 2010 does not provide for exceptions to technological protection measures for the dyslexic community. however, the marrakesh treaty requires parties to take measures to avoid technological measures that prevent beneficiaries from enjoying the limitations and exceptions provided for in the treaty. in this regard, article 50 of the current copyright law stipulates: "technological measures may be circumvented in the following cases, provided that the technology, device or component that circumvents the technological measures is not made available to others, and that it does not infringe upon other rights enjoyed by the right holders in accordance with the law: ...... (b) not for profit, but in an accessible manner that is perceivable by persons with dyslexia accessible means that can be perceived by the person with print disabilities to whom the published work is made available and to whom the work cannot be accessed through normal means; ......". this provision adds an exception to the direct circumvention of technical measures by providing accessible format copies to persons with print disabilities, and explicitly prohibits the provision of means of circumvention, and does not allow for exceptions to be made by law or administrative regulations, in line with the marrakesh treaty. 4. specific aspects of the implementation of the marrakesh treaty in the country although china's copyright law has been amended to adapt to the marrakesh treaty, there is still a gap between china's legislation and the provisions of the marrakesh treaty, and some of the provisions of the treaty have not yet been clarified through legislation in china. in order to promote the effective implementation of the marrakesh treaty in china, it is necessary to explain the gaps between china's legislation and the provisions of the treaty, and to specifically analyse the problems that exist in existing laws and regulations. these problems are mainly reflected in the following three major areas. 4.1 lack of clarity in the qualifying conditions for circumvention of technical measures according to article 7 of the marrakesh treaty, "appropriate measures shall be taken, where necessary, to ensure that where it provides for appropriate legal protection and effective legal remedies against the circumvention of effective technological measures, such legal protection does not prevent the beneficiaries from benefiting from the limitations and exceptions provided for in this treaty." to give effect to this provision, article 50(2) of china's copyright law adds a new exception to the prohibition on the circumvention of technological measures, namely, "making a published work available to persons with print disabilities in an accessible manner that is perceivable by such persons without the purpose of making a profit, where such work is not accessible through normal means". the restriction imposed in this case includes the phrase "not accessible by normal means", but as of now, there is a lack of regulations that clearly explain "normal means". [16] this issue has led to disputes between the copyright owner and the authorised subject over the circumstances in which article 50(2) of the copyright law can be applied, which may lead to a number of litigation activities that could have been avoided and increase the litigation costs for the relevant subjects. for copyright owners, this provision will further increase the uncertainty and cost of defending their rights, which will further aggravate the difficulty of defending their rights; while the increase in litigation cost will bring a huge economic burden to the non-profit authorised bodies, resulting in a lower proportion of the budget of the authorised bodies for the production of accessible format versions of the works, and a decrease in the number of works in accessible format, which is not in line with the legislative purpose of article 50(2). 4.2 disputes over the types of rights restricted with regard to the types of rights that should be subject to limitations, the marrakesh treaty establishes as peremptory norms the right of reproduction, the right of distribution and the right of communication to the public [17], while it establishes as arbitrary norms the right of public performance [18], the right of translation, the right of adaptation and the right of neighbouring rights. in other words, states parties should make the reproduction right, the distribution right and the right of communication to the public the minimum requirements for limitations and exceptions in their domestic copyright laws, while limitations and exceptions to the right of public performance, the right of translation, the right of adaptation and the neighbouring right are not mandatory. specifically, under the marrakesh treaty, it is up to the contracting parties to decide whether or not to limit the right of public performance ; the right of translation [19] is up to the contracting parties to decide whether or not to provide limitations and exceptions to the limitation and exceptions "which neither narrow nor widen the scope of application of the limitations and exceptions permitted by the berne convention"; and the right of adaptation [20] is up to the contracting parties to decide whether or not to the right of adaptation is subject to limitations and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 43 published by ideas spread exceptions determined by the contracting parties within the limits of "the modifications required for the transformation of the work into an alternative accessible format and the accessibility needs of the beneficiaries"; [21] the requirements relating to neighbouring rights are set out in the agreed statement, whereby, on the one hand, works to which the limitations and exceptions provided for in the treaty are applicable include such works in their audio form, e.g., audio books [22]. on the other hand, the act of reproducing, distributing or making available the work to beneficiaries shall also be subject to the limitations and exceptions of the treaty mutatis mutandis. [23] there is little dispute in china as to whether there is a need to limit the types of rights covered by the peremptory norms of the marrakesh treaty, but there are different views as to whether there is a need to limit the types of rights covered by the arbitrary norms. from the perspective of comparative law, there are fewer countries that set limitations and exceptions to the right of public performance, the right of translation, the right of adaptation and the right of neighbouring rights. one of the main reasons for this is that some countries have different views on how to interpret the "equality" of visually impaired persons and other reading disabled persons with normal persons, with one view suggesting that the limits of the guarantee of equal access to works for this category of persons should be equal to, and not exceed, the range of works available to normal persons, while the opposite view exists as well. however, there are also opposing views. [24] although article 24(1)(12) of china's copyright law stipulates the limitations and exceptions to copyright for works provided to dyslexics, it does not explicitly limit the types of rights, but actually points to many of the rights stipulated in article 10. the inclusion of all rights under article 10 in the scope of limitations, while more favourable to the protection of the rights of persons with print disabilities, may unreasonably prejudice the interests of copyright holders. therefore, the necessity of restricting some of the rights is controversial. [25] 4.3 lack of provisions on cross-border exchange article 5 of the marrakesh treaty provides for a system of "cross-border exchange", whereby a party shall provide for a domestic authorised entity to distribute or make available legally produced accessible format copies to beneficiaries or authorised entities of another party. the purpose of the system is to break down geographical barriers to accessible formats, promote international circulation, assist parties in sharing information to ensure that visually impaired persons and other persons with print disabilities in different countries have equal access to information at , and to expand their knowledge of the outside world with a wealth of accessible formats to further enrich their spiritual and cultural life. regrettably, however, there is no system of "cross-border exchange" in the current copyright law. the absence of such a system is not only detrimental to the fulfilment of china's treaty obligations; it may also lead to the duplication of production of some works by domestic authorised subjects, which will increase production costs; and it may even lead to the situation where people with print disabilities in china are unable to enjoy some of the works of art due to the geographical restriction of copyright, which is not conducive to the active protection of the basic rights of people with print disabilities in china. 5. recommendations for the improvement of our system (direct and clear responses to the problem) the system for safeguarding the fundamental rights of persons with print disabilities in china is not yet complete, as our legislation still contains problems such as unclear qualifying conditions for the circumvention of technical measures, disputes over the types of rights subject to restriction, and the absence of provisions relating to crossborder exchanges. in order to implement the provisions of the marrakesh treaty as soon as possible and assume the responsibilities that states parties should undertake, it is necessary to prescribe the right medicine and establish and improve the relevant institutional rules. 5.1 clarifying the qualifications of technical measures according to the marrakesh treaty, the circumvention of technological measures is based on the principle of not hindering the implementation of the content of the treaty, and the interpretation of the qualifying conditions should not be overly expansive, as it may otherwise unduly jeopardise the rights and interests of right holders. it has been argued that the "normal way" should be based on "the work cannot be obtained unless technical measures are taken to avoid it". [26] however, this view is too harsh. on the one hand, if this standard is adopted, it in fact imposes an excessive searching obligation on the authorised subject, requiring the authorised subject to exhaust all possible ways of obtaining the work, increasing the possibility of infringement by the authorised subject, and overriding the relevant provisions on the restriction of technical measures. on the other hand, this criterion increases the time cost and production cost of the authorised subject, which is not conducive to the achievement of the legislative purpose of this amendment. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 44 published by ideas spread in order to rationalise the meaning of "normal means", reference can be made to the definition of "commercial availability" under the "minimum conditions". article 4, paragraph 4, of the marrakesh treaty establishes "commercial availability" as a condition for the production of a work in an accessible format, i.e., only works that are not commercially available in the relevant market in a particular accessible format on reasonable terms for the benefit of beneficiaries are exempted from infringement as a limitation and exception under the treaty. this paragraph limits the scope of works covered by the limitations and exceptions of the treaty, but the lack of a clear definition of "reasonable conditions" makes it difficult to fulfil the limiting effect of the article. in order to clarify the meaning of "commercial availability", the existing views on the interpretation of "reasonable conditions" are divided into two categories, one of which is the "minimum conditions" from the perspective of the protection of reading impaired persons. the first is the "minimum conditions" argument, which is based on the protection of the reading impaired, and the second is the "general conditions" argument, which is based on the consideration of market economy, and considers that "reasonable conditions" refer to the general conditions of access to the work in the market. which refers to the general conditions of access to the work in the marketplace. [27] this paper argues that "reasonable conditions" should be taken to mean "minimum conditions". if the "general conditions" approach is adopted, the provision in fact expects "commercial availability" to adequately compensate the copyright owners so as to encourage them to publish more accessible versions of the works for people with dyslexia, but according to the results of the implementation of a similar system in the uk in the early days, the "commercial availability" approach has been effective in encouraging the publication of works for people with dyslexia. however, based on the results of the implementation of a similar system in the uk in the early days, the incentive effect of "commercial availability" on copyright owners is limited. [28] it also increases the time and cost for the authorised subject to ascertain whether it meets the requirement of "commercial inaccessibility". [29] on the other hand, the fact that the "authorised subject" obtains the relevant work in an accessible format constitutes a limitation and an exception in itself, and the exclusion of the exhaustion of distribution rights does not extend the scope of the prejudice further to the interests of the copyright owner, and the condition minimises the cost of confirmation for the authorised subject. 5.2 types of rights that provide for limitations and exceptions with regard to the types of rights that the marrakesh treaty explicitly stipulates that states parties should include in the limitations and exceptions, namely, the right of reproduction, the right of distribution, and the right of communication to the public, our country should comply with the corresponding provisions of the legislation to clarify them. for other types of rights, this paper suggests that the right of amendment, the right of translation and the right of exhibition should be included in the limitations and exceptions. 5.2.1 right to amend when producing accessible format versions of a work, it is inevitable that the work will need to be altered to a certain extent in order to facilitate comprehension by persons with print disabilities, and this alteration is an act of modification rather than an act of adaptation. some scholars believe that the modification of the text can create a new work that is easy to be understood by the visually impaired and dyslexic people. [30] should be regarded as an act of adaptation. however, it should be noted that the act of modification controlled by the right of revision refers to the partial change of the content of the work, as well as the correction of words and phrases, whereas the act of adaptation in the right of adaptation refers to the creation of a new work based on the basic expression of the original work, with the addition of a unique understanding and expression [31]. according to the relevant provisions of the marrakesh treaty, the act of alteration involved in the production of an accessible version is only a necessary modification to adapt to the accessible format version, and if this alteration is interpreted as an act of adaptation that creates a new work by adding originality, it will break the limitations of this provision. although article 36 of china's copyright law stipulates that book publishers, newspaper publishers, and periodical publishers may make modifications to a work with the author's permission, since the subjects providing accessible format versions are not limited to the subjects mentioned in this article, it is still necessary to separately clarify that the right to make modifications is one of the types of rights that are subject to limitations and exceptions for people with print disabilities. 5.2.2 translation rights as one of the developing countries, we should make maximum use of the provisions for developing countries to guarantee the basic rights of our dyslexic population and help them to have more opportunities for development. the right to translation is an arbitrary norm set out in the marrakesh treaty, and it is up to domestic law to decide whether or not to allow a foreign work that has not been published in the country to be translated into the national language and made available in an accessible format. if the exception to the right of translation is excluded, the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 45 published by ideas spread direct translation of a foreign work into the national language, or the translation of a chinese translation of a foreign work into a minority language and its production in an accessible format would require a licence from the copyright holder. the resulting licence fees, which are ultimately passed on to persons with print disabilities, are a significant and unnecessary burden on them, and are inconsistent with the legislative intent of the marrakesh treaty to give preferential treatment to disadvantaged groups. [32] therefore, article 12 of the marrakesh treaty stipulates that the contracting states may consider applying limitations and exceptions not mandated by the treaty in accordance with their own economic conditions and social and cultural needs, and that china may consider whether to include the right of translation as one of the types of limitations and exceptions to copyright in china based on the income level of the dyslexic population in the country as well as the demand for cultural products. according to the 2013 annual monitoring report on the situation of persons with disabilities and the progress of xiaokang in china, persons with disabilities in china in general do not have a high level of education, have difficulties in employment, and have lower incomes, while visually impaired persons and other persons with print disabilities also face the same difficulties. [33] according to statistics from the world health organization, the number of blind and other visually impaired persons in china accounts for approximately 20 per cent of the total number of blind persons in the world, and the number of visually impaired persons stands at 17.31 million. [34] in order to guarantee the fundamental right of access to cultural and artistic achievements for the reading impaired in our country despite their disadvantaged position, it is necessary to include the right to translation as one of the types of rights that are subject to limitations and exceptions to the right. 5.2.3 exhibition rights it has been argued that persons with print disabilities are unable to appreciate the "beauty" contained in works of art and photography by means of interpretation by others, and that if works of art and photography should be excluded from the types of works subject to restriction, the corresponding right of exhibition should not be restricted. [35] but in fact, according to the definition of the marrakesh treaty, dyslexics are divided into three categories, namely, blind people, people with visual impairment, perceptual impairment or dyslexia, and people who are unable to read normally due to physical disability . according to our visual disability standards, the entire visual disability is divided into four levels, with levels 1 and 2 called blindness and levels 3 and 4 called low vision. [36] therefore, not all dyslexics are completely unable to enjoy art and photography. for those dyslexics who still have a sense of light, they can still feel the "sense of beauty" in the works through the co-operation of other teaching aids. as dyslexics have a need to appreciate art and photography works, and exhibition is an important way to satisfy this need, in order to balance the interests of the right holders and dyslexics, this article believes that the restriction of the right to exhibition can be managed by the relevant departments of the national copyright organisation. for example, it is stipulated that the main body of the exhibition has the right to organise the exhibition, and the report of the exhibition activities, etc., so as to ensure that the exhibition will not unreasonably damage the legitimate interests of the copyright holders. 5.3 establishment and improvement of a system for the cross-border exchange of works in accessible formats (not to be overly broad, but to be used as a reference) as mentioned earlier, due to the lack of relevant provisions on the cross-border exchange of accessible format works in china, in order to fully fulfil its international treaty obligations, china should improve the system in a timely manner. with regard to the choice of legislative model, considering that the system of cross-border exchange of works in accessible formats is rich in details, it is more suitable for this part of the system to be uniformly provided for in the form of a separate regulation. the author suggests that our country can specify the authorised subject in charge of cross-border exchange in the separate legislation, so that the authorised subject can join the abc organisation. the adoption of multiple coordination and guarantee mechanism is more suitable for the reality of china's national conditions. [37] in this state, it is clear that the national public libraries are the representatives for receiving and exporting cross-border exchanges in china, and joining the abc organisation on behalf of our country, which will help our country to provide the list of works in accessible formats in a timely manner, avoiding the duplication of receiving the relevant accessible works, and improving the efficiency of cross-border exchanges. the duty of care of the authorised subject is clarified through the procedure of taking care. article 5, paragraph 2, subparagraph 2, of the marrakesh treaty in fact imposes a certain degree of duty of care on the authorised subject. [38] failure to specify the extent of the duty of care to be assumed by the authorised subject may result in the authorised subject being involved in litigation as a result of the act of cross-border exchange and being liable to pay compensation, which will impose a greater burden on the authorised subject and will not be conducive to its hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 46 published by ideas spread proactive participation in cross-border exchanges, thus undermining the realisation of the legislative intent of the marrakesh treaty. standardise the production and management of accessible format versions of works. strengthen training in the production of accessible format versions of works. it is most appropriate to adopt inclusive publishing for works in accessible formats, i.e. inherently accessible formats using epub3 technology. china can provide relevant organisations with targeted training in epub3 technology to facilitate the exchange of relevant accessible formats within and across borders, in order to realise the legislative intent of the marrakesh treaty and safeguard the right to read of the visually impaired. establishment of a platform for the preservation of works in accessible formats. this measure will help realise the collection and unified management of works in accessible formats, which will help china to provide a clear exchange list when exchanging accessible format documents with foreign countries, so as to avoid duplication or omission and improve the efficiency of exchange. in order to present more clearly the relevant recommendations of this paper for this one-line treaty, the author summarises the relevant recommendations as follows table 1: table 1. legislative recommendations relating to cross-border exchange regimes legislative recommendations relating to cross-border exchange regimes international level join the abc organisation authorised entities clarification of the duty of care of authorised subjects in cross-border exchanges through a care procedure identify public libraries as authorised entities responsible for cross-border exchanges in the country works in accessible formats establishment of a preservation platform for works in accessible formats enhanced training in accessible format production 6. conclusion the marrakesh treaty took five years to draft and conclude, and although the content of the treaty was hotly debated by countries based on their own interests, a consensus was finally reached, and it was made clear in the preamble that the treaty would always abide by the principles of guaranteeing non-discrimination, equal opportunities, accessibility, and full and effective participation and integration of visually impaired persons and other persons with print disabilities into society. our country has actively participated in promoting the work of the treaty and will amend the copyright law in 2020 to prepare legislation for the implementation of the treaty, reflecting our country's attention to the fundamental rights of special populations and our practical efforts to protect the physical and mental health of visually impaired persons and other persons with print disabilities. however, at present, china's legislation has not yet reached a level that fully meets the requirements of the marrakesh treaty, and lacks more specific and clear provisions on technical measures, types of restricted rights and cross-border exchanges, making it difficult to fully fulfil international treaty obligations. in this regard, china should address the existing problems by clarifying the qualifying conditions for circumventing technical measures and the types of restricted rights, and at the same time gradually establish and improve the relevant rules on cross-border exchange through the establishment of separate regulations. reference [1] sccr/15/7. (n.d.). page 14. [2] world health organization. (n.d.). world sight report. retrieved december 19, 2022, from https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/328717/9789240008564-chi.pdf [3] zhang, b., yi, h., liu, x., & chen, x. (2013). a study on the reading status of visually impaired readers and coping strategies in an all-media environment. library forum(6), 128. [4] yang, l. (2021). the marrakesh treaty and the improvement of china's copyright restriction system. china publishing(23), 11. [5] marrakesh treaty. (n.d.). article ix. [6] darcy, s., & taylor, t. (2009). disability citizenship: an australian human rights analysis of the cultural industries. leisure studies, 28, 419. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 47 published by ideas spread [7] li, x. (2013). china's reading resources for the blind and the current situation of reading promotion. new century library(5), 19-22. [8] information office of the state council of the people's republic of china. (n.d.). national human rights action plan (2021-2025). retrieved from http://www.scio.gov.cn/37234/document/1712231/1712231.htm [9] world intellectual property organization. (2013). the marrakesh treaty: main provisions and benefits. retrieved from https://www.ncac.gov.cn/chinacopyright/contents/12707/356524.shtml [10] convention on the rights of persons with disabilities. (n.d.). article 21. [11] shao, h. (2022). the marrakesh treaty: influence and inspiration on china's accessible publishing practices. china publishing(10). [12] marrakesh treaty. (n.d.). article viii. [13] wang, q., & xu, f. (2020). extraterritorial publishing practices and inspiration in implementing the marrakesh treaty. publishing and distribution research(3), 52-53. [14] wang, q., & shao, t. (2021). on the marrakesh treaty and the revision of china's copyright legislation. copyright theory and practice(10). [15] marrakesh treaty. (n.d.). article 2. [16] jia, x. (2022). the interpretation of the dyslexic provisions of the copyright act—and the full implementation of the marrakesh treaty obligations. times law journal(5), 18-20. [17] copyright treaty of the world intellectual property organization. (n.d.). right to make available to the public as provided. [18] wang, q. (2019). course on intellectual property law (6th ed., pp. 132-133). beijing: people's university of china press. [19] marrakesh treaty. (n.d.). article 4. [20] marrakesh treaty. (n.d.). agreed statement 4. [21] marrakesh treaty. (n.d.). article 2. [22] marrakesh treaty. (n.d.). agreed statement 1. [23] marrakesh treaty. (n.d.). agreed statement 13. [24] wipo. (n.d.). doc.sccr/ss/ge/2/13/3/prov.draft report (paras. 26 & 29). [25] hua, j., & huang, l. (2016). the impact of the marrakesh treaty on the system of limitations and exceptions of copyright rights in china. journal of tongji university (social science edition)(6), 121-122. [26] same as [21]. [27] chin, d. (2022). a study on the construction of publication and dissemination of works in accessible formats in china. disability studies(3), 66. [28] kouletakis, j. (2020). no man is an island: a critical analysis of the uk's implementation of the marrakesh treaty. script-ed, 17(1), 54-82. [29] intellectual property office. (2018). government response to marrakesh consultation. [30] hua, j. (2016). the impact of the marrakesh treaty on the system of limitations and exceptions of copyright rights in china. journal of tongji university (social science edition)(12), 121. [31] wang, q. (2021). intellectual property law course (7th ed., p. 154). beijing: renmin university of china press. [32] same as [35]. [33] china association of the blind. (2013). annual monitoring report on the situation of persons with disabilities and the progress of xiaokang in china. retrieved december 19, 2022, from http://www.zgmx.org.cn/newsdetail/d-56458-0.html [34] ma, m. (n.d.). "light of love" blindness prevention foundation to help poor blind people regain sight. china association of the blind. retrieved december 19, 2022, from http://www.zgmx.org.cn/newsdetail/d10147.html [35] yan, y. (2022). a study of copyright risks of accessible information services in public libraries in the context hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 48 published by ideas spread of the implementation of the marrakesh treaty. disability studies, 9, 68-74. [36] chinese association for the blind. (n.d.). what is visual impairment. retrieved december 19, 2022, from http://www.zgmx.org.cn/newsdetail/d-1107.html [37] wang, q., & chen, s. (2021). study on the coordination and guarantee mechanism of "authorized entities" in the context of implementing the marrakesh treaty. china publishing(23), 7-9. [38] marrakesh treaty. (n.d.). article 5. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). microsoft word p1-9 humanities and social science research; vol. 3, no. 2; 2020 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v3n2p1 1 published by ideas spread the trauma of broad-based inclusion for students with autism gary shkedy1, dalia shkedy1 & aileen h. sandoval-norton2 1 alternative teaching strategy center, u.s.a. 2 the chicago school of professional psychology, u.s.a. correspondence: dalia shkedy, alternative teaching strategy center, u.s.a. e-mail: dalia altteaching.org received: april 22, 2020; accepted: may 2, 2020; published: may 9, 2020 no direct funding was received for this research. abstract inclusion is a model where students with disabilities spend most/all of their time in an educational setting with non-disabled students. this model has led many countries to pass laws requiring disabled students be educated in the least restrictive environment: they should be educated with students without disabilities to the maximum extent possible. however, this model ignores the very nature of autism spectrum disorder (asd). the autistic brain is different in both function and structure, making deficits in social interaction, inherent and appropriate for their development. this paper explores research on the autistic brain, comorbidities, child development, and trauma associated with forced inclusion for this population. research on brain function indicates inclusion can be very stressful and can produce anxiety and post-traumatic stress in children with asd. keywords: autism, inclusion, education, neurodevelopmental, trauma 1. introduction inclusion can be generally described as a model where students with disabilities spend most or all of their time in an educational setting with non-disabled students. the idea of inclusion is based on the concept that it is effective for students with special needs to have a mixed experience in order for them to be more successful in social interactions, leading to further success in later life. it is also based on the concept that it is discriminatory to segregate students based on intellectual ability. this model of inclusion has led many countries to pass laws that require students with special needs to be educated in the least restrictive environment i.e. students with disabilities should be educated with students without disabilities to the maximum extent possible. shortly after the reenactment of individuals with disabilities education act (idea) in 2004, the united states department of education institute of educational services published “the condition of education 2005” wherein a chapter advocates for “inclusion of students with disabilities in regular classrooms.” this chapter appeared to emphasize education in the least restrictive environment. however, the chapter actually reports data and various statistics on the demographics of children with disabilities who were most likely to spend time in a “regular classroom.” the data indicates that white students with disabilities were more likely than students of any other ethnicity to spend at least 80% of their day in a regular classroom. black students with disabilities were more likely than students of any other ethnicity to spend less than 40% in their regular classroom (united states department of education, national center for education statistics, 2005). the data reported appears to speak more to racial disparities in regards to school or classroom placement, as oppose to diagnostic differences or individual needs. the chapter seems to imply that white students with disabilities are perhaps perceived as more competent or more able to participate in a regular classroom setting when compared to students of other ethnicities. it comes as no surprise that after the publication of “the condition of education 2005” schools may have felt pressured to assess their special education programs for fear of racial inequalities that could potentially result in their losing funding. this trend has continued over the years and today in a world with a heightened awareness of anti-discrimination and a perceived dearth of school funding, there has been a major push towards more inclusion of special needs students on school campuses, but with no identifiable goal. what is the goal of inclusion? is the goal to teach children to learn social skills or to build relationships with other children? how would attempting to force relationships teach social skills? or perhaps it is an attempt to refrain from racial profiling and prejudices. regardless, the pendulum swayed too far and has resulted in imposing a common practice of “inclusion” onto every child, regardless of the child’s ethnicity, but also regardless of their diagnosis. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 2; 2020 2 published by ideas spread one prime example of this is autism spectrum disorder (asd). while there is no “cure” for asd, there are a plethora of treatments and attempts at alleviating related symptoms. additionally, traditional school settings have been modified in an attempt to address specific needs for children with asd. the individuals with disabilities education act (idea) and other similar laws would suggest that educators have a legal duty to keep students (of all ethnicities) in a regular classroom setting, unless they have diagnoses or special needs that are not compatible with the traditional school setting. while many children with autism spectrum disorder would appear to meet this criterion for separate schooling, educators and parents alike have become convinced that forced socialization is inherently good for all, including those with asd. currently, there are various levels of inclusion used with students with asd. there is the most intensive form of inclusion (also called “mainstreaming”), wherein a child with asd participates in a regular class with typical peers all day. regular classes typically consist of many students with lots of distracting color and decorations, noise, movement etc. there is a slightly less intensive level of inclusion which involves social instruction. this kind of inclusion is often times done during “circle time,” or art or music class, and purports to teach children to engage in basic social interactions such as waving, greeting others, maintaining eye-contact, etc. lastly, some children participate in “inclusion” on the playground during break times or during lunch. this kind of inclusion may be an attempt at getting children with asd to play with typical children. despite the varying levels of inclusion and their presumed goals, it completely disregards the very nature of autism spectrum disorder. 2. autism and the autistic brain autism spectrum disorder (asd) is a neurodevelopmental disorder classified by persistent deficits in social communication and interaction, as well as restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities (american psychiatric association, 2013). symptoms are typically recognized by the second year of life (12-24 months), and may be accompanied with language impairment. while some preschool aged children with asd will eventually use spoken language, approximately 25-50% will remain nonverbal or minimally verbal (baghdadli et al., 2012; lord, risi & pickles, 2004; sigman & mcgovern, 2005). while not a diagnostic criteria, asd has also been strongly associated with sensory processing issues and self-injurious behaviors (duerden et al., 2012; baghdadli, pascal, grisi, & aussilloux, 2003; rattaz, michelon, & baghdadli, 2015; richards, oliver, nelson, & moss, 2012). research indicates various patterns of sensory processing issues with prevalence rates as high as 90% (tomchek & dunn, 2007; tomchek, huebner, & dunn, 2014). self-injurious behaviors (sib) include but are not limited to biting, hair pulling, head-banging, and skin picking/scratching (minshawi et al., 2014). self-injurious behaviors are more common in children with asd than in their typically developing peers. in fact, research suggests 30% of children with asd in clinic-based studies engage in sib (minshawi et al., 2014; soke et al., 2016). the autistic brain is different in both function and structure, which makes their deficits in social interaction, inherent and appropriate for their brain development. in autism research, the “hyperarousal model” is a much supported model which in part states that gaze avoidance is an adaptive (appropriate) response because the face and eyes are strongly aversive to those with asd (corden at al., 2008; dalton et al., 2005; richer & cross, 1976, senju & johnsons, 2009). research also indicates a general hyperactivity in various areas of the autistic brain resulting in overstimulation which can explain a number of symptoms, in addition to just aversive responses to eye-gaze (dichter, fedler, bodfish, 2009; martineau, andersson, barthélémy, cottier & destrieux, 2010; markram & markram, 2010). one study in particular, found 90% of children with asd had sensory abnormalities in multiple sensory domains (leekam, nieto, libby, wing, & gould, 2007). it is this hyperactivity that causes children with asd to be overly stimulated by light, sound, movement and touch, to name a few. researchers found that there were generally six patterns of sensory processing issues in children with asd i.e. low energy/weak, tactile and movement sensitivity, taste/smell sensitivity, auditory and visual sensitivity, sensory seeking/distractibility, and hypo-responsivity (tomchek, huebner, & dunn, 2014). additionally, many children with asd are unable to filter or process external noise which may result in elevated internal noise, causing stress (park, schauder, zhang, bennetto, & tadin, 2017). in individuals with asd there is an 18% prevalence rate of hyperacusis, an abnormally acute hearing due to sensory or neural sensitivity, characterized by intolerance for normal levels of sound (kellerman, fan, & gorman, 2005). subjecting these individuals to the levels of noise generated by their typical peers is not only painful but traumatic. researchers also found that children with asd have increased pain sensitivity and touch sensitivity (riquelme, hatem, & montoya, 2016). placing students with asd in an inclusion environment, one in which other students have no awareness or knowledge of their pain and touch sensitivities, only increases the chances of them being touched, hurt and traumatized. similarly, placing them in an overly stimulating visual environment or one that has too much odor can also cause pain and thereby cause trauma in students with asd. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 2; 2020 3 published by ideas spread furthermore, the atypical pattern of mutual gaze or eye-contact in particular, has been studied and discussed in various clinical and experimental settings (e.g. dalton et al., 2005; pelphrey et al., 2002; rutherford & towns, 2008). overstimulation is seen in the over-activation of the amygdala when eye-gaze is held for longer (dalton, nacewicz, johnstone, schaefer, gernsbacher, goldsmith, et al. 2005; markram & markram, 2010). in fact, as a result of these consistent findings, research has recommended that professionals do not try to engage in eye-contact with children with asd “as this provokes more flight behavior” (richer & cross, 1976, p. 193). forcing this kind of face or eye-gaze is too stimulating, can be fear-provoking, and may even cause physical pain, yet this remains a goal for children with asd for some reason. the most consistently reported and largest effect in terms of brain differences is in the fusiform gyrus which is activated during face processing in typical individuals, but is notably less activated in children with asd. dalton et al. (2005) studied this in more detail and found results suggesting that gaze fixation is associated with a heightened emotional response. this is because gaze fixation was more closely related to activation of the amygdala instead of the fusiform gyrus in children with asd. the amygdala is an important structure for detecting threats and initiating appropriate behavioral responses, such as fear. not only is the amygdala especially important in the recognition and management of fear, but functional imaging studies also indicate higher activation of the amygdala during fear learning (higgins & george, 2013). this is why emotionally relevant memories are thought to be stored in the amygdala and may speak to the overlearning of unpleasant memories like in cases of posttraumatic stress disorder (ptsd) and anxiety. furthermore, haruvi-lamdan, horesh, & golan (2008) found that there is a shared underlying mechanism for asd and ptsd and thus asd may serve as a vulnerability factor for ptsd. specifically, an increased risk to those with asd to the exposure of a traumatic event. the following table summarizes the brain functions and related symptoms associated with autism. table 1. summary of brain functions and related symptoms associated with asd. brain function reference sensory processing issues with prevalence rates as high as 90% tomchek & dunn, 2007; tomchek, huebner, & dunn, 2014 self-injurious behaviors minshawi et al., 2014 face and eyes are strongly aversive corden et al., 2008; dalton et al., 2005; richer & cross, 1976, senju & johnsons, 2009 general hyperactivity in various areas of the autistic brain result in overstimulation dichter, fedler, bodfish, 2009; martineau, andersson, barthélémy, cottier & destrieux, 2010; markram & markram, 2010 90% of children with asd have sensory abnormalities and sensory symptoms in multiple sensory domains leekam, nieto, libby, wing, & gould, 2007 six patterns of sensory processing issues tomchek, huebner, & dunn, 2014 unable to filter or process external noise park, schauder, zhang, bennetto, & tadin, 2017 18% prevalence rate of hyperacusis kellerman, fan, & gorman, 2005 increased pain sensitivity and touch sensitivity riquelme, hatem, & montoya, 2016 over-activation of the amygdala when eye-gaze is held dalton, nacewicz, johnstone, schaefer, gernsbacher, goldsmith, et al. 2005; markram & markram, 2010 eye-contact provokes more flight behavior richer & cross, 1976, p. 193 gaze fixation more closely related to activation of the amygdala dalton et al., 2005 shared underlying mechanism for asd and ptsd haruvi-lamdan, horesh, & golan, 2008 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 2; 2020 4 published by ideas spread 3. functional behavior assessments the consequence of children with asd becoming overwhelmed with the repeated exposure to pain and overstimulation, is manifested differently for each child and is also mitigated by their level of expressive speech. many children resort to screaming, crying, eloping, withdrawing, crawling under tables/desks, turning off the lights, aggression, increased stimming, self-injurious behaviors, etc. teachers, aides, and school districts are then held responsible for addressing these issues and typically respond with what is called a “functional behavior assessment” or an fba. this has become a standard approach and is even part of the law: determination that behavior was a manifestation. if the lea, the parent, and relevant members of the iep team make the determination that the conduct was a manifestation of the child’s disability, the iep team must. 1. either (i) conduct a functional behavioral assessment, unless the lea had conducted a functional behavioral assessment before the behavior that resulted in the change of placement occurred, and implement a behavioral intervention plan for the child; or (ii) if a behavioral intervention plan, and modify it, as necessary, to address the behavior’ and 2. except as provided in paragraph (g) of the sections, return the child to the placement from which the child was removed, unless the parent and the lea agree to a change of placement as part of the modification of the behavioral intervention plan. (idea, 2017) an fba has become the standard approach for addressing maladaptive or defiant behaviors evidently, without any knowledge of the limitations of an fba; it cannot provide any answers that are not already observable to the human eye. an fba was created with the intention of forming various hypotheses in order to eventually determine the “function” of a behavior (maurice, green & luce, 1996). it is typically conducted by a board certified behavioral analyst (bcba), in order to assume the function of a behavior. however, the fba was developed using one very small subset of psychology called behaviorism. early behavioral psychologists insisted that one could only measure what one sees. therefore, the belief was that anything that cannot be observed cannot be scientifically studied, such as thoughts, emotions, sensations and any other intangibles (myers & dewall, 2017). these intangibles (e.g. thoughts, emotions, etc) were emphasized in the early 1920’s following various “insight” experiments, particularly when german researcher wolfgang kohler discovered that even chimpanzees have insight, confirming the existence of cognitive learning and the importance of internal processes (myers & dewall, 2017). however, since the fba was developed without any understanding or consideration for things such as insight learning, cognitions, emotions, etc., the fba is constantly misapplied with the assumption that it will reveal the function of a behavior, even though the “function” or expression of behavior is typically due to an internal process. this concept is best illustrated by an example. suppose a nonverbal student with asd has a severe migraine and hits their head. the standard fba in this case determines the function of the behavior is a form of task avoidance, when in fact it is more likely to be a cry for help, an expression of an internal process which is unobservable. consequently, those who conduct an fba are really just conducting experiment after experiment without realizing that an fba can never measure or track internal processes. in fact some of the standard explanations used in an fba such as escape, task avoidance or access to a desired object are unobservable and therefore unmeasurable resulting in at best a guess of what is really going on. even worse, is that should an fba ever truly suggest the function of a behavior, the understanding of these internal processes is far beyond the scope of bcbas as they are not psychologists. moreover, bcba’s are not required to take even a single class on child development, autism spectrum disorder, general psychology, etc. (behavior analyst certification board. (n.d.)). the behaviors of students with autism are generally the result of the over activation of their brains and as such, the real function of their behaviors is unobservable and difficult to pinpoint. the resulting unscientific functional behavior assessment and this lack of competency in understanding the autistic brain, sets the stage for continued exposure and prolonged trauma for this particular group of children. this is especially true for students placed in inclusion with the wrong treatment plan that resulted from a standard fba. unfortunately, school districts and teachers also rely on this fba to inform individualized education plans or programs (iep), making this trauma part of the child’s everyday school experience. thus continuing the cycle, reinforcing fear learning and overactivation of the brain. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 2; 2020 5 published by ideas spread 4. long term consequences of repeated trauma the changes in brain structure and function from the chronic stress and trauma caused by inclusion is strengthened with each exposure as seen in complex posttraumatic stress disorder, consequently leaving lasting effects. this is likely due to the pattern or neural activation that becomes ingrained and automatic for the person with each exposure (perry, pollard, blakley, baker, & vigilante, 1995). in childhood, this has a profound impact on the cognitive, behavioral, physical and emotional functioning (perry, pollard, blakley, baker, & vigilante, 1995). research has attempted to categorize domains of impairment in children exposed to complex trauma and have identified at least the following domains: attachment, biology, dissociation, affect regulation, behavioral control, cognition and self-concept (cook et al., 2017). these domains were predominantly identified in typical children, and one can only imagine the severity and intensity of this impairment within the context of the autistic brain, which is already overactivated and hyperaroused to begin with. this chronic stress, trauma, and further overactivation of the brain due to forced inclusion, only contributes to abnormal levels of fear and increased anxiety, as well as other neuropsychiatric comorbidities (amaral et al., 2003; murris et al., 1998; perry, pollard, blakley, baker, & vigilante, 1995). furthermore, multiple or repeated trauma “in childhood can lead to outcomes that are not simply more severe than the sequelae of single incident trauma, but are qualitatively different in their tendency to affect multiple affective and interpersonal domains” (cloitre et al., 2009. p. 405). research demonstrates this stress can interfere with cognitive, biological and emotional development, and often manifests in somatization, behavioral issues, learning disabilities, poor self-regulation, aggression toward self and others, etc, (e.g., cook, spinazzola, ford, lanktree, bluestin, cloitre, derose, hubbard, kagan, liataud, mallah, olafson, van der kolk, 2017; streeck-fischer, van der kolk, 2002). 5. consequences of broad-based inclusion in addition to differences in brain structure and function, and preexisting hypersensitivities, research has also found important differences and consequences when inclusion interventions are used with children with asd, when compared to typical children and children with other special needs. research has found that mainstream schooling or “full inclusion” has actually led to more social isolation, rejection and bullying among children with asd even when compared to other special education needs students (symes & humphrey, 2010; zablotsy, bradshaw, anderson, & law, 2013). humphrey and lewis (2008), found that social naivety can make youth with autism spectrum disorder easy targets for teasing and deception, which might account for higher rates of bullying. this can undoubtedly exacerbate the predispositions for depression, anxiety and ptsd. research has also noted asd as a vulnerability factor for suicidal ideation and attempts. in fact, mayes, gorman, hillwig-garce, & syed (2012) found prevalence rates of suicidal ideation and attempts in people with asd to be significantly higher than typical, non-depressed peers. furthermore, a critical meta-analysis discovered that school-aged youth with asd were at greater risk of bullying and school victimization in general, when compared to their typical peers (maiano, normand, salvas, moullec, & aimé, 2016). maiano and colleagues (2016) also found the prevalence of bullying victimization was lower in special education settings compared to regular school or mixed school settings. this data continues to suggest that perhaps special education or mixed school settings are actually less damaging and more appropriate for children with this specific diagnosis. in fact, children in full inclusion classrooms are “more likely to be victimized than those who spend the majority of their time in special education settings” (zablotsky, bradshaw, anderson, & law, 2013, p. 1). in a survey conducted by the national autistic society (2006), 1400 families affected by asd reported that bullying had damaged their child’s self-esteem, mental health, and relationships. moreover, “the unique characteristics of asd may determine which events are experienced as particularly traumatic (e.g., social insults and degradation, sensory overstimulation, abrupt changes in known routines) and affect both the manifestation and severity of posttraumatic sequelae among diagnosed individuals” (haruvi-lamdan et al., 2018, p. 1). this is just some of the documented data indicating the negative impacts of full inclusion. forcing social interaction onto children with asd is not only useless and stressful since their brain structures respond differently, but it can continue to cause further trauma and anxiety-related symptoms with each subsequent exposure, as previously discussed. while some “higher functioning” children with asd may want to engage in social activities and may be apt to do so, flooding is not the solution. a structured approach that does not overload the autistic brain, and is collaborative, taking into account the child’s preferences and overall psychological wellbeing would be the appropriate approach. furthermore, forcing all children with asd (especially those who cannot communicate), to interact with others in ways that they are unable to is anxiety provoking, and can elicit abnormal fear responses and learning. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 2; 2020 6 published by ideas spread the chronic stress of being forced to participate in inclusion activities should not be taken lightly. even in situations such as “circle time” which may be viewed as an easy task, research indicates great difficulty for children with asd. this is due to “the rapidly changing social and communicative events inherent” to instruction and social communicative interactions (quill, 1997. p. 707). this research and others have indicated impairment in various aspects of social interaction which is presumably the goal of inclusion-to teach children with asd to socialize. this goal is inconsistent with research and unrealistic for many children with asd. research indicates that many children with asd only respond to perceptual movements or instructions when the function is to obtain an object. when researchers pointed to various objects merely to make a comment or remark (considered a higher, nonfunctional level of communication), the children with asd did not understand the significance or purpose and so they would not respond, or they would instead attempt to obtain the object. these results indicate a prioritized functional basis for communication or interaction as opposed more abstract social constructs (baron-cohen, 1989). put simply, an opinion or statement that does not amount to anything functional, does not result in the acquiring of any need or want, will be confusing, misunderstood and is of no value to most children with asd. therefore, this kind of social interaction should not be imposed on all children. 6. conclusion the goals of inclusion attempt to force a child with autism spectrum disorder to engage in and to learn how to behave in a socially “appropriate” manner; however, in doing so, one inadvertently activates the emotional center of the brain. unfortunately, unlike broken bones, one is unable to see the changes and the impact stress and trauma has on neurodevelopment. this is why it is especially important to understand various brain functions and structures in diverse populations before experimenting with any interventions i.e. inclusion. furthermore, repetitive exposures and stresses of forced inclusion over time, can produce the same neurological and psychiatric results we see in patients with ptsd. it is not enough to have accommodations such as visual schedules or assigned paraprofessionals when there are so many stimuli that can overload, cause pain, and distract children with asd. research indicates that up to 95% of children with asd demonstrate some dysfunction in sensory processing (tomchek & dunn, 2007). even the lowest level of inclusion wherein a child with asd is forced to have lunch breaks with many other children, can still cause significant stress. although these children might not be subjected to a regular classroom with an abundance of stimuli, they still endure the chaos and painful overload of stimuli when they are brought to the playground for inclusion purposes. children with asd may eventually overlearn this stress and pain, and each exposure will subsequently strengthen the neural connections to further maintain this trauma, similar to complex posttraumatic stress. despite the inability to process faces and social information from the outside world, the anxiety and fear-provoking stimuli, the oversensitivity to sight, sound, smell and touch, the chronic stress and risk for overlearning fear and inducing complex posttraumatic stress disorder, and creating further barriers to language functioning, educators, paraprofessionals, and even some parents continue to advocate for inclusion while ignoring the inherent brain function and the nature of autism spectrum disorder. the majority of children with asd do not have the physiological capacity to interact the way many advocates of inclusion believe is possible, and more importantly, these advocates are inadvertently causing harm. to try and undo the very deficit that defines asd makes little sense especially when taking into account that asd is a neurodevelopmental disorder, not a behavioral disorder or learned consequence. it is not something that can be “cured” or undone, it can only be treated if warranted. for a child with asd, the least restrictive environment is an environment that promotes the child’s social, emotional, and cognitive development with the least amount of communication barriers including anxiety, chronic stress, and fear-provoking stimuli--which is not congruent with forced inclusion. teaching and parenting practices in general can be a contentious subject and are often met with defensiveness, criticisms, or confusion. however, in considering the last 20-30 years of research, it is evident the trauma-inducing practice of inclusion causes harm for many students with asd, and the long-term effects are even more pronounced. perhaps it is time to move away from the “one size fits all” approach and instead consider available research, and each child’s diagnosis, needs, and well-being individually. references amaral, d. g., bauman, m. d., & mills schumann, c. 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(2014). risk factors for bullying among children with autism spectrum disorders. autism, 18(4), 419-427. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361313477920 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 4, no. 2; 2021 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v4n2p10 10 published by ideas spread global middle ages: eastern wisdom (buddhistic) teachings in medieval european literature. with a focus on barlaam and josaphat albrecht classen1 1 university of arizona, united states correspondence: albrecht classen, university of arizona, united states. received: april 26, 2020; accepted: june 25, 2020; published: june 26, 2020 abstract in contrast to many recent attempts to establish concepts and platforms to study global literature, and this also in the pre-modern world, this article intends to present much more concrete examples to confirm that a certain degree of globalism existed already in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. while numerous scholars/editors have simply invited many more voices from all over the world to the same ‘table,’ i.e., literary histories, which has not really provided more substance to the notion of ‘global,’ the study of translated texts, such as those dealing with barlaam and josaphat, clearly confirms that some core indian ideas and values, as originally developed by buddha, had migrated through many stages of translations, to high medieval literature in europe. keywords: global literature, medieval globalism, barlaam and josaphat, jacobus de voragine, rudolf von ems, the laubacher barlaam, literary translations, buddhism in medieval europe, asia and europe in the middle ages 1. introduction: connections between east and west throughout the middle ages, knowledge about the asian world was rather limited in europe, although a good number of travelers, most famously, maybe, marco polo and odorico da pordenone, made their way to the far east and later, after their return to the west, created detailed reports about their experiences. but we have searched so far in vain for data that might confirm the opposite movement, of asians traveling to the west because of scientific, religious, medical, political, or artistic reasons. nevertheless, considering the long history of asian armies moving westward and achieving astounding successes, there must have been more knowledge about the european landscape and geo-political terrain available to the respective generals or leaders of the various armies to accomplish their goals so effectively. undoubtedly, the huns, the avars, the magyars, and finally the mongols were stunningly triumphant and moved amazingly quickly from east to west, which can have been possible only if they commanded excellent logistics and means of collecting data, as we know also from western armies, such as those in the carolingian empire.[1] it is very probable, of course, that local guides were used, but the success of those invading troops would not have been possible without some global perspectives, strategic planning, and geographical knowledge on the part of the commanding officers. those hostile forces even seem to have had a better understanding of the various countries where they suddenly appeared and attacked than the natives who did not know much about those enemies, had not traveled much beyond their parochial limits, and were probably familiar only with their localities. however, all those nomadic attackers quickly disappeared again, and it is highly unlikely that the horrible military conflicts raised any interest by the victimized population to learn more about the east or to follow the receding armies in revenge. [2] in other words, no one tried to track them down after they had retreated, somewhere in asia, for instance. at the same time, if we consider the example of the vikings with their enormous scope from newfoundland in the west to the black sea in the east, then we gain a certain hunch about the abilities of some peoples to travel far beyond their traditional homelands. [3] if we jump from the early to the late middle ages, almost thousand years later, the situation does not seem to have changed dramatically at all, despite a flood of new travel experiences by pilgrims, merchants, and diplomats latest since the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. linguistic, political, cultural, and also economic hurdles made it very difficulties for the average european, even for those with a moderate degree of education, to reach out to eastern cultures. [4] of course, there are exceptions, but those only seem to confirm the rule. the bavarian slave hans schiltberger (1381–ca. 1440), for instance, once in ottoman captivity, was moved around much over thirty years hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 2; 2021 11 published by ideas spread of forced military service and might have made his way as far north as modern-day kazakhstan and as far south as egypt. but, as a slave, he did not enjoy freedom, did not have the privilege of studying the cultural environment where he was stationed or had to fight, and so had little to say about the asian world. [5] granted, we learn much in his account about the armenian kingdom, the eastern orthodox church, and other aspects, but schiltberger’s perspectives were limited by default. 2. late medieval anti-globalism: the case of fortunatus a few decades afterwards, the anonymous author of the early modern novel fortunatus (printed in augsburg in 1509) highlighted the central interest in traveling across the entire then known world, but he leaves out the eastern asian continent and does not say anything specific about the local cultures and religions. specifically, he confirmed that it would be an absurd assumption that asians would have any interest in exploring christian europe because that western continent would simply not live up to their own cultural standards: “vnsre land vnaertig seyen / von keltin vnd auch nit guote frücht haben / hond sorg das sy gleich sturben” (491; [they believe that] our lands are hostile to them due to the cold and the lack of good food; they are afraid that they would die immediately). [6] the east asian indians would be regarded as fools if they decided to leave their own good lands to visit the bad lands in europe; finally, they would know about the dangers of travel to the west; hence, it would not make sense for them to pursue any interest in europe. however, within the fictional framework, and with the help of the miraculous money purse which never empties, fortunatus, at least, is able to make his way from cyprus to egypt, and from there to the holy land and then even india. the poet, of course, knows very little about it and only comments about the three parts which it consists of, and the huge size of the lands which far exceeds the large territories of the other mighty rulers in the world, including china and egypt (490). yet, just when the narrator has reached the point of going into details, he refrains from doing that and instead refers his audience to an outside source, here identified as johann de monteuilla (490), meaning john mandeville, the famous armchair travelogue author, perhaps really jean de bourgogne (d. 1372). [7] we might have to be careful in general concerning the validity of all medieval travelogues, fictional or factual, and thus might not gain much in regard to our search about possible familiarity with buddhism and asian culture in the european middle ages. [8] even if an individual would have learned something about the foreign religion, it would have been extremely dangerous for him/her to relate something about that non-christian faith since the catholic church would have responded rather aggressively. nevertheless, we have been called upon for quite some time to explore not only travelers and travelogues from that time period, but also to investigate the transcultural exchanges occurring during the pre-modern world, which involved numerous translations from arabic to hebrew, and then to latin, which thus became the source for countless translations into the various vernaculars. [9] the literary, i.e., fictional, media was much more forgiving for opening up of new cultural perspective and for inviting in foreign cultures, laying the groundwork for much later actual contacts and visits, at least by europeans going east. for instance, the first major vernacular account about india was delivered by balthasar sprenger (d. ca. 1511). [10] 3. india in medieval european perceptions the world of india, for instance, was certainly firmly implanted on the minds of the learned europeans, as numerous poets reveal who included specific references to that subcontinent. [11] india appears, of course, also on many mappaemundi, and there is no shortage of references to india in preand courtly romances, such as in the anonymous herzog ernst (ms. a ca. 1180; ms. b ca. 1220), [12] in priest lambrecht’s alexander (ca. 1190), [13] and in wolfram von eschenbach’s parzival, [14] to refer here to middle high german literature where it seemed to have received more attention than elsewhere. geographers and travelogue authors mentioned it, but there was a lot of confusion and ignorance about india proper during the middle ages. [15] probing this issue further, we come certainly across, alas, medieval racist stereotypes and notions, and this well before the rise of modern-day racism, as geraldine heng has convincingly demonstrated on a global level. [16] but how else could that have been considering the lack of mutual contacts, mutual understanding, and mutual interest? there is no doubt that most europeans viewed the rest of the world only through the lens of christianity, and if they could imagine that a st. thomas or the famous prester john did his share in missionizing and converting people in the asian continent, then the medieval audience was probably just content with the outcome as outlined in the literary works. by the same token, we can be fairly certain about numerous intellectual and creative exchanges between east and west via literary channels, though concrete details and evidence still evade our full interpretive grasp. [17] the ancient indian panchatantra, composed by a vishnu sharma or vasubhaga, later known as kalila and dimna, certainly exerted considerable influence on persian, then arabic, from there on latin, and vernacular european hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 2; 2021 12 published by ideas spread literature, here not even taking into account the influence on the far eastern world. composed sometime in the 3rd or 2nd century b.c.e., or possibly as late as the 3rd century c.e., this collection of short narratives containing messages about wisdom has survived in a large number of copies and then translations into many of the world’s languages. [18] romedio schmitz-esser has recently attempted to trace specific evidence concerning the influence of buddhism on the medieval west, or at least a certain degree of familiarity in the west of some aspects pertaining to that religion and culture. in order to trace the potential import of “ideas, of art, of material culture from eastern and southern asia to medieval europe” (322), he searches for the almost non-existing asian traveler to the west, the well-known european travelers to the east, literary sources, such as the legenda aurea, and finally asian products which made their way to the western markets. [19] indeed, in economic turns, there is a growing body of data confirming that east and west met especially in the region of the black sea, where the markets brought together european and asian merchants, irrespective of the many military and political conflicts which often threatened to disrupt their trade. [20] even though we might not consider merchants necessarily as the best informed and educated intellectuals who would have approached eastern wisdom literature with the eye of a philologist or philosopher, they were those who traveled the farthest and by default developed considerable linguistic and cultural skills to cope well in the foreign worlds where they found their best markets. and all merchants need entertainment after the closing of the shops, so they can be regarded as some of the most likely conveyers of asian literature, art works, or music to the west, and vice versa. 4. barlaam and josaphat one of the most striking examples of the intellectual exchange between east and west, that is, the translation of eastern literature and religion into western languages, proves to be the story of barlaam and josaphat. in essence, this is the account of buddha’s early life as composed some time around the first century c.e., which was then exported both east and west via countless translations. [21] this popular story was a major theme also for a variety of courtly poets in medieval europa, such as rudolf von ems, who created his barlaam und josaphat in ca. 12251230. at the same time, artists used the account about this young man josaphat who fights his father over their religious orientations and can finally succeed in demonstrating the superiority of christianity, in various media, such as in the frescoes applied to the interior walls of the gozzoburg (gozzo castle) in krems, lower austria. [22] 5. jacobus de voragine in jacobus de voragine’s legenda aurea, composed around 1260 by this highly esteemed and very successful dominican priest in genoa (archbishop since 1292 until his death in 1298), we find one of the many versions of the story of this indian saint, that is, in a way of buddha himself, considering the critical experiences by the young protagonist as a wealthy prince whose father is trying in vain to keep him isolated away from all suffering and pain in this world, pretending to him that all life is filled with nothing but pleasure and happiness. [23] the narrator does not discuss any of his ancient sources, refers only to the one used by him, a translation by john of damascus in the tenth century, [24] but places us immediately within india where many people have converted to christianity and are yet persecuted by king avenir who adheres to the old faith. the christian church has developed there already so much that monasteries have been erected. when one of avenir’s high-ranking members of the court turns away from the world and joins a monastery, this arouses the king’s extreme anger who has him fetched and questioned, and is thus informed about the essence of the christian faith, which he rejects, however. in the meantime, avenir’s son josaphat is born, and when he inquires with his astrologers concerning the young boy’s future, the wisest among them foretells that josaphat would one day “‘. . . not reign in your kingdom but in an incomparably better one, because, as i see it, he will worship as a believer in christ’s religion, which you are persecuting!’” (356). this frightens the father, so he has his son raised in a remote and luxurious castle where no one is allowed to talk to him about old age or death. anyone who is falling ill is immediately removed from the prince’s presence. however, young josaphat tires of the complete isolation in the palace and is finally allowed to depart for a ride on horses. here he suddenly encounters a leper and a blind man and is thus finally confronted with the reality of this world. thereafter, he also meets an old man, thus learns about old age and also death, which throws him into deep thoughts and awakens profound desires to be instructed about those phenomena (358). soon thereafter, the monk barlaam appears in the disguise of a merchant and is allowed to join the prince’s company. this provides him with the opportunity to teach him lessons about christianity and convince him of the truth of that faith. however, though josaphat would have liked to join him in his hermitage, barlaam urges him to wait for the right moment in the future. then he baptizes his mentee and departs. unfortunately for josaphat, his hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 2; 2021 13 published by ideas spread father has learned about his conversion and is deeply grieved, looking for a strategy to change all that. in a conversation with his son, he learns the following: “‘father, i fled the darkness and ran to the light, abandoned error and acknowledged the truth. do not labor in vain, therefore!” (362). the king even threatens to disown him if he does not let go of his new faith, which fails to achieve anything. next, the father tries kindness and love, which also does not work. thereupon he offers to have a public debate between his own people and this barlaam, whom he has allegedly apprehended, though this is the wrong man who actually cooperates with avenir to deceive josaphat about his new religion (nachor). nachor, scared of josaphat’s threats against his life if he were to fail in his public defense of christianity, tries his hardest to do just that and wins, against his own original intentions and the king’s instruction. surprisingly, josaphat, who actually knows of his true identity, manages to convert nachor to christianity, and the latter then leaves the court and turns into a hermit (364). next, the sorcerer theodas attempts with the help of demons and a score of lovely ladies to seduce the prince, but although he is getting close to his goal due to the erotic lure, he ultimately fails as well, listens to josaphat’s teachings, and so also turns into a christian. finally, the young man’s father divvies up his kingdom and grants half of it to his son, who grudgingly accepts the position of a ruler because this allows him to erect churches and crosses and to have his people missionized and baptized into christians. the narrative concludes with the father himself abandoning his old faith and accepting the new one: “thereafter he devoted himself to good works and finished his life virtuously” (366). josaphat tries several times to flee to get away from his worldly post, and finally manages it, wandering throughout the world until he finds barlaam, with whom he then shares many years together until first the older man, than he himself dies. both are honorably buried, and the account concludes with references to miracles which occurred at their graves. 6. other asian and european connections: 6.1 the panchatantra we are not in a strong position to claim that the european poet was truly familiar with india or even with buddhism, and yet the essential aspects of buddha’s life are still preserved here despite the many stages of translation, such as by vincent of beauvais. [25] however, if we adduce a quite parallel account contained in the roman des sept sages de rome, also translated into many languages, we recognize two strong strands of narrative traditions extensively popular both in the eastern world and in medieval europe highlighting the central importance of wise advisors to a ruler who ultimately learns the path to christian piety and a life of devotion and submission under god. [26] in the west, this was probably best illustrated by the castilian poet don juan manuel (1282-1348) in his famous collection of narratives, el conde lucanor (1335), parts of which can be traced back to the panchatantra. [27] jacobus de voragine did not engage intensively with india as such; instead, he focused on the experiences of the prince who has suddenly to face old age, sickness, and death, which transforms him deeply and opens the pathway toward his conversion to christianity. those experiences move him away from the illusions of his splendid life as the king’s heir and confront him with the painful aspects of all physical reality. those experiences, however, are so humbling, just as in the case of buddha, that he ultimately abandons all the material wealth and turns into a hermit, together with his teacher and friend barlaam. we can easily refer to any of the many summaries of buddha’s life to recognize immediately the striking parallels: his early life was one of luxury and comfort, and his father protected him from exposure to the ills of the world, including old age, sickness, and death. at age 16 he married the princess yashodhara, who would eventually bear him a son. at 29, however, the prince had a profound experience when he first observed the suffering of the world while on chariot rides outside the palace. he resolved then to renounce his wealth and family and live the life of an ascetic. during the next six years, he practiced meditation with several teachers and then, with five companions, undertook a life of extreme self-mortification. one day, while bathing in a river, he fainted from weakness and therefore concluded that mortification was not the path to liberation from suffering. abandoning the life of extreme asceticism, the prince sat in meditation under a tree and received enlightenment, sometimes identified with understanding the four noble truths. [28] once the indian version had made its way to persia, from there to armenia, syria, and the arab-speaking world, the account of buddha’s life spread also to medieval europe, as exemplified by the various versions by, for instance, gui de cambrai (first half of the thirteenth century), by catalan, hebrew, italian, and english translators, not to forget latin and french versions. [29] interestingly, as much as western audiences were deeply intrigued by this prince’s personal decision to abdicate from his throne in order to live a life of virtues, spirituality, and purity, as hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 2; 2021 14 published by ideas spread much buddha’s story spread also to china, vietnam, and southeast asia. in fact, if we want to approach the phenomenon of the global middle ages, or any other era on a global level, then the story of barlaam and josaphat provides the best evidence that such global connections actually existed. [30] whereas the poets of traditional courtly romances project a mostly generic physical background without any particular interest in translating – here understood in conceptual and mental-cultural terms – in the case of the highly popular story of this prince and his hermit-teacher we encounter a much more serious interest in some universal questions as they had been raised in the indian context. whether the poets/translators and their audiences had any concrete knowledge or concept of buddhismus, or whether they simply found the account of self-imposed asceticism by a prince so appealing as a spiritual critique of power-hungry and pompous rulers within their own domain, does not have to be decided here. [31] what matters is only the fact that the world of indian buddhism is indirectly evoked here, especially because the ideals presented in this text appealed to audiences across medieval europe. [32] 6.2 rudolf von ems one of the most elaborate versions can be found in rudolf von ems’s barlaam und josaphat (ca. 1230), who created this work upon the request of the abbot wido of the cistercian monastery of kappel near zürich. [33] wido wanted rudolf, a ministerialis (administrator) at the court of the bishops of constance, to translate the latin origin by john of damascus, historia duorum christi militum. parallel to rudolf and independently from him, two other middle high german poets also created translations, the oldest being the laubacher barlaam, perhaps by bishop otto ii of freising (1184-1220). a third translation, also from the thirteenth century, has survived only in fragments. [34] rudolf’s version obviously enjoyed considerable popularity, as documented by twenty-three manuscripts containing the full text, and twenty-eight manuscripts offering fragments. [35] there are strong parallels with the version in jacobus de voragine’s legenda aurea, but also differences. [36] here, the king father is afraid that his son might convert to christianity, and so he isolates him completely, surrounded only by young and healthy people who all look out for his entertainment and pleasures – jacobus had only emphasized that josaphat would rule in a much better kingdom than his father’s. the subsequent events are fairly parallel, except that later, once the father has divvied up the kingdom so that his son can rule over his own part, political and economic aspects enter the picture. surprisingly, josaphat’s kingdom, where christianity has been introduced, prospers considerably, whereas the other half experiences a dramatic decline. after the father’s death, josaphat hands over the rule to his loyal servant barachias and turns into a hermit himself. he finally encounters barlaam and assumes, after his death, the government of the hermits’ community. barachias is identified as the one who has their story recorded and thus preserved for posterity. [37] rudolf made considerable efforts to expand on jacobus’s version, but he stayed close to it, after all. we are, however, given many more details, quotes from exchanges, and dramatic illustrations, especially of josaphat’s reaction to the encounter with the leper and the blind man. one of many examples would be that the young man is informed that no one here on earth can predict whether s/he will be inflicted by leprosy or any other illness, which indicates the complete contingency which all individuals here on earth are subjugated under (1214-19). the poet offers considerably more motivational insights and fleshes out whereas jacobus is rather curt in his account, but otherwise, the middle high german version proves to be very close to the one in the golden legends. the laubacher barlaam draws much inspiration from the late antique tradition of the desert fathers, especially illustrated by the repeated references to st. anthony. this work includes extensive didactic passages, such as barlaam’s elaborate instructions of his student josaphat, the latter’s intensive engagement with his father and the people about the proper faith, then the long explanations of some of the pagan religions, of the concepts by the greeks concerning their gods, of the egyptians’ cult of plants, and other pseudo-scientific aspects, always distancing the christian faith from the pagan cults. [38] as far as i can tell, india, buddhism, and east-asian culture did not figure prominently anywhere else in medieval literature, even if we hear about india in other literary contexts determined by the account of alexander the great. [39] nevertheless, the huge success story with barlaam and josaphat all over europe and far beyond underscores that the theme itself, so closely associated with buddha, exerted profound influence. reflecting on jacobus de voragine’s golden legend once again, which set the tone for many european vernacular translations, we observe primarily that the narrator takes his audience to india as one of the many possible staging grounds for his story. there is no particular explanation for the reasons why he used this backdrop, except that the narrative set-up proved to be so appealing, with the conflict between father and son, the latter being converted to christianity, which incenses the father immensely, although the narrator gives much praise to him early on as an hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 2; 2021 15 published by ideas spread admirable and wise ruler. but the outcome demonstrates that the christian faith would triumph even under difficult circumstances. most important proves to be that for the author/narrator christianity had already made a major inroad into india, as documented by the presence of many converted individuals and also of a good number of monasteries. josaphat’s triumph at the end thus represents the complete victory of christianity, although, which none of the western authors ever mentioned explicitly, the religious ideals presented here were really anchored in buddhistic teachings. 6.3 marco polo if we include also the perspectives and observations offered by marco polo in his famous travels (ca. 1300), we can clearly observe the opaque approach to india, which he obviously visited, though without learning overly much about the various cultures and religions there. most important for his attention was the political and military relationship of the local ruler with the mongols, which was of a submissive kind. so we read: “this king renders the great khan every year a quantity of aloe wood and twenty elephants, the biggest and handsomest that can be found in his country. that is how he came to be the great khan’s liege man and to pay him this tribute” (250). [40] similarly, the association of the indian ruler and of the indian masculine culture with extreme sexual control of the other gender also comes through loud and clear: “in this kingdom no pretty girl can marry without first being presented to the king for his inspection. if he is pleased with her, he takes her to wife. . . . this king had 326 children, male and female” (250). as to the economics, polo emphasizes, always being the merchant in his mind, that india produces mostly elephants, aloe wood, and ebony wood, and obviously nothing else (ibid.). apart from some exotic sounding references to various religious practices, the author does not allow his audience any further insights into the indian culture, which voids his account of the desired anthropological information we would have liked to learn about. of course, the travels convey a much more vivid image of the world to the east as experienced by this extraordinary personality, but we cannot claim that polo demonstrated particular awareness of and/or interest in the culture and spirituality practiced there. by the same token, the literary and religious works consulted above cannot claim any better authenticity, on the contrary. however, in light of the various versions of barlaam and josaphat we notice at least a strong interest to present a unique account about asceticism and piety as practiced by the hermit and then by his disciple, josaphat. the medieval audiences would not have mistaken them for accurate reports about india or buddhism, the term of which was probably entirely unknown in europe during the pre-modern era. at the same time, in all versions we clearly detect a strong sense of india as being a major battle ground where christianity could become victorious and defeat the local pagan religions, and this by means of god’s intervention helping barlaam in his teaching of his princely disciple. in a way, we might even go so far as to read the various vernacular and the latin versions as indirect criticism of the european rulers who did not perform the way how josaphat did. almost in a reversal of what edward said had called “orientalism,” these medieval poets demonstrated a kind of rudimentary indiaphilia, a curious phenomenon particularly for an age very little informed about india itself. [41] 7. conclusion we can now conclude with some final reflections on the relevance of those works in which india is integrated as the essential battle ground for christianity. as little as the various poets and their audiences could have really learned much about the eastern world through those reports which were predicated on the ancient sanskrit texts reflecting the life of buddha, as much do those works indicate a growth in global awareness. whereas recent scholars have endeavored very hard to develop ‘global literature,’ ‘globalism,’ or similar universal concepts by way of simply allowing many different voices from around the world to come to the same table, here we face the unique opportunity to comprehend ‘world literature’ in a more meaningful way. with respect to the panchatantra, mccomas taylor observes insightfully: the language and culture of earlier world literature was not imposed on audiences by the push-factors of colonial power. rather, it was attracted by the pull-factors exerted by emergent elites. these include the persian sasanids who absorbed indic culture, the recently islamized arbs who learned from the persians, and the spanish kings in toledo and greek elites in constantinople who appropriated middle eastern scholarship.[42] it seems, indeed, much more meaningful to trace themes, motifs, subject matters, and specific accounts as they unfolded across the world and made their influence felt wherever there was interest, for instance, in wisdom literature, than to assume that such global concepts as orality, heroism, lyric poetry, or erotics and politics of hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 2; 2021 16 published by ideas spread love indeed allow us to claim global connections.[43] the issue at stake here is whether we want to aim for a pastiche or a collage, an integrated image or a kaleidoscope. it is one thing to identify a universal quest for knowledge, wisdom, and spiritual insights, if not even for mystical visions. it is a very different thing, by contrast, to trace connections, influence, translations, adaptations, summaries, paraphrases, imitations, or recreations across languages, cultures, and historical epochs. azadeh yamini-hamedani observes, for instance, that “[m]ysticism in many respects is concerned with facing and overcoming limitations: be it the limitations of language or the entrapments of the self. practices meant to invoke it, from rituals of devotion and meditation to asceticism or chanting, are all attempts in transcendence.”[44] would this, however, also entail that spiritualists and mystics from across the world would have automatically learned from it each other? or did their visions and revelations simply follow similar epistemological patterns which allow us to place them side by side. it is fully understandable that there are many attempts at writing global history and global literary history today in light of the actually ongoing globalization in the present time.[45] however, if those connections, parallels, identifications, or similarities in pre-modern literature exist in name only, and do not constitute deeply-seated intellectual, spiritual, and mental interaction, as i observe them in the vast tradition of barlaam and josaphat or in the book of the seven sages (historia septem sapientum), then the entire notion of global literature could be a rather shaky concept.[46] even though we cannot claim that jacobus de voragine or rudolf von ems were intimately familiar with the oriental origin of their tale, they explicitly situated it in india and predicated the religious and ethical concept on the ancient account of buddha’s life. they certainly ignored buddha, and did not realize that they were actually engaging with the spiritual values and concepts of buddhism, but in essence, their translation and adaptation efforts clearly signaled that the ideals presented here were those shared by poets and audiences in east and west. we thus confront in this case a phenomenal opportunity to probe more deeply what globalism might have meant already in the pre-modern world. these literary examples signal that there existed elements of globalism at least in the mind of some western poets and authors, although it seems highly unlikely that eastern literature was equally determined by an interest in the west. references [1] david s. bachrach and bernard s. bachrach, “military intelligence and long-term planning in the ninth century. the carolingians and their adversaries,” mediaevistik 33 (2020): 89-111. see also reaven amitai, “mamluk espionage among the mongols and franks,” asian and african studies 22 (1988): 173-81; see also the contributions to go spy the land: military intelligence in history, ed. keith neilson and b. j. c. mckercher (westport, ct: prager, 1992); cf. also beyond ambassadors: consuls, missionaries, and spies in premodern diplomacy, ed. maurits ebben and louis sicking. rulers&elites, 19 (leiden and boston: brill, 2021). [2] recent years have seen extensive new research on all those nomadic people, whether the huns, the avars, the magyars, or the mongols. see, for instance, walter pohl, the avars: a steppe empire in central europe, 567822. trans. from the german (3rd ed., 2015; ithaca, ny, and london: cornell university press, 2018); ruotsala, antti, europeans and mongols in the middle of the thirteenth century: encountering the other. suomalaisen tiedeakatemian toimituksia, humaniora, 314 (helsinki: the finnish academy of science and letters, 2001); timothy may, the mongols. past imperfect (leeds: arc humanities press, 2020). [3] see now sæbjørg walaker nordeide and kevin j. edwards, the vikings. past imperfect (leeds: arc humanities press, 2020); vikings across boundaries: viking-age transformations ii, ed. hanne lovise aannestad, elise naumann, heidi lund berg, hanne lovise aannestad, unn pedersen, and marianne moen. culture, environment and adaptation in the north, 2 (new york and london: routledge, 2020). [4] see now the contributions to travel, time, and space in the middle ages and early modern time: explorations of worldly perceptions and processes of identity formation, ed. albrecht classen. fundamentals of medieval and early modern culture, 22 (berlin and boston: walter de gruyter, 2018). [5] johann schiltberger, the bondage and travels of johann schiltberger, a native of bavaria, in europe, asia, and africa 1396‒1427, trans. from the heidelberg ms. ed. in 1859 by karl friedrich neumann by j. buchan telfer. with notes by p. bruun and a preface, introduction and notes by the translator and editor (london: hakluyt society, 1897); cf. also the recent edition: hans schiltberger, als sklave im osmanischen reich und bei den tataren: 1394‒?1427, ed. ulrich schlemmer. alte abenteuerliche reiseberichte (wiesbaden: ed. erdmann, 2008); and for a german translation, see johann schiltbergers irrfahrt durch den orient: der aufsehenerregende bericht einer reise, die 1394 begann und erst nach über 30 jahren ein ende fand. aus dem mittelhochdeutschen übertragen und herausgegeben von markus tremmel. bayerische abenteuer (taufkirchen: via verbis bavarica, 2000). for recent studies, see albrecht classen, “global travel in the late hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 2; 2021 17 published by ideas spread middle ages: the eyewitness account of johann schiltberger,” medieval history journal 23.1 (2020): 1–28 (online at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0971945819895896); id., “the topic of imprisonment in medieval german literature: with an emphasis on johann schiltberger’s account about his 30-year enslavement in the east,” studia neophilologica (2020): https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00393274.2020.1755362 (both last accessed on april 24, 2021). [6] quoted from romane des 15. und 16. jahrhunderts, ed. jan-dirk müller. bibliothek der frühen neuzeit, 1 (frankfurt a. m.: deutscher klassiker verein, 1990), 385‒585; here 491. for a review of the relevant research and the central topics, see albrecht classen, the german volksbuch. a critical history of a late-medieval genre. studies in german language and literature, 15 (lewiston, ny, queenston, and lampeter: edwin mellen press, 1995, reissued 1999), 163–83; cf. also anne simon, “the fortunatus volksbuch in the light of later mediaeval travel literature,” fifteenth-century studies 12 (1987): 175–86; hannes kästner, fortunatus – peregrinator mundi: welterfahrung und selbsterkenntnis im ersten deutschen prosaroman der neuzeit. rombach wissenschaft – reihe litterae (freiburg i. br.: verlag rombach, 1990), 76–106; albrecht classen, “die welt eines spätmittelalterlichen kaufmannsreisenden. ein mentalitätsgeschichtliches dokument der frühneuzeit: fortunatus,” monatshefte 86.1 (1994): 22–44; id., “the crusader as lover and tourist: utopian elements in late medieval german literature: from herzog ernst to reinfried von braunschweig and fortunatus,” current topics in medieval german literature: texts and analyses (kalamazoo papers 2000–2006), ed. sibylle jefferis. göppinger arbeiten zur germanistik, 748 (göppingen: kümmerle, 2008), 83–102; id., “the encounter with the foreign in medieval and early modern german literature: fictionality as a springboard for non-xenophobic approaches in the middle ages: herzog ernst, wolfram von eschenbach, konrad von würzburg, die heidin, and fortunatus,” east meets west in the middle ages and early modern times: transcultural experiences in the premodern world, ed. albrecht classen. fundamentals of medieval and early modern culture, 14 (berlin and boston: walter de gruyter, 2013), 457–87; id., “fremdbegegnung, dialog, austausch, und staunen: xenologische phänomene in der deutschen literatur des mittelalters. vom hildebrandslied bis zum fortunatus,” mediaevistik 26 (2013): 183–206. [7] see the comments by jan-dirk müller, ed., romane, 1210; as to mandeville, see, for instance, mary campbell. the witness and the other world: exotic european travel writing,400-1600 (ithaca, ny, and london: cornell university press, 1988); and kim phillips, before orientalism: asian peoples and cultures in european travel writing, 1245-1510. the middle ages series (philadelphia, pa: university of pennsylvania press, 2014); eastward bound: travel and travellers, 1050-1550, ed. rosamund allen (manchester: manchester university press, 2004). for eastern, specifically arabic perspectives, see nizar f. hermes, the [european] other in medieval arabic literature and culture: ninth-twelfth century ad. the new middle ages (new york and london: palgrave macmillan, 2015). for the text by mandeville, see the book of john mandeville with related texts, ed. and trans. ian higgins (cambridge, ma: hackett publishing, 2011). [8] shayne aaron legassie, the medieval invention of travel (chicago and london: the university of chicago press, 2017). [9] sonja brentjes, alexander fidora, and matthias m. tischler, “towards a new approach to medieval crosscultural exchanges,” journal of transcultural medieval studies 1.1 (2014): 9-50; with an extensive bibliography. [10] die meerfahrt: balthasar springers reise zur pfefferküste: mit einem faksimile des buches von 1509, ed. andreas erhard and eva ramminger (innsbruck: haymon-verlag, 1998); albrecht classen, “india perceived through the eyes of sixteenth-century readers: ludovico de varthema’s bestseller on the early modern book markets—a narrative landmark of the emerging positive evaluation of curiositas,” medievalia et humanistica 40 (2015): 1-24. [11] albrecht classen, “indien: imagination und erfahrungswelt in antike und mittelalter,” mittelalter-mythen, v. ed. ulrich müller and werner wunderlich (st. gall: uvk, 2008), 359-72; for early modern perspectives, see id., “india perceived through the eyes of sixteenth-century readers: ludovico de varthema’s bestseller on the early modern book markets—a narrative landmark of the emerging positive evaluation of curiositas,” medievalia et humanistica 40 (2015): 1-24. [12] herweg, mathias, ed. herzog ernst: mittelhochdeutsch / neuhochdeutsch, ed. mathias herweg. in der fassung b (stuttgart: philipp reclam jun., 2019). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 2; 2021 18 published by ideas spread [13] lienert, elisabeth, ed. pfaffe lambrecht: alexanderroman. mittelhochdeutsch / neuhochdeutsch. stuttgart: reclam 2007). [14] wolfram von eschenbach, parzival. studienausgabe, ed. karl lachmann (6th ed.), trans. into german by peter knecht, intro. by bernd schirok (berlin and new york: walter de gruyter, 1998). [15] u. knefelkamp, “indien,” lexikon des mittelalter, vol. v: hiera-mittel bis lukanien (munich and zurich: artemis verlag, 1991), 404-05. [16] geraldine heng, the invention of race in the european middle ages (cambridge: cambridge university press, 2018). [17] east meets west in the middle ages and early modern times: transcultural experiences in the premodern world, ed. albrecht classen. fundamentals of medieval and early modern culture, 14. berlin and boston: walter de gruyter, 2013); d’orient en occident: les recueils de fables enchâssées avant les “mille et une nuits” de galland; (barlaam et josaphat, calila et dimna, disciplina clericalis, roman des sept sages), ed. marion uhlig and yasmina foehr-janssens. cultural encounters in late antiquity and the middle ages, 16 (turnhout: brepols, 2014); die figur des herrschers in der exempelliteratur – transkulturelle perspektiven, ed. mechthild albert and ulrike becker. studien zu macht und herrschaft, 8 (göttingen: v&r unipress; bonn university press, 2020). [18] the pancatantra: the book of india’s folk wisdom, trans. patrick olivelle (oxford: oxford university press, 1997). for a truly solid overview of the history of this famous collection and its reception, along with a great bibliography, see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/panchatantra (last accessed on april 24, 2021). see now nasrullah munshi, kalila and dimna, trans. from the persian by wheeler thackston (indianapolis, in, and cambridge: hackett publishing company, 2019). for a case of a late medieval german translation, see albrecht classen, “india, persia, and arabia in the mind of a late fifteenth-century german author: transcultural experiences through the literary discourse. antonius von pforr and his buch der beispiele der alten weisen,” philological quarterly 99.2 (2020): 119–45. [19] romedio schmitz-esser, “the buddha and the medieval west: changing perspectives on cultural exchange between asia and europe in the middle ages,” travel, time, and space (see note 2), 311-30; for asian textiles at least in the byzantine world, see jaroslav folda, “the use of çintamani as ornaments: a case study in the afterlife of forms,” byzantine images and their afterlives: essays in honor of annemarie weyl carr, ed. lynn jones (farnham: ashgate, 2014), 183-204; see also jens t. wollesen, “east meets west and the problem with those pictures,” east meets west in the middle ages and early modern times: transcultural experiences in the premodern world, ed. albrecht classen. fundamentals of medieval and early modern culture, 14 (berlin and boston: walter de gruyter, 2013), 341-88. [20] evgeny khvalkov, the colonies of genoa in the black sea region: evolution and transformation. routledge research in medieval studies, 11 (new york and london: routledge, 2018); id., “population de caffa génoise à la lumière des livres comptables des années 1423-1424 et 1461-1462,” mediaevistik 33 (2020): 155-65. [21] albrecht classen, “kulturelle und religiöse kontakte zwischen dem christlichen europa und dem buddhistischen indien während des mittelalters: rudolfs von ems barlaam und josaphat im europäischen kontext.” fabula 41 (2000): 203–28; constanza cordoni, “barlaam und josaphat in der europäischen literatur des mittelalters,” ph.d. diss., vienna, 2010. see also the contributions to barlaam und josaphat: neue perspektiven auf ein europäisches phänomen, ed. constanza cordoni und matthias meyer (berlin and boston: walter de gruyter, 2015); jacques le goff, in search of sacred time: jacobus de voragine and the golden legend, transl. by lydia g. cochrane (2011; princeton, nj: princeton university press, 2014). [22] gertrud blaschitz, “farbiger innenraum – genealogische metapher? barlaamund josaphat-fresken in der kremser ‘gozzoburg’,” farbe im mittelalter: materialität – medialität – semantik, ed. ingrid bennewitz and andrea schindler. akten des 13. symposiums des mediävistenverbandes vom 1. bis 5. märz 2009 in bamberg (berlin: akademie verlag, 2011), 159–74; eadem, “‘barlaam und josaphat’ als vorlage für wandmalereien in der gozzoburg von krems,” medium aevum quotidianum 57 (2008): 28–48. for critical comments, see christian opitz, “die wandmalereien im turmzimmer der kremser gozzoburg. ein herrschaftliches bildprogramm des späten 13. jahrhunderts,” österreichische zeitschrift für kunst und denkmalpflege 62 (2008): 588–602. andreas zajic, kulturgeschichte der überlieferung im mittelalter. quellen und methoden zur geschichte mittelund südosteuropas, ed. elisabeth gruber, christina lutter, oliver jens schmitt (cologne, weimar, and vienna: böhlau verlag, 2017), 294–300; but confer also gertrud blaschitz, “‘barlaam hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 2; 2021 19 published by ideas spread und josaphat’ im moldawischen kloster neamt, neamt, rumänien,” barlaam und josaphat: neue perspektiven auf ein europäisches phänomen, ed. constanza cordoni und matthias meyer (berlin and boston: walter de gruyter, 2015), 21–42. i summarize here the overview provided by romedio schmitz-esser, 327, n. 49, 328, n. 52. [23] jacobus de voragine, the golden legend: readings on the saints, trans. william granger ryan (princeton, nj: princeton university press, 1993), vol. 2, no. 180, 355-166. jacobus de voragine, la légende dorée, trans. from the french by jean-baptiste-marie roze (paris: citadelles & mazenod, 2008). see also the edition and german translation, jacobus de voragine, legenda aurea: die heiligenlegenden des mittelalters. hrsg., neu übersetzt und mit einem ausführlichen anhang versehen von matthias hackemann (cologne: anaconda, 2008). for a pragmatic approach to our text sample, see reading medieval latin with the legend of barlaam and josaphat, ed. and supplied with commentary by donka d. markus. michigan classical commentaries (ann arbor, mi: university of michigan press, 2018). [24] historiae animae utilis de barlaam et ioasaph, ed. robert volk. die schriften des johannes von damaskos, 6. patristische texte und studien, 60-61 (berlin and new york: walter de gruyter, 2006). [25] mattia cavagna, “barlaam and josaphat in the ‘legenda aurea’ and the ‘miroir historia’: a tale twice framed,” barlaam und josaphat (see note 15), 85-100. [26] die historia von den sieben weisen meistern und dem kaiser diocletianus. nach der gießener handschrift 104 mit einer einleitung und erläuterungen, ed. ralf-henning steinmetz. altdeutsche textbibliothek, 116 (tübingen: max niemeyer, 2001). see also obermaier, s. (2004). das fabelbuch als rahmenerzählung: intertextualität und intratextualität als wege zur interpretation des buchs der beispiele der alten weisen antons von pforr. beihefte zum euphorion, 48 (heidelberg: universitätsverlag winter, 2004). [27] reinaldo ayerbe-chaux, el conde lucanor: materia tradicional y originalidad creadora (madrid: j. porrúa turanzas, 1975). mario cossío olavide, “‘algunos moros muy sabidores’: virtuous muslim kings in examples 30 and 41 of ‘el conde lucanor’,” bulletin of spanish studies 97.2 (2020): 127-38; see also maria cecilia ruiz, “theft in juan manuel’s el conde lucanor,” crime and punishment in the middle ages and early modern age: mental-historical investigations of basic human problems and social responses, ed. albrecht classen and connie scarborough. fundamentals of medieval and early modern culture, 11 (berlin and boston: walter de gruyter, 2012), 247-80. [28] giuseppe tucci, joseph m. kitagawa, and frank e. reynolds, “buddhism,” online at: https://www.britannica.com/topic/buddhism/the-life-of-the-buddha; see also https://www.diamondwaybuddhism.org/buddhism/buddha/; https://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/buddha.html (all last accessed on april 25, 2021). for a scholarly rendition, see chikō komatsu the way to peace: the life and teachings of the buddha, trans. from the japanese (kyoto: hōzōkan publ. co., 1989). [29] barlaam und josaphat, ed. cordoni and meyer (see note 17). [30] toward a global middle ages: encountering the world through illuminated manuscripts, ed. bryan c. keene (los angeles, ca: the j. paul getty museum, 2019), 3-4. [31] maría jesús lacarra, “the figure of the ruler in ‘calila e dimna’ and the ‘exemplario contra los engaños y peligros del mundo’,” die figur des herrschers (see note 12), 53-71. she limits herself to the spanish tradition and traces it back primarily to arabic sources. but, as we know already, the lines of transmission often go much further back to persia and then india; see josé manuel pedrosa, “los cuentos en la españa medieval entre la voz y la lettra,” cuentística castellana medieval, ed. marta haro cortés. vol. 1: origen, consolidación y evolución. del ‘calila e dimna’ al ‘exemplario contra los engaños y peligros del mundo. colección parnaseo, 6 (valencia: universitat de valència, 2013), 229-47 (easily accessible online at: http://parnaseo.uv.es/aulamedieval/aulamedieval.php?id=cuentosmedievales (last accessed on april 25, 2021). [32] constanza cordoni, barlaam und josaphat in der europäischen literatur des mittelalters: darstellung der stofftraditionen bibliographie studien (berlin and boston: walter de gruyter, 2014). [33] helmut de boor, die höfische literatur: vorbereitung, blüte, ausklang 1170-1250. geschichte der deutschen literatur von den anfängen bis zur gegenwart, 2 (munich: c. h. beck, 1966), 176-87. [34]“‘barlaam’-bruchstücke,” ed. franz pfeiffer, zeitschrift für deutsches alterthum 1 (1841): 126-35. online at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/20649870?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents (last accessed on april 25, 2021). [35] the latest account is provided online at: https://handschriftencensus.de/werke/321 (last accessed on april 25, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 2; 2021 20 published by ideas spread 2021). [36] rudolf von ems, barlaam und josaphat. dichtungen des deutschen mittelalters, 3. nachdruck mit einem anhang, einem nachwort und einem register von heinz rupp (berlin: walter de gruyter, 1965); online at: https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/en/view/bsb10107283?page=1 (last accessed on april 25, 2021). [37] joachim bumke, geschichte der deutschen literatur im hohen mittelalter (munich: deutscher taschenbuch verlag, 1990), 394-95. [38] helmut de boor, die deutsche literatur im späten mittelalter. part i: 1250-1350. 5th ed. newly revised by johannes janota. geschichte der deutschen literatur von den anfängen bis zur gegenwart, iii/1 (1962; munich: c. h. beck, 1997), 459-61. [39] alexanderdichtungen im mittelalter: kulturelle selbstbestimmung im kontext literarischer beziehungen, ed. jan cölln, susanne friede, and hartmut wulfram. veröffentlichungen aus dem göttinger sonderforschungsbereich 529 “internationalität nationaler literaturen”, 1 (göttingen: wallstein verlag, 2000). [40] the travels of marco polo, trans. and with an intro. by ronald latham (london: penguin, 1958); for recent critical studies, see the contributions to marco polo and the encounter of east and west, ed. suzanne conklin akbari and amilcare iannucci (toronto, buffalo, and london: university of toronto press, 2008). one of the best studies continues to be by john larner, marco polo and the discovery of the world (new haven, ct, and london: yale university press, 1999); cf. also albrecht classen, “marco polos il milione/le divisement du monde: der mythos vom osten,” mittelalter mythen. herrscher, helden, heilige. ulrich müller and werner wunderlich, eds. (st. gall: uvk, 1996), 423-36; id., “marco polo and john mandeville: the traveler as authority figure, the real and the imaginary,” authorities in the middle ages: influence, legitimacy, and power in medieval society, ed. sini kangas, mia korpiola, and tuija aionen. fundamentals of medieval and early modern culture, 12 (berlin and boston: walter de gruyter, 2013), 239-48. [41] edward said, orientalism (london: routledge, 1978); khanmohamadi, sh. a., in light of another’s word: european ethnography in the middle ages. the middle ages series (philadelphia, pa: university of pennsylvania press, 2014). [42] mccomas taylor, “the panchatantra: world literature before ‘world literature,’” a companion to world literature, ed. ken seigneurie. vol. 1: third millennium bce to 600 ce, ed. wiebke denecke and ilaria l. e. ramelli (hoboken, nj, and chichester, west sussex: john wiley & sons, 2020), 561-75; here 572. [43] this is, as i see it, the major problem with the six-volume set, a companion to world literature (see note 35). cf. also roland wenzlhuemer, doing global history: an introduction in six concepts (london: bloomsbury academic, 2020). salisbury, j. e., ed. (2009). the greenwood encyclopedia of global medieval life and culture. 3 vols (westport, ct, and london: greenwood, 2009); heng, g., and ramey, l. (2014). early globalities, global literatures: introducing a special issue on the global middle ages. literature compass, 1–6; online at: 10.1111/lic3.12156; [44] azadeh yamini-hamedani, “on transcendence and literariness,” a companion to world literature (see. note 35), vol. 2, 774-82; here 776. [45] forde, simon. the encyclopedia of the global middle ages. london: arc humanities press, 2019; online at: https://www.bloomsburymedievalstudies.com/encyclopedia?docid=b-9781350990005. [46] die historia von den sieben weisen meistern und dem kaiser diocletianus (see note 22); see also le roman des sept sages, ed. jean misrahi. rpt. (1933; geneva: slatkine, 1975); le roman de dolopathos: edition du manuscrit h 436 de le bibliothèque de l’ecole de médecine de montpellier, ed. jean-luc leclanche. les classiques français du moyen âge, 126 (paris: champion, 1997). copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n1p117 117 published by ideas spread the relationship between parental monitoring and adolescent smartphone addiction: the longitudinal mediating role of parentchild attachment xu long1 & wang qin1 1 school of education, chongqing normal university, china correspondence: xu long, school of education, chongqing normal university, chongqing, 401331, china. received: january 29, 2025; accepted: february 27, 2025; published: march 1, 2025 abstract this study investigated the long-term effects of parental monitoring on mobile phone addiction among high school students and examined the longitudinal mediating role of parent-child attachment. a three-wave longitudinal study spanning 1.5 years was conducted using the parental monitoring scale, parent-child attachment scale, and mobile phone addiction scale. valid data were collected from 405 students (grades 10–11) at a chongqing secondary school across three assessments. the results demonstrated that: 1) parental monitoring significantly negatively predicted adolescents’ mobile phone addiction over time; 2) the mediating effect of parent-child attachment remained consistent across different time points, indicating stability in its intermediary role throughout the study period. these findings suggest that parental monitoring not only directly reduces mobile phone addiction but also exerts an indirect influence by enhancing parent-child attachment. the study highlights the enduring protective role of parental involvement and relational bonds in mitigating technology-related behavioral issues during adolescence. keywords: parental monitoring, mobile phone addiction, parent-child attachment, high school students 1. introduction the widespread adoption of smartphones has exacerbated concerns about mobile phone addiction among adolescents. according to the china internet network information center(cnnic, n.d.), china currently hosts 188 million underage internet users, with 99.7% relying primarily on mobile devices for online access. compared to adults, adolescents exhibit weaker self-control, rendering them more susceptible to excessive smartphone use(hefner et al., 2019). research indicates that mobile phone addiction is associated with sleep disturbances(tettamanti et al., 2020), diminished well-being (horwood & anglim, 2019), interpersonal conflicts(elhai et al., 2019), and even severe psychological issues such as risk-taking behaviors(vannucci et al., 2020). consequently, identifying the causes of adolescent mobile phone addiction and developing intervention strategies hold significant practical implications. the negative effects of excessive smartphone use on adolescents are well-documented. existing studies have explored predictors of mobile phone addiction from various perspectives, including individual traits, physiological factors, psychological factors, and environmental factors. at the individual level, gender and age have been identified as significant predictors of mobile phone addiction. a meta-analysis on nomophobia (fear of being without a mobile phone) found that the prevalence of mobile phone addiction among adults is approximately 21%, with higher rates observed among females and younger individuals(farchakh et al., 2021). adolescents and students are particularly vulnerable, with around 20% showing tendencies toward mobile phone addiction(lin et al., 2021). personal traits such as low self-esteem, loneliness, and anxiety are also closely linked to mobile phone addiction, as these individuals are more likely to engage in prolonged smartphone use, further exacerbating their dependency(kara et al., 2021). at the physiological and psychological levels, smartphone addiction is closely associated with both physical and mental health. excessive smartphone use can lead to attention deficits, reduced work performance, and increased levels of anxiety and depression(kim et al., 2018). prolonged use of smartphones can also result in physical discomfort, such as neck and wrist pain(alabdulwahab et al., 2017). furthermore, a meta-analysis on adolescent smartphone addiction and sleep found that addicted adolescents are at a higher risk of developing sleep disorders, which can lead to further complications such as anxiety, depression, memory decline, and obesity (cappuccio et al., 2008). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 118 published by ideas spread environmental factors, particularly those related to family and school, also play a crucial role in adolescent smartphone addiction. family environment, especially parental media education, significantly influences adolescent behavior (deng et al., 2020). a study of 471 middle school students found that parents who are themselves heavy smartphone users ("phubbers") contribute to their children's smartphone addiction(zhang et al., 2021). while positive parental intervention can effectively reduce the risk of addiction, excessive monitoring and content restrictions may paradoxically accelerate it(chen et al., 2019)). psychological control by parents has also been shown to increase the likelihood of smartphone addiction among adolescents(jiang et al., 2022). moreover, technological interference in parent-child interactions can negatively affect children's behavior(mcdaniel & radesky, 2018). research indicates that the more parents interfere with technology during interactions, the more likely adolescents are to develop smartphone addiction(liu et al., 2018). parental monitoring has emerged as a critical variable in the family context. grounded in clark’s(2011) theoretical framework, parental monitoring encompasses positive intervention (e.g., communicative guidance) and restrictive monitoring (e.g., enforcing usage rules). while positive intervention reduces addiction risks through effective parent-child communication(van den eijnden et al., 2010), the role of restrictive monitoring remains contentious. on one hand, it may prevent addiction by limiting screen time((ding et al., 2019); on the other hand, it could trigger psychological reactance by suppressing autonomy needs(hefner et al., 2019). these contradictory findings highlight the necessity to clarify the pathways and boundary conditions of parental monitoring. parent-child attachment may serve as a pivotal mechanism underlying these discrepancies. attachment theory posits that secure parent-child attachments buffer negative emotions and reduce addictive behaviors(seo et al., 2016), whereas insecure attachment predisposes individuals to compensatory phone dependency for emotional fulfillment(dwyer, 2005). as a key dimension of parenting, parental monitoring may indirectly influence mobile phone addiction by shaping attachment quality. empirical evidence suggests that authoritative parenting enhances parent-child attachment, whereas excessive monitoring weakens relational bonds. thus, parental monitoring may mitigate mobile phone addiction by fostering secure attachment. in summary, this study investigates parental monitoring as a predictor of adolescent mobile phone addiction, with parent-child attachment as a mediator, while examining the longitudinal stability of this mediating effect. the findings will contribute to a deeper understanding of the complex interplay between parental monitoring, parentchild attachment, and adolescent smartphone addiction, offering valuable insights for developing effective intervention strategies. 2. method 2.1 participants this study employed a cluster convenience sampling method to recruit students from grades 7 to 11 (excluding grade 9) at a secondary school in chongqing municipality, china. after obtaining informed consent from school administrators, homeroom teachers, students, and their parents, questionnaires were distributed offline to participants. data were collected across three waves: april 2023 (t1), october 2023 (t2), and may 2024 (t3). at t1, participants were in the second semester of grade 10. initial recruitment included 566 students, but attrition occurred at t2 and t3 due to missing student ids/names, absences, or transfers. after matching data across all three waves, 405 participants (attrition rate: 28.4%) were retained for analysis. the final sample comprised 176 males (43.50%) and 229 females (56.50%). regarding family structure, 90.9% (n = 368) reported living in dual-parent households, while 14.60% (n = 59) came from single-parent households. notably, 151 participants (37.30%) were identified as left-behind children (raised by relatives due to parental migration), and 254 (62.70%) were non-left-behind children 2.2 measures (1) parental monitoring questionnaire parental monitoring was assessed using an 8-item scale developed by shek(2005), which measures parents’ awareness and concern about their children’s activities. responses were recorded on a 5-point likert scale (1 =strongly disagreeto 5 =strongly agree), with higher scores indicating greater parental monitoring. the scale demonstrated good structural validity, and its cronbach’s α coefficients across the three waves were 0.874, 0.905, and 0.888, respectively. (2) parent-child attachment scale (short version of ippa) parent-child attachment was evaluated using a 13-item short version of the inventory of parent and peer hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 119 published by ideas spread attachment (ippa), adapted by li et al.(2021). the scale employs a 5-point likert response format (1 =never trueto 5 =always true) and includes three dimensions:trust(e.g., “my parents respect my feelings”),communication(e.g., “i share my thoughts with my parents”),andalienation(reverse-coded). the scale showed strong reliability and validity, with cronbach’s α coefficients of 0.921, 0.905, and 0.900 across waves. (3) smartphone addiction scale (sas-sv) smartphone addiction was measured using the 10-item short version of the smartphone addiction scale(kwon et al., 2013). participants rated items (e.g., “i feel impatient without my smartphone”) on a 6-point likert scale (1 =strongly disagreeto 6 =strongly agree), with higher total scores indicating more severe addiction. the scale exhibited excellent reliability, with cronbach’s α values of 0.929, 0.961, and 0.829 at t1, t2, and t3, respectively. 2.3 common method bias given the self-reported nature of the data, harman’s single-factor test was conducted to assess common method bias across the three waves. results showed that the first factor accounted for 29.48%, 38.10%, and 33.64% of the variance at t1, t2, and t3, respectively—all below the 40% threshold, indicating no severe common method bias. 2.4 data analysis data were analyzed using spss 27.0 for correlation analyses and the process macro(温忠麟 et al., 2005) to test cross-sectional mediation effects. longitudinal mediation models were constructed with mplus 8.3 to examine temporal pathways. 3. results 3.1 correlation analysis as shown in table 1, parental monitoring (t1–t3) was significantly and positively correlated with parent-child attachment at all time points: t1 (r= 0.442, p< 0.01), t2 (r= 0.357,p< 0.01), and t3 (r= 0.220, p< 0.01). these stable correlations suggest that higher parental monitoring corresponds to stronger parent-child attachment. parental monitoring was negatively associated with smartphone addiction across waves: t1 (r= -0.155, p< 0.01), t2 (r= -0.159, p< 0.01), and t3 (r= -0.052, p< 0.05). while the t3 correlation was weaker, the overall trend supports the protective role of parental monitoring against addiction. parent-child attachment also exhibited consistent negative correlations with smartphone addiction: t1 (r= -0.241, p< 0.01), t2 (r= -0.240, p< 0.01), and t3 (r= -0.165, p< 0.01). these results underscore the critical role of secure attachment in mitigating excessive smartphone use. table 1. correlation test 3.2 longitudinal mediation model of parent-child attachment between parental monitoring and mobile phone addiction to further examine the longitudinal mediating role of parent-child attachment in the relationship between parental monitoring and mobile phone addiction across three time points, a mediation model was constructed (see figure 1; only significant paths displayed). the model demonstrated acceptable fit indices: cfi = 0.936, tli = 0.876, srmr = 0.067, and χ²/df = 5.14, meeting standard criteria for model adequacy. autoregressive effects for all three 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 t1 parental monitoring - 2 t2 parental monitoring 0.531** - 3 t3 parental monitoring 0.407** 0.548** - 4 t1 parent-child attachment 0.442** 0.385** 0.287** - 5 t2 parent-child attachment 0.357** 0.472** 0.382** 0.635** - 6 t3 parent-child attachment 0.220** 0.341** 0.459** 0.456** 0.569** - 7 t1 smartphone addiction -0.155** -0.223** -0.164** -0.241** -0.228** -0.158** - 8 t2 smartphone addiction -0.159** -0.209** -0.208** -0.240** -0.292** -0.264** 0.562** - 9 t3 smartphone addiction -0.052 -0.203** -0.124* -0.165** -0.270** -0.220** 0.424** 0.523** - note. *p<0.05, **p<0.01 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 120 published by ideas spread variables were statistically significant with high coefficients, indicating strong temporal stability across measurements. after controlling for autoregressive effects and concurrent correlations, parental monitoring at time 1 (t1) significantly and positively predicted parent-child attachment at time 2 (t2), β = 0.056, p = 0.013. in turn, parentchild attachment at t2 significantly and negatively predicted mobile phone addiction at time 3 (t3), β = -0.18, p = 0.020. bootstrap analysis with 5,000 resamples was conducted to test the longitudinal mediating effect of parentchild attachment. the results revealed a significant indirect effect (ab = -0.018), with a 95% bias-corrected bootstrap confidence interval of [-0.037, -0.004] (p = 0.037), confirming the significant mediating role of parentchild attachment in the longitudinal relationship between parental monitoring and subsequent mobile phone addiction. figure 1. longitudinal mediation test notes: standardized path coefficients are reported.fit indices align with conventional thresholds (cfi/tli ≥ 0.90, srmr ≤ 0.08; schreiber et al., 2006). negative mediation effect suggests higher parental monitoring strengthens parent-child attachment, which in turn reduces later mobile phone addiction risk. 4. discussion the study revealed that parent-child attachment significantly mediated the relationship between parental monitoring and smartphone addiction during the first wave of measurement (t1). over time, fluctuations in the strength of parent-child attachment—whether increasing or decreasing—were found to directly influence children’s smartphone usage behaviors. this underscores that parent-child attachment is not merely a stable emotional bond but also serves as a longitudinal predictor of children’s future psychological states and behavioral tendencies. specifically, the stability and intensity of parent-child attachment exhibited a negative correlation with smartphone addiction risk, highlighting the critical need for parents to cultivate positive parent-child relationships as a preventive strategy. furthermore, the manifestations of smartphone addiction were observed to evolve over time, suggesting the necessity for dynamically adjusted intervention strategies. although no significant association between parentchild attachment and smartphone addiction was detected at the third measurement wave (t3), the potential role of parental monitoring in mitigating addiction risk remained evident. future research should prioritize investigating the temporal trajectories of smartphone addiction, particularly how developmental stages modulate the impact of attachment relationships. adolescents in different age groups may interpret and respond to parental monitoring and support divergently, leading to age-specific variations in addiction susceptibility. longitudinal monitoring and analysis of these dynamics will enhance our understanding of risk factors and inform tailored familyand schoolbased interventions. the findings emphasize the importance of incorporating longitudinal perspectives into intervention design. strategies targeting parental monitoring and parent-child attachment should be sustained and developmentally adaptive. for instance, as children mature, parents should gradually transition from direct supervision to fostering autonomy and decision-making skills. this shift from control to empowerment not only strengthens children’s self-efficacy but also preserves relational harmony, thereby reducing reliance on smartphones. additionally, interventions should integrate age-appropriate educational programs and family activities to strengthen parentchild bonds, complemented by efforts to enhance adolescents’ emotional regulation and social skills. equipping youth with these competencies may promote healthier choices in navigating digital environments. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 121 published by ideas spread in conclusion, this longitudinal study elucidates the dynamic interplay among parental monitoring, parent-child attachment, and smartphone addiction. parental monitoring was shown to predict the quality of parent-child attachment over time, with attachment serving as a significant mediator in the pathway to addiction. these findings underscore the pivotal role of family dynamics in preventing maladaptive behaviors and provide actionable insights for evidence-based interventions. future investigations should explore the applicability of these relationships across diverse cultural contexts and developmental stages to refine intervention frameworks and maximize their efficacy. references alabdulwahab, s., kachanathu, s., & al-mutairi, m. (2017). smartphone use addiction can cause neck disability. musculoskeletal care, 15. https://doi.org/10.1002/msc.1170 cappuccio, f. p., taggart, f. m., kandala, n.-b., currie, a., peile, e., stranges, s., & miller, m. a. (2008). metaanalysis of short sleep duration and obesity in children and adults. sleep, 31(5), 619–626. https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/31.5.619 chen, w., zhang, d., liu, j., pan, y., & sang, b. (2019). parental attachment and depressive symptoms in chinese adolescents: the mediation effect of emotion regulation. australian journal of psychology, 71(3), 241–248. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajpy.12239 china internet network information center. (2025, february 28). the 55th statistical report on the development of china's internet [eb/ol]. clark, l. s. (2011). parental mediation theory for the digital age. communication theory, 21(4), 323–343. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2011.01391.x ding, q., zhang, y. x., & zhou, z. k. (2019). the relationship between parental phubbing and smartphone addiction among middle school students: the moderating role of parental monitoring. chinese journal of special education, (1), 66–71. dwyer, k. m. (2005). the meaning and measurement of attachment in middle and late childhood. human development, 48(3), 155–182. https://doi.org/10.1159/000085519 elhai, j. d., levine, j. c., & hall, b. j. (2019). the relationship between anxiety symptom severity and problematic smartphone use: a review of the literature and conceptual frameworks. journal of anxiety disorders, 62, 45– 52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2018.11.005 farchakh, y., hallit, r., akel, m., chalhoub, c., hachem, m., hallit, s., & obeid, s. (2021). nomophobia in lebanon: scale validation and association with psychological aspects. plos one, 16(4), e0249890. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249890 hefner, d., knop, k., schmitt, s., & vorderer, p. (2019). rules? role model? relationship? the impact of parents on their children’s problematic mobile phone involvement. media psychology, 22(1), 82–108. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2018.1433544 horwood, s., & anglim, j. (2019). problematic smartphone usage and subjective and psychological well-being. computers in human behavior, 97, 44–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.02.028 jiang, x. y., lin, y., & liu, q. x. (2022). the relationship between parental psychological control and adolescent smartphone addiction: the role of psychological needs network satisfaction and environmental sensitivity. psychological development and education, 38(2), 254–262. kara, m., baytemir, k., & inceman-kara, f. (2021). duration of daily smartphone usage as an antecedent of nomophobia: exploring multiple mediation of loneliness and anxiety. behaviour & information technology, 40(1), 85–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929x.2019.1673485 kim, y.-j., jang, h. m., lee, y., lee, d., & kim, d.-j. (2018). effects of internet and smartphone addictions on depression and anxiety based on propensity score matching analysis. international journal of environmental research and public health, 15(5), article 5. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15050859 kwon, m., kim, d.-j., cho, h., & yang, s. (2013). the smartphone addiction scale: development and validation of a short version for adolescents. plos one, 8(12), e83558. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0083558 li, x., fu, s., fu, q., & zhong, b. (2021). youths’ habitual use of smartphones alters sleep quality and memory: insights from a national sample of chinese students. international journal of environmental research and public health, 18(5), article 5. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052254 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 122 published by ideas spread lin, l., wang, x., li, q., xia, b., chen, p., & wang, w. (2021). the influence of interpersonal sensitivity on smartphone addiction: a moderated mediation model. frontiers in psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.670223 liu, y., fei, l., sun, x., wei, c., luo, f., li, z., shen, l., xue, g., & lin, x. (2018). parental rearing behaviors and adolescent’s social trust: roles of adolescent self-esteem and class justice climate. journal of child and family studies, 27(5), 1415–1427. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-1010-3 mcdaniel, b. t., & radesky, j. s. (2018). technoference: parent distraction with technology and associations with child behavior problems. child development, 89(1), 100–109. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12822 seo, d. g., park, y., kim, m. k., & park, j. (2016). mobile phone dependency and its impacts on adolescents’ social and academic behaviors. computers in human behavior, 63, 282–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.05.026 shek, d. t. l. (2005). perceived parental control and parent–child relational qualities in chinese adolescents in hong kong. sex roles, 53(9), 635–646. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-7730-7 tettamanti, g., auvinen, a., åkerstedt, t., kojo, k., ahlbom, a., heinävaara, s., elliott, p., schüz, j., deltour, i., kromhout, h., toledano, m. b., poulsen, a. h., johansen, c., vermeulen, r., feychting, m., & hillert, l. (2020). long-term effect of mobile phone use on sleep quality: results from the cohort study of mobile phone use and health (cosmos). environment international, 140, 105687. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.105687 van den eijnden, r. j. j. m., spijkerman, r., vermulst, a. a., van rooij, t. j., & engels, r. c. m. e. (2010). compulsive internet use among adolescents: bidirectional parent–child relationships. journal of abnormal child psychology, 38(1), 77–89. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-009-9347-8 vannucci, a., simpson, e. g., gagnon, s., & ohannessian, c. m. (2020). social media use and risky behaviors in adolescents: a meta-analysis. journal of adolescence, 79, 258–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2020.01.014 wen, z. l., hou, j. t., & zhang, l. (2005). a comparison and application of moderating and mediating effects. acta psychologica sinica, 2, 268–274. zhang, y., ding, q., & wang, z. (2021). why parental phubbing is at risk for adolescent mobile phone addiction: a serial mediating model. children and youth services review, 121, 105873. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105873 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). microsoft word p1-2 humanities and social science research; vol. 5, no. 1; 2022 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v5n1p1 1 published by ideas spread efficiency, effectiveness and wellness in the post-covid workplace “there is nothing so useless as doing efficiently that which should not be done at all.”---peter drucker peter kalina1 & yvette panno2 1 department of radiology, mayo clinic, rochester mn, usa 2 human resources, ustc corporation, edison, nj, usa correspondence: peter kalina, md, mba, facr. department of radiology, mayo clinic, rochester mn, usa. e-mail: kalina.peter mayo.edu received: february 17, 2022; accepted: march 3, 2022; published: march 7, 2022 abstract in 1840, factory owners were compelled by organized labor to limit their workday to eight hours. subsequent to this action, management discovered that output actually increased, while mistakes and accidents decreased. in 1916, the adamson act established an eight-hour day for railroad workers. this was the first federal law that regulated the hours of workers in private companies. the eight-hour day became a standard for most workers in 1937, when the fair labor standards act was first proposed under the new deal (samuel, 2000). keywords: covid, workplace, wellness before covid changed perceptions about how people could accomplish their tasks, employees were expected to put in full days at the office, and then expected to respond to after hour emails. they were expected to willingly donate nights, weekends, and vacation time; all without complaining (carmichael, 2015). the organizational charts of many companies have work cascading down the organizational pyramid from top to bottom. based on that concept, we work long hours because authority figures tell us to. managers want their employees to be “humble, hungry, and smart” (lecioni, 2016). the problem with “hungry” is that a work ethic equating with excess work hours (or the perception of busyness) is an old-school management philosophy that is not sustainable. it leads to overwork, diminished effectiveness, and burnout. that’s not to say we can’t work very hard or for very long hours. we can. we just can’t do it routinely. one 60-hour work week in order to resolve a specific crisis is quite different from chronic overwork. predictable, required time off makes teams more productive (perlow, 2009). why do people overwork? potential drivers may include economic incentive, corporate culture, or the technology that always people to keep the office just a click away. perhaps it is the psychology of work: we log excess hours due to a mix of inner drivers (ambition, machismo, greed, anxiety, guilt, enjoyment, pride, short-term rewards, desire or need to prove we are relevant, or perhaps a sense of duty). we have all worked with people for whom it is abundantly clear that, for them, their work life is actually less stressful than their home life. for them, the workplace is somewhere they feel in control. some may not realize the unintended consequences of overwork is, do not believe it, or consciously choose not to act on the knowledge (carmichael 2015, kalina 2021). if there are silver linings in the post-covid workplace, one may be that we have confirmed a previous suspicion overwork doesn’t result in more output, or better output. managers were unable to distinguish between employees that had actually worked a full 80-hour week from those pretending to. (reid 2015) demonstrated no evidence that employees pretending to work 80 hours accomplished less while those actually overworking accomplished more. in fact, overwork harms employees which, in turn, harms their organizations. overwork impairs interpersonal communication skills, judgment, and ability to manage emotional reactions. it can lead to stress, exhaustion, burnout, poor sleep, depression, drinking, and heart disease. these unintended consequences affect the company bottom line by negatively impacting our customer interactions along with increasing absenteeism, turnover, and health insurance costs (virtanen, 2015). if for no other altruistic reasons, wellness must be prioritized due to the resultant improved customer outcomes and improved business bottom-line. the worldwide human and economic toll of covid-19 is still being determined. people suffered. revenues and operating margins declined. our workforce, infrastructure, and supply chains were strained. the pandemic profoundly transformed workplaces around the world, catalyzing unprecedented acceleration in change management processes. in 2022, the unintended consequences of covid-19 are the 800-lb gorilla present in every hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 1; 2022 2 published by ideas spread boardroom. if organizations genuinely desire well-balanced, healthy, and happy employees they must prioritize work-life integration and assure employee wellness is a leadership priority. references carmichael, s. (2015). long hours backfire for people and for companies hbr 8/19/15. kalina, p. (2021). why do we work: motive portends outcome. international journal of business management and marketing, 6, 39-41. lecioni, p. (2015). the ideal team player john wiley & sons. 2016 hoboken, n j. perlow, l., & porter, j. (2009). making time off predictable—and required. harvard business review, 87(10), 102-9, 142. reid, e. (2015). why some men pretend to work 80-hour weeks hbr april 28, 2015. samuel, h. (2000). troubled passage: the labor movement and the fair labor standards act. monthly labor review. virtanen, et al. (2015). long working hours and alcohol use: systematic review and meta-analysis of published studies and unpublished individual participant data. bmj, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.g7772 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n3p1 1 published by ideas spread adoption and deployment of a new major wireless technology: the mobile telephone 5g. a provisional overview ángel calvo1 1 university of barcelona, spain correspondence: ángel calvo, university of barcelona, spain. e-mail: angel.calvo ateneu.ub.edu received: january 21, 2025; accepted: march 6, 2025; published: march 12, 2025 abstract this research aims to contribute to the task of explaining the factors involved in the design and the use of 5th generation mobile telephony technology by examining the constraints and conditions that determine the vertical innovation, i.e. the launch and deployment of 5th generation mobile telephony technology worldwide, with a particular focus on europe. the ultimate objective is to build up an overview of this launch and deployment in order to make the numerous reports and studies of specialised international organisations available to the academic world teachers but also students and to the political decision-makers concerned. the research takes a perspective which emphasises economic and business issues as well as the strategy, a topic sometimes neglected by scholars. the text is structured in four main sections, which comprise the constraints and conditions, including technology and regulation, the way to 5g, investment, expenditure and costs, the deployment of this technology around the world and in europe and, finally, a first approach to europe's backwardness. keywords: 5g, mobile telephone, technological change, europe's backwardness 1. introduction in the short time that mobile telephony has been around, researchers have been faced with a double dilemma: its early adoption in some countries and its later take-up in others, and the loss of early leadership by the pioneers in general (massaro and kim, 2022, pp. 1-18; gsma, 2018) and europe in particular (wood and sherrington, 2024, pp. 4-5), with several countries lacking some of the optimal conditions for this technology rollout (blackman and forge, 2019, pp. 22-25). both parties are challenged with the task of explaining the factors involved in the design and the use of new major wireless technology. europe’s 5g rollout has faced unique challenges compared to other regions. what is causing europe’s slow 5g adoption? what factors are impeding europe’s ability to fully capitalize on 5g compared to other regions? is the issue primarily technological, regulatory, or economic? in this paper, we will dissect these factors, looking at their impact on europe’s ability to lead in 5g adoption. this research aims to contribute to the task of explaining the factors involved in the design and the use of 5th generation mobile telephony technology by examining the constraints and conditions that determine the vertical innovation, i.e. the launch and deployment of 5th generation mobile telephony technology worldwide, with a particular focus on europe, which is highly fragmented at the member state level and faces the single market for a sustainable future and prosperity within everyone's reach (letta, 2024). the research draws from a wide range of academic and industry reports, as well as providing citations from credible sources like the european commission and gsma. it should be pointed out that, despite their relevance, they are sometimes heavily criticised. for example, the european court of auditors (2022, p. 19) notes that information on 5g deployments in member states' 5g strategies provided by the european commission's 5g observatory is not always reliable. 2. constraints and conditions 2.1 technology and regulation 5g is the more advanced stage of a journey of mobile communication, starting from the 1980s (prasad (ed.), 2022, p. xvi). this standard represents a step change in the future of technology and communications because of the wide range of innovative uses it can support. for a series of use cases, it was predicted that the communication traffic will be beyond 1000s times higher in the 2020s than in the 2010s. it was also envisaged that 5g systems should enlarge its capacity to support this demand accordingly. in addition, ultra-high speed transmission of up to 10gps will be needed to allow users to accede to ultra-high capacity contents. as has emerging internet of things hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 2 published by ideas spread (iot) or machine to machine (m2m) communications indicated, massive number of objects will be starting to communicate each other sooner or later (association for radio industries and businesses, 2014). the first mobile phones were introduced in the 1980s under the name of advanced mobile phone system. it used 1g technology for analogue calls, which worked like a landline phone and suffered in various ways. the maximum achievable speed was 2.4 kbps but international data roaming emerged. the 2g mobile technology, gsm, emerged in 1991 and reached its peak of deployment in 2015 with 3.83 billion subscribers served by over 700 operators in 219 countries and territories. it achieved digital voice, faxes and sms (lemstra, 2018, pp. 587-611). 3g, based on a high-speed packet access (hspa/hspa+) and multiple-input multiple-output (mimo) for multiplying the power of the wireless network and framed into universal mobile telecommunication system (umts), allowed the advent of smart phones. 4g, launched in 2010 and supported by the system long term evolution (lte) and wimax technologies, was purely mobile broadband standard. it permitted faster mobile broadband and then video viewing, videoconferencing and gps (kpmg, 2019, p. 10; dangi et al., 2021, p. 1; gobierno de españa, 2020) (note 1). since 2012, many european countries had a rapid adoption of 4g services. at the end of 2017, the 285 million 4g connections in the region accounted for 42% of total connections. 85% of the population in europe subscribed to mobile services (gsm association, 2018). even with the differences between the first four successive generations of mobile network technology, many actions or attributes are part of a recurring pattern in terms of succession: a new generation is on the way every decade. the 5g rollout largely followed the expected timeline, with initial advancements taking place around 2020. interestingly, the early phases of mobile technology adoption were led by state-owned monopolies. in contrast, the more recent generations have been driven by open market competition (lemstra, cave and bourreau, 2017, pp. 22-23) (note 2). 5g provides a high data rate, ultra-reliable low-latency, high coverage, high reliability, and economically improved quality of services, categorized into three categories. its extreme mobile broadband as a non standalone (nsa) architecture offers high-speed internet connectivity, greater bandwidth, ultrahd streaming videos, virtual reality and augmented reality media, between the most outstanding. 5g’s machine communication capabilities are designed to be long-range, highly efficient, and cost-effective, consuming less power than previous generations (dangi et al., 2021, p. 1). 5g has the potential to support the creation of smart cities, agriculture and transport, and the automation of digital industrial ecosystems (kpmg, 2019, p. 3). the annexe 1 summarises the more important characteristics of the mobile technology. worldwide, the availability of 5g could add approximately 1.3 trillion u.s. dollars to global gdp by 2030 (statista, 7 september 2023). analysys mason estimated the total ‘open innovation platform’ 5g networks in europe c.eur210 billion in benefits excluding 5g enhanced mobile broadband (embb) consumer benefit at a cost of c.eur46 billion (which equates to a cost–benefit ratio (cbr) of 4.5 benefit to cost). the smart production (mining; smart factories; ports and airports) and smart rural clusters (agriculture and fixed wireless access -fwa) have the largest net benefit (i.e. benefit minus cost), of c.eur70 billion and c.eur55 billion respectively. however, their cbrs are lower than those of the smart urban construction the largest cost and benefits component-; urban hotspots; stadiumsand smart automotive and smart public services clusters healthcare and hospitals; municipal buildings; education and tourism(daly, nickerson and stewart, 2020, p. 9). 2.2 the way to 5g the way to 5g entailed several phases of preparedness, actions, involvement by institutions and standardisation. as for preparedness, the following are the 5g date milestones since 2014, gathered from an institutional source (european 5g annual journal 2016, pp. 14-15). 2014-2015 “exploratory phase to understand detailed requirements on 5g future systems and identify most promising functional architectures and technology options which will meet the requirements. these activities will build on previous research work in industry and research framework programmes as well as global activities in other regions and standard bodies”. 2015-2017 “detailed system r&d for all access means, backbone and core networks (including sdn, nfv, cloud systems, undedicated programmable hardware…) by taking into account economic conditions for future deployment”. 2016-2018 “detailed system optimisation by taking into account all identified requirements and constraints”. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 3 published by ideas spread “identification and analysis of frequency bands envisaged for all 5g communications and final system definition and optimisation by means of simulations, validation of concepts and early trials. contributions to initial global standardisation activities e.g. in 3gpp“. “preparation of wrc 19. support of regulatory bodies for the allocation of newly identified frequency bands for the deployment of new systems. new frequency bands should be available around 2020“. 2017-2018 “investigation, prototypes, technology demos and pilots of network management and operation, cloudbased distributed computing and big data for network operation. extension of pilots and trial to non ict stakeholders to evaluate the technical solutions and the impact in the real economy. detailed standardisation process based on validated system concepts by means of simulations and close to real world trials“. 2018-2020 “demonstrations, trials and scalability testing of different complexity depending on standard readiness and component availability“. 2020 “new frequency bands available for trial network deployment and initial commercial deployment of new systems. commercial systems deployment under real world conditions with selected customers to prepare economic exploitation on global basis”. “enhanced mobile broadband (embb), with higher speed and lower latency than existing technologies, was the core consumer provision for early 5g networks, with real-world performance of up to 1 gbps with less than 10 ms round-trip latency (dewar, calum et al., 2017, p. 7). in 2017, the 3rd generation partnership project favoured that some operators worldwide to bring forward their 5g commercial launch plans. the specifications for nonstandalone 5g new radio (nsa 5g nr) were officially approved at the end of this year as part of a wider plan to standardise the 5g system for both non-standalone and standalone (sa) (i.e. a network that uses a 5g core network without dependency on 4g lte) models by mid-2018. the initial set of non-standalone 5g new radio (nsa 5g nr) specifications, approved at the end of this year, enabled manufacturers to advance their tests, build and design components that implemented the 5g new radio specifications, while awaiting final standardisation” (gsma, 2018, pp. 12-13). as for actions, involvement by institutions and standardization, radio spectrum is a key issue. it is a scarce natural resource, which must be conferred to operators of the service through different pathways. between them, auctions can determine the most efficient and effective mobile providers, while ensuring compliance with their public service obligations laid down by the regulator. well-designed spectrum auctions are economically efficient if they allocate parts of the radio spectrum to the best societal use. several challenges hinder spectrum auctions, such as the complementary nature of spectrum lots, incentives for firms to engage in strategic bidding, effects on downstream markets, and uncertainty. competition considerations play an important role when using spectrum auctions to award strategic assets in oligopolistic markets (myers, 2023, pp. 3-4, 118 and 178). having established the technological potential of 5g, the next logical step is to understand the economic implications of its deployment. as we move forward, it’s crucial to examine not just the technologies themselves but the investment and regulatory challenges that impact the roll-out process. in other words, the aim is to explain how technological advancements impact cost structures or investment priorities. 2.3 investment, expenditure, costs a number of considerations have to be made in relation to investment. new infrastructures for 1g and 2g required large investments. the 2.5g intergenerational upgrade was introduced through the deployment of an overlay packet network in the form of general packet radio service (gprs. 3g enabled to separate in time the investment in new radio access and new core equipment, according a sequence of new radio (wideband cdma), which became interoperable with the existing 2g circuit -switched and 2.5g packet-switched core. in 3.5g, packet capabilities moved to high-speed packet access. in 4g, the circuit core was abandoned and the packet core was upgraded while a new modulation technique was applied in radio access (ofdma), which required upgrades to base stations and terminals. 5g challenges the level of investment required. the specialised agencies allocated a substantial share of the investment in that standard to the private sector. nevertheless, they linked the successful deployment of the new technology to joint action by telecoms operators, policymakers and the entire digital ecosystem. governments play a crucial role in establishing a robust industrial policy to support digital communications and ensuring a regulatory framework that encourages investment (european telecommunications network operators’ association, 2020, p. 17). there is also considerable uncertainty about the business case for mobile operators to invest in supporting innovative services (frontier economics ltd., 2021, pp. 31-32). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 4 published by ideas spread beginning by the cost considerations, the increased complexity and coverage density of 5g base stations to meet the planned capacity has led to estimates of a much higher cost (perhaps triple) of 5g deployment than previous standards. the european commission estimated the cost of achieving its 2025 connectivity targets, which include 5g coverage in all urban areas, at €500 billion (blackman and forge, 2019, p. 6). second, significant evidence reveals different cost structures between the mobile network operator and those of fixed network operators due to a number of factors. the main single difference lies in the treatment of the access network (base stations and associated equipment). in a fixed network (predominantly the copper loops) it is entirely driven by the number of subscribers, as each subscriber has a dedicated line. the size and costs of this line, and the customer access network as a whole, are therefore invariant to the amount of traffic throughput and are causally related to the number of subscribers and independent of traffic volume. subscription revenues allow appropriately recover such costs. conversely, the mobile networks don’t have an access network dedicated to individual subscribers and are sized to support the traffic arising from outgoing and incoming calls. therefore, an increase in traffic does require further investment in the access network, so that the costs of the access network are causally related to the volume of traffic and are appropriately recovered from traffic services (kpmg, 2019, p. 3). the costly deployment of 5g networks may lead to alternative infrastructure ownership models and policies which could reduce the costs in terms of spectrum policy, network sharing, consolidation, equipment costs and other rollout barriers. the release of additional spectrum for mobile use could support increased traffic demand and the development of advanced use cases (small cell forum, 2017). sharing infrastructure and equipment reduces overall costs by eliminating the duplication of fixed costs and make ventures financially viable. 5g offers even stronger cost savings potential for network sharing because, as it avoids the cost of network consolidation. beyond cost, it could solve many practical roadblocks in urban areas, such as the potential for urban disruption and visual pollution from the installation of excessive equipment and fiber (grijpink et al., 2018, pp. 15; grijpink et al., 2018a) (note 3). several administrations promoted network sharing agreements between operators with a reduction of infrastructure costs that have been estimated in 16%-35% on both capital expenditure (capex) and operating expenses (opex) for passive agreements and even more active agreements. these cost savings could help accelerate the deployment of 5g technology (note 4). furthermore, consolidation of mobile networks would remove the need to duplicate mobile infrastructure, thereby reducing the fixed costs of roll-out between the two merging operators. mobile operators which worry about the lack of choice of equipment vendors could reduce equipment cost increases through openran. it is an option to enable interoperability between different hardware and software vendors, which increases choice, competition and innovation. in terms of other barriers to deployment, policy decisions should enable the development of rights and the government's barriers task force has significantly improved the ability to roll out (frontier economics ltd., 2021, pp. 31-32). an evolutionary approach to infrastructure investment was undertaken in the first commercial rollout wave of 5g (grijpink et al. p. 2), closer to 4g+, both being non-standalone networks (kpmg, 2019, p. 13; o'donnell, 2019; gabriel, chen and goldman, 2020, p. 6) (note 5). 4g infrastructures were the base in the initial 5g services in several countries in europe (daly, nickerson and stewart, 2020, p. 4). from the supply side, as concerns network infrastructure, the long lifetime and high cost of equipment has been driving network infrastructure manufacturers and others to develop upgradeable software versions of their mobile tower equipment for several years now. in particular, a major effort has been made to produce equipment that can be easily upgraded from 4g advanced lte to 5g nsa. software-only upgrades are possible because of much of the sub-6 frequencies eligible for 5g are also currently used for 4g. as a result, it is possible to dispense with new antennas and other radio access network, or ran, equipment to support these frequencies when they want to switch their networks to 5g (o'donnell, 2019) (note 6). think of 5g’s network slicing as creating different lanes on a motorway. some lanes are designed for fast cars (high data traffic), while others are for trucks (devices requiring less data). this ensures smoother traffic flow and greater efficiency for all vehicles. both large and small and medium-sized enterprises (smes) in 2018 mobilised private investments that sum up to an amount 10.12 times the public ec investment in the 5g ppp in the same period. all the types of stakeholders/beneficiaries invested in 2018 a total amount of money that is 7.24 times the public investment in the same period (european 5g annual journal 2020, p. 101). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 5 published by ideas spread worldwide telecommunication capex sharp rose by mid-2022 reaching its highest in more than ten years, above the lte peak of 2015. mtn consulting calculated that capex came to $329.5 billion over the preceding twelve months. among several factors, a large part of the explanation is that communications service providers (csps) were simply making up for time lost during the covid-19 lockdowns, which depressed network expenditure and deployment (taaffe, 2022). 2.4 r&d let us not forget that we are following a multifactorial scheme. next to infrastructure, r&d accounts for a substantial component of total expenditure. the state-owned national monopolies financed the next generation r&d while the introduction of competition shifted the emphasis to pre-competitive eu r&d programmes involving hardware manufacturers, carriers and academic research institutes. throughout the 3g phase, operators put network-related r&d in the hands of equipment manufacturers and refocused their r&d activities on service provision. 5g-oriented research within the eu-funded frame programme 7 (fp7) and horizon 2020 programmes aligns with this trend, in terms of timing, content and industry participation. strategic r&d collaboration agreements on 5g have been reached between the eu and japan, korea, china and brazil (lemstra, cave and bourreau, 2017, pp. 22-23). research and development remains a strategic priority for companies, even during turbulent times, which were used to extend their competitive advantage. according a survey conducted by mckinsey (2009), approximately 40% of the respondents stated that their companies were actively seeking to reduce r&d costs and trimming the number of r&d projects. 34% of the executives surveyed revealed r&d budgets for 2009 lower than those for 2008. moreover, a significant majority of respondents indicated that their companies were adopting a new approach to r&d. specifically, many were pursuing shorter-term, lower-risk projects or making minor modifications to existing products. additionally, some findings suggested that many companies might be neglecting long-term innovation opportunities. the companies that derived the greatest benefits from innovation seemed to be taking a distinct approach, namely the increasing of their r&d budgets and activities, and the shift towards longer-term, higher-risk projects. additionally, they were almost twice as likely to report that they viewed the downturn as an opportunity to upgrade their r&d. as zk research points out, telecommunications companies have historically raced not to innovate, but to offer cheaper prices than their competitors. that's led to cutting r&d spending to slash expenses more broadly. the high amount of expenses in r&d required in 5g came from several sources, mainly from infrastructure vendors and huawei at the head, followed by samsung (figure 1 and annexe 2). figure 1. 5g private r&d expenses (as 2% of total r&d), 2016-2017 source: elaborated from the european 5g annual journal, 2017, p. 65. 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 infrastructure vendors chipset it mnos others test equipment 2017 2016 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 6 published by ideas spread 3. deployment 5g around the world the mobile industry progressed with 5g successful trials around the globe and the approval of the non-standalone 5g new radio specifications in december 2017. early 5g commercial launches were expected over the following three years in the united states and major markets across asia-pacific and europe (gsma, 2018, p. 4). the most advanced countries in their plans for 5g were the usa, china, japan, the republic of korea, singapore and taiwan (blackman and forge, 2019, pp. 13-15). the usa moved towards 5g deployment through a series of commercial manoeuvres, some of which were more about rebranding existing lte than offering new networks. one example of this was the reuse of lte spectrum in the uhf ranges (300 mhz to 3 ghz), probably justified by its geography of large rural areas and high-density urban centres located rather on the coasts. a major challenge is the local administrative barriers to small cell deployment, the need for which entails long delays and high costs. the prevalence of local regulations over the fcc led to a major divide between local and central government over the authorisation of deployment and the fees for it (blackman and forge, 2019, pp. 13-15). a slow rollout was expected in china, perhaps beginning later in 2019 (blackman and forge, 2019, pp. 15-19). regarding critical technologies for 5g, korea and taiwan hold leading positions in the field of integrated circuit (ic) and their governments urged them to expand. in korea, samsung and sk hynix, the second largest player, aimed to leave the old fashion chinese ic plants out of the new 5g market by investing quickly and on a massive scale. therefore, korea's interests were served by a fast rollout of 5g networks to perfect its 5g chipsets in the field (blackman and forge, 2019, pp. 22-25). the three south korean mobile operators, kt, lg u+ and sk telecom, led the global launch of mobile 5g services. they all started their services on the same day in april 2019, just hours before verizon in the usa (sale 2020) (note 7); table 1). in 2021, 4g dominated the total connections (excluding licensed cellular iot) with 75%, well above the 14%, 7% and 4% of 3g, 2g and 5g, respectively (gsm association, 2022, pp. 3 and 11). figure 2. technologies of mobile communication in 2022 (%) source: elaborated from gsma (2023), pp. 8-9. still in 2023 the 4g-lte deployments multiplied by a factor of 2.43 the 5g deployments (5gamericas, 2023). 5g will overtake 4g in 2029 to become the dominant mobile technology by the end of this decade (gsma, 2023, p. 13). table 1. adoption and deployment of 5g in the world country market country to deploy 5g services government initiatives to deploy 5g networks south korea 3 main mnos: sk telecom (the largest); kt; lg uplus early mover; second country to deploy to encourage network sharing between mnos; tax benefits and security maintenance services 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 asia pacific cis europe greater china* latin america north america mena subsaharan africa 2g 3g 4g 5g hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 7 published by ideas spread usa 3 nationwide mnos: verizon, at&t; t-mobile first country (verizon) 5g fast plan (pushing more spectrum; updating infrastructure policy; modernising regulations china 3 state mnos: china telecom, china unicom; china mobile launch in october 2019 state-backed initiatives: rebates and subsidies; local schemes europe 3 large mnos and a fourth, smaller mno launch in summer 2019 action plan (2016): promoting early 5g deployment; encouraging industry-led innovation; €700 million for r&d+i over seven years; member states schemes mno: mobile network operators. source: elaborated from kpmg, 2019, pp. 16-19 and 21-24. figure 3. international 5g developments, 2021-2023 source: elaborated from 5g quarterly reports, 2021-2023. figure 4. international 5g developments in 2022-2023. 5g base stations/100.000 inh. source: elaborated from 5g quarterly reports, 2021-2023. 0 500000 1000000 1500000 2000000 2500000 china south korea japan usa european union 5g base stations* 2023 5g base stations* 2021 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 china south korea japan usa european union 2022 2023 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 8 published by ideas spread figure 5. international 5g versus 4g developments source: elaborated from telegeography, 17 october 2023. mobile connections excluding cellular iot in 2025 provides a view of the 5g adoption by major countries/regions. china leads the expectations with 396 million of 5g connections, followed by europe (21/), us (191) and japan (87). this panorama changes when the 5g share of total mobile connections given that of a total of 1.224 million of connections us leads with 49%, followed by japan (45%), europe (31%) and china (25%) (gsma, 2018, p. 32). 4. deployment 5g in europe the european commission set a milestone in september 2016 with the 5g action plan. through its strategic initiative, it aimed to extend fifth-generation mobile services to all member states within four years and to ensure seamless 5g coverage in preferred areas within five years. very high capacity networks generating around €225 billion in annual revenues for mobile operators worldwide will be a key asset for europe to compete in the global market. the action plan set out a clear roadmap for public and private investment in 5g infrastructure in the eu with six actions. they comprised, firstly, a coordinated network roll-out, starting by 2018 and moving towards full commercial deployment by the end of 2020 at the latest. for 2019 there would be interim spectrum bands, to be followed by new ones. the third action prioritised early deployment in major urban areas and along major transport routes. an important issue was the promotion of pan-european multi-stakeholder trials as a catalyst to turn technological innovation into complete business solutions. in addition, an industry-led venture fund was advocated to support 5g-based innovation. finally, it was intended to bring together key stakeholders to work on promoting global standards (european commission 5g action plan. https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/5gaction-plan). 5g presented a strategic for europe for a number of reasons. 5g is pivotal to a major global technological, industrial and innovation transition and will enable many business applications with significant potential for economic growth and innovation in a wide range of sectors. the development of equipment and applications 5g technologies is a key vector of innovation and a driver of europe's strategic digital autonomy. it is also a means to support europe's autonomy and role in the sector to maintain a strong position in the global market. it was expected to improve the efficiency and resilience of european supply chains and industrial ecosystems. new communication possibilities could emerge to support industrial processes, potentially increasing efficiency and opening up new ways of doing business, as well as enabling smes to participate more actively in the communication ecosystem (lefebvre, gigler and borg, pp. 5-7). for the deployment of 5g, mobile network operators require access to sufficient spectrum to ensure optimal performance and coverage, particularly in the 700 mhz, 3.4-3.8 ghz, and 26 ghz frequency bands. european regulators aimed to guarantee that at least three mobile network operators had access to spectrum in the key 3.43.8 ghz band and to promote sufficient competition when designing spectrum auctions. the regulators increasingly prioritised simplicity, fairness, and transparency in the auction design process with simpler auction 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 africa asia europe latin america middle east oceania u.s. & canada 5g lte hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 9 published by ideas spread formats as simple clock formats, simultaneous multi-round auction (smra) & clock-smra hybrid. those are all first-price formats in which bidders generally place only up to one bid per lot category per round. on the contrary, three countries acted on an exclusive track: ireland with a combinatorial clock auction (cca) (note 8)in 2020 while norway (2020) and denmark (2021) with the combinatorial multiple round ascending (cmra) format (kasberger and teytelboym, 2022). between 2017 and 2021, most european regulators allocated spectrum in some of the 5g frequency bands. the 3.4-3.8 ghz band was assigned in most european countries, while the 26 ghz band was only assigned in a few (marquardt, gallagher and abate, 2021, pp. 1-5). by the end of march 2022, all of the 27 member states but two (estonia and poland) had assigned spectrum in the 5g pioneer bands (700 mhz; 3.6 ghz and 26 ghz band). six countries -germany, croatia, denmark, greece, finland and sloveniaassigned more than 90% of spectrum (the digital economy and society index 2022, pp. 36-37). table 2. nation state 5g spectrum assignment to 2021 nation consultation 700 mhz 3.4-3.6 ghz 3.6-3.8 ghz >24 ghz other frequencies austria 2017 september 2020 march 2019 190 mhz march 2019 200 mhz ongoing 2021 1500, 2100, 2300mhz belgium 2021 400 mhz 2021 400 mhz 1.5, 31.8-33.4, 40.5-43.5 ghz bulgaria 2017 april 2021 april 2021 ongoing 2021 1.5ghz/2500mhz/2600 mhz croatia march 2019 2021* 2021, partially 230 mhz 2021, partially 100 mhz ongoing 2021 2.5-2.69 ghz, 1500 mhz cyprus december 2018 december 2020 december 2020 december 2020 ongoing december 2020 december 2020* czech republic january 2020 november 2020 november 2020 july 2017 ongoing 2021 + 450 mhz denmark march 2019 april 2021 april 2021 april 2021 march 2019: 800/900 mhz and 2300-2400 mhz estonia march 2019 ongoing 2021 ongoing 2021 earmarked 2021 * 40.5-43.5 and 66-71 ghz finland 2016 october 2018 october 2018 june 2020 earmarked 2021 france july 2018 2015? october 2020 october 2020 earmarked 2021 1.5 ghz, 2.6 ghz tdd germany 2015 june 2019 ongoing 2021 26 ghz on demand 2000 mhz greece october 2018 december 2020 december 2020 december 2020 26 ghz december 2020 1500 sdl/2100/2300 mhz hungary november 2017 march 2020 5 lots of 2x5 mhz 2016 80 mhz march 2020 310mhz 2.1 ghz/2.6 ghz (no bids) ireland march 2019** revised may 2020 ongoing 2021 may 2017 may 2017 june 2018 p2p links: 24.745 – 25.277 ghz paired with 25.753 ghz – 26.285 ghz 2.1/2.3/2.6 ghz italy dec. 2017, feb. 2018 september 2018 60 mhz september 2018 200 mhz september 2018 1,000 mhz latvia 2022 2022 ongoing november 2017 (september 2018: unsold spectrum) november 2017, (september 2018: unsold spectrum) 2021: 1500 mhz hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 10 published by ideas spread lithuania 2018 2021 ongoing 2021 ongoing 2021 ongoing 3.8-4.2 ghz luxembourg november 2018 july 2020 july 2020 2021 ongoing earmarked 1.5 ghz, 900/1800 mhz malta february 2021 april 2021 on demand april 2021 on demand august 2021 april 2021 on demand 800 mhz, 1.5 ghz, 2.6 ghz holland dec 2018 july 2020 ongoing 2021 * 2021 ongoing 2100/1500 mhz poland 2018 first half 2021 q1 2021 q1 2021 2021 ongoing portugal 2018 q1 2021 q1 2021 2023? earmarked 450 mhz/900 mhz/1500 mhz/1800 mhz/2100 mhz/2.6 ghz romania 2018 q2 2021 q2 2021 ongoing upper parts of 26 ghz, >1000 mhz slovakia 2018 november 2020 2015 ongoing 2017 ongoing earmarked april 2021: 900/1800 november 2020 1500 mhz slovenia 2017; may 2019 april 2021 april 2021 april 2021 april 2021 april 2021: 1400 mhz, 2.1/2.3 ghz spain 2017 q1 2021 2016 2018 earmarked sweden december 2018 january 2021 (320 mhz) january 2021 (320 mhz) earmarked ongoing 1.5/2.6 ghz, 2.3 ghz auctionned uk march 2017, updated 2018 early 2021 april 2018 early 2021* on demand 1.5/2.6 ghz norway feb 2019 * allocation procedure scheduled; ** national roadmap source: elaborated from 5g observatory, 2021. figure 6. european smartphone shipments by network technology, 2020-2022 (%) source: elaborated from canalys, 21 october 2022. according to estimates by specialised agencies (gsm association, 2022), 5g would overtake 3g in europe by 2023 and narrow the gap with 4g, which would remain dominant. in the first quarter of 2022, 5g-based smartphone shipments overtook 4g-based smartphones in europe (figure 6) and more than half of the smartphones 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 q12020 q22020 q32020 q42020 q12021 q22021 q32021 q42021 q12022 q22022 4g 5g hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 11 published by ideas spread shipped in europe in the first half of 2022 were 5g-enabled, and most of these devices were midto high-end models. in the early rollout for 5g, the eu performed quite well, for reasons of its economic structure. first, europe has two of the major network equipment producers in nokia and ericsson, which hold about half of the global telecoms equipment market as well as some core patents. some important semiconductor suppliers (e.g. arm, nxp) are located in the eu. also, the eu hosts the key institution for 5g international standards, etsi/3gpp, which means it houses the centre of intelligence on the technologies, standards and patents that underpin them. there are also four practical factors associated with 5g deployment. as a key factor it was the ease with which a large number of small cells can be deployed in densifying the network. the three remaining factors are the following: significant competitive advantage coming from a government with political power down to local authority level; the scale and who is the driving force behind the 5g marketing activity and, finally, the critical size of the home market to support the first versions of local 5g products and the national market testing to improve them (blackman and forge. 2019, pp. 22-25). the position of the political forces and the population, sometimes influenced by conspiracy theories that hinder the positive influence of telecommunications, in favour or against is of vital importance (note 9). austria pioneered the 5g in europe when t-mobile austria rolled out 5g network in the non-standalone (nsa) configuration, which built the basic blocks of 5g onto existing 4g networks (curwen and whalley, 2021, p. 22) (note 10). in 2019, three operators in two countries – t-mobile in austria; vodafone and eir in irelandlaunched commercial 5g services in the configuration non standalone. a great number of launches occurred in 2020 in numerous countries, both big powers (france, germany, uk) (note 11) and small ones (slovakia, slovenia, estonia, etc.). in the following year there were 29 new launches in europe. in january 2022, all 27 eu member states had commercial 5g available (https://5gobservatory.eu/overview-5g-commercial-launches/). in mid-2022, belgium completed the 5g spectrum auction in the 700 mhz, 1800 mhz, 2.1 ghz and 3.6 ghz bands with a total of eur 1.2 billion raised. the three incumbent mobile operators orange belgium, proximus and telenet acquired 100 mhz of mid-band spectrum. new entrant citymesh, currently focused on private networks, gained 50 mhz in the 3.6 ghz band and 2 x 5 mhz in the 700 mhz band (european 5g observatory, 29 june 2022). in romania, three operators vodafone, digi and orange launched 5g services in 2019, well ahead of telekom romania, a subsidiary of deutsche telekom group and the country's fourth largest national operator. the operator rolled out its 5g network in eleven cities, with the country's capital, bucharest, leading the way (european 5g observatory, june 21st, 2023). in lithuania tele2 launched 5g at the end of september 2022 once spectrum was acquired. tele2 activated 5g base stations in the capital city of vilnius using spectrum licences it acquired in the 700 mhz and 3.6 ghz bands. the operator planned to expand its service to other major cities. tele2 used nokia 5g equipment for both the core of their network and the radio access network. table 3. commercial 5g launches country 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 austria t-mobile a1 telekom three austria three austria belgium proximus telenet orange belgium bulgaria vivacom a1 telenor vivacom croatia hrvatski telekom croatia telemach croatia cyprus cytamobile-vodafone czechia vodafone o2 (telefónica) t-mobile denmark tdc telenor telia denmark hi3g access telenor hi3g access hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 12 published by ideas spread estonia telia elisa estonia finland elisa oyj france free bouygues telecom sfr bouygues telecom sfr germany deutsche telekom vodafone 1&1 telefonica deutschland (o2) deutsche telekom telekom deutschland vodafone germany telefonica deutschland greece wind hellas cosmote vodafone greece cosmote hungary magyar telekom vodafone telenor ireland vodafone eir three ireland italy vodafone telecom italia (tim) fastweb windtre windtre tim latvia lmt tele2 lithuania telia telia telia lietuva bite lithuania luxembourg orange tango post malta melita epic netherlands vodafoneziggo t-mobile kpn poland orange poland play t-mobile portugal nos meo romania vodafone digi orange slovakia slovak telekom orange o2 o2 slovenia telekom slovenije a1 slovenia spain orange telefonica masmovil orange spain vodafone spain telefónica vodafone spain orange españa sweden tele2 telia sweden tre telenor tre sweden source: elaborated from https://5gobservatory.eu/overview-5g-commercial-launches/ in 2021, 4g coverage was almost universal, reaching 99.8% in populated areas in europe and 99.6% in rural areas. 5g commercial services were launched in all but two member states (latvia and portugal) by mid-2021. initially, finland ranked first in population coverage (over 50%) whereas most countries were at coverage of 15–40% (daly, nickerson and stewart, 2020, p. 4). 5g coverage grew substantially from 14% in 2020 to 66% of populated areas. broadband coverage of rural areas35 remained challenging, as 8.5% of households were not covered by any fixed network, and 32.5% was not served by any nga technology. on fixed technologies, there was a marked increase hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 13 published by ideas spread in the rural coverage of fttp (from 26% in 2010 to 34% in 2021) (the digital economy and society index 2022, pp. 30-31). in 2023, the 5g coverages had increased substantially, as figure 7 displays. three small countries ranked first (cyprus, malta and the netherlands), narrowly followed by five others of varying size and importance. this was followed by large powers such as france and medium-sized ones such as spain. two countries (romania and, surprisingly, sweden), below the eu27 average, closed the list. figure 7. 5g population coverage in europe27 (%), march 2023 source: elaborated from 5g observatory biannual report, april 2023 5. europe's backwardness: a first approach after all this has been said, a key point remains to be clarified: why europe lags all global peers in coverage, speed and usage of 5g (wood and sherrington, 2024, pp. 4-5). the eu, with pre-eminent manufacturers of handsets headed by nokia, pcs and semiconductors, dominated the first phases of the mobile phone industry. 2g gsm enjoyed an extraordinarily rapid diffusion in europe, notably as a result of the adoption of a unified standard from the outset, which gave a significant competitive advantage to european operators. nevertheless, the region fell behind in 4g technology (ortega, 2021; fuentelsaz, maícas and polo, 2008, pp. 433-449). some observers noted that the region was about two years behind the united states in 4g network investment and adoption (idate/ericsson, 2015). mid 2013, three out of every four inhabitants of the eu can't access 4g/lte mobile connections at hometowns while in the united states over 90% of people have 4g access, and virtually no rural area has 4g (european commission 2013). this correlates with the long-term trend of europe's gdp gap relative to the united states and japan, which crafts (2011, p. 1) refers to as lacklustre growth in western europe from the mid-1990s until the 2008 financial crisis versus accelerating productivity growth in the united states. what are the reason(s) why a pioneer has become a second-class player? in 2021, the 5g penetration rate among european citizens had doubled from 24% in 2020. nevertheless, the 5g development and roll-out in europe behind that of the united states and asia. as of 2023, europe’s 5g penetration rate was 23%, compared to 56.9% in china and 32.6% in the u.s. these numbers highlight a significant gap in deployment and adoption. in 2022, south korea reported 98% 5g coverage, while europe lagged behind with only 80% coverage in some countries. this gap is reflected not only in infrastructure deployment but also in speed and usage. in 2023, 23% of mobile connections in the european union were 5g, 32.6 points under the us figure, 16 under japan, 34 under south korea or 56.9% under china (analysys mason, january 2024; etno the state of digital communications, 23 october 2024. https://etno.eu/library/reports/117-sta-te-of-digital-2024.htm). in 2023, 5g coverage in europe reached 80% of the population, an increase of seven percentage points from the previous year. however, europe still lagged behind all its global counterparts, with south korea (98%), the united states (98%), japan (94%), and china (89%) leading the way. the european median mobile downlink speed was 33 mbit/s, 57 and 107.5 lower than that in the usa, south korea and china, respectively. standalone 5g coverage of only 40%, 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 c y p ru s m al ta n et h er la n d s it al y d en m ar k f in la n d g er m an y l u x em b o u rg a u st ri a l it h u an ia f ra n ce g re ec e ir el an d c ze ch ia c ro at ia s p ai n p o rt u g al b u lg ar ia s lo v en ia p o la n d h u n g ar y s lo v ak ia e st o n ia l at v ia b el g iu m e u 2 7 r o m an ia s w ed en hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 14 published by ideas spread 51% and 5% percentage points lower than in north america and asia-pacific respectively, puts europe behind its global competitors in 5g deployment (euronews, 28 january 2025). additionally, european mobile usage is comparatively low. in 2022, the average monthly usage in europe (14.2gb) was 3.3, 2.0, and 1.4 gb lower than in south korea, japan and the usa. europe has been slow to adopt two key technologies: 5g sa and 11 had ran and edge-cloud. of the 114 operational 5g networks in europe, only 10 included 5g sa and 11 had ran technology developments. europe has only four edge-cloud commercialised offers, which remain at the heart of network virtualisation, compared to asia’s 17 and north america’s 9 (european telecommunications network operators’ association, 2024, p. 5). some authors (white, 2022) attributed the situation to a number of factors, including delayed spectrum auctions, a global shortage of chips, and the existence of a digital divide. the covid-19 pandemic prevented auctions across europe from going ahead (european 5g observatory, 3 april 2020). europe demonstrated a lack of consistency in its approach to the auctioning of spectrum bands for 5g, with finland auctioning all the necessary bands, while poland, portugal and belgium were yet to complete any auctions. in august 2020, the u.k. regulator ofcom postponed the auction of spectrum until january 2021 and then until march 2021 (total telecom, 25 january 2021; s&p global, 25 january 2021; https://www.ofcom.org.uk/spectrum/spectrummanagement/spectrum-awards/700-mhz-and-3.6-3.8-ghz-auction). the financial implications of these auctions could also impede the rapid deployment of 5g via high starting prices or inflated prices due to a limited amount of available spectrum. approximately one-third of all semiconductors produced are destined for use in communications equipment, including routers and base stations (semiconductor industry association). a shortage of these devices could result in delays in procurements by csps, thereby slowing down the deployment and expansion of 5g networks (white, 2022, p. 5). is it fair? the complexity of the issue calls for a more detailed analysis. to begin with, the european telecommunications sector as a whole continues to underperform global peers in terms of revenue and investment and is losing size and global competitiveness. in 2022, the average revenue per user (arpu) for mobile services in europe was eur15.0, eur27.5, eur11.5, and eur10.9 less than in the usa, south korea, and japan, respectively. the fixed broadband arpu in europe was eur35.8 less than in the usa and eur1.6 less than in japan, but higher than in south korea. in terms of underperformance in revenue, the telecoms capex per capita in europe stood at eur109.1, eur161.7 lower than in japan, eur131.8 than in the usa and eur4.4 than in south korea (european telecommunications network operators’ association, 2024, p. 5). in 2021, etno forecasted €300 billion of additional telecommunications network investment by europe to complete the rollout of 5g networks and gigabit-capable fixed infrastructure (telecoms, march 25, 2021). the eu now sets a minimum of €174 billion in new investment needed until 2030 to meet the digital decade connectivity targets. finding the source of this investment and the optimal way to financially structure a long-term sustainable 5g ecosystem remain two of the most hotly debated topics today (eu, 2024, brussels). leadership in 5g can give an opportunity to position europe at the forefront of the global digital economy through seven policy actions. investment concerns two of them, i. e. the increase of the amount without sacrificing price efficiency and to adequate spectrum supply and simplified, long-term licences (gsma, 2016). network sharing became increasingly common since 2010. in europe, this practice is common, and encompasses two situations with different strategic rationales: sharing a superior network between two leaders in a four-player market to polarise the market or joining forces between two attackers to improve network quality and jointly compete against the market leader. europe outperformed other areas in cumulative number of active network sharing agreements in 2020-2017. in the latter year, 40 out of a total of 98 came from europe (grijpink et al., 2018a, p. 2). in addition to central aspects such as regulation and investment, demand factors must also be taken into account. we therefore make a brief reference to users' attitudes towards 5g, while noting that there is a dearth of research on the subject, with rare exceptions (mishra et al. 2024, pp. 1-10). etno found in a study that, although by 2020 almost all europeans had heard of 5g, only 1 in 4 europeans claimed to know the technology well. of this quarter, 24% were very familiar with it, especially among younger people, almost half were more or less familiar with it (49%), 23% knew it only by name and 4% were unfamiliar with it. for every negative european about 5g, there were 5.5 positive ones. the positive/negative ratio varied greatly between european countries. younger europeans have a more positive attitude towards 5g while older europeans are more often neutral towards 5g. attitude towards 5g was closely related to a good knowledge of 5g. as for advantages of 5g, higher speed and capacity were the most known 5g advantages over 4g (69 and 49%). europeans with a better understanding of 5g were better aware that 5g enables new technologies hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 15 published by ideas spread possibilities. while europeans considered 5g important for business and development of innovations, they were much less convinced about it becoming important for their personal day to day lives. more modest values presented the superiority of 5g over 4g in terms of stability, vertical application capability, including connection to vehicles and autonomous driving, ability to support virtual reality and augmented reality, ability to use other devices from mobile health remotely (etno 2020, pp. 9-12; 14-15; 27-28). it appears highly likely that one of the factors of europe's backwardness lies precisely in one of those that some studies (white, 2022) do not consider, namely the investment problem. figure 7. total capex in europe, 2016–2021 (€ billion) source: elaborated from etno, state of digital communications 2023 (analysys mason, 2022), p. 29 during 2014-2020, the eu fostered the development of 5g with more than €4 billion in two ways. via the budget, the eu funded research-only projects, while the european investment bank (eib) supported both research and deployment, making it the eu's largest provider of funding for 5g-related projects. by august 2021, the eib had granted loans totalling €2.5 billion for nine 5g projects in five member states. in addition, around eur 1.9 billion was made available from the eu budget in 2014-2020 (european court of auditors, 2022, pp. 11-12). in europe, total telecommunications investment in 2021, expressed by capex, reached €56.3 billion, its highest level in europe since 2016 (figure ++). nevertheless, europe continued to trail other major markets. in 2021 investment per capita adjusted to gdp was €104 in europe, €156 less than in japan, €46 in the usa and €6 in china. the increasing amounts invested in upgrading the infrastructures, coupled with lower arpu and revenues than their peers in other regions gave high capex intensity compared to global industry levels. nevertheless, europe continued to trail other major markets. in 2021 investment per capita adjusted to gdp was €104 in europe, €156 less than in japan, €46 in the usa and €6 in china. in 2022, europe showed figures of capital expenditure per capita adjusted for gdp/capita (104 €bn) below their peers: 45.2 €bn, 155.3€bn, 13 and 6.2€bn less than in the usa, japan, south korea and china, respectively. the high capex intensity in europe compared to global industry levels results in reality from the increasing amounts the telecommunications operators are investing in upgrading their infrastructures, together with lower arpu and revenues than their peers in other regions (european telecommunications network operators, 2023, pp. 14, 28; 31). another way of looking at this is to consider the ratio of capex to earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation, and amortization (ebitda). in 2021, etno participants had the highest average capex to earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortisation (ebitda) margins (35.3%); slightly ahead of us operators (33.1%), easily ahead of chinese peers (28.7%) and substantially ahead of japanese and south korean operators (26.7% and 20.8%, respectively) (european telecommunications network operators, 2023, p. 32). large-scale content and application providers (caps) also invest in digital infrastructure. now then, caps have so far invested almost nothing in european physical networks that are closer to end users than caches, and certainly nothing at all in european fixed access or the physical ran. caps investment prioritises the data centres with approximately €16 billion in front of approximately €1 billion in a mix of transport networks (primarily very large international/subsea routes) and internet peering/direct transit and caching. (european telecommunications 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 16 published by ideas spread network operators, 2023, p. 35). while these points are interesting, we consider them to be neutral in explaining backwardness because europe does not differ substantially from its peers. 6. conclusion this paper explores the factors influencing the deployment of 5g technology, with a focus on europe. while the topic of 5g adoption is relatively contemporary and important, the discussion doesn't seem to bring entirely groundbreaking theories. however, the focus on europe’s unique challenges and comparisons with global peers, along with the detailed breakdown of technological, regulatory, and economic considerations, adds value. this makes it innovative in its specific focus rather than in presenting a novel theory or model. the paper addresses a critical, ongoing technological transition that impacts various sectors globally, particularly in telecommunications, business, economics, and infrastructure. it’s highly relevant to policymakers, academics, and industry leaders, particularly in europe, where 5g deployment has faced delays compared to other regions. the research's implications for the future of global digital economies and technology policy make it significant. the objective of this research was to elucidate the factors influencing the design and utilisation of a novel technology. to this end, the constraints and conditions that determine the launch and deployment of 5th generation mobile telephony technology worldwide were examined. the research adopted a business perspective, emphasising economic and business issues. one factor, sometimes overlooked by specialists, has been examined in particular. 5g technology development involves several phases, including understanding system requirements, r&d, optimization, pilots, demonstrations, trials, and scalability testing. however, increased complexity and coverage density of 5g technology have led to higher costs. alternative infrastructure ownership models, such as spectrum policy and network sharing agreements, can help reduce costs. consolidating mobile networks and enabling interoperability between hardware and software vendors can also reduce fixed costs. administrations promote network sharing agreements to reduce infrastructure costs by 16%-35%, consolidate mobile networks, and increase choice, competition, and innovation. all in all, it seems sensible to dismiss investment as an isolated determinant of european backwardness. rather, we return to a multivariate explanatory scheme. to close the gap in 5g deployment, europe must prioritize investments in r&d, streamline regulatory processes, and encourage greater collaboration between telecom operators and public institutions. only through coordinated efforts can europe regain its leadership in this crucial technological race. in any case, it must be borne in mind that we are in the middle of a technology development process and that we still lack sufficient perspective. annexe 1. summarising the characteristics of the mobile technology source: elaborated from dangi et al., 2021, p. 3. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 17 published by ideas spread annexe 2. 5g private r&d expenses by infrastructure vendors (as 2% of total r&d), €million source: elaborated from the european 5g annual journal, 2017, p. 65. references association for radio industries and businesses (arib). (2014). 2020 and beyond ad hoc group, white paper. blackman, c., & forge, s. (2019). 5g deployment: state of play in europe, usa and asia. policy department for economic, scientific and quality of life policies, european parliament. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document/pe_631060 crafts, n. (2011). western europe’s growth prospects: an historical perspective. competitive advantage in the global economy, research centre. curwen, p., & whalley, j. (2021). understanding 5g mobile networks: a multidisciplinary primer. emerald group publishing. daly, a., nickerson, c., & stewart, j. (2020). 5g action plan review for europe. analysys mason. https://d110erj175o600.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/5g-action-plan-review-for-europeexecutive-summary-003.pdf dang, y., & li, z. (2022). the analysis and discussion of spectrum auctions based on case study. journal of education, humanities and social sciences, 2, 181–185. https://doi.org/10.54097/ehss.v2i.784 dangi, r., et al. 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(2024). state of digital communications 2024. etno. notes note 1. 2g had three more versions (2.5; 2.75) since the 1990s; 3g four more versions (3.5; 3.75; 3.90 and 3.95) since the 2000s; 4g two more versions (4.5; 4.90) since the 2010s: horner et al., 2023, p. 10. 4g allowed to communicate by connecting devices to the internet and increased the transmission rates from 64kbps to 100mbps: frauendorf and almeida de souza, 2022, p. 84. fourth generation lte-a (4.5g) is an advanced version of hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 19 published by ideas spread standard 4g lte, which uses mimo technology to combine simultaneously multiple antennas for both transmitters as well as a receiver, making lte-a three times faster than standard 4g: dangi et al., 2021, p. 1. note 2. nevertheless, in the introduction of 3g and 4g, the operators' prominent co-ordination role in terms of timing and functionality, as seen in the previous standard, has been de-emphasised. this stemmed from the expectation that the competitive market would drive the roll-out process, while the operational aspects of the new generation are now being handled by the gsma, the institutional successor to the previous memorandum of understanding between operators: lemstra, cave and bourreau, 2017, pp. 22-23. note 3. the potential for sharing wireless infrastructure to reduce deployment costs exists throughout all aspects of the network. infrastructure sharing initiatives commonly include network-infrastructure sharing between complementary networks, revenue sharing between cell site, backhaul providers and operators, and partnerships with electric utilities and railways to enable network expansion (international telecommunication union, 2021, pp. 6-7). note 4. several policy makers have advocated commercially-driven network sharing agreements as a means to substantially cut network build costs. while passive network sharing was commonplace for 3g and 4g deployments, more active network sharing has been deployed for 5g, particularly amongst the major european mnos: kpmg, 2019, p. 3. note 5. an example of evolutionary path to 5g: ericsson, 2019, pp. 1-9. note 6. maule et al., 2020, p. 2. while significant progress was achieved for core network slicing, a key technology enabler for advanced connectivity and data processing, radio access network (ran) slicing still presents limitations in terms of sharing infrastructure, service level agreement guarantees, isolation, resource scheduling and allocation. think of 5g’s network slicing as creating different lanes on a motorway. some lanes are designed for fast cars (high data traffic), while others are for trucks (devices requiring less data). this ensures smoother traffic flow and greater efficiency for all vehicles. note 7. let's take a few milestones for verizon. since 2017, the operator began testing mm-wave 5g service in eleven cities. in summer 2018, together with nokia, achieved both a 5g nr signal to two moving vehicles and 5g signals in commercial trials in washington, dc and minneapolis with the prototype believed to be the first commercial 5g service, over its proprietary 5gtf network standard. it offered fixed wireless access (fwa) broadband -in fact a pre-standard versionfor home connectivity in parts of four large cities. verizon's network was based on the 28 ghz spectrum, which suits rapid data downloads but not coverage of large areas: blackman and forge, 2019, pp. 13-15. note 8. combinatorial clock auction has a “package bidding in two stages: first, a clock auction; then a single round of sealed supplementary bids when each bidder can make mutually exclusive bids on as many different packages as it wants, but at most only one of these bids can win, and payments by the winning bidders are set according to a second-price rule”: myers, 2023, p. xvii. complex auctions such as cca lead to bidders engaging in predatory bidding. 4g cca auctions in austria, switzerland and uk all led to high prices and highly asymmetric outcomes: jacobs, cordova and associates, 2020. open auction leads to mutual competition but collusion appears easily because each participant is allowed to deliver information; simultaneous auction: bidders offer a price for some goods from a specific spectrum; english auction: the price starts off low, and the buyers' bid-up price is until no one is willing to bid higher; dutch auction starts off high and the price decreases until someone bids: dang and li (2022), pp. 181–185. note 9. for example, in france nearly 70 left-wing and ecologist elected representatives called on the government to impose a moratorium on the rollout of 5g, while calling for "a decentralised democratic debate" (le journal du dimanche, 13 september 2020; le monde, 13 september 2020. on occasion, companies have been forced to reject conspiracy theories which linked the spread of covid-19 to 5g or to mobile technologies and incited individuals to damage masts and base stations in a number of countries (vodafone group plc., 2020, p. 50). incidents in the uk: new york times, 10 april 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/10/technology/coronavirus-5g-uk.html. note 10. see the country profile in oecd (2018). note 11. some big powers had low levels of connectivity: in 2017, france, for example, ranked 20th among eu member states: european digital progress report (edpr) 2017, p. 4. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 20 published by ideas spread copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). microsoft word p47-62 humanities and social science research; vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v5n2p47 47 published by ideas spread knowledge, attitude, preparedness and behavior of nurses towards intimate partner violence in mental health settings charmaine micallef msc1, alexei sammut phd1 & paulann grech phd1 1 department of mental health, university of malta, malta correspondence: paulann grech, department of mental health, university of malta, malta. e-mail: micallefcharmaine gmail.com, alexei.sammut um.edu.mt, paulann.grech um.edu.mt received: april 29, 2022; accepted: june 24, 2022; published: july 6, 2022 abstract various studies have explored healthcare professionals’ knowledge, attitudes and preparedness towards intimate partner violence (ipv). however, there is a dearth of research, which focuses on nurses working in mental health settings. this study explored the knowledge and preparedness of nurses working in mental health settings to identify and manage ipv. the hypothesis developed for this study was: nurses have negative perceptions towards the management of ipv; and demographic characteristics influence the nurses’ perceptions towards ipv. a crosssectional quantitative survey design was used. one hundred and nine nurses working within the acute in-patient and community mental health setting completed the physicians readiness to manage intimate partner violence survey (premis). the results of the study show that the participants lack competence in identifying potential victimized individuals and may not feel adequately prepared and knowledgeable to address ipv in their practice. however, they are willing to manage ipv and have identified the need of more competence in the area. these findings are similar to literature which involved populations other than nurses who work in mental health settings. nurses in mental health settings need training on how to identify and manage ipv cases. mixed methods research in this area is also recommended. keywords: intimate partner violence, nurses, mental health, domestic violence 1. introduction the world health organization (2013) refers to intimate partner violence (ipv) as “behavior within an intimate relationship that causes physical, sexual or psychological harm, including acts of physical aggression, sexual coercion, psychological abuse and controlling behaviors”. as cited in sackett and saunders (1999), victims claim that the psychological impact of abuse is harder to withstand than the physical aggression itself. its aftermath is commonly associated with a lack of self-esteem, fear, feelings of self-doubt, confusion, isolation and a deep feeling of self-worthlessness. the severity of such symptoms depends on the severity of the trauma involved, which may consequently cause further feelings of numbness or dissociative responses (becker, stuewig, & mccloskey, 2010). the negative psychological effects resulting from the intimidation, control and criticism of the abusive partner, enhances the risk for the victim to develop mental health problems (dillon, hussain, loxton & rahman, 2013). the purpose of the current study was to explore the perceptions of nurses working in the maltese mental health care system, as well as to evaluate their knowledge and attitudes towards ipv. the crime, safety and victims’ rights survey by the european union agency (2021) for fundamental rights reports that in malta, only 10% of the participants are willing to help a victim of intimate partner violence. a local report by the national statistics office (malta) (2019) showed a constant increase of individuals making use of domestic violence services. for the year 2019, this office reported that 2,565 individuals have sought such services, 80.2% of whom were female. this data highlights that most cases are flagged either by the police or by the domestic violence unit services. since healthcare professionals also commonly encounter ipv cases, the substance abuse and mental health services administration (samhsa, 2020) urged for the involvement of healthcare professionals to identify ipv through their practice. although nurses working within the mental health setting may play a key role in supporting victims of ipv, research clearly documents that health care professionals lack knowledge, preparation and competence to address this issue (tjaden & thoannes, 2002; taft & hegarty, 2010; howard et al., 2010; falb et al., 2014). when addressing staff knowledge and preparedness with regards to ipv, a number of variables need to be considered, as identified by literature on the topic. these variables, which are the ones that have been explored in hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 48 published by ideas spread this study, include: perceived preparedness and knowledge, actual knowledge, staff preparation, legal requirements, workplace issues, alcohol/drugs, victim understanding and practice issues (nyame et al., 2013). several studies have been dedicated to exploring each of these variables. for example, a body of literature addresses the perceptions surrounding the way health care was being delivered, through the experiences of both professionals and victims of ipv (rees et al., 2014; pratt-eriksson et al., 2014; bradbury-jones et al., 2016; saletticuesta et al., 2018). in this type of research, focus was directed towards perceptions, based on the rationale that the participants, which included professionals and victims, could provide important first-hand information on the consideration for ipv cases in healthcare. these studies on healthcare professionals’ perceptions (including nurses) on ipv, show that there are many perceived challenges related to this area. some of these were highlighted in the research findings by baig, ryan, and rodriguez (2012). in their study, participants who emerged from various professions including nursing, identified barriers such as responsibility, time, additional resources, privacy, legalities, education and relationships. notably, nurses felt that ipv was not their responsibility but fell within the remit of their medical colleagues. they also believed that they did not have enough knowledge in this area and so were unsure about what signs to look out for, questions to ask to patients and how to offer support. additionally, lack of time to address ipv was also perceived as a major issue. furthermore, other researchers evaluated actual knowledge. trevillion et al. (2014) stated that research suggests that domestic violence is highly experienced by mental health service users. yet, mental health service providers may not be applying screening measures and managing this issue consistently and adequately. a qualitative metasynthesis by trevillion et al. (2014) was used to explore health care professionals’ knowledge, as perceived by the users. the findings suggested that mental health professionals failed to identify and acknowledge abuse, lacked a psychosocial approach when dealing with such cases, endangered victims through referrals for marital therapy or disclosure of violence in front of perpetrators; and lacked a needed liaison with domestic violence services. similar findings were presented by hultmann et al. (2014), who reported that the professionals in their study were reluctant to ask the necessary questions within the partner violence screening (pvs) questionnaire. this was mostly linked to the fear that the questions may trigger further violence and harm the patient. at times, ipv screening was also reported to become a non-urgent priority due to the need to attend to other issues, especially in complex cases. other studies on the topic merged a number of variables in an attempt to explore ipv in a comprehensive manner. in this view, they looked at professionals’ perceived knowledge, attitudes, beliefs and behaviours (roelens et al., 2006; papadakaki et al., 2012; ramsay et al., 2012; atinuke et al., 2015; roush & kurth, 2016). the research findings arising from this area of study consistently show that many professionals lack the knowledge and preparedness to identify cases of ipv and manage them appropriately. interestingly, nurses seem to be less confident than other professionals such as doctors, in relation to ipv (ramsay et al., 2012). many of these studies included demographic characteristics such as age, professional qualification and years of practice to determine differences in responses upon these variables. there seems to be a lack of research on clinicians’ and service users’ barriers and ease to enquire and disclose ipv in a mental health setting. a cross-sectional study was conducted with service users who were in contact with statutory or voluntary community mental health teams (n=18) and community mental health professionals who worked within these teams (n=20) (rose et al., 2011). the mental health professionals reported many barriers that prevented facilitation of enquiry of ipv, such as competing demands, time constraints and the presence of the partner during consultations, a lack of competence and training as well as unclear boundaries in terms of their professional role. the findings indicate that workplace and practice issues are variables that need further exploration within the remit of ipv. the study that is being presented in this paper attempted to address the variables that have been described, by exploring the perceptions of nurses working in mental health care as well as evaluating actual responses with regards to the knowledge, preparation and management of ipv by maltese nurses working in the acute and community mental health settings. furthermore, this study examined the influence of demographic variables on the perceived skills of the studied population. the hypothesis set for the study was based upon the literature that has been described, namely that: nurses have negative perceptions towards the management of ipv; and demographic characteristics influence the nurses’ perceptions towards ipv. the rationale to focus this study on nurses in the maltese context is based on the knowledge that in this country, nurses are situated in a unique position to assess for a history of intimate partner violence in patients seeking care and can therefore provide immediate support. this is brought about by the fact that in malta, nurses are often the first point of contact in healthcare systems. furthermore, nurses have prolonged contact time with patients in many of the local areas. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 49 published by ideas spread the following research questions were posed to guide the study: • are nurses working in the mental health settings knowledgeable towards ipv? • are nurses working in the mental health settings prepared to address ipv? the theory of self-efficacy (bandura, 1977) was used for the conduction of this study, as the current author was interested to understand how knowledge and preparation influence nurses’ competence and confidence to address ipv. self-efficacy not only relates to a person’s perception upon their ability to achieve goals, but also evaluates the possibility to bring about changed behaviours (bandura, 1984). for this reason, the current researcher identified this theory with the aim to examine the relatedness between nurses’ perceived abilities to manage ipv in accordance with their knowledge and preparation. 2. method 2.1 research design a descriptive quantitative approach, namely a cross sectional survey design was adopted. the variables examined included the perceptions of nurses, which related to knowledge and preparedness towards the management of ipv. 2.2 setting and sample this study was conducted within the acute in-patient and community services of the maltese state mental health services. eligibility criteria included nurses who are registered with the maltese council for nurses and midwives and are currently working in the acute in-patient or community field within the maltese state mental health services. a total of 160 participants were eligible to participate in the study, of which 115 worked within an inpatient acute setting and 45 worked in the community. recruitment was carried out through an intermediary to safeguard anonymity and confidentiality. each eligible participant was given a questionnaire, together with an information letter explaining the conditions of the study. participation was strictly on a voluntarily basis. this study surveyed all nurses working within the maltese acute in-patient and community mental health services and so it was a total population survey. this accounts for 160 nurses, out of which 109 (68%) participated in this study. a sample of 109 participants recruited from a population of 160 nurses working in the maltese acute in-patient or community mental health field guarantees a maximum margin of error of 5.32% with a 95% ci, making the sample representative of nurses working within the acute in-patient or community mental health services in malta. 2.3 measures a survey technique was utilized through the distribution of the physicians’ readiness to manage ipv survey (premis). the premis is a 77 item self-report scale, which includes a respondent profile and 4 domains. the respondent profile distribution of the participants is outlined in table 1 below. table 1. respondent profile distribution demographic data n (%) age 20-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 51-55 56-60 20 (18.3%) 15 (13.8%) 16 (14.7%) 6 (5.5%) 16 (14.7%) 11 (10.1%) 11 (10.1%) 14 (12.8%) gender male female 32 (29.4 %) 77 (70.6 %) qualification staff nurse psychiatric nurse ward manager 57 (52.3%) 31 (28.4 %) 21 (19.3%) years in mental health services 0-5 6-10 40 (36.7%) 27 (24.8%) hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 50 published by ideas spread 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 13 (11.9%) 9 (8.3%) 10 (9.2%) 10 (9.2%) area of practice acute in-patient mental health setting community mental health setting 71 (65.1%) 38 (34.9%) average number of patients seen per week not seeing any patients less than 20 20-39 patients 40-59 patients 60 or more patients 2 (1.8%) 30 (27.5%) 52 (47.7%) 12 (11.0%) 13 (11.9%) including yourself, how many practitioners at your work site have participated in an ipv training course? a few some most all don’t know 6 (5.5%) 7 (6.4%) 6 (5.5%) 5 (4.6%) 85 (78%) in order to complete the premis, participants are required to either mark the answer that best describes their opinion in relation to multiple choice questions or else rate their response on a 7-point likert scale, ranging from a score of 1 (representing strongly disagree) up to a score of 7 (representing strongly agree). the first of the four domains is the “background scale” which includes two subscales namely “perceived preparedness” and “perceived knowledge” – these measure the participants’ perceived knowledge and perceived preparedness to manage ipv. the “actual knowledge” scale assesses the competence in identifying potential victims, whilst the “opinions” scale consists of eight subscales that measure the respondent’s opinions towards “staff preparedness”, “legal requirements”, “workplace issues”, “self efficacy”, “alcohol/drugs”, “victim understanding”, “victim autonomy” and “staff constraints”. the last scale of the premis names “practical issues” and deals with assessing the clinicians’ interventions within the last six months, personal experiences related to enquiry, disclosures and familiarity with ipv policies. further information about the main domains and subscales is presented in table 2. table 2. definition of scales/subscales of the premis scale definition background perceived preparedness identifies the participants’ adequacy to respond to ipv perceived knowledge refers to the sample’s familiarity with the subject, roles and resources actual knowledge actual knowledge the participants’ competence in identifying potential victimized patients opinions staff preparedness professionals’ actual skills to discuss ipv with potential victims legal requirements the legal issues associated with cases of ipv workplace issues support received through organizational development of policies and available resources to manage such cases self efficacy clinician’s comfort to manage and address ipv issues alcohol / drugs professional’s knowledge upon the relationship of substances and ipv victim understanding participants’ beliefs that the victims are capable to leave abusive relationships if they want to, at any time victim autonomy professionals’ ability to acknowledge and respect the patients’ rights to make own decisions staff constraints potential situations which may limit staff to encourage disclosure and management of ipv at the place of work practical issues practical issues participants’ adequacy to enquire, assess and manage cases of ipv hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 51 published by ideas spread the premis has undergone extensive testing in multiple settings and has shown to have good internal consistency and reliability, with cronbach’s alpha ≥0.65 for ten scales. additionally, the scales in the tool were closely correlated with theoretical constructs and predictive of self-reported behaviors. a revised version of the tool demonstrated good stability of psychometric properties in a different physician population, good correlation with measured office ipv practices, and stable results in this population over one year (short, alpert, harris & surprenant, 2006). the scale was used in its original language, that is, english. english is a second language in malta and nursing training is also provided in english. since the premis has already been previously used in research on the nursing population (alhalal, 2020), it was not changed in any way for use in the current study to retain the validity and reliability of the instrument. 2.4 ethical considerations permission to carry out this study was sought and granted by the faculty of health sciences, university of malta’s research ethics committee (frec) [1173: 21032019] together with the necessary approvals from the director of the maltese mental health services. permission to use the premis (short et al., 2006) was also granted by the authors of the tool. an intermediary distributed and collected the questionnaires to ensure confidentiality and avoid direct contact of the researchers with the participants, thus reducing bias. participation was strictly voluntarily and completion and returning of the questionnaire implied the participants’ consent. 2.5 data analysis data was analyzed using spss version 26®. the respondent profile included age, gender, year of graduation, years of practice in mental health, area of practice, qualifications, average number of patients seen per week and identification of any previous participation in ipv training from any staff. scores relevant to each of the five domains were obtained following computation of the specific items as per the premis scoring guide provided by short et al. (2006). descriptive statistics, including the mean and median scores together with the interquartile ranges for each scale/subscale, were computed. test for normality was carried out using the kolmogorov-smirnov and the shapiro-wilks tests. a kruskal-wallis test was conducted with non-parametric testing, which involved analysis of more than two comparative groups, while a mann-whitney u test was used for comparing between two groups. independent sample testing was used in parametric analysis with a sample of two comparative groups, while an anova was used with a sample of more than two comparative groups. significant relationships between the sample group analysed through the anova tests were consequently computed using the post hoc tukey test. additionally, a 2independent sample test was carried out to analyse results in-between groups when significant results for the non-parametric testing were identified. 3. results the results for each domain were reported following computations of survey items, as instructed on the actual premis. the scores for the ‘background’, ‘actual knowledge’, ‘opinions’ and ‘practice issues’, including their sub-scales are presented in table 3. the “theoretical” score (first column in table 3) describes the possible total minimum and maximum scores that can be obtained by the participants – these were derived from the computation of specific items pertaining to each subscale, as per the instructions accompanying the tool. the “observed” score (second column in table 3) refers to the actual total minimum and maximum scores obtained by the computation of the participants’ actual responses. the mean and sd in the third and fourth column refer to the “observed” responses. table 3. scores for the scales/subscales of the premis scale theoretical minimum / maximum observed minimum / maximum mean sd background perceived preparedness perceived knowledge 12 84 16 112 12 72 16 107 2.81 2.66 1.26 1.22 actual knowledge actual knowledge 0 38 7 30 17.50 5.58 opinions staff preparedness legal requirements workplace issues 5 35 4 28 6 42 6 35 4 28 6 40 4.52 3.90 3.88 1.30 1.45 1.08 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 52 published by ideas spread self efficacy alcohol / drugs victim understanding victim autonomy staff constraints 3 21 3 21 6 42 3 21 2 14 3 21 6 21 10 33 3 21 2 10 3.66 4.77 3.82 4.38 2.76 1.15 1.22 0.80 1.03 1.16 practical issues practical issues 3 72 4 66 30.96 13.84 emerging results report a mean score of 2.81 for the subscales of ‘perceived preparation’ (sd=1.26) and a mean score of 2.66 for ‘perceived knowledge’ (sd=1.22), indicating that the respondents may not feel adequately prepared and knowledgeable to address ipv in their practice. this is further confirmed by the mean score of 17.50 (sd=5.58) on the ‘actual knowledge’ scale reflecting the lack of competence in identifying potential victimized individuals. conversely, a mean score of 4.52 (sd=1.26) on the “staff preparation” subscale indicates that staff are willing to manage ipv at work. an average mean score of 3.90 (sd=1.45) was reported for sub-scales ‘legal requirements’, ‘workplace issues’ (m=3.88, sd=1.08) and ‘self-efficacy’ (m=3.66, sd=1.15) on the ‘opinion’ scale, indicating the need of more competence in such areas. mean scores of 4.77 (sd=1.22) were reported on the ‘alcohol/drugs’ subscale whilst a mean score of 3.82 (sd=0.80) and 4.38 (sd=1.03) were reported for the subscales ‘victim understanding’ and ‘victim autonomy’ respectively, suggesting that participants are aware of the relatedness between substance use and violence, of the importance to understand the victim’s role in abuse; and of considering patient’s rights. a mean score of 2.76 (sd=1.16) on the “staff constraint” subscale indicates that the participants have no issues related to staffing levels, time allocation, policies and ipv enquiry. results also report a lack of practice issues by the participants with a mean score of 30.96 (sd=13.84) on the practice issue scale. table 4. background, actual knowledge and practical issue domain results according to demographic characteristics domains background actual knowledge practical issues subscale perceived preparation perceived knowledge actual knowledge practical issues mean rank h (df) sig. mean rank h (df) sig. mean rank h (df) sig. mean rank h (df) sig. age 20-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 51-55 56-60 51.50 37.77 58.66 58.00 64.59 58.86 63.91 52.00 7.62(7) 0.37 51.95 41.57 53.19 76.75 64.31 63.23 53.95 50.21 8.26 (7) 0.31 62.03 61.17 52.59 27.92 56.63 65.77 40.00 54.18 15.50(7) 0.03 71.95 45.47 46.81 29.67 57.81 72.77 43.91 52.75 17.07(7) 0.02 year of graduation before 1989 1990-1999 2000-2009 2010-2019 54.17 61.53 60.35 49.07 3.00(3) 0.39 47.98 66.69 57.35 52.26 4.06 (3) 0.26 47.98 66.69 57.35 52.26 8.07(3) 0.05 49.67 69.25 46.22 57.51 6.66(3) 0.08 qualification en sn or higher rmn ward managers 30.42 52.23 58.48 63.62 5.97(3) 0.11 29.25 53.51 61.21 56.81 5.36 (3) 0.15 39.17 55.61 59.65 51.19 1.80(3) 0.62 60.17 59.30 52.52 46.74 2.73(3) 0.44 years in mental health 0-5 50.96 62.43 15.42(5) 0.01 51.38 66.76 12.06 (5) 0.03 54,78 57.65 12.16(5) 0.03 57.41 54.41 3.43(5) 0.63 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 53 published by ideas spread 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 40.88 75.72 34.60 71.20 46.23 66.39 32.25 61.65 54.54 67.44 33.60 59.55 54.62 37.28 59.90 58.50 number of patients seen per week not seeing patients less than 20 20-39 40-59 60 or more 59.50 71.70 49.93 54.46 36.54 14.21(4) 0.01 37.25 72.37 52.20 47.42 35.85 15.57 (4) 0.04 73.75 48.50 58.10 57.92 52.04 4.49(4) 0.34 84.00 57.42 51.06 65.63 50.92 4.24(4) 0.38 nurses attending to any ipv training a few some most all don’t know 90.50 77.71 64.75 57.50 49.79 14.12(4) 0.01 85.75 61.57 74.33 60.80 50.58 10.06 (4) 0.04 69.33 55.43 33.75 60.50 55.13 19.60(4) 0.01 74.83 56.29 66.17 50.10 52.99 3.59(4) 0.47 mean rank u (z) sig. mean rank u (z) sig. mean rank u (z) sig. mean rank u (z) sig. gender† male female 58.38 53.60 1124.000 (-0.72) 0.47 54.91 55.04 1229.00 (-0.02) 0.04 42.58 60.16 1145.50 (-0.58) 0.56 46.34 58.60 955 (-1.84) 0.07 area of practice† acute wards community 50.77 62.91 1048.50 (-1.91) 0.06 51.75 61.08 1118.00 (-1.47) 0.14 55.71 53.67 1284.50 (-0.41) 0.68 51.24 62.03 1082.00 (-1.70) 0.09 † these variables have been analysed using the mann-whitney u non-parametric test table 5. opinion domain result according to demographic characteristics domain opinion subscale legal requirements self efficacy alcohol / drugs victim understanding victim autonomy staff constraints mean rank h (df) sig. mean rank h (df) sig. mean rank h (df) sig. mean rank h (df) sig. mean rank h (df) sig. mean rank h (df) sig. age 20-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 51-55 56-60 43.03 41.57 48.94 64.58 56.53 71.36 77.73 56.86 15.50 (7) 0.03 45.68 29.93 57.50 59.92 66.03 72.14 67.27 54.50 18.44(7) 0.01 55.05 52.27 68.47 39.50 44.59 57.18 49.36 63.71 7.73 (7) 0.36 39.50 52.60 72.91 52.25 60.25 52.59 58.86 53.29 10.84(7) 0.15 47.25 51.47 62.69 34.33 68.34 74.64 49.09 43.89 14.36 (7) 0.05 48.73 48.20 57.50 52.00 58.88 44.00 57.59 71.86 7.40(7) 0.39 year of graduation before 1989 1990-1999 2000-2009 2010-2019 65.13 66.92 50.33 47.16 8.07 (3) 0.05 57.30 68.61 62.39 42.87 11.08 (3) 0.01 56.57 52.25 59.69 52.24 1.11 (3) 0.78 57.02 51.31 64.15 49.46 3.89 (3) 0.28 47.20 73.94 56.02 50.39 8.92 (3) 0.03 66.59 53.75 52.76 50.52 4.15 (3) 0.25 qualification hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 54 published by ideas spread en sn or higher rmn ward managers 44.92 52.92 60.56 54.71 1.80 (3) 0.62 51.83 57.40 52.61 53.60 0.58 (3) 0.90 57.58 59.70 50.56 49.40 2.50 (3) 0.48 49.83 56.61 48.44 62.26 2.75 (3) 0.53 38.92 49.87 69.95 49.98 10.55 (3) 0.01 82.92 50.61 52.61 61.21 6.78 (3) 0.08 years in mental health 0-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 45.04 68.54 50.00 62.06 45.90 67.55 12.16 (5) 0.03 52.34 57.26 52.38 71.22 45.15 58.20 3.99 (5) 0.55 57.26 54.17 63.00 45.83 46.10 54.95 2.63 (5) 0.76 56.61 53.06 70.08 49.89 56.45 37.35 6.57 (5) 0.25 53.15 54.91 66.77 50.50 54.60 51.80 2.26 (5) 0.81 52.61 50.72 60.62 53.89 61.65 63.15 2.29 (5) 0.81 number of patients seen per week not seeing patients less than 20 20-39 40-59 60 or more 35.75 51.42 58.93 42.46 62.08 4.49 (4) 0.34 59.50 70.05 47.07 38.63 66.42 15.18 (4) ≤0.001 37.75 55.07 53.78 47.50 69.31 4.05 (4) 0.40 51.75 57.82 50.32 51.50 70.96 4.89 (4) 0.30 68.00 51.83 50.82 53.33 78.58 8.98 (4) 0.06 43.25 56.70 52.94 49.42 66.27 2.66 (4) 0.62 nurses attending to any ipv training a few some most all don’t know 86.67 83.07 70.25 77.30 48.06 19.60 (4) 0.01 67.00 74.00 65.83 57.30 51.69 5.11 (4) 0.28 46.67 39.71 54.00 50.90 57.16 2.57 (4) 0.63 62.67 37.79 48.67 80.70 54.81 1.88 (4) 0.76 71.25 43.50 58.33 80.20 53.08 1.88 (4) 0.76 53.75 41.71 64.33 58.50 55.32 1.88 (4) 0.76 mean rank u (z) sig. mean rank u (z) sig. mean rank u (z) sig. mean rank u (z) sig. mean rank u (z) sig. mean rank u (z) sig. gender† male female 57.70 53.88 1145.50 (-0.58) 0.56 57.08 54.14 1165.50 (-0.45) 0.66 49.06 57.47 1042.00 (-1.27) 0.20 59.88 52.97 1076.00 (-1.04) 0.30 50.14 57.02 1076.50 (-1.04) 0.30 60.31 52.79 1062.00 (-1.14) 0.25 area of practice† acute wards community 54.09 56.70 1284.50 (-0.41) 0.68 49.03 66.16 925.00 (-2.71) 0.01 54.89 55.20 1341.50 (-0.48) 0.96 54.25 56.39 1296.00 (0.34) 0.74 51.17 62.16 1077.00 (-1.75) 0.08 52.63 59.42 1181.00 (-1.08) 0.28 † these variables have been analysed using the mann-whitney u non-parametric test table 6. anova results for the subscales staff preparedness and workplace issues according to demographic characteristics domains opinion subscale staff preparedness workplace issues n mean st deviation f pvalue n mean st deviation f p-value age 20-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 20 15 16 6 16 11 4.49 4.99 5.14 4.10 4.61 3.75 1.48 1.36 1.21 1.47 1.06 1.38 1.96 0.07 20 15 16 6 16 11 3.28 3.56 3.89 4.06 4.33 4.73 0.84 0.54 0.95 0.33 1.19 1.27 2.98 0.01 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 55 published by ideas spread 51-55 56-60 11 14 3.87 4.59 0.92 1.14 11 14 4.09 3.65 0.72 1.50 gender† male female 32 77 4.40 4.58 1.33 1.29 0.38 0.54 32 77 4.10 3.78 0.84 1.16 3.15 0.08 year of graduation before 1989 1990-1999 2000-2009 2010-2019 23 18 27 41 4.26 4.03 5.02 4.56 1.32 1.43 1.07 1.39 2.61 0.06 23 18 27 41 3.77 4.56 4.01 3.53 1.25 1.20 1.04 0.78 4.48 0.01 qualification en sn or higher rmn ward managers 6 51 31 21 3.43 4.75 4.44 4.41 0.71 1.24 1.42 1.28 2.09 0.11 6 51 31 21 2.89 3.72 4.17 4.13 1.63 0.87 1.22 0.97 3.38 0.02 years in mental health 0-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 40 27 13 9 10 10 4.40 4.47 5.58 4.11 4.56 4.18 1.31 1.33 0.91 1.33 1.38 1.10 2.27 0.05 40 27 13 9 10 10 3.66 4.43 3.65 4.31 2.97 4.08 1.03 0.90 0.91 0.75 1.26 1.21 4.22 ≤0.001 area of practice† acute wards community 71 38 4.79 4.03 1.29 1.19 0.22 0.64 71 38 3.61 4.38 0.93 1.71 1.90 0.17 number of patients seen per week not seeing patients less than 20 20-39 40-59 60 or more 2 30 52 12 13 4.70 4.19 4.64 4.95 4.31 0.71 1.25 1.32 1.22 1.48 0.95 0.44 2 30 52 12 13 4.00 4.11 3.68 3.44 4.54 0.71 0.77 1.00 1.07 1.65 2.64 0.06 nurses attending to any ipv training a few some most all don’t know 6 7 6 5 85 4.23 3.49 4.63 3.92 4.66 0.89 0.94 1.79 0.91 1.31 1.74 0.15 6 7 6 5 85 5.56 4.74 4.42 3.83 3.65 0.99 1.17 1.20 0.70 0.95 7.49 ≤0.001 results also highlight that years working in mental health, average number of patients seen per week and ipv training, influenced the sub-scale for ‘perceived preparation’. this was found to be similar for the sub-scale of ‘perceived knowledge’, except that this was also influenced by gender. however, the domain for ‘actual knowledge’ was found to be only influenced by the gender variable. the sub-scale for legal requirements relating to the legal procedures relevant to ipv reports was found to be influenced by age, year of graduation, years in mental health and training. yet, the sub-scale for ‘self-efficacy’ referring to self-confidence and self-competence to address ipv was found to be influenced by age, year of graduation, number of patients seen per week and area of practice. age, year of graduation and qualification were found to influence the sub-scale for ‘victim autonomy’ relating to the safeguarding of victims’ rights to make own decisions. the sub-scale for ‘staff preparation’ relating to the nurses’ ability to facilitate disclosure and management of ipv, was found to be only influenced by years in mental health. meanwhile, the sub-scale for ‘workplace issues’, which related to the operational procedures relevant to the management of ipv at work, was found to be influenced by age, year of graduation and previous ipv training. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 56 published by ideas spread the domain for ‘practice issues’ relating to the staff’s adequacy to enquire and discuss ipv during practice, was found to be influenced by age. the sub-scales for ‘alcohol/drugs’, ‘victim understanding’ and ‘staff constraints’ were not influenced by the socio-demographic characteristics pertaining to this sample which included age, gender, year of graduation, years in mental health, qualification, area of practice, average number of patients seen and nurses attending to any ipv training. comparison between groups was also analysed and findings recorded a significance between all the eight sub-groups relating to ‘age’, with older ages showing higher mean ranks and to ‘gender’, with females showing more significance. rmn’s were more significant than en’s, sn’s and ward managers when the variable for ‘qualifications’ was compared. the variable for ‘year of graduation’ showed a significance between participants who graduated between 1990 and 1999 as compared to those who graduated between 2010 and 2019. ‘years in mental health’ showed a significance between the groups 6 to 10, 16 to 20 and 21 to 25. community nurses reported to be more self-efficient when compared to participants working in the acute mental health setting on the variable for the ‘area of practice’. a statistical significance was also found between nurses with a case load of less than 20 patients per week and those with a case load of 60 or more on the ‘average number of patients seen per week’ variable. ‘nurses attending to any ipv training’ showed a significance between those reporting ‘a few’, ‘some’ and ‘don’t know’. 4. discussion scores pertaining to the premis included the domains of ‘background’, ‘actual knowledge’, ‘opinion’ and ‘practice issues’. the findings pertaining to each of these four domains shall be discussed, in relation to the hypothesis: nurses have negative perceptions towards the management of ipv and demographic characteristics influence the nurses’ perceptions towards ipv. the ‘background’ domain includes the sub-scales for ‘perceived knowledge’ and ‘perceived preparation’. the ‘perceived knowledge’ subscale assessed the nurses alleged knowledge of signs and symptoms of ipv, referral resources, documentation, identification, relatedness of ipv to pregnancy, determination of risks, professional’s role in ipv, and understanding about the stages of change. the mean score on the ‘perceived knowledge’ subscale shows that maltese nurses working in the acute and community mental health settings feel that they lack the adequate knowledge to address ipv. apart from lack of knowledge to identify and support potential victims, assess risks of violence and address ipv according to the victim’s readiness for change; this study reports that the participating nurses also perceived that they lacked the preparation required to manage ipv. this has severe implications to practice as participants feel that they are not well equipped to ask appropriate questions about ipv, provide adequate responses upon disclosure of ipv, assess levels of lethality, refer, support the victim’s readiness to change, and identify ipv indicators following patient’s history. research claims the importance of organizational support to encourage enquiry and disclosure of ipv at the workplace (swailes, lehman & mccallhosenfeld, 2017; trevillion, howard, morgan, feder, woodall & rose, 2012). hence, one of the reasons for the lack of knowledge evidenced through this study may be the lack of organizational efforts to highlight the importance of ipv identification and management. however, the cultural element may also be in play since locally, the negative psychological impact of ipv has only recently been given the importance it deserves. to this extent, the maltese commissioner of mental health (2016) has specifically remarked that more governmental efforts are required to acknowledge the importance of mental health professionals in the national approach towards ipv. notably, in malta, it seems that nurses are not the only professionals who lack knowledge on how to approach ipv. in fact, in 2016, detailed guidelines for reporting domestic violence were issued for journalists and media content producers (dimitrijevic & murphy, 2016). research has long focused on providing safety from the negative physical consequences of ipv, highlighting the involvement of primary healthcare (arias & pape, 1999; dillon et al., 1999; gilchrist, gilbert & bowen, 2018). even though the involvement of nurses working in primary healthcare in the management of ipv has been recognized and training has been provided to such professionals (gilchrist et al., 2018), local studies still report a lack of knowledge and preparation (attard bason, 2017; vella ali, 2017). this concurs with the findings reported in this study and highlights that such deficit in knowledge and preparation, is not just exhibited by nurses working in mental health settings. such findings are also comparable to international studies that included various professionals who also reported such deficits (forsdike, o’connor, castle & hegarty, 2019; nyame, howard, feder & trevillion, 2013; rose, trevillion, woodall, morgan, feder & howard, 2011; ruijne et al., 2019; trevillion et al., 2012; trevillion, hughes, feder, borschmann, oram & howard, 2014). the lack of knowledge reported by the participants was again reconfirmed through the mean score reported on the ‘actual knowledge’ domain. this scale measures the knowledge related to risk factors with becoming a victim, truth about batterers, warning signs of potential abuse, reasons for staying in a violent relationship, appropriate ways to ask about ipv, presentations of ipv; and the actual stages of change. such findings may be attributed to hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 57 published by ideas spread the limited forensic content in nursing education, which limits nurses’ ability to effectively manage cases of violence at the workplace (freedberg, 2008). in malta, ipv-related content in undergraduate nursing courses is also limited, once again reflecting the lack of interest in the subject that can be seen on a wider national level. this may be one of the reasons why nurses lack knowledge to identify ipv. in 2018, a local study attempted to identify and explore the barriers faced by women survivors of ipv when seeking help, as well as those faced by professionals when delivering a service to the survivors. one of the recommendations emerging from this research was the need of specialist training and the provision of more guidance to front liners (clark et al., 2018). conversely, the introduction of a bachelor’s degree in mental health nursing at the university of malta, which includes a study unit focusing on forensic mental health, might increase the awareness of psychiatric nurses towards the management of ipv. this study also identifies a lack of competence and confidence to manage ipv based on the mean scores of the subscales within the ‘opinion’ domain, namely ‘legal requirements’, ‘self-efficacy’. ‘alcohol/drugs’, ‘victim autonomy’, ‘victim understanding’, ‘staff constraints’, ‘staff preparation’ and ‘workplace issues’. nurses report difficulties on the ‘legal requirements’ sub-scale. this may be related to the fact that ipv is unfortunately perceived either as something that should not be publicly scrutinized or else as a way to promote ‘discipline’ (erez, 2002; rees et al., 2014). this means that it can often go underreported due to victim blaming or lack of credibility associated with the complexity of mental health disorders (rose et al., 2011). the local study by clark et al. (2018) identified this as one of the main barriers in malta, describing it as ‘justice-system’ barrier, thus referring to the difficulties that are faced when approaching the police and courts with ipv occurrence. notably, in 2018, the ‘gender-based violence and domestic violence act’ was introduced in the maltese law to strengthen the legal framework concerning violence against women (group of experts on action against violence against women and domestic violence, 2019). it is important to acknowledge the strong medical model of care that is enforced in malta, placing doctors on top of the professional hierarchy in relation to the care of the client (hain & fleck, 2014). this model may limit the nurse’s autonomy to address the legal requirements pertaining to ipv; as such issue would fall under the doctor’s responsibility and not the nurse’s. this in spite of the fact that research denotes the important role of the nurse in ipv cases, in view of their therapeutic engagement and time spent with the patients (stayton & duncan, 2005). participants also reported challenges related to the ‘self-efficacy’ sub-scale. this subscale is composed of items related to identifying routine enquiry, confidence in discussing ipv, ability to identify abuse, matching of therapeutic interventions according to the victim’s readiness for change; and the recognition of ipv victims by the way they behave. this lack of self-efficacy may be due to the lack of autonomy pertaining to nursing practice, as described previously. research suggests that enquiry for ipv should be a standardized practice, as victimized and non-victimized mental health users specified the importance for such enquiry (hultmann, möller, ormhaug & broberg, 2014; rose et al., 2011; trevillion et al., 2014). approach to mental health treatment is commonly focused on the alleviation of symptoms of disease and not the identification of possible causative factors (rose et al., 2011), which consecutively may limit the opportunity for nurses working in the mental health services to improve their confidence to identify ipv; as standardized enquiry is not practiced locally. furthermore, research suggests that mental health clinicians do not consider identification of ipv within their role, which may explain the lack of enquiry as a standard practice (trevillion & howard et al., 2012). the findings related to the ‘workplace issues’ sub-scale highlights the lack of hospital policies, guidelines, referral pathways and available resources to manage ipv. these findings corroborate those reported in international studies stating that mental health service users have identified that most often, mental health service providers failed to adequately refer victims to other services (nyame et al., 2013; rose et al., 2011; ruijne et al., 2019; trevillion et al., 2014). victims have often claimed feeling endangered through referrals, which potentially induced further coercion (murray et al., 2016; rose et al., 2011). these findings uncover the lack of coordination and cooperation between existing services and professionals, suggesting that this may easily hinder the nurses’ ability to adequately address ipv at the workplace. in malta, a range of victim services are offered by both governmental and nongovernmental entities. these include pragmatic support such as shelters and help lines and legal assistance (group of experts on action against violence against women and domestic violence, 2019). azzopardi, cassarcamilleri and scicluna (2004) reported a high demand for such services. however, it is acknowledged that these services commonly work in silos. this may explain the results of the current study, featuring the referral challenges that were encountered by the participants. to this extent, local studies have affirmed the need of developing new mental health services, specifically designed to promote well-being through screening and prevention of ipv (azzopardi et al., 2004; fenech & zammit, 2009). it is for this purpose that there is a crucial need for skilled hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 58 published by ideas spread professionals and support groups to overcome the barriers pertaining to the management of ipv (rose et al., 2011; trevillion et al., 2012; trevillion et al., 2014). maltese nurses working in the acute in-patient and community settings report no major problems related to the potential barriers to address ipv with regards to staffing levels, privacy and time allocation with patients; measured within the ‘staff constraints’ subscale. these findings contrast with those reported in international studies, which link the lack of identification and management of ipv to time constraints and priority issues (hultmann et al., 2014; nyame et al., 2013; trevillion et al., 2012). this may suggest that international organizations may exhibit shortage of staff when compared to the maltese setting. the current study reports that the maltese nurses working in the acute and community mental health settings demonstrate readiness to address ipv. this readiness is revealed through the mean score reported for the ‘victim autonomy’, ‘victim understanding’ and ‘staff preparation’ sub-scales. ‘hence, the scores in the current study reflect that the development of effective therapeutic relationships is at the core of the work of nurses in the acute and community mental health settings. these findings further corroborate the reported findings on the ‘staff constraints’ sub-scale, suggesting a rationale for why nurses do not exhibit constraints to provide care towards victims of ipv. therapeutic relationships are said to be developed through empathy, trust, respect, kindness and honesty (charrois, 2011) and studies reported that effective therapeutic skills induced a sense of acknowledgement and understanding towards victims (hultmann et al., 2014; rose et al., 2011; trevillion et al., 2012). the strong prosocial and altruistic trait that is found within the maltese culture (vella at al., 2019) may be a potential contributor to the scores obtained in the current study, in relation to the nurses’ readiness to address ipv. maltese nurses working in the acute and community mental health settings also showed increased awareness in the relatedness of alcohol/drugs to ipv. this finding echoes the results obtained by nyame et al., (2013). one can assume that the high scores relating to the nurses’ knowledge towards alcohol/drugs, is gained through actual practice and enhanced through global efforts to acknowledge the damaging consequences induced by substances. the unequivocal association between substance misuse, mental health and ipv has been evidenced through 30 years of research, raising global awareness about the incidence and harm related to alcohol/drug use (eckhardt, parrott & sprunger, 2015). similarly, local substance misuse prevention efforts are widespread and abundant, possibly equipping professionals such as the ones participating in the current study with the necessary knowledge in relation to the link between drug use and ipv (espad, 2019; portelli, 2018). findings from the fourth domain, namely that termed ‘practice issues’ indicates that maltese nurses working in the acute and community mental health settings lack adequate enquiry and identification of ipv in their practice. such findings corroborate those found in international literature, highlighting that ipv is undetected and underreported (agar & read, 2002; morgan, zolese, mcnulty & gebhardt, 2010; swailes et al., 2017; trevillion et al., 2014). locally, no recent population-based surveys on the incidence of ipv have been conducted (group of experts on action against violence against women and domestic violence, 2019). subsequently, this links to the local lack of data on the topic, which makes it hard to establish accurate comparisons between incidence and actual reporting/detection. one of the main strengths of the current study is that it is the first one of its kind to explore the perceived knowledge, preparation, confidence and competence of nurses working in a mental health setting, in relation to managing ipv. in this view, the findings add to the understanding of this topic on an international level especially by identifying the specific areas in which nurses in mental health settings mostly lack knowledge and competence. although efforts to minimize potential limitations have been taken into consideration, one major concern is attributed to the fact that this study incorporates a quantitative approach. a mixed method design would have been more appropriate to examine this phenomenon in more detail since a deeper understanding of the nurses’ perceptions towards ipv could have been obtained through interviews. another limitation was that the chosen tool was described to be quite difficult to complete, especially, since nurses were not knowledgeable on the topic. this could have influenced the response rate of this study, even though it was high. a number of recommendations emerged from this study. the most evident need is that of training at pre-registration level as well as for registered nurses. the potential contribution of mixed methods research in order to understand the management of ipv in mental health settings also emerged from this study. finally, the introduction of practice guidelines and policies on the identification and management of ipv for nurses in the mental health setting is an additional important recommendation. 5. conclusion the study presented in this paper focused on examining the perceptions of the management of ipv, of maltese nurses working in the acute and community mental health settings. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 59 published by ideas spread for this purpose, the theory of self-efficacy (bandura, 1977) was used as the theoretical base, as it addresses people’s perceived ability to perform upon the actions taken towards a designated task. a quantitative crosssectional design was implemented and the physician’s readiness to manage intimate partner violence survey (premis) by short et al. (2006) was utilized. the following research questions were posed to guide the study: • are nurses working in the mental health settings knowledgeable towards ipv? • are nurses working in the mental health settings prepared to address ipv? results showed that nurses working in the acute and community mental health settings showed low scores on their perceived and actual knowledge towards ipv, perceived preparedness, legal implications, workplace and practice issues. high scores were reported on victim understanding, victim autonomy, awareness about the relatedness of ipv to substance abuse and staff preparation to address ipv at work. the ‘staff constraints’ sub-scale showed an average score suggesting that staff did not perceive staffing levels and time allowance to limit them from managing such cases. this showed that although maltese nurses working in the acute and mental health settings did not feel knowledgeable and prepared to manage ipv, they reported their readiness to address such issues. females were found to be more knowledgeable on ipv than males, but no significance was reported through gender upon other domains. furthermore, the study showed that knowledge, preparedness, confidence and competence to address ipv improved with age and years of experience. psychiatric nurses were found to empathize more with such patients. a caseload of less than 20 patients per week was found to be significant, indicating that higher scores were achieved with a smaller number of patients seen per week. the present study also concluded that these scores affect practice, indicating that there is a lack of enquiry and screening of ipv at the workplace. however, demographic analysis showed that younger nurses were more motivated to support victimized patients. this study is the first to include nurses working in the mental health settings and is also the first, to utilize the premis on a population of nurses. recommendations for education and practice revolve on the need to provide training to healthcare professionals on the theoretical knowledge related to the cycle of abuse and factors which predispose the occurrence of ipv victimization and perpetration. training on how to screen for, and manage presenting cases of ipv is also crucial. additionally, there is a need to raise awareness about the negative physical and psychological consequences from ipv to encourage appropriate reporting and screening. the authors report no conflict of interest. references agar, k., & read, j. 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(ed.), domestic violence screening in emergency departments and primary healthcare centres: the healthcare professionals’ perspective university of malta; faculty for social wellbeing. department of gender studies. vella, s., falzon, r., & azzopardi, a. (2019). perspectives on wellbeing: a reader. brill sense world health organization (who, 2013). global and regional estimates of violence against women: prevalence and health effects of intimate partner violence and non-partner sexual violence. retrieved february 8, 2020 from https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/85239/9789241564625_eng.pdf;jsessionid=809c113ee1c a9ce318ba5216691d4c42?sequence=1 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v4n3p32 32 published by ideas spread weather and natural catastrophes in medieval and early modern europe: storms, floods, fires, earthquakes, and pandemics albrecht classen1 1 the university of arizona, usa correspondence: albrecht classen, the university of arizona, usa. received: june 27, 2021; accepted: july 23, 2021; published: august 19, 2021 abstract ecocriticism and medieval natural catastrophes literary evidence? ecocriticism in the humanities has alerted us in the last few years to the considerable potentials of building significant bridges between the sciences (meteorology, atmospheric sciences, vulcanism, etc.), on the one hand, and literary and historical studies on the other, and to draw insights from both sides of the equation for an increased understanding of universal phenomena of great importance for all human societies.[1] climate change, for instance, is not something we can understand today by simply looking at samples or data reflecting current conditions, as if our current situation had emerged only in the last fifty or so years. major changes in our natural environment are mostly the result of long-term forces impacting our material and cultural world, and weather patterns and significant disruptions have had a huge impact on human society throughout time. nevertheless, we can probably agree that the current situation of our physical conditions have dramatically deteriorated over the last decades because of human-made factors, if we consider the daunting global warming affecting us all right now in the twenty-first century as a result of the industrial revolution and the modern consume society which endangers the survival of our world (anthropocene). long-term and short-term processes and phenomena must be taken into account when we want to pursue culturalhistorical ecocriticism, especially within a medieval context. it has thus become mandatory to examine, for instance, the history of the forest or the history of water through a variety of lenses, one of which can be fruitfully provided by chronicles, especially those dating not only from the twentieth or nineteenth centuries, but also those which shed light on medieval and early modern conditions and events. [2] in fact, medieval approaches to ecocriticism prove to be eye-opening for the latest scientific investigations and can lay the foundation for a better understanding of the relationship between humans and their environment, and this already thousand and more years ago. [3] both weather and natural catastrophes have always been highly impactful on human history and culture, but it continues to be a huge challenge to establish the concrete correlations, such as between the rise of the gothic age or the renaissance of the twelfth century with the medieval warming period. a late medieval example, however, might shed some light on this phenomenon, though i will not examine it here at great length. on july 2, 1505, when martin luther, the later famous founder of the protestant church, returned from his home in mansfeld to erfurt, where he was enrolled as a student of law at the university, he was surprised by a major thunderstorm in the hamlet of stotternheim (a short distance north of erfurt), which frightened him so deeply that he immediately changed his entire outlook toward life. he begged st. anne to save him from the lightening, and since that was then the case, he fulfilled his pledge and turned into a monk, joining the augustinians in erfurt. as a monk, however, he began to recognize the evils of the catholic church and began with his efforts to reform it from within. this study will attempt to bring to light some parallel cases in the early and the high middle ages. keywords: weather in the middle ages, natural catastrophes; flooding, earthquakes, fourteenth century, medieval warming period, lessons from the past, history of natural environment 1. historical cases of natural catastrophes in the middle ages in what follows, i intend to examine a larger number of relevant cases of dramatic weather phenomena that led to natural catastrophes mostly within the global framework of the holy roman empire from the early to the late middle ages in order to examine to what extent natural disasters represent recurrent dangers and should be considered more closely within the context of significant historical events and developments. climate history and the study of the natural environment have already gained much traction in recent research in a variety of ways. [4] hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 33 published by ideas spread but a group of scholars has now argued that we would have to talk of a particular period determined by a whole series of natural catastrophes during the fourteenth century, as if the situation before and after was remarkably different because of those dramatic changes. [5] martin bauch and gerrit jasper schenk go so far as to articulate the thesis that there was “an instable [sic] transition period between the different climate regimes of the medieval warm period (about 950‒1250) and the little ice age (about 1450‒1850). . . . [t]his period seems to have been characterized by climatic variations with increasingly frequent and dramatic extreme events.” [6] there are, certainly, good reasons to recognize the fourteenth century as a period with particularly difficult circumstances and challenges, considering the outbreak of the black death in 1347, which lasted well into 1351 and beyond, then the early development of the hundred years’ war between england and france in 1337 (until 1453), the babylonian captivity of the papacy in avignon in 1309 (until 1377), and the western schism (1378‒ 1417), plus a number of major problems in agriculture, such as the recurrent cattle plague in england (1318‒1350). but can we view all those economic, military, and political events through the same lens? or were they all somehow correlated, especially because the end of the medieval warming period (ca. 950‒ca. 1250) had already set in and led over the little ice age (ca. 1450‒ca. 1850), triggering, in its wake, a whole series of political, cultural, and medical unrests? [7] there is no doubt that the fourteenth century can be identified as a period when the emergence of a major crisis was felt most imminently, which ultimately led to the fundamental paradigm shift moving the middle ages into the early modern age. [8] yet, would we be justified in identifying here a century with particularly life-threatening weather conditions and natural disasters? was the time between roughly 1300 and 1400 more troubled by natural threats than before or after on the european continent? to be sure, various scholars have pointed out major disruptions and catastrophic developments already in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, which might move the starting point of this global crisis ca. hundred, if not two hundred years backwards despite the medieval warming period. [9] but any climate-based study concerning historical developments faces the same problem that the various explanations rely on many different phenomena that occurred repeatedly and which do not necessarily allow us to create a consistent picture, if we contrast, for instance, western europe with the eastern mediterranean. [10] there is a general consensus among climate historian who have demonstrated in a myriad of approaches and with many different methodologies that the high middle ages experienced a warming period, and the late middle ages fell into the little ice age. both climate patterns had a huge influence, of course, on the cultural and economic developments, though the specific consequences remain rather unclear until today. however, if we examine the available data from previous or later centuries, we can easily recognize that the experiences with natural catastrophes were not at all exclusive to the fourteenth century. instead, we can certainly confirm that human history has always been determined by severe dangers resulting from extreme weather conditions, floods, earthquakes, extreme winter or summer temperatures, storms, or fires. all of these observations have sensitized us already to the great need to collect more data concerning natural disasters, which we subsequently would have to evaluate critically so that we could identify more specific conditions and causes of historical changes in human terms. my real purpose in this paper, however, is rather modest, and yet ambitious to some extent as well. drawing on previous research, the intention is to bring to light a continuous line of catastrophic weather conditions and natural disasters from the tenth to the fifteenth centuries with neither date being necessarily a rigid chronological boundary. [11] we would have to take the next step from here and examine more closely the correlation between those natural events and political and military history, which might help us to uncover the extent to which climate, weather conditions, and a variety of catastrophes impacted human society at large. but at the current moment this seems to be a too lofty goal, especially because it would require extensive analysis of the available data of temperatures in the air and in the oceans, of average rainfalls, cloud covers, changes in the sun, etc., along with a meticulous examination of how those factors might have impacted social and material conditions. [12] instead, following i will discuss representative or exemplary cases of natural catastrophes on the medieval continent in order to illustrate how unstable human existence actually had been already then and that our common understanding of that past age suffers from a considerable ignorance of those terrifying and destructive events. however, we must always keep in mind several major factors that determine or rather hamper our investigation: first, the european continent is very large, and characterized by many different geophysical features; second, the communication among the various parts of europe was not ideal, though many chroniclers obviously were informed well enough to report even of events that had taken place far away; third, many times, natural catastrophes affected primarily, say, the population of coastal regions, whereas the members of the courts or of the major cities inland paid hardly any attention to them, unless they were affected by it in economic terms (refugees, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 34 published by ideas spread loss of trade and commerce, etc.); fourth, natural disasters that struck primarily villagers might not have concerned chroniclers, and especially not poets and artists who produced their works for noble patrons. and fifth, even chroniclers could not know everything and yet intended, of course, to dramatize their accounts to attract readers. this all means that even though we have a lot of narrative data available for many different regions in pre-modern europe, the impact of bad weather and natural catastrophes was probably very diverse and cannot be described automatically as having been of universal consequences, except for the black death, for instance. [13] 2. case studies of natural catastrophes instead of trying to be comprehensive, which would be impossible in the first place, especially because all reports about so-called natural disasters were subject already at that time to individual perspectives, i will examine representative cases to gain a better understanding of what we can hope to learn about in medieval chronicles, annals, letters, travelogues, and other reports. 3. floods the all saints’ flood (allerheiligenvloed) which took place on november 1 and 2, 1170 destroyed much of the land along the northern dutch and frisian coastline. it also created new islands by forming flowing waterways between certain areas and the firm land, transforming the entire coastline in dramatic terms. many of the bodies of water changed from fresh water to salt water because of the influx from the sea. the flood was so extensive that even cities far south such as utrecht were inundated, with the high and low tides being clearly noticeable. the frisian island bant, extending ca. 45 km, was cut into several parts, leaving behind the islands of borkyn (or borkum), juist, buise (which disappeared into the water in the seventeenth century), oesterende (today norderney), and bant (which also disappeared in the seventeenth century). [14] on dec. 28, 1248, another major storm hit the western coast of schleswig and holstein, which separated the western frisian islands from the mainland and destroyed parts of the newly erected dikes and dams. a large area of the so-called haseldorfer marsch was affected particularly hard, which created new islands, altenwerder and finkenwerder. and the struggle between people and the sea continued over the centuries, with chroniclers commenting regularly about ever-new catastrophes. those, however, in turn motivated the local population to work intensively to build newer and better dams and to protect themselves against the dangerous sea with technical and building inventions. [15] several decades later, on august 10, 1191, after a period of intensive rainfall, in oisans, part of the valley wall of the romanche river (southeastern france) broke off and blocked ca. 1 km up-stream the natural flow, which created a natural barrier for some time. from this resulted a natural lake of ca. 15‒20 km length up to the village saintlaurent (today, le bourg-d’oisans). twenty years later, during a strong storm on sept. 14, 1219, the barrier broke, and the entire lake emptied out into the valley of the romanche down to its estuary into the river drac, and then to the river isère. grenoble to the east was mostly protected from the first wave because it was not yet extended to the drac. but the water was accidentally damned in the isère, which prevented people from fleeing to safety, leading to a major loss of lives. [16] could we thus claim that the twelfth and thirteenth centuries already witnessed major natural catastrophes? of course, there is no doubt about it. nevertheless, how impactful were those events along the shores of the north sea and in the river valleys in eastern france on the larger historical and cultural events as they evolved at the aristocratic courts and in the urban centers? it might remain impossible to provide succinct and definitive answers here, but i propose to question whether the fourteenth century was plagued by more natural problems than other periods in the pre-modern world. some of the major natural catastrophes in the fourteenth century were the all saints’ flood which hit the southwestern coast of the baltic sea on nov. 1, 1304, affecting primarily pomerania, [17] the friaul earthquake on jan. 25, 1348 with massive damages also in carinthia, [18] the basel earthquakes from oct. 18, 1356, which destroyed much of the city and the wider surrounding territory, though with a fairly limited loss of human lives, [19] the two dionysius floods along the coastline of the north sea in 1374 (oct. 9) and 1375 (oct. 8‒10) badly damaging flanders and the lands up to the wesel river. in the fifteenth century, many more reports about floods along the various sea coasts were written, such as all saints’ flood along the northwestern coastline of schleswig and frisia on nov. 1, 1436, then the saint cecilia flood of the lower river elbe on nov. 21, 1412, the cosmas and damian flood of the northwestern coast of modern-day belgium, the netherlands, and germany on sept. 27, 1477. in 1480, a very rainy early summer (may and june) was followed by an intensive heat period, which led to a massive melting of snow and ice in the alps. subsequently many rivers, especially the aare in switzerland and the lower rhine, inundated and caused extensive hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 35 published by ideas spread damage in a wide range along the river valley (st. magdalen flood). virtually all bridges affected by this flood were destroyed. a catastrophe of a similar origin had occurred already in middle europe in july of 1342, and it happened again along the elbe river in aug. of 2002 and in major parts of middle europe at the end of may and early june in 2013. [20] the sixteenth century also had its significant share of other catastrophes, which all mirror people’s ongoing struggles against the forceful sea and their efforts to gain land by means of building dams. [21] however, many of those catastrophes can also be explained by the fact that there was discord among the people as to who was in charge of maintaining the dikes and dams, a costly and time-consuming task, that military conflict distracted people from the real dangers from their physical environment, and that natural forces increased and caught people unaware. 4. earthquakes many earthquakes struck the pyrenees, such as on feb. 2, 1373, march 15, 1427, feb. 2, 1428, feb. 2, 1429, most commonly in the region of olot at the very eastern point of the mountain range. [22] the medieval and early modern annals are actually filled with accounts of other minor and major earthquakes affecting various parts of europe, such as in verona on jan. 3, 1117, [23] in syracuse in 1169, in katschberg, austria, on may 4, 1202, [24] in kindberg, austria, on may 8, 1267, [25] in gera (saxony) on may 4, 1346, and so forth. [26] 5. the black death in order to expand our database and to incorporate similar or even related catastrophic events, we could also incorporate a long list of devastating fires that destroyed farms, villages, towns and cities, castles, churches, and cathedrals from the middle ages until today, [27] many of them probably caused by people and not necessarily natural catastrophes. major storms commonly disrupted ordinary life and affected many communities in drastic fashion. but the most impactful experience was, to be sure, the black death from ca. 1347 to 1351, which we can also categorize as a ‘natural catastrophe’ because the attack by the bacillus yersina pestis was a threat to all of humanity coming from the natural environment. however, this plague did not simply disappear and actually reemerged for a long time in ever new waves far into the late fifteenth century and beyond. particularly bad periods were between 1360 and 1363, 1370 and 1374, 1382 and 1384, 1390 and 1391, 1399 and 1400, 1410 and 1412, 1422 and 1424, 1429 and 1430, 1338 and 1439, and so on. in fact, although the public focus turned to the syphilis since the early sixteenth century, the black death lingered on and returned to marseille and western europe in 1722, to messina, sicily, in 1743, to russia in 1771 and 1772, to eastern and southeastern asia in 1894, and to california in 1899. [28] 6. was there literary-historical evidence? unfortunately, however, medieval and early modern poets tended to present the events in their narratives as taking place in a stable, mostly ordinary natural environment, commonly during spring (may) or summer, only occasionally, or rather rarely, also including harsh weather conditions, though then without the rain, cold, or snow having any major impact on the protagonists. [29] in fact, we barely hear in literary texts about real external weather problems, or of natural catastrophes, such as earthquakes, floods, eruptions of volcanoes, forest fires, tornadoes or hurricanes, and the like. those happened many times, of course, as the numerous chronicle accounts from throughout the middle ages and beyond richly confirm, but they did not enter much, if ever, the mental horizon of fictional writers who apparently did not want to pay much attention to weather and climate conditions. the common conflicts for the protagonists are, by contrast, war, fights with other knights or heroes, the pursuit of love, death, the quest for god, confrontations with monsters, or, on a much more mundane level, marital conflicts, the establishment of friendship, and the search for adventures. nature, by contrast, especially when it threatens to disrupt ordinary life, does not seem to figure prominently in the literary context, unless poets observed a need to compare their figures with snow, storm, rain, etc. [30] even the experience of winter as an unpleasant and painful season was rarely discussed, if ever, with the late middle high german romance diu crône by heinrich von dem türlin (ca. 1290), the middle english alliterative romance of sir gawain and the green knight (ca. 1370), and william dunbar’s poem “in winter” (ca. 1460) being remarkable exceptions. [31] only once, as far as i can tell, do we encounter a truly ‘earth-shaking’ natural catastrophe in a literary text which has a major impact on the protagonists, that is, in marguerite de navarre’s heptaméron (1558/1559), where the future story tellers are among those visitors of a spa in the pyrenees who have to flee torrential rains that inundate all rivers and make all passages impassable: “but as they were preparing to leave, the rain came. it fell in such torrents and with such extraordinary force, you would have thought that god had quite forgotten that once he had promised to noah never again to destroy the world by water.” [32] many people die in their efforts to escape from hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 36 published by ideas spread that disaster, and only a small group of men and women make it to a monastery where they are safe from the floods. there they assemble, waiting for a bridge to be built that can take them across a gorge and allow them to return home, so they begin to tell each other stories, similar to the group of storytellers in boccaccio’s decameron (ca. 1350), who had turned their backs to florence to avoid the danger of the black death. [33] at times, knights in chivalric romances from the high middle ages bring about a devastating storm themselves which destroys the entire forest, such as in chrétien de troyes’s yvain (ca. 1170; see also hartmann von aue’s iwein, ca. 1190). early in the account, calogrenant relates how he experienced a strange adventure in a forest where he poured water from a well onto the stones in order to provoke a tempest: the moment i sprinkled some water from the basin on the hollowed stone, i would have been glad to repent, had i been able. i am afraid i poured too much, for i then saw the sky break open with such force that lightning from more than fourteen directions blinded my eyes and the clouds let loose, all at once, rain snow, and hail. the storm had such terrible force that a hundred times i thought i would be killed by lightning bolts falling about me and trees crashing to the ground. you can be certain that i was terrified until the storm abated. but god granted me such comfort that the storm did not last long and all the winds died down. as soon as god wished them to cease, they dared not blow. [34] the contemporary audience must have well understood the concrete meanings of the words and the image conveyed, although calogrenant caused this terrifying natural catastrophe himself in his quest for adventure, which then begins immediately following the storm with the lord of the forest, ascalon, appearing and challenging the intruder. undoubtedly, medieval and early modern literature is also filled with accounts about shipwrecks as a result of mighty storms, but those examples do not serve us fully to establish evidence about actual natural catastrophes as they happened in the middle ages and beyond. [35] however, the literary imagination must have reflected some practical experiences. for instance, young tristan in gottfried von straßburg’s eponymous romance (ca. 1210) is set free by his kidnappers, the norwegian merchants only after god has commanded such a strong storm on the open sea that all the crew together were not able to maintain control. they had to let their ship drift wherever the violent winds blew it, and they lost all hope in saving their own limbs and lives . . . . there was nothing else they could do except allow themselves to be carried by the waves up to the heavens and then back down again as if to hell . . . . none of them could stay on their feet for a moment. this went on for a full eight days and night, and they were close to losing all their strength and their minds. [36] although tristan will later go on several voyages, either alone or in company, he will never encounter any natural challenges, which might be typical of medieval literature since most poets or writers were less interested in the natural environment and more in the human interactions undisturbed by external, material influences. we know also of a report concerning a major earthquake, such as the one on january 25, 1348, which the famous humanist francesco petrarch (1304‒1374) commented on in a letter to the archbishop of genoa, guido sette: ... the day had nearly come to dusk, when vibrations arose so tremendously in large parts of italy and germany that a lot of people, who did not know about such tremors, thought the end of the world would be near. i was just sitting in my library in verona at this time; although i knew something about such things i was dismayed at this sudden and unusual event. the pavement trembled under my feet; when the books crashed into each other and fell down i was frightened and hurried to leave the room. outside i saw the servants and many other people running anxiously to and fro. all faces were pale. [37] most other documents, however, which contain reports about this and other earthquakes, or a diverse range of natural catastrophes, fall into the category of chronicles and similar accounts. [38] indeed, petrarch’s letter belongs to a different, non-fictional genre, which explains the inclusion of the earthquake in his comments. we can generally affirm that heroic epics, courtly love poetry and courtly romances, entertaining verse narratives such as fabliaux, or religious plays usually do not engage with natural disasters or the natural world more than barely necessary. [39] one entertaining though small exception, however, would be “the knight with the hazelnuts,” an earlyfourteenth-century middle high german verse narrative which in turn was based on a variety of older texts such as petrus alphonsus’s disciplina clericalis or jean de condé’s old french fabliau “pliçon.” here, a noble lady has a love affair with a man who visits her while her husband is out in the forest hunting. suddenly, a heavy rainstorm forces him to seek shelter, where he encounters a group of children who have collected hazelnuts and offer some of them to him for his nourishment. this means that the story takes place in fall and at a time when hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 37 published by ideas spread inclement weather impacts the events, though again, the cold rain does not amount to anything catastrophic. the protagonist then returns home, where he would have almost caught his wife in flagrante, but she manages to deceive him and help her lover to escape, while the marital couple consumes the hazelnuts. [40] of course, the first appearance of the black death in italy in 1347, imported from the black sea, caused a huge shock and had devastating consequences almost all over europe. curiously, however, only boccaccio responded more explicitly and extensively to this new pandemic in his literary works, in his famous collection of 100 tales, the decameron, whereas most other contemporaries, such as the dominican fable author from bern, ulrich bonerius, did not seem to have cared that much about the pest. at least in his collection the gemstone, which appeared at virtually the same time as boccaccio’s work (ca. 1350), bonerius never comments on this pandemic, and he also does not engage much at all with natural phenomena, except, in one case, with the workings of the sun and the wind (no. 66; cf. also no. 83). [41] late medieval literature, whether we think of langland’s piers plowman or any of the many religious plays, early prose novels, collections of verse narratives (heinrich kaufringer), or lyric poetry (oswald von wolkenstein) mostly left out the natural environment and concentrated instead on the social interactions, as if earthquakes, floods, extreme temperatures, or the black death, did not matter much for them, maybe because those would have sidetracked them from their central concerns, such as ethics, honor, god, friendship, virtues, etc. 7. conclusion in contrast to the literary sources, historiographical narratives lend themselves much better and extremely well for a critical examination of natural disasters throughout the entire pre-modern age. according to many different sources, humans were constantly in danger of being struck by floods, thunderstorms, earthquakes, and fires, and this throughout the entire middle ages both on the british isles and on the continent. in fact, we might go so far as to identify all history as a continuous struggle between people and their natural environment. however, as a side note, we must be clear about the fact that such a general statement should not have any bearing on the situation now in the twenty-first century with us facing global warming in most dramatic terms because human impact on nature has moved us dangerously from the holocene to the anthropocene. [42] nevertheless, by the same token this should not blind us to the fact that the middle ages already witnessed many different natural catastrophes, a warning for our present and future, alerting us to the precariousness of human existence in an ever-changing natural environment, which can be rather hostile to us more often than not. we can be certain that horrific changes in weather and natural catastrophes occurred quite frequently throughout the entire middle ages and the early modern age. the fourteenth century was no exception, though the number of reports about dramatic events increased, at least for some regions, while others were rather spared. as heli huhtamaa now demonstrates, for instance, dendrochronological evidence concerning northeastern europe from the 1310s confirms that the dramatic decline in weather patterns badly affecting western europe (extended rainfall, poor harvest, famines) did not reach the territories of modern-day finland, the baltic countries, and western russia. [43] we thus face the double challenge of recognizing dangerous changes in climate or the experience of earthquakes and storms on the one hand, and of establishing useful patterns based on those data, on the other. the most troubled regions were always, as expected, if we consider flood, the shorelines of the north sea and the atlantic, but also of the baltic sea. both the pyrenees and various part of the alps experienced earthquakes throughout the centuries, which continues until today and is not surprising considering the fact that the african plate presses onto the european plate, causing massive tectonic pressures. considering the wealth of relevant documentation from written sources (chronicles) and now also from scientific research (dendrochronology, for instance), we could move on from here and reflect on the possible impacts of those natural catastrophes on political and cultural history. it remains, however, rather confounding that literary authors rarely, if ever, reflected on those dramatic events. nevertheless, as we can now conclude, the european middle ages knew of its shares in natural catastrophes, and this in many of its various parts. the sea was a constant challenge of a great magnitude, but earthquakes also deeply scared people, causing vast damage and great losses of lives. neither artists nor literary writers, however, seem to have taken much note of these phenomena. references [1] zapf, h. (ed.) (2016). handbook of ecocriticism and cultural ecology. handbooks of english and american studies, 2. berlin and boston: walter de gruyter; clark, t. (2019). the value of ecocriticism. cambridge: cambridge university press; slovic, s., swarnalatha rangarajan, s., and sarveswaran, v. (eds.). (2019). routledge handbook of ecocriticism and environmental communication. routledge international handbooks. london and new york: routledge; hiltner, k. (2020). writing a new environmental era: hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 38 published by ideas spread moving forward to nature. routledge environmental humanities. london and new york: earthscan from routledge, taylor & francis group. the literature on this topic is legion by now. [2] scarborough, c. (2013). inscribing the environment: ecocritical approaches to medieval spanish literature. fundamentals of medieval and early modern culture, 13. berlin and boston: walter de gruyter; classen, a. (2015). the forest in medieval german literature: ecocritical readings from a historical perspective. ecocritical theory and practice. lanham, boulder, et al.: lexington books; smith, j. l. (2017). water in medieval intellectual culture: case-studies from twelfth-century monasticism. cursor mundi, 30. turnhout: brepols); classen, a. (2018). water in medieval literature: an ecocritical reading. ecocritical theory and practice. lanham, md, boulder, co, et al.: lexington books; nardizzi, v. and werth, t. j. (eds.). (2019). premodern ecologies in the modern literary imagination, ed. (toronto, buffalo, and london: university of toronto press; johns-putra, a. (ed.). (2019). climate and literature. cambridge critical concepts. cambridge: cambridge university press. [3] siewers, a. k. (2000). strange beauty: ecocritical approaches to early medieval landscape. the new middle ages. new york: palgrave macmillan; nardizzi, v. (2013). medieval ecocriticism. postmedieval 4.1: 112‒ 23; liedl, g. (2017). ökologiegeschichte: ein reader zum interdisziplinären gebrauch. 4 vols. vienna and berlin: verlag turia + kant. [4] aberth, j. (2013). an environmental history of the middle ages: the crucible of nature. london and new york: routledge; camenisch, ch. (2015). witterung, getreidepreise und subsistenzkrisen in den burgundischen niederlanden im ausgehenden mittelalter. wirtschafts-, sozialund umweltgeschichte, 5 (basel: schwabe, 2015); eadem. (2020). droughts in bern and rouen from the 14th to the beginning of the 18th century derived from documentary evidence. climate of the past 16.6: 2173‒82. [5] bauch, m., & schenk, g. j. (eds.). (2020). the crisis of the 14th century: teleconnections between environmental and societal change? das mittelalter: perspektiven mediävistischer forschung, 13. berlin and boston: walter de gruyter; see my review in mediaevistik 33 (forthcoming). [6] bauch & schenk. (2020). teleconnections, correlations, causalities between nature and society? an introductory comment on the ‘crisis of the fourteenth century. the crisis of the 14th century (see note 5), 1‒23, at 5. [7] see, for instance, campbell, b. m. s. (2010). nature as historical protagonist: environment and society in pre-industrial england. the economic history review 63.2: 281‒314; campbell, b. m. s. (2016). the great transition: climate, disease and society in the late-medieval world. the 2013 ellen mcarthur lectures. cambridge: cambridge university press. [8] classen, a. (ed.). (2019). paradigm shifts during the global middle ages and the renaissance. arizona studies in the middle ages and the renaissance, 44 (turnhout: brepols, 2019); see also albrecht classen, a. (2019). “the crisis of spirituality in the late middle ages: from the twelfth century to the protestant reformation; with an emphasis on the reformatio sigismundi (1439),” global journal of human-social science 19.2: 7‒16, online at: https://globaljournals.org/gjhss_volume19/2-the-crisis-of-spirituality.pdf. [9] lieberman, v. (2003-2009). strange parallels: southest asia in global context, c. 800‒1830. 2 vols. cambridge: cambridge university press, 83‒84. [10] preiser-kapeller, j., & mitsiou, e. (2020). the little ice age and byzantium within the eastern mediterranean, ca. 1200-1350: an essay on old debates and new scenarios. the crisis of the 14th century (see note 5), 190-220. [11] bennassar, b. (ed.) (1996). les catastrophes naturelles dans l’europe médiévale et moderne: actes des xves journées internationales d’histoire de l’abbaye de flaran, 10, 11 et 12 septembre 1993. flaran, 15.toulouse: presses université du mirail; jankrift, k. p. (2003). brände, stürme, hungersnöte: katastrophen in der mittelalterlichen lebenswelt. ostfildern: thorbecke; fouquet, g. and zeilinger, g. (2011). katastrophen im spätmittelalter (darmstadt and mainz: philipp von zabern. they focus in separate chapters on a variety of catastrophes, such as floods in basel in 1529 and 1530; various floods along the northern seashores; earthquakes in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries; burning cities; and epidemics. see also the contributions to rohr, ch., bieber, u., and zeppezauer-wachauer, k. (eds.). (2018). krisen, kriege, katastrophen: zum umgang mit angst und bedrohung im mittelalter. interdisziplinäre beiträge zu mittelalter und früher neuzeit, 3, heidelberg: universitätsverlag winter. as to the history of famines, see the contributions to holzem, a. (ed.). (2017). wenn hunger droht: bewältigung und religiöse deutung (1400‒1980). bedrohte ordnungen, 6. tübingen: mohr siebeck. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 39 published by ideas spread [12] i have endeavored in a recent article to correlate the emergence of the phenomenon of courtly love and the ‘discovery’ of woman as an erotically attractive partner since the twelfth century (‘the renaissance of the twelfth century’) with the setting-in of the medieval warming period in classen, a. (2015). globalerwärmung im mittelalter als grundlage für die entstehung der höfischen liebe? dinzelbacher, p. and harrer, f. (eds.). (2015). wandlungsprozesse der mentalitätsgeschichte. baden-baden: deutscher wissenschaftlicher verlag, 121‒46. see now dinzelbacher, p. (2017). structures and origins of the twelfthcentury ‘renaissance’. monographien zur geschichte des mittelalters, 63. stuttgart: alfred hiersemann, 161‒76, et passim. [13] rohr, ch. (2007). extreme naturereignisse im ostalpenraum. naturerfahrung im spätmittelalter und am beginn der neuzeit. umwelthistorische forschungen, 4. cologne, weimar, and vienna: böhlau; rohr, ch. (ed.). (2008). naturkatastrophen in der geschichte. wahrnehmung, deutung und bewältigung von extremen naturereignissen in risikokulturen. historische sozialkunde, themenheft 2008/2. vienna: vgs c/o institut für wirtschaftsund sozialgeschichte der universität. for an excellent survey, see the listing in https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/kategorie:naturkatastrophe_nach_jahrhundert (last accessed on aug. 17, 2021). [14] kuß, ch. (1825). jahrbuch denkwürdiger naturereignisse in den herzogthümern schleswig und holstein vom 11. bis 19. jahrhundert. vol. 1. altona: busch; itzehoe: schönfeldt, 9. online now at: https://dibiki.ub.unikiel.de/viewer/image/ppn67119464x/38/. he also reports about a solar eclipse on sept. 4, 1186, about a tornado on march 12, 1186, and of a major windstorm that flattened entire forests on oct. 10, 1195. he also mentions a significant earthquake in denmark in 1198. the list of other natural catastrophes continues for the subsequent years. [15] buisman, j. (2006). duizend jaar weer, wind en water in de lage landen. 5 vols. franeker: van wijnen, 1996–2006; here vol. 5; elisabeth gottschalk, m. k. e. (1971‒1977). stormvloeden en rivieroverstromingen in nederland. 3 vols. (assen: van gorcum, 1971–1977); weikinn, c. (ed.) (1958‒2002). quellentexte zur witterungsgeschichte europas von der zeitwende bis zum jahre 1850. 6 vols. quellensammlung zur hydrographie und meteorologie, 1‒6 (berlin: akademie verlag, 1958–2002). for a comprehensive listing of all major floods, see https://www.bau.uni-siegen.de/fwu/wb/publikationen/sturmflutarchiv/?lang=en%22 (last accessed on aug. 17, 2021). [16] i have drawn the basic information from https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/lac_de_saint-laurent (last accessed on aug. 17, 2021). but see also marche, c. (2008). barrages: crues de rupture et protection civile. montréal: presses internationales polytechnique. [17] dwars, f. w. (1958). der angebliche landzusammenhang zwischen rügen und dem ruden in historischer zeit und die entstehung der einfahrten am ostrand des greifswalder boddens. baltische studien. neue folge, 45: 9-26; petzholdt, n. (2014). der mönchgraben bei baabe und die landverbindung zwischen rügen und dem ruden. pommern: zeitschrift für kultur und geschichte 1: 4–8. [18] hammerl, ch. (1992). das erdbeben vom 25. jänner 1348: rekonstruktion des naturereignisses. ph.d. diss. vienna, then published in 1994 as neues aus alt-villach: jahrbuch des museums der stadt villach 31 (1994): 55–94; rohr, ch. (2007). extreme naturereignisse im ostalpenraum (see note 13), 131–66. see also the scientific report about this earthquake at: https://www.zamg.ac.at/cms/de/geophysik/erdbeben/historischeerdbeben/historische-erdbebenforschung-oesterreich/erdbeben-in-friaul-freitag-den-25.-jaenner-1348gegen-17-uhr-io-10deg (last accessed on aug. 17, 2021). [19] meyer, w. (1990). das basler erdbeben von 1356 und die angerichteten schäden. unsere kunstdenkmäler 41: 162-168; fouquet, g. (2003). das erdbeben in basel 1356 – für eine kulturgeschichte der katastrophen. basler zeitschrift für geschichte und altertumskunde, 103, 31-49; meyer, w. (2006). da verfiele basel überall: das basler erdbeben von 1356. mit einem geologischen beitrag von hans peter laubscher. neujahrsblatt: gesellschaft für das gute und gemeinnützige, 184. basel: schwabe. [20] schlütter, a. (2015). die wassermühle von vinnbrück und das magdalenenhochwasser von 1342. tönisberger heimatblätter 17: 29‒38; zbinden, e. (2011). das magdalenen-hochwasser von 1342: der ‘hydrologische gau’ in mitteleuropa. wasser, energie, luft / schweizerischer wasserwirtschaftsverband: schweizerische vereinigung für gewässerschutz und lufthygiene, 103(3), 193-203; https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/magdalenenhochwasser_1480 (last accessed on aug. 17, 2021). further information about the subsequent floods can be found by using the relevant links in that article. the bibliographical information is extensive. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 40 published by ideas spread [21] for the early modern age, see anonymous. 1509-2009: 500 jahre cosmasund damianflut: die entstehung des dollarts. https://web.archive.org/web/20120911022239/http://www.heimatkundlicherarbeitskreis.de/verschiedenes/dollartfluten/dollartfluten.htm (last accessed on aug. 17, 2021). despite the focus on the modern age, this article also covers the previous floods from 1164 to 1477. [22] banda, e., & correig, a. m. (1984). the catalan earthquake of february 2, 1428. engineering geology 20.1– 2 (1984): 89–97. for a helpful overview of the various earthquakes in that region, see https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/erdbeben_von_olot_(15._jahrhundert) (last accessed on aug. 17, 2021). [23] galadini, f. p., molin, d., & ciurletti, g. (2001). “searching for the source of the 1117 earthquake in northern italy: a multidisciplinary approach,” glade, th., albini, p. and frances, f. (eds.). (2001). the use of historical data in natural hazard assessments. advances in natural and technological hazards research, 17. dordrecht: springer netherlands, 3–27. [24] https://www.zamg.ac.at/cms/de/geophysik/erdbeben/historische-erdbeben/historische-erdbebenforschungoesterreich/erdbeben-im-raum-katschberg-freitag-den-4.-mai-1201-gegen-05-00-uhr-io (last accessed on aug. 17, 2021). [25] for a broad overview, see hammerl, ch. and lenhardt, w. (1997). erdbeben in österreich. graz: leykam. [26] leydecker, g. (2011). erdbebenkatalog für deutschland mit randgebieten für die jahre 800 bis 2008. geologisches jahrbuch e 59: 1‒198. he lists ca. 12,700 earthquakes from ca. 800 to 2008. [27] dubler, a. d. (2013). feuersbrünste. historisches lexikon der schweiz (last updated on dec. 9, 2013), online at: https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/de/articles/007787/2013-12-09/; for a representative list with a global perspective, see https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/liste_von_brandkatastrophen#antike_bis_1600 (both last accessed on aug. 17, 2021). [28] byrne, j. p. (2004). the black death. greenwood guides to historic events of the medieval world. westport, ct, and london: greenwood press, xxvii‒xxx. see also the contributions to meier, m. (2005). pest: die geschichte eines menschheitstraumas, ed. (stuttgart: klett-cotta, 2005), such as the studies by mauelshagen, f. pest, pestangst und pestbekämpfung in der neuzeit (237‒265) and kessel, m. gebannte gefahr? die pest im 19. und 20. jahrhundert (266‒282). see now also the contributions to green, m. h. (ed.). (2015). pandemic disease in the medieval world: rethinking the black death,the medieval globe. kalamazoo, mi, and bradford: arc medieval press. [29] for a solid, though rather traditional approach, see pearsall, d. and salter, e. (1973). landscapes and seasons of the medieval world. london: paul elek. [30] for lexicological analysis, see now oberlin, a. (forthcoming). weather, metaphor, and the lexicon: a corpus study of medieval german. mediaevistik 33. [31] classen, a. (2011). winter as a phenomenon in medieval literature: a transgression of the traditional chronotopos? mediaevistik 24: 125‒150. while arthur celebrates christmas, gawan later suffers through a miserable time while traveling in a wintry landscape of wales. for william dunbar’s poem, see douglas gray, d. (ed.). (1985). the oxford book of late medieval verse and prose. with a note on grammar and spelling in the fifteenth century by norman davis. oxford: clarendon press, 306-307. [32] marguerite de navarre (1984). the heptameron. trans with an intro. by p. a. chilton. london: penguin, 60. [33] giovanni boccaccio (1972/1997). the decameron. trans. with an intro. and notes by g. h. mcwilliam. sec. ed. london: penguin. [34] chrétien de troyes (1990). the complete romances of chrétien de troyes. trans. with an intro. by david staines. bloomington and indianapolis: indiana university press, 262. basically, the same story is told by hartmann von aue in his middle high german ‘translation,’ iwein (ca. 1190), but the dramatic effects of the storm are even more accentuated: “the storm grew so violent that it leveled the forest. if there was anywhere a tree so big that it remained standing, it was bare, as stripped of foliage as if it had gone up in flames. whatever dwelt in the forest perished immediately if it did not make a quick escape.” hartmann von aue (2001). the complete works of hartmann von aue, trans. with commentary by frank tobin, kim vivian, and richard h. lawson. university park, pa: the pennsylvania state university press, 144. [35] classen, a. (2020). sea voyages in medieval romances as symbolic trails through life: existential experiences and female suffering on the water. critical literary studies: academic journal (university of kurdistan) 2.2. series 4: 27-46. http://cls.uok.ac.ir/article_61567.html; or: doi 10.34785/j014.2020.367. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 41 published by ideas spread [36] gottfried von strassburg (2020). tristan and isolde, with ulrich von türheim’s continuation. ed. and trans. with an intro. by william t. whobrey. indianapolis, in, and cambridge: hackett publishing, 37-38. [37] francesco petrarca (1978). rerum senilium 9 (10,2), in francesco petrarca, f. (1978). opere, vol. 2: epistole, ed. ugo dotti. turin: unione tipografico-editrice torinese, 613-889; here quoted from rohr, ch. (2003). man[-made] and natural disaster in the late middle ages: the earthquake in carinthia and northern italy on 25 january 1348 and its perception. environment and history: coping with the unexpected – natural disasters and their perception 9.2: 127-149; here 134. [38] berlioz, j. (1998). catastrophes naturelles et calamités au moyen age. micrologus’ library, 1. florence: sismel – edizioni del galluzzo. [39] for a valuable different perspective, see george, m. w. (2014). adversarial relationships between humans and weather in medieval english literature. essays in medieval studies 30: 67‒81; see online: https://muse.jhu.edu/article/587613/pdf (last accessed on dec. 1, 2020). he cites my own previous article: winter as a phenomenon in medieval literature (see note 31), 74, in support of his argument. he points out that in chaucer’s “the miller’s tale,” the critical plot development is predicated on the fear of a new flood, as a repeat of the biblical flood. i would distinguish more between such topical imagery and real reactions to inclement weather, such as in the wakefield second shepherds’ pageant from ca. 1500. see george:, adversarial, 76‒77. george also suggests that most of chaucer’s works with their glorification of marvelous spring weather were influenced by the long period of above the norm weather conditions in late fourteenthcentury england (78). [40] quoted from classen, a. (ed.). (2009). erotic tales of medieval germany. selected and trans. by albrecht classen. medieval and renaissance texts and studies, 328. tempe, az: arizona center for medieval and renaissance studies, no. 14, 91‒94. [41] bonerius, u. (2020). the fables of ulrich bonerius (ca. 1350): masterwork of late medieval didactic literature, trans. albrecht classen. newcastle-upon tyne: cambridge scholars publishing. [42] see, for instance, schmidt, j. m. (2018). water and the anthropocene: abundance, scarcity and security in the age of humanity (new delhi: sage, 2018); harrison, r. and sterling, c. (eds.). (2020). deterritorializing the future: heritage in, of and after the anthropocene (london: open humanities press, 2020). the literature on this critical topic is legion, of course. [43] huhtamaa, h. (2020). climate and the crisis of the early fourteenth century in northeastern europe. the crisis of the 14th century (see note 5), 80-99. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p218 218 published by ideas spread research on optimization strategies of private college students' participation in student community governance from the perspective of synergy theory lingli zhang1 & qing zhang2 1 hunan university of information technology, china 2 hunan agricultural university, china correspondence: lingli zhang, hunan university of information technology, china e-mail: 1837343189@qq.com received: august 17, 2025; accepted: august 25, 2025; published: august 26, 2025 abstract with the deepening of higher education reform, the construction of "one-stop" student communities in private colleges has become an important path to improve educational efficiency and management level. however, compared with public colleges, private colleges face more significant collaborative dilemmas in the process of students' participation in community governance. based on the perspective of synergy theory, this paper deeply analyzes the evolution process and current situation of "one-stop" student community construction in private colleges, and focuses on revealing the existing collaborative problems: information silos between departments lead to fragmented decision-making, uneven resource allocation restricts service balance, traditional management inertia weakens students' participation efficiency, and lack of institutional guarantees affects the sustainability of participation. the root cause lies in the tension between the unique "board-led president responsibility system" in the governance structure of private colleges and the bureaucratic management model, as well as insufficient understanding of students' subject status. to this end, this paper proposes systematic optimization strategies: first, construct a "multi-subject collaborative governance" mechanism, clarify the rights, responsibilities and interests among the board of directors, administrative departments, student work teams and students, and improve the student congress system; second, build a "digital intelligent collaborative sharing platform", use information technology to break data barriers, and establish a mechanism for accurate identification of needs and dynamic allocation of resources; third, implement a "capacity-incentive" dual-drive plan, improve students' literacy and ability to participate in governance through systematic training, and build an incentive mechanism that combines material and spiritual incentives; fourth, create an "inclusive collaborative cultural ecology", strengthen community identity under the leadership of the party building, and cultivate an open, trusting and cooperative governance atmosphere. this study aims to provide theoretical reference and practical guidance for private colleges to break through governance bottlenecks, stimulate students' main vitality, and realize the modernization of community governance[1]. keywords: synergy theory, private colleges, one-stop student community, student participation, governance optimization 1. introduction the university student community is a core field for college students' study, life and social interaction, and its governance model is directly related to the quality of talent training and the harmony of campus ecology[2]. since chinese universities began to explore the "one-stop" student community model in 2004, this model has gradually evolved from providing basic accommodation services to a comprehensive platform integrating education, management, service and education functions. in 2019, the ministry of education launched a pilot project for the construction of a "one-stop" student community integrated management model, highlighting the four elements of "party building leadership, team stationed, student participation, and condition guarantee". by 2022, the ministry of education further clarified its connotation and four basic requirements of "information support, service-oriented management, educational environment, and intelligent platform", marking that the construction of "one-stop" student communities has entered a new stage of comprehensive promotion and quality improvement[3]. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 219 published by ideas spread however, compared with public colleges, private colleges have encountered more complex collaborative dilemmas in students' participation in governance in the process of promoting the construction of "one-stop" student communities due to differences in their school-running system, resource allocation, governance structure and student source characteristics[4]. private colleges generally implement the board-led president responsibility system, with relatively short decision-making chains, but administrative tendencies and cost-effectiveness considerations sometimes squeeze the institutional space for student participation. at the same time, students' background of paying for their education makes them have higher expectations for service quality, but their subject status and participation rights are often ignored, leading to a mismatch between "demand and supply"[5]. synergy theory, founded by german physicist hermann haken, emphasizes that subsystems within a system can produce an overall effect of "1+1>2" through non-linear interactions. this theory provides a powerful framework for analyzing the interactive relationships between multiple subjects (administrative departments, student work teams, student organizations, individual students, etc.) in private college student communities[6]. student participation in governance is no longer simply "soliciting opinions", but through effective collaborative mechanisms, transforming students from managed objects into subjects of co-construction, co-governance and sharing, thereby achieving optimal resource allocation, accurate service supply and multiplied governance efficiency. therefore, based on synergy theory and focusing on private colleges as a specific type, this study systematically examines the practical dilemmas, causes and optimization paths of students' participation in governance in the construction of "one-stop" student communities, aiming to provide academic support and practical solutions for solving collaborative problems, stimulating governance vitality, and building a modern student community governance system. 2. connotation of synergy theory and its applicability in private college student community governance 2.1 core connotation of synergy theory synergy theory is an emerging discipline that studies the common characteristics of different things and their synergy mechanisms. its core essence is that when elements within an open system form good collaboration and cooperation, they can achieve evolution from disorder to order, and produce a synergistic effect where the overall function of the system is greater than the sum of the functions of its parts. this theory emphasizes the dominant role of order parameters (key parameters that determine the evolution process of the system) and the formation process of self-organization (the spontaneous formation of ordered structures within the system). in management practice, synergy means promoting different subjects to coordinate their actions for common goals through the establishment of effective rules, platforms and mechanisms, ultimately achieving resource sharing, complementary advantages and efficiency improvement. 2.2 applicability in private college student community governance the governance system of private college student communities can be regarded as a complex open system. it contains multiple subsystems: administrative management system (logistics, academic affairs, finance, etc.), student work system (counselors, class teachers), student autonomous system (student union, associations, floor leaders), and external support system (enterprises, families, communities). these subsystems may originally operate independently and even have conflicting goals (such as administration pursuing efficiency and students pursuing individuality), thus causing "collaborative dilemmas". 3. current situation and collaborative dilemma analysis of private college students' participation in community governance despite continuous promotion at the policy level, private colleges still face multiple collaborative dilemmas in practice of students' participation in "one-stop" community governance, mainly reflected in the following four aspects: 3.1structural collaborative dilemma: institutional barriers and ambiguous rights and responsibilities the centralized decision-making in the governance structure of private colleges often places student participation in governance in a position of "post-event consultation" rather than "in-process co-construction". the student congress system often becomes a formality, lacking a normalized mechanism to transform student proposals into actual policies. various departments (such as logistics, student affairs, security) have clear responsibility boundaries but lack collaborative interfaces. when students encounter cross-departmental issues (such as dormitory network repair involving operators, logistics and network centers), they have no one to complain to or fall into the dilemma of "departmental buck-passing". this reflects the lack of a strong collaborative order parameter at the system structure level to integrate all parties. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 220 published by ideas spread 3.2 technical collaborative dilemma: information islands and data isolation although private colleges generally attach importance to information construction, business systems of various departments (such as academic management, dormitory management, payment systems) are often purchased independently with inconsistent standards, forming solid "data chimneys". students' behavior data, demand data and service data cannot be shared. for example, academic early warning information fails to link with psychological counseling systems, and application for community activity venues still requires offline stamping and running around. this not only causes low management efficiency, but also makes it difficult to achieve databased precision services and student demand insight, and the system cannot achieve efficient collaboration through information exchange. 3.3 subjective collaborative dilemma: weak participation and inadequate ability on one hand, there is a phenomenon of "uneven enthusiasm for participation" among students. most students are busy with their studies and employment and are indifferent to public affairs; a few student leaders are overburdened and fall into "transactionalism". on the other hand, schools lack a systematic capacity training system, and students are deficient in rules of procedure, project management, communication and coordination, making it difficult for them to put forward constructive opinions or conduct effective supervision even if they participate, resulting in significantly reduced participation quality. this reflects that the "self-organization" ability of the subsystem (student subject) has not been fully activated. 3.4 cultural collaborative dilemma: lack of trust and weak sense of community cultural construction in private colleges often focuses on "enrollment and employment" and "campus stability", with insufficient cultivation of a community culture of "sharing, co-governance and co-construction". management departments "distrust" students, fearing they will "cause trouble"; students "distrust" management departments, considering them "formalistic". this lack of trust leads to a fragile collaborative foundation. at the same time, students come from diverse backgrounds with high mobility, and their sense of belonging and identity to the school is generally weaker than that in public colleges, which further exacerbates the "free-rider" psychology and insufficient internal motivation to participate in community governance. 4. optimization strategies for private college students' participation in community governance: from the perspective of synergy theory in response to the above dilemmas, guided by synergy theory, this paper constructs the following "four-in-one" optimization strategy system: 4.1 improve collaborative governance system design and build a "one-core, multi-element" co-governance structure strengthen party building leadership and top-level design of the board of directors: give full play to the political core role of the party organization in private colleges, and elevate "student participation in governance" to the level of school development strategy. establish a "student community governance committee" under the board of directors, composed of school leaders, department heads and student representatives, as the highest coordinating and decision-making body, responsible for formulating the "charter for student participation in community governance" and clarifying the scope of participation, rights and responsibilities. improve institutionalized participation channels: strengthen the student congress system and establish a closedloop management process of "student proposals-department response-result announcement". at the community level, implement a grid-based autonomous system of "building leaders-floor leaders-dormitory leaders" and establish a "student affairs joint meeting" to allow student representatives to conduct face-to-face consultations with heads of logistics, security, academic affairs and other departments on a regular basis. establish a list of rights and responsibilities and process reengineering: sort out and publicize the list of rights and responsibilities of various departments in community affairs, and simplify cross-departmental business processes. implement the "first-question responsibility system" to eliminate prevarication. 4.2build a digital intelligent collaborative platform to break information barriers construct an integrated "smart community" platform: integrate data from academic affairs, logistics, student work, finance and other systems to create a unified app or mini-program portal. realize "one-click application for services, one-click information query, one-click complaint feedback", with all processes operating transparently online. use big data to achieve precise governance: by analyzing data such as student campus card consumption, access control and network usage, accurately identify groups of students in need, predict peak demand for community hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 221 published by ideas spread services, and realize intelligent push and dynamic allocation of resources (such as automatically sending safety reminders to students returning late, and pushing academic assistance information to students with learning difficulties). establish a digital evaluation and feedback mechanism: after each service is completed, the system automatically invites students to evaluate, and the data is collected and analyzed in real time, which is used as a basis for department assessment and service improvement, forming a digital closed loop of "demand-supply-feedbackoptimization". 4.3 implement "empowerment-incentive" dual drive to activate students' subject potential build a systematic training system: offer courses and workshops such as "student leadership training camp" and "community governance practice", with training content including project management, financial management, communication skills, policy analysis, etc., to comprehensively improve students' participation ability. design scientific incentive mechanisms: incorporate students' performance in participating in governance into the comprehensive quality evaluation system, linking it with awards, evaluations and recommendation for party membership. establish honors such as "community governance star" and "golden idea award", and explore incentive models that combine material and spiritual incentives such as "time bank" and "volunteer service points". give play to the peer leading role of student leaders: support and guide student autonomous organizations to carry out activities in accordance with laws and regulations, encourage them to undertake some community service projects (such as study room management, cultural and sports activity planning), exercise their abilities in practice, and form a demonstration effect. 4.4 cultivate collaborative culture and create a community spirit strengthen value guidance and community identity: through activities such as the first lesson of the new semester, community cultural festivals, and dormitory decoration competitions, publicize the concept of "my community, my responsibility" and enhance students' sense of belonging and ownership to the community. promote an open and transparent communication culture: regularly hold "principal's luncheon" and "department open day" to establish a regular communication mechanism between management and students. use public accounts and bulletin boards to timely disclose the decision-making process and results of major community issues to win students' trust. create an inclusive and trusting governance atmosphere: encourage trial and error and innovation, and give patient guidance rather than simple rejection to immature suggestions put forward by students. recognize active participants, disseminate successful cases, and make collaborative governance a new campus trend. 5. conclusion and outlook in the context of educational modernization and improved governance capacity, promoting students' in-depth participation in "one-stop" student community governance is not only an external need for private colleges to respond to policy requirements and improve service quality, but also an internal pursuit to stimulate endogenous motivation and build a characteristic education model. synergy theory provides us with a scientific perspective and methodology to solve the current collaborative dilemmas faced by private colleges. the optimization strategy system proposed in this paper aims to make systematic efforts from four dimensions: system, technology, subject and culture, promoting a profound transformation of private college student community governance from "single management" to "multi-subject collaboration", from "passive response" to "active participation", and from "experience-driven" to "data-driven". however, the effective implementation of these strategies still requires sponsors and managers of private colleges to practically change their concepts, truly regard students as equal governance partners, and continuously invest resources. future research can further explore: how private colleges of different sizes and development stages choose differentiated implementation paths? how to build a scientific evaluation index system for students' participation in governance effectiveness? and while digital technology empowers students, how to avoid data ethical risks? exploration of these issues will jointly promote the deepening and maturation of private college student community governance practice. references [1] pan, m. (2020). analysis of several issues in the reform and development of china's higher education. higher education research, 41(1), 1–7. [2] chen, b. (2022). solidly promote the construction of "one-stop" student communities in colleges and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 222 published by ideas spread universities to improve the quality of college education in the new era. china higher education, (z1), 4– 7. [3] ideological and political work department of the ministry of education. (2023). guidelines for the construction of "one-stop" student community integrated management model in colleges and universities. [4] bie, d., & zhang, z. (2021). the uniqueness and optimization path of the governance structure of private colleges in china. educational research, 42(5), 85–96. [5] lu, x. (2019). students' participation in university governance: value, dilemma and path. tsinghua journal of education, 40(3), 32–38. [6] xuan, y., & zhong, b. (2018). university collaborative governance: theoretical framework and action logic. educational research, 39(11), 58–65. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n3p101 101 published by ideas spread a case study on the revitalization of unused community space tianfu social innovation center miao shiyu1 1 institute of sociology, sichuan academy of social sciences, china correspondence: miao shiyu, institute of sociology, sichuan academy of social sciences,610500, china tel: 86187-2347-6502. e-mail: 2716116041@qq.com received: may 28, 2025; accepted: june 10, 2025; published: june 10, 2025 abstract this study focuses on the topic of revitalization of unused community space, and takes tianfu social creativity center in chengdu city as a case study to explore the path of revitalization and sustainable operation mode of old community space. the study adopts field survey and archival research methods to construct the analytical framework of "demand-oriented, multiple synergies, and sustainable operation" to analyze the transformation process from industrial heritage to public space. the study shows that through cultural implantation, resource integration and self-governance mechanism, the center enhances the cohesion of the community and the utilization rate of the space, and provides a dual-track practice sample of "cultural inheritance and functional regeneration" for the renewal of old communities in industrial transformation areas. keywords: unused community space, public space creation, sustainable community operation, residents' participation 1. problems as the "last kilometer" of grassroots governance, the enhancement of the community's governance capacity and service level is of great significance in facilitating the virtuous cycle of joint governance by multiple subjects and realizing good community governance. moreover, community space has the functions of artistic expression, cultural display, consumption experience and emotional exchange, and has gradually become a practical space and outwardly comfortable area to meet people's growing material and cultural needs. however, with china's modernization and industrial upgrading, many factories were eliminated or relocated during the construction period, and the old community spaces with factories as their core were abandoned or underutilized, becoming "frozen assets" of the community. the transformation of old community spaces and the revitalization of community resources have become important issues in urban community building. the purpose of this study is to explore the effective use of unused space in the community, and take tianfu social innovation center as an example to analyze its specific measures and effectiveness in revitalizing unused space. through the in-depth study of this case, it aims to provide useful reference and inspiration for the revitalization of idle space in other communities in china. 2. theoretical framework and research method 2.1 theory of community building the theory of community building aims to create an interpersonal community based on the settlement space, originated from the reorganization of mobile residents and the reconstruction of neighborhood relations during the period of industrialization in britain and the united states, and advocates the cultivation of the spirit of selfgovernment and mutual assistance among the community residents, so as to find a path of sustainable development of the community. currently, community building in china takes community empowerment as the main guide, and takes "publicity reconstruction" as the basic principle, "social production" as the core concept, and "multielement reorganization" as the construction path. it takes "publicity reengineering" as the basic principle, "social production" as the core concept, and "multi-element reorganization" as the construction path to form a "human" community in the community, and to strengthen the emotional significance and production capacity of the community space.community building focuses on the participation of residents and the cultivation of community identity, emphasizing the joint participation of community residents in community affairs, the exploration of community resources, and the creation of a community environment with a sense of belonging and identity. in the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 102 published by ideas spread process of revitalization of unused space, the practice guided by the theory of community building includes widely consulting residents, designing space functions according to residents' needs, and encouraging residents to participate in the construction and management of the space. 2.2 resource integration theory resource integration theory focuses on how to effectively integrate scattered and idle resources to achieve optimal allocation and efficient use of resources. in the revitalization of idle space in the community, it involves the integration of space resources, human resources, financial resources, information resources and other aspects. on the one hand, it is necessary to integrate unused land, houses and other spatial resources in the community, and make them play new functions through rational planning and transformation. on the other hand, it is necessary to integrate the resources of the government, enterprises, social organizations, residents and other diversified subjects, such as the government to provide policy support and financial subsidies, enterprises to invest in capital and technology, social organizations to provide professional services and experience in project operation , and residents to contribute human resources and creativity and so on. 2.3 theoretical framework construction combining the above theoretical kernels, the article constructs a three-in-one framework of "demand-oriented, multi-dimensional synergy and sustainable operation", including: starting from the actual needs of the community and determining the direction of revitalization by combining the characteristics of spatial endowment; integrating the resources of the government, social organizations, enterprises and other main bodies to form a synergistic governance network; ensuring the sustainability of spatial revitalization through the innovation of the operation mode and the output of continuous activities. through innovative operation mode and continuous activity output, the sustainability of space revitalization is guaranteed. the trinity framework takes demand orientation as the logical starting point, multiple synergies as the implementation path, and sustainable operation as the value goal, and provides a full chain methodological support for the revitalization of unused space in the community from "problem diagnosis-resource integration-long-lasting activation" through the integration of theories and the inter-construction of practices, and finally achieves the ultimate goal of revitalization. through the integration of theory and practice, the methodological support for the revitalization of unused community space is provided from "problem diagnosis-resource integration-long-term activation", and the multiple goals of spatial function reconstruction, community emotion cohesion and governance efficiency enhancement are finally realized. 2.4 research methods the research adopts a combination of fieldwork and archival research. in the fieldwork, a one-month participatory observation was conducted in the tianfu social innovation center to follow up on activities such as the "public space visiting action" workshop, record the dynamics of space use and the interaction patterns of residents, and conduct in-depth interviews with government staff, the head of the operation team, representatives of social organizations, and different types of residents, in order to obtain information on practices from a multi-subjective perspective. we also conducted in-depth interviews with government staff, heads of operation teams, representatives of social organizations, and different types of residents to obtain information about the practice from multiple perspectives. the archival research focuses on two types of data, namely policy documents such as the chengdu urban and rural community development and governance master plan, which clarifies the policy direction of "revitalizing unused space", and the internal archives of the tianfu social innovation center, which extracts the functional positioning and operational data to ensure the authenticity and validity of the data. 3. overview of the tianfu social innovation center case 3.1 project background tianfu social innovation center is located at no. 3, south construction road, chenghua district, chengdu, which was formerly an old factory building of the state-run hongguang electronic tube factory in chengdu, and was later transformed into a service center for the chengdu federation of trade unions and social organizations of groups and associations. however, as a typical traditional administrative space, the service center was unable to meet the demand for connection between residents and failed to fulfill its vitality as a public space for citizens. so in 2021, under the planning and construction guidance of the chengdu municipal committee of social governance, the municipal federation of trade unions, the municipal civil affairs bureau, the municipal youth league, the municipal women's federation, and the chenghua district committee of social governance, the planning and design of the spatial renewal was initiated. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 103 published by ideas spread at present, tianfu social innovation center includes the open sports space in the square, the innovative learning experience space for citizens on the first floor, the innovative r&d and cultivation center for social organizations on the second floor, and the innovative brand expansion center for social services on the third floor, which is a social innovation support center and public space for citizens undertaken by a professional public space operation social enterprise and operated in conjunction with a number of social organizations. in terms of scale and spatial characteristics, the former state-owned hongguang electronic tube factory in chengdu, covering an area of about 3,000 square meters, covers industrial heritage, administrative space and other composite attributes, and after transformation, it forms a three-dimensional functional system of "plaza open sports space + citizens' innovative learning and experience space + social organization cultivation center", which is a typical community space for transformation of large-scale industrial heritage in a mega-city. it is a typical sample of transformation of large-scale industrial heritage into community space in a mega-city. in terms of innovative features, the center pioneered the model of "government guidance + social enterprise operation + synergy of multiple subjects", such as launching the public space visiting action by linking with the social governance committee of the chenghua district, introducing social enterprises such as "42 good tao" to form a convenient living circle, and building the "party building-led grass-roots governance" model. it has also built a digital platform called "party building-led grassroots governance resource bank", which breaks through the limitations of the traditional community space led by the government and provides a replicable governance paradigm for the revitalization of unused space. in terms of urban representation, the project is located in chengdu's chenghua district, a typical industrial transformation area, and faces multiple challenges such as industrial heritage protection, upgrading of aging community services, and activation of the cultural needs of young people, etc. in the process of renovation, it integrates the "red-brick industrial memory" regional symbols and the "park city" regional symbols with the "park city" regional symbols. the integration of "red-brick industrial memory" regional symbols and "park city" construction concept during the transformation process not only echoes the demand for renewal of the old industrial base in chengdu-chongqing area, but also provides a dual-track development reference of "industrial civilization inheritance and community function regeneration" for the same kind of cities around the world, which has a general research value in the transition period of the city. 3.2 implementation process 3.2.1 public space creation scene as a way of spatial links, through the integration of functions in the superposition of space to achieve the creation of cross-border space, "culture" as the leading, the rest of the additional dilute the rigidity of the administrative community, the formation of "intention" of the soft space. tianfu social innovation center takes "social innovation" and "sustainable development" as its core values, and uses "red bricks", "trains" and "terrazzo" in the renovation process. red bricks", "trains", "terrazzo" and other creative elements with a sense of industry are used in the renovation process to restore residents' memories of the old factory buildings and increase their affinity for the local space. 3.2.2 attracting community residents through differentiated creation cultural elements can also produce different scenes through different combinations, and attract different groups to come to live, live and consume practices. the plaza establishes themed community restaurants, teahouses, etc. so that people can sit down, and sets up an outdoor performance stage, retains sports facilities such as basketball courts, and combines with the landscape of the neighboring parks to form the entrance to the citizens' living scene. the first floor will be built into a four-level "living scene laboratory", but its specific expression is the citizens' innovative learning experience space: open self-study, book reading (learning scene), parent-child learning (family scene), yoga (sports scene), hidden disabled life scene, elderly life scene, etc. they are not independent labels, but hidden in the park. they are not independent labeled spaces, but are hidden in the entire first floor of the civic center. at the same time, tianfu social innovation center conducts interviews with the surrounding residents during the renovation process, to understand the local social and historical changes and the inner voices of the old generation of laid-off workers on the one hand, and to understand the real living conditions of the local young people and their sincere suggestions for the park city on the other hand, and to accommodate the needs of the residents in the design and to attract the participation of the main body of citizens. 3.2.3 coordinate the layout of greening and functions theories related to urban community planning suggest that large green environments, compact community neighborhoods, and sufficient square areas play an important role in the livability of urban communities.in the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 104 published by ideas spread early 1990s, new urbanism argued that modern community planning is to reconstruct a compact neighborhood community with traditional cultural spirit, making the community a public space with diverse functions. in the renovation design of tianfu social innovation center, the theme of "park" is used to connect the greenery with the surrounding parks to form a large-scale and effective greenway. the height of the building is controlled to preserve the blue sky, and functional areas such as sports fields, cafeterias, theaters and libraries are concentrated around or within the building to form a compact and multi-functional public space. 3.2.4 cross-domain resource integration for scenes tianfu social innovation center is not only a scene of citizens' life, but also accesses the government's public policy agenda, functioning many times as a place to visit and host meetings. tianfu social innovation center also integrates various social organizations to form community canteens, community second-hand supermarkets, community cafes, bookstores and other scenes. for example, the "home tou tou" public service restaurant is stationed in the contracted community canteens and senior meal sites, which is not only open to all residents, but also provides meal subsidies to seniors over 65 years old and door-to-door meal delivery service for seniors with life difficulties. "42shantao opened its first store in chengdu at the tianfu social innovation center, providing recycling and low-cost exchange services for unused items. neighboring residents often come to the store to participate in fundraising activities, shop for low-priced household items, and engage in volunteer activities, making it a place for neighborhood residents to engage in activities and emotional links. through the integration of social organizations providing different services, the tianfu social innovation center forms a convenient community living circle with the tianfu social innovation center as the center of the circle, radiating the residents of the surrounding districts. 4. analysis of sustainable community operation using tianfu social innovation center as a case study tianfu social innovation center makes full use of the abandoned factories and open spaces in the community. through rational planning and design, it transforms these spaces into community centers with multi-functional uses, and attracts the participation of residents by organizing a variety of community activities and cultural exchanges, which enhances the cohesion and vitality of the community. however, merely transforming the venues and attracting residents' participation cannot achieve sustainable community development. sustainable community operation is an important initiative to improve the capacity of government services, public services and property services. in the current community governance in chengdu, there are problems such as the government and society are not in place, the function of self-government is not sufficient, the participation of social forces is insufficient, the interaction between the government and society is not smooth, and the sense of professional identity of community workers is low. the sustainable development of the community needs to be tailored to the local conditions, to create community characteristics, to tap the community culture and community temperament, and to revitalize and upgrade the community model. only the vitality stimulated from within the community can support the long-term sustainable development of the community. combining the above issues, this section explores the path of sustainable community answer development from the tianfu social innovation center organization itself and related service products. 4.1 demand-oriented: accurately capturing residents' demands and spatial pain points 4.1.1 in-depth excavation of residents' demands for industrial buildings and old neighborhoods in chenghua district, we launched the "public space visiting action" jointly with the social governance committee of chenghua district, formed a team of experts from both inside and outside the province to go into five communities, and collected residents' real demands through household interviews and on-site observation based on the principle of "governance by faith". based on the principle of "faith-based governance", the team collected residents' real demands through household interviews and on-site observation, and found high-frequency problems such as chaotic parking management, lack of control over unauthorized building works, and aging infrastructure. 4.1.2 spatial functional targeting based on the dual considerations of industrial heritage protection and community service gaps, the former hongguang electronic tube factory is positioned as an "industrial cultural memory carrier + all-age public service hub", focusing on solving the problems of intergenerational cultural faults (e.g., demand for the inheritance of industrial memories by old workers) and fragmentation of public services (e.g., insufficient space for elderly activities and child-friendly facilities). compound function modules such as cultural display, convenient services and social enterprise incubation are planned. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 105 published by ideas spread 4.2 multi-dimensional synergy: building a network of government, society, enterprise and people's common governance 4.2.1 division of labor and coordination among governance entities government coordination. relying on chengdu's policy support, the social governance committee of the municipal party committee coordinates the allocation of sites and special funds, while the chenghua district government is responsible for supervision and evaluation, stripping away administrative intervention and strengthening the role of "policy provider". enterprise empowerment. enterprises such as china resources land are introduced to undertake lightweight transformation of the space (e.g. construction of the children's sports corner), and social capitals such as the ant cloud customer service and the alibaba foundation are linked to activate the resource cycle through the model of "public welfare venture capital + commercial operation" (e.g. the five social services for the elderly project). social organization operation. local ngos are commissioned to take the lead in operation, incubate brand projects such as "intergenerational question and answer" and "little master of the city series of actions", and cultivate community self-organization, giving full play to the advantages of professional services and residents' mobilization. resident autonomy. establishing a mechanism of "demand negotiation and proposal decision-making", whereby residents directly intervene in spatial planning through visits and participatory design, for example, by voting on design proposals for the renovation of ageing-appropriate facilities, to strengthen the sense of "space owner". awareness of "space owner" is strengthened. 4.2.2 resource integration and platform building online, the "chengdu party building-led grassroots governance resource bank" small program was launched, integrating 600+ case banks, 400+ talent banks and 200+ social innovation product banks to open up supply and demand docking channels; offline, it hosted the "supply and demand matchmaking meeting for reducing and classifying domestic waste", which attracted 22 towns (streets) to participate in the meeting, and attracted more than 1,000 participants. offline, we hosted the "supply and demand matchmaking meeting on classification of domestic waste reduction", which attracted the participation of 22 towns (streets) and 14 organizations, and facilitated the cooperation of 8 projects, thus realizing the accurate matching of policy resources, social capital and community needs. 4.3 continuous operation: activating scene value and long-term mechanisms 4.3.1 scenario-based operation to enhance stickiness cultural scenes. create an "industrial time corridor" and turn the space into a carrier for intergenerational dialog through activities such as old photo exhibitions and employee skills experience, such as the "intergenerational quiz" activity, which facilitates the exchange of values between young and old employees and bridges the age gap. all-age service scenarios. we have developed an age-friendly community building manual, covering areas such as elderly care and child-friendly services, and opened intergenerational shared kitchens and parent-child creativity spaces to improve space utilization through time-sharing and reuse. festive consumption scenarios. combined with the may 4 youth day and other festivals, a "sustainable goods" bazaar will be held, linking community commerce and the cultural and creative industry, transforming cultural narratives into consumption experiences, and enhancing the attractiveness of the space and its ability to create its own blood. 4.3.2 long-term mechanisms to ensure sustainability self-governance mechanism. set up an "operation management committee" composed of residents, social organizations and enterprise representatives, formulate a "space use convention", and incorporate 30% of the commercial proceeds (e.g., from leasing the space) into the community micro-fund, which will be used for facility maintenance and activities, forming a "business for the public" mechanism. closed loop. dynamic monitoring and iteration. through the intelligent system, we collect data on people flow and activity participation to adjust the service content (e.g., adding nighttime yoga classes to respond to youth demand), and cooperate with universities to establish "social innovation practice bases" to continuously export community governance experience and promote the extension of the value of the space to the field of social innovation. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 106 published by ideas spread 5. summary and discussion 5.1 case summary tianfu social innovation center has successfully created a multi-functional community center by effectively utilizing unused space in the community. formerly an old factory building of the state-run hongguang electronic tube factory in chengdu, the center has been transformed into a public space integrating exercise, learning, innovation and socialization. through measures such as public space creation, differentiation to attract community residents, and a coordinated layout of greenery and functions, the tianfu social innovation center not only improves the quality of life of residents, but also strengthens the cohesion and vitality of the community. in the process of implementation, tianfu social innovation center focuses on the integration of cultural elements and the differentiated creation of scenarios, successfully attracting the participation of different groups. for example, the establishment of themed community restaurants and teahouses in the plaza, and the preservation of outdoor performance stages and sports facilities form the entrance to the citizens' living scenes. in addition, the center coordinates the layout of greenery and functions to form a large-scale and effective greenway, further enhancing the livability of the community. in terms of sustainable community operation, the tianfu social innovation center promotes sustainable community development by building an information platform, leveraging resident participation, developing community social enterprises, and researching and developing community service products. for example, through the "chengdu party building-led grassroots governance resource bank" wechat app, it provides professional consulting services on community development and governance and social organization cultivation. at the same time, the center has hosted several supply and demand matching sessions, promoting the participation of all parties in community governance. in terms of tapping into the vitality of the community, through a series of innovative initiatives and activities, the tianfu social innovation center has not only strengthened community cohesion, but also empowered new kinetic energy for community development. its effect is not only reflected in the reuse of space and the diversification of functions, but also in the fact that through various activities and initiatives, it has stimulated the enthusiasm of community residents to participate, enhanced the community's self-development capacity, and laid a solid foundation for the sustainable development of the community. overall, the revitalization of tianfu social innovation center has a remarkable effect, not only enhancing the space utilization rate of the community, but also promoting the virtuous cycle of community governance, providing useful reference and inspiration for the revitalization of unused space in other communities. 5.2 future research directions future research can deepen the exploration of the revitalization of unused space in communities from the following dimensions: first, carry out cross-regional comparative research, select industrial transformation communities with different stages of urban development and cultural backgrounds (e.g., wuhan hanyang iron factory area, shenyang tiexi industrial zone), compare and analyze the differences in their spatial revitalization paths and governance modes, and distill differentiated strategies for mega-cities, industrial old cities, and emerging urban areas, to further improve the we have refined differentiated strategies suitable for mega-cities, old industrial cities and new urban areas, and further improved the universality of the framework of "demand-oriented, multidimensional synergy, and sustainable operation". secondly, focusing on long-term effect assessment, through tracking and researching cases such as tianfu social innovation center, we have established a dynamic assessment system that includes indicators such as space utilization rate, resident participation, community economic gain, and social capital increment, etc., so as to quantitatively analyze the long-term effect of revitalization of unused space on community resilience enhancement, and to solve the short-term effect dilemma of "one-time renovation". in addition, we will deepen the research on technology empowerment. in addition, we will deepen the research on technology empowerment, explore the application of blockchain in community resource traceability, smart contract in multi-party collaboration, and the practice of vr/ar technology in industrial heritage scene reproduction, so as to provide technical paths for reference in the construction of "digital twin community". finally, combined with the demand for policy innovation, we put forward the policy proposal of "local legislation pilot financial subsidy mechanism community self-governance charter" to address the system bottlenecks of property rights division, revenue distribution, and cross-sectoral coordination in the space renovation, so as to promote the transformation of the revitalization of unused space from individual case experience to standardized governance tools, and provide a replicable institutional template for the national old community renewal. it 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(2014). research on the spatial renovation of old communities in chongqing city under the original unit system in the context of urban renewal [master's thesis, sichuan agricultural university]. retrieved from https://kns.cnki.net/kcms2/article/abstract?v=4hx-653ltvlo9mpdz95odjwuv_omtciyippz9osbhiqaur j1l9ybv5lwz0jhtqdsri9la6ifzle5bf-aqx9anxe_ewoska4etxixdlrnrmuekhorejlbuw==&unipla tform=nzkpt&language=gb copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v2n4p58 58 published by ideas spread chinese-foreign dual degree education programs: problems and developments xiaoyu luo1 1 hunan university of technology and business, china correspondence: xiaoyu luo, associate professor, hunan university of technology and business, no.569, yuelu road. china. tel: 0086-180-7320-5888. e-mail: cathyluo1981 gmail.com received: november 1, 2019; accepted: november 27, 2019; published: november 30, 2019 abstract this study researches the current status, problems, and development countermeasures of chinese-foreign dual degree programs in chinese higher education by using microsoft excel and geographic system information (gis) software, including their types of degree, geographical distribution, and collaborative partners. the result shows a reasonable reginal distribution of chinese-foreign dual degree program in higher education is a strong guarantee to promote the coordinated development of higher education. how to establish a common quality guarantee system and make the cooperation certificate-oriented is also need to further research. keywords: dual degree program, current status, problem and development 1. introduction since china joined the world trade organization (wto) and the chinese government implemented policy of reforms and opening-up, china’s economy has rapidly developed with globalization, china’s education is also growing in this process of internationalization. more and more cooperative educational programs and cofounded institutions between china and foreign countries have been established in the past 30 years. chinese government and policymakers have realized the enhancement of international cooperation and communication will be extremely helpful to improve the quality and level of universities in china. chinese-foreign cooperative education is inevitable due to fierce international competition of universities and economic globalization. chinese-foreign cooperative education has appeared in various forms, including exchange students between universities, dual degree programs, chinese-foreign joint educational programs, running educational institutions abroad, establishing confucius institutions and chinese-foreign cooperatively-run institutions and programs. it is undisputed that chinese-foreign cooperative education is an important form which adapts to the development of current higher education and strengthens exchange and cooperation in international education. according to the statistics website of the chinese ministry of education (2016), there are currently 2411 chineseforeign cooperative education institutions and programs officially approved in china (statistics of cooperative education in china, 2016). a considerable number of which are dual degree programs between chinese and foreign higher education. since 1995 to 2011, there are 126 programs are approved by chinese ministry of education, the number of dual programs is growing very fast (statistics of cooperative education in china, 2016). figure 1. the developing trend of dual degree programs in china hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 59 published by ideas spread note: adapted from “study of current of double degree programs run jointly by chinese and foreign higher education,” by zhang, & liu, , 2013, journal of graduate education, vol 5, no.5, p21, in chinese. from figure 1, it is evident that the numbers of dual programs is growing very fast, especially in recent years. therefore, this paper will discuss and research the current situation, problems, and development countermeasures of dual degree programs in chinese higher education by using geographic system information (gis) software. dual degree program, also called a double degree program, involves a student can work towards two degrees. it can be a combination of two bachelor’s degrees, a bachelor’s and a master’s degree, or two graduate degrees. 2. literature review the first concept of “cooperation running schools” was explicitly put forward in 1993 (zhang, 2009). in february of that year, the chinese communist party central committee and the state council issued the regulation of “outline for education reform and development in china”, which is the first time to propose “international cooperation in running schools within the existing framework of laws and regulations” (state council, 1993, p.3). in the previous year, chinese-foreign cooperative education developed rapidly in china, there are different forms of cooperative education institute and program have been emerged in large numbers, especially after joining wto. chinese scholar tan (1994) first mentioned specific ideas about chinese-foreign cooperative education in his journal; however, it was a limited introduction of this new type of education new in china. in 1996, wang and his collages published a specialized paper titled “pattern research for chinese-foreign cooperative education”. in the authors’ paper, the policy of chinese-foreign cooperative education was described in detail and patterns were outlined. however, the paper briefly discussed some issues without further explanation (wang, hu, wang, & wu, 1996). since then, with the development of chinese-foreign cooperative education, further journals and articles have been published about this education around the world. the research topics mostly focused on some areas, such as pattern research, challenges and difficulties, development and even police analysis from whole of this education system perspective. for instants, zhang (2009) analyzed the history of development of policy of sinoforeign cooperation. adams and song (2009) identified the key development in china-foreign cooperation in higher education in terms of policy initiatives and legal frameworks and to highlight the main challenges for the sector in the future. to be one form of china-foreign cooperation in china, the dual degree program between chinese and foreign higher education plays an important role. it is found that supranational organizations, national governments, and higher education instructions are the main acting subjects who participate in the development of the dual degree programs (zhang, 2013). “a double degree program awards two individual qualifications at equivalent levels upon completion of the collaborative program requirements established by the two partner institutions” (knight, 2011, p135). knight (2011) provided a microscopic analysis of the doubts and dilemmas with double degree program in last five years using a global perspective. knight (2011) further highlighted the uncertainty related to quality assurance and qualifications recognition, and referred to ethics involved among operative program. culver and his colleagues (2012) analyzed the strengths and weakness of dual degree programs at the graduate level in engineering. lin and liu (2012) presents the quality construction of chinese-foreign cooperation in school running, and specifically mentions dual degree programs between chinese and foreign university in china, but only figured out the policy of assessing quality from administrator perspective. the scholars introduce the international dual degree programs among the different countries and researches the policies of them (moulton, 2011; obst, kuder & banks, 2011; zhang, 2009), some scholars emphasized the quality assurance under the policy (huang& zhang, 2008; ye, 2012). but most of all are rarely analyzed the dual degree programs between chinese-foreign higher education in empirical research, especially there is no studies have applied gis research that. gis is widely used in applications in different areas but no education field. such as gis applications in archaeology (obst, kuder, & banks. 2011), gis applications in geotechnical engineering (singh, noor, chitra, gupta & vel, 2015), gis applications in agriculture (young, pierce, & clay, 2008), and so on. in additional, gis applications is used by geographic research and computer application (amin, iqbal,, hussain, iqbal, & saleem, 2016; chang, & park, 2006; tomic, 2014) it is still in exploring stage in chinese education. 3. research question this paper will research the current situation, problems, and development countermeasures of dual degree programs between chinese and foreign higher education by using microsoft excel and gis software. specifically, the following three research questions guided the study: a) overall, how many chinese-foreign cooperative education institutes and programs nowadays in china, and how many levels are they in chinese higher education? hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 60 published by ideas spread b) what is the distribution of dual degree programs currently in chinese higher education and which countries are their partners’ countries? and c) whether distribution balance is reasonable or not? 4. method the purpose of this study was to research the current situation, problems, and development countermeasures of dual degree programs between chinese and foreign higher education. a descriptive research design was implemented in this study. this chapter contains three sections that will address the research design, methods of study, and the analysis of data. section one: research design provides a description of chinese-foreign cooperative education in china, especially a description of dual degree programs in chinese higher education by using microsoft excel and gis software. section two: methods of study consists of a description of the data sources and the data collection procedures. section three: analysis of data describes the procedures for testing the statistical analysis of data collected. 4.1 research design a descriptive research design, which uses microsoft excel and geography system information (gis) to describe or analyze the current situation, problem and development countermeasures of dual degree programs between chinese and foreign higher education, was utilized in this study. according to gall, borg, and gall (1996), descriptive research “involves shaping descriptions about educational phenomena” (p.374). this includes not only describing the phenomena, but also providing the development countermeasures. 4.2 method of study data sources: the data for this study is secondary data which published on the website of chinese ministry of education and literature. data collection: much of this data collection was carried out from the year of annual statement about chineseforeign cooperative education on the website of chinese ministry of education, a few of the data was from literature review but also was confirmed in the website of chinese ministry of education by manual word account. it has a total of three data tables for this study formatted in microsoft excel. the first data table lists distribution of chinese-foreign dual degree programs in chinese higher education, which describes the number of dual degree programs among each of provinces in china. the second data table lists distribution of chinese-foreign cooperative education, which has eight fields for each of provinces in china including the following: the earliest chinese-foreign cooperative education start year, the numbers of chinese-foreign cooperative education institutes in undergraduate level, the number of chinese-foreign cooperative education institutes in undergraduate level with the status of an independent legal entity, the numbers of chinese-foreign cooperative education institutes in postgraduate level, the numbers of chinese-foreign cooperative education institutes in postgraduate level with the status of an independent legal entity, the numbers of chinese-foreign cooperative education programs in undergraduate level, the numbers of chinese-foreign cooperative education programs in postgraduate level, and the numbers of chinese universities and colleges involved. the third data table lists the distribution of the numbers and names of partner countries for chinese-foreign dual degree program. 4.3 analysis of data statistical methods used to interpret the data were descriptive statistics that included characteristics of the data and inferential statistics that included correlation. in order to describe or analyze clearly the current situation, problem and development countermeasures of dual degree programs between chinese and foreign higher education, data analysis is conducted by using gis software arcgis. gis can improve organizational integration, and code information, then, when using gis software transfer information to data, it reveals relationships of different elements easily. for this study, the forms of patterns and maps for results can visually show the answers of questions and problems. therefore, this study can provide references for chinese universities who is going to apply or manage dual degree program, it also can help policy maker in china to make sense the current situation. 5. result descriptive statistical results. figure 2 provides distribution of chinese-foreign cooperative institutes in chinese higher education. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 61 published by ideas spread figure 2. chinese-foreign cooperative institutes in chinese higher education source: collecting the data of chinese-foreign cooperative institutes in chinese higher education according to each provinces and autonomous regions from the website of chinese ministry of education. adopting from http://www.crs.jsj.edu.cn/index.php/default/index/sort/1006 the result shows that, there are a total of 66 cooperative education institutes at undergraduate level and 29 cooperative education institutes at postgraduate level between chinese and foreign higher education. the cooperative education institutes are widely distributed in the south, east and north area in china. there are 14 province has no any cooperative education institutes, especially in the west, which included hainan, fujian, jiangxi, anhui, heilongjiang, guangxi, yunnan, guizhou, gansu, neimeng, xinjiang, xizang, ningxia, qinghai. figure 3 provides distribution of chinese-foreign cooperative programs in chinese higher education. figure 3. chinese-foreign cooperative programs in chinese higher education source: collecting the data of chinese-foreign cooperative programs in chinese higher education according to each provinces and autonomous regions from the website of chinese ministry of education. adopting from http://www.crs.jsj.edu.cn/index.php/default/index/sort/1006 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 62 published by ideas spread the result shows that, there are a total of 912 cooperative education programs at undergraduate level and 206 cooperative education programs at postgraduate level between chinese and foreign higher education. the cooperative education institutes are widely distributed in the south, east and north area in china. there are 3 province has no any cooperative education programs, which included xizang, ningxia, qinghai. as it was mentioned before, chinese-foreign cooperative education has appeared in various forms, including exchange students between universities, dual degree programs, chinese-foreign joint educational programs, running educational institutions abroad, establishing confucius institutions and chinese-foreign cooperatively-run institutions and programs. this study focuses on dual degree programs, therefore, the figure 4 presents the distribution of dual degree programs between in china. figure 4. distribution of dual degree programs between in china source: collecting the data of dual degree programs in china according to each provinces and autonomous regions from the website of chinese ministry of education. adopting from http://www.crs.jsj.edu.cn/index.php/default/index/sort/1006 the result shows that, there are a total of 88 dual degree programs in chinese higher education from 20 provinces and municipalities. most of them distributed in the eastern provinces off the coast and biggest municipalities. among then, there are 23 dual degree programs in jiangsu, 16 in shanghai, 15 in beijing and 13 in jilin. there are night provinces without higher education dual degree programs, which includ xizang, ningxia, qinghai, gansu, guizhou, guangxi, hainan, anhui, and chongqing. figure 5 presented the distribution of partner countries for chinese-foreign dual degree program. figure 5. partner countries for chinese-foreign dual degree program hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 63 published by ideas spread source: collecting the data of distribution of partner countries for chinese-foreign dual degree programs all over the world according to each provinces and autonomous regions from the website of chinese ministry of education. adopting from http://www.crs.jsj.edu.cn/index.php/default/index/sort/1006 the result shows that, there are 9 countries built up the relationship with china for dual degree programs. most of them are distributed in north america, europe and oceania. fig. 6 figured out the numbers of partner countries for chinese-foreign dual degree program. figure 6. partner countries for chinese-foreign dual degree program source: collecting the data of the numbers of partner countries for chinese-foreign dual degree programs all over the world according to each provinces and autonomous regions from the website of chinese ministry of education. adopting from http://www.crs.jsj.edu.cn/index.php/default/index/sort/1006 the result shows that, from these 9 countries which built up the relationship with china for dual degree programs, the highest numbers of rank 3 for partner countries are australia, the united states of america, and united kingdom. the numbers of dual degree programs in these countries are: 30 in australia, 25 in united states of america, 25 in united kingdom, 7 in france, 6 in ireland, 6 in canada, 6 in germany, 5 in new zealand, and 4 in south korea. 6. discussion the first research question attempted to determine the current situation of chinese-foreign cooperative education institutes and programs in china and the also figure out the problem for distribution. the results of figures indicate that there has a significant unbalanced distribution for chinese-foreign cooperative education institutes and programs both in undergraduate level and in post graduate level. this unbalanced distribution also shows the problem of unbalanced development of chinese-foreign cooperative education in the economically developed areas and backward areas is very serious in china. according to zhang (2009), there are some problems in backward areas in china, such as inadequate input funds, sever education debt and unbalanced development. therefore, that is not only unbalanced development for chinese-foreign education in china, but also is a problem for unbalanced development of education between economically developed areas and backward areas in china. in the other words, the problem about the unbalanced development of regional higher education has existed for many years since the establishment of higher education in china, that lead to unbalanced development for chineseforeign cooperative education in china nowadays. besides that, the cooperative education between china and foreign countries in higher education focused less on the graduate level and more on undergraduate level. that limitation will influent the development of chineseforeign cooperative education in china, and also cannot be a long-term basis for fruitful partnerships between chinese and foreign higher education. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 64 published by ideas spread by influence by chinese-foreign cooperative education in china, the unbalanced distribution for dual degree program is more prominent. for this reason, it is easy to find out the answer for second research question that the distribution of dual degree program is similar with the distribution of chinese-foreign cooperative education in china, there is a huge gaps between east and west areas for dual degree program in china from the result shows. most of them distributed in the eastern provinces off the coast and biggest municipalities. the input of the education finance is not only one element for building up the dual degree program in china, the dual degree program generally have biggish uncertainty, and are always influenced greatly by the police. the third research question focus on the collaborative partners for dual degree programs in china. the result shows most of the chinese universities built up the cooperative education with foreign universities, which international dual degree programs distributed mostly in english-speaking countries, such as united kingdom, united state of america and australia. the present study was limited in the following three ways. first, policy in china is subject to change from time to time and may not be announced in advance. that makes dual degree program more difficult to approve by chinese government. and the collaborative partners also have policies and mechanisms for cooperative education with international dual degree program. for this reason, one the limitation of this study is what policies (both china and foreign countries polices) affect the dual degree program? and how the policies influent the distribution of dual degree programs in china? second, besides of policy limitation, the quality of university for both chinese and partner universities is also a problem for the limitation of this study. from the result of this study, the data only indicated the distribution of the partner’s countries, there has no more details for partner universities, such as size of partner universities, education quality of partner universities and so on. from the fig.3. chinese-foreign cooperative programs in chinese higher education, it is not hard to find out the chinese-foreign cooperative education is set up more in the undergraduate level, it has less in the graduate level for cooperation. however, with the development of society, it is crying for all-round postgraduates who have a sound academic basis and high quality, adaptable to various jobs and requirements. but the chinese-foreign dual degree program offers the opportunity to create this advantages. therefore, it is necessary to further research for the reasons of this phenomenon in order to promote more change to develop cooperative education between china and foreign countries in postgraduate level in high education. third, studying the problems for education should be evaluate from different facets, such as instructional practice and curriculum, student learning and so on. the limitation of this study only mentioned the problems existed current status, which focused on the unbalanced distribution of chinese-foreign dual degree programs in chinese higher education and low educational level for cooperation. 7. conclusion the data within the study outlines that chinese-foreign dual degree program in chinese higher education is developing rapidly at present. the unbalanced distribution and low educational level for this cooperative program is the bottleneck for the development of higher education finally. therefore, the development of chinese-foreign dual degree program in china has shifted from pursuing scale and number expansion to improving quality. therefore, it is better to manage and control the level, the region and the disciplines of chinese-foreign dual degree programs in chinese higher education. in recent years, there have higher requirement from chinese universities and also foreign universities for establishing chinese-foreign dual degree program. both of chinese and foreign partners are pursuing the financial achievement and ignored the long-term development for this program. for this reason, it needs to have at the center of any agreement the interests of the students and of the reputation of both chinese and foreign partner universities. and it also should be changed from student mobility to improving capacity of discipline construction. however, it should regulate and manage the process of cooperation by means of reasonable evaluation for chinese-foreign dual degree program in higher education. in conclusion, a reasonable regional distribution of chinese-foreign dual degree program in higher education is a strong guarantee to promote the coordinated development of higher education. how to establish a common quality guarantee system and make the cooperation certificate-oriented is also needed to further research. acknowledgments this work was supported by the hunan province education scientific research project grant xjt(2019)no.291(724), the hunan province education scientific research project grant no. 15b058 and science fund of hunan province no. 16wlh07. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 65 published by ideas spread references adams, j., & song, h. 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(2009). the construction and operation of chinese-foreign cooperation in running schools system. beijing, higher education press. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 4; 2019 66 published by ideas spread notes on contributor xiaoyu luo is associate professor at hunan university of technology and business, china. she owns her ph.d. in niagara university, usa and master degree in brunel university, uk. her research interests center on english education in higher education, linguistic economics and quantitative research. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n2p49 49 published by ideas spread study on the development dilemma of prefabricated vegetable industry and the path of legal regulation yang huikang1, chen xiaoye2, shen xiangyu3, xia lifang3 & wang qi3 1 law school, university of glasgow, glasgow, kingdom united 2 school of intellectual property, east china university of political science and law, shanghai, china 3 school of law, qufu normal university, rizhao, china correspondence: chen xiaoye, school of intellectual property, east china university of political science and law, shanghai, china. received: march 8, 2025; accepted: march 29, 2025; published: march 31, 2025 abstract food safety public opinion in the prepared vegetable industry has a negative impact on the development of the industry. the lack of industry as well as school lunch standards, the absence of industry self-regulation, the inadequacy of the regulatory system and the low transparency of information are the deep-seated reasons for the outbreak of negative public opinion in the prepared vegetable industry. the healthy development of the prepared vegetable industry requires the joint efforts of many parties. the systematic construction of the standard system is an important prerequisite for the orderly development of the prepared vegetable industry; the real performance of industry self-regulation is the internal incentive for the development of the prepared vegetable industry; the improvement and perfection of regulatory measures and early warning mechanism is the external guarantee for the development of the prepared vegetable industry; and the effective disclosure of product information can help to increase the participation rate of the public in supervision, which will in turn stimulate the effective implementation of the industry self-regulation and the governmental supervision, and realise the pluralistic and common governance of the prepared vegetable industry. the effective disclosure of product information can help improve the participation rate of public supervision, which in turn can stimulate the effective implementation of industry self-regulation and government supervision, and realise the multi-dimensional governance of the prepared vegetable industry. keywords: prefabricated vegetables, standard construction, industry self-regulation, public traceability 1. introduction prepared food refers to agricultural, livestock, poultry and aquatic products as raw materials, with a variety of auxiliary materials for pre-processing or pre-cooking of finished or semi-finished products, packaged in room temperature, refrigerated or frozen conditions for storage, transport and sale, can be consumed directly or after simple cooking, as a daily meal to eat [1]. its time-saving and convenient features make many consumers tend to choose prepared food products under the fast-paced lifestyle [2], and its standardised meal preparation mode is also in line with the demand for campus lunch meals, so there is a huge potential for development of the related market [3]. however, because the industrial chain of prepared dishes is more complex than the general food processing chain, and the product radiation range is wider, it is easy to appear larger food safety incidents (in saitama prefecture, japan, 3,453 students and teachers from 15 elementary and middle schools suffered from abdominal pain and diarrhoea after eating a lunch of prepared food consisting of fried chicken and seaweed provided by the city's "eastern food service centre". see also 3,400 people suffered from food poisoning at the school's food service, and three people from the food service industry were sent to the hospital for testing...water is used for the treatment of seaweed, which is a pathogen of coliform bacteria[n/ol]. yomiuri news. (2023-0106)[2023-10-20]https://www.yomiuri.co.jp/national/20230106-oyt1) , triggering negative public opinion at the social level, affecting the long-term development of the industry, so in order to safeguard the public's food health and safety, this paper intends to explore the current development of the prepared dish industry in china encountered difficulties and solutions. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 50 published by ideas spread 2. current development dilemma of the prepared vegetable industry prefabricated vegetable industry in china is in a good position in the early stage. as a typical paradigm of industrial integration, the prepared food industry has received policy support from shandong province[4] and guangdong province[5] in recent years, and the no.1 document of the central government in 2023 also pointed out that it should "cultivate and develop the prepared food industry"[6]. its convenience and diversity[7] have indeed attracted many consumers. according to a survey of 1,452 consumers(the survey team took a sampling approach and randomly sent out 2,000 questionnaires on the development of the prepared vegetable industry, with a total of 1,452 valid questionnaires returned.), 96.76% have purchased prepared food (figure 1), and 34.03% of respondents have consumed prepared food at a high frequency (more than seven times per week) (figure 2). nevertheless, compared with the high penetration rate of japan and the united states market[8], china's current market penetration rate of prepared dishes is only 15%[9], with great room for expansion, the market has a broad prospect and strong momentum, only in 2020 the number of new registered enterprises will be as high as 12,900[1], the market value of the concept of prepared dishes stocks has also significantly outperformed the same period of the shanghai stock exchange index[10]. currently, the prepared food industry is developing at a high speed with an annual growth rate of about 20%, and is expected to become the next trillion-dollar market[1]. the rapid development of the industry has also left behind hidden food safety problems(for example, in 2023, there was a problem in rongjiang new district, ganzhou city, jiangxi province, where hundreds of children ate late and had diarrhoea on the first day of school due to the untimely delivery of meals from central kitchens and a shortage of service staff, which caused extensive discussion on the internet. see [11] cnn. parents quit their jobs to deliver meals amid fears of pre-prepared food in schools [n/ol]. cctv. (2023-09-18)[2023-10-05]. https://edu.cctv.com/2023/09/18/artiu9ugjsjkl4iq7mtisgnu230918.shtml.), affecting consumer attitudes towards the industry, in this questionnaire, 38.15 per cent of consumers expressed concerns about the food safety of prepared dishes (figure 3). figure 1. statistics on the purchase of prepared vegetables figure 2. statistics on the frequency of consumption of prepared vegetables hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 51 published by ideas spread figure 3. negative views of prepared vegetables statistical charts unlike traditional food processing, current prepared food uses many technologies to achieve standardised production, such as novel targeted bacterial reduction, flavour development and retention, rapid pre-cooling, airconditioned packaging and preservation, and temperature-controlled cold-chain distribution [11], and operational errors in any of these processes may lead to an increase in the risk of food safety of the final product of the batch, and due to the public's lack of understanding of the industry and the technology, there is greater concern about food safety issues of this type of scaled product. due to the lack of public understanding of the industry and the technology, the public is more concerned about the food safety of such large-scale products, and when a potential risk arises, a wide range of negative public opinion is triggered. 73.55% of the respondents admitted that the public opinion related to the prepared dishes did affect their trust in the industry to a certain extent (figure 4). an impaired level of trust then reduces consumers' willingness to buy [12], with 25.00 per cent of consumers stating that they would not continue to buy prepared dishes after the incident of prepared dishes in schools (figure 5). negative consumer attitudes will wrongly hurt other operators in the industry and affect the overall development of the industry. from the stock market, the concept of prepared vegetables sector has fallen for several consecutive trading days since 19 september 2023 [13], with an overall drop of 0.14% by the close of trading on 27 september [14]. figure 4. survey statistics of negative public opinion on industry trust level hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 52 published by ideas spread figure 5. survey statistics of consumers' willingness to continue purchasing however, the pre-prepared vegetable industry has a very high development value. prepared vegetables can not only benefit the consumer groups under the fast-paced mode, but also serve as a successful paradigm of industrial integration and development, connecting the field and the dining table, which is also in line with the national policy direction of striving to promote the integrated development of primary, secondary and tertiary industries [18] , and fits into the general background of the current industrial integration [15] [16] [17]. the model is also a development model and form of industrial organisation to improve productivity and competitiveness, which is conducive to improving agricultural competitiveness and increasing farmers' income, as well as promoting the further development of the catering industry. in other words, ensuring the high quality development of the prepared vegetable industry helps to achieve a win-win situation for society. therefore, it is necessary to deeply analyse the deep-rooted contradictions implied in the fast-developing prepared vegetable industry, probe into the operation of the institutional guarantee mechanism, and put forward practical measures with practical value, in order to provide advice for the benign development of the prepared vegetable industry, and to better guarantee that the prepared vegetables can be healthy and safe to the public's table. 3. analysis of the causes of the development dilemma of the prepared vegetable industry prepared vegetables into the campus incident is the current prepared vegetables food safety public opinion outbreak of the fuse, the negative public opinion caused by the current prepared vegetables industry is facing the main dilemma. however, only through in-depth analysis of the causes of the current predicament of the prepared vegetable industry, we can put forward targeted measures to solve the problem and protect the long-term development of the prepared vegetable industry. 3.1 lack of mandatory reference standards for the development of the prefabricated vegetable industry standardisation is an important guarantee for the standardised development of the industry, and the construction of the standard system for prepared vegetables determines the threshold and development prospects of the prepared vegetable industry, and the current standardisation of the prepared vegetable industry in china is not yet sufficient, resulting in a lack of reference standards for industrial development. 3.1.1 prefabricated vegetable standard system is not yet sound as prepared dishes, especially seasoned and ready-to-eat prepared dishes, come in a variety of product types, the production process is complex, but there is no complete national standard to regulate the technology and production process of prepared dishes. of the 13 "local standards" provided in the report, only eight are local standards in the legal sense issued by government departments (table 1), showing sporadic dispersion but overall more concentrated in the southern region (the eight local standards are concentrated in the yangtze river delta region, including shanghai and jiangsu, the huainan region, including guangdong and fujian, and chongqing municipality.) however, due to the obvious territoriality of the effectiveness of the local standards, there is still no standard for prepared dishes in most regions to regulate. the content of the current local standards is also in a fragmented state. most of the local policies are more inclined to invoke the existing national standards related to pre-packaging in their production standards, but national standards such as pre-packaging do not yet meet the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 53 published by ideas spread standard requirements of "reducing the risk of food safety of prepared vegetables" and "long-term development of the industry". table 1. summary of 8 local standards policies in the prepared vegetable industry report province/city title of document release date jiangsu province jiangsu province consumer protection commission and other units jointly drafted "the quality of pre-prepared dishes to evaluate the norms" of the country's first pre-prepared dishes group standards released 2022/5/19 guangxi autonomous region in south china nanning city market supervision administration on the approval of the release of "terminology of prepared dishes" and other 3 local standards notice 2022/5/31 fujian province fujian provincial health commission notice on the publication of fujian provincial food safety local standard for goldenrod (dbs35/006-2022) fujian provincial food safety local standard for fojiao wall (dbs35/0072022) 2022/6/2 guangdong province guangdong projects to formulate five local standards, including "terminology and classification requirements for prepared dishes", "general requirements for packaging labelling of prepared dishes of cantonese cuisine", "norms for sensory evaluation of prepared dishes", "guidelines for construction of prepared dishes industrial parks", and "norms for cold chain distribution of prepared dishes". 2022/7/22 chongqing chongqing municipal market supervision bureau released the production and operation of prepared dishes "the implementation of food safety main responsibility of the twenty articles 2022/11/28 shanghai shanghai municipal market supervision administration on the release of the "shanghai pre-cooked vegetables production permit review programme" notice 2023/1/9 shanghai, jiangsu, zhejiang and anhui provinces shanghai municipal market supervision administration jiangsu provincial market supervision administration zhejiang provincial market supervision administration anhui provincial market supervision administration on the issuance of the "guidelines for the review of manufacturing licences of prepared dishes in the yangtze river delta 2023/1/20 chongqing guidelines for the construction of industrial parks for prepared vegetables, code of conduct for the production and processing of prepared vegetables and standard system for the safety supervision of the production and operation of prepared vegetables 2023/2/28 3.1.2 self-consistency of local standards needs to be improved some regions have also attempted to develop more demanding standards for prepared dishes. in guangdong province, for example, the cities of zhaoqing, shaoguan, chaozhou, zhanjiang, and foshan have developed their own local standards systems for prepared dishes. in the absence of a national standard as a basis for development, the content of local standards for prepared vegetables has diverged. and even within a specific region, the selfconsistency of its normative content needs to be improved. for example, enterprises in zhaoqing city generally use a combination of their own base supply and market-based purchasing to guarantee the supply of raw materials, but the standards between bases and between bases and markets are not completely consistent, and the lack of standards also leads to difficulties in guaranteeing the security of raw material supply [19] . 3.1.3 group standards do not provide a safeguard role as of october 2023, a total of 48 currently valid enterprise standards were published on the public service platform for enterprise information standards (table 2). a total of 148 currently valid group standards have been published on the national group information standards platform, of which 20 have been released by national associations and 128 by local associations (table 3). the timely formulation of standards by groups and enterprises can provide greater assistance to industrial development, open up communication channels among enterprises, promote technical exchanges among enterprises to a certain extent, save time and costs, and help industrial development. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 54 published by ideas spread however, group standards emphasise leading and innovation, and enterprise standards focus on improving quality [20]. both are recommended standards and are not mandatory. therefore, even group standards issued by national associations cannot be required to be enforced by association members, and cannot replace the basic guarantee role of national mandatory standards. table 2. summary of enterprise standards for prepared vegetables table 3. summary of group standards for prepared dishes 3.1.4 the lack of campus lunch standards prepared food is not off-limits to schools. in fact, under the premise of ensuring the freshness, safety and nutrition of the ingredients, and taking into account the reasonableness of the preservation method and the length of transport, the mode of unified production and distribution of central kitchens to campuses can fully guarantee that students can consume fresh and nutritious lunches. this model is also in line with the large number of schools in china and centralised, the campus covers a small area but has a large number of teachers and students [21], has the feasibility of promoting in the campus. however, the prerequisite for its entry into school campuses is to ensure that students in their growth stage consume sufficient healthy food and nutrition. the current national standards ensure that prepared food products meet the safety bottom line, but safety is not the same as health. the lack of standards for school lunches in china is also a major dilemma for central kitchens and other standardised catering models of prepared food products to enter schools. the legislative provisions for school lunch standards in china need to be improved. although the importance of school meals has long been noted and the measures for hygienic supervision of students' collective meals were issued in 1996, the prevalence rate was limited due to economic development. in 2019, the ministry of education, in conjunction with other ministries, formulated the regulations on the management of food safety and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 55 published by ideas spread nutritional health in schools, which made it clear that a sound risk prevention and control system of food safety in schools should be established to ensure food safety, and required schools to set up a meal accompaniment system and ensure information disclosure and transparency. it also requires schools to establish a meal system and ensure information disclosure and transparency, but the relevant provisions are too principled, and there are no detailed rules and supporting norms, so the performance of the affairs is poor. the absence of mandatory nutritional indicators is an important reason for the phenomenon of irrational combinations of school lunches and the lack of improvement in the nutritional quality of lunches [22]. therefore, in the absence of a reasonable system to monitor the food entering the school campus, it is inevitable that low-quality prepared dishes will enter the school campus. when prepared food involves the extremely sensitive health issue of students' meals, the social group represented by parents will be extremely sensitive to whether their food safety can be guaranteed (figure 6), and will be strongly opposed to it until there are accurate results. figure 6. statistical chart of prefabricated vegetables in schools worry factors 3.2 the prefabricated vegetable trade association is not yet in shape another important reason for the mixed quality of the prepared vegetable market is the absence of industry selfregulation, which is mainly reflected in the failure of trade associations to play a real role. china's food safety law stipulates that "food industry associations should strengthen industry self-regulation" (article 9, paragraph 1, of the food safety law of the people's republic of china provides that food industry associations should strengthen industry self-discipline, establish and improve industry norms and reward and punishment mechanisms in accordance with their statutes, provide food safety information, technology and other services, guide and supervise food producers and operators to operate in accordance with the law, promote the construction of integrity in the industry, and publicise and popularise food safety knowledge.), industry self-regulation is to achieve the common interests of the industry for the purpose of the main body of the market in some form of organisation to carry out the service, self-regulation, coordination and supervision of the functions of the economic organisation [23]. due to more frequent and effective communication among members, industry associations have more comprehensive information advantages than government departments [24] and more professional technical advantages [25], and their standards, regulations and disciplinary measures are more enforceable, which contributes to a sound market system and market operation mechanism. in response to the urgent demand for the development of the prepared vegetable industry, during the period of 2022-2023, hebei baoding central kitchen prepared vegetable industry union [26], china prepared vegetable union [27], liaoning prepared vegetable industry association [28], shandong prepared vegetable industry federation [29], luoyang prepared vegetable industry union [30], zhongshan prepared vegetable industry union [31], and changchun prepared vegetable industry union [32] were established one after another, but due to the relatively short time of establishment, most of the industry unions have not yet introduced prepared vegetablerelated group standards to guide the development of the prepared vegetable industry (among the 148 group standards for prepared vegetables embodied in table 3, there are only two group standards formulated by the prepared vegetable industry alliance, with the main body being the shandong prepared vegetable industry alliance). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 56 published by ideas spread good internal governance structure is the structural requirement for the effective implementation of industry selfregulation, but few associations have organised specialised self-regulation departments or internal mandatory statutes in the prefabricated vegetable industry alliance set up in our country at present, thus unable to form an effective relief [33], and unable to reach the condition of "anti-self-interest policies and procedures for adequate internal protection" required by a good self-regulation system." [34] the absence of an internal self-regulatory system has in fact become a practical impediment to self-regulation by trade associations [35]. to sum up, it is difficult for the prepared vegetable industry alliance currently established in china to fulfil the role of self-governance as stipulated in the food safety law in the areas of industry standardisation, food safety risk assessment, review of food safety standards, and reporting of problems, etc. (article 9, paragraph 1, of the food safety law of the people's republic of china: food industry associations should strengthen industry selfdiscipline, establish and improve industry norms and reward and punishment mechanisms in accordance with their statutes, provide food safety information, technology and other services, guide and supervise food producers and operators in accordance with the law, promote the integrity of the industry, and publicise and popularise knowledge of food safety. article 23: the food safety supervision and management departments of the people's governments at or above the county level and other relevant departments, the expert committee on food safety risk assessment and its technical bodies shall, in accordance with the principles of science, objectivity, timeliness and openness, organise the exchange and communication of food safety risk assessment information and food safety information with the food production and operation operators, food inspection bodies, certification bodies, food industry associations, consumer associations and the news media. supervision and management information exchange and communication. article 28: national standards for food safety shall be formulated on the basis of the results of food safety risk assessments and with due regard to the results of risk assessments of the safety of food and agricultural products, with reference to relevant international standards and the results of international food safety risk assessments, and the draft national standards for food safety shall be made public, and the views of food producers and operators, consumers, and the relevant authorities shall be widely heard.), and in the absence of industry guidance and supervision, there is a real possibility that enterprises may over-emphasise economic benefits to the exclusion of their social responsibilities [36], which may lead to hidden dangers in food safety. 3.3 limitations of ex post facto accountability currently china's food safety supervision is still more focused on the aftermath of the pursuit of responsibility, its lag can only play a deterrent role rather than preventive effect, and the lack of deterrence will lead to some enterprises to take chances, the safety of prepared dishes occur from time to time, again challenging the degree of social trust, and then affect the development of the industry. 3.3.1 poor relief china's food safety law sets out in some detail the ex post facto responsibilities that should be borne by food producers and operators, such as the responsibility to recall and the liability to pay compensation. food recall system refers to the government to take coercive measures or the enterprise independent of the existence of food safety risk of defective food recall and compensation system, food recall is to improve the quality of food is one of the important measures, but china's food recall system there are imperfect regulatory system, departmental supervision responsibilities are not clear and other problems, so the government to take the food recall measures the effectiveness of food recall measures often did not meet the expectations of the regulatory authorities [37]. recall by enterprises can assume social responsibility, but usually need to bear higher costs, small and mediumsized enterprises for practical considerations and brokerage rationality will often choose to avoid the responsibility to bear. therefore, the recall system has not achieved the expected effect. 3.3.2 insufficient deterrence of penalties china's current food compensation liability for "pay ten times the price or loss of three times the compensation; increase the amount of compensation is less than one thousand yuan, for one thousand yuan" (article 148, paragraph 2, of the food safety law of the people's republic of china: if a producer produces food that does not conform to food safety standards or operates food that he or she knows does not conform to food safety standards, the consumer may, in addition to claiming compensation for losses, demand from the producer or operator payment of compensation in the amount of ten times the price or three times the loss; if the amount of the increased compensation is less than one thousand yuan, it shall be one thousand yuan. however, the labelling and instructions of the foodstuffs shall be exempted if there are defects that do not affect the safety of the foodstuffs and do not mislead the consumers.) , but because most of the food unit price is not high, the total amount of compensation for the total price is not high, compared to the enterprise profit is too low, can not play a deterrent effect. and in practice, it takes a lot of time and cost but can not get effective feedback [38], consumers out of rational hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 57 published by ideas spread consideration will give up claiming "ten times compensation". as a result, the system has become a tool for professional counterfeiters, reducing the willingness of enterprises to compensate [39]. in summary, the current ex post and ex post remedies have certain limitations in terms of regulation, making it difficult to achieve the policy objectives, and local governments may relax the supervision of enterprises bearing policy burdens due to regulatory capture [40] and food safety is not conducive to the provision of a favourable market environment for consumers. 3.4 consumers' right to know hampered the consumer survey report on prepared dishes published by the consumer protection commission of jiangsu province 2022 shows that nearly 30% of consumers are concerned about the food safety of prepared dishes [41]. these concerns are not unfounded, but are due to the public's lack of understanding of the production process and product information about prepared dishes. the china consumers' association points out that "the lack of detailed labelling of pre-prepared dishes and the lack of notification of the use of pre-prepared dishes in takeaways and dine-ins have undermined consumers' right to know and right to choose." [42] and according to this questionnaire, only 17.49% of consumers reflected that merchants informed consumers when they used prepared dishes (figure 7), more than half of respondents reflected that merchants were not informed when they used prepared dishes (figure 8), and 78.79% of respondents believed that the behaviour of "merchants not informing" violated their right to information (figure 8). their right to know (figure 9) figure 7. merchant notification statistics figure 8. merchant prepared dishes usage statistics hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 58 published by ideas spread figure 9. respondents' views on "non-information" behaviours the inadequacy of our information disclosure rules infringes on the public's right to know, raises the cost of testing for the public, and in fact reduces the public's trust in official sources of information. in fact, it is difficult for consumers at the demand side to understand the production process and production standards at the supply side. currently, china's product information disclosure rules are not yet perfect , and there is no mandatory disclosure requirement for information on the production process, which is of greater concern to consumers. therefore, the public needs to pay a very high verification cost for food information, and because people "trust negative information more than positive information"when facing health issues [43], when facing public opinion on food safety, the public tends to question the authenticity of official information. during this survey, 67.22% of the respondents preferred to trust the media, friends and relatives and other "unofficial carriers", while 6.96% of the respondents indicated that they "do not trust any information carriers" (figure 10). some surveys also indicate that there are no information carriers in china that most consumers can trust [44]. figure 10. statistical chart of respondents' trust in information carriers to sum up, under the premise that the standard cannot provide basic protection, the industry cannot regulate itself, the deterrent strength of government regulation is insufficient, and a good market environment cannot be provided, and consumers do not have reliable information to trust, personal experience is more likely to become the most hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 59 published by ideas spread reliable way of information screening, and low-quality prepared vegetables into the campus caused students to feel sick, and the restaurant uses prepared vegetables but "hides" the behaviour of the public for the food safety concerns of the prepared vegetable industry has become a trigger for negative emotions. low-quality prepared vegetables entering the campus caused students' discomfort, and restaurants used prepared vegetables but "hid" their use, which became a trigger for negative emotions and magnified the public's concern about the food safety of the prepared vegetable industry. 4. exploration of the solution path to the development dilemma of the prefabricated vegetable industry in response to the incident of prepared vegetables in schools, the ministry of education pointed out that "at present, there is no unified standard system, certification system, traceability system and other effective regulatory mechanisms for prepared vegetables" [45], in fact, is also the dilemma of the development of the prepared vegetable industry, the following is intended to be from the legislative level, the level of industry self-regulation, the level of government regulation and social supervision level. the following is intended to comprehensively analyse the solution path to the development dilemma of the prepared vegetable industry. 4.1 providing regulatory protection for the prepared vegetable industry 4.1.1need to develop a series of standards for the production of prepared vegetables as soon as possible china's prepared vegetable industry has been strongly supported by many official policies [1] [7], and the overall industry has shown a high-speed development trend , which has led to the current standardisation of china's standardisation work relatively lagging behind the rapid development of the prepared vegetable industry [46]. at the same time, it must be admitted that the diversity of our food culture makes it more difficult to standardise the production process of the prepared food industry in china than in the us and japan [8]. however, only by formulating a series of standards for the prepared vegetable industry and regulating the quality standards in the field of prepared vegetables can we avoid a mixed market due to the industrial standards being in a vacuum [47] and thus provide the public with a market environment that can be fully trusted. the state should strengthen the research on the industry standard of prepared vegetables, clarify the concept of the subdivision of prepared vegetables, and expeditiously introduce the mandatory national standards that are closely linked with the market and urgently needed by enterprises, and build a perfect quality and safety system to clarify the basic bottom line of the production of prepared vegetables; and introduce the supporting recommended national standards or industry standards to guide the enterprises in scientific management of their business, and provide guidelines for the healthy development of the industry. 4.1.2 improving school lunch meal standards improving school lunch standards is a prerequisite for the rule of law for the entry of prepared dishes into schools. in view of the fact that the business model of some sub-categories of prepared dishes is consistent with the characteristics of the high demand for meals in primary and secondary schools in china, and is conducive to reducing the pressure on the independent preparation of meals on campuses, the sub-category should be supported to enter the campus under the condition of meeting the safety and nutritional value of meals. the implementation rate of japan's school lunch programme is as high as 99% [48] , which not only improves the nutritional intake of japanese students [49] [50], but also restricts the intake of unhealthy food [22], improves the quality of student diets, reduces the risk of obesity, and makes the overweight and obesity rate of japanese children stay at a low level in the world [51]. its school lunch system has strong reference value for our country. japan has passed a series of bills and policies to support the school lunch programme [52], and the revision of its school feeding law not only updates the nutritional and hygiene standards of school meals [22], but also ensures that the meals delivered by the central kitchens are in line with the dietary standards through the deployment of professional nutrition teachers [53]. and the effectiveness of the u.s. school lunch policy has also been proven. the u.s. national school lunch program uses the healthy, hunger-free kids act (hereinafter referred to as hhfka) and its implementing regulations as a legal guarantee [54] and improves with the revision of the u.s. dietary guidelines [52] , and after the implementation of the hhfka, the healthiness index of the students' meals has increased from 58% to 82% [55], and the quality of the school meals has been significantly improved. from the implementation of school lunch in the united states and japan, a good school lunch programme can optimise the nutritional intake of students, enhance their physical and intellectual fitness [56], and safeguard their healthy growth. the incorporation of school feeding into the legal system is an important measure to ensure the stable development of the lunch programme. china has promulgated the "dietary guidelines for school-age children", but the guidelines do not have the force of law, and there are certain difficulties in implementation and supervision. therefore, based on the nutritional requirements for school-age children's meals stipulated in the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 60 published by ideas spread guidelines, china can formulate standards for school lunch meals and, taking into account the current situation of our society, specify the hardware conditions such as raw material standards, quality standards, nutritional standards, geographical locations of enterprises and hygienic standards, etc., of the catering services provided to schools. in this way, we can strictly screen the prepared food enterprises that enter schools to ensure the safety and nutritional value of school lunches, and avoid the poor implementation of the school lunch system due to the lack of regulations, which in turn raises parents' concerns and questions about the safety and nutritional value of school lunches. 4.2 strengthening industry self-regulation in accordance with the law the irreplaceable comparative advantage of industry associations in making up for the deficiencies of the government and the market has become the consensus of the current academic community [57] [58] [59], which should expeditiously allow the prepared vegetable industry association to play the role of industry self-regulation and to guide the development of the prepared vegetable industry. 4.2.1 improvement of industry self-regulation is an important force for the development of the prefabricated vegetable industry industry self-regulation is a model of social responsibility bearing centred on consumer welfare [60]. firstly, industry associations provide technical guarantee for industry development. industry associations formed by enterprises in this field know more about the current situation of the industry and the application technology of the industry, so the industrial group standards issued by them are more in line with the direction of industrial development, which helps enterprises improve the technical standards and the certification system, and provides a solid foundation for the prosperous development of the industry. secondly, industry associations are more capable of solving industry problems. compared with other supervisory bodies, industry associations are more likely to find problems in enterprises and are more capable of proposing implementable solutions, which is conducive to saving government resources. finally, industry self-regulation can help avoid the "spillover effect" of social supervision. appropriate enhancement of industry self-regulation can help relax consumers' demand for verifiability of information, thus avoiding consumers questioning the objectivity of information due to the high cost of verifying information [61], minimising irrationality in consumers' decision-making, and preventing consumers from expanding their "distrust" of the companies involved to an undifferentiated boycott of the whole industry. the industry is still in the development stage of prefabrication. therefore, it is urgent for the national prefabricated vegetable industry alliance to introduce perfect industry standards and internal governance measures as soon as possible, and to play the role of a "leading sheep". 4.2.2 industry associations need to return to their expected role in society the lack of clarity in the boundaries of governmental power has led to the current excessive pursuit of "official recognition" by china's food industry associations. the attitude of the administrative authorities is one of the key variables determining the response of china's food industry associations, and is even more influential on their behaviour than media attention [62]. this pursuit of "official recognition" makes the industry associations give up the independence and democracy in the operation process to a certain extent, and they can't really play the role of industry self-regulation [63] and realise the social co-governance. however, the public's perception of food industry associations comes from the exposure of food safety time, and their expectation of food industry associations is more "food safety public interest defender" [36]. as a consumer interests as the core of the prepared food industry associations should pay attention to change the role positioning, more in line with the role of the public expectations, timely response to the public's questioning, and in the necessary time to investigate and sanction the companies involved, to provide the necessary safety information. this will require not only clarifying the boundaries of the government's power, and setting up appropriate legal responsibilities for improper and illegal interventions, as well as a complete accountability process to prevent the association from becoming "quasiadministrative" again, but also requiring the association to develop clear and specific guidelines and norms, as well as regular training and education, as well as acceptance of the association's social responsibility by the government, consumers, or public health advocates, there is also a need for trade associations to be subject to social scrutiny from government, consumers or public health advocates to prevent uncontrolled self-regulation[36]. 4.3 strengthening risk prevention and regulation of the prepared vegetable industry government regulation in accordance with the law is a necessary way to promote food enterprises to assume responsibility for food safety and the bottom line guarantee [64]. china's food safety regulation is still based on ex post facto tracking [65], and this model is difficult to respond to the requirement of ex ante prevention of modern food risks such as prepared dishes, where consumers care more about the attribute of trust [66], so china needs to improve the law enforcement regulations of risk prevention in the prepared dish industry. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 61 published by ideas spread 4.3.1 existing mechanisms cannot be effectively utilised risk analysis and assessment (raa) is one of the most internationally recognised forms of preventive food safety control [68] [69] [70] [71]. it has been shown that the implementation of hazard analysis and critical control point (hereinafter referred to as haccp) system has been urgent in the field of food safety, and the plan can ensure food quality and safety more economically [72]. article 17 of china's food safety law clearly stipulates that china applies risk assessment regulatory methods in the food sector. the new version of the hazard analysis and critical control point (haccp) system certification implementation rules released by the cnca in 2021 extends the scope of haccp mechanism certification to storage, logistics and trade, which are important links in the supply chain [73], but the real role of haccp needs to ensure the credibility of the data. and the encryption of blockchain prevents the possibility of data falsification [74], blockchain technology should be applied to the haccp system in the prepared vegetable industry in order to avoid missing the best time for early warning due to data tampering. 4.3.2 improvement of the mechanism of the traceability system to assist in the determination of legal responsibility risk ex ante prevention requires not only a correct assessment of risk, but also a sound traceability data system to ensure attribution of responsibility. however, china's overall performance in the assessment of traceability regulations is poor [75]. the epidemic has led to a generalised trend in the application of traceability systems in china [76]. and due to the large number of systems and inconsistent requirements, the duplication of reporting, testing, and code assignment work in fact lengthens the process of product circulation and aggravates the operating costs of enterprises [77]. the mode of segmented supervision will also lead to "no one cares" or "rush to care" in the final pursuit of responsibility, which reduces the performance and use value of the traceability system [78]. therefore, on the basis of china's existing food traceability platform, the state for the current platform for upgrading, unified traceability system needs to be registered in the production, transport, storage of relevant information, and will be around the system and the national food traceability platform link to ensure the traceability of food responsibility is more feasible. applying blockchain technology to food traceability systems. traceability, often defined as the ease with which a product can be traced throughout the supply chain, is extremely dependent on reliable information [75]. currently used centralised systems also suffer from the same flaws of information forgery [79], and are unable to achieve the collection of traceability information in a trustless environment to ensure information security and reliable traceability. therefore, it is inevitable that it cannot establish an effective trust mechanism between the stakeholders of the prepared vegetable industry who need quality traceability [80]. therefore, the traceability system of the prepared vegetable industry also needs the effective application of blockchain technology, using the tamper-proof nature of blockchain to improve the transparency and traceability of information acquisition [75] [80], reduce human intervention, not only provide a mechanism of trust for industry stakeholders, but also facilitate the government's responsibility determination. 4.3.3 improvement of the country's rapid early warning mechanism to prevent the spread of risks risk assessment is to determine whether there is an ex ante risk, while traceability mechanisms are for timely accountability after an ex ante risk has been identified, but neither of them conveys information about the risk and draws the attention of the local government, members of the industry, and the community at large. a food safety alert is an advance warning of a possible threat to human health in a food product or of the impact of a major decision on a country or a company [81]. the eu has constructed a relatively perfect eu rapid early warning system for food and feed, which can help member states to collect and exchange information [68], prevent the spread of risky food in member states, and guarantee the food safety within the eu. china can refer to the eu's related mechanisms to improve our rapid early warning mechanism related regulations, such as coverage, warning frequency and classification, according to different levels of prepared vegetables risk to take response mode, in saving government resources at the same time, to prevent the proliferation of prepared vegetables safety events. 4.4 improving information disclosure the food safety incident of china's prepared vegetables in schools revealed that the public's high sensitivity to negative news about the prepared vegetable industry stems from the opacity of the relevant information, and even more so from the lack of information disclosure rules. the reduced level of trust will also inhibit the effectiveness of government regulation [82]. therefore, there is an urgent need to broaden the sources of reliable information. only through the improvement of information disclosure rules to rebuild consumer trust in information, social supervision can operate effectively. in the measures to solve food safety problems, the importance of social hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 62 published by ideas spread supervision is often mentioned, and the government is required to further disclose information to ensure the smooth flow of information and to mobilise the enthusiasm and initiative of social participation [83], but it is neglected that the prerequisite for the effective operation of social supervision is a high degree of accuracy of information related to the whole industry [61], and in the absence of perfect rules for the disclosure of information, consumer confidence can partly be rebuilt by providing more information related to food quality or safety to the consumers. information related to food quality or safety to partially rebuild consumer confidence. in japan, qr codes and other methods are used to disclose all traceability information of food products to the public, and in an interview in japan, 20% of the respondents regarded the existence of food traceability information as a sign of ensuring food safety [84], which demonstrates that traceability systems not only have the attribute of information provision, but also have a strong attribute of trust among consumers. the eu's strict product disclosure rules also reduce the public's cost of information confirmation and raise the level of participation in social supervision [85]. referring to the experience of japan and the eu, it can be seen that effective disclosure of product information can actually increase the level of public trust. 58.2% of the respondents also supported this view (figure 11), so it is urgent for china to refer to the eu to formulate clear product disclosure rules, but for the time being, by opening up the food traceability system based on blockchain technology to the public, it can in fact be used as a kind of quality assurance signal to help the public to build trust in products and reduce the scope of negative public opinion. figure 11. statistical graph of the impact of food traceability system on respondents' willingness to buy guaranteeing the independence of social supervision helps to improve the strength of government regulation. the healthy development of prefabricated dishes requires full utilisation of the independence of social supervision. although the lowering of the level of trust will inhibit the effectiveness of government regulation, social supervision will not result in regulatory capture due to policy considerations[40] good social supervision can not only give high-quality positive feedback to enterprises, but also compel the government to increase the intensity of punishment, which will help to realise the legislative purpose of "social co-regulation". this will help to realise the purpose of the legislation on "social co-rule". in summary, to ensure the long-term healthy development of the prepared vegetable industry is a complex project that requires the joint efforts of many parties. it is not only necessary to formulate unified national standards for prepared vegetables and industry standards in terms of legislation, as well as to improve the relevant regulations on school lunch to regulate the development of the prepared vegetable industry; it is also necessary for the industry to establish a national industry association with accurate role positioning as soon as possible to lead the industry's high-quality development. not only does the government need to further improve the existing laws and regulations on the basis of the use of blockchain technology to improve the haccp system, food traceability system and early warning mechanism to respond to the risk of the prepared food industry prior to the prevention of the requirements; but also need to comply with the rules and regulations to the public to open the food traceability system in order hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 63 published by ideas spread to rebuild the confidence of consumers in the industry, so as to better play a role in the social supervision, to achieve the social co-management. 5. concluding remarks with the epidemic as well as the lazy economy, the prepared vegetable industry has ushered in a blowout period of rapid development. however, the lack of standards and legal regulations, the actual absence of industry associations, the industry's overemphasis on risk prevention, and the lack of transparency of food information have made it difficult for the public to place sufficient trust in the prepared vegetable industry. therefore, the prepared vegetable industry is more likely to cause negative public opinion. taking into account china's specific national conditions, this paper argues that the sustainable development of the prepared food industry needs to rely on the joint efforts of the state to improve legislation, industry associations to correctly guide the industry, the government to change the regulatory model, and to rebuild consumer confidence. reference [1] people's daily online research institute. 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(2013). convenience" characteristics of eu food safety social supervision legislation and the inspiration for china[j]. journal of dalian university of technology (social science edition), 34(03), 83-87. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v1n1p46 46 published by ideas spread forced displacement and the plight of internally displaced persons in northeast nigeria nasa'i muhammad gwadabe1, mohd afandi salleh1, abdullahi ayoade ahmad1 & sobia jamil1 1 department of international relations, faculty of law and international relations, universiti sultan zainal abidin, malaysia correspondence: nasa'i muhammad gwadabe, department of international relations, faculty of law and international relations, terengganu 21300, malaysia. tel: 60-1133-221-380, 234-8065-655-255. e-mail: ngwadabe@gmail.com received: may 24, 2018; accepted: june 17, 2018; published: june 20, 2018 abstract since the end of the cold war, the phenomenon of forced displacement gained more global attention. forced displacement involves the involuntary movement of people from their habitual place of residence to a location within their country of nationality; or across an internationally recognised border. this situation in most cases exposes the displaced people to some vulnerabilities. among other classes of displaced people, the most notable groups of concern are refugees and internally displaced persons (idps). in contemporary time, conflict is identified to be the primary cause of forced displacement. since 2009, the boko haram insurgency and the counterinsurgency by the nigerian security forces turned northeast nigeria into a conflict zone. the crisis has forced more than 2 million people to flee for safety within nigeria as internally displaced persons (idps); while many crossed the border into countries neighbouring nigeria from the lake chad region as refugees. this paper explored and discussed the suffering of the people internally displaced by boko haram conflict from the framework of forced displacement. it is found that, the idps in nigeria suffered from multifaceted problems, ranging from the issues of inadequate life-saving assistance, protection related crisis, and the unclear prospect of achieving durable solutions. moreover, the lack of a clear national policy, institutional, and legal frameworks in addressing internal displacement in nigeria is found to be the prime cause of the intensification of the plight of idps. thus, it is recommended that, there should be a legally backed national policy on idps, which should include punitive measures for corrupt humanitarian officers. also, provision should be made for effective coordination among national humanitarian agencies. lastly, a clear rule of engagement between the government and the international humanitarian agencies should be clearly defined. keywords: boko haram, forced displacement, internally displaced persons, northeast nigeria 1. introduction nigeria is mainly divided along ethnoreligious lines. the northern part of the country is primarily dominated by muslims who are mostly hausa or fulani tribes and some other minority tribes. while the yoruba and igbo tribes formed the bulk of the population in south nigeria; and christianity is the dominant belief system there. the north is identified to have the lowest human development index in the country. 71.5% of the northerners live below the international poverty line. the illiteracy rate is as high as 85%; while unemployment stood at 60%. north-east is considered the most backward (onaedo, samuel, & sejoro, 2017). the socio-economic reality of the region has its root in the colonial era; amplified by corruption and bad governance. the situation has created a conducive atmosphere for various anti-establishment movements that use religious narratives to gain legitimacy. there was the maitatsine riot in the 1980's in kano state, the recurrent shiite-government clashes, and so many other preaching and sermons by individual scholars that refuted the western oriented and secular system of nigeria. boko haram emerged from this discontentment and turned violent in 2009 (oyewole, 2017). boko haram was founded by muhammad yusuf in maiduguri of borno state. the group is officially known as jama'atu ahlus sunnah liddawa'ati wal jihad. boko haram came to limelight in 2009 when it came into violent confrontation with the nigerian authorities. following the execution of yusuf, one of his lieutenant known as abubakar shekau took charge of the group and radicalised and sophisticated it further (agbiboa, 2014). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 47 published by ideas spread boko haramism as an ideology is linked directly to the global web of radical islamists' thinking and discourse. the tenets of boko haramism are derived from the mainstream radical islamist ideological narratives, to which yusuf is inclined. boko haram ideology was based on the principles of rejecting western education, condemnation of secularism and westernisation, and the incompatibility of islam with democracy (raineri & martini, 2017). at the international level, boko haram has interacted with some groups outside nigeria. it is evident in the interaction of boko haram with al-qaeda in the islamic maghreb (aqim), the movement for unity and jihad in west africa (mujao), and ansar dine. mohammed yusuf considered the founder of al-qaeda osama bin laden a role model worthy of emulation. in 2105, the leader of boko haram abubakar shekau pledged allegiance to the islamic state (is). as a strategy, boko haram prefers always to be on the offensive than defensive. hence, the group to use attacks tactics such as ambushes, raids, and assaults against poorly defended targets. usually, victims of boko haram attacks include law enforcement agents, religious and political figures, essential infrastructures, and financial institutions and other business establishments. the strategic objectives of these attacks are to cast distrust of the government in the minds of the people by making them feel vulnerable and unprotected by the government (regens, mould, vernon, & montgomery, 2016). 1.1 internal displacement one of the resultant effects of the boko haram conflict is the massive internal displacement of the population within nigeria. internal displacement is a situation where persons or group of persons are forcibly uprooted from their homes to other locations within their country as a result of man-induced or natural causes. according to the internal displacement monitoring centre (idmc), from 2009 when boko haram turned violent, to 2016, almost two and half million people were forced to flee and became internally displaced. some are in the camps while many others are dispersed across various host communities. an accelerated increase in the number of idps was recorded, from about five thousand idps in 2009 to approximately 2 and a half million in 2016 (“idmc » nigeria idp figures analysis,” 2017). this situation has created the worse humanitarian crisis in the history of nigeria since the civil war (1967-1970) (heerten & moses, 2017; unchr, 2016a) the idps are dispersed across the six states of north-east nigeria and beyond, with their concentration in borno state followed by yobe and adamawa states and other proximate states in the region such as taraba, gombe and bauchi. all of these states where the idps seek shelter, protection and other assistance are also affected by the boko haram conflict which led to competition over the inadequate resources between the displaced the host communities (eweka & olusegun, 2016). 1.2 causes of internal displacement in "internal displacement: responsibility and action", asplet (2013) identified the major factors that lead to displacement: 1.2.1 armed conflict armed conflict is a situation in which differences between 2 or more states or non-state actors lead to the intervention of armed forces. in most cases due to fear of attacks and as a result of a breakdown of the socioeconomic structures during armed conflict, people are usually left with no option than to flee. 1.2.2 generalised violence it is a situation of an indiscriminate spread of violence. here, there is no specific target. the attack could be perpetrated by or against non-recognised parties to the conflict. this form of unrest usually leaves the population unprotected and vulnerable. mostly in this situation, fleeing for safety is the only alternative. 1.2.3 natural and man-made disasters when a disaster happens as a result of natural causes or due to the activities of man, it is called natural or humanmade disaster respectively. examples of natural disasters are drought, earthquake, tsunamis, and so on; while on the other hands, for instance, human-made disasters could include phenomena related to climate change and so on. it usually causes massive movement of the population. 1.2.4 human rights violations human rights violations happen when the state or non-state actors infringe on the fundamental rights of some targeted people. the targeting could be on account of race, religion, political reasons, economic rights etc. the victims of human rights violation usually flee in search of protection and respite. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 48 published by ideas spread 1.2.5 development projects or environmental protection development projects or environmental protection occurs when people are compelled to leave their homes as a result of mega development projects. it happens mostly as a result of the construction of dams, roads, railways, hydroelectric power projects etc. or for conservation reasons and forestry. these types of projects or policies usually require the vacation of the local population which in most cases exposes the affected people to some vulnerabilities. 1.3 the stages of internal displacement the international committee of the red cross categorised displacement into 4 major stages: pre-displacement, acute displacement, stable displacement, durable solutions (international committee of the red cross, 2018). 1.3.1 pre-displacement this stage has to do with circumstances that result in displacements such as armed conflict, generalised violence or any other causes that uproot people from their habitual place of residence. 1.3.2 acute displacement this stage involves the movement of the displaced persons to a new location other than their original communities. at this phase of displacement, the idps usually find themselves in dire need of life-saving assistance and protection. 1.3.3 stable displacement this phase of displacement is sometimes referred to as "protracted displacement". here, the displacement last beyond the reasonable frame of time. idps stay for a prolonged period with the host communities, private houses or provided camps. 1.3.4 durable solutions this stage is usually considered the last one. displacement is said to end when durable solutions are achieved for the idps. it could be actualised by returning the displaced people to their original homes, or integrating them within the community they found themselves, or to resettle them in other locations in the country other than their original places. 2. problem statement since the escalation of the boko haram insurgency into a deadly conflict in 2009, the phenomenon has forced almost 2 and half million people to flee. as a result nigeria became the country with the highest number of internally displaced persons (idps) in sub-saharan africa (norwegian refugee council, 2017). the displacement tracking matrix (2017) revealed that women and children formed 79% of the idps population, and children of under 5 years account for 28%. in the same vein, the united nations office for the coordination of humanitarian affairs (unocha), further revealed that the idps in north-east nigeria are in desperate need of life-saving assistance such as food and nutrition, healthcare, shelter and non-food items, potable water and improved sanitation and hygiene condition. also, the education of the idps has been reluctantly handled. again, the idps suffer from some protection issues such as child and gender-based violence (cgbv) among others. the prospect of idps to return to their original communities is another worrisome issue adding to the plight of these displaced people (unocha, 2018). however, despite this humanitarian crisis and the suffering of the victims, there is no clear institutional and policy frameworks or legislation that directly and squarely address the plight of the idps. although, the cluster framework of humanitarian response exist at the international level, but this absence of structures at the national level has retarded the philanthropic efforts of the international actors including the united nations agencies. the objective of this paper is to explore and discuss the suffering of the people internally displaced by boko haram conflict from the framework of forced displacement; and make policy recommendation that could subdue the situation. 3. conceptual framework forced displacement has been described as "the movements of refugees and internally displaced people (people displaced by conflicts) as well as people displaced by natural or environmental disasters, chemical or nuclear disasters, famine, or development projects" (migration data portal, 2018). the cumulative number of people displaced by the end of the year 2016 globally stood at 65.6 million. out of this number, 22.5 million are refugees, while 40.3 million are idps (unchr, 2016b). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 49 published by ideas spread the american sociologist eugene kulischer is credited to have coined the term "displaced person." though, in his work he used the term to refer all classes of people forced to flee refugees, idps, and others; but the contemporary usage of the term is restricted to people that are forcibly displaced from their communities but remain in other locations in their country of nationality (kumar panigrahi, 2018). forced displacement, whether internal or external is mostly caused by conflict. conflicts occur in every region of the globe, and it has been so throughout the history of humankind. its duration, intensity, dimension differs according to type, cause, and the parties involved. a conflict could happen at the different level of social process and interaction. it could be between individuals, within or between groups, it can also occur within a state or between states and non-state actors. modern history affirmed that conflict is an integral part of the domestic phenomenon of the modern states. it could manifest in the form of civil wars, insurgencies, inter-ethnic or interreligious clashes. it also happens on the international stage between states or non-state actors. the phenomenon of forced displacement caused by boko haram conflict in northeast revolves around three major components. first, the issue of life-saving assistance; which involves the provision of life-saving and immediate humanitarian needs to the displaced people such as food and nutrition; healthcare; water, sanitation and hygiene (wash); shelter, and education. the second component is protection. it includes safeguarding idps from all forms of human right abuses that could emanate from their vulnerability. such abuses come in the form of child and gender-based violence (cgbv), trafficking and family separation. third, is the component of durable solutions. it deals with the long-term remedy of displacement. this component is made up of sub-components of return, resettlement, and local integration. a forcibly displaced person is ceased to considered displaced when he/she achieves durable solutions. 4. the plight of internally displaced persons (idps) in northeast nigeria the boko haram conflict caused a considerate loss of lives and breakdown of the family structure, destruction of properties and infrastructures, in addition to the absence of the means of livelihood. this situation of fear and insecurity left people with no choice but to migrate (norwegian refugee council, 2017). the deteriorated nature of internal displacement and the suffering of the victims can be analysed from four significant angles. first, on the need for life-saving assistance by the idps, the need for protecting them from human rights violations and abuses, the uncertainty of achieving durable solutions; and lastly the absence of a specific national blueprint in addressing the issue. 4.1 the life-saving assistance first, the idps are facing severe food insecurity and nutrition problems with global acute malnutrition (gam) level of 27.3%. again, 12, 871 children below five years of age were identified to suffer from severe acute malnutrition. in 2013, the nigerian government made official declaration of emergency on nutrition (dunn, 2018; un news, 2016). second, in the health sector, most of the medical infrastructural facilities have been closed due to the absence of doctors who fled for security reasons, scarcity of drugs and medical equipment (sambo, 2017). reports showed that endemic malaria, acute respiratory infections and watery diarrhoea are critical health concern bedevilling the idps; with malaria featuring in 50% of all the health-related cases in the camps (who, 2018). furthermore, compounding to the health crisis is the problem of water, sanitation and hygiene (wash). as a result of the trooping of idps in camps, the available water and sanitation facilities and structures became inadequate to cater for the basic needs of the idps. this lack of wash increases the risk of the spread of diseases, dehydration and other related ailments (unicef, 2016). there is an absence of waste management and inadequate provision of essential utility such as potable water and electric power. this state of poor sanitation and hygiene explained the frequency of the outbreak of diseases such as cholera and related ailments. the idps that live outside the camps mostly stayed with host communities or in worship sites such as churches, mosques, and in dilapidated and abandoned buildings that are not humanly habitable (sambo, 2017). according to the national emergency management agency, there exist an alarming number of children among the idps whom education was truncated by their displacement and a number of them are unaccompanied due to the death of their parents or separation during the conflict. the breakdown of the system of education in northeast nigeria was accelerated by the destruction of schools, killing and kidnapping of students and teachers by the insurgents. besides, the usage of school buildings by the displaced population as shelter further affects idps education. moreover, in some camps and communities where the displaced children are accessing education, the quality is poor and far below the standard due to the absence of a conducive environment for teaching and learning and the absence of teaching materials. in most cases, the teaching is done by incompetent volunteer teachers (abdulazeez, 2016). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 50 published by ideas spread 4.2 the issue of protection again, the unsafe condition of the idps in northeast exposed them to many protection issues; ranging from exploitations, child and gender-based violence, human trafficking, family separation and detention with no consideration of the rule of law . moreover, the idps are sheltered under the most inhumane condition: overcrowded camps; with few overstretched infrastructural facilities and defective or inadequate non-food items (nfi), such as blankets, buckets, mosquito nets etc. (obaji & alobo, 2016). 4.3 the issue of durable solutions another issue of concern is that the security forces are gaining ground against the boko haram insurgents; but still, the idps expressed fear to return to their ravaged communities, as there is no assurance for safety, no clear and sustainable strategy for durable solutions in place for them. on the other hand, other affected populations by the conflict that took refuge in neighbouring countries are voluntarily or forcibly returning to nigeria. these returnees are likely to out-weight the already inadequate resources and widen the need gaps. as a result, it may add to the suffering of the existing idps and returning refugees who are now idps (norwegian refugee council, 2017). 4.4 the absence of national humanitarian response frameworks despite this humanitarian situation in nigeria, there is non-existence of legislation, definite and sustainable institutional and policy frameworks in addressing internal displacement. it has impeded national and international humanitarian efforts. it has made planning, implementation, coordination and evaluation of humanitarian efforts difficult. it has also affected the assigning of roles and responsibilities to humanitarian actors, which led to the clash of interests among humanitarian actors, and duplication of duties in some sectors, while others sectors are handled negligibly or inefficiently. even the draft and yet to be implemented national policy on internally displaced persons in nigeria has been discredited for not having any legal status, but a mere outline of policy objectives that are not enforceable (akuto, 2017; itumo & nwefuru, 2016). 5. recommendation the government of nigeria and humanitarian partners have channeled a considerable amount of resources both human and material in ameliorating internal displacement in northeast nigeria. however, no commensurate result came out of the effort. fortunately, the causative factors have been identified by various research conducted academics and professionals in the field. critical among them is the absence of clear policy, institutional and legal humanitarian frameworks. therefore, in this paper, it is recommended that: there should be national policy backed up by legislation that would cater for the prevention, management and to address long-term issues associated with the displacement such as return, resettlement and the integration of idps. furthermore, the legislation should include punitive measures for corrupt camp and military officials that syphon relief materials and other resources for personal gain at the expense of the victims or take advantage of their vulnerability to abuse them. mostly, female and children fall victims in this case. again, the framework should include definite and clear rules of engagement by the government to the international humanitarian organisation. also, there should be institutional centralisation of the national humanitarian agencies to avoid the clash of the interest and duplication of work by various humanitarian agencies of the government. 6. conclusion all in all, boko haram insurgency and the counter-insurgency by the nigerian security forces have uprooted almost 2 and half million people from their homes. as a result, nigeria has the highest number of idps in subsaharan africa. the idps mainly suffered from three significant angles. first, they lack the most basic lifesaving assistance, second, they are not adequately protected from abuses and deprivation, more especially the child, and gender-based violence. third, is the absence of a definite prospect to achieve durable solutions for the idps. all these plights of the idps in north-east nigeria are correlatively related to the lack specific policy, institutional and legal frameworks in addressing the problem. the government mainly concentrated on ad-hoc efforts in responding to the phenomenon. this momentary approach has made planning, coordination, evaluation and accountability difficult. reference abdulazeez, m. 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(2018). who. retrieved from http://www.who.int/malaria/news/2017/emergency-borno-state/en/ copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p67 67 published by ideas spread multi modal analysis and comparison of epidemic prevention propaganda posters between china and the uk: taking covid-19 epidemic prevention propaganda posters as an example zhidan rao1 1 jiangxi university of technology, china correspondence: zhidan rao, jiangxi university of technology, nanchang, jiangxi, china. e-mail: 893882925@qq.com received: july 6, 2025; accepted: july 21, 2025; published: july 22, 2025 abstract the promotional poster integrates various modes such as narrative images, text, and colors to express the theme of the promotion in a condensed manner. this article selects two epidemic prevention propaganda posters released by the propaganda bureau of the central propaganda department of china and the national health service (nhs) in the uk as research objects. based on halliday’s systemic functional grammar approach(sfg), the visual grammar constructed by kress and van leeuwen is used to analyze and compare the representational, interactive, and compositional meanings in epidemic prevention posters from the aspects of language, images, colors, etc., in order to explore how epidemic prevention propaganda institutions in china and the uk use text and graphics to achieve the purpose of promoting epidemic prevention measures. keywords: chinese and british epidemic prevention propaganda posters, multimodal analysis, systemic functional grammar approach, visual grammar 1. introduction with the emergence of the information age and new media, people’s sources of information are becoming increasingly diverse, with various images, sounds, and colors flooding people’s lives. language texts have also evolved from single characters to multimodal forms. while multimodal discourse forms enrich people’s communication styles, they have also attracted attention in the field of linguistics. multimodal discourse refers to the phenomenon of using various senses such as vision, hearing, and touch to communicate through language, images, sounds, actions, and symbols(zhang delu,2009)[1]. as a form of visual art, posters integrate text, color, and graphics, which can immediately attract people and achieve good publicity and educational effects. the process of people reading posters is actually a multimodal discourse process of decoding these symbolic elements. posters can be divided into commercial posters, cultural posters, movie posters, and public welfare posters according to their purposes(li huiyan, 2014)[2]. and epidemic prevention propaganda posters belong to a type of public welfare poster. at the beginning of 2020, just as the people all over the country are celebrating the coming of the new year, a sudden covid-19 hit wuhan, which swept across the country and then spread in european countries such as the united kingdom and the united states. in order to popularize epidemic prevention measures and raise public awareness of prevention, epidemic prevention propaganda agencies in various countries have released epidemic prevention propaganda posters. this article intends to compare and analyze the interpersonal function, representational meaning, interactive meaning, and compositional meaning in chinese and british epidemic prevention posters based on the theories of systemic functional grammar and visual grammar, using a combination of description and explanation. the aim is to explore how epidemic prevention propaganda agencies in china and the uk use text and graphics to promote epidemic prevention measures. 2. theoretical framework 2.1 systemic functional grammar approach systemic functional grammar (sfg) is a general linguistic theory that studies how language functions in society (huang guowen, 2005)[3]. according to the systemic functional grammar theory proposed by halliday (2004)[4], language has three metafunctions or purely logical functions, namely, conceptual function, interpersonal function, and discourse function. the interpersonal function refers to the ability to express the speaker’s identity, status, attitude, motivation, and their inferences about things. it is the interactive relationship between the speaker and the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 68 published by ideas spread listener, as well as the speaker’s attitude towards what they say or write. interpersonal function is mainly achieved through tone, person, and modality. this theory can be used to analyze the construction and expression of interpersonal meaning in discourse. the tone components can be divided into declarative tone, interrogative tone, exclamatory tone, and imperative tone. personal pronouns indicate the directionality of the topic and the relationship between the communicators. mood expresses the speaker’s attitude and viewpoint. 2.2 visual grammar theory based on halliday’s systemic functional grammar approach, kress&van leeuwen (2006)[5] constructed a visual grammar theory. according to kress and van leeuwen, “visual grammar is the study of how people, objects, and events in images form a whole, and how images encode social behavior and communication” (yang xinzhang, 2009)[6]. according to halliday’s three metafunctions, namely conceptual function, interpersonal function, and discourse function, visual grammar theory also contains three corresponding meanings: representational meaning (corresponding to conceptual function), interactive meaning (corresponding to interpersonal function), and compositional meaning (corresponding to discourse meaning). according to li zhanzi(2003)[7], representational meaning refers to the concentration of characters, events, and environments in images, and representational meaning can be divided into narrative representation and conceptual representation. the difference between the two is that narrative representation includes vectors while conceptual representation does not include vectors” (liu yunlu, he xuliang, 2020)[8]. the meaning of interaction reflects the relationship between participants and performers, manifested in four aspects: contact, social distance, perspective, and modality. the significance of composition lies in information value, highlighting, and framing. 3. multi modal analysis and comparison of epidemic prevention propaganda posters between china and the uk to compare the chinese and british epidemic prevention propaganda posters from a multimodal perspective, this article selects two epidemic prevention propaganda posters respectively released by the propaganda bureau of the central propaganda department of china and the national health service (nhs) in the uk as research objects. figure 1 is chinese epidemic prevention promotion poster, and figure 2 is british epidemic prevention promotion poster. figure 1. chinese epidemic prevention promotion poster hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 69 published by ideas spread figure 2. british epidemic prevention promotion poster 3.1 interpersonal function analysis based on systemic functional grammar, interpersonal function is reflected in three aspects: mood, person, and modality. from figure 1 and figure 2, it can be seen that both chinese and british epidemic prevention propaganda posters use a imperative tone, with the chinese side generally using a imperative tone, such as “不聚餐/bù jù cān” “打包走/dǎ bāo zǒu” “少停留/shǎo tíng liú”, etc; the british side uses such expressions as “wear a face covering/pay alert/control the virus/save lives”. these expressions are consistent with the identity of the “speaker”, who is an official institution with authority. therefore, using imperative tone to express a “demand, must” reflects the resolute attitude of the “speaker” and the severity of the epidemic. in addition, both use conditional sentences to express hypotheses, with the chinese side using “如就餐/rú jiù cān” in figure 1 and the english side using “if you can” in figure 2. “如/rú” and “if” make the tone more gentle, weakening the tone’s toughness. in terms of person use, chinese epidemic prevention propaganda advertisements do not use any person, but from the object of the imperative sentence, we know that it contains the subject “you”; the british epidemic prevention propaganda advertisements are also mostly unmanned phrases, with only two phrases using “you”, namely “if you can” and “you must”. regarding the use of modal words, chinese epidemic prevention advertisements use high value modal words such as “不/bù” and “别/bié”, as well as low value modal words such as “能/néng”; the british epidemic prevention advertisement uses a high-value modal word “must” to indicate the necessity of wearing masks. in addition, a low value modal word “can” was used to make the tone appear euphemistic. the combination of high and low value modal words represents the combination of strong and weak attitudes, making it easy for the public to accept and achieve the purpose of propaganda. 3.2 reproduction significance according to visual grammar, reproducing meaning refers to the concentration of characters, events, and environments in an image. by comparing figure 1 and figure 2, it can be seen that figure 1 is a representation of the environment, which refers to places that are prone to spreading the epidemic, such as restaurants, shops, elevators, and other places with high traffic and enclosed spaces in figure 1; and figure 2 depicts both characters, such as people infected with the epidemic, and environments, such as enclosed spaces like buses and supermarkets. the different reproduction meanings of figure 1 and figure 2 also reflect the different focuses of epidemic prevention propaganda in the two countries, that is, china’s epidemic prevention measures focus on “less gathering” and not going to enclosed places; the uk’s epidemic prevention measures focus on “wearing masks” and do not restrict access to places. 3.3 interactive significance according to visual grammar, interactive meaning reflects the social relationship between language users (official institutions) and language receivers (readers). contact is an aspect of evaluating the meaning of interaction, which hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 70 published by ideas spread can be divided into providing images and requesting images based on whether there is eye contact between participants and viewers. the chinese epidemic prevention propaganda poster in figure 1 highlights the environment and text, with no participants and therefore no contact with readers; in figure 2, there are participants in the british epidemic prevention poster, but both of them have no eye contact with readers. to provide similar images, this is in line with the main purpose of epidemic prevention propaganda posters, which is to provide information to readers rather than to obtain information. the second aspect of interactive meaning is reflected in “social distance”. social distance indicates the closeness between participants and viewers (readers), reflected by the size of the camera frame. from figures 1 and 2, it can be seen that the lens in figure 1 is far away, with blurry details and no focus, indicating that the poster and chinese institutions are providing information with an objective attitude; the lens in figure 2 is closer, with clear details and a focus on people, creating a close distance and emotional resonance with readers. this also reflects the approachable attitude of british institutions. the third aspect of interactive meaning is reflected in the “perspective”, which is divided into “horizontal perspective” and “vertical perspective”. from figure 1 and figure 2, it can be seen that both chinese and british epidemic prevention posters adopt a horizontal perspective, which reflects the equal status of the poster and the viewer (reader), increases reader participation, and brings readers closer together. the fourth aspect of interactive meaning is reflected in “modality”. the modality reflects the authenticity and reliability of the image (du yuanyuan, 2020)[9]. mood is reflected through the brightness and saturation of colors. modal can be divided into high modality, medium modality, and low modality. among them, high modality corresponds to high saturation and high brightness; medium modality corresponds to medium saturation and medium brightness; low modality corresponds to low saturation and low brightness. from figures 1 and 2, it can be seen that the chinese epidemic prevention posters mainly use white, light blue, deep blue, a small amount of deep red, orange, and green, with light blue being the main color, and overall showing a moderate value; the british epidemic prevention propaganda posters mainly use dark blue, bright yellow, white, and black, with a small amount of dark red, blue, and red, mainly dark blue, showing a high modal value overall. by comparing the two, it can be seen that the english epidemic prevention posters have higher modal values, higher authenticity and credibility, and are also easier to attract audiences (readers). by comparing these four aspects, it can be seen that the interactive significance of british epidemic prevention propaganda posters is higher than that of chinese epidemic prevention propaganda posters. 3.4 composition significance according to kress&van leeuwen (2006), the meaning of composition can be discussed from three aspects: information value, framing, and highlighting. the information value is reflected by the position of elements in the image, and different positions result in different cognition, thus providing different information. kress&van leeuwen (2006) argue that the left side represents known information (common sense information), while the right side represents unknown information (new information); above is ideal information, below is real information. from figure 1 and figure 2, it can be seen that the arrangement of text and images in chinese epidemic prevention propaganda posters adopts a “circular” structure from inside to outside, but the arrangement is relatively messy, with some text leaning below the image, some leaning above the image, and some text embedded in the image and blocking the background image. this uncoordinated arrangement of text and images can easily cause visual and cognitive discomfort to the audience (readers). and the position difference between “同/tóng” and “战/zhàn” in the “共同战疫/gòng tóng zhàn yì” is not obvious. according to people’s reading habits from left to right and top to bottom, it is easy to see it as “共战同疫”; the british epidemic prevention propaganda poster adopts a “linear” structure with two parts of graphic and textual arrangement, and the text arrangement is orderly, located at the core, visually more coordinated, and more in line with the cognitive habits of the audience (readers). it is easy for the audience (readers) to obtain information and better reflects the promotional role of the poster. highlighting is an important reference point for the meaning of composition. highlighting is reflected through the position, size, and color of elements in the image. according to kress&van leeuwen (2006), the middle is the core information and the edges are the secondary information. comparing figure 1 and figure 2, the core information of chinese epidemic prevention posters uses low saturation colors (light blue), and the font is small and located in the background image, which is easily obscured. however, the secondary information uses high saturation colors (deep blue) and deep red, and the font is much larger than the core information; the epidemic prevention propaganda poster in the uk has the core information located in the middle position, with larger font size than the secondary information, and uses white text on a blue background to highlight the text. however, as one of the core information, “wear a face covering” can be further enlarged in font size. by comparing the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 71 published by ideas spread information value and highlighting, it can be seen that the composition significance of british epidemic prevention posters is higher than that of chinese epidemic prevention propaganda posters. 4. conclusion this article is based on the theories of systemic functional grammar and visual grammar (kress&van leeuwen), and compares and analyzes the interpersonal function, reproduction meaning, interactive meaning, and compositional meaning of slogans in chinese and british epidemic prevention posters. research has shown that in terms of language modality, the most commonly used tone in chinese and british epidemic prevention propaganda posters is imperative, indicating advice and commands. chinese epidemic prevention posters use unmanned subject clauses with three characters each, which are short and straightforward. in contrast, british epidemic prevention posters use a small number of personal subject “you” to highlight the target audience of epidemic prevention advertisements. in terms of modality, both chinese and british epidemic prevention propaganda posters use a combination of high and low value modal words, which not only express a resolute attitude but also have a soothing effect. from the comparison of reproducing meanings, it can be seen that chinese epidemic prevention posters focus on reproducing “places where epidemics are prone to occur”, while british epidemic prevention posters focus on reflecting “susceptible objects of epidemics”. the comparative results of interactive significance indicate that the chinese and british epidemic prevention propaganda posters focus on providing visual aids and information, without eye contact with viewers (readers). both adopt a horizontal perspective to depict the equal status of the poster and the viewer (reader). however, the british epidemic prevention posters use close social distance and high emotional value, which have a good promotional effect of being close to readers and increasing credibility. furthermore, british epidemic prevention propaganda posters have higher information value and prominence, are more in line with the cognitive habits of viewers (readers), and have higher compositional significance. therefore, based on multimodal analysis, it can be seen that the british epidemic prevention posters reflect better information dissemination effects. references [1] zhang, d. (2009). exploration of the comprehensive theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis. chinese foreign languages, (1), 24–30. [2] li, h. (2014). the overall significance construction of visual grammar and multimodal public service advertising. journal of changchun university of science and technology (social science edition), (5), 99– 100. [3] huang, g. (2007). systemic functional linguistics as a general linguistics. chinese foreign languages, (5), 14–19. [4] halliday, m. a. k., & matthiessen, c. m. i. m. (2004). introduction to functional grammar. london: edward arnold. [5] kress, g., & van leeuwen, t. (2006). reading images: the grammar of visual design (2nd ed.). london: routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203619728 [6] yang, x. (2009). multimodal discourse analysis and systemic functional linguistics. foreign language teaching, (4), 11–15. [7] li, z. (2003). sociosemiotic analysis of multimodal discourse. foreign language studies, (1), 81–88. [8] liu, y., & he, x. (2020). introduction to chinese and foreign universities: multimodal discourse analysis. overseas english, (2), 243–245. [9] du, y. (2020). multimodal discourse analysis of the promotion poster for the tv drama 'all good'. modern communication, (11), 90–93. [10] deng, y., li, m., & feng, d. (2024). the progress and frontiers of international multimodal discourse analysis. modern foreign languages, (3), 419–430. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n3p86 86 published by ideas spread vocal techniques and interpretation in performing chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry xiang gao1,2 & yap jin hin1 1 sultan idris education university, tanjung malim, malaysia 2 dalian university, dalian, liaoning, china correspondence: dr. yap jin hin sultan idris education university, tanjung malim, malaysia. received: april 30, 2025; accepted: may 31, 2025; published: june 10, 2025 abstract mao zedong’s poetry significantly influenced chinese vocal music in the 20th century and has been reflected in the creation of many chinese art songs. these songs are highly regarded in the chinese music industry and are considered great works of chinese literature and art. however, there is a lack of discussions on chinese art songs based on mao zedong’s poetry. this research aims to interpret and perform the musical styles of selected chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry. this study encompasses three research objectives. the first is to identify the characteristics inherent in chinese art songs based on mao zedong’s poetry. the second objective involves the interpretation of the technical aspects of mao zedong’s poetry in the context of chinese art songs. lastly, the third objective aims to perform selected chinese art songs based on mao zedong’s poetry in the form of recitals. this study will be conducted through the practice-based research framework, wherein textual and non-textual documentation will be utilized to report on the practice. by exploring the integration of mao zedong’s poetry into art songs, this study provides a distinct approach to interpreting and conveying his poetry's emotions, themes, and ideas. keywords: mao zedong’s poetry, vocal performance, chinese art songs based on mao zedong’s poetry 1. introduction focus on vocal techniques and interpretation in performing chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry stems from both personal and academic experiences. in 2012, attended the "mao zedong poetry art songs" concert sung by professor liao changyong at shanghai cultural square. professor liao changyong’ s professional performance quality and the monumental artistic features of the selected pieces—both in emotional expression and vocal technique—left a lasting impression on me, deepened my appreciation for this genre of music also sparked my passion to further explore the musical and vocal aspects of these works. mao zedong’s poetry, with its profound literary connotations, unique rhythm, and emotional depth, offers abundant material for vocal performance (chen, 2015). through the study and practice of these works, i have sought to construct a three-dimensional analytical framework of "historical context musical form vocal practice," focusing on how composers transform revolutionary romanticism into musical language and exploring the potential of bel canto technique to preserve national musical culture. this res earch not only carries forward the artistic philosophy of professor liao changyong but also actively contributes to the development of the chinese vocal school, providing a historical perspective and practical reference for contemporary vocal art. by undertaking this research, i hope to offer a more comprehensive understanding of the vocal techniques and interpretation required for the performance of chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry. through the exploration of these pieces, i aim to contribute to the further development of this repertoire, offering a valuable resource for vocal music majors, enthusiasts, and performers. additionally, i wish to bring attention to the cultural significance and musical richness of this body of work, encouraging a deeper appreciation for the intersection of politics, poetry, and music in the context of chinese art songs. 1.1 background of the study this study provides a detailed analysis of these challenges and practical solutions based on personal experience and research, which helps to gain a deeper understanding of the performance of chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry. it not only provides guidance for tenors and other singers but also offers a framework hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 87 published by ideas spread for approaching these works with sensitivity and artistic depth. ultimately, this research advances vocal artistry while fostering a greater appreciation for the intersection of mao zedong's poetry, music, and vocal performance. the significance of this study lies in its contribution to the field of vocal performance, particularly in the interpretation of chinese art songs based on mao zedong’s poetry. this research sheds light on the challenges involved in performing these songs and proposes solutions that enhance both vocal technique and interpretative depth for future performers. the study also encourages a deeper appreciation of the intersection between chinese poetry, western art song, and vocal performance, highlighting the importance of nuanced interpretation in achieving a successful and meaningful performance. 1.2 problem statement the analysis of songs adapted from mao zedong's poems is often limited to a single piece and its representative works, and rarely provides a detailed performance analysis based on the overall arrangement of the entire concert repertoire and the connections between each repertoire. the performance, technical challenge and subtle emotional delicacy of his works are the keys to a successful performance. although the historical and ideological aspects of mao's work are often discussed, the specific challenges of interpreting his poetry within the framework of vocal performances have not been fully explored. this research gap highlights the need for a more detailed discussion of the vocal techniques, interpretive strategies, and performance inputs required for the successful interpretation of these challenging works.1.3the limitation of studythe scope of the study is limited to the poetry written by mao zedong during the chinese agrarian revolution and new china. the repertoire selected for this study is limited to tenor voices for the recital of chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry. 2. literature and artistic review 2.1 the relationship between poetry and art songs the integration of poetry and music, a symbiotic relationship that underpins many of the world's most treasured cultural expressions, finds its roots in the ancient civilizations of the world. in particular, the oral traditions that flourished in societies like ancient china, greece, and later in medieval europe, clearly demonstrate the close linkage between the poetic form and its musical counterpart (wellek, 1962). the relationship between poetry and music was not merely incidental, but foundational to the way these civilizations communicated complex emotions, ideologies, and narratives (dabney, 1927). poetry was not simply a literary expression in these contexts, but rather a performance art intertwined with music, where each medium enriched and complemented the other. the early chinese art song movement, which combined western harmonic techniques with chinese literary forms, set a precedent for the later treatment of mao zedong's poetry (song, 2021). during the period of mao zedong's leadership, composers adapted his revolutionary poetry into art songs that were meant to reflect the ideological and political sentiments of the era, as well as the aesthetic ideals of chinese national ism (wang, 2024). these early art songs, such as those by composers like li jiefu (李劫夫), merged the revolutionary fervor of mao zedong’s poetry with the formal structures of western classical music, demonstrating how art song could be employed to serve both aesthetic and political purposes (wei & wei, 2020). in the context of mao zedong’s art songs, the fusion of poetry and music would become even more pronounced. as noted by xu (2023), the adaptation of mao zedong's works into art songs was not just a musical endeavor but also a highly politicized one. mao zedong’s poetry was infused with ideological content, and composers during this period were tasked with creating musical settings that not only highlighted the beauty of the poetry but also reinforced its political messages (fan, 2018). this dual purpose of the art songs—both as works of cultural expression and vehicles for political ideology—reflects a significant evolution of the chinese art song genre. unlike earlier, more purely aesthetic art songs, mao zedong’s poetry required a careful balance of musical and ideological elements to ensure that the message was both artistically compelling and politically appropriate (wan, 2024). 2.2 mao zedong's poetry: chinese art songs based on the poetry of political leaders mao zedong's poetry, as a unique cultural phenomenon in chinese history, has been widely integrated into the creation of chinese art songs. this integration not only reflects the political and historical context but also demonstrates the artistic value of combining political leadership with poetic expressiveness. 2.2.1 the aesthetic foundations of mao zedong's poetry mao zedong's poetry is celebrated for its integration of political vision and artistic excellence, a combination that makes it particularly suitable for musical adaptation. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 88 published by ideas spread as highlighted by luo (2017), mao zedong's poetry exhibits some distinct aesthetic features . first, epic beauty. mao zedong's poetry serve as a historical chronicle of modern china, documenting key political and military milestones from the chinese revolution to the establishment of the people's republic. poetry such asqinyuanchun·changsha, pusaman·huanghelou, and qilv·renmin jiefangjun zhanling nanjing trace the trajectory of china's transformation through revolutionary struggle (liu, 2008). these works a re not merely historical records but artistic representations of collective memory, characterized by grand imagery and panoramic visions (li, 2023). second, human beauty. beyond political grandeur, mao zedong's poetry reveals deep emotional layers, reflecting his personal relationships and empathy for the masses. the poem dielianhua·dalishuyi exemplifies this human touch, where mao zedong combines revolutionary idealism with personal grief over the loss of his wife yang kaihui ("i lose my proud poplar, you lose your willow"). the term "proud poplar" symbolizes both yang's political resilience and their intimate bond, showcasing mao zedong's ability to balance public duty with private emotion (wang, 2011). in musical settings, these emotional nuances are often emphasized through lyrical melodies and expressive vocal techniques, allowing listeners to connect with the leader's humanity behind the political icon. third, personality beauty .mao zedong's poetry reflects his towering personality—firmness, vision, and magnanimity—through expansive natural imagery. lines like "looking over ten thousand mountains dyed red" (qinyuanchun·changsha) and "a thousand miles of ice, ten thousand miles of swirling snow" (qinyuanchun·xue) embody his broad perspective and unyielding spirit (wang, 2011). composers often translate this grandeur into musical structures, using orchestral crescendos and powerful choral arrangements to mirror the poetic imagery. the resulting art songs thus become not just musical adaptations but sonic representations of mao zedong's leadership persona. fourth, philosophical beauty . mao zedong's verses are replete with philosophical insights, blending marxist dialectics with poetic metaphor. phrases like "the human world's right path is vicissitudes" (qilv·renmin jiefangjun zhanling nanjing) and "there is no difficulty in the world if one dares to scale it" (shuidiaotou·chongshang jinggangshan) offer both political wisdom and universal truths (liu, 2008; xu, 2001). in musical settings, these philosophical elements are often conveyed through modal shifts and harmonic progressions that evoke contemplation and resolve, transforming political messages into aesthetic experiences. 2.2.2 historical context of mao zedong's poetry in art song creation early development and pre-cultural revolution period: the integration of mao zedong's poetry into art songs can be traced back to the (anti-japanese war) era. this period saw the emergence of numerous musical works, with multiple composers setting the same poem to different melodies, demonstrating the rich potential of mao zedong's poetry as a source of musical inspiration (liu, 2011). the 1960s witnessed the publication of the first large-scale collection of chinese art songs based on mao zedong’s poetry, the great chorus of mao zedong's poetry, compiled by the student music creation group of peking university, marking a significant milestone in the formalization of this art form (xu, 2023). the cultural revolution (1966-1976) era saw a dramatic increase in the production and dissemination of chinese art songs based on mao zedong’s poetry. the political climate of the time played a crucial role in promoting these songs. unlike political slogans, mao zedong's poetry offered a more artistic and lyrical expression, which filled the spiritual void left by the suppression of other forms of music. a deep understanding of the historical and cultural context of mao zedong's poetry is essential for accurate artistic interpretation. as zhu (2015) stressed, each poem was written in a specific historical period, reflecting the social, political, and cultural circumstances of the time. singers need to be aware of this historical background to fully capture the solemnity, hardship, and unwavering determination expressed in the poem. singers not only need to accurately reproduce the musical notes but also effectively convey the emotional message of the art songs (sun & fu, 2024). qian (2018) analyzed the emotional spectrum of chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry and found that they range from the joy of victory to the grief of sacrifice, from the love for the motherland to the longing for a better future. to convey these complex emotions, singers must use a combination of vocal techniques, body language, and facial expressions. 2.3 vocal performance vocal performance in chinese art songs, particularly those based on mao zedong's poetry, demands a careful blend of historical understanding, technical vocal skills, and interpretive finesse. the fusion of traditional chinese literary and cultural elements with western vocal techniques creates a unique performance style. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 89 published by ideas spread singers must navigate the complexities of these songs, which require not only mastery of vocal technique but also an ability to convey the depth and emotion inherent in mao zedong's poetry. one of the primary challenges in performing chinese art songs is balancing the clarity of diction with expressive tonal qualities. as meng (2021) notes, chinese art songs combine elements of traditional chinese folk singing with western classical vocal training. unlike western art songs, which often prioritize clear phrasing and tonal beauty, chinese art songs place a greater emphasis on vocal color and emotional depth. mao zedong's poetry, rich in dramatic and politically charged content, demands a vocal s tyle that highlights both emotional resonance and tonal richness. singers must find ways to maintain clarity in the pronunciation of mandarin while delivering a performance that captures the expressiveness of the poetry. this requires a nuanced approach to breath control, resonance, and vowel modification, especially given the tonal nature of the chinese language (ying, 1981). moreover, the performance of chinese art songs often draws upon "bel canto" techniques, which emphasize smooth, legato singing and a beautiful tone. however, as kong (2024) argues, these techniques must be adapted to reflect the unique qualities of chinese poetry. singers must adjust their phrasing to accommodate the natural rhythms of the chinese language, ensuring that the vocal delivery aligns with the music and poetry. this flexibility in pitch and rhythm allows the performer to convey the meaning of the text more fully, while respecting the intricate structure of both the music and the poetry. the interpretive aspect of vocal performance in these songs is closely tied to the cultural and historical context of mao zedong's poetry. mao zedong's works often reflect revolutionary zeal, national pride, and deep emotional intensity, which can be challenging for performers to express. as meng (2021) suggests, singers must interpret mao zedong's poetry not only with an understanding of its emotional tone but also with an awareness of its political and historical significance. for example, mao zedong's poem "changsha," with its references to revolutionary struggle, calls for a performance that conveys the passion and intensity of the subject matter. this interpret ive challenge is compounded by the fact that chinese art songs typically emphasize a more subtle form of expression than the dramatic, operatic style found in western vocal traditions (fang, 2014). singers must strike a balance between projecting the emotions of the text and adhering to the restrained, nuanced performance style that is characteristic of chinese classical music. in addition to these vocal and interpretive techniques, the use of vibrato and dynamic variation plays a significant role in the performance of chinese art songs. as zeng (2024) points out, chinese singers often employ a more restrained vibrato compared to their western counterparts, resulting in a clearer and more focused tone. dynamic flexibility is also crucial, as mao zedong's poetry shifts from moments of quiet reflection to intense revolutionary fervor. singers must adapt their vocal delivery to these varying emotional intensities, ensuring that the performance reflects the full range of mao zedong's poetic vision. finally, physical and mental preparation is essential for the successful performance of chinese art songs. regular vocal exercises, as emphasized by xu (2023), are necessary to strengthen breath support and improve vocal flexibility. additionally, mental preparation is crucial, as performers must engage deeply with the emotional and historical context of mao's poetry. this involves understanding the political and social background of the poetry, as well as preparing oneself emotionally to convey their depth and intensity. 3. methodology in this chapter, the researcher outlines the methodology and methods employed to achieve the research objectives. the role of the researcher in this creative work study is also clarified, along with a discussion of the research design and conceptual framework. these elements will be applied in the following chapter and during the practical performances (two recitals). the recital presentations will serve as experiments to test the validity of the proposed theory. 3.1 research methodology/research paradigm basedresearch generally follows a cyclical approach involving creation, reflection, and evaluation of the creative process, often in collaboration with others. the researcher immerses themselves in the creative practice, analyzes the process and its outcomes, and uses these reflections to generate new insights and knowledge. in this creative study, the integration of artistic practice and musical interpretation is applied to specific artworks, which serve as the focus of the research. throughout this creative journey, the supervisor assists the researcher in completing the artistic practice. the singing experiences gained during this process are then used to reflect on and explore other forms of vocal works. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 90 published by ideas spread 3.2 re-creation and re-creator during there creation process, performers use their voices or musical instruments to derive something new from the compositions created by composers. unlike literature, art, and sculpture, which can be directly admired, music needs to be communicated to the audience through specific and perceivable means, such as singing, instrumental performance, or conducting. only in this way can the aesthetic value of musical and artistic works be realized. thomson and jaque (2016) were among to regard performers as creators. according to thomson and jaque, performers draw on their personal experiences, emotional sensibilities, and imagination when engaging with a musical repertoire. they have the capacity to mold the musical concepts put forward by composers. sometimes, their interpretations are restricted to a fixed musical meaning; at other times, performers introduce substantial modifications. taruskin (1995) concurred with meyer. he elaborated that "perfo rmance practice research, at its best, endeavors, based on documentary or statistical evidence, to bridge the divide between what is inscribed in surviving old musical texts and what was actually audible in typical contemporary performances" (p.18). over time, the relationship between composers and performers has evolved. taruskin also challenged the traditional notion that composers hold sole authority over music. he recognized that composers and performers have distinct priorities and that performers possess their own artistic viewpoints. as he put it, "performers should be granted some latitude in interpretation" (p.14). it is performers who breathe life into music, infusing it with their unique interpretations, expressions, and creativity. instead of m erely adhering to the composer’s original intentions, performers should assert their individuality in artistic decision making, in capturing subtleties, and in their personal engagement with the music. the role of re-creators is to safeguard the originality of composers’ musical works. this research on creative work focuses on the perspective of re creators in performance rather than composition. rabin (1972) considered performers as re creators of music. he pointed out that composers are often more open to altering their compositions compared to musicologists who might expect a more standardized performance each time. rabin further proposed that a performer’s understanding of a musical piece is influenced by multiple factors, including their technical proficiency, musical preferences, comprehension of the composer’s intentions, and the capabilities of their accompanying artists. hunter (2005) posited that performance is an act of recombination. through re imagination and performance experience, performers convey the composer’s ideas to the audience. kaučič (2005) stressed that re creators situate a song within a specific context and imbue it with their personal aesthetic sensibilities. he even explored how re creators might modify the way a song is sung, enabling the song to acquire new meaning either in response to changing circumstances or alongside its original meaning. wistreich and potter (2013) argued that the view of him and some performers as the performer as an interpreter of musical scores was inadequate. in his opinion, performers should be seen more as co-creators or re-creators. this stance was supported by park-fuller, potter, and achieng’akuno. park-fuller (2003) suggested that performers can assume various roles, such as speakers, listeners, or re creators. wistreich and potter (2013) advocated that performers should not be merely "interpreters" of the score. the more they incorporate their own insights into the score, the more equitable their relationship with the composer becomes. achieng’akuno (2019) believed that performers should function as re creators in musical and artistic endeavors. as are creator, the researcher opted to perform chinese art songs inspired by mao zedong's poetry. composers offer their unique creative ideas to performers. in a practicebased research framework, performers and singing techniques collaborate to interpret and generate meaning. the researcher, leveraging this opportunity as a re-creator, infuses new interpretations into the musical scores. starting from the scores, the researcher employs diverse methods during rehearsal. through vocal techniques and artistic acumen, the researcher deciphers the composer's creative intent and the historical backdrop. with proficient vocal skills as a foundation, the researcher skillfully integrates artistic expression techniques such as tone modulation, tempo control, timbre manipulation, volume variation, and embellishment. moreover, elements like style, emotion, artistic imagery, and imagination are effectively synthesized. in addition, as a re-creator, the researcher aims to accurately gauge the artistic sensibilities of the audience and guide their aesthetic preferences. this creative research contributes to expanding the audience's understanding of the selected works. by enhancing knowledge about these pieces, it aligns with the principles of practicebased research expounded in this chapter. 3.3 phase of investigation referring to the research question, the researcher divides the artistic design into three phases of investigation. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 91 published by ideas spread research question 1. what are the musical expressions of chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry? the first investigation stage of this creative research is to analyze selected chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry, conduct thematic analysis, and finally determine the singing repertoire. research question 2. when singing chinese art songs based on mao zedong’s poetry, what vocal technique and interpretation guidelines are essential to accurately convey the emotion and context of the poetry? the second phase of this creative research is to determine the singing techniques and related theories for performing chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry, in order to ensure accurate song styles. research question 3. how to perform the selected chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry in the form of recital? this researcher’s third phase of investigation is to perform the repertories in a recital. 3.4 conceptual framework according to grant and osanloo (2014), the conceptual framework provides a foundation or support point for a research plan, which can make the research paper more beneficial and organized. about the vocal techniques and interpretation in performing chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry, this study will use theory and practice together to form a conceptual framework to gain a comprehensive understanding, which is lacking in previous studies. figure 1. the relationships between all variables that make up this study this study uses chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry as the research background, and uses literature review and artistic review to address the three research questions of this study. the three research questions are: 1) what are the musical expressions of chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry? 2)when singing chinese art songs based on mao zedong’s poetry, what vocal technique and interpretation guidelines are essential to accurately convey the emotion and context of the poetry? 3) how to perform the selected chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry in the form of recital? the research questions are answered from three aspects: selection scope, technical aspect, and practice. the first research question of this study explores how to analyze the selected chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry and solve them from the perspectives of music elements, music content, and music styles. as the main component, to analyze the selection range of chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry in this study. at the same time, official documents, chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry, and other materials will hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 92 published by ideas spread be consulted as necessary conditions to ensure the credibility of the research. this section is revealed through literature review, music analysis, and practice. the second research question of this study starts from the theory of bel canto, using yizixingq, using yiqiangxingzi, and runqiang to develop vocal techniques and interpretation guidelines for singing chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry. this part will also be revealed through literature review and practice during the research process. the third research question of this study starts with the interpretation of the performance of 15 musical works. this section is expressed through five parts: reviewing revolutionary events, cultivating revolutionary spirit, practicing heroism, singing revolutionary hymns and experiencing revolutionary tenderness, thus completing music practice. this conceptual framework, as shown in above figure, explains the researcher’s performance investigation. there are two aspects of an investigation conducted: the first one relates to the theories and the second applies the theories in practice. the theories are based on literature and performance review, while the practice is led by feedback to theories. meanwhile, the practical investigation covers the analysis of singing techniques, different languages, unique expressions, and musical elements. all of them will compose a practice design of applying belcanto singing techniques in performing chinese art songs based on mao zedong poetry. in summary, this chapter provides practicebased research, clearly expresses the researcher’s standing in the research, and builds a conceptual framework to make the research process clearer. the methods discussed in this chapter will be applied in the next chapter. 4. referencesartistic creative process(process and findings) this chapter focuses on answering three key questions raised to verify the theme of this creative research. when using bel canto to sing chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry, singers need to analyze musical elements, understand musical content , follow musical styles, and apply singing theory to jointly solve the problems and challenges encountered in the singing process. the answers to these questions not only help clarify the goals and directions of the creation, but also provide theoretical support for further research and creation. 4.1 finding of research question 1 this section mainly explores how to analyze the selected chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry from three aspects: music elements, music content, and music style, and provides analysis and support based on the selected specific songs in this process. 4.1.1 various musical elements chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry are an art form composed of multiple elements, which work together to create a rich and colorful musical experience. this section mainly introduces beijing opera elements, 苏州评弹 suzhou pingtan music elements, and chinese and western music elements. 4.1.1.1 beijing opera elements chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry use elements of opera music. opera has a long history of development in china. there are many types of chinese opera, with a total of more than 360 types of operas in various ethnic regions (jiang, 2018) . in the structure of opera music, it mainly includes two parts: vocal music and instrumental music. vocal music mainly refers to singing and recitation, which is also the main body of opera music. instrumental music, as a means of expression, including 唱 singing, 念 reading, 做 doing and 打 playing as accompaniment to achieve the role of rendering and setting off the atmosphere (dong & hu, 2017). among them, beijing opera, which is used in the composition of chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry, originated in the late qing dynasty and developed from local operas such as 徽剧 hui opera and 秦腔 qin opera (long, 2016). it is not only a representative of traditional chinese opera, but also a treasure of chinese culture. the elements of beijing opera include music, singing, stage art, role types, performance skills and other aspects, which together constitute the core of beijing opera art. the use of beijing opera elements not only makes mao zedong's poetry vivid, but also fully utilizes the characteristics of the changes in the style of opera, whether lyrical, descriptive, passionate or calm, to show the great spirit and vigor under the leadership of a great man with the unique charm of opera. 沁园春·雪 qinyuanchun · snow created by tian feng is one of the songs with beijing opera elements , which is rich in national characteristics. during this period, china was in the middle of the cultural revolution. this song was created and published by tian feng in the 1970s, using the tunes of beijing opera music. in order to write this epic work well, he carefully studied the organizational structure and singing characteristics of beijing opera music. at hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 93 published by ideas spread the same time, he focused on the singing characteristics of beijing opera, and integrated the rhyme of 皮黄音韵 pihuang into the melody, which better reflected the artistic conception of poetry. 4.1.1.2 苏州评弹 suzhou pingtan the chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry performed in this resreach use elements of suzhou pingtan. suzhou pingtan is a traditional chinese rap art form that originated in the jiangnan region. it combines the elements of singing and commentary, and expresses stories or emotions through unique rhythms and beats. pingtan is usually performed with traditional musical instruments and vivid language and music, emphasizing improvisation and drama, and has high artistry and entertainment value (gui, 2024) . the use of suzhou pingtan not only makes chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry more lifelike, but also makes them more popular. wang zhixin's 七律二首·送瘟神 qilv ershou ·songwenshen uses a lot of suzhou pingtan elements. it expresses the satire and prayer for the plague with delicate language and profound emotions. the addition of suzhou pingtan elements enriches the tone changes of the music work, enhances the expressiveness of the work , and has strong social satire and artistry. 4.1.2 music content 4.1.2.1 revolutionary and contemporary mao zedong's poetry creation stems from his profound understanding of the chinese revolutionary cause and his personal experience (li, 2023) . when mao zedong was engaged in revolutionary activities in the early days, he often used poetry as a tool to express his emotions and thoughts. his poetry is not only a literary work, but also a tool for revolutionary propaganda. the motivation for the creation of his poetry is not only the need for personal expression, but also the purpose of political propaganda. the revolutionary nature of mao zedong's poetry is reflected in its function of praising the revolutionary spirit and boosting morale. therefore, the content of these songs that are musicalized from mao zedong's poetry naturally carries its strong revolutionary nature. in art songs, the revolutionary nature of mao zedong's poetry is usually expressed through the straightforwardness of the lyrics and the majesty of the music. the musical arrangement in the song often highlights its revolutionary significance, conveys confidence in the victory of the revolution and contempt for the enemy, and helps shape the collective consciousness and social atmosphere of the revolutionary period. 4.1.2.2 popularity and closeness to the people before the chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry were created , mao zedong's poetry were already familiar to the general public and soldiers, which laid a broad mass foundation for the creation and dissemination of chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry: under the guidance of mao zedong's 两个批示 two instructions, the slogan of three transformations was put forward, which had an important influence on the formation of "mass character" in chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry : the mass song style created by revolutionary musicians represented by nie er and xian xinghai also had a certain influence on chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry: many composers of chinese art songs based on mao zedong 's poetry were military composers , such as li jiefu and lu zulong. their revolutionary struggle experience and deep understanding of military life laid a solid foundation for the mass character of the musical style of chinese art songs based on mao zedong 's poetry . in the era of war and 以阶级斗争为纲 taking class struggle as the key link, the mass nature of chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry was reflected in the use of a song form that was easily accepted by the majority of soldiers and the masses as an important composing technique, that is, composing mao zedong's poetry into music at the speed and style of a march, and the form structure of the whole score made the poetry more concise and easy to remember and sing. 4.1.2.3 education and publicity chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry have played an important role in china's modern history. they have not only had a profound impact on the artistic level, but also played a significant role in education and propaganda. chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry not only have rich literary value, but also have profound political thoughts. in the process of musicalization, these poetry are given a more intuitive way of expression, so that the ideological content can be conveyed to ordinary people more widely and deeply. through the melody and lyrics of the songs, the audience can more easily accept and understand the revolutionary ideas and thoughts advocated by mao zedong . for example, the poem 浪淘沙·北戴河 langtaoshai· beidaihe reflects mao zedong's pride in the victory of the chinese revolution and his vision for the future. after musicalization, these poetry further inspire people's patriotic feelings and revolutionary spirit through passionate melodies and catchy lyrics. at the same time, the educational nature of chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry is also reflected in moral education. for example, his poetry often reflect the pursuit of revolutionary ideals, care for the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 94 published by ideas spread nation and the people, and the requirements for personal morality. these contents are further emphasized in the songs, so that the audience is not only enlightened ideologically, but also emotionally and morally encouraged , such as the art song 卜算子·咏梅 busuanzi·yongmei . 4.1.3 music style musical style is one of the core elements of musical art, reflecting the unique characteristics of a period, region, culture and individual creation. 4.1.3.1 revolutionary music style revolutionary music style refers to a musical style formed during the revolutionary movement and revolutionary war period, which is mainly used to express revolutionary ideals , passion and fighting spirit, and to inspire and encourage the morale of the revolutionary team and the broad masses of the people. revolutionary music usually has distinct characteristics of the times and political background, and conveys revolutionary spirit and ideas through music. this musical style was formed under a specific historical background, and through its wide dissemination and singing, it inspired the fighting spirit of countless revolutionaries, spread revolutionary ideas and culture, and recorded revolutionary history. since mao zedong's poetry creation bears a strong imprint of the revolutionary era, the creation of chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry creation also has a distinct revolutionary music style , which is reflected in the high range, fast speed, strong and powerful passionate melody and many typical heroic endings in the works. it is particularly prominent in mao zedong's poetry songs that express revolutionary war scenes (wang, 2006) . this is also a major feature of mao zedong's poetry song creation. 沁园春·长沙 qinyuanchun·changsha composed by liu chunan is a song full of revolutionary spirit. mao zedong used the description of changsha's autumn scenery and his recollections of his revolutionary struggles in his youth to express the revolutionary youth's feelings about the fate of the country and their lofty ambitions to take the world as their own responsibility, despise the reactionary rulers, and transform the old china. this is the determination of the chinese people to move forward in the course of history and the strongest voice of the times. 到中流击水，浪遏飞舟 strike the water in the middle of the stream, and the waves will stop the flying boat. this is an exciting and fascinating landscape, which shows the author and his comrades' heroic and fearless revolutionary spirit and lofty ambitions to transform the old china. 4.1.3.2 poetry and musical style poetry music style is an art form that combines poetry and music, emphasizing both the literary nature of poetry and the expressiveness of music. at the same time , poetry music style focuses on the rhythm of the poem itself , which is mainly reflected in the regular repetition of sentence structure and the regular alternation of long and short sentences. this style occupies an important position in the history of music in china and abroad. by integrating the artistic conception and emotion of poetry into music, the work has profound artistic appeal and cultural connotation . mao zedong claimed that his works were new poetry written in the old style, which was written in the form of classical poetry, so it had the rhythmic beauty of classical poetry. as fan ( 2008) , a famous vocal aesthetician in china, said: " the voice of classical chinese poetry has melodic characteristics. in a sense, the melodic meaning of its formal characteristics is more inclined to music. this is probably one of the important foundations of the formal beauty of traditional chinese music." the poetic music style not only pays attention to the poetic meaning of the melody, but also pays attention to the expression of rhythm. the melodies in chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry often fit in with the artistic conception and emotions of the poetry. for example, when composing melodies, composer li jiefu focused on expressing the imagery and emotions of the poetry, and enhanced the expressiveness of the poetry through the ups and downs and changes of the melody. the five-character and seven-character sentence structures in 卜算子·咏梅 busuanzi·yongmei formed the consistency of the rhythm and beat of the sentences, making the changes in the rhythm and rhyme of the poetry appear "long and short interlaced, the rhythm is uneven, and thus more varied and full of vitality." the poetic music style (liu & liu, 2012) achieves the purpose of having a musical ups and downs and flow. 4.1.3.3 national music style the manifestations of folk music style include melody, rhythm, harmony, instrument use, singing style, etc. melody usually has a specific scale and mode; rhythm may use local beats and rhythm patterns; in terms of harmony, many folk music may rely on simple harmonic structures. in the musical creation of mao zedong's poetry, elements of traditional chinese folk music, such as folk songs, operas, classical music, etc. , are widely used in his folk music style . this is a common and frequent phenomenon. in the songs written for chairman mao zedong's poetry , composers also boldly adopted this style . however, this kind of "taking" is not a simple mechanical copy, reproduction or superficial imitation, but a scientific attitude and rigorous academic style. on the basis of extensive reading and extensive mastery, through solid learning and long-term creative practice, we hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 95 published by ideas spread can clarify its morphological characteristics, explore its essence, and creatively apply and melt it into our own creations, so that we can clearly feel the close flesh-and-blood connection with a certain folk song or national music in our works (wang, 2006) , so that these works have both vivid and distinct national style and vivid and lively musical language and new contemporary style. for example, tian feng's 沁园春·雪 qinyuanchun·snow uses beijing opera singing to show its national music style. in addition, after the poem 蝶恋花·答李淑一 dielianhua·da li shuyi was composed , it also adopted the melody style of hunan folk songs, showing a strong local color (wang, 2011). 4.3 finding of research question 3 this section mainly consists of two parts. the first part is to select the repertoire for two solo concerts, and the second part is the preparation for the solo concerts. 4.3.1 selection of recital repertories the researchers selected representative poetry from the two periods of china's land revolution and the new china to arrange the order of performance according to the five major categories of themes expressed in chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry . the first solo concert selected 12 pieces to perform, and the second solo concert added 3 pieces to the first solo concert. the 15 selected chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry are from famous chinese composers in this field. these composers include ding shande, lu zulong, wang zhixin, luo bin, li jiefu, liu chunan, tian feng, wang yunzhi, xu peidong, jiang dingxian, meng yong and qu xixian, a total of 12 famous composers. the 15 selected chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry are as follows: 西 江 月 ·井 冈 山 xijiangyue·jinggangshan composed by ding shande, 忆秦娥·娄山关 yi qine ·loushanguan composed by lu zulong, 七律二首·送瘟神 qilv ershou ·songwenshen composed by wang zhixin, 菩萨蛮·黄鹤楼 pusa man ·huanghelou composed by luo bin, 清平乐·会昌 qingpingyue·huichang composed by ding shande, 卜算 子·咏梅 busuanzi·yongmei composed by li jiefu, 沁园春·长沙 qinyuanchun·changsha composed by liu chun'an, 十六字令三首 shiliuziling sanshou composed by ding shande, 沁园春·雪 qinyuanchun · snow composed by tian feng, 浪淘沙·北戴河 langtaoshai· beidaihe composed by wang yunzhi, 清平乐·六盘山 qingpingle·liupanshan composed by xu peidong, 水调歌头·游泳 shuidiaogetou·youyong composed by jiang dingxian, 七律·答友人 qilv·dayouren composed by meng yong, 贺新郎·挥手从兹去 he xinlang·huishou congziqu composed by qu xixian, and 蝶恋花·答李淑一 dielianhua·da li shuyi composed by qu xixian. the creative research uses these songs to compare the performance effects of different types of songs under the same singing techniques from different perspectives such as language, lyrics, music, etc. in other words, the creative process is attached to the theory, and the researchers take notes in constant discussion after a lot of personal practice and mock rehearsals, formal recordings and live performances. overall, the focus of this creative research is to refer to the connotation of mao zedong's poetry and the composition skills of chinese composers, and through practice and exercises , establish a new singing theory based on mao zedong's poetry and use bel canto techniques to sing chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry. chinese traditional music elements have deep traces in chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry, which will provide a reference for singers when singing. in addition, in order to enhance the audience's musical experience, there is a short introduction before each work, and slides are used as an aid in the preparation process. at the same time, the slides will also show the original text of each chinese art song based on mao zedong's poetry, and the english translation will make it easier for the audience to understand the meaning of mao zedong's poetry. 4.3.2 recital preparation the researchers ' singing preparations began with understanding the background of the songs' creation , and the songs were divided into five themes according to the content of the poetry. this was followed by practical learning with the instructor, including reciting mao zedong's poetry , singing techniques of bel canto, and the application of these techniques in chinese art songs based on mao zedong's poetry , as well as coordination with piano accompaniment , and problems and challenges encountered in singing. 4.3.2.1 review of revolutionary events there are three songs in this section: 西江月 ·井冈山 xijiangyue·jinggangshan, 忆秦娥 ·娄山关 yi qine ·loushanguan and 七律二首·送瘟神 qilv ershou ·songwenshen. the researchers chose these three art songs to review specific revolutionary events and convey emotions through events. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 96 published by ideas spread through the description of the jinggangshan defense battle, the poem 西江月·井冈山 xijiangyue·jinggangshan passionately praises the heroic fighting spirit of the jinggangshan soldiers who defended the base area, and expresses the poet's calm and unhurried, unchanging response to changes, and the genius strategic and tactical thinking of winning thousands of miles away (zhang, 2023) . ding shande (1913-2001) used traditional tunes in the composition of 西江月·井冈山 xijiangyue·jinggangshan and combined it with the style of folk music to enhance the expressiveness of the lyrics. the musical structure of the song can be roughly divided into an introduction, a main song, a chorus, and an epilogue. in the process of composing the music, ding shande fully considered the emotions and artistic conception of the lyrics of 西江月·井冈山xijiangyue·jinggangshan. in terms of melody, ding chose traditional chinese music elements to match the style of the lyrics. the melody is smooth and lyrical, especially when describing the natural scenery and revolutionary spirit, the ups and downs and changes of the melody enhance the expressiveness of the lyrics. 忆秦娥·娄山关 yi qine ·loushanguan is a poem written by mao zedong, a modern revolutionary and writer, in 1935. this poem was written after the fierce battle of loushanguan. it takes the battle of loushanguan as the theme , and outlines a magnificent winter night march from the inside out, depicting the intense and fierce scenes of the red army's battle of loushanguan during the long march, and showing the author's calm demeanor and broad mind in the face of failure and difficulties (xu & zhong, 2022) . when lu zulong, who was born in 1928, composed 忆秦娥·娄山关 yi qine ·loushanguan, he fully considered the passionate emotional expression and the purpose of being easy to sing, and adopted the artistic expression form of solo in the composition. through the single three-part form, the same lyrics are progressively advanced through different melodies, pushing the music to a climax. 七律二首·送瘟神 qilv ershou ·songwenshen is a poem written by mao zedong after he read the news that yujiang county had eliminated schistosomiasis in the people's daily on june 30, 1958. the second poem describes the broad masses of working people in the new society conquering nature, managing mountains and rivers, and at the same time filling trenches and leveling ditches to eliminate snails . it shows that under the socialist system, the working people of new china are in high spirits and high morale, defeating the god of plague, conquering nature, and making the motherland prosperous (kong, 2024) . in 1922, modern composer wang zhixin composed 七律 二首·送瘟神 qilv ershou ·songwenshen for academic vocal scholars. he used suzhou pingtan as the creative foundation, integrated national tunes and modern western composition techniques, and presented the score with professional piano accompaniment vocal score. the combination of chinese and western styles makes the music work present the style of opera and academic style, and is more artistic. the traditional opera elements he incorporated into his creation not only vividly reproduced the poetic images of the songs, but also fully demonstrated the national characteristics and charm of chinese works, showing the majestic and magnificent leadership of the great man. the prominent national characteristics in the works have a positive effect on the inheritance of chinese traditional music and culture, and at the same time make the poetry and songs shine. 4.3.2.2 cultivating the revolutionary spirit there are three songs in this section, 菩 萨 蛮 ·黄 鹤 楼 pusa man ·huanghelou, 清 平 乐 ·会 昌 qingpingyue·huichang and 卜算子·咏梅 busuanzi·yongmei. all three art songs revolve around complex emotional changes and finally strengthen the revolutionary spirit. the poem 菩萨蛮·黄鹤楼 pusa man ·huanghelou was created in 1927. when the poem was published in the first issue of "poetry magazine" in january 1957, mao zedong wrote a self-note: "in 1927, on the eve of the failure of the great revolution, i felt desolate and didn't know what to do. it was the spring of that year. on august 7 in the summer, the emergency meeting of the party decided to fight armed struggle, and from then on, we found a way out." this poem expresses mao zedong's gloomy ambitions and eager expectations for the era in which he lived, and also expresses his anxiety about the future of the revolution, his confidence in the future, and his optimism with firm belief in the revolution (wang, 2020) . when luo bin composed the music for 菩萨蛮·黄鹤楼 pusa man ·huanghelou, he used the national mode to create the melody, and the overall tonality of the melody was b e palace-c featherb e palace. among them, the partial tone palace sound d and the clear angle sound b a focus on the strong beats and strong positions of the measure, so that the national mode is also permeated with strong western major and minor mode characteristics, and the mode tonality reflects the integration of chinese and western creative techniques. 清平乐·会昌 qingpingyue·huichang was written in 1934. this qingpingyue, like pushaman, expresses the same mood. "at that time, the communist party of china and the red army were led by the "three-man group" of bo gu, zhou enlai and li de (german). mao zedong was squeezed out of the leadership group and "recovered from illness" in huichang. this poem was first published in "poetry magazine" in january 1957. the tone of "huichang" hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 97 published by ideas spread is high-spirited and the language is magnificent, reflecting mao zedong's positive and optimistic mental state and indomitable will, but the words also vaguely reveal the poet's worries and resentment (liu, 2018) . composer ding shande used this as the lyrics, and constructed a broad artistic conception with a strong national style. 卜算子·咏梅 busuanzi·yongmei is a poem written by mao zedong in the same tune and title as lu you. through the creation of the beautiful and tenacious image of the plum blossom, this poem expresses the chinese nation and the chinese communists' heroic, modest and open-minded feelings of despising all kinds of difficulties, and encourages the whole party and the people of the country to uphold the truth of marxism, fight unyieldingly against revisionism and all reactionary forces, and strengthen their confidence that the ideal communist society will inevitably be realized. it encourages people to have a mighty and unyielding spirit and an optimistic spirit of revolution to the end. when li jiefu (1913-1976) composed the music for it, he used many supporting words, which conforms to the usual way of writing red songs in that era, giving people a more respectful and regular feeling, like the traditional simple poetry recitation form. 4.3.2.3 practicing heroism there are four songs in this section:沁园春·长沙 qinyuanchun·changsha, 十六字令三首 shiliuziling sanshou, 沁园春·雪 qinyuanchun · snow and 浪淘沙·北戴河 langtaoshai· beidaihe. the four art songs all express emotions through scenery and show different revolutionary heroism. 沁园春·长沙 qinyuanchun·changshais a masterpiece by the young mao zedong. it is a magnificent poem about visiting the old place to enjoy the autumn scenery, recalling classmates and thinking about the past, inspiring fighting spirit and expressing lofty sentiments. through the description of the autumn scenery of changsha and the recollection of the revolutionary struggle life in the youth, this poem expresses the revolutionary youth's feelings about the fate of the country and the lofty ambition to take the world as their own responsibility, despise the reactionary rulers, and transform the old china (jiang, 2023) . by expressing emotions through scenery, it evokes people's heroic spirit and noble sentiments in striving for their ideals. when liu chunan composed the music for it, he used many ornaments to refine the emotional expression of the music. selected for this concert 十六字令三首 shiliuziling sanshou describe the mountains on the long march. they are majestic, bold, and natural, showing the shape and style of the mountains, and also reflecting the author's broad mind and ambition. when ding shande composed the music for it, he used a short piece. the short song does not mean it is easy to sing. the melody and rhythm of this song seem to have no obvious ups and downs, but the singer needs to pay attention to the stability of his breath when singing. ding shande’s decision to employ a short form composition for 十六字令三首 shiliuziling sanshou was a masterstroke, mirroring the concise yet impactful nature of mao zedong’s poetry. although the melody and rhythm might initially appear subdued, closer examination reveals a nuanced musical landscape. the first part of 沁园春·雪 qinyuanchun · snow describes the magnificent snow scene in the north, which stretches for thousands of miles, showing a majestic, broad-minded and heroic artistic conception, and expressing the poet's love for the magnificent rivers and mountains of the motherland. the second part is argumentative and lyrical, focusing on commenting on historical figures, praising contemporary heroes, and expressing the proletariat's ambition to be the true master of the world (bai, 2023) . the whole poem combines description, argumentation and lyricism, with a magnificent artistic conception, magnificent momentum, unrestrained emotions, and a heroic mind, which can represent the bold style of mao zedong's poetry. in 1970, tian feng composed music for it after studying the organizational structure and singing characteristics of beijing opera music. 浪淘沙·北戴河 langtaoshai· beidaiheis a poem written by mao zedong during a meeting in beidaihe, qinhuangdao in the summer of 1954. this poem vividly depicts the magnificent scenery of the beidaihe seaside at the turn of summer and autumn, and shows the unprecedented majestic spirit and vast mind of the proletarian revolutionaries. wang yunzhi composed music for it, repeating the first stanza of the poem "一片汪洋都不见， 知向谁边？there is no ocean in sight, who knows where it is?" and the second stanza of the poem "萧瑟秋风今 又是，换了人间 the bleak autumn wind is here again, and the world has changed", emphasizing mao zedong's political ambitions, great talents and enterprising spirit. 4.3.2.4 singing the revolutionary hymn there are three songs in this section: 清 平 乐 ·六 盘 山 qingpingle·liupanshan, 水 调 歌 头 ·游 泳 shuidiaogetou·youyong and 七律·答友人 qilv·dayouren. all three art songs eulogize the strong will and firm belief of the revolution. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 98 published by ideas spread 清平乐·六盘山 qingpingle·liupanshan is a poem written by mao zedong in 1935. this poem reviews the journey of the long march and expresses the iron will of the red army soldiers to forge ahead and their firm belief in the victory of the war of resistance. this is a victory song that advances in battle and a manifesto that inspires people and inspires fighting spirit. the whole poem is majestic, vigorous, bold, unique and upright, and has a strong appeal. composer xu peidong used a broad and vast musical tone to create it. 水调歌头·游泳 shuidiaogetou·youyong depicts the scene of active construction in the early days of the founding of the people's republic of china , expresses mao zedong's praise for the chinese people's heroic spirit in building the motherland and changing the mountains and rivers, and reflects the author's vision of the future (li & qiu, 2017). the poem 水调歌头·游泳 shuidiaogetou·youyong is filled with vivid imagery and profound emotions. in the musical adaptation of this poem, composers typically draw on a wide range of musical elements to bring its essence to life. many arrangements feature a harmonious blend of orchestral and traditional chinese instruments, creating a rich and textured soundscape that parallels the grandeur of the poem's themes. 七律·答友人 qilv·dayouren uses the topic of a friend giving a poem or a present to start an association, integrating myth, reality and ideal. it describes the past, present and future of my hometown, expresses gratitude to friends, homesickness and blessings to fellow villagers. it praises the people's enterprising spirit, extols the great achievements of the people in the great leap forward and the great victory of the three red flags, and envisions a bright future for mankind . when meng yong composed the music for it, he added a lot of ornaments. the melody speed was designed to change from 60 to 124 to 60. the first section shows a beautiful effect. the middle section shows a lively effect, and the last section ends with a broad effect. 4.3.2.5 experience revolutionary tenderness two songs in this section,贺新郎·挥手从兹去 he xinlang·huishou congziqu and 蝶恋花·答李淑一 dielianhua·da li shuyi. both art songs were composed by qu xixian . they are centered around the transformation from small love to great love , and show the tenderness of revolution. 贺新郎·挥手从兹去 he xinlang·huishou congziqu shows mao zedong's true love and trust for yang kaihui. it also expresses that mao zedong has transformed his love for his wife and family into love for the revolutionary cause, showing mao zedong's broad political sentiments (zhu, 1996) . the composer qu xixian was moved by their tenderness and set the keynote of the whole song as "affectionately", and changed it to "meno mosso freely" in the 43rd bar to present tenderness and perseverance. qu xixian’s composition for 贺新郎·挥手从兹去 he xinlang·huishou congziqu is a masterful blend of musical elements, carefully crafted to mirror the complex emotions embedded within mao zedong’s poetry. the opening bars, set to an "affectionately" tonality, immediately draw listeners into the tender relationship between mao zedong and yang kaihui. delicate piano melodies, accompanied by soft string arrangements, create an intimate atmosphere, mimicking the gentle exchanges between the couple. at bar 43, the shift to "meno mosso freely" marks a significant emotional transition. here, the music becomes more contemplative, yet resolute, symbolizing mao zedong’s transformation of personal love into a profound commitment to the revolutionary cause. 蝶恋花·答李淑一 dielianhua·da li shuyi was qu xixian composed the song on may 11, 1957. this song is a work of mourning, expressing the author's infinite affection for his wife, martyr yang kaihui, and close comradein-arms martyr liu zhixun, expressing his care for the martyrs' widows and old friends, and his deep mourning and high respect for the revolutionary martyrs. qu xixian’s musical arrangement of 蝶恋花·答李淑一 dielianhua·da li shuyi is a harmonious blend of solemnity and sentimentality, cleverly using changes in tempo and intensity to tell a moving story. as the music progresses, it gradually builds up in a carefully choreographed crescendo, mirroring the emotional journey of the poet’s remembrance. qu xixian lamented that the achievements of the revolution were hard-won. when composing the song, he started with a "slow tempo, with the intensity changing from "pp--mp--mf--mp-f--ff " , bringing the audience into contemplation. 5. summary this study focuses on chinese art songs adapted from mao zedong's poems, and revolves around their vocal techniques and interpretation. the study aims to fill the research gap in this field. by constructing a threedimensional analysis framework of "historical context-music form-vocal practice", the study adopts a practicebased research paradigm to explore this type of art songs in depth. the study found that mao zedong's poems have epic beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and philosophical beauty, and their integration with art songs has both aesthetic and political functions. in terms of musical characteristics, the works incorporate traditional elements such as peking opera and suzhou pingtan. the content reflects revolutionary, mass and educational nature, and the style covers revolutionary, poetic and national types. in terms of vocal performance, it is necessary to balance pronunciation and intonation, adjust the bel canto singing method to adapt to the characteristics of hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 99 published by ideas spread chinese, and interpret the emotions of poetry in combination with historical context. finally, through two solo concerts, the researchers selected 15 classic works and performed them according to five major themes such as reviewing revolutionary events and cultivating revolutionary spirits to verify the research theory and provide practical reference and theoretical support for the singing and inheritance of chinese art songs. references [1] abbate, c., & parker, r. 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(2017). the anthology of chinese drama theory in the 20th century. anhui education press. [26] dowd, a., smith, j., & wolfe, j. (1998). learning to pronounce vowel sounds in a foreign language using acoustic measurements of the vocal tract as feedback in real time. language and speech, 41(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/002383099804100101 [27] edmunds, n. (2004). soviet music and society under lenin and stalin. new york. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203496268 [28] elliott, m. (2006). singing in style: a guide to vocal performance practices. yale university press. [29] evans, r. c. (2014). perspectives on world war i poetry. a&c black. [30] fairclough, p. (2016). classics for the masses: shaping soviet musical identity under lenin and stalin. yale university press. https://doi.org/10.12987/yale/9780300217193.001.0001 [31] fan, z. q. (2018). exploring the heroism and romantic sentiment in the interpretation of mao zedong's poetry songs (master's thesis, hunan normal university). [32] fang, s. (2014). meaningful, interesting, and unexpected: listening to xu peidong’s new song "qinyuanchun: changsha" based on mao zedong’s poetry. people’s music, (02), 30–31. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n3p29 29 published by ideas spread principles for the standardized handling of digital property inheritance qizhen yang1 1 shanxi university, china correspondence: qizhen yang, shanxi university, taiyuan, shanxi, china. received: april 24, 2025; accepted: march 5, 2025; published: march 6, 2025 abstract the emergence of digital property has sparked another revolution in the expansion of the objects of rights, gradually becoming an important component of citizens' legitimate property. ensuring the inheritance of digital heritage is an inherent requirement for realizing citizens' digital property rights. however, due to the characteristics of digital heritage-such as the intangibility of its objects, the diversity of its forms, and the complexity of its rightsit poses challenges to the existing inheritance system.the main problems facing digital heritage inheritance are the unclear legal status of digital heritage, the difficulties in applying traditional inheritance models, and the conflicts of rights inherent in digital heritage itself. digital heritage inheritance should adopt a typological approach, categorizing digital heritage into three types based on their different characteristics: personality rights-based, property rights-based, and composite rights-based. different types of heritage inheritance should adhere to principled methods of handling, including the principle of party autonomy, the principle of value hierarchy, the principle of proportionality, and the principle of division of rights, all of which are innovatively applied in the context of digital property. a forward-looking legal framework for digital heritage inheritance should define the legal status of digital heritage, establish inheritance principles, and clarify the obligations of third-party platforms. digital heritage inheritance also requires the coordinated efforts of a digital heritage trustee system, technical protection and regulatory systems, and international cooperation mechanisms. the realization of digital heritage inheritance is not only a necessary condition for safeguarding citizens' legitimate property rights, but also an important component for promoting economic development in the digital age. effective digital heritage inheritance and reasonable distribution not only ensure the comprehensive protection of citizens' property rights, but also serve as an important indicator of the level of legal civilization in society. keywords: digital legacy, personality rights, property rights, inheritance principles 1. introduction the united nations charter on the preservation of digital heritage provides the following definition: digital heritage is defined as unique resources of human knowledge and expression. this includes cultural, educational, scientific, and administrative resources, as well as technical, legal, medical, and other information created in digital form or converted from existing analog resources into digital form. the issue of digital heritage inheritance has emerged as a novel challenge in the legal field in the digital age. a considerable number of practical cases concerning the inheritance of digital heritage have already emerged. for instance, a content creator on bilibili, a video-sharing platform, born in the 1990s, visited the china will repository to draft a will. the creator, who had amassed a following of millions, intended to leave their account to a friend for management after their death and to bequeath their virtual assets, valued at 3 million yuan, to their parents. digital heritage is a multifaceted concept that encompasses the legal principles of digital property and inheritance. (thwaites, 2013) digital property is defined as property that exists in the form of data and is controlled by a specific entity. inheritance is defined as the personal legal property left behind by a natural person upon their death. inheritance is defined as the process of transferring the personal legal property of a natural person to others following their death. china's legal provisions on "digital property" are delineated in article 127 of the civil code of the people's republic of china (hereinafter referred to as the "civil code"): in instances where legal frameworks are in place to safeguard data and virtual assets within the digital landscape, these provisions are to be duly implemented. despite the explicit inclusion of the terms "data" and "virtual property on the internet" in the civil code's provisions, this referential clause lacks a clear definition of the scope and content of digital property rights and obligations. consequently, the application of this clause in cases pertaining to digital property inheritance is hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 30 published by ideas spread challenging. digital property has the potential to constitute an estate; however, it possesses distinct characteristics that differentiate it from general estate, thereby presenting numerous challenges for its inheritance. in the current era, characterized by the proliferation of information, it is imperative to establish a corresponding property regime, explore and improve the legal framework for digital heritage inheritance from both legislative and practical perspectives, and continuously refine the relevant laws and regulations governing digital heritage inheritance. this is a critical task of our time. 2. digital heritage 2.1 new types of heritage in the digital age in the context of digital inheritance law, the right to inherit is attributed to digital assets. the emergence of digital assets is a consequence of the interplay among multiple factors, including the rapid development of information technology, the rise of the digital economy, and the flourishing of the virtual economy. digital assets refer to forms of property that exist in the virtual space, possess a certain economic value, and can be possessed and utilized. they encompass digital currency, digital collectibles, virtual property, and significant data. the fundamental nature of digital assets is data, expressed through the codes of 0 and 1. the ability to access, modify, and transmit these assets requires the utilization of technological equipment and external virtual network services. a distinguishing feature of digital assets is their existence in a digital form, independent of physical objects. instead, they depend on computer systems for their existence. this characteristic distinguishes digital assets from traditional assets, which can be physically possessed and controlled. similarly, digital assets cannot be fully characterized in legal terms as a property subject. the control of digital assets typically necessitates the use of technological tools and the assistance of external services. (parry, 2010) 2.2 digital estate properties comparative analysis of digital and traditional estates：in the context of legal studies, the definition of digital assets, which are considered part of the digital economy, can be understood through a comparison with traditional assets. chinese scholar song jianwei has defined and enumerated digital assets using the concept of digital property. digital assets can be described as "rights to possess, govern, and divide that exist in digital formats, including virtual currencies, online assets, and data." (sun, 2024) joshua fairfield, a scholar from the united states, posits that a comprehensive information resource that meets the criteria of "virtual property" must also exhibit the qualities of competitiveness, durability, and interconnectedness. (j. a., 2005)charles blazer, a prominent figure in the field of digital currency and blockchain technology, has proposed a set of criteria for determining the merits of digital assets. according to blazer, a digital asset should meet the following five criteria: rivalry: the presence of competition among stakeholders. persistence: the ability to withstand prolonged periods of low-interest rates and maintain its value. interconnectivity: the capacity for seamless integration and interaction with existing financial systems and networks. secondary markets: the existence of markets where digital assets can be traded, facilitating their circulation and use. value-added by users: the contribution of users to the value of the digital asset, through their participation and utilization. (blazer, 2006) as previously mentioned, the definition of "digital property" encompasses both traditional property and the characteristics of competition inherent in both. this property can be possessed, controlled, and transferred by an individual or entity, thereby facilitating its role in economic activities. the concept of "property" is deeply rooted in the concept of ownership, which is defined by the possession and control of tangible assets. the competitive nature of this relationship is derived from the fundamental nature of these assets. for example, a single apple can only be consumed once, and the energy it provides is finite. in contrast, the concept of "data" is characterized by its ability to be repeatedly copied and disseminated, resulting in its infinite replicability. this characteristic is distinct from the competitive nature of "property," where rival entities compete for possession and utilization of physical assets. data can be considered as a form of non-rival property due to its capacity to be replicated without significant alteration, thereby ensuring its relevance and utility across different users. this attribute of data is distinct from the proprietary nature of information, which is protected by law and can be subject to competition. however, data can be viewed as a form of rivalry, characterized by the pursuit of possession, control, and utilization of data by different entities. this pursuit is not driven by a desire to possess data for its own sake, but rather by the need to utilize it for specific purposes, such as financial gain, the creation of new content, or the protection of intellectual property rights. data can encompass a wide range of information, including personal information, social media accounts, and other data. these forms of information are subject to legal protection due to their association with personal rights. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 31 published by ideas spread the primary distinction between digital and traditional assets lies in their permanence and interconnectedness. digital assets possess inherent permanence, unaffected by wear and tear or physical damage. this attribute enables their stable existence as a sequence of 0s and 1s. conversely, the interconnectedness of digital assets facilitates their accessibility and enhances their value. the accessibility of digital assets is primarily influenced by two factors. firstly, the ability to control and modify data is crucial. secondly, the transfer of control over data between different entities is pivotal. in the context of traditional property, the control status of property is achieved through "publication." for movable property, this primarily refers to the physical possession of the property itself, while for immovable property, it refers to registration. the transfer, circulation, and orderliness of property are also established on this stable foundation. however, in the realm of digital property, there is no direct way to possess or register physical property. individuals require technical means to create, modify, and control digital property, whether it is a physical medium such as a usb flash drive or a digital platform such as a cloud storage service. a social media account represents a form of digital property control for the user. in the digital space, a similar registration and publication model exists. for example, a social media account on a social media platform can publish content that is visible to other users. this content serves to express the relationship between the account holder and the account itself, and it achieves the effect of publication. in addition, there are significant differences in the protection and circulation of tangible and digital assets. traditional assets can be controlled through physical means, while digital assets require technical means, such as the use of passwords and usernames. however, both types of assets are vulnerable to illegal access and theft, which are often achieved through technical means. this type of infringement is often concealed, making it difficult for users to identify it and difficult for them to seek redress. in digital asset transactions, the transfer of assets between parties requires the involvement of a third-party network platform, which may be subject to the terms of a prior contract. the possession and circulation of digital assets, including digital currencies, require technical means to ensure security and facilitate transactions through network platforms. a comparison of the characteristics of digital assets and traditional assets reveals the distinguishing features of the former. digital assets are distinguished by their intangibility, variability, and the combination of rights. these characteristics, however, also introduce a series of issues during the process of inheritance. the second point pertains to the intangibility of the object. digital heritage exists in the form of data, which is located in the virtual cyberspace and is independent of physical entities. the object in question displays a novel and distinct virtualization characteristic. the intangibility of digital heritage manifests itself in an intangible form within the virtual digital space, relying on modern technological means such as computer code, network protocols, and data storage technologies. thirdly, the diversity of forms is evident in the broad scope and diverse forms of expression that characterize the digital heritage. within the financial sector, this encompasses electronic currencies such as bitcoin and ethereum, electronic securities, and electronic insurance policies. within the domain of entertainment and gaming, the term encompasses a variety of digital assets, including virtual items in online games such as equipment, pets, and character skins, as well as digital music, e-books, and films. within the domain of intellectual property, it encompasses digital copyrights, digital patents, trademark rights, and software copyrights. in the service sector, it encompasses cloud computing services, big data analysis services, online office software subscriptions, and digital membership services. fourthly, the composite nature of rights in digital heritage is a distinguishing feature that sets it apart from traditional property. this distinction is primarily manifested in the dual attributes of property value rights and personality rights in certain digital assets. a paradigmatic example of this phenomenon is the presence of social media accounts. in terms of property value, the cryptocurrencies and virtual items controlled by the account possess clear economic value due to their tradability and market recognition. these assets can be directly converted into real currency or used to exchange other goods and services. the transfer of property rights to heirs generates economic benefits for the owner and becomes part of the estate, triggering inheritance proceedings upon the owner's death. however, from a personal rights perspective, personal social media accounts, emails, photos, and videos stored in cloud storage can contain a significant amount of private information, emotional memories, and personality traits, which can possess significant emotional and spiritual value. it is imperative to acknowledge the profound significance of these assets, which encompass a substantial portion of the deceased's personal privacy and hold profound personal value for the deceased and their relatives. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 32 published by ideas spread 3. the dilemma of digital estate inheritance in the context of the digital economy, digital property has emerged as a novel form of property, exerting a profound and extensive impact on the prevailing inheritance system. the impact is primarily evident in the ambiguity surrounding the legal status of digital heritage, the absence of established principles for its inheritance, and the inherent rights and interests involved in three distinct aspects. 3.1 pending legal determination the predominant issue confronting digital inheritance is the uncertainty surrounding its legal status. in the conventional legal framework, the term "inheritance" predominantly pertains to tangible assets, including real estate, land, and financial assets such as cash. the conventional inheritance framework predominantly emphasizes tangible assets and a select array of intangible assets, including intellectual property rights and equity interests. the legal status of digital inheritance as intangible property has not yet been recognized. however, with the advent of digital property, the scope of inheritance has become more expansive, encompassing not only traditional assets like real estate and financial holdings but also contemporary forms of property such as digital currencies, online accounts, gaming equipment, and digital artworks. these emerging forms of property frequently lack a clear legal status within the current legal framework. article 127 of the civil code of the people's republic of china does not explicitly delineate which digital assets fall within the purview of inheritable estates. however, the law does establish provisions for the protection of data and online virtual property. this discrepancy in legal status gives rise to several challenges, including uncertainty regarding the scope of inheritance, difficulty in determining ownership, challenges in assessing value, and an absence of established inheritance procedures. the identification of ownership in the context of digital heritage serves as the foundation for the transfer of assets. however, given the virtual and intangible nature of digital heritage, delineating ownership is a challenging endeavor. secondly, the uncertainty surrounding the legal status of these materials complicates the assessment of their value as digital heritage. the legal ambiguity surrounding digital heritage complicates the process of its transmission. in the absence of clear legal provisions, heirs may need to engage in cumbersome legal procedures to confirm the ownership and value of digital heritage. this can increase the cost and time cost of inheritance and may lead to family disputes and social conflicts. the question of whether the rights held by users (i.e., the heirs) over specific digital properties are ownership or usage rights remains a subject of debate. a prevalent perspective posits that a user's account is analogous to a storage space on a network platform, with the network platform being the proprietor of the digital asset. however, this assertion lacks substantiation. the account's initial purpose is to facilitate users' entry into cyberspace for the purpose of conducting activities and storing digital resources. it should be noted that the account does not possess any inherent monetary value at this stage. upon entering into a service agreement with an online platform, an online user is granted a basic account, which is not a rare commodity due to its abundant supply and is considered a freely available resource. conversely, blank accounts possess no inherent value. the underlying rationale for an account's potential transformation into a digital asset is rooted in the process of "value enhancement by users." with regard to the ownership of digital assets of the property right type, the answer can be found in the traditional property right theory. the network platform offers a fundamental service, with the value of the account stemming from its utilization and operation by users. in the domain of jurisprudence, according to locke's concept of property rights, the physical products of an individual's labor and work with their hands are considered rightfully theirs. the act of extracting an object from its natural state and then applying one's own labor to it, thereby rendering it subject to ownership, signifies the transfer of property rights. to illustrate this phenomenon, consider the process of registering for and creating a personal social media account. upon registering, the user enters an initial state, characterized by the absence of any content or interactions. subsequently, the user updates the dynamics through text, pictures, videos, and other content, constantly sharing their lives and creating a following by browsing proficiently. the prolonged creative labor involved in the development of these accounts contributes to their increased traffic and commercial value. consequently, as the user's contributions have transformed the online account from its initial blank state, the account's value has increased, thereby precluding the common rights of others. the value accumulated through creative labor is indisputably the private property of the user and should be owned by the user. the platform offers a rudimentary account that functions as a service provider for the storage and transmission of information. moreover, hegel's theory of property rights underscores the notion that individuals possess the prerogative to personify their volition in any given entity, thereby conferring upon it a sense of personal ownership. the assertion of this right by man is predicated on the premise that the object itself is devoid of such a purpose; rather, it derives hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 33 published by ideas spread its provisions and soul from man's will, which is the foundation of man's absolute right to appropriate all objects to himself. to illustrate this phenomenon, consider the case of an online game character. game users have invested a significant amount of emotional energy in these characters, with some even perceiving the virtual image of the character as a representation of their own existence within the digital realm. it has been posited that the prerogatives of the deceased (i.e., the user) with regard to such digital assets should be accorded to ownership. consequently, it is imperative that network users be recognized as legitimate owners of their digital assets. in the event of an inheritance, the network platform must collaborate with the heirs to facilitate the transfer and delivery of these assets. 3.2 the application of traditional succession models in the digital property context: a challenge and its implications the application of traditional succession models in the digital property context poses a significant challenge due to the complexity and unique nature of this field. legal succession and testamentary succession, two fundamental principles of traditional inheritance, are particularly challenging to apply in the context of digital property. the unique nature of digital property presents challenges in directly applying traditional principles of succession. the unique nature of digital property engenders a significantly more intricate distribution process in comparison to physical property. the distribution of traditional property is typically determined by its physical form and value, while digital property is often characterized by its intangibility, replicability, and other attributes, which give rise to multiple interests. a significant distinction between digital property and traditional physical property pertains to the delivery method. the delivery of traditional physical property typically relies on physical means, while the delivery of digital property relies entirely on network technology and electronic means. to illustrate, within the context of inheritance proceedings, the delivery of digital assets to beneficiaries via electronic mail, cloud storage, and analogous means may become imperative. this delivery method presents a series of challenges. 3.3 conflicts of interest in the digital heritage itself there are various forms of digital heritage. however, in terms of the types of rights it contains, digital heritage mainly contains two kinds of legal rights and interests: personality rights and interests, and property rights and interests. initially, the focus is on personality rights and interests. digital heritage encompasses a range of rights and interests, including personal information rights and privacy rights. personal information is codified in the chinese civil code within the section entitled "personality rights." this section delineates the attributes of personality interests, thus establishing a legal framework for their protection and governance. the right of the deceased individual to exercise control over the portion of their digital estate that pertains to personal privacy information. these digital estates are frequently associated with the decedent's personal life, emotions, memories, and other aspects, reflecting the decedent's personality traits and spiritual interests. the aforementioned examples include network photo albums and microblogging accounts that chronicle the heir's life, ideas, and emotional expression. these accounts are subject to the citizens' right to privacy. secondly, the concept of property rights and interests is examined. digital heritage, moreover, encompasses a wide array of property rights and interests. digital property rights and interests are distinct from traditional property rights and interests. they exist in the network or on data carriers and are not occupiable in physical space. they are intangible, and their value is demonstrated through their use. they lack a material form, yet they can be traded and transformed into actual economic benefits. more specifically, this includes the ownership, use, income, intellectual property, and claims of digital property. the digital heritage paradigm is characterized by an inherent tension between the rights and interests of various stakeholders, which is further exacerbated by the challenges posed by the digital nature of the heritage in question. this tension is particularly pronounced during the process of inheritance, as it necessitates a delicate balance between the rights of the various parties involved and the interests of the collective. 4. international judicial practice and theoretical research on digital inheritance in addressing the numerous challenges associated with digital inheritance, nations have adopted divergent judicial approaches and cultivated a range of distinctive legal theories based on their legal systems and cultural contexts. this article provides a concise introduction to and analysis of the judicial practice and theoretical research of the united states, germany, and china in dealing with digital inheritance.3.1 united states hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 34 published by ideas spread the first documented instance of a legal dispute concerning digital inheritance in the united states is known as ainsworth v. yahoo. this case signifies the inaugural occurrence of a legal dispute over digital inheritance within the united states' legal framework. the incident in question stemmed from the actions of a father named ellsworth, who sought to honor the memory of his son, a victim of the iraq war, by accessing his late son's email account. however, yahoo! denied ainsworth's request under the stored communication act ("sca"). the case was subsequently adjudicated in a court of law, which ruled in favor of ellsworth, determining that yahoo mail was obligated to grant him access to his account. however, yahoo mail declined to comply with the court's directive, invoking the privacy provisions outlined in its terms of service (tos) and the sca's provision that prohibits the platform from disclosing account information to third parties. however, yahoo adopted a compromise strategy of creating a cd containing all the contents of the account and delivering it to the father of the original account user, ellsworth. (ajemian v. yahoo!, 2017) in the united states, a series of bills have been passed to provide a framework for the development of digital legacy inheritance laws in the states. these include ufadaa (uniform fiduciary data access act), peaca (privacy expectations afterlife choice act), and rufadaa (revised uniform fiduciary data access act). the uniform fiduciary data access act (ufadaa) was legislation that was designed to grant estate administrators access to a deceased person's digital accounts. this legislation was subsequently amended by the uniform fiduciary data access act (ufdaa), which emphasized that the inheritance of digital estates should be based on the express wishes of the decedent. this amendment was intended to gradually relax the conditions for obtaining relevant access.the ufadaa endeavored to address the issue of estate administrators' access to digital assets through implied authorization. however, the act proved controversial due to its potential to infringe upon decedents' rights. the ufadaa represented a controversial attempt to address the issue of administrators' access to digital assets through implied authorization. the act was met with controversy due to its potential to infringe upon the privacy of the deceased. this led to the establishment of the rufadaa, which instituted a three-tiered system of prioritized access. the rufadaa emphasizes the deceased's express consent and establishes a prioritized order of "online wills, offline wills, and terms of service." however, the u.s. system remains deficient in addressing asset-based digital legacies and private information of an altruistic nature. 4.1 germany germany's "first digital inheritance case" decision is the subject of this section. (deusch, 2018) in december 2015, the german federal court of justice established a precedent by recognizing the legal rights of inheritance pertaining to digital accounts, marking a significant development in the realm of digital estate law. the case under discussion arose in 2012 when a 15-year-old girl was fatally struck by a subway train and subsequently succumbed to her injuries under unclear circumstances. the girl's mother, as the designated beneficiary, petitioned for access to her daughter's former digital accounts with the objective of ascertaining the cause of death through her social media accounts. subsequent to the initial and secondary instances, the german federal court of justice (bgh) ruled that the girl's parents were entitled to inherit and access their daughter's social media accounts pursuant to the generalized inheritance provision of section 1922 of the german civil code (bgb). in light of this case, a prevailing trend in german jurisprudence is to elucidate the concept of digital inheritance through the interpretation of prevailing legal frameworks. according to section 1922 of the german civil code, heirs are entitled to inherit all rights and obligations of the decedent upon his or her death, including assets, liabilities, and all related rights and obligations, which are assumed by the heirs collectively. (steiner & holzer, 2015) however, it should be noted that there are divergent perspectives within the field of german jurisprudence. the case's significance lies in its establishment of the inheritability of "digital heritage" through a judicial decision. however, despite this, the german legislature appears to be more conservative on the issue of digital heritage legislation. the german legislature advocates the interpretation of existing laws and encourages users to designate the heirs of digital heritage and the scope of inheritance through the will in advance. in the theoretical realm, certain scholars advocate for the differentiation between highly personalized data (e.g., private communications) and general information. the former is proposed to be prohibited from inheritance, while the latter is permitted for the broader transfer of contractual rights and obligations. the academic community has yet to reach a consensus on the inheritance of special data, such as the goodwill of online stores or credit ratings. an alternative viewpoint proposes a binary division between property right attributes and non-property right attributes, and advocates for the construction of differentiated inheritance rules. (mährke-sobolewski, 2015) furthermore, the notion that users should proactively arrange the management of their digital legacy through pre-life agreements is gradually gaining traction, underscoring the expanded application of the principle of autonomy of meaning in the digital era. (sorge, 2018) hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 35 published by ideas spread 4.2 china in the people's republic of china, the legal framework pertaining to digital inheritance is characterized by a certain degree of ambiguity. while the general principles of civil law addresses personal information and data protection, the provisions are general and lack specific operational rules. additionally, the law of succession does not explicitly include digital information in the scope of inheritance. while there is a general consensus on the legal aspects of virtual property inheritance, there are still significant gaps in the relevant legislation. notably, china lags behind in the technological development of digital inheritance treatment, including the lack of innovative measures such as memorial accounts and inheritance contact services. as the age structure of internet users undergoes change and awareness of digital inheritance grows, it is expected that related disputes will increase in the future. the legal norms associated with digital inheritance encompass constitutional norms as well as civil code norms. the research in the field of legal theory concerning digital inheritance addresses fundamental issues in this domain and explores the development of legal frameworks for the governance of digital assets. (lin, 2009) a substantial corpus of research has been amassed on the subject of digital inheritance models by chinese academics. the focal points of this research include the attributes of digital inheritance rights, the inheritance models of personality rights and interests, the inheritability of digital inheritance, and the obligation of third-party online platforms to cooperate in the inheritance of digital inheritance. in terms of inheritability, peng chengxin and li jiatong posit the concept of digital inheritance, encompassing personality rights and interests, as a potential inheritable entity. this is achieved through typological distinction and the principle of meaning autonomy. the objective of this study is to examine object attribute identification, with a particular focus on autonomy extension to establish layered inheritance mechanism. the identification of object properties, that is, the establishment of standards for assessing personal data property attributes, will result in the inclusion of economic value of digital property in the scope of inheritance objects. the layered inheritance mechanism involves the establishment of distinct inheritance rules based on data types. it employs the principle of "limited inheritance and purpose limitation" for data that pertains to privacy. (peng & li, 2024) with respect to the aforementioned inheritance model, liu yonghong and tang yang posit that, given the extant theoretical disputes and practical difficulties, the theoretical framework of "composite superiority of data rights" can be introduced to reconstruct the inheritance system of digital heritage. the model's foundation is data mobility, with digital heritage regarded as a bundle of dynamic rights. it employs a hierarchical inheritance mechanism through typological analysis. (liu & tang, 2023) in the context of digital heritage rights, cong xuelian and qiu lipei posit that digital property fulfills the dual legitimacy requirements of the acquisition path and the nature of the content. to illustrate, users of social media network accounts possess the right of ownership over their digital heritage. the legitimacy of this process is rooted in the fact that, upon completion of the registration and purchase procedures outlined in the network service agreement, the user acquires ownership of virtual goods, accounts, and other digital assets in accordance with the prevailing laws. the acquisition process is governed by the principles of contractual freedom and autonomy, aligning with the legal requirements for such transactions. the extant laws and regulations do not encompass such digital property in the category of prohibited or restricted circulation, and its content attributes have the validity recognized by law. this dual legitimacy is essential for ensuring the circulation of digital property and maintaining the stability of rights within the legal framework. (cong & qiu, 2023) with respect to the ambit of digital inheritance, zhang dongmei propounds the position that china's inheritance legislation delineates inheritance as the aggregate of legal assets bequeathed by the deceased at the time of their demise. this purview encompasses income, immovable assets, movable assets, proceeds from intellectual property, and an array of other diversified forms. it is noteworthy that this definition permits legal interpretation through the open-ended provisions, thereby affirming the inheritability of novel forms of property. (zhang, 2013) 5. classification and resolution pathways for digital heritage 5.1 methodology for classifying inheritable digital assets digital heritage possesses the characteristics of intangible subject matter, diverse forms, and composite rights. this makes it difficult to effectively address it through china's existing property inheritance system. this paper employs a typological classification method to categorize digital heritage. first, the concept of digital heritage is divided into three categories based on the characteristics of different rights. the initial category pertains to digital heritage, which is predominantly characterized by personality rights. the second category is digital heritage, which is dominated by property rights. the third category is digital heritage, where personality and property rights coexist. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 36 published by ideas spread 5.2 digital heritage and personality rights the preeminence of personality rights in the context of digital heritage primarily signifies the deceased's personal privacy, dignity, spiritual value, identity, and reputation—that is to say, non-material personality rights. according to the prevailing legal framework, personality rights are considered non-transferable and non-inheritable. however, despite the absence of direct economic value attributed to these data, they assume considerable significance in ensuring the preservation of the deceased's dignity and safeguarding their personality rights. consequently, these data should be transferred to their designated heirs. the heirs shall be the custodians of these data, responsible for their acquisition and maintenance. for the deceased's relatives and descendants, including the heirs, these data carry significant emotional value and commemorative significance, reflecting the deceased's personality traits and life trajectory. when dealing with such digital heritage, the primary principle to be observed is the protection of the user's personality rights and the respect of the user's privacy and intentions. strict compliance with relevant laws and regulations on the protection of personality rights during the inheritance process is required to ensure the confidentiality of user information. concurrently, the rights of the heirs should be safeguarded to the greatest extent possible, including fulfilling the emotional needs of relatives toward the deceased and handling these assets in the most appropriate manner. 5.3 digital heritage governed by property rights the concept of "digital heritage dominated by property rights" pertains to digital assets that have the potential to be converted into economic rights, either directly or indirectly. this category comprises virtual currencies, balances on online payment platforms, digital artworks, and the right to operate online stores, all of which possess clear economic value. the transfer of such digital assets should adhere to the general principles of property inheritance, ensuring the transfer of property rights and safeguarding the legitimate rights and interests of heirs. in the context of managing such digital heritage, it is imperative to place greater emphasis on the ownership and inheritance of property rights. in accordance with pertinent legislation and regulations, legal heirs are entitled to inherit these assets and dispose of them. concurrently, particular emphasis must be placed on the evaluation and allocation of their economic value. this necessitates the evaluation of the market value of digital heritage and the establishment of a sound distribution mechanism to ensure that the heritage is distributed fairly and reasonably among heirs or rights holders. 5.4 digital heritage and the intersection of personality rights, property rights, and other legal entitlements a particular category of digital heritage is characterized by its simultaneous encumbrance of both personality rights and property rights. this category includes self-media accounts and personal brand online stores. this category of digital heritage inheritance is characterized by its complexity. given the varied nature of digital heritage rights, the legal protection methods and inheritance models differ, precluding a simple disposition of digital heritage according to the inheritance methods of personal rights or property rights. this presents a challenge in the context of digital heritage inheritance. when dealing with such digital heritage, it is imperative to thoroughly evaluate the equilibrium between personal rights and property rights. on the one hand, the deceased's personality and wishes ought to be respected and their reputation and privacy protected; on the other hand, the economic rights of legitimate heirs should also be ensured. when dealing with such digital heritage, it is imperative to strike a balance between personal and property rights. 5.5 an examination of the inheritability of diverse forms of digital heritage a historical analysis of legal evolution reveals a general pattern of legal development through typification, culminating in individualization. typification signifies the inaugural stage of individualized legal development and constitutes a pivotal component in the evolution of legal systems toward individualization. the most reasonable approach to digital heritage inheritance is to decompose it based on different rights characteristics and distinguish between different types of digital heritage for separate disposition. the typology of digital heritage is a prerequisite for this process. the digital heritage can be categorized into three types: those dominated by personality rights, those dominated by property rights, and those where both personality rights and property rights coexist. this paper further analyzes the inheritable nature of these three categories of digital heritage. 5.6 the inheritable nature of digital heritage: a dominance of personality rights the preeminence of personality rights in the realm of digital heritage is indicative of the personal identity, emotional memories, and privacy information of the deceased. this type of digital heritage is closely tied to the user's personality and involves personality rights such as privacy rights, reputation rights, and portrait rights. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 37 published by ideas spread according to the prevailing legal framework, personality rights are considered non-transferable and noninheritable. nevertheless, digital carriers of personality rights possess substantial emotional and spiritual value and should be preserved. the security requirements for such data and the emotional reliance of close relatives should be addressed through data inheritance. the legal framework for the transfer of digital heritage related to personality rights has been established in foreign legislative models. the information act of hungary has introduced provisions pertaining to the processing of personal data of deceased individuals. according to the stipulations outlined in the pertinent legislation, data subjects are permitted to appoint a designated individual, who may be a close relative, to assume responsibility for the exercise of their personal data rights subsequent to their demise. spain's data protection act does not apply to the personal data of deceased individuals. however, article 3 of the act states that heirs have the right to access the personal data of the deceased from data controllers and processors. furthermore, heirs have the right to request the deletion or correction of such data. this right is contingent upon two exceptions. first, the right to access and request deletion or correction is prohibited if the deceased expressly prohibited such actions during their lifetime. second, the right to access and request deletion or correction is prohibited by law. the transfer of digital heritage, chiefly pertaining to personality rights, ought to be executed in accordance with the wishes of the deceased. online platforms are not entitled to retain such data and are therefore obliged to assist heirs in handling the relevant heritage. the transfer of such heritage to the deceased's close relatives should be executed in an unalterable format, with the option of either archiving or deleting it in cyberspace. this approach is intended to maximize the protection of the deceased's personality rights and the legitimate rights of their family members. 5.7 the issue of inheritability of digital heritage is predominantly governed by property rights digital heritage, under the governance of property rights, possesses an economic value that can be quantifiable and exchangeable within the market. according to the provisions of the civil code, an estate is defined as the personal lawful property left by a natural person at the time of death. given the evident pecuniary worth of such digital heritage, it can be regarded as an estate that can be inherited. in practice, the main obstacles to inheriting such property arise from the involvement of online platforms. in some cases, digital platforms may impose restrictions on the transfer of digital assets through prior contractual agreements. in other cases, heirs may be required to provide the deceased's death certificate, proof of inheritance rights, or other relevant documents. however, it is important to note that such prior contractual agreements are not able to supersede the ownership rights of the deceased with respect to their digital assets. furthermore, these agreements lack the legal authority to interfere with the inheritance process of digital assets. in the context of digital heritage, which is predominantly characterized by property rights, it is advised that online platforms streamline the inheritance process and offer user-friendly services for the transfer of heritage assets. concurrently, heirs are advised to seek the counsel of professional lawyers to ascertain the legality and validity of the inheritance process. 5.8 the transfer of digital assets with composite entitlements the concept of digital heritage, which encompasses both personality rights and property rights, encapsulates the unique identity and emotional recollections of the deceased. this heritage also possesses a certain economic value. the inheritance of such digital heritage is complex due to its involvement with both personality rights and property rights. in the context of inheritance proceedings, it becomes imperative to strike a balance between these two categories of rights. heirs may need to engage in negotiations with online platforms to facilitate the transfer of the estate. it is essential to ensure that the privacy rights and intellectual property rights of all parties involved are protected during this process. in the case of original works created by individuals, heirs may be required to obtain relevant copyright certificates to ensure their legitimate rights and interests. in the context of digital heritage that encompasses both personality rights and property rights, online platforms must prioritize safeguarding the legitimate rights and interests of heirs. the inheritable nature of digital heritage is a complex and highly controversial issue. a comparison of the inheritable nature of different types of digital heritage reveals significant disparities. article 124 of china's civil code adjusts the legal framework through the expression "inheritance right—property inheritance right," thereby continuing the legislative tradition of protecting private rights while reserving institutional space for the expansion of the scope of rights objects. this evolution in legislative techniques essentially represents the adaptive adjustment of law to societal development needs. the evolution of the concept of property can be characterized by distinct phases. in roman law, the concept of "things" was limited to tangible property. in modern civil law, intangible property was incorporated into the scope of protection. the digital age has introduced new challenges in hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 38 published by ideas spread recognizing novel forms of property. personal data, as a distinct entity characterized by both personal attributes and property value, exerts a direct influence on the application of inheritance rules. when data control rights can generate economic value and possess transferability, their property attributes gain a substantive legal basis for recognition, providing a theoretical foundation for overcoming the traditional constraint that "only property can be inherited." in the context of digital heritage characterized by a preponderance of personality rights, it is imperative to honor the deceased's expressed wishes and safeguard the privacy of individuals. conversely, in scenarios where property rights predominate, streamlined inheritance processes should be implemented to safeguard the legitimate rights of heirs. when both personality rights and property rights are present, a balanced approach is essential to facilitate the seamless transfer of digital heritage. 6. inheritance models for digital heritage the inheritance of digital heritage is a multifaceted process that encompasses not only the transfer of legitimate property rights but also a variety of other considerations, including personal privacy, data security, and cyber ethics. typological segmentation is a prerequisite for the implementation of digital heritage inheritance. through a thorough examination of the inheritable characteristics inherent in diverse forms of digital heritage, it becomes evident that these various forms possess distinct inheritance logics. digital heritage inheritance must ensure the efficient circulation of property and the protection of the personal rights of the heirs. at the present stage, the inheritance of digital heritage should be achieved through the establishment and application of principles for the same. in contemplating the future of digital inheritance, it is imperative to recognize the necessity for updates to the legal system and the establishment of more comprehensive institutional safeguards. 6.1 principles of digital inheritance this paper posits that four principles should be observed in the process of digital inheritance: the principle of party autonomy, the principle of value hierarchy, the principle of proportionality, and the principle of distinction of rights. these principles ensure the legality, rationality, and fairness of inheritance. 6.1.1 the principle of party autonomy the principle of party autonomy, also referred to as the principle of voluntariness, is defined as the right of civil subjects to engage in civil activities in accordance with their own rational judgment. this principle is also defined as the right to autonomously participate in and manage their private affairs, and to be free from unlawful interference by state power or other civil subjects. in the domain of digital inheritance, this principle is exemplified by the right of the decedent to autonomously determine the method of inheritance and the heirs of their digital assets through wills, agreements, or other means during their lifetime. the principle of priority of the parties' will holds sway in the matter of the inheritance of digital assets. this is primarily due to the fact that the parties possess the right to dispose of their property rights and personality rights in their digital assets. with respect to property rights, the relevant parties may dispose of such rights by express declaration in a will, thereby transferring the ownership of property-related digital assets to the heirs. this assertion has been validated by the prevailing legal framework. with regard to the personality rights embodied in digital assets, the decedent, as the rights holder, also has the capacity to dispose of such exclusive rights, such as personal information and privacy rights, by transferring the data carriers containing such information to the heirs. the methods of inheritance for personality rights and property rights can be consolidated under the decedent's free will, manifesting through the transfer of data control rights. this principle is reflected in practice through the testator's ability to explicitly designate the heirs of their digital heritage in a will. to illustrate, a testator (i.e., an individual who writes a will) has the capacity to stipulate in a will the heirs of their digital heritage, including game accounts and virtual currencies, for internet users who possess virtual property. this approach is predicated on the fundamental principle of honoring the wishes of the deceased and ensuring that their digital heritage is inherited in accordance with their expressed expectations. the testator may enter into an agreement with a network service platform, thereby stipulating the method of inheritance and the heirs of their digital heritage. however, when exercising their autonomy, the deceased must not violate mandatory provisions of national laws or administrative regulations, nor must they contravene public order and good customs. furthermore, in the context of digital assets pertaining to sensitive domains such as personal privacy or national security, the methodologies employed for inheritance may be subject to more stringent restrictions and regulatory oversight. the prevailing legal framework accorded primacy to the principle of party autonomy in wills. according to article 1,123 of the civil code of the people's republic of china, the handling of inheritances is governed by statutory hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 39 published by ideas spread inheritance in the event that a will exists. testamentary inheritance or bequest is implemented if a will is absent. in the event that an agreement regarding bequests and support is in place, the terms of that agreement are to be adhered to. in accordance with international practices of digital inheritance, certain online social media platforms have already implemented a feature that allows users to specify during the registration process whether they consent to the inheritance of their accounts by designated heirs. this approach enhances the certainty and feasibility of digital inheritance. in the context of the inheritance of digital property, testamentary succession should be regarded as the primary principle. this approach ensures that the deceased's intentions are honored and executed, providing clarity and stability to the legal expectations of all parties involved in the intricate and continually evolving process of digital property inheritance. by prioritizing the implementation of wills, it effectively addresses various conflicts of interest in the context of digital property inheritance. this approach promotes the lawful and orderly transfer of digital property, facilitating the smooth progression of assets to the intended beneficiaries. additionally, it serves to safeguard the legitimate rights and interests of both the deceased and their heirs, ensuring a fair and equitable distribution of assets in accordance with the wishes of the decedent. 6.1.2 the principle of value hierarchy the principle of value hierarchy is predicated on the notion that, in the event of conflicting legal rights and interests, it is imperative to establish a hierarchy of values and interests, thereby ensuring that the most paramount values and interests are accorded precedence. this principle finds application in circumstances involving a conflict between personality rights and property rights in the inheritance of digital assets. in instances where the realization of one type of right necessarily infringes upon another type of right, the principle of value hierarchy should be applied to prioritize the realization of rights with a higher value hierarchy. in the context of digital inheritance, this principle is manifested more specifically in the need to prioritize and balance digital assets during the inheritance process based on different value objectives and interests, ensuring that the most important value objectives and interests are given priority. in the context of digital inheritance proceedings, it is imperative to elucidate the legal attributes of various rights and interests. a systematic prioritization and balancing of these rights, with the paramount concern being the safeguarding of personality rights, is essential. subsequent to this, the order of priority should be the delineation of property rights. to illustrate, the digital heritage bequeathed by the deceased may comprise data with composite rights, encompassing personal privacy and personal information pertaining to the individual's personality rights, as well as property value, which can be acquired, exchanged, or disseminated. given its status as an integrated entity, the act of sealing it for the purpose of safeguarding privacy invariably constitutes an infringement on the effective transfer of property rights. conversely, in the event of inheritance, the article's property attributes enable its trade or publication, a process that inherently infringes upon the individual's personality rights. in such cases, the privacy rights of the deceased should be prioritized over the potential property rights of the heirs. the disposition of such digital assets should be conducted in a manner that prioritizes the protection of personal rights, with restrictions on the circulation of property rights. 6.1.3 proportionality principle the proportionality principle posits that the means employed to achieve a legitimate goal must be proportionate to the goal itself. that is to say, the means employed should be commensurate with the gravity of the goal, and should avoid excessive interference or harm to other legitimate rights and interests. the principle of proportionality in digital inheritance signifies the notion that, subsequent to the implementation of the value hierarchy principle in determining the priority of rights protection in digital inheritance, the impact on subsequent rights should be minimized when protecting rights with a higher value hierarchy. the principle of proportionality is manifested in the digital inheritance process by prioritizing the protection of personality rights under the value hierarchy principle while ensuring the appropriateness, necessity, and balance of inheritance methods to maximize the inheritance of property rights. the impact of the protection of personality rights and pre-contractual obligations of network service platforms on the inheritance of property rights should be minimized. the proportionality principle can be achieved through the principle of distinction of rights. for instance, in the context of a comprehensive self-media account, the protocol dictates that data pertaining to personal privacy and information security be safeguarded. subsequent to this, data with property value should be transferred to the designated heir, thereby ensuring the legitimate rights and interests of the heir. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 40 published by ideas spread 6.1.4 the principle of division of rights the principle of distinguishing rights in digital inheritance refers to the distinction between property rights and personality rights in this context. this principle finds its primary application in the context of digital assets, where the distinction between property rights and personality rights can be clearly delineated. given that personality rights in digital assets should primarily be protected through privacy safeguards and limited inheritance, while property rights should be transferred or delivered, distinguishing and separating digital assets can maximize the effective protection of both types of rights. in the intricate tapestry of digital heritage, personal rights—including personal privacy and reputation rights—due to their highly personal and sensitive nature—ought to be accorded primary protection. this is imperative to ensure that such information is not disclosed or abused during the inheritance process. moreover, it is essential that platforms release their control over data within legal boundaries, releasing limited data to close relatives. conversely, the transfer and delivery of property rights, including virtual currency and digital works with economic value, should be prioritized to ensure that these assets can be legally inherited by the rightful heirs in accordance with the law. the meticulous identification and disassembly of digital heritage is imperative for the effective safeguarding of these two rights. a relevant example of this phenomenon can be observed in the analysis of social media accounts. this category of digital heritage frequently encompasses both personality rights and property rights. the maintenance of confidentiality is of paramount importance in the context of personal rights, particularly in the case of private chat records and unpublished photographs contained within an account. these records must be meticulously safeguarded to ensure the privacy of the deceased is preserved. in the event that limited data with emotional value is explicitly stated or clearly indicated in the will for close relatives, it is recommended that this data be backed up and delivered to the heirs. the question of intellectual property rights in the context of online accounts has become a subject of increasing importance in the digital age. the question of whether publicly posted photos, articles, and other works within an account should be treated as property rights and legally transferred to heirs has become a matter of significant legal and ethical concern. the ability of heirs to inherit a portion of the account's legitimate property has become a matter of significant interest, and the question of how to proceed in cases where there is an absence of explicit property rights has become a matter of significant legal and ethical concern. by establishing such a distinction and implementing appropriate handling procedures, it is possible to ensure that the deceased's personal privacy and dignity are respected, while also ensuring that the property rights associated with digital heritage are transferred in a reasonable and lawful manner. 6.2 various types of digital heritage inheritance models1. inheritance of digital heritage dominated by personality rights 6.2.1 the inheritance of digital heritage dominated by personality rights is chiefly concerned with the principles of autonomy of the parties and proportionality the application of the principle of party autonomy in the inheritance of digital heritage, characterized by an overarching concern for personality rights, entails a commitment to adhere to the wishes and decisions of the deceased with respect to the disposition of their digital assets. specifically, in the event that the proprietor of digital assets has explicitly articulated their intentions with regard to the disposition of their digital heritage through a will, a bequest agreement, or other means during their lifetime, then such digital heritage ought to be managed in strict accordance with their wishes. the fundamental tenet of this principle is the protection of an individual's autonomy and privacy rights, ensuring that the manner in which digital property is handled aligns with the owner's expectations and intentions. in practice, respecting the principle of party autonomy necessitates the establishment of robust mechanisms for handling digital heritage to ensure that the owner's wishes are effectively carried out. the establishment of a digital will registration system could facilitate the process by which individuals document their intentions regarding the management of their digital heritage. such a system would allow owners to register their intentions through designated platforms or institutions. in the absence of a will, the primary objective of inheritance law should be to safeguard the individual's personality rights. the fundamental principle of privacy must be upheld, and the social media accounts of the individual in question should be preserved and frozen. subsequently, the categorization and identification of digital assets is imperative, with data involving privacy and personal information being subject to destruction. it is imperative that data of sentimental value to the individual, their heirs, or close relatives be backed up and delivered for safekeeping. the principle of proportionality is primarily employed in the context of the inheritance of digital assets, particularly those characterized by personality rights. this principle serves to calibrate the scope of these assets and the methods by which they are distributed. it is imperative to establish clear definitions for the scope of digital assets hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 41 published by ideas spread governed by personality rights, with the objective of averting their proliferation or encroachment upon the implementation of property rights inheritance. 6.2.2 inheritance of digital assets dominated by property rights the inheritance of digital assets dominated by property rights is principally characterized by the principle of the testator's autonomy. this principle innovatively applies existing legal inheritance models to digital assets. 6.2.3 the issue of the inheritance of digital heritage, which encompasses both personality rights and property rights, is a complex matter that has yet to be fully resolved when personality rights and property rights coexist, the principle of party autonomy must be applied with priority. in the absence of a valid will, the determination of rights protection priorities is to be made in accordance with the principle of value hierarchy, while the scope of protection for personality rights is to be delineated through the principle of proportionality. the principle of rights disaggregation for digital heritage shall be applied to achieve reasonable inheritance. the principle of party autonomy is of paramount importance in the context of the inheritance of digital heritage. personality rights and property rights are considered legitimate rights that parties can dispose of through their intentions. in the event of a will, its provisions should be given priority. third-party online platforms should cooperate with the will in disposing of digital heritage. to illustrate, in the context of the inheritance of social media account ownership, if the deceased requests that digital assets within the account be distinguished and distributed to different heirs, the third-party platform should also cooperate to complete the process. a relevant example is that of social media accounts, which serve as a paradigmatic form of digital heritage, wherein personality rights and property rights coexist. these accounts contain a plethora of information regarding the owner's personal information, social relationships, speech records, digital works, and other content. when dealing with such digital heritage, it is imperative to give full consideration to the owner's intentions and privacy requirements during their lifetime. in the event that an individual has explicitly expressed a desire to remove their social media account or particular content therein prior to their demise, it is imperative that this request be honored and the requisite actions be taken. conversely, if the deceased has stipulated in their will that they prefer the text or images to be transferred to their heirs, the platform is obligated to comply with this stipulation. the principle of value hierarchy stipulates that, in instances of conflict between personality rights and property rights, priority should be accorded to the protection of personality rights. the proportionality principle dictates that the method of inheritance employed in the context of digital assets must be deemed appropriate, necessary, and balanced to ensure the optimal transfer of property rights. concurrently, endeavors must be undertaken to mitigate the impact of factors such as the safeguarding of personality rights and the pre-contractual obligations of online service platforms on the transfer of property rights. the principle of distinguishing rights necessitates the categorization of digital inheritance into two distinct types: property rights-type and personality rights-type. this classification is imperative for the effective management of such cases, ensuring that each type of digital inheritance is addressed in a manner consistent with its designated rights and responsibilities. 7. conclusion the advent of the novel concept of digital property has, without question, precipitated a profound revolution in the domain of the expansion of the objects of rights. this development has engendered an array of unprecedented challenges and impacts on the prevailing inheritance system. digital heritage, characterized by its unique characteristics of intangible objects, diverse forms, and composite rights, is gradually emerging as a new issue that urgently needs to be addressed in the field of inheritance. the challenges associated with the transfer of digital heritage primarily manifest in three domains: the ambiguity of its legal status, the challenges in applying conventional inheritance models, and the inherent conflicts of rights. digital heritage, in essence, comprises a multifaceted array of rights encompassing both personality rights and property rights. this concept encompasses both personal interests, such as privacy, reputation, and likeness, and property-related rights, including economic value and usage rights. in the context of the prevailing legal framework, the regulations that govern the inheritance of digital heritage are dispersed among various legal provisions, including the constitution and the civil code. however, the interpretation and application of these regulations continue to encounter significant challenges. the inheritance of digital heritage should adopt a classification strategy, categorizing digital heritage into three types based on their distinct characteristics: personality rights-based, property rights-based, and composite rightsbased. in the course of this process, a series of principled methods should be observed, including the principle of prioritizing the intentions of the parties involved, the principle of value hierarchy, the principle of proportionality, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 42 published by ideas spread and the principle of dividing rights. in the context of digital heritage, which is predominantly characterized by personal rights, it is imperative to prioritize the safeguarding of privacy and spiritual value. decisions regarding the preservation, destruction, or transfer of digital heritage to close relatives should be made in accordance with the wishes of the deceased. in the context of digital heritage centered on property rights, it is imperative that the property's nature be clearly delineated, and that distribution be executed in accordance with the directives outlined in the deceased's will or the prevailing statutory inheritance regulations. in the context of digital heritage, which encompasses both personal and property rights, it is imperative to thoroughly examine the interconnection between these two rights. moreover, a meticulous analysis of specific cases is essential to ensure that they are adjudicated in accordance with established principles of inheritance. the realization of digital heritage inheritance is not only a crucial step in safeguarding citizens' legitimate property rights but also a key driver for the development of the digital economy. the effective inheritance and reasonable distribution of digital heritage are directly related to the complete protection of citizens' property rights. furthermore, these phenomena serve as an important indicator of a society's level of rule of law and the realization of fairness and justice. the inheritance of digital heritage has the potential to fully unleash the value of digital assets, thereby injecting new vitality and momentum into the development of the digital economy. it is our objective to explore and refine this system in a continuous process, with the aim of providing robust legal safeguards for the inheritance of digital heritage. references thwaites, h. (2013). digital heritage: what happens when we digitize everything? in visual heritage in the digital age (pp. 327–348). parry, r. (2010). the practice of digital heritage and the heritage of digital practice. in museums in a digital age (vol. 10, p. 1). sun, j. (2024). the reconstruction of traditional property rights theory by digital property rights. chinese journal of law, (5), 130. j., a. (2005). virtual property. boston university law review, 85(4), 1047–1085. blazer, c. (2006). the following five indicia are associated with virtual property. pierce law review, 5, 137–150. ajemian v. yahoo!, inc., 478 mass. 169, 84 n.e.3d 766 (2017). deusch, (2018). der digitale nachlass vor dem bgh und die praxisfolgen. zeitschrift für erbrecht und vermögensnachfolge, (11), 687–689. steiner, h., & holzer, t. (2015). praktische empfehlungen zum digitalen nachlass. zeitschrift für erbrecht und vermögensnachfolge, (11), 262–263. resta, p. (2018). personal data and digital assets after death: a comparative law perspective on the bgh facebook ruling. journal of european consumer and market law, 7(5), 201–203. mährke-sobolewski, k. (2015). digitaler nachlass-erbenschutz trotz datenschutz. neue juristische wochenschrift, 120(52), 3473. sorge, k. (2018). digitaler nachlass als knäuel von rechtsverhältnissen, multimedia und recht. multimedia und recht, 6, 372–377. lin, x. (2009). on the nature of virtual property rights. chinese journal of law, (1), 88–98. peng, c., & li, j. (2024). the private law framework for the protection of personal rights of the deceased in china. journal of east china university of political science and law, (4), 6–19. liu, y., & tang, y. (2023). a conceptual framework for digital inheritance under the perspective of new rights. journal of southwest petroleum university (social sciences edition), (6), 78. cong, x., & qiu, l. (2023). research on the inheritable nature of digital property. journal of beijing university of posts and telecommunications (social sciences edition), (1), 77–85. zhang, d. (2013). on the inheritance of virtual network property. journal of fujian normal university (philosophy and social sciences edition), (1), 35–41. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 43 published by ideas spread this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n2p25 25 published by ideas spread evolution and future trend of film adaptation art under the background of digital media dewei chen1,2 1 doctor of film imaging major from the film department of cheongju university, republic of korea 2 member of the china association of science, education, film, television and radio, china correspondence: cheongju university, 298 daeseong-ro, cheongwon-gu cheongju, chungbuk, republic of korea. tel: 82-109-9533-335. e-mail: ceondeowei gmail.com received: march 2, 2025; accepted: march 16, 2025; published: march 20, 2025 abstract the study of film adaptation has become an important branch of film theory, but as an independent discipline, it lacks a complete historical review. this paper attempts to explore the development context and transformation reasons of film adaptation theory, and explore the future trend under the background of digital media. the study of literary film adaptation can be divided into six periods and three stages. the first stage is the embryonic stage. influenced by the independent appeal of film art, theorists reveal the uniqueness of film media by comparing it with other arts, laying the foundation for adaptation research. the second stage is the mature stage, when theorists recognize the limitations of the film medium and the study of literary adaptations enters the "literature-centered" doctrine. the third stage is the transition period, in which the introduction of modern and postmodern theories questioned and deconstructed the "literary centralism", and the study of adaptation faded away in the trend of multiple theories and deconstruction. with the change of understanding of literature and film media, the study of adaptation presents a law of oscillating development between the two kinds of arts. under the current digital media, film shows strong discreteness, constructiveness and interactivity, which echoes the trend of deconstructing "literature-centric" doctrine. at the same time, it also reminds adaptation studies to be alert to the trap of formalism and pay attention to the positive significance of literature to the development of film art. keywords: film adaptation, film theory, literary-centered doctrine, digital media, discreteness, formalism 1. introduction 1.1 the process of film adaptation and artistic development since the birth of technology in 1895, film has experienced a hundred years of development. initially, the lumiere brothers did not have high expectations for the film, dismissing it as merely "fancy tricks". for a long time, the upper class and the literary and art circles have generally despised film, believing that "film is not art", which has seriously hindered the development of film art. georges meriai is one of the pioneers who broke through this dilemma, he greatly enhanced the expression of the film by integrating the dramatic method into the film, and proved that the introduction of traditional arts, such as drama, literature, music, etc. into the film is conducive to the development of the film art. in the 1930s and 1940s, influenced by social, economic, technical and other factors, the film industry ushered in an explosive and vigorous development, especially the hollywood golden age, when adapted films became an important part of the film art and further promoted the prosperity of the film art. up to now, films adapted from literature still occupy an important position in film creation. not only has the number of adapted films increased year by year, but their quality has also been widely recognized. in major film awards such as the academy awards, many winning films are adapted from literary works. from the inception of the academy awards in 1929 to 2020, about 26% of the best picture nominations and 33% of the winning films have been adapted from novels, indicating that literary collaboration is an important way of artistic achievement in film. reviewing the history of film development, adaptation has always been the key to promote the development of film art. especially after the rise of digital media, adapted films ushered in a new wave of upsurge, adaptation research has also become the focus of academic attention. it should be pointed out that although the film adaptation and film art were born almost at the same time, the relevant theoretical research was not formally proposed until hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 26 published by ideas spread 1956 by the american film theorist bruce east in his book from novel to film. prior to this, the discussion of adaptation had mainly occurred in comparative studies of literature and film, such as giotto canudo's seventh artistic manifesto and yugo munsterberg's film: a psychological study, which helped scholars to recognize the differences in the characteristics of the medium between film and other art forms. with the development of the theory of adaptation studies, scholars such as bela balazs, the soviet montage school and the documentary school have deeply explored the media differences between the two art forms, and gradually developed the comparative study as the main paradigm of adaptation studies. after 1956, structuralism film theory summarized and deepened the study of adaptation. by the end of the 20th century, the post-modernist deconstruction trend introduced multiple theories for adaptation research, and promoted the deconstruction of the centrality of the original work. in his film adaptation: theory and practice, american scholar robert stamm traces and deconstructs the roots of the concept of "literary center" by introducing social and cultural theories.multitheory has greatly expanded the field of vision of adaptation research, but its abuse has also brought about a counter-effect, gradually dispelling the focus of adaptation research. 2. method this paper will review the theoretical development of adaptation studies since the birth of film, focusing on the theories that have had a significant impact on adaptation studies, and divide the time according to the development stage of film theory. at the same time, the research will be closely related to the development of film media. adaptation studies involve cross-art fields, and the media characteristics of different arts are crucial in the study, because the development of film art is closely related to media innovation. every media innovation will have a profound impact on the art and research of adaptation. as mcluhan said, "the impact of any medium on individuals and society is produced by a new scale", which affects the creation, communication and even the generation of the meaning of the work. communication theory emphasizes that the creation of an artistic work does not mean the realization of its aesthetic value, and the work must be accepted in order to show its value. the process of communication is not only the transmission of information, but also the process of "production of meaning". harold innis pointed out in his research that the nature of media affects the bias of civilization. heavy and durable media is conducive to the inheritance of culture in time, while light and easy to consume media is conducive to the spread of culture in space. therefore, the media participate in the creation of its aesthetic value. under the background of digital media, there are new phenomena in the creation and dissemination of literary adapted films. however, due to the lack of media perspective, domestic and foreign adapted films fail to deeply analyze the artistic nature of these phenomena. based on the review of the development of adaptation studies and the impact of media innovation, this paper will reflect on these new phenomena and make suggestions to fill the gaps in modern adaptation studies. 2.1 theoretical exploration of film adaptation and reality representation in the middle of the 20th century, the documentary theory of film advocated the return of film to its photographic nature and emphasized the objectivity and authenticity of film. different from vertov's theory, the documentary theory school does not advocate the reconstruction of social reality through film, but focuses on how to reproduce the complete reality through film aesthetic means. krakauer noted that film "is the only art, like photography, that can preserve the integrity of its material" and argued that film should show unadorned reality, without montage. this trend of thought provides a new perspective for the emergence and development of adapted films. although adapted films are criticized as lacking originality due to their reliance on original works, documentary film theorist bazin proposes that adapted films faithful to original works can promote the maturity of film art. bazin pointed out in the impure film argument defense of adaptation that the film can make better use of its own aesthetic means by faithfully restoring the original, which marks the maturity of the film art. especially in order to pursue the true aesthetic height, the film re-examines the non-film works in the process of adaptation, and promotes the development of film art to a higher level. bazin uses robert bresson's film diary of a country minister as an example to illustrate this theory. the film is adapted from the novel of georges bernaros, although bresson claims to strictly follow the original, the actual film on the basis of faithful to the original, the deletion of pictorial passages, compression of the psychological description and drama of the original, making the film more abstract than the novel, but still through the combination of sound and picture successfully reproduced the essence of the original. bazin emphasized that the "reality" of film is not limited to the visual realm, but the text itself can also represent reality. by presenting literary works as a part of reality, literary adapted films overcome the difference between text and image in the form of expression and realize the representation of "soul". this theory breaks through the previous concept of "picture first" and provides a new way of thinking for film adaptation. bazin's adaptation thought further promoted the artistic innovation of film, and made his theory exert a profound influence on the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 27 published by ideas spread adaptation research at that time and later. in contrast, krakauer does not regard the original work as an objective reality in the study of literary film adaptation, but juxtaposes the original work with film art to explore the similarities and differences between the two in reflecting reality. he believes that both movies and novels use stories as clues to connect reality, but movies represent material continuity, while novels represent spiritual continuity. therefore, film adaptation should try to choose the original content that can be expressed through film means, and avoid those parts that are difficult to be expressed through film. this view of krakauer reflects his clear understanding of the expressive force of film art, but also exposes his tendency of "literary center" which puts literary art above film. he stressed that film adaptation should retain the basic content of the original, but his insufficient understanding of the potential of the film medium limited the development of film art. although krakauer and bazin share a "literary-centric" view, their positions in the film adaptation differ. bazin pays more attention to the independence and potential of film art, thinks that film adaptation is the re-creation of the original art form, and emphasizes the artistic value of film. krakauer, on the other hand, puts more emphasis on the limitations of the adaptation, believing that the film should retain the spirit and story of the original, but there is insufficient recognition of the potential of film art. therefore, bazin's adaptation thought is more open and innovative, and plays a more far-reaching role in promoting the study of adapted films. 2.2 the golden age of hollywood and the commercialization tendency of film adaptations after the introduction of sound technology, the film experienced an artistic regression. bruce east, an american film theorist, believed that in the early 1930s, audiences were more inclined to enjoy the pleasure of listening to actors than the quality of the film's story. this phenomenon reveals the causes of hollywood's golden age, and also reflects the transformation of the art of film from visual to auditory. during this period, hollywood rose rapidly, not only dominating the global film market, but also playing an important role in the wave of adapted films. from 1934 to 1935, major film companies such as rko, paramount, and universal produced numerous film adaptations of the novel. according to lester asheim, between 1935 and 1945, about one in five films was adapted from a novel, and many of them, such as wuthering heights, gone with the wind, and the grapes of wrath, were not only artistically successful, but also profitable. hollywood adaptations, however, often promote fidelity to the original works, but actually focus on financial gain. filmmakers often choose dramatic, conflict-filled literary works, and reinforce their character, build star power, weaken the radical themes of the original works, and incorporate universal values. while this was successful in attracting audiences, it also led to the film adaptation becoming more stylized, less creative, and sometimes even destroying the artistic quality of the original. for example, although gone with the wind strives to be faithful to the original in terms of investment, screenwriting and director, the description of scarlett in the film strengthens the love line and weakens the female independent theme in the novel, reflecting the commercial tendency of hollywood adapted films at that time. after the practice of film adaptation in the golden age of hollywood, american scholar george broston published from novel to film in 1956, which marked a new stage of independent development of film adaptation research. inheriting the comparative research method of his predecessors, bluston extensively discusses the differences between literature and film, especially in the expression of time and space. he believes that time is the structural principle of fiction, while film is dominated by space. in the novel, time is abstract and expressed through words, while the film presents the flow of time through concrete pictures. in addition, film has a natural advantage in the presentation of space, but it needs special means to create the illusion of time when expressing the flow of time. this discovery by brosten innovatively compares the differences between film and literature in time and space. despite this, broston did not completely abandon the "literary-centric" doctrine, arguing that film adaptations must "betray" the original, but that films can create unique structures. he does not require the film to be faithful to the original, but respects the creativity of the film creator, and believes that the ultimate goal of film adaptation is to create novel works according to the characteristics of the film medium. however, he also criticized the excessive changes in the original works in hollywood adaptations, especially the cuts and adaptations of the original works due to the influence of the economy and censorship. similar to krakauer, he believes that the performance of film is limited, and it cannot be faithfully adapted to certain literary works, which shows the deep-rooted "literary center" doctrine in the study of adapted films. 2.3 the influence of digital media on the creation of film adaptation the emergence of digital media has a profound impact on film creation, especially in literary adaptation films, where digital technology breaks through the creative bondage of traditional films and greatly reduces the distance between film and literature. traditional film technology is based on film and analog signals, which limits the ability of film to express reality. the smallest unit of film creation is the grid, and every frame shot through film hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 28 published by ideas spread represents a certain detail of reality, and it is impossible to freely choose discrete materials like literature. however, the introduction of digital technology provides more freedom for film creation. digital media, through the dispersion and constructiveness of information, enables films to transcend the limitations of traditional painting and enhance the expression of reality. digital films have the freedom to modify each frame and even create completely computer-generated images, such as toy story and final fantasy. this makes the unit of film creation no longer limited to the traditional physical picture, but can be freely spliced and created through digital means. the biggest advantage of digital technology is its discrete and constructive nature, which allows filmmakers to freely navigate between the real and the surreal and create more diverse works. in traditional films, due to the mechanical reproduction nature of film, film cannot express abstract spiritual or conscious levels as flexibly and freely as literature. it is often difficult for traditional films to reproduce the deep emotions and complex streams of consciousness in novels, especially in science fiction or surrealism. however, the construction of digital media breaks through this limitation, and movies can present richer audio-visual effects through computer-generated virtual worlds or by splicing reality and virtual. for example, the lord of the rings digitally created a virtual middle-earth, and forrest gump digitally combined multiple actors into the same frame. these films demonstrate the great potential of digital technology in the visual arts, and the freedom and expression of film creation have been improved in an unprecedented way. digital technology has also changed the way movies are told, especially when it comes to the movie-going experience. the viewing experience of traditional movies mainly relies on static screens and mono sound effects, and the audience is only a spectator in the movie theater. digital films, on the other hand, create a more immersive viewing experience through stereo effects and multi-channel surround sound. the emergence of 3d films has broken the limitations of the screen, enabling the audience to participate in the world of the film. this threedimensional viewing experience makes the audience part of the narrative of the film, enhancing the audience's sense of participation and interactivity. this change brought a new aesthetic perspective to the film, so that the film no longer just rely on the attraction of the plot, but through the attractive form of presentation to attract the audience's attention. digital media has promoted the innovation of film in the aspect of narrative. through the fine control of picture and sound, the film can freely create a virtual world, breaking the space and time constraints of traditional film narration. digital technology, for example, can use digitally generated images or virtual reality technology to transport viewers into a world entirely designed by the creators of the film. this makes the narrative of film more rich and multi-level, and also makes the narrative ability of film closer to the narrative ability of literature. however, with the popularization of digital technology, film is also at risk of formalism. the abuse of digital technology has led many films to focus more on visual effects and spectacle at the expense of narrative depth and emotional expression. the popularity of spectacle films has gradually shifted the narrative of films from realism to postmodernism, and the narrative of films is often overwhelmed by visual effects and technological innovations, resulting in the depth and emotional expression of the storyline becoming secondary. the high development of digital technology has made film creation a process full of visual wonders, but if it relies too much on visual effects, the film may fall into the dilemma of formalism. under this background, the creation of literary adapted films is also facing new challenges. digital media enables film creators to create freely, breaking through the imitation of reality by traditional films, but this free creation also leads to the deconstruction of "literary-centered" doctrine. the three-dimensional and participatory nature of digital film makes film creation no longer limited to faithful original works, but pays more attention to the free expression of film art. director ang lee pointed out that movies and novels are different mediums, and adaptation often requires changing the structure and presentation of the story, and fidelity to the original is not the only goal. in the digital age, the creation of film is no longer a simple copy of literary works, but through digital technology to give the film a new meaning and expression. speaking about life of pi, lee said that digital technology allows the film to allow the audience to enter the world of the film, thereby gaining a sense of identity and participation. this new viewing experience and creation method indicates that the distance between film and literature has been greatly narrowed, but at the same time, it also reveals the freedom of film creation and the great change of narrative mode. with the development of digital media, film no longer relies solely on the narrative mode of literature, but has developed a new narrative mode. this approach places greater emphasis on visual effects, sound effects, and audience participation, factors that often conflict with the abstractness and inner description of literature. therefore, film creation is no longer simply aimed at being faithful to the original, but pays more attention to the artistry and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 29 published by ideas spread creative freedom of the film itself. digital technology has brought about profound changes in the form and content of film and promoted the development of film art. 3. results through the study of adapted film, the trap of "literatorialism" and film formalism in the theory gradually emerged, warning the development and research status of adapted film art in the digital age. as digital media become increasingly discrete and constructive, film adaptations may, as stamm suggests, eventually dissolve into the digital stream. at present, although literature is slower to accept digital media than film, it is also gradually trying to digitize, such as hypertext experiments in foreign countries and online novels in china. in the ip development of network novels, film and television adaptation has become a part. this provides a common media basis for the study of adapted films, but whether it will lead to the complete integration of literature and film art is still unknown. from the perspective of the development of film art, digital media has brought unprecedented creativity and immersive movie-watching experience to films. today, 3d movies have become a common viewing mode, and theaters are constantly seeking new experiences, such as 4d and 5d interactive movies. these films not only contain passive experiences, but also pursue actively engaged interactive experiences, such as 2018's detroit: human. combining these two experiences, we can see the application prospects of virtual reality (vr) technology. vr is not only an extension of immersive experiences and interactions, but also has the potential to simulate complex realities, such as the digital ecosystem embodied in the movie lord of the rings and the game monster hunter world. in the future, literature, film, painting, music and other arts may become the pillars of the construction of the virtual world, which is similar to the way of combining traditional art, and may also be the form of future adaptation. although this conjecture needs further development of science and technology and more in-depth theoretical research, it provides a new perspective for the development of adaptation art. references cartmell, d. (ed.). (2012). a companion to literature, film, and adaptation. john wiley & sons. casetti, f. (2004). adaptation and mis‐adaptations: film, literature, and social discourses. in r. stam & a. raengo (eds.), a companion to literature and film (pp. 81-91). blackwell publishing. cattrysse, p. (1992). film (adaptation) as translation: some methodological proposals. target, 4(1), 53-70. https://doi.org/10.1075/target.4.1.04cat chung, s. y. (2002). a study of literary adaptation: film reviewing and the construction of cultural value. university of london, institute of education. elliott, k. (2004). literary film adaptation and the form/content dilemma. in m. j. p. wolf & b. werner (eds.), narrative across media: the languages of storytelling (pp. 220-243). university of nebraska press. geraghty, c. (2008). now a major motion picture: film adaptations of literature and drama. rowman & littlefield. kranz, d. l., & mellerski, n. c. (eds.). (2008). in/fidelity: essays on film adaptation. cambridge scholars. leitch, t. (2007). film adaptation and its discontents: from gone with the wind to the passion of the christ. jhu press. maccabe, c., warner, r., & murray, k. (eds.). (2011). true to the spirit: film adaptation and the question of fidelity. oxford university press. ramrao, t. n. (2016). film and literature: an overview. epitome journals, 2(9), 149-156. snyder, m. h. (2011). analyzing literature-to-film adaptations: a novelist's exploration and guide. a&c black. stam, r. (2004). literature through film: realism, magic, and the art of adaptation. john wiley & sons. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n1p133 133 published by ideas spread the second rise of the role of the male dan and its opera historical significance jiekang xu1 1 jiangsu normal university, china correspondence: quanshan campus, jiangsu normal university, 101 shanghai road, tongshan district, xuzhou city, jiangsu province, china. tel: 86-156-8970-1958. e-mail: 399823772 qq.com received: january 31, 2025; accepted: february 28, 2025; published: march 3, 2025 abstract sheng and dan roles are indispensable in the performance of beijing opera , and the change of status between the two also reflects the choice of the times. since the formation and development of the dan role, it has gone through two big open and close rise and decline. the second rise of danjiao in the republican period is also the result of the dual role of danjiao's own factors and the factors of the times. there are three reasons: first, the widespread dissemination of new bourgeois ideas, the establishment of the new republic of china, so that the idea of peopleoriented in-depth, the qualifications of the actor as a national also gradually be recognized by the people. coupled with the outlawing of the ap yu place, further improving the status of danjiao. secondly, the danjiao followed the trend and actively participated in the improvement, which won a broader development space for itself. thirdly, the policy of women entering the park, the change of aesthetic concepts, and the rise of the danjiao movement made the danjiao further gain a broad audience base. danjiao called dan was created in the era when the center of gravity of peking opera development was shifted from shengjiao to danjiao. keywords: dan role, raw role, status in the theater 1. introduction the practice of men playing female roles has existed since ancient times. whether it is the mutual transformation between men and women in real life or the frequent cross-dressing in poetry, novels, and drama, all can be considered from the perspective of historical development. mencius once explained this situation: "to conform to what is right is the way of concubines and wives." tang xianzu also mentioned in his letter "reply to ma xinyi": "at this time, many men transform into women, walking and standing sideways, speaking sweetly and smiling skillfully, thus standing firm in their era." in his article "the origin of female roles and male dan in opera and ancient dramatic characters," mr.wang jisi argues: "the formation of traditional female roles and male dan is related to the feudal societys separation between men and women, which did not allow simultaneous performances by men and women, hence this tradition did not form in western drama history; it is also associated with early family troupes, where roles were scarce, leading to cross-dressing." it is precisely because of this that the male dan role has a long history in ancient chinese society. looking at the two rises of dan roles from their inception to the present, there must be dual causes both inherent and temporal. therefore, clarifying the process of the second rise of male dan roles and understanding their development status is of considerable significance for reconstructing the historical facts of opera. 2. the first rise and decline of the male dan role the first rise of the dan role can be traced back to the flourishing of male style in ancient chinese society. men's style refers to the complex social relationships between men in ancient chinese society, the most important of which was the social intercourse between the scholars and the literati and the actresses. due to the influence of traditional mediocrity in ancient feudal society, although male style was not advocated by the mainstream culture of the society, the position of male style was ambiguous, showing a neutral attitude of neither supporting nor opposing it. therefore, men's style can coexist with the traditional culture and intermingle with each other, "largely in the world under the gaze of doubt, in an ambiguous state of existence in society." this trend was very popular in the late ming dynasty, due to the deep indoctrination by the song dynasty "cheng zhu theory", the whole society has no place to release the repressed mentality, the ideology gradually formed the pursuit of individuality and liberation of the trend of thought. coupled with the fomentation of hedonistic ideology in the late ming dynasty, from the upper class to the city folk, the social characteristics of the male style is constantly highlighted. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 134 published by ideas spread "today, under the words of the male sex, moving to min guang for the mouth, but from wu yue to yan yun, did not know this good people." in the late ming dynasty, the city folk in the social culture of leisure and entertainment under the influence of the original popular in the song dynasty, "small singing" further development, become specialized for the literati and scholarly men to drink and laugh at the occupation. since the qing dynasty still followed the old system of the ming dynasty, female prostitutes were strictly prohibited, and this trend developed even more rapidly after the qing dynasty. during the qianlong period of the qing dynasty, the development of men's style gradually showed a combination with opera. "qing people are more intimate than the ming dynasty, and the style of the pear orchard in the qing dynasty, also once tended to be obscene." wei san, the qin opera flower girl, innovated the way of makeup for the dan role in opera, plus the aid of his unique artistic skills, which made it better for the stage presentation. wei san to improve the success of the dan role, when we can see from the "yan lan small spectrum": "wei san (yongqing department), the name of changsheng, the word wanqing, jintang, sichuan people. the actor in the zidu also. in the past in the shuangqing department, to "rolling house" a play, running away from the ho children, the scholarly community is also intoxicated. other miscellaneous plays are all gags, the shape of prostitution, so that the old beijing accent on the shelf. a song building, the viewers into the block. and the six classes a few no one asked, or to scatter." wei san's peculiar performance style at that time not only catered to the aesthetic characteristics of the male group in the qing dynasty, but also created a brand new performance paradigm. his performance not only attracted the audience for the frenzy, and its popularity directly overwhelmed the beijing master of the time, bai er, with which the taipan were slightly inferior. "wei changsheng (according to: a wei three, or wei three dan, jintang, sichuan, bangkok dan) si hai years with the people into the capital, with the rolling house" a play famous beijing, the viewers to more than a thousand, and the big class (according to: huiban, or known as the 'old huiban' has just entered the beijing, specializing in the performance of the song, the 'four happiness' class 'is not yet included). class' is not yet included) was reduced in color." there are even some good people who wrote, "i like to smile, i like to be angry, i like to have a hundred winks, and i like to murmur delicate words to myself. the poem "the wind and the flow take up the grapevine, but can't help wei san upstairs" appreciates wei san's paradigm of performance. after wei san's three big hits, the actors in beijing naturally competed with each other to follow suit: beijing dan's small feet installed, but in the past, but a few out, behavior every more shrinkage. since wei three trespassing after the name, all with small feet on stage, foot picking eye movement, in the off feelings. and i heard that its charm, if the dream of jin hou and chu zi tuan yan. recently, the opera house theater metallurgical style, where the newspaper article has a "big trouble in the golden tent" (red paper book acted in the play posted on the door, called "newspaper article"), is the day of the sitter will be full. after wei san's "rolling floor", yin'er and yujuan all followed suit. liu has "gui hua pavilion" and wang has "hulu rack", but it is not as good as yin'er's "double unicorn", which is naked and unveils the tent, so that people can watch the big body double. before the performance, a curtained couch and a flower pavilion are set up on the stage, as if a green hut is being built to wait for a new wife, so that the youngsters will be so excited that they will not be able to think of anything else, which is the second most obscene habit. with this beginning, qian dan constantly meet the public's aesthetic tendencies, audience groups continue to increase also contributed to the artist group is more large. coupled with the improvement of social status, so that the kundan gradually in the jiaqian time to gain a firm foothold, for the first time to become the top of the role of superior people. this situation was maintained until around the middle of the 19th century, when the invasion of the western powers from the outside, the deepening of the taiping heavenly kingdom movement from the inside, and the rising nationalist sentiments made it impossible for the qing dynasty to indulge in the lustful performances of the flower girls any longer. the qing dynasty banned performances such as that of wei san, the "goddess of fox and charms," and expelled wei san from the capital, which undoubtedly caused the status of the flower girl's profession to fall into disrepute. the role of the pear orchard, the clown position is the most respected, to flower girl for the most cheap, jianghu class, there are clowns do not wipe the face, the outside shall not open the gong of the rules. theater class has a major negotiation, must invite the public negotiators, called "speaking", the stage set up chairs thirteen, drums in the first seat, followed by pulling the hoosier, followed by the clowns, susei, big flower face, green shirt, the old dan, sheng, wu jing, wu clowns, wusheng, vice net its people, and the flower girl a door, a single queue as in this case. and class, no matter what kind of reputation of the flower girl, he has to tease the actor, so nowadays the flower girl's big name, in the seat of the guest is very important, very welcome, and since the individual in the view of the people, it is very negligent and not sufficiently strange. the most important thing in the sushi, beijing hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 135 published by ideas spread and tianjin among the addicts, all like to sing the beard, flower girl is cited as a strange insult, no one is willing to learn step by step also. as the narrative of beijing opera itself is mostly dominated by the two roles of sheng and dan, the decline in the status of dan, represented by hua dan, naturally and invisibly raised the status of sheng. in addition, there are scholars in the paper written by the expression of such a view: "the late qing dynasty lao sheng popularity is the product of internal and external problems calling for male masculinity, cheng changgeng, tan xinpei and others showed the masculine beauty of the times; in other words, the lao sheng prevalence reflects the late qing dynasty faced with the pressure of imperialism, and after the entry into the republic of china, with the identification of people with the nation-state, the embodiment of the beauty of masculinity of the hero image has receded to the background. after the republic of china, as people recognized the national state, the heroic image of masculinity had been relegated to secondary importance, and in the adjustment with colonial modernity, the need for a different gender image arose, and danjiao flourished as a result." qiu wen, on the other hand, believes that the old man school, represented by tan xinpei, was extremely popular with the qing court because the melancholy style of his singing was in line with the declining trend of the late qing dynasty and reflected the downtrodden state of mind of the rulers of the qing dynasty. in qiu wen's book "appreciation of peking opera schools", it is mentioned: "because the tan school was also a product of its time, it could not be free from the limitations of its time. tan xinpei formed his school, probably between the thirteenth and twentieth years of the guangxu era, a period when the chinese people were struggling with the imperialist and feudal forces, on the one hand, the qing dynasty was becoming increasingly corrupt and faced with collapse, and the imperialist forces were becoming increasingly invasive, on the other hand, the people's insurrectionary movements were vigorously on the rise. at this time, tan xinpei won the hearts of the qing royal family with his low and sad accent. tan's masterpieces, such as tozhao touching the tablet and hong yangdong, were more or less pessimistic at that time. therefore, tan xinpei's performance style more or less reflected the mood of the ruler of the qing dynasty who was in decline." song xueqi expressed a similar viewpoint in "tan xinpei's artistic path": "the social root of the high level of the lao sheng line is that: after the opium war, foreign invasion became more and more serious, domestic class conflicts and other contradictions became more and more acute, and it was difficult for the opera to satisfy the requirements of the general audience by purely expressing the content of family trivia and the private love of children. people preferred high, crisp, and impassioned tones, and themes that were combative and reflected major historical events." but no matter what, in the early stage of the development of peking opera, it is an indisputable fact that raw roles gradually dominated the various trades and professions. in the middle of the qing dynasty, there was a period of famous actors in the development of beijing opera, represented by cheng changgeng, yang yuelou, mei qiaoling and other big actors in the pear orchard. however, during this period, the gap between them and ordinary actors in terms of status and salary funds was not very large. with the gradual change of the actors' income to the new "silver system", the star peking opera, mainly tan xinpei, opened its curtain in beiping. as the income gap between peking opera stars and other actors further widened, the star-centered system was also strengthened, and peking opera stars received unprecedented social attention. at the same time, the development of the class system not only made the head players distinguish themselves from the second and third players in terms of economic status, but also made a world of difference in terms of the rights and treatment they enjoyed compared to the previous era. despite the fact that the danjiao had undergone continuous development and improvement, and had given birth to the danjiao qingyi, which mainly showed chaste and virtuous women and rich girls, the danjiao in general had not yet changed such a situation, and still depended on the development of the shengjiao, and had not yet formed the situation of being a unique actor. 3. the second rise of danjiao during the period of the restoration movement, the restorationists wanted to achieve the purpose of spreading the ideas of the restoration, rectifying the social culture and reforming the minds of the people through the propaganda and education of the opera, which was the "last skill and small way". this was tantamount to promoting the development of opera from the side, and improving the status of the actors from an invisible point of view. with the wide spread of new bourgeois ideas, the humanistic ideology filled every aspect of the society, and apolitical culture was gradually disliked. at the same time, some of the eloquent artists began to awaken to themselves, scrutinizing their own skills and gradually embarking on a relatively pure artistic path. previously, the literati were also subjected to new ideas, which changed their mentality, gradually shifting from the pure pursuit of the actor's vocal enjoyment to the appreciation of the actor's art. some of the literati, out of their love for opera, took the initiative to study opera, refine their skills, compose and perform new operas, and actively participate in the movement to improve opera. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 136 published by ideas spread the natural elimination of xianggong has recently found its beginnings. the masters of the classes, knowing that the european superiority of the view of the community, for which there is no xianggong said that the opera is sufficient to improve the customs, have all been focused on the preparation of new plays. however, the evolution of the new opera, that is, the degradation of xianggong, there can be hesitation. jiang huibo, wang tongjun generation, for the newspapers and magazines of the stimulation, for the civilization of the advice of the guests, a sharp awakening, resolutely change plan. in the first year of the xuantong era, i.e., 1909, tan xinpei, yu runxian, tian jiyun, yu yuqin and others put forward a request to outlaw private apartments in the name of the jingzhong temple, and published in yishi newspaper the "notification sheet of the pear garden's public discussion methods", the original text of which is as follows: "to the initiator, the class master mr. know, this coincides with the national constitution in the near future, all my nationals, should enjoy the general equality of rights, only my pear orchard a industry, the original for the difference of the inner court, for the part of the common music, that is, thailand and the western countries are largely the same, no matter what country, music and dance things, and no shame, only our country is commonly talked about listed in the whore superiority of the subordinate pawns, the origin of the real private apartments to mix to, i have no example of the examination, to outsiders mouth, recalling that the first few decades, this is not the same profession, recently there are initiators yu zhenting, zhao xianfang, wang yaoqing, lu yushan, yang duo xian. to the outsiders of the mouth, recall the pear garden private apartment, the first few decades, this is not the same industry, recently there are initiators, yu zhenting, zhao xianfang, wang yaoqing, lu yushan, yang duo xian, and other advocates of the integration of a unified approach to the proposed pear garden entertainment, divided into two ways, the entertainment shall not be on the stage to perform, so that the boundaries of the clear, and the pear garden a industry, can be attached to a legitimate business, so as not to have the outside world of the fallacy of the word, and from now on, the special inspectors of the two names, such as from now on, two inspectors will be assigned to investigate, and if it is found that those who entertain in private apartments are allowed to sing on stage again and sing in the halls, the person who introduces them will be dismissed from the pear garden, and will be punished with the same penalty, and the class will not be allowed to undertake the job again, and since the first day of the first month of the second year of the xuantong era, they will be prohibited from singing in private apartments for good. temple head of jingzhong temple: tan xinpei, yu runxian, tian jiyun, yu yuqin dec. 11 of the first year of xuantong, in the jingzhong temple meeting, all classes can be signed after the column, counting open: xiliancheng cheng, ye jianzhen, foreman, zhang guorui; qing sheng and cheng ban, liu wanlong, foreman, zhang haiping; qing shou and cheng ban, zhou rukui, yu yonghai, leader, zhang liancheng, guo huating; yishun and chengban, guo baochen, foreman, li guangfu, huang qirui; chun ching class bearer, yu yuqin, leader, chi shaofeng; the yucheng class is led by li yugui, and the foreman by wu xiangyan; auspicious class bearer, zhang yulan, leader, hu baozhu; hei chun ban cheng ban, mao chun cheng, leader, zhang shizhen; shuang qing ban cheng ban, li feng zhan, qiao peifang, leader, wang yufu; four happiness class cheng ban, zhang qi lin, leader, wang chang lin; ming sheng he ban cheng ban, guo ji ting, leader qian bao kui; hong sheng and ban cheng ban, zhang liancheng. all of the above were approved and pledged on that day. until 1912 into the republic of china, the society of ideological and cultural concepts further to the modernization of the liyuan public welfare organizations from the original jingzhong temple developed into the zhengle yuhua association, officially replacing the jingzhong temple to exercise the main function of protecting the interests of the industry. zhengle yuhua association in the early years of the republic of china by tian jiyun, yang guiyun, yu yuqin and other actors and actresses jointly organized the establishment of the association was established, the association was established to "invigorate the spirit of the clubs, is the culture of the late and recent, and the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 137 published by ideas spread present, touching the people in the invisible" for the purpose of the "promotion of arts and culture, improve opera, develop social education, and arouse public morality" as the primary purpose of the "promotion of arts and culture, improve opera, develop social education, and arouse public morality" as the primary purpose. as its primary purpose. with this aim and purpose in mind, after extensive and in-depth discussions and deliberations, the society unanimously agreed that the old apotheosis places not only did not emphasize humanitarianism, but also hindered the development of danjiao and opera, and was detrimental to the ethos of the new republic of china. therefore, on april 15 of the first year of the republic of china, the zhengle yuhua association once again "submitted a letter to the general office of the outer city of beijing, requesting the banning of the hanjiaotan like a nun hall, in order to emphasize humanism. the general office of the outer city police approved the request on the 20th of the same month." not only did the new government approve the request of the zhengle yuhua association to ban the places left over from feudalism, but also the general office of the outer city patrol in beiping published the following submission on june 5, 1926 in the press: outer city police general office for the presentation of strictly prohibited things: according to the hanjia tan, outside the corridor of the camp and other places in the hall apartment, often in the name of the game. lure the young son of a good family, decorated with its color, awarded to the sound and song, the beginning of the scholars by the occasional wen hui feast place, along the stream for a long time, so for the dirt hidden critic of the field. accumulated habits still phase, brewed into a special custom of the capital, defilement of the country, laughing at foreign countries. the name is: "like a nun", the real humane. we must know that the improvement of society, the promotion of opera has a merit; operation of the industry, in the national qualifications without prejudice. if you have to charm people for life, the behavior of private initiatives, the low character, is the extreme. now when the republic of the republic of the first time, the old stained vulgarity, it is appropriate to salty with the new. this office has the responsibility of rectifying the customs and protecting human rights, and will not allow such decadent style to appear in the capital of the country. for this reason, this office has issued a strict ban on such practices, so that all of us can change our ways, seek our own employment, respect our full personalities, and become noble citizens. if, after this notice, there are those who violate the law by purchasing the children of young actors and opening private apartments, the law of the land is in place, and this office cannot be lenient for them. this office will not be able to provide any relief for you. after that, this kind of feudal place completely became a historical relic together with the old times. "like a nun's hall has been famous for a long time, once the vicissitudes of life have changed. try to see the cherry slanting alley, when the door does not see the corner light. (poetry note: in the old days, like a nun's hall, the door must be hanging a corner lamp, cherry slant street is known as a prosperous area, now there is no family, that is, hanjiatan, shaanxi lane, etc., but also drop the morning stars.)" in december 3, 1934 "yishi newspaper" published an article, not only greatly appreciated tian jiyun and others for the development of the pear orchard, but also published two of its submissions as a collection of ju department of historical materials. we can see in the preface of the newspaper on this day: "our country actor, before the republic of china, because of the social leisure class people used to be despised and belittled, so long been in a low position, and criticized for the world, to push the source and the beginning of the system due to the 'private apartment' system of self-respect, and there is also this. until the end of the sun qing dynasty, the actor in the world of the bright, chi yan particularly, and then launched the abolition of such a bad organization, in order to enhance the status of the actor in the social community, as well as to improve the personality of the actor, the voice of a call, the group of friendly and open-minded people. at that time, tan xinpei, head of the jingzhong temple, yu runxian, tian jiyun, yu yuqin, etc., invited the hosts of the classes to improve the methods of banning the meeting, which was recognized by all signatures and published in the newspapers to show the importance of the innovation. since then, the actor is no longer discriminated against at all levels, and then rely on the actor's talent, the initiative to organize charitable donations for the industry, all kinds of beautiful things, so that the community's vision for a change, and then by the local newspapers, the actual solidarity for the actor's support for the yang, began to fight for today's actors of all the honors, it is tan, etc. advocate the abolition of 'private apartment' of the merits, it is not easy to drown out also. it is not convenient to drown them out." if the above two ideological concepts provide the basis for the second rise of danjiao, then the internal causes of danjiao's innovation undoubtedly provide it with a steady stream of power. it is because of the danjiao artists continue to follow the trend of the times for innovation, seeking new breakthroughs in the field of danjiao inward, danjiao in the art of progress day by day. the first to bear the brunt of this reform was yu ziyun. at that time, the division of the dan actor's profession was extremely detailed, so the scope of space for each type of actor to perform was extremely limited. "in the old days, the flower girl in green was the second laborer. those who sang hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 138 published by ideas spread hua dan could not move for the qing yi theater. those who sang in green can't move for the opera of hua dan, and those who sang in green can't move for the opera of hua dan. this is why the boundaries are different and show the virtue of the theater." at that time, qingyi followed the old rules, singing was the mainstay, and there was no intentional requirement to make a performance. ma shaobo summarized the stereotypical performance of qingyi in his article "mei lanfang's artistic path": "the main roles of zhenggong qingyi plays were to play solemn and steady ancient women, and the most important thing was to sing. the most important thing was the singing. the performance required that one should smile without showing one's teeth and walk without moving one's skirt. when appearing on stage, they must take the figure of holding the stomach, with one hand hanging down and the other holding the stomach, moving forward, without looking at the eyes, with a stagnant expression, as cold as ice. as a result, the audience formed the habit of listening to such roles rather than watching them." thus, yu ziyun "broke the boundaries between qingyi and hua dan, adopting the figure of hua dan as a tableau, in order to help the dullness of the qingyi, so the audience was refreshed." wang yaoqing, the "master of tongtian", was more keenly aware of the shortcomings in the development of the role of dan, and boldly innovated with more courage than usual. for the first time, he integrated the three roles of qingyi, hua dan and dagger and horse dan, creating a new role called "flower shirt". this further expanded the space for dan actors to play and gave them the freedom to create further roles. although at that time in the strict rules of the pear orchard, their reforms were not well understood, "or ridiculed its side charm to please the times, change the pear orchard rules, really a sinner." some people ridiculed wang yaoqing's performance of melting qingyi and hua dan into one, denouncing it as "non-donkey, non-horse" and "flying all over the stage", and even verbally attacked him, calling him "dang yaoqing". some people even regarded peking opera as "'something that the ancient people of the previous generation had studied to the point of home', and called the innovation 'forgetting the ancestors' and 'leaving the spectrum', and said that the reformers of the old opera 'had nothing to do with the old opera'. the reformers of the old opera were said to have 'the ability to move the old rut of the predecessors'" . however, from the perspective of the history of chinese peking opera, the reforms of yu ziyun and wang yaoqing not only initiated the reforms of the dan role, but also laid a solid foundation for the dan roles of the later generations to continuously remove the feudalism, challenge the traditions, conform to the trend, and adapt to the stage. the innovations of yu ziyun and wang yaoqing opened the way for the second rise of danjiao art, followed by mei lanfang, cheng yanqiu, shang xiaoyun, xun huisheng, xiao cuihua, zhu qinxin, and xu biyun, who in their continuous innovations pushed the second rise of danjiao art to a climax. at the same time, the changing consciousness of the times also provided the conditions for the second rise of danjiao. what is worth mentioning is the dramatic increase in the number of female audience, which changed the original tradition of male-only audience in the theater. according to mei lanfang's recollection: "female spectators were just starting to watch the theater, naturally they were more amateurish, they just came to see the fun, and then they must pick the pretty ones first. a dried-up old man like tan xinpei would not be interested in watching if he did not know how to appreciate his art. so the line of dan became the object of their love. in less than a few years, the qingyi opera had a large audience, and jumped to an important position in the opera industry, and later joined this large group of new audience also has a little contributed to the power of." since the female audience is allowed to enter the theater to watch the play, most of them love to watch the dan actor's performance, which naturally makes the dan actor line has a larger audience base. song xueqi also said: "the composition of the audience has changed, the audience is wider, social life affects the social psychology, appreciate the danjiao audience is increasing. the status of danjiao theater has the potential to compete with shengjiao (lao sheng)." in the danjiao audience continues to increase, danjiao attention greatly improved social environment, the theater in order to cater to the audience, the first to make changes, this stimulus is bound to improve the status and treatment of danjiao from the invisible. theater class for danjiao's importance and make the drama world to learn dan increase, danjiao line of reserve talent base is constantly expanding, talents come out. and countless dan actor talent and forced dan actor line in the art and disguise on the continuous progress, and gradually formed a very own characteristics of the school. recently, danjiao prevalent, immerse into a preference for the arts in general, since it is not a good image, but nowadays danjiao, body exquisite light qian, but also especially to the advantage of the point. in addition to the singing body step of the material solid inferior to the old school in previous years, for all kinds of common social ills, try to mei lanfang, cheng yanqiu, xiao cuihua, shang xiaoyun, zhu qinxin, wang youqing, etc., and the late actor mei qiaoling, when xiaofu, li yannong, li ziyun, yang xiaoduo, want to jiuxiao, chen delin, yao peiqiu, yu yuqin, etc., compared to view, that is, the former body are more plump, and the occasional a thin tian guifeng, and the group was surprised! the so-called gu qu celebrities of the old generation. the so-called gu qu hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 139 published by ideas spread celebrities, for the current red dan's big do what song, what song, since the fortunate late luck and blessed eyes, better than then, and why not? not only that, xu muyun wrote in his "beijing opera miscellany": "later, the four famous dancers competed with each other, rehearsing new plays and creating new cavities, so that they gradually became the patriarchal craftsmen of each school, and the cause of their fame should be attributed to the music and the beautiful and pleasant singing voice." huang huiqiu also mentioned in his article "on the four famous dan" that "'the four' competed with each other in the arts, worked tirelessly, and developed the art of danjiao genre to a flourishing stage of blossoming, contributing a great deal." also under the great changes of social transformation, tired of the phenomenon of empty political partisanship, the public transferred their psychological demands to the theater world, and gradually pursued the peking opera school of art. the surge in audience numbers led to more people spontaneously forming parties in favor of famous actors, from political partisanship to the "party of the actors" in pingju opera. in 1917, when tan xinpei died, the shun tian times immediately published a magazine in which readers could vote for a new king of the opera world. the rise of the may 4th new culture movement led to unprecedented criticism of peking opera, and mei lanfang and other dan-playing artists learned from their mistakes and adapted to the times by revamping old operas and arranging new ones. as a result, the original model of the opera world, which was dominated by the sheng line, gradually changed to a model dominated by the dan line, and the status of the dan character was raised as never before, and the second rise of the dan character was realized. 4. conclusions scattered in the ancient monographs, documents, newspapers and periodicals, the elements of the two rise of sanyi outline the unique artistic style in the history of the development of chinese opera, and prove the value characteristics of male dan's own existence. through the review and investigation of this period of history, let us gradually enter and feel the survival state of danjiao in different periods, and touch its unique survival state of cultural choice.looking back at history, the two rises of dan role are all the results of both self-factor and era conditions. looking at the present, discussing the two rises of dan role can also enrich the section of opera history. references anle, s. (n.d.). yanshan xiaopu, in f. zhuan (ed.), peking opera historical documents compilation qing dynasty volume 1 (p. 45). nanjing: phoenix publishing house. anle, s. (n.d.). yanshan xiaopu, in f. zhuan (ed.), peking opera historical documents compilation qing dynasty volume 1 (pp. 57–58). nanjing: phoenix publishing house. beijing municipal archives. (n.d.). constitution of the zhengle yuhua society (j4-1-33). genro. (1913, may 31). drama talk. the declaration, p. 13. goldstein, j. (2007). drama kings: players and publics in the re-creation of peking opera, 1870-1937. university of california press. https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520932791 huang, h. (1985). on the four famous dancers. in beijing peking opera history research association, beijing opera research institute (ed.), research on the history of peking opera -opera discussion series (ii) (december 1985 ed., p. 187). shanghai: xuelin publishing house. ma, s. (1981). mei lanfang's artistic path. literature and history knowledge, 2. mei, l., xu, j., xu, y., & zhu, j. (1987). forty years of stage life (january 1987 ed., p. 112). beijing: china drama publishing house. qiu, w. (1962). peking opera genre appreciation (june 1962 ed., pp. 19–20). shanghai: shanghai literature and art publishing house. song, x. (n.d.). tan xinpei's artistic path. in china academy of art, graduate studies department (ed.), china academy of art, first graduate master's degree thesis collection (theater volume) (p. 364). beijing: culture and art publishing house. sun, m. (1999). yu ling kao shu (october 1999 ed.). beijing: china drama publishing house, p. 284. wu, q. (n.d.). the development trend of peking opera performing schools. in academic commentary group of the office of the committee for the 200th anniversary of the hui ban's entry into beijing (ed.), towards a new prosperity of the art of peking opera anthology of the symposium on revitalization of peking opera in commemoration of the 200th anniversary of the hui ban's entry into beijing (p. 137). beijing: china theatre publishing house. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 140 published by ideas spread xiaofu. (1928). the innovator of the dan role. drama monthly, 1(4), p. 101. xie, z. (1959). wu miscellaneous chopping block (1959 ed.). shanghai: zhonghua shuju bureaus, p. 209. xu, l. (1928). the progress of a part of danjiao. nanjin (tianjin), 10, p. 41. xu, m. (1960). miscellaneous discourses on peking opera (march 1960 ed., p. 14). beijing: beijing bowendang bookstore. yan, g. (1907, may 3). answer to the question of the thin tong flower boundary (vi). shun tian times, p. 5. yang, m. (1982). beijing bamboo words of the qing dynasty (thirteen kinds) (january 1982 ed., p. 130). beijing: beijing ancient books publishing house. yishai gazette. (1934, december 3), p. 6. zhang, x. (1926). ju bu cong tuan yan duan ju ying lu (september 1926 ed., p. 76). shanghai: da dong shuji. zhang, y. (1938). dan foot miscellany. in old vice end talks on drama, first series (p. 10). shanghai: shanghai theater bookstore. zhang, z. (1988). yan guilaiyi suibi, in qing dynasty yandu pear garden historical materials (december 1988 ed., p. 1243). beijing: china drama publishing house. zhang, z. z. (2001). the ambiguous course: a history of homosexuality in ancient china (april 2001 ed.). zhengzhou: zhongzhou ancient books publishing house, p. 25. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n2p75 75 published by ideas spread metadiscourse analysis on ceo-speak in public interviews to weather company’s crisis zheng yongmei1 1 hubei preschool teachers college, china correspondence: zheng yongmei, hubei preschool teachers college, ezhou, china. e-mail: 1453751746 qq.com received: april 3, 2025; accepted: april 16, 2025; published: april 18, 2025 abstract public interview can serve as an effective means for companies to deal with crisis by answering the doubts and inquiries from the media and the public. with the united states increasing tariffs or other attacks on chinese goods, more and more companies are facing a crisis. this paper focuses on the deployment of metadiscourse resources and their rhetorical features in almost 40 media’s interviews with a company’s ceo. major findings are summarized as follows: (1) the ceo’s utterances are highly persuasive, in which self-mentions and transitions occur most frequently. (2) theceo pays more attention to the construction of credible appeals and affectiveappeals than rational sppeals. rational appeals can be realized through transitions, code glosses, frame markers and endophoric markers; ethos through hedges, boosters, self-mentions and evidentials; affective appeals through engagement markers, attitude markers, hedges and self-mentions. (3) metadiscourse items play an important role in the ceo’s efforts to weather the crisis. keywords: metadiscourse, ceo-speak, crisis response, persuasion, rhetorical appeals 1. introduction it is widely known that u.s. authorities’ allegations of criminality into huawei had been going on for years, on january 28, 2019, the us justice department released an indictment, including allegations on technology theft, sanctions breaches, lies to banks and conspiracy; in june 2018, the us refused to renew the export licence of futurewei, huawei’s silicon valley research and development unit; but they began to come to a head in december, 2018 when meng wanzhou, the chief financial officer (cfo) of huawei and daughter of mr. ren, was arrested in vancouver on us charges. these series actions have inevitably posed a great threat to huawei’s business and reputation. in face of this, mr. ren, who has always kept a low profile since the foundation of huawei, presented frequently in media in an uncharacteristically way to respond to the doubts and inquiries of the media and the public. the phrase “ceo-speak”, cited from amernic and craig (2006, 2007), is the use of discourse by ceos in speeches, statements during press conferences, interviews with the media and ceo messages in corporate annual reports. many scholars agree on the argument that the words of ceo have “clout” (amernic & craig, 2006, p.4). vignone (2012) believes that “leaders’ words sculpt reality”, which echoes the idea of arsenault and castells (2008) that ceos play a strong role in helping “to shape the social world by exerting control over issue-framing and information gatekeeping”. particularly, the influence of ceos is important in times of crisis when they are expected to assume rhetorical leadership (amernic & craig, 2006), and ceos’ role in weathering a crisis has attracted scholars’ attention in organization, communication as well as linguistics studies. liu and wang (2006) point out that the ceo of a company is the best spokesman and leader of crisis management team because they believe the practice can effectively express a company’s sincerity in the eyes of the public. similarly, seeger et al. (2005) believe that the ceo could become the face of the tragedy and a personification of the losses, and his highprofile monologic response is instrumental in changing and saving the company. therefore, it is important to investigate how the ceo-speak makes a difference during a crisis. however, the topic mostly receives attention from such disciplines as communication and organization, and few of them focused on the role of language used by the speaker of a company to respond to a crisis and restore its business (riaz et al., 2016). moreover, a majority of prior studies focus on written data of ceo letters to stockholders in a company’s annual report (e.g. hyland, 1998b), while oral discourse, such as interviews or speeches, receives less attention. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 76 published by ideas spread as we know, oral activities are pervasive in business settings, like business negotiation and business meetings. they are worthwhile to pay more attention to. to contribute to filling these research gaps, metadiscourse can serve as a linguistic theoretical foundation to analyze how ceo-speak functions during a corporate crisis. the term is first coined by zellig harris in 1959 and it focuses on the non-propositional part of the content. hyland (2008) argues that “metadiscourse is a key linguistic device that can help to show how language choices reflect different purposes of writers, the different assumptions they make about their audiences, and the different kinds of interactions they create with their readers”. therefore, the present paper will adopt the interpersonal model of metadiscourse (hyland, 2008) to investigate the linguistic features of mr. ren’s interviews. to summarize, the role of ceos in dealing with a crisis is so essential for an organization, while previous studies on ceo-speak from the perspective of linguistics are still lacking. therefore, the present study aims to identify the deployment of metadiscourse resources in mr. ren’s interviews with media based on the interpersonal model of metadiscourse. moreover, hyland (2008) maintains that metadiscourse is not only used to support the remaining propositional part. rather, it plays an important role in making the latter more coherent, intelligible and persuasive to a particular audience since it can help writers to engage their audience, signal relationships, apprise readers of varying certainty and guide their understanding of a text. 2. literature review 2.1 theoretical studies on metadiscourse metadiscourse now is a popular area in discourse analysis, and according to hyland (2008), generally it involves both cohesive and interpersonal features, combining a text and its context. the leading modern linguists halliday (1994) argues that intentions to express certain meanings in specific situations play an important role in our interactions with others, and metadiscourse helps us understand the relationships between the unconscious language choices and the social contexts in which we make them. due to diverse meanings realized by metadiscourse markers, many analysts (crismore, 1989; mauranen, 1993; vande kopple, 1985) have attempted and proposed different classification frameworks according to specific functions of metadiscourse. the paper will adopt the interpersonal model of metadiscourse developed by hyland because it not only involves the functions of metadiscourse, but also embodies three key principles of metadiscourse (hyland & tse, 2004): “1) metadiscourse is distinct from propositional aspects of discourse; 2) metadiscourse refers to aspects of the text that embody writer-reader interactions; 3) metadiscourse refers only to relations which are internal to the discourse”. at a finer degree of delicacy, the model incorporates the insights from thompson and thetela’s (1995) separation between interactive and interactional resources. the classification scheme is summarized in table 1. table 1. interpersonal model of medadiscourse(hyland,2008, p49) category function examples interactive help to guide the reader through the text resources code glosses elaborate propositional meanings namely; e.g. in other words endophoric markers refer to information from other parts of the texts noted above; see fig.; in section 2 evidentials refer to information from other texts according to x, y states frame markers refer to discourse acts, sequences or stages finally; to conclude; my purpose is transition markers express relations between main clauses in addition, but; thu, and interactional metadiscourse involve the reader in the text resources attitude marker express writer’s attitude to proposition unfortunately; surprisingly; i agree booster emphasize certainty or close dialogue in fact; definitely; it is clear that self mentions explicit reference to author(s) i; we; my; our engagement markers explicitly build relationship with readers consider; you can see that hedges withhold commitment and open dialolue might; perhaps; possible hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 77 published by ideas spread 2.2 aristotle’s model of rhetoric apart from interpersonal model of medadiscourse, the study will adopt aristotle’s model of rhetoric to analyze how persuasion is achieved through metadiscourse resources. in aristotle’s (2010, p.6) book rhetoric, he illustrate that rhetoric is “the art of discovering in any giving case, the available means of persuasion” (hyland, 2008, p.64). it involves demonstrating how something is true or how it can be shown to be true. aristotle developed the first and most influential theory of persuasion, which includes three means of persuasion, that is, rational appeals, affective appeals, the credible appeals. as for the rational appeals, the writer or speaker needs to conduct logical reasoning or give examples to reach a common ground between himself/herself and the audience. it concerns the speech itself, its arrangement, length, complexity, types of evidence and arguments, etc. according to hyland (1998b), by providing explanations, orientations and guidance for the audience, interactive metadiscourse can help the speaker or writer achieve the rational appeals. hyland (2008) probes into rational appeals of ceo’s letters to shareholders, and proposed that transitions, code glosses, frame markers and endophoric markers were the metasdiscourse subcategories that contribute most to the ceo’s rational appeals. this discovery is also applied to many other studies in metadiscourse and persuasion (e.g. jiang, 2019; wang, 2013). in this way, the present study will take transitions, code glosses, frame markers and endophoric markers as rhetorical means to achieve logos. the credible appeals means the personal appeal of one’s character. whether the persuasion is successful or not is closely connected with the speaker’s or writer’s capability to create an effective ethos. to this end, the perceived integrity and authority of the writer or speaker are crucial elements. in some sense, if the speaker is believed to be trustworthy, reliable, and competent, the audience are likely to accept what he or she says. according to hyland (2008, p.78), the subcategories of engagement markers, boosters, hedges and evidentials can indicate authors’ assessments on truth and their convictions in the opinions, thus facilitating most to the realization of ceos’ credibility appeals. another strategy is the combination of self-mentions and boosters, which can help the speaker or writer build a positive, determined and confident image. the study will take the subcategories of hedges, boosters, self-mentions and evidentials as rhetorical means to realize credible appeals. the affective appeals means the appeal to emotions, which can be achieved by exerting emotional influence on the audience, whose education background, gender, age, interest, previous knowledge as well as communities need to be taken into consideration. therefore, this means is more reader-centered than the two previous. with regard to the connection between pathos and specific metadiscourse categories, hyland (2008) said that engagement markers, attitude markers and hedges, along with the manipulation of pronoun reference can contribute to the establishment of relationship of the two sides, thus facilitating the realization of affective appeals. through an extensive reading on the data, it is found that the first-person pronoun i and the second-person pronoun you are frequently used. in this end, the paper will take engagement markers, attitude markers, hedges as well as selfmentions to achieve affective appeals, as jiang (2019) has done in investigating persuasive effects of metadiscourse in chinese and american company profiles. 3. materials and methods the research data are collected from the book, in his own words, dialogues with ren, consisting of three roundtable discussions and eight interviews with media of international profile coming from different countries. the content is based on transcripts of huawei’s founder and ceo mr. ren’s interviews with 39 media in total from january to april, 2019. its chinese and the translated english version are public accessible from xinsheng community in huawei’s official website. this study keeps mr. ren’s answers and excludes the journalists’ questions in the interviews of translated english version to get the research data. the practice can enable the present study to focus on the discourse mr. ren uttered despite the fact that it, to some extent, neglects the effect of context made by journalists’ questions on his answers. the translated version is selected for the reason that it is highly consistent with the original one in utterance interpretation and is officially admitted by huawei. what’s more, the practical reason is that it is more convenient to process english words with corpus analysis tool compared with chinese characters. all his answers constitute the small corpus of 56,807 english words. the current study conducted a quantitative analysis to identify the frequency and distribution of metadiscourse subcategories under the framework of hyland’s (2008) interpersonal model of metadiscourse. he labelled comprehensive words under various metadiscourse subcategories and reminds that many items can express either interactive or interpersonal meanings. the present study will also take the list of words as primary searching items. to begin with, the author needs to prepare the data for further processing in corpus analysis tool antconc 3.4, including downloading the transcripts of mr. ren from the internet, and revising them into “txt” for further calculation. then, the data file will be input into antconc 3.4., in which hyland’s list of words will be input as hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 78 published by ideas spread searching items one by one to produce concordance lines. these lines will be checked manually to determine whether specific items in their contexts can be counted as metadiscourse or not. moreover, it is obvious that the interviews of mr. ren took place in business setting and the raw data extracted in the present study is oral rather than written, which is quite different from the basis on which hyland’s list of metadiscourse is formed. therefore, the author will make a second check of metadiscourse devices through close reading of the data to figure out the words or phrases what are specific to business discourse and oral genres to generate a new list of metadiscourse devices. followed by this, these items will be complemented to the list provided by hyland to form a new list that is appropriate to the data of the present study. the author will also will employ antconc 3.4 to process the newly identified items for their frequency. e only accept papers written in english and without orthographic errors. 4. results and discussion 4.1 overall distribution of metadiscourse the quantitative analysis shows the importance of metadiscourse in mr. ren’s interviews with media in the context of crisis, with 12,407 occurrences in total and about one metadiscourse signaling every 4.6 words. the occurrence is higher than that of most previous researches, demonstrating the pervasiveness of metadiscourse in mr. ren’s discourse. table 2 provides the frequency and percentage of the metadiscourse categories. table 2. distribution of metadiscourse categories frequency percentage(%) interactive metadiscourse 3923 31.6% code glosses 295 2.4 endophoric markers 40 0.3 evidentials 646 5.2 frame markers 777 6.3 transition markers 2165 17.4 interactional metadiscourse 8484 68.4 attitude marker 692 5.6 booster 1443 11.6 self mentions 4235 34.1 engagement markers 777 6.3 hedges 1337 10.8 total 12407 100 on the whole, mr. ren uses more interactional resources (68.4% of the total) than interactive resources (31.6% of the total). interactional items occur more than two times as much as interactive ones. with regard to interactive metadiscourse, transition markers rank first in frequency, followed by frame markers (6.3%), and then evidentials (5.2%), code glosses, endophoric markers. in terms of interactional metadiscourse, self-mentions take up the lion’s share in the corpus, followed by boosters and hedges, and then engagement markers (6.3%) and attitude markers (5.6%). self-mentions, transition markers, boosters and hedges rank the four most frequently-used metadiscourse subcategories in the corpus. self-mentions significantly account for 34.1% of the total metadiscourse and half of all interactional forms. in addition, transition markers comprise more than half of the interactive counts. as hinds (1987, p.147) maintained that the writer needs to use proper transition markers so as to help the audience understand his/her logic in organizing the composition. next to transition markers are boosters and hedges, with a frequency of 11.6% and 10.8% respectively. code glosses (2.4% of the total) and endophoric markers (0.3% of the total) of interactive resources are two devices that are most rarely used. genre of public interviews needs to be taken into consideration. compared with argumentative essays, mr. ren, in face of journalists’ questions, did not have enough time for preparation and may pay less attention to the organization of his information, thus leading to the lower frequency of interactive metadiscourse. 4.2 using metadiscourse to achieve persuasion metadiscourse can be closely connected with the purposes of speakers or writers, and persuasion can be completed through metadiscourse by contributing to rational appeals, credible appeals and affective appeals. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 79 published by ideas spread rational appeal is assumed to be established mostly through transitions, frame markers, endophoric markers as well as code glosses. credible appeal is assumed to be mainly achieved by the deployment of evidentials, hedges, boosters and self-mentions. at last, self-mentions, hedges, attitude markers and engagement markers serve to realize affective appeal. table 3. persuasive functions of metadiscourse subcategories functions metadiscourse frequency(n) percentage(%) rational appeal code glosses 295 / endophoric markers 40 / frame markers 777 / transtions 2165 / total 3277 18.2% credible appeal evidentials 646 / boosters 1443 / self-mentions 4235 / hedges 1337 / total 7661 42.6% affective appeal attitude markers 692 / self-mentions 4235 / engagement markers 777 / hedges 1337 / total 7041 39.2% total 17979 100% the distribution and frequency of the three means of persuasion is presented in table 2. when code glosses, endophoric markers, frame markers and transitions are added together, the author gets the number of metadiscourse items contributing to rational appeal, which is 3,277. it is found that transition is the most frequently-used metadiscourse subcategory that contributes to the realization of rational appeal. in the same way, we can get the figure of credible and affective appeal, which is 7661 and 7041 respectively. self-mentions play an important role in achieving credible and affective appeal. on the whole, the frequency of rational appeal is much lower than that of credible and affective appeal, which implies that in mr. ren’s interviews, he pays more attention to the construction of a credible persona and a close relationship with his audience. furthermore, from the distribution presented in table 3, it is found that interactive metadiscoursal resources mainly contribute to the establishment of rational appeal, while interactional resources play a more important role in building credible and affective appeal. meanwhile, it is notable that one metadiscoursal device is likely to perform over one function in practice. for example, it can be seen from table 3 that self-mentions and hedges often appeal to both credible appeals and affective appeals, which also explains why their frequency have been calculated twice in the analysis. 5. conclusions the present study probes into the use of metadiscourse in mr. ren’s answers of the public interviews, and explore how persuasion is realized through its use. here are the major findings and limtations. firstly, there are 12,563 metadiscourse items in the small self-built corpus of 56,778 words, and it is found that the proportion of metadiscourse items in the self-built corpus is larger than that of other researches focusing on the area, with one metadiscourse item every 4.5 words. therefore, mr. ren’s utterances in the interviews are highly persuasive. besides that, mr. ren uses more interactional resources (67.1% of the total) than interactive resources (32.9% of the total). interactional items occur more than two times as much as interactive ones, indicating mr. ren’s attempts to be more evaluative and his concern for the audience. however, argumentative essays are quite different from public interviews, so the oral genre of the interviews should be taken into consideration. furthermore, self-mentions and transitions are two most frequently used in the corpus, followed by boosters, and then hedges, while code glosses and endophoric markers occur the least frequently. secondly, aristotle’s three means of persuasion: rational, credible and affective appeal, are employed to analyze the rhetorical effects of the metadiscourse. overall, the frequency of logos is much lower than that of credible appeals and affective appeals, demonstrating that in mr. ren’s interviews, he pays more attention to the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 80 published by ideas spread construction of a credible persona and a close relationship with his audience. in mr. ren’s interviews investigated, rational appeals can be established mostly through transitions, frame markers, endophoric markers as well as code glosses. credible appeal is mainly achieved by the deployment of evidentials, hedges, boosters and self-mentions. attitude markers, self-mentions, engagement markers and hedges serve to realize affective appeals. furthermore, it is found that the frequency of rational appeals are much lower than that of credible and affective appeals, which implies that in mr. ren’s interviews, he pays more attention to building a credible persona and a close relationship with his audience. meanwhile, we conclude that in the present study, interactive metadiscoursal resources mainly contribute to the establishment of rational appeals, while interactional resources play a more important role in building credible and affective appeals. as to limitations of this study, to begin with, the scale of the self-built corpus consists of only 56,708 english words, which is relatively small. consequently, the results obtained from this study might be limited. then, the data we collected is translated version of the transcripts of mr. ren’s answers in the interviews with media. although they are translated word by word exactly, we have to admit that there exist some differences between the transcripts and the english translated version, which may disrupt the research results. meanwhile, despite the fact that we have made great efforts to ensure that all metadiscourse resources have been identified and classified into the according subcategories through a double check of the author’s supervisor, it is difficult to avoid missing and misclassifying some due to the contextual and multifunctional nature of metadiscourse. also, the manual recognition of metadiscoursal items is likely to be influenced by the author’s subjectivity. there are following suggestions for future research, firstly, it is necessary to build a larger corpus. secondly, to collect and analyze the reports of huawei by the media involved after the interviews will, to some extent, help gain insights of whether mr. ren’s words have made a difference. last but not least, it will be of great significance to conduct a cross-disciplinary research to further explore the connection between metadiscourse and corporate crisis responses in mr. ren’s discourse. reference [1] jiang, l. y. (2019). 《中美企业简介中的元话语研究》 (master’s thesis, guangdong university of foreign studies). [2] liu, q., & wang, g. (2006). 国外企业危机管理理论研究综述. 科学学研究(s1), 255-260. [3] amernic, j. h., & craig, r. j. (2006). ceo speak: the language of corporate leadership. montreal: mcgillqueen’s university press. [4] amernic, j. h., & craig, r. j. (2007). guidelines for ceo-speak: editing the language of corporate leadership. strategy and leadership, 35(3), 25–31. https://doi.org/10.1108/10878570710757966 [5] annual report. (n.d.). retrieved from https://www.huawei.com/cn/annual-report. [6] aristotle. (2010). rhetoric (w. d. ross, trans.). london: oxford university press. [7] crismore, a. (1989). talking with readers: metadiscourse as rhetorical act. peter lang, new york. [8] halliday, m. a. k. (1994). an introduction to functional grammar (2nd ed.). london: edward arnold. [9] hyland, k. (1998a). hedging in scientific research articles. amsterdam: john benjamins. hyland, k. (1998b). exploring corporate rhetoric: metadiscourse in the ceo’s letter. journal of business communication, 35(2), 224–245. https://doi.org/10.1177/002194369803500204 hyland, k., & tse, p. (2004). metadiscourse in academic writing: a reappraisal. applied linguistics, 25(2), 156177. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/25.2.156 [10] hyland, k. (2008). metadiscourse. london: continuum. [11] mauranen, a. (1993). cultural differences in academic rhetoric. frankfurt: peter lang. [12] riaz, s., buchanan, s., & ruebottom, t. (2016). rhetoric of epistemic authority: defending field positions during the financial crisis. human relations, 69(7), 1533–1561. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726716633335 [13] seeger, m. w., ulmer, r. r., novak, j. m., & sellnow, t. (2005). post-crisis discourse and organizational change, failure, and renewal. journal of organizational change management. https://doi.org/10.1108/09534810510615051 [14] vande kopple, w. j. (1985). some exploratory discourse on metadiscourse. college composition and communication, 26, 82-93. https://doi.org/10.2307/357915 [15] vignone, m. j. (2012). family, buildings, and wars: organizational conceptual metaphors. od practitioner, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 81 published by ideas spread 44(1), 34–37. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v4n1p39 39 published by ideas spread a back-door entrance into teaching teachers pulane lefoka1 1 independent consultant, lesotho correspondence: pulane lefoka, independent consultant, lesotho. orcid id: 000-0001-7549-1754 received: february 24, 2021; accepted: march 25, 2021; published: march 26, 2021 abstract this paper is based on phd research that was carried out at the national university of lesotho’s faculty of education. the focus of the study was on the sources and application of professional knowledge among teacher educators. the content of the paper was drawn from the chapter of the theses which presented findings on enactment of professional knowledge. eight teachers participated in the study. all entered the teacher educators’ world through the backdoor; that is, some were invited by their teacher educators to work as teaching assistants while others applied to an advertised position. none of them had teaching in higher education credentials, hence my claim: back-door entrance. their major source of professional knowledge is experiential and their professional lives have been shaped by their context. however, practice-based knowledge presents numerous challenges including lack of knowledge of the pedagogy of teaching student-teachers and bias towards using transmissive methods of teaching instead of interactive ones. the study concludes that teacher educators who participated in the study would benefit from enrolling in higher education programmes that would equip them with higher education knowledge and skills in the context of teaching student-teachers. keywords: teacher educator, student-teacher, enactment of professional knowledge, practical knowledge, pedagogy, phronesis, teaching teaching and learning 1. introduction this paper shares the findings of a study which was carried out at the national university of lesotho’s (nul) faculty of education. the study focused on teacher educators based in the faculty. in undertaking the study there was an observation that teacher education institutions experience of having to hire teacher educators is necessitated by programmes run in higher education institutions particularly the faculty responsible for educating prospective teachers. this study has established that the institution does not hire the appropriate manpower to teach in the faculty of education and that the university does not offer higher education programmes aimed at preparing university teachers. people who are employed to teach prospective teachers often assume the responsibility of teaching without an appropriate qualification. additionally, they rarely receive mentoring on the discourse of teaching student teachers and they therefore have to acquire the skills for teaching in higher education on the job. lack of the discourse of teaching prospective teachers is sometimes referred to as “a role akin to an absentee landlord”. the national university of lesotho, the context for the study shared in this paper, does not seem to ponder on the criteria for employing teacher educators and what they are expected to do once they are engaged in the practice of teaching prospective teachers. there are therefore great challenges regarding the education of teacher educators and the extent to which their career can be recognised as a distinct or well-defined profession. studies of the teacher educators’ sources of professional knowledge have to be carried out to resolve challenges posed by the lack of empirical research in this area. establishing the extent to which the institution employs people who are not qualified to teach prospective teachers is problematic necessitated engaging in the study. the intention was to find out whether teaching in higher education particularly in the faculty of education was a problem worth studying. the major question for undertaking this study was: what are the sources of teacher educators’ professional knowledge? while there was this big question there were other questions. for purposes of this paper the relevant question asked in undertaking the study was: how do teacher educators enact professional knowledge? hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 40 published by ideas spread 2. literature 2.1 introduction the literature reviewed for this paper indicates that historically, teacher educators were not trained to teach in higher education institutions. for example, drakensberg (2000) shares the feeling of being employed to teach teachers in a situation where one does not even have the skills that prospective teachers are expected to acquire. i was offered an appointment as a teacher educator at a teacher education college. all of a sudden, having … a phd, i was qualified as a teacher educator and qualified to tell others how to teach … something i had never done myself. in such a situation good advice is expensive, so the friendly and nice teacher educators at that teachers’ college taught me to be a teacher-educator (p.70). drakensberg (2000) is an example of a teacher educator who was trusted to educate prospective teachers while he did not have the expertise on undertaking the task. the literature also refers to the context in the field of teacher education or what clandinin and connelly (1995) refer to as “teachers’ professional landscapes” which play a significant role in shaping teacher educators and their work. it is about how people think and act. beginning with their descriptions of what the “teacher educators” consider themselves to be and later showing the relationship between the origins of their professional journeys and how the context has contributed to their ongoing journeys. 2.2 researching teacher education research in the context of teaching is a critical area. in loughran’s (2007) view, teacher educators are required to make teaching in this context a site for inquiry. loughran (2007) argues that it is important to understand the complex nature of teaching teaching in the context of teacher education. the complexity is embedded in the very nature of teaching itself. therefore, as loughran (2007) argues, teacher educators have to develop the pedagogy of teacher education. the intention in developing the pedagogy of teacher education should be to signify the relationship between teaching about teaching and learning about teaching. in such a context, teaching about teaching might be purposefully examined, described, articulated and portrayed in ways that enhance an understanding of this complex interplay. learning from studying one’s own teaching is likely to impact on the teacher educator’s understanding of the complex nature of teaching and learning (loughran, 2005, campbell and mcnamara, 2010). campbell and mcnamara, (2010) add that self-study is a possible response to educational policy makers’ demands regarding the standards and quality and that teacher educators can collaborate with secondary school teachers, own students and colleagues in order to study the practice of teacher educators teaching about teaching. loughran (2006) sees teaching teaching as playing a complicated dual role which requires “vigilance that is perhaps not so easily apprehended in the normal day to day expectations and experiences of teacher education programmes” (p.7). 2.3 enacting teaching teaching there is reference to the methods of enacting teacher education. transmissive mode of teaching, especially in the context of teaching teaching, is heavily criticised by some researchers (bullock, 2007, loughran, 2006 and loughran 2007). however, the teacher educators who participated in the study whose results are shared in this paper, seemed to promote what schön (1987) argues is an extensive bias towards a technical rationality approach to teaching. yet as loughran (2006) seems to argue, upholding the ideals of technical rationality promotes dependency on the part of student teachers. in contrast, teacher educators are encouraged to reduce the technical rationality and to practise making the tacit explicit which, among others, requires teacher educators to constantly involve student teachers (loughran, 2006) in learning. these questions should actually challenge teacher educators’ knowledge of practice which loughran argues, is vital to a pedagogy of teacher education or teaching teaching. therefore, in practice, teacher educators should, according to bullock (2007) and loughran (2007), endeavour to develop ways of engaging student teachers in learning. the literature seems to suggest that teaching teaching has to be a concerted effort by all teacher educators. they could draw from established theories, such as that of schön (1983), on the reframing of practice situations to the extent that student-teachers begin to move from “predominantly thinking about themselves" to thinking beyond their contexts. this way, even as teacher educators make reference to secondary schools, to serving teachers and to students at this level, the reframing of practice would contribute to student-teachers viewing teaching as “problematic” and not routine practices that they are probably much familiar with. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 41 published by ideas spread 2.4 authenticity the challenge for teacher educators, as slabbert, de kock and hattingh (2009) argue, is to design an authentic quality education that encompasses all kinds and levels of learners, irrespective of place and time. such an educational enterprise may be characterised by its aim. therefore, if the aim of education is to maximize, to completely develop and to fully utilize the human potential through facilitating lifelong authentic learning in order to create a safe, sustainable and prosperous future for all, the actual quality is clearly expressed with an educational aim that could be regarded as universal. 2.5 learning to teach this paper presents research on teacher educators and, to some extent, refers to their learning to teach. discussing learning as a consequence of experience, stuart (1998) argues that professional learning is part of the process of human growth and development and that in the end everyone has to do his/her own learning. in the context of practical or experiential based knowledge, cochran-smith and lytle (1999) refer to two conceptions of teacher learning. these are knowledge-in-practice and knowledge-of-practice. the concept knowledge-in-practice entails practical knowledge, including reflection on practice. the assumption here is that teachers learn when they demonstrate their expertise, especially in situations where they are capable of making intelligent judgments. additionally, teachers demonstrate expertise when they are designers of rich learning interactions in a classroom context. knowledge-of-practice is knowledge that teachers need if they are to teach well. it is knowledge that is generated when they treat their own classrooms and institutions as sites for intentional investigation. at the same time, they treat the knowledge and theory produced by others as generative material for interrogation and interpretation. 2.6 conclusion the reviewed literature discussed the teacher educators’ landscape based on those who researched teacher educators in their world of work. the section below discusses the method that was used in undertaking the research. 3. method the research methodology adopted in undertaking this research is qualitative in approach, following a decision influenced by an understanding that finding an answer to the question: how do teacher educators enact professional knowledge? the answer to this complex research question could not be found by merely asking questions following a quantitative approach. i therefore concur with researchers who argue that there are times when it is appropriate to use qualitative research. in fact, creswell (2007) puts it more succinctly when he argues that researchers conduct qualitative research because a problem or issue needs to be explored. 3.1 description of the subsections this section of the paper describes procedure followed in undertaking the research and analysing the data. the sample procedures and the sample size are discussed. 3.2 sampling procedures and size a total of eight teacher educators participated in the study: 4 from the department of educational foundations, 2 from science education and 2 from the department of language and social education. there were 6 females; 4 with phds, 3 with m.ed. degrees and 1 with an m.sc. four of these research participants were subject specialists or curriculum specialists, in english, geography, science and mathematics; 3 were from educational foundations; educational management, instructional supervision and counselling, and 1 was in educational technology. the choice of fewer research participants was informed by arguments on purposeful sampling strategies presented by mcmillan and schumacher (2006) as being advantageous. in these researchers’ view “purposeful sampling is done to increase the utility of information obtained from small samples. … the power and logic of purposeful sampling is that a few cases studied in depth yield many insights about the topic, …” (p.319). in the case of this study, having individuals in each of the three faculty of education departments especially coupled with subject areas, experience and gender served as an important factor. the idea of observing teacher educators in practice was to counteract receiving information solely through selfreported data, in this case narrative data. most importantly, observation as a qualitative data gathering technique was used to enable me to gain a deeper insight and understanding of the phenomenon being observed (nieuwenhuis, 2007b). the purpose was to observe the research participants as they enacted professional knowledge. the use of the video camera to capture the classroom activities helped reduce weaknesses associated with classroom observation, the major one being that observational data collection technique is by its nature highly hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 42 published by ideas spread selective and subjective, with a tendency to focus on a specific event or object but seldom the whole (nieuwenhuis, 2007b). however, mcmillan and schumacher (2006), see advantages to this approach of collecting data, since observational methods have as their primary advantage that the researcher “does not need to worry about the limitations of self-report bias, social desirability, and response set and that the information is not limited to what can be recalled accurately by the subjects” (p.208). most importantly, as pointed out by mercer (1991), there is a need to record very detailed classroom discourse. in doing so, the behaviour of a research participant can be recorded as it occurs naturally (mcmillan & schumacher, 2006). 3.3 data analysis the process of data collection particularly the observations of the research participants in practice, produced volumes of videotaped and audio-taped data. the presentation illustrates the level of availability of each research participant: fusi: 13 observations; hoanghoang: 13 observations; lintle: 12 observations; mafukuthoana: 03 observation; masethabathaba: 21 observations; peditta: 13 observations; thabang: 04 observations and zinzi:19 observations. all in all, 98 observations were made. some research participants were, more available than others. in analysing the data, i used eraut (1994) maps of professional knowledge in particular knowing “how”. he equates knowing how with practical knowledge and that this is accomplished by analysing responses to questions such as “how do teacher educators enact professional knowledge, what kind of professional knowledge do teacher educators construct and how do they model professional knowledge?”. however, for purposes of this paper the focus was on enactment of professional knowledge. hence analysis of video and audio taped data. the data analysis progressed in phases, with some being more time consuming and exhausting than others, although most enabled me to become familiar with and internalise the data. on the one hand transcribing the classroom observations through repeatedly watching the videotaped material meant watching the participants in practice more than once. on the other, listening to audio-taped stories and transcribing them meant going over each story at least three times. being immersed in the transcriptions helped me to internalise the data to the extent that going through the process appeared very enriching, learning what the research participants regarded as the sources of their professional knowledge and how they applied them. the analysis of the data provided an opportunity to thematize the information. 4. results as alluded to in the introduction of this paper, the study asked the question: where do teacher educators draw their professional knowledge from? this question was relevant in the context in which teacher educators did not have training on educating student-teachers. response to this question indicated that they attained their professional knowledge from experience. 4.1 an understanding of the concept: teacher educator the teacher educators who participated in the study were challenged to describe their understanding of teacher educator as a concept. there are two interpretations, based on the analysis of what the participants in the study believe that they are. their descriptions centre on the knowledge that they provide to the student teachers. they assist student teachers to develop their own knowledge; they are capable of equipping student teachers with the skills which are required in the teaching profession; and they intervene in peoples’ lives in order to promote change and help student teachers to unleash their potential in a manner that demonstrates worthiness in what they do. these descriptions attract potential teachers to the profession. while their understanding of teacher educator may, to a large extent, be similar to the established descriptions of this concept, their interpretation was particularly lacking in the key areas; viewing teacher educators as researchers or as professionals of a particular competence. yet research has revealed that over and above being instructors of learning, teacher educators are also researchers and professionals and/or scholars (fisher, 2005; smith, 2003) in their own right. 4.2 the origin of the teacher educators’ journeys the teacher educators who participated in the study were asked origins of their teacher education journey. some joined the institution through an invitation while others joined through applying to an advertised position. those who applied for an advertised position indicated that they found working in a university as an opportunity to assume the status of working in an institution of higher learning; one of the participants had this to say “…the choice of being a teacher educator was merely getting a better job; there was nothing more to it”. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 43 published by ideas spread 4.3 potential teacher educators enter teacher education institutions as invitees two of the eight teacher educators who participated in the study joined the teacher education career as teaching assistants on the basis of their good performance in their undergraduate teacher education programme. questionable though is whether the performance that was considered in inviting them was in the context of teacher education discipline or their areas of specialisation such as mathematics education. even as they told their stories on how they were appointed, the criteria used are not clear. their voices confirm this interpretation. (the names used in the study were nick names). ’masethabathaba: “i just remember that before the end of the academic year at the time that i was to leave the university one of my lecturers called me and said, ‘what would you do if you were offered a position as a teaching assistant?” zinzi: “i was just lucky, one of the lecturers said to me you are doing so well, maybe we should take you to be a teaching assistant”. these extracts imply that in identifying potential teacher educators, the teacher educators in the service are influenced by the performance of the student-teachers and choose the best of them to join the career. they therefore seem to serve as the “behind the door” recruiting argents for their own institution and programmes. 4.4 potential teacher educators enter through applying to an advertised post the study established that some teacher educators join teacher education departments through applying to an advertised post. six participants indicated that they became teacher educators through applying to an advertised post. their reasons were different. some had applied because they had majored in a subject for which a teacher educator was needed while others applied because they had the opinion that they had the relevant skill. one of them had this to say: peditta: there were no job opportunities in the mental health department. when a job vacancy presented itself at …, they needed a lecturer in science. i actually applied for it; in fact, i did not even think i would qualify. i did not have a professional qualification then but because i had done psychology, they thought it was a good foundation for somebody who wanted to be a teacher of teachers. peditta’s experience indicates that some teacher educators join the teacher education fraternity accidentally. in her case, she had other plans before joining the fraternity. her previous plan was to be in the medical profession and, specifically, to practice in mental health, either as a clinical psychologist or a medical professional. interaction with these participants indicated that some of them did not believe this career was what they initially thought they would follow. therefore, the challenge was thinking beyond how they started their professional journeys and how the context in which they were shaped who they are. 4.5 shaped by the context the context contributed to professional change amongst the participants of the study. reference is made to one teacher educator, who was initially not in the education field but who was determined to ensure that her contribution to teacher education was directed mainly at student teachers. peditta developed strategies for operating and coping within the teacher education context. she acknowledged that the context within which she operated as a teacher educator contributed to her professional advancement. this teacher educator became her own context; she thrived in a profession in which she accidentally found herself. this view is based on peditta’s words. peditta: i found that by teaching i actually satisfied the need that i had. in teaching one is actually dealing with a lot of emotional stuff, in a sense. i think that is what actually made me comfortable, … this is something which drove me to want to do something in the medical profession and this could actually be addressed through teaching. ... although i became a teacher educator by accident, i think i have grown to like and enjoy it and actually look for the areas where my needs will be addressed. 4.6 teacher educators in practice 4.6.1 learning in context this study established that teacher educators gained practical knowledge from the context; it gave them an important dimension of the training of student-teachers for it brought in the theory and practice dimensions to life. it is practicing in context that convinced them to conclude that teaching is tentative and that teachers have to be comfortable with that tentativeness. it seems the perspective that teaching is tentative is based on the experience that presented them with challenges. they seem to have been shaped by the practical context in which they operated and therefore realized that teaching is a complex undertaking. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 44 published by ideas spread this study further revealed that the experiences encountered were never documented. the encounters were positive and consequently enriching although sometimes they were challenging. although the anecdotes were never documented, the research participants, upon being interviewed acknowledged that the experiences were worthwhile. this means documenting their experiences would have facilitated sharing such knowledge as opposed to allowing it to remain tacit. nevertheless, participating in this study enabled them to reflect on their work. participating in the study also enabled them to experiment with the strategies for handling the classroom-based problems and using new knowledge to bear on what they were going to teach. in practice and, as observed by korthagen, kessels, and koster, (2001), through their research, teacher educators tend to adhere to the domain of phronesis as they learn how to teach the prospective teachers in practice. therefore, sharing experiential-based knowledge could have benefited colleagues and would have allowed the participants of this study to research their own teaching. 4.6.2 challenging prospective teachers the extent to which teacher educators challenge the student teachers’ argument is based on the observation of the teacher educators in practice. they did not seem to challenge student-teachers to think about the content of the courses and the methods employed in teaching it. challenging student-teachers to think about these two critical aspects of teaching teaching is an idea that loughran (2007) fully articulates as challenging while it contributes towards the cognitive development of student teachers and, to a large extent, to that of teacher educators as they motivate such developments. there are a few incidences where both the content and opportunities for the application of challenging methods of teaching it were observed. one teacher educator required the students to constantly think about how they would teach their own students. this teacher educator presented student teachers with hypothetical cases in which they critiqued the method of teaching that would have been explained in class. in this regard, the student-teachers had an opportunity to think deeply and to analyse a particular teaching method. the questions which they raised in arguing about the relevance of the method used in teaching a given topic indicated that, given the opportunity to critique their teachers’ teaching, student teachers were capable of analysing the situation that they take for granted. these were rare opportunities for teacher educators to learn from. however, this study illustrated that the moments which spontaneously presented themselves for such lessons were often not seized. therefore, as the study illustrates, teacher educators did not involve their student teachers in significant ways. my observation was that teaching was grounded mainly in transmissive methods and, to a less extent, in interactive methods of teaching. the challenge for the teacher educators is explicit about what is expected of student-teachers and at the same time providing them with opportunities to practise what they are expected to become while they are still students. 4.6.3 using technical language in a teaching space setting, teacher educators demonstrated positive development by consistently using technical language. this seemed to be aimed at helping student teachers internalize the discipline language. while some of the teacher educators used technical language, more can be done. indeed, as crowe and berry (2007) suggest, more can be done towards helping student teachers think like teachers. therefore, the flip side of developing positively in this regard is that in practice, student teachers need to engage in activities that require them to think more like teachers as opposed to thinking routinely like secondary school students. 4.6.4 researching the teaching of teaching one area which teacher educators do not take advantage of as they practise teaching is the use of research to create knowledge. creation of knowledge facilitates their pedagogy of teaching prospective teachers. involvement of student-teachers in teaching enhances this opportunity. however, research on the teaching of teaching remains a challenge to the teacher educators who participated in this study. observing them in practice and interacting with them revealed that research was not a priority in their practice. it would seem that engaging in educational research, particularly in the context of teaching teaching could contribute towards their learning more about the career that they had joined through the backdoor, created or constructed new knowledge and improved their work as teacher educators. lingard and renshaw (2010) advise that teacher educators should study their own contexts. 4.7 sources of teacher educators’ practical knowledge determining the sources of teacher educators’ practical knowledge indicated that they operate in complex and difficult circumstances. i used the cumulative model to illustrate that although i observed some discrepancies in the study, learning did take place as the teacher educators were involved in teaching within the teacher education hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 45 published by ideas spread programme. it can therefore be argued that the teacher educators who participated in the study are surely not the same as they were when they entered the teacher education institution through the backdoor. in this case the cumulative model is represented by snow balling. the small ball of snow represents academic or formal knowledge obtained from the training. the added snow is the person’s experiential knowledge, what teacher educators gain from all the main experiences that they have in professional life across the varied landscapes. the snowball does not shrink but grows with each experience. some parts of the landscape may be snow free, where teacher educators did not pick up any new professional knowledge and some may be especially snowy where professionals picked up a lot of snow. in this snow ball analogy, there are instances where teacher educators pointed to the numerous challenges in the context in which the ball rolls. these are the possible situations in which they did not gather any snow. presumably, as the ball gains momentum and the teacher educators moved through the varied “landscape,” they learned from the experiences as novice, advanced beginner, competent, proficient and eventually became experts (eraut. 1996). it is through experience and moving gradually but with conscious movements that teacher educators could learn (loughran, 2006). figure 1 shows snow ball scenario. figure 1. teacher educator snowball experience model 5. discussion the study established that teacher educators gather experiential knowledge through practice. this view is based on observing the participants of this study in practice; they use teaching methods that were used when they were student teachers themselves. teaching teaching cannot be viewed simplistically as just doing teaching, since it is much more than that. the nucleus of teacher education is as shulman (2004) observes complex. perhaps more complex than what these simple descriptions can convey. therefore, referring to the school system and its related matters such as what methods to use in teaching or how to teach are far from enacting “the pedagogy” of teacher education or teaching teaching. instead, these are tips on how to teach and what the school context holds for student-teachers. relevant here is crowe and barry’s (2007) argument that due to the complexity of teaching, young teachers should be helped to become creative through being presented with complex situations so that they can develop strategies intended to challenge the teaching situations. in a situation where teacher educators do not only make reference to what student teachers are likely to encounter as they enter the field of teaching, the latter are encouraged to engage in learning about teaching. in that regard, teacher educators would embrace what lougharn (2007) refers to as being a student of teaching: knowing yourself. this is a point that korthagen and verkuyl (2007) tested in their own work as teacher educators. teacher educators learn if they allow themselves to play the dual role of being learners and teachers through allowing students to critique their teaching. lougharn (2007) argues that “students of teaching are continually confronted by struggles, difficulties and dilemmas that affect their understanding of the nature of teaching as a consequence of their experience in learning about teaching” (p.8). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 46 published by ideas spread the literature pertaining to … some of the challenges… lack of … 6. conclusion this study established that the participants entered their teacher education career through the backdoor. they are either invited to become teaching assistants or they applied to an advertised position. most significantly, the research participants did not have credentials for teaching in the faculty that prepares prospective teachers for the school system. this finding might explain why they tend to use transmissive methods of teaching as opposed to interactive methods. nevertheless, practice has, to a large extent, shaped their professional knowledge. the common feature for these teacher educators, is that they were immersed in the teaching of student-teachers, hence the snow ball cumulative model. they learned the art of teaching student-teachers in the actual context of teaching prospective teacher. it is therefore significant that the other source of professional knowledge for them is practical and/or experiential. there is therefore a link between professional knowledge and learning from practice. it can therefore be concluded that what teacher educators use in practice is not abstract theoretical knowledge, but phronesis, which entails situation-specific principles. it is context-dependent and helps teacher educators to arrive at decisions to solve practical problems rapidly. what is important is that it helps teacher educators in practical situations to perceive what is relevant in the situation while allowing them to base their actions on their perceptions. references bullock, s. m. (2007). finding my way from teacher-to-teacher educator. in t. russell & j. loughran (eds.): enacting a pedagogy of teacher education values, relationships and practices, (pp7794). london: routledge. campbell, a., & mcnamara, o. (2010). mapping the field of practitioner research, inquiry and professional learning in educational context: a review. in a. campbell & s. groundwater-smith, connecting inquiry and professional learning in education. london: routledge. clandinin, d. j., & connelly f. m. (1995). teachers’ professional knowledge landscapes. new york: teachers college, columbia university. cochran-smith, m., & lytle, s.l. (1999). relationships of knowledge and practice. teacher learning in communities, review of research in education, (24), 249-305. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732x024001249 crowe, a. r., & berry, a. (2007). teaching prospective teachers about learning to think like a teacher – articulating our principles of practice. in t. russell & j. loughran eds.). enacting a pedagogy of teacher education values, relationships and practices, (pp31-44). london: routledge. drakensberg, m. (2000). a mission for equality among students. in: g. churukian & c.r. lock (eds.). international narratives on becoming a teacher educator. pp.69-72. wales: edwin mellen press. eraut, m. (1996). professional knowledge in teacher education. address to the finnish conference on teacher educators, savonlinna. fisher, r. l. (2005). standards for teacher educators: preparing high-quality teachers. [o]. retrieved june 2010 from http://www.nesic.com/pub2005textframe.htm korthagen, f. a. j., & verkuyl, h. (2007). do you meet your students or yourself? reflection on professional identity as an essential aspect of teacher education. in: making a difference in teacher education through self-study: proceedings of the fourth international conference on self-study of teacher education practice. pp 43-47. herstmonceaux, england. korthagen, f. a. j., kessels, j., & koster, b. (2001). linking practice and theory – the pedagogy of realistic teacher education. mahwah, lawrence erlbaum associates. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410600523 lingard, b., & renshow, p. (2010). teaching as a research-informed & research-informing profession. in a. campbell, & s. groundwater-smith. connecting inquiry and professional learning in education. pp. 36-39. london: routledge loughran, j. (2014). professionally developing as a teacher educator. journal of teacher education. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487114533386 loughran, j. (2005). researching teaching about teaching: self-study of teacher education practices. a journal hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 47 published by ideas spread of self-study of teacher education practices, 1(1), 5-16. https://doi.org/10.1080/17425960500039777 loughran, j. (2006). developing a pedagogy of teacher education – understanding teaching and learning about teaching. london: routledge. loughran, j. (2007). enacting a pedagogy of teacher education. in t. russell & j. loughran: enacting a pedagogy of teacher education: values, relationships and practices. pp.1-15. london: routledge.schon, d. a. (1983). the reflective practitioner – how professionals think in action. england, gower house. schon, d. a. (1987). educating the reflective practitioner, san francisco: ca, jossey-bass. shulman, l. s. (2004). the wisdom of practice – essays on teaching, learning, and learning to teach. s. m. wilson (ed.). san francisco: jossey-bass. slabbert, j. a., de kock, t. m., & hattingh, a. (2009). the brave ‘new’ world of education cd. cape town: juta. smith, k. (2003). so, what about professional development of teacher educators european journal of teacher educators, 2(26), 202-215. https://doi.org/10.1080/0261976032000088738 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p137 137 published by ideas spread pluralistic therapy choices for neurological and mental disorders in ethnic minority areas of lijiang, china yiming liu1 1 nanjing foreign language school, china correspondence: yiming liu, nanjing foreign language school, nanjing, jiangsu, 210022, china. received: july 29, 2025; accepted: august 11, 2025; published: august 12, 2025 abstract lijiang’s medical pluralism blends biomedicine, tcm, and folk practices, yet local perceptions increasingly favor a binary divide ("western" vs. "traditional") that marginalizes ritual therapies as superstition. based on the medical pluralism theory, this essay provides an overview of the current status of traditional medicine in lijiang area based on individuals’ attitudes, analyzes the setbacks against its development, and explores possible solutions to breathe new life into lijiang traditional medicine. using the method of field study, researchers collected lijiang people’s understanding towards ritual therapy and mental illness, and analyzed their therapy choice for mental illness (mental hospital, psychological counselling, or ritual therapy). the results included answers from multiple interviewees on four perspectives: perception of rituals, understanding of mental illness, attitudes toward modern medicine (mostly trust and priority), and support systems and self-help. the results also included a generalized therapy-choosing process for mental illness: modern medicine is prioritized, followed by psychotherapy, with traditional treatment (herbal and ritual practice) being a last choice. preservation of traditional treatment requires integrating rituals into mental healthcare through scientific validation (e.g., stress-relief mechanisms) and culturaltourism initiatives (e.g., meditation experiences). keywords: lijiang, mental illness, ritual therapy, chinese traditional medicine, medical pluralism 1. introduction with its diversified ethnic groups and a unique culture, lijiang, a city located in yunnan province, southwest china, has long been a popular location of field investigation for scholars from around the world, famous examples of which include botanist joseph rock and the anthropologist charles mckhann. moreover, lijiang was officially listed as a world cultural heritage site in 1997, making it a popular tourist destination both at china and beyond. the local traditional culture was quickly swept into modernization and globalization. it can also be said that this area is the middle ground between tradition and modernity. figure 1. location of lijiang in yunnan province, china. lijiang city is highlighted with yellow hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 138 published by ideas spread home to diverse ethnic groups (e.g., naxi, bai, tibetan, and han) for thousands of years, lijiang has developed a traditional medical culture combining herbal therapy with shamanic rituals [1][2]. since the foundation of the people’s republic of china in 1949, modern medical practices featuring hospitals and professional doctors have been promoted, while ritual therapy was classified as ‘superstition’ (míxìn 迷信) and not encouraged to be used [3]. eventually, lijiang residents accustomed to modern medical system, and though the conservation of lijiang traditional culture has been promoted since 1980s (lijiang cultural research institute was founded in 1981), traditional ritual therapy remains marginalized due to its limited therapeutic timeliness in treating common ailments. during my fieldwork, i observed that local conceptions of illness—particularly mental health—diverged from biomedical frameworks in ways deeper than the word superstition conveys, and may hold therapeutic potential for mental illness treatment. given that the therapeutic potential of lijiang’s indigenous rituals remains understudied—particularly how they operate within the local pluralistic healthcare system, this study intends to provide an overview of how ritual therapies are understood and practiced within lijiang’s pluralistic medical landscape. 2. materials and methods in this section, the studying materials and fieldwork methods are presented. 2.1 ritual therapies’ underlying cultural logics 2.1.1 “hui” conception in naxi culture naxi is one of thedominant ethnic groups in lijiang, making naxi medicine an important component of the lijiang medical culture. dongba are naxi ethnic elites who integrate multiple domains including pictographic writing, traditional medicine, historiography, and ritual dance. traditionally in dongba culture, illness is believed to be caused by秽(hui), or impurity, which encompasses ghosts, spirits, and other supernatural contaminants that need to be “driven away” by rituals in order for health to be restored. figure 2. dongba pictographic script figure 3. dongba painting, sculptures of gods, wooden boards for ritual use hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 139 published by ideas spread in naxi language, dongba originally referred to a group of religious and cultural leaders who combined their knowledge of rituals and medicinal practices to serve the community. currently, there are around 200 dongba, and only ten percent of whom have the knowledge of traditional rituals and medicine. as time go by, the term “dongba” now stands for a culture featuring dongba pictographic script, dongba traditional ceremonies, dongba medicine usage and other related subjects. in dongba culture, it is generally believed that humans each have nine spirits evenly distributed in human body and that whenever some of these spirits become unstable, people get sick. the instability and distortion of spirits is caused by hui, an important symbol in dongba culture that stands for denoting impurities encompassing ghosts, spirits, and other supernatural contaminants, which usually floats around in natural environment. hui may be brought into individuals’ bodies due to two traits: excessive desire and inherent vulnerability. excessive desire is believed to cause the excessive exploitation of natural resources, which infuriates hui and brings illness. one of the dongba scriptures the origin and treatment of phobia reflects such a belief, recording how tribe members acquire phobia, a disease under which people experience sudden and unreasonable episodes of extreme fear, because of their greedy behaviors of exploiting natural resources. figure 4. the origin and treatment of phobia, p2-4 the belief that excessive desire and exploitation of nature causes mental illness shows a binary view of good and evil and a moral view that those who harm the nature receive punishment, showcasing a worship towards nature resulting from the animist perspectivism, which has been proven by ecological anthropological researches on naxi people’s worship towards nature [4]. inherent vulnerability, on the other hand, shows that individual differences may increase the likelihood for a person to be affected by hui and become mentally unstable, acknowledges that psychological problems are influenced by both environmental factors and personal traits. in conclusion, dongba traditionally understand mental illness as mainly the result of hui attaching to patients’ bodies and spirits, while admitting the influence of external environment on humans’ health, especially when it comes to physical diseases that can be treated by herbal therapies. they address the restoration of internal stability and calmness as key for curing mental illness. 2.1.2 bai ethnic group and “mama” the bai is another large ethnic group in lijiang. in its traditional communities, there is a female role: mama. mama are elderly females who are capable of treating diseases and conducting ceremonies, and hold the belief that mental illness is caused by impure beings like ghosts, and the spirits of the dead can occupy people’s bodies, causing mental instability. in this situation, mama is required to help drive those spirits away. “mama jiao” has worn off since the last century and related records are limited. nowadays, mama usually refers to devout elderly women who gather in lianchi hui, a belief-based organization. though no longer serving a psychic and healing function as traditional mama religion did, lianchi hui has an inherited relationship with the bai nationality's maternal culture, including procreation worship, benzhu culture, and kwan-yin worship, reflecting core ideas in traditional mama healing methods. in conclusion, mama religion understands mental illness as caused by drifting ghosts and deaths’ spirits and worship supernatural powers, which bless certain women with the ability to communicate with spirits and ghosts and make them leave. as a minority group well adapted to han culture, bai people have doctors of traditional chinese medicine despite mama, so mama serves more as a psychic healer than a medical one. in conclusion, mama religion centers on kin-nature-spirit interdependence, with healers (often elderly women referred to as mama) restoring health by negotiating with ancestral ghosts and natural forces. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 140 published by ideas spread 2.2 fieldwork method the fieldwork concerning lijiang traditional medicine was conducted based on local folklores and recordings, conversations with local experts, and interview with non-expert individuals. the interviewees investigated in the field study are all residents around lijiang area, yet their cultural background, ethnic identity, ages, professions, and genders vary. the current status of lijiang traditional medicine was analyzed based on the theory of medical pluralism, lijiang traditional medical practitioners’ narration, and individuals’ attitudes. the locations where field study was conducted are shown in the figure below. figure 5. filed investigation locations 3. results 3.1 participant demographics the demographic information of participants interviewed in the fieldwork are presented in table 1. table 1. interviewee demographics. original data were obtained with authorization from dr. zhao and used in government follow-up records. to ensure privacy protection, all personally identifiable information has been anonymized, with the pseudonym correspondence list retained solely by the research team. personal information interviewer gender ethnic identity profession he 1 male naxi dongba he 2 male naxi director of lijiang cultural research institute liu male naxi president of lijiang traditional medicine association zhao female bai village health station doctor wang 1 male han chinese medicine doctor wang 2 male bai chinese medicine doctor and herbalist randomly chosen pationents at health station / / / chen female han manager of lijiang traditional medicine association hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 141 published by ideas spread 3.2 interview content and case study the interview content reflects a structural characteristic of medical pluralism, where cosmopolitan medical practices compromise with local medical cultures [5]. specifically, the plural medical practices in lijiang and its surroundings include: cosmopolitan medical practices provided by hospitals and local clinics, folk traditional chinese medicine (tcm) practices provided by doctors, traditional naxi/dongba medical practices provided by dongba, and self-healing medical practices such as purchasing herbal market goods or self-learning psychological consulting. in a case provided by dongba he, we can understand how mental problems are traditionally diagnosed, treated and attributed to: “a hostess, known to be easily frightened, fell ill with headaches and diarrhea after meeting my cousin, whose grandfather had died tragically in the 1966 earthquake and was believed to have become part of hui as a ghost. we performed a ritual, chanting scriptures and burning herbs to cleanse hui and stabilize her spirits. she slept and awoke recovered.” this case illustrates how mental illness in lijiang is often interpreted through spiritual and emotional lenses rather than strictly physical or psychological terms. the blending of physical symptoms with supernatural causes, like spirit possession or disturbed souls, reflects a worldview that diverges significantly from modern medical perspectives. the healing process, reliant on rituals and herbal remedies, emphasizes calming the patient’s spirit and removing external influences, which aligns with broader themes in traditional medicine that focus on holistic healing. it’s also notable that the treatment emphasizes the role of the healer as a mediator between the human and spiritual worlds, unlike modern therapies that focus on psychological methods or pharmacological treatments. junping wang, a bai doctor, gave the following example which shows bai people’s understanding of the relation between physical conditions and mental well-being: “when i was living in a bai village as a kid, one of my neighbors was a “crazy” woman. she talked to herself and might hurt others unintentionally. however, instead of attributing her “craziness” to ghosts or the dead’s spirits, villagers claimed that her disease developed from pregnancy. they said pregnant women undergo changes in their bodies which, if not treated properly, could eventually influence their brains and cause emotional or even insane behaviors.” this story took place around 30 years ago during a period when traditional beliefs about ghosts and the holiness of mama were gradually replaced by rational and logical reasoning, as promoted by modern medicine. this transition aligns with the broader trends in rural china, where exposure to modern medicine was reshaping longheld beliefs about mental health, even as elements of traditional practices remained intertwined. more specifically, barefoot doctor systems that lasted from 1960s to 1980s and ‘science popularization’ campaigns (科普运动) in the 1990s actively classified ‘ghost narratives’ as superstition, encouraging villagers to receive biomedical treatment in rural clinics. such policies created medical hybridity, as presented in the example above: while a relation between physiological and structural change and illness is acknowledged, understanding of mental illness is still restrained to generalized expressions such as insanity. 3.3 mental illness and traditional medicine: their understanding how residents of lijiang understand mental illness and the related treatment methods reveals a combination of traditional beliefs and modern practices. overall, their attitudes towards mental health and treatment options can be analyzed from the following four aspects: 3.3.1 perception of rituals many villagers categorize dongba ceremonies and rituals as forms of superstition lacking efficacy in treating psychological issues, which can be proved in the following cases: “we don’t really do that in our village. it’s a kind of superstition, i think.” (h.he, an 83-year-old male villager) “most of people around me in my village don’t believe in rituals or superstition. i think there is a gap in the succession of dongba rituals, since the generation who used to believe in this have mostly passed away, and the current elderly people received orders to stay away from superstition such as dongba ceremonies when they were young.” (r.mu, a 60-year-old female villager) hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 142 published by ideas spread “only very few people in the village would let dongba perform rituals to treat such mental illness-actually, people think of this as superstition.” (h. zhao, a licensed doctor at changshui village health station) these statements reflect a general distrust towards ritual therapies among common villagers and residents, particularly for the generations influenced by modern medical practices. conversely, some informants promote the combination of traditional rituals and contemporary mental health care. z. he, a dongba (as introduced before, dongba are known for their roles of known for their role in performing rituals, providing traditional medical care and preserving ancient naxi culture), suggests that the spiritual dimensions of these practices can be beneficial when dealing with mental distress: “in my opinion, the development of western science has somehow resulted in a fixed mindset, making people unable to accept concepts in traditional medicine. but in fact, many concepts in dongba medicine culture are correspondent with concepts in modern days. psychological problems happen to people with an unstable mind state, and they need to express the worries that accumulate inside them through different ways. in my opinion, traditional ritual therapy can actually achieve this goal if done in a proper way, for the process of chanting scriptures gives the patients a sense of calm, helping them clear their inner worries, as if an uprising positive spirit rises in their bodies, making them feel complete and cheerful. another way is to walk around in nature and shout out loud in open space so that their depressed feelings can be expressed. a third way is treating them with music. traditionally, we believe five notes(do, re, mi, sol, la) correspond with five body organs(spleen, lungs, liver, heart, kidney); based on this theory, we use different kinds of music to help patients achieve a peaceful and stable inner state.” he, director of lijiang cultural research institute, believes that while dongba rituals may not directly cure specific diseases, they provide valuable psychological support, particularly for naxi people seeking connection to their cultural roots: “in my opinion, such rituals can serve as a mental consolation for those who cherish their naxi identity, making them feel connected to their roots again. that’s one important way to make use of dongba medicine in modern days, to satisfy naxi people’s psychological needs and thus improve their mental and overall health.” 3.3.2 understanding of mental illness the villagers predominantly associate mental health issues, particularly depression and anxiety, with the pressures faced by students in today’s educational environment. j.he, a 58-year-old female villager, noted, “i’ve heard rumors about students jumping off buildings because of depression,” while z.he, a 37-year-old female villager mentioned, “i’ve got a cousin who acquired depression in high school, mostly because of the misunderstanding between he and a teacher, as well as the pressure at high school... i feel like students get depression a lot, and some of them even attempt suicide. i’ve heard such rumors but it hasn’t happened to people around me,” both of which illustrate the alarming consequences of academic stress. also, many villagers relate their knowledge of mental illnesses primarily to personal anecdotes or those of acquaintances, often lacking a deeper understanding of the complexities involved. based on different people’s responses, there is a divided opinion about traditional medicine and rituals’ potential for treating diseases in modern times. people whose careers and lives are closely related to dongba culture and lijiang traditional medicine tend to view traditional medicine more positively, while ordinary villagers often know little about these practices and primarily rely on hospitals and modern professionals when it comes to mental illness. 3.3.3 trust and priority for modern medicine among those with some knowledge of mental health, there is a clear preference for seeking help from psychological doctors and hospitals. z.he, a 37-year-old female villager, expressed, “i think it’s still normal for people to try ritual therapies, but it usually happens when no other way works out and superstition is kind of the last hope.” this reflects a pragmatic approach where modern medical solutions are prioritized, yet a recognition exists for traditional ritual methods when modern treatment fails. this attitude is evident in the modern medical treatment order: hospitals, professional doctors, and medications such as anti-depressants are the preferred choice, while traditional methods are often not utilized or are seen as a last resort when all hope seems to be gone. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 143 published by ideas spread as pointed out by r.mu from changshui village, this situation might result from the rapid modernization of lijiang and the discouragement of traditional medicine and rituals over the last century, leading to a division between modern medicine (seen as science) and traditional medicine (seen as superstition). 3.3.4 support systems and self-help there is an acknowledgment of the importance of family support and self-help strategies in managing mental health issues. z. he highlights the importance of family support, remarking, “i know an elder male who felt useless and became depressed, but his children are very kind to him, always accompanying and caring for him, and little by little he got better. so, i think that while medical treatment is important, the care and understanding form one’s family also matter a lot.” w. he, a 36-year-old self-learned psychologist, shared her experience, stating, “when faced with psychological problems, first trying to heal by oneself is not a bad idea. but still, it’s important to see doctors too.” this highlights the dual approach of relying on personal efforts while still valuing professional medical intervention. in conclusion, the perspectives gathered from the villagers illustrate a comprehensive view of mental health treatment in lijiang, characterized by a lack of understanding of traditional medicine and a trust in modern medical practices. although many villagers still associate rituals with superstition, voices like dongba he’s shed light on the potential value of integrating traditional practices into contemporary psychological treatment. this holistic understanding shows the necessity of bridging traditional and modern methods so that cultural heritage such as ritual therapy can be revived when applied to face current mental health challenges. from the insights gained, a general medical treatment order for mental health issues in the lijiang area can be illustrated. therapy choice, referring to the categories of medical practices that individuals choose when sick and the order of using them, reflects individuals’ understanding of illness and attitudes towards plural medical practices. for one, their therapy choices reflect their explanatory models of mental illness, whether attributed to biochemical imbalance (favoring biomedicine), sociocultural stress (favoring psychological consulting), or spiritual disorder caused by impurity (hui, 秽) (favoring ritual therapy) [6]. it is also worth noting that though health care system divides medical practices into three sectors, individuals actively “navigate multiple therapeutic options based on efficacy, accessibility, and cultural congruence” [7]. the order and paths of such navigation also reflect individuals’ multilayered understanding of mental illness as well as the perceived trustability levels of different medical practices. figure 6. general therapy choice for mental illness hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 144 published by ideas spread 4. discussion and conclusion 4.1 plural medical practices in lijiang: between sectors and realities the diversified medical practices in lijiang can be classified based on the concept of health care system, which categorizes health-related practices into popular sector, professional sector, and folk sector [8]. based on how local people perceive these medical practices, they can also be classified into two main categories: the traditional (composing of tcm, dongba medicine, herbal remedy and so on) and the western (composing of hospital and clinical medical practices). 4.1.1 professional sector: state-mediated biomedicine and tcm professional sector denotes state-legitimated practices, which in lijiang include hybrid tcm-biomedical therapies. professional medical institutions listed in lijiang city gazetteer (1991–2010) include people’s hospital of lijiang, township health centers, village medical stations, and medical institutions of enterprises, all of which work under national standardized protocols and medical insurance coverage. 4.1.2 folk sector lijiang’s folk sector comprises of folk tcm practices and ethnic medical practices, with their healing knowledge circulating through oral or family transmission rather than institutional education and certification. examples of medical practices under the folk sector include tcm practices such as bonesetting and acupuncture in rural familyrun clinics, dongba medical practices such as herbal therapy and ritual performing, and other minority groups’ medical practices such as bai ethnic group’s mama medical practices. figure 7. visualized diagram showing plural medical practices in lijiang, classified in popular, folk, and professional sectors, and divided into traditional and western medicine. created in https://biorender.com it is worth noticing that though part of the medical practices under the folk sector receive no medical licensing, the practitioners often understand basic or even professional biomedical knowledge, which may be incorporated in the folk medical practice, showing a fluidity between sectors. doctor wang practicing tcm at his village has self-learned professional medical knowledge and prepared for the medical licensing test. though he eventually failed the test, his biomedical knowledge together with his effective tcm skills has raised villagers’ trust for him. those with medical licenses may as well master folk/tcm medical practices. for example, doctor zhao working at township health center also runs a clinic at home, treating patients with acupuncture and bonesetting techniques, both of which are tcm practices. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 145 published by ideas spread 4.1.3 popular sector (herb-derived health supplements) lijiang’s popular sector thrives on self-determined health strategies such as treatment made from self-purchased herbal plants. a large proportion of goods sold on lijiang markets are herbal plants, many of which freshly dug from the wild areas such as yulong snow mountain. they are then purchased and made part of the home remedies, such as using cordyceps to maintain health, or boiling fuzi (aconite root, 附子) to get rid of ‘寒气’ (hánqì, cold pathogen), a tcm concept denoting invasive cold energy that disrupts bodily balance. in general, lijiang’s popular sector features common people’s own methods to maintaining health, especially through herbal therapy, exercises, and other tcm-related practices that reflect long-held family beliefs. 4.1.4 a common binary perception: western medicine vs. chinese medicine unlike kleinman’s approach of dividing plural medical system into three sectors, most lijiang people classify various medical practices in a binary way, perceiving them as either ‘西医’ (xīyī, western medicine) or ‘中医’ (zhōngyī, chinese traditional medicine). under this context, western medicine refers to biomedicine of professional sector, while chinese medicine refers to a wider range, covering the majority of folk sector and popular sector, and licensed tcm practice of professional sector. it is also worth noting that certain practices traditionally included in tcm, such as conducting rituals and using talisman, are not perceived as medical practices among most people. rather, they are frequently referred to as 迷 信 (míxìn, superstition). ritual therapies and other practices perceived as superstition don’t fall into the health care system, but they were in the past perceived as medical practices in lijiang area, and may offer insight on mental illness treatment. in order to understand these practices, we must add on to kleinman’s sectors and address the cultural logics underlying minority groups’ traditional medical practice that traditional healers themselves employ. 4.2 traditional mental illness classification traditionally in lijiang, mental diseases have not been systematically classified. in most cases, they are referred to as “psychiatric abnormality”. many symptoms are related to “psychiatric abnormality”, including the unwillingness to communicate, irrational or meaningless speeches, and behaviors that hurt others. actually, such symptoms are common among today’s patients diagnosed with depression, bipolar diseases and schizophrenia, the only difference being that no clear boundaries have been set among psychiatric diseases traditionally. not all diseases related to mind, brain or nervous system are categorized as psychiatric abnormality. 惊悸(jīngjì, phobia), causing people to experience abrupt fear but behave normally most of the time, has long been recognized as an independent disease. in fact, it is similar to agoraphobia, an anxiety disorder that involves generalized fear. when it comes to the causes of jīngjì, though, hui and the disruption of spirits are still considered as the leading factors, just like in the case of psychiatric abnormality. epilepsy, on the other hand, is independent of both the name and the cause of psychiatric abnormality. with its apparent symptom of continuous seizures, epilepsy seems to have a more physically related cause than other mental illness, and is therefore distinguished from other neurological diseases in lijiang traditional medicine conception. while modern medicine aims to neutralize abnormal electronic signals in the brain to treat epilepsy, lijiang people used to believe in a whole different way: eating human brains. this treatment can be called primitive, but it indicates that lijiang people have somehow identified the body part most directly related to epilepsy: the brain. as for anxiety disorders where people experience discomfort but do not exhibit abnormal behaviors, lijiang traditional medicine does not treat them as a state of illness. table 2. similarities between symptoms of ‘psychiatric abnormality’ and contemporary mental diseases. this classification is supported by the modern diagnostic criteria outlined in the dsm-5 (2013) and icd-11 (who, 2022) symptom modern classification social withdrawal disorganized speech risky/self-harming behaviors depression common rare possible bipolar disorder possible common (in manic state) common (in manic state) schizophrenia common common (in manic state) possible autism spectrum disorder common possible possible hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 146 published by ideas spread 4.3 find a way out: a combination of culture and medicine, rituals and stress-relieving with its accuracy and continuous advancement, modern medical treatment is proved efficient for most physical diseases. the field of mental illness treatment, however, requires consistent innovation in its methods: for some mental illness, there is yet no efficient treating methods; for others, new auxiliary treatments are needed to improve the current methods’ effects. the use of ritual therapy in lijiang traditional medicine reflects a concern for patients’ mental status, a feature that, if properly combined with modern psychology theories, might help lijiang traditional medicine earn a place in mental illness treatment field. in fact, previous studies have found that rituals enhance mental well-being. to begin with, the hallucinogenic plants used in rituals might have positive mental effects, an example of which being ayahuasca, a traditional amazonian decoction with psychoactive properties that was originally used by indigenous shamans in religious rituals across several south american countries and now proved to have antidepressant effects in patients with recurrent depression [9][10]. moreover, samuel weber et.al have found that positive religious coping, community and support, and positive beliefs involved in ritual therapies can promote mental health [11]. most importantly, goncalves et.al assessed the impact of religious/spiritual interventions through randomized clinical trials and found that, in general, religious/spiritual interventions decreased stress, alcoholism and depression [12]. based on these findings, it is possible to put traditional lijiang ritual therapies into modern psychiatric treatment practice, providing a new way to conserve and promote lijiang traditional medicine. re-knowing and reembracing ritual therapies bring more than mental calm to lijiang people; it also gives them a sense of belonging and confidence. this conclusion is drawn from the conversations with dongba he and director liu, both of whom devote their time into the understanding, conservation and inheritance of lijiang culture. in this process, they feel connected to their ancestors and their cultural roots, and therefore achieve a state of mental well-being. the marginalization and degradation of ritual therapy is a global trend. however, there is still possibility to conserve and promote lijiang traditional medicine and its ritual components. it is worth noting that among lijiang's multi-ethnic populations, growing consciousness of mental distress has paradoxically exposed the limitations of both clinical psychiatry and mainstream cultural scripts in accounting for the localized surge of psychiatric conditions. facing this interpretive crisis, many residents are turning to indigenous epistemologies embodied in naxi herbal therapies and shamanic ceremonies for both etiological understanding and therapeutic efficacy. moreover, in lijiang, efforts are made by dongba and other lijiang culture experts to preserve ritual therapies as part of their cultural heritage, and explaining ritual therapy in scientific language and combining it with contemporary people’s mental needs might be a way to prevent them from fading. effects of improved forms of rituals (those that cast no harm on patients) used in folk medical practices can also be collected to provide further insight into the effectiveness of rituals and in what ways they can be improved to adapt to mental illness treatment. references [1] hale, m. e., & reuell, p. (2010). digitization aids in translation of naxi manuscripts. 39(1), 28–31. https://doi.org/10.1515/mfir.2010.005 [2] mackerras, c. (1988). aspects of bai culture. modern china, 14(1), 51–84. https://doi.org/10.1177/009770048801400103 [3] li, j. (2020). lijiang city gazetteer (1991–2010). [4] yang, f. (2005). a comparative research on the relation of human beings and nature and holy mountain worship betwwen tibetan and naxi people. journal of southwest minzu university (humanities and social sciences edition), 26(12). [5] leslie, c. (1980). medical pluralism in world perspective. social science & medicine. part b: medical anthropology, 14(4), 191–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-7987(80)90044-7 [6] kleinman, a. (1980). patients and healers in the context of culture: an exploration of the borderland between anthropology, medicine, and psychiatry. university of california press. https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520340848 [7] janes, c. r., & corbett, k. k. (2009). anthropology and global health. annual review of anthropology, 38, 167–183. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-anthro-091908-164314 [8] kleinman, a. (1978). concepts and a model for the comparison of medical systems as cultural systems. social science & medicine, 12(2b), 85–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-7987(78)90014-5 [9] hamill, j., hallak, j., dursun, s. m., & baker, g. (2019). ayahuasca: psychological and physiologic effects, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 147 published by ideas spread pharmacology and potential uses in addiction and mental illness. current neuropharmacology, 17(2), 108– 128. https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x16666180125095902 [10] osorio, f. de l., sanches, r. f., macedo, l. r., santos, r. g., maia-de-oliveira, j. p., wichert-ana, l., & et al. (2015). antidepressant effects of a single dose of ayahuasca in patients with recurrent depression: a preliminary report. brazilian journal of psychiatry, 37(1), 13–20. https://doi.org/10.1590/1516-4446-20141496 [11] weber, s. r., & pargament, k. i. (2014). the role of religion and spirituality in mental health. current opinion in psychiatry, 27(5), 358–363. https://doi.org/10.1097/yco.0000000000000080 [12] goncalves, j. p., lucchetti, g., menezes, p. r., & vallada, h. (2015). religious and spiritual interventions in mental health care: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials. psychological medicine, 45(14), 2937–2949. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291715001166 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n3p124 124 published by ideas spread the sense of immersion in the game of yi nv: generation, performance, and differentiation wenqi chang1 & xiyao wang1 1 communication university of china, china correspondence: wenqi chang, communication university of china, beijing, china. received: june 5, 2025; accepted: june 18, 2025; published: june 19, 2025 abstract yi nv game is an interactive game with female players as the main audience and romantic love as the theme, which has received widespread attention worldwide in recent years. this article focuses on the core experiential mechanism of yi nv games "immersion", exploring its generation mechanism, practical methods, and differentiation characteristics. research has found that the pursuit of immersive gaming fun is closely related to the cultural capital allocation of player groups. through the "semi transparent" body exercise, players achieve emotional projection and interaction between virtual and reality, further enhancing the experience of immersion. at the same time, there is differentiation among players in terms of substitution methods, which is influenced by the game release mode, character shaping strategies, and transference and empathy psychological mechanisms. keywords: yi nv game, immersion, emotional narrative, psychological mechanism 1. introduction with the improvement of women's social status and the continuous growth of the "she economy", for the gaming industry, targeting, meeting, and specifically catering to the needs of female players, creating from a female perspective with female language, and catering to the idealized emotions of women's hearts, gaming has become an important development direction for the industry. satisfying the digital entertainment needs of female players has become a key focus worthy of attention in the gaming industry. 2024 is a year of vigorous development for chinese women in the gaming industry. according to sensor tower data, the global revenue of china's leading gaming company, paperstack network, increased by 660% year-on-year in 2024, reaching the sum of revenue from 2019 to 2023. its subsidiary, yinv games, also holds an important and major market share. as a unique interactive narrative game form, yi nv game is a love development game where female players enter the game as the player character (controller) and establish emotional connections with multiple playable male characters. it has its own unique narrative and aesthetic style, and is often favored by female players with exquisite and gorgeous cg and deeply moving storylines. since its birth in japan in the 1990s, it has rapidly expanded to multiple global markets and become an important category for women's gaming. but in addition to its entertainment function, the yi nv game, as a narrative text that caters to female aesthetics, is also an important carrier for exploring the emotional needs, subjective expression, and cultural identity of female players. in the rapidly developing digital age, yi nv games provide a unique research window for understanding women's identity construction, emotional practice, and interaction with social culture in virtual spaces. previous research on the game "yi nv" has mainly focused on the following three research areas: first, the emotional narrative and virtual intimate relationships in "yi nv" games; second, the self-expression and identity recognition of female players; and third, the social and cultural significance and gender stereotypes of games from a feminist perspective. although previous studies have addressed the issue of players' immersion in the game of yi nv, they have mostly focused on exploring the emotional connection between players and male characters, as well as the role of game space design, and have not made it a research focus in itself. at the same time, there is a lack of existing research analyzing how players establish relationships with their "virtual agents" controllers from the perspective of digital networks. in addition, there is a serious lack of attention to the phenomenon of differentiation in player immersion methods and the underlying causes in existing research. there is also a lack of comparative studies on the cultural background and player immersion experience between japanese and domestic female games, which are the origins of world female games. this article takes the sense of immersion of female gamers as the starting point, and revolves around the following parts: firstly, using bourdieu's aesthetic configuration concept, it analyzes the influence of cultural capital hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 125 published by ideas spread allocation behind players' sense of immersion and enjoyment. the second is to analyze how players can use their digital identities to practice immersion in the game space. the third is to analyze the differences in players' immersion methods and the reasons for their differentiation. through these studies, we hope to fill the gap in existing research on the mechanism of player immersion and cultural differences, and provide a new perspective for understanding the emotional needs and virtual subjectivity expression of female players. 2. under the concept of aesthetic configuration, the generation of "immersion feeling" appreciation interest the concept of "empathy" was first explicitly used by german aesthetician robert vischer to elucidate the aesthetic process in the field of aesthetics. subsequently, philosopher theodor lips further developed it to explain how individuals understand the psychological states of others through emotional projection. he divided empathy into two levels: simple empathy (how individuals project their emotional experiences onto others to perceive their emotions) and sympathetic empathy (emphasizing emotional resonance between individuals and others, that is, achieving community experience through emotional resonance). in the game field of yi nv, players project their emotions and imagination onto the game character (main controller) by manipulating it, establishing intimate relationships and achieving emotional resonance and psychological participation. at the same time, players also experience various types of complex emotions in the development of the story and daily interactions. overall, the sense of immersion is reflected as a psychological interaction mode in the game context, which is essentially an isomorphic relationship formed between the player and the player character (i.e. the controller) in terms of perception and emotion. as a form of appreciation and enjoyment, the generation of empathy is not an isolated psychological process. in order to gain a deeper understanding of why the yi nv game emphasizes immersion and why gamers pursue immersion, we need to pay attention to the role of cultural capital allocation related to gamers. bourdieu believed that an individual's aesthetic taste is not innate, but is shaped by social and cultural capital, material living conditions, and other factors. in environments of different urban levels, people are influenced by the capital environment, forming unique lifestyles and aesthetic concepts. bourdieu referred to this difference in aesthetic concepts among different groups of people due to differences in capital distribution as "aesthetic configuration". specifically, cultural capital encompasses intangible wealth such as knowledge, skills, aesthetic tastes, and social relationships accumulated by individuals through education, art, language, customs, and other means. "people from different social classes engage in cultural consumption under the operation of cultural capital, and the differences in cultural consumption reflect different social distinctions, thus forming different aesthetic taste barriers." the aesthetic taste of "immersion" pursued by female gamers in games is also influenced by the allocation of cultural capital such as family, school education, and social culture, and is a product of such cultural capital operation. according to an article published by the new media research institute of peking university titled "a study on user consumption of 'yi nv' games taking love and producer as an example", the proportion of female players in yi nv games is as high as 94.2%, with 57% being aged 20-24, over 90% being under 30 years old, and 74% being under 24 years old. secondly, the proportion of first and second tier cities is as high as 57%, with shanghai, beijing, and guangzhou ranking in the top three. shanghai has the highest proportion of players, nearly 6%, while the other seven top 10 cities are all municipalities directly under the central government or provincial capitals. from this, it can be seen that the core audience and main customers of yinv games are young women from first and second tier cities. from the perspective of cultural capital, the cultural logic behind the aesthetic pursuit of "immersion" in yi nv games by this group of players is due to the lack of emotional education and the drive of subject anxiety, which requires them to achieve emotional compensation and identity reconstruction through games. 2.1 the lack of love education and the need for compensation according to the material living conditions and their influence, young women in first and second tier cities generally have a good level of education. however, due to the traditional education model that focuses on imparting knowledge and academic performance, is guided by personal ability development and academic competition, neglects the cultivation of emotional expression ability, and has strict age restrictions and requirements for dating. those who go beyond the limit are called "early love". therefore, in addition to the excessive emphasis on academic performance, the suppression of "early love" by schools and families further marginalizes the emotional needs of adolescents, leading to a lack of cultural capital accumulation in their emotional cognition and practice. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 126 published by ideas spread as adults, with the increasing emotional needs of individuals, the suppressed emotional needs during adolescence gradually become prominent. individuals begin to crave alternative emotional expression channels to compensate for the emotional deficiencies caused by educational mode limitations during their growth process. the education model of high pressure and low openness in the past has shaped the emotional expression habits of female players. in this context, the emergence of yi nv games with a sense of immersion as an important compensation tool can help break through these habitual limitations. the yi nv game provides players with a space for emotional expression and satisfaction through carefully designed romantic narratives, character interactions, and emotional design. through emotional projection in the game of yi nv, players can experience suppressed emotions in the virtual world, thus filling the emotional gap in reality to a certain extent. in the film "love and producer" under the banner of paperstack, players engage in romantic interactions with five male characters with superpowers as producers, and achieve emotional projection through plot selection. this mechanism is essentially a symbolic compensation for the lack of real-life emotions. 2.2 the spatial expansion of network media and subject imagination most of the female gamers are the internet users of generation z, belonging to the category of digital original residents. they have been surrounded by the internet and digital information since childhood. in addition to the cultural capital accumulated in school education, they will also spontaneously receive and accumulate information capital through new media channels. the online media has expanded the space for women to engage in subjective imagination, and the direct driving force for women to engage in subjective imagination comes from the "subjective anxiety" of contemporary individuals. in traditional gender structures, the identity and value of women are often defined by their relationship with men. simone de beauvoir mentioned in "the second sex": "humans are male, and men define women not from the perspective of women themselves, but from a relative perspective to men. women are not seen as autonomous beings. they became the 'nameless ones' under the patriarchal system. advertising, social media, and popular culture constantly emphasize the standard of "perfect woman", linking women's self-worth with material consumption, further exacerbating women's subjective anxiety. women are objectified as symbols of consumption, becoming the 'nameless ones' in the culture of consumerism. the game of yi nv has built a virtual stage for the reconstruction of female subjectivity. most yi nv games have a fictional worldview setting of "another world", where seemingly ordinary protagonists actually possess supernatural abilities, important missions, and secrets of their origins. as the first japanese female game released by koei corporation, "angelika", the player character angelika is a 17-year-old ordinary girl who encounters difficulties in the workplace and unexpectedly signs a contract to become a queen candidate. with the support of 9 "guardian saints" (male characters that can be attacked), she competes for the queen seat in the "holy land". the two top female games in china, "love and producer" and "love of light and night", also feature ordinary office workers as players who unexpectedly discover the existence of superpowers in the world and are given a narrative structure of significant identity. entering the 'otherworldly' becomes a mechanism for reconstructing subjectivity, allowing player characters to break free from the monotony and meaninglessness of daily life, and thus detach themselves from the identity of the 'unknown' in reality, becoming an active subject image with transcendent significance in the fictional world. from this, it can be seen that the game of yi nv is a more perfect social state imagined by women who are not satisfied with their subordinate status in society. 3. practice of immersion in player's "semi transparent" body performance under embodied theory digital technology has reconstructed the way human bodies are present, and the "virtual body" in the game "yi nv" is a typical epitome of this transformation with the help of digital information networks, players can surpass the limitations of their own cognition and rationality, and construct this new type of network embodied presence with dual attributes from the physical form of the real body: on the one hand, it is a digital entity constructed through code and algorithms, with highly symbolic features; on the other hand, it is endowed with anthropomorphic movements, expressions, and interactive abilities, thus possessing a bodily perceptual experience. in the game of yi nv, the player character (controller) serves as the digital avatar of the player, and its body image has a duality of symbolism and physicality. it is not only a projection and extension of the real body in the online space, but also a new form of existence for users in the online world. in virtual space, players integrate the perceptual logic of their real bodies with the symbolic representation of their digital bodies through embodied operations mediated by technology, forming a unique path of immersion. players control the digital body that is digitally "reproduced" in the game through the physical body that is "represented" in real life. however, this "reproduction" is not completely detached from the physical body, but requires the use of body imagery and the processing of "semi transparency" to construct a new way of body expression between virtual and reality. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 127 published by ideas spread 3.1 the mutual construction of embodied cognition and virtual body: the generation mechanism of empathy the core proposition of embodied theory states that cognition is not isolated from the body, but is formed through real-time interaction between the body and the environment. in the game of yi nv, the player's sense of immersion is essentially a process of "dual embodiment": on the one hand, the real body interacts with the game interface through physical actions such as touch screen sliding and button operations; on the other hand, the expressions, actions, and narrative choices of virtual bodies in the digital space become concrete carriers for players to project their emotions. this tripartite interaction of "body technology symbol" constitutes the underlying logic of immersion. taking the 3d face sculpting system in "love and deep space" as an example, the drag and drop actions of players adjusting their virtual image's facial features are not only mechanical manipulation of pixels, but also synchronized with tactile feedback (such as screen vibration) and visual feedback (real-time rendering), activating the motion memory of the real body. according to gallagher's "body schema" theory, this operation relies on the internalization of tools by the body players gradually see their phones or controllers as extensions of the body, blurring the boundary between "manipulating tools" and "controlling oneself" at the conscious level. when a virtual character smiles at the player's choice, the subtle tremors of their facial muscles are presented through high frame rate animation, triggering the response of the player's mirror neurons and creating an empathetic experience of me smiling. this embodied emotional resonance is the core source of empathy. the intensity of immersion depends on the depth of embodied practice, which can be divided into three levels sensory embodiment, operational embodiment, and emotional embodiment. sensory embodiment refers to the physical response triggered by audio-visual stimuli, such as when a player wears headphones to listen to the voice of a male lead character recorded by a voice actor, feeling the whispered airflow and changes in orientation activate skin tactile associations, creating the illusion of whispered sounds in the ears. the operation tool refers to the closed-loop reinforcement of the player's sense of control through actions and real-time feedback. players need to adjust button selections according to the needs of the plot, and this requirement of "hand eye coordination" replicates the learning process of real sports skills. emotional embodiment refers to the synchronization of narrative choices and character responses by players, triggering physiological and psychological chain reactions and generating genuine emotional attachment. it is worth noting that these three levels do not exist independently or in a linear progression, but coexist in a nested form. for example, in the trial stage of the yi nv game "undecided event book", players need to simultaneously complete evidence dragging (operation embodiment), observe character micro expressions (sensory embodiment), and weigh dialogue options (emotional embodiment). the interweaving of multiple embodiment practices makes the player's sense of immersion present a three-dimensional feature. 3.2 translucent performance: preservation and reconstruction of body imagery in the virtual space that transcends reality, digital technology has shaped a relatively independent and new environment and world for the minds of modern audiences, allowing individuals to immerse themselves in unprecedented new experiences. merleau ponty's "phenomenology of the body" emphasizes that the body is the medium through which the subject perceives the world, and the physical performance in virtual environments requires a "semi transparency" strategy to balance the tension between reality and fiction. the so-called "translucency" refers to the retention of the perceptual habits of the real body, such as directional perception and gravity feedback; simultaneously removing its physical limitations, such as energy consumption due to spatial displacement. in the game of yi nv, this strategy is reflected in two practical paths: one is the symbolic translation of real actions, where players' gesture operations in reality are transformed into narrative progression actions in virtual space. game developers use highly realistic designs in the game, such as the simulated real chat interface and voice call functions in "love of light and night". when players receive character messages, they need to perform gestures that are completely consistent with real social interactions (swiping up and down, long pressing to reply), creating an immersive gaming space. this design is not just a simple interface imitation, but rather activates players' physical memory of "daily socializing" through embodied isomorphism of actions, thereby naturalizing virtual interaction. the second is the perceptual compensation of virtual actions, in which the player's physical exercise in the game space no longer relies on the physical movement of flesh and blood, but is "reproduced" through the weaving of symbols and information. this kind of "reproduction" requires varying degrees of use of the imagery of the physical body, with a semi transparent transformation. when the player controls the character to complete surreal actions, the game simulates the dynamic feedback of body movement through visual effects and sound effects. according to noy's "perception action cycle" theory, although the player does not actually experience acceleration changes, the coherence of sensory information allows their brain to automatically complete the perception model of "body movement". this compensation mechanism allows players hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 128 published by ideas spread to obtain embodied realism in their actions even without physical consumption. the combat mode introduced in "love and deep space" allows players to perform actions that are difficult to achieve on both physiological and physical levels through keyboard and mouse operations, such as rolling and instant movement, expanding the player's degree of freedom in virtual space. the pursuit of media transparency by humans stems from the desire for technological tools to be "invisible" and to be closer to natural experiences in the interactive process. in the game of yi nv, this pursuit is directly reflected in the player's highly realistic demand for the appearance of the main control character. early games of yi nv often used a two-dimensional cartoon style, with character images conveying emotional tension through cute art styles such as big eyes and slender figures. however, their body movements were limited by frame animation technology and had relatively limited expressive power. for example, the character interaction in "sakura ghost" is mainly achieved through static illustrations and text dialogue, and the player's sense of immersion relies more on narrative rather than physical performance. with the maturity of 3d modeling and motion capture technology, yi nv games have begun to evolve towards the direction of surrealism. this highly customized feature not only meets players' personalized needs for character appearance, but also facilitates players to freely dress up in virtual space, achieving equality in appearance, age, gender, and other aspects. in the 3d love interactive mobile game "love and deep space" released in january 2024, players can customize their self-image in the virtual network through the 3d face sculpting function, and automatically generate 3d virtual images by uploading real photos. 4. differentiation of insertion modes: dual motivation of game design and psychological mechanisms players complete immersive experience in the game space through digital bodies. however, based on players' different understandings of their roles, there has been a differentiation in the ways players can immerse themselves internally. according to tang yide's proposal of the relationship between humans and technology, the relationship between players and player characters can be divided into embodied relationships (where the player character is the embodiment of the player), hermeneutic relationships (where the player character is the tool for understanding and experiencing the game world), and heteromorphic relationships (where the player and player character are two separate independent objects). players in the first two relationships tend to view their character as an extension of themselves and pursue embodied participation, known as "proxy party". players in the latter relationship tend to view their characters as objects of observation in the game, creating a cinematic identity known as the "female protagonist party". why do players experience differentiation in their immersion methods in the game space? 4.1 the difference between distribution mode and player character shaping the origin of the game "yi nv" can be traced back to japan. the term "yi nv" in "yi nv" means "innocent girl" in japanese, and its original intention was to focus on the spiritual needs of women and tailor cultural and entertainment methods for them. in japan, the distribution model of the game "yi nv" is mainly a buyout system, whose core feature is that players can obtain complete game content by paying a one-time fee, without the need to continuously invest a large amount of money in the subsequent process. this one-time delivery model makes game release similar to a complete and readable narrative work, which is a japanese style "story game" that often adopts a "visual novel" viewing method. like novels and movies, it focuses on rich and complex storylines, and allows players to experience a "movie style" uninterrupted immersive gaming experience during the strategy. from the perspective of game developers, due to the completeness of game content and the one-time purchase nature, players' consumption behavior is mainly concentrated in the initial purchase stage, and the impact of players' immersion experience in the game process on subsequent profits is relatively small. this distribution model has deeply influenced the way players shape their characters and the direction of their psychological immersion in japanese anime games. firstly, due to its complete delivery of the storyline in the game experience, in order to match the plot, the portrayal of the female protagonist in the game is also clear and explicit, with many settings and emphasis on continuity. for example, the appearance, age, hobbies, personality, identity background, etc. of the female protagonist are all expressed. the overly figurative details lead to players experiencing the process, although they can empathize with the female protagonist's psychology, it is more like watching others' lives in an interactive game experience, and more like a "movie style identification". at the same time, the need for plot complexity behind this identification has also driven the transformation of player character design towards personalization and diversification, ensuring that the game can provide rich and deep narrative interactive experiences. in the early days of japanese anime, the female protagonists still had the shadow of traditional gender roles and stereotypes, such as being gentle and kind, obedient and gentle, passively waiting for men's help, love and rescue, etc. later, with the improvement of women's social status and the voice of feminism, the cultural and entertainment industry was also affected. the female protagonists in japanese anime also transformed from the standard "yamato nadeshiko" style ideal women to unrestricted girls with infinite hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 129 published by ideas spread possibilities, avant-garde thinking, and personality freedom, even presenting atypical characteristics such as rebellion and evil, and emphasizing more on the experimental narrative and exploring the diverse expression of female subjectivity. in contrast, domestic yi nv games mostly adopt a free in app system, where players can download the game for free without the need to purchase it. while developers intermittently update the main content of the game, they will constantly introduce various specific activities such as "card draws" and playing various small games to promote players' continuous consumption. this mode presents a non continuous reading experience for players' overall story, and it is necessary to ensure the attractiveness of a single activity for players to recharge. if players feel a decrease in immersion during the consumption process, they often choose to "quit the game". therefore, enhancing the sense of immersion to retain existing players is crucial for game developers. in terms of player character development, country b tends to adopt a strategy of blurring character images, using a "blank female lead" design. specifically, this is manifested in the de personalization setting, where player characters do not have clear names and lack complete images and clear frontal displays in cutscenes and game cg images. the second is character neutrality. game developers will deliberately weaken or smooth out the character's personality expression in the plot, avoiding the character's personality being too fixed and weakening the protagonist's initiative in key plotlines, making her reactions closer to the player's possible choices, thus providing more space for players to project their emotions onto the character. although this setting method meets the player's demand for personalized immersion to a certain extent, it also limits the emotional depth and complexity of the character. when the behavior of the female protagonist, who lacks a fixed emotional container, is completely driven by player choices, her intrinsic motivation is often dissolved. for example, in "love traveler in time and space," the female protagonist's behavior logic in different worldlines lacks a unified core, leading to the character becoming a tool for the plot. at the same time, the blurred characters can only maintain player interest through momentary emotional stimulation (such as heart wrenching lines during card draws), but lack sustained emotional accumulation. data shows that the average payment cycle for domestic female gamers is six to eight months, far lower than the 18 months for similar games in japan. this high stimulation and low sedimentation mode is also prone to emotional overload, ultimately weakening the emotional investment of players in the fate of their characters. 4.2 the psychological mechanisms of transference and empathy from the perspective of players' gaming psychology, the sense of immersion in "proxy party" comes from the immersive experience of substituting "i" for the player character in the story plot and intimate relationship, while the sense of immersion in "female protagonist party" comes from "i" perceiving the emotional state of the player character, thereby generating similar emotions. this corresponds to the psychological mechanisms of "transference" and "empathy" respectively, which are the simple empathy and sympathetic empathy divided by philosopher aldo lipps mentioned earlier. the emergence of transference is a self-centered emotional projection, where individuals project their emotions and experiences onto others. wollinger pointed out in "abstraction and transference" that transference is an "objective self enjoyment" that involves immersing oneself in a sensory object that is different from the self, that is, moving the self into the object. simply put, the process of transference requires the object of emotional projection, like myself, to discover a common humanity between the two, which is a psychological process from the inside out. the characters of female gamers in games usually possess universal and traditional gender traits, such as simplicity, kindness, gentleness, and sweetness. this makes it easy for players to form a substitute relationship with virtual agents, imagining themselves as the protagonist and experiencing the game space firsthand. when the player character presents personalized features that are inconsistent with the player's expectations, the player's self projection will be broken, resulting in the phenomenon of obstructed transference. compared to the emotional projection of transference, empathy emphasizes the role of emotional perception and is a psychological process from the outside in. in transference, the self enters into external objects or others, and sees the self from them. in empathy, others enter into the self, and then perceive others, and the boundary between the self and others is not extinguished. players establish emotional connections with their characters during the process of empathy, but do not completely equate themselves with the characters. instead, they appreciate the character's growth as an observer. this independence makes empathy highly objective, allowing individuals to perceive the emotions of others while maintaining awareness of their own emotions. in addition to transference and empathy, the psychological mechanism of empathy also includes desire driven fantasies. players not only need to find identification with their characters as' like me ', but also demand that their characters conform to the model of their ideal selves and respect their character choices, in order to satisfy the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 130 published by ideas spread missing experiences that players cannot satisfy in reality. most of the player characters are mary sue style "white rich and beautiful" images, such as the protagonist of "love and producer" who comes from a wealthy family, has a beautiful face, and took over his own film and television company after graduating from a prestigious university. the protagonist of "love of light and night" has pink hair and big eyes and was born into a wealthy secondgeneration family but escaped marriage through family alliances. he successfully entered a top design company after participating in a fashion competition. unlike the "complete self projection" in transference, fantasy satisfies the player's "desire for integrity" by constructing a perfect female image according to secular standards. when the main character possesses strong attraction and idealized traits, the player's empathy gradually tends towards desire driven, manifested as the player's desire to use the character to achieve a complete and unified self. 5. conclusion this article explores in depth the generation, practice, and differentiation of the "immersion feeling" in the game of yi nv, revealing the complex social and cultural mechanisms and psychological motivations behind this phenomenon. the sense of immersion, as the core experiential element of the yi nv game, not only reflects the player's need for emotional compensation and subjectivity construction in the virtual world, but also demonstrates the interactive relationship between game design and player psychology. from the perspective of cultural capital allocation, the generation of empathy is closely related to the social background, educational experience, and gender awareness of the player group. at the same time, the development of digital technology has provided players with the possibility of "semi transparent" body exercises, further expanding the practical space for immersion. at the same time, the differentiation of substitution methods also reveals individual differences in players' gaming experience. this difference is not only due to differences in game release modes and character development strategies, but also closely related to players' psychological mechanisms. the psychological processes of transference and empathy, as well as desire driven fantasies, together shape players' different pursuits of empathy. future research can further focus on the following aspects: firstly, to explore in depth the differences in the immersion experience of female gamers in different cultural backgrounds, and analyze the value positioning of female oriented content in different markets; the second is to combine the development of emerging technologies such as virtual reality and augmented reality to study their impact on the practice of empathy; the third is to pay attention to the performance and cultural significance of immersion in other types of games. the sense of immersion in the game of yi nv is not only an important component of players' emotional experience, but also an important window for understanding contemporary young women's cultural consumption and social psychology. through multidimensional analysis of the sense of immersion, we can better understand the complex interactive relationship between the virtual world and the real world, as well as the mechanism of cultural capital in it. references [1] liu, j. (2023). research on the standards of bourdieu's aesthetic taste. beauty and the times (part 2), (03), 46– 49. retrieved from https://link.oversea.cnki.net/doi/10.16129/j.cnki.mysdx.2023.03.001 [2] a study on user consumption of "yi nv xiang" game: taking "love and producer" as an example. (2021, march 7). retrieved from https://www.163.com/dy/article/g4h55ujq05169ceu.html [3] gao, x. (2021). the cultural paradox of female subjectivity construction: the "great female lead drama" in contemporary cultural fields. exploration and controversy, (05), 152–159, 180. [4] de beauvoir, s. (2011). the second sex (z. kru, trans.). shanghai: shanghai translation publishing house. (original work published 1949) [5] chen, c., & zhang, y. (2024). virtual intimate relationships in the emotional narrative of yi nv games: a study based on "love and deep space" and young female players. chinese youth research, 23(08), 24–33. [6] wöllflin, h. (1987). abstraction and empathy (w. caiyong, trans.). liaoning people’s publishing house. (original work published 1913) [7] lu, j. (2023). symbol body: digital body imagination from the perspective of "translucent realism". contemporary film, (09), 159–167. [8] liang, w. (2024). examination of film audiences in the digital age: focusing on immersive physical imagination. film literature, (10), 28–32. [9] wang, n., & yu, y. (2025, january 23). between reality and reality: the gaming experience of female game players. chinese youth research, 1–19. retrieved from https://link.oversea.cnki.net/doi/10.16034/j.cnki.10hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 131 published by ideas spread 1318/c.2024.06.013 [10] chen, s., huo, x., & xu, y. (2024). the influence of yi nv love games on the intimate relationship cognition and behavior of young female players. chinese journal of youth social sciences, 43(06), 86–99. [11] chen, c., & zhang, y. (2024). virtual intimate relationships in the emotional narrative of yi nv games: a study based on "love and deep space" and young female players. chinese youth research, (08), 24–33, 23. [12] gao, x. (2021). the cultural paradox of female subjectivity construction: the "great female lead drama" in contemporary cultural fields. exploration and controversy, (05), 152–159, 180. [13] han, y., & wang, x. (2020). analysis of the origins, types, and modes of women's role in games. modern communication (journal of communication university of china), 42(06), 141–146. [14] wen, c., & zhou, x. (2018). love, games, and daydreaming: an analysis of the psychological mechanism of women's participation in love related games. art review, (08), 41–50. retrieved from https://link.oversea.cnki.net/doi/10.16364/j.cnki.cn11-4907/j.2018.08.004 [15] zhou, x. (2019). the "immersion feeling" of online novel reading: psychological mechanism and configuration system. journal of hunan university of science and technology (social sciences edition), 22(02), 138–146. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 3, no. 1; 2020 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v3n1p1 1 published by ideas spread new media access and use for triggering the farmers capability improvement in central java indonesia shinta prastyanti1,2, subejo1 & muhammad sulhan3 1 extension and development communication, school of postgraduate studies, university of gadjah mada, indonesia 2 dept. of communication science, university of jenderal soedirman, indonesia 3 dept. of communication science, university of gadjah mada, indonesia correspondence: subejo, extension and development communication, school of postgraduate studies, university of gadjah mada, indonesia. e-mail: subejo ugm.ac.id received: december 19, 2019; accepted: january 6, 2020; published: january 8, 2020 abstract the coconut sugar industry is a hereditary business in banyumas. however, the low income of farmers, poor education, regeneration, and limited number of extension staffs, are some of the problems associated with its development in rural areas. therefore an alternative strategy is needed to solve these problems to stay above the competitive and fast-growing market. this study, therefore, aims to determine the access and use of the new media to trigger farmers capability improvement. in-depth interviews and fgd were used to collect data from coconut sugar farmers, extension and cooperative staff, informal leaders, and government officers. finding show that farmers have the freedom to access new media, though the access is varied based on socio-demographic characteristics. following their experience in online activity, farmers conduct a social interaction with related parties to discuss the information obtained. therefore, through this interactive process, farmers tend to realize their functions to improve their capability by obtaining new information, expanding their economic opportunity, affiliation, besides play and emotion. keywords: new model, coconut sugar farmers, new media, social interaction 1. introduction banyumas regency is one of the centers of coconut sugar production, not only in the province but also on a national scale. the local government along with other related parties have launched programs for the farmers to facilitate and broaden the access to various social-economic opportunities such as the national program of rural mandiri, kartu banyumas pintar (banyumas smart card), kartu banyumas sehat (banyumas health card), and jambanisasi (sanitation). according to tnp2k (tim nasional percepatan pengentasan kemiskinan), the best strategy for enhancing human capability is empowering poor people groups by creating inclusive development, social protection program, and essential service access improvement (tnp2k, 2017). there is a debate regarding the success of such an initiative, and many feel that the most destitute and needy are often excluded from the program (hickey & sam, 2005). banyumas has the potential to develop micro and medium enterprises, such as the rural coconut sugar industry. this is the most important economic activity in the region, and the majority of small and medium enterprises are related to coconut sugar. unfortunately, most farmers have a basic level of education, and therefore they earn less than the minimum wage. one factor contributing to this issue is the fact that they often rent the trees from wealthier landowners or share them with other farmers (priyanto, 2010)). rural coconut sugar enterprises in the banyumas is a hereditary business. it is dependent on the weather, and therefore the income received by farmers is also uncertain, similar to the fluctuated amount of production and the price of coconut sugar. also, climbing coconut trees is a risky job since the farmers have to reach a height of twenty-five meters without a safety belt, while the coconut sugar trees need to be harvested throughout the year (singarimbun and penny, 1976). farmers need to be able to increase the quantity and quality of their products to meet market demand. however, the extension programs carried out by the government and related parties to improve their capability, have not been able to reach all coconut sugar farmers due to the limited number of unparalleled extension staff. this study hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 1; 2020 2 published by ideas spread is, therefore, important due to the new media access and its use as an alternative solution to improving farmers’ capability. the implementation of some innovative and potential strategies which focus on strengthening human capability is a practical approach in this regard. this involves people’s participation in supporting daily economic activities and solving social problems through the utilization of information and communication technology. according to manovich (2001), new media are interactive, incorporates two-way communication, and involve some form of computing. they are highly interactive, and the users are active producers of content and information using internet collaboration tools or sending an email. with these characteristics, new media has great potential to attract people’s interest in case it is used as a tool to enhance their capabilities (shilpa 2014). 2. literature review capability is not just about something that can be done or achieved by a person or a group. it involves the freedom to promote valuable functioning (nusbaumm, 1993; saith, 2001; alkire, 2002). further, sen (1999) argued that capability is the alternative combinations of functions that are feasible to achieve. generally, improving human capability involves all efforts to improve or develop individual characteristics to make them more effective and efficient (mardikanto, 2010). it includes a genuine choice with substantial options and needs the expansion of goods and services (sen, 1983). the new media characteristic makes it possible for the farmers to access and to use any information relevant to improve their human potential. according to some studies, new media tools such as mobile phones and the internet have a significant role in reducing poverty and improving rural livelihoods. this is because they expand and strengthen social networks and economic activities, maximize outcome, and increase accessibility (grimes, 1992; grimes, 2000; mercer, 2006; galperin & mariscal, 2007; galperin et al., 2014). also, there is evidence that icts assist in poverty reduction and expand opportunities for economic development (duncombe & heeks, 2002; prosser, 2000). furthermore, ellis (2000) argued that access to information provides an opportunity for undertakes production, participate in reciprocal exchanges with other people, and engage in the labor market. quibra et al. (2002) stated that information and communication technology could be one of the essential sources of market information. the position of ict as a source of market information gives it a significant contribution to improving human capability (silverstone, 1999). the capability to survive, be healthy, and knowledgeable, and enjoy a decent life is considered to be the strategy for human development (fukuda-par, 2003). some scholars developed theoretical links between icts and capabilities (johnstone, 2007; gigler, 2004; kleine & unwin, 2010). their significant findings are expanded possibilities for connectedness between people and increased access to timely and relevant information (smith et al., 2011). moreover, alampay (2006) configured the capability approach applied to access to icts where individual differences with the freedom to express the capability to use ict. 3. method this is a descriptive and semi-exploratory research with a qualitative approach. in general, qualitative research aims to explore and understand the meaning of phenomena considered from social and humanitarian problems (creswell, 2010). the informants of this research were selected by purposive sampling. this includes an in-depth understanding of the research theme, such as government officer, extension and cooperative staffs, and informal leader. the rural coconut sugar farmers were selected informants based on the information obtained from the head of the village and informal leaders. the criteria of informants are the coconut sugar farmers who access and usage of new media. primary data is the direct info collected from the research object by in-depth interviews, fgd, and observation. secondary data is obtained from literature/ library/ documents relevant to the topic of the research, including the government's track record to the support given to the implementation of the new media and human capability improvement. the data were recorded in a tape recorder and analyzed and reinterpreted to suit the research theme and generate new findings (bakti, 2004). data examination used an interactive analysis model, which is an interactive and cyclic process (miles & huberman, 2002). moreover, data validity used source and method triangulation to collect data from different sources for more accuracy (patton, 1987). for data analysis was used an interactive model which is an interactive and cyclus process (miles & huberman, 2002). 4. results and discussion findings of the study show that the new media was accessed and utilized by the farmers at the research location through three types of information and communication technology, including personal computer, notebook, and smartphone. the community owns the pc and placed in the village hall office. personal computer is only hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 1; 2020 3 published by ideas spread accessible to a small proportion of rural people due to its limited number. the notebook is private property, though not many rural people use it. compared to a pc, the ownership of the notebook is higher. unlike pcs and notebook, almost all families have a smartphone, and its use can be different between individuals since it is private property. apart from mobile phones, new media cannot be separated from the internet. stern & adams (2010) established that the internet plays a significant role in building social capital in rural society. additionally, alemna & sam (2006), in their research in ghana, also found the potential of the internet for rural development, especially in agriculture, health, education, and small industries. it enables the development of community-based infrastructure, the small scale investment, and also the uses of experimental results (galperin, 2005). in this study, the access and use of new media was seen from the literacy level regarding its usage, the availability of the device, and the dominant activity. coconut sugar farmers who access and use the internet have enough ability to operate that device. they understand that new media offers many services for different purposes. through the internet, they find various information needed from google and youtube, as well as group accounts they follow, such as facebook and whatsapp. furthermore, they also know that smartphones not only help to look for the required information, connecting them with their relatives and friends. it helps to increase affiliation, economic opportunity for their coconut sugar products, and entertainment. although not all the information accessed from the internet is directly related to the rural coconut sugar industry, skills are still needed for access. this research also found that all farmers have not adopted crystal coconut sugar. the reluctance to switch to it is proof that they do not have an open mind even though some of the coconut sugar farmers admit that producing it might be more profitable. openness to cyberspace was not in line with their willingness to innovate by switching to crystal coconut sugar. media literacy does not only involve the ability to access and create messages but also to critically evaluate and analyze its aspects and the message in different contexts (european commission, 2007). in this research, media literacy was not studied until farmers were able to evaluate various aspects related to new media and its contents. the farmers who still produce shaped coconut sugar form messages that motivate young people to follow their footsteps since there are challenges relating to regeneration. according to walters et al. (1999) and perkins et al. (2007), young people face obstacles, including being involved in the rural coconut industry, variations between personal decisions, peer group influences, the level of local knowledge, and community cohesion. at first, some farmers forgot the time for accessing the internet, though with time they could manage and control it. all coconut sugar farmers accessing the internet have a high level of media literacy. however, farmers in medium level do not have sufficient ability to use the internet maximally, for example, to create inspiring messages to promote coconut sugar online. in contrast, some farmers have the ability to use the internet for more productive things related to the coconut sugar industry. nevertheless, they did not use their ability to access and use new media for enhancing coconut sugar farming and the industry in general. according to fianagin & metzger (2001), conversation, searching, and sending information is the three essential internet functions for individuals, including coconut sugar farmers. furthermore, james (2006) argued how the internet is significantly affected its benefits. other aspects influence coconut sugar farmers’ capability improvement, such as the device. for instance, without the device, new media activities cannot be accessed by farmers. in every village, there is a website, though coconut sugar farmers do not fully utilize it since people prefer to access the internet through a smartphone, including farmers. the availability of the device for all family members eases communication with others. however, there are coconut sugar farmers who do not have a smartphone but use their cellphones to call and send text messages. table 1. new media access and use based on media literacy and the availability of the device types of coconut sugar farmer the availability of the device the types of the device level of literation to new media shaped coconut sugar with no internet access available cellphone low shaped coconut sugar with internet access available pcs, notebook, smartphone high crystal organic coconut sugar (with internet access not for promoting the product) available smartphone medium shaped & crystal coconut sugar (indirect access on the internet) not available low shaped & crystal coconut sugar (with high hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 1; 2020 4 published by ideas spread internet access not for promoting the product) available smartphone shaped & crystal coconut sugar (with internet access for promoting the product) available smartphone high source: researcher (2019) 4.1 dominant activity there was similarity in dominant activity among coconut sugar farmers, including social media, transactions, and searching for information. social media activities are used primarily to connect with family and friends through their accounts, with whatsapp and facebook as the most preferred platforms. according to the informants, these two social media applications are easy to operate, and most of their friends and relatives also use them. twitter, instagram, and other types of social media applications are not preferred or accessed by coconut sugar farmers. according to mascarenhas (2010), the most crucial advantage of the mobile phone includes facilitating the ability to communicate and be connected to others, maintaining family and social relations, vital in an emergency, and essential for other daily activities. this research established that transactions are also integral part of the life of coconut sugar farmers in banyumas. leasing trees, mortgages, and lending money are often coordinated through social media platforms such as whatsapp. coconut sugar farmers do not have to spend time meeting on the face with their colleagues, apart from enjoying other economic benefits of mobile phones (aker & mbiti, 2010; rangaswamy & nair, 2010). coconut sugar farmers also follow the events in the region, something that cannot be ignored. according to farmers, it is essential to follow many events that happen in the surrounding. the information related to the region is accessed through google and whatsapp group, such as events carried out by the local government, accidents, and disasters, which affects the coconut sugar price. all farmers have direct internet access through smartphones, except a farmer who uses a personal computer (pc) and notebook. however, farmers did not use the village website because of the accessibility of other platforms, such as smartphones that can be taken everywhere. smith et al. (2011) argue that capabilities and freedoms in social spheres are substantial contributions to mobile phones. the coconut sugar farmers who have accessed the internet, as described above, are different from others. the ict devices accessed are television and cellphone, which can be used to call and send a text message. following the news broadcast on television, getting entertainment from soap opera, communicating with relatives and family is considered essential. according to mizuko et al. (2009), old media such as television intersecting with new interactive devices are vital (williams et al. (1994). the 4th type of farmers produce shaped, and crystal coconut sugar farmers and have indirect internet access. table 2. new media dominant activity of coconut sugar farmer types of coconut sugar farmer dominant activities of new media usage urgency/ need for communi cation types of new media types of applica tion of new media characteristics shaped coconut sugar with no internet phone, send a text message, watching tv communicate with relatives and family, transaction, entertainment, getting information quick respond, entertain shaped coconut sugar with internet access social media, email, googling communicate with relatives and family, finding information, support work, transaction personal computer (pc), notebook, smart-phone google, yahoo, facebook, whatsapp, email quick respond, high flexibility focus, similarity interest, deliver detail information, offer complete information crystal organic coconut sugar social media communicate with relatives smart-phone whatsapp, google quick respond, high flexibility hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 1; 2020 5 published by ideas spread (with internet access not for promoting the product) and family, finding information, transactions focus, similarity interest, offer complete information shaped & crystal coconut sugar (indirect access on the internet) attending the cooperative of nira satria meeting finding information, experience delay respond, depending on other people shaped & crystal coconut sugar (with internet access not for promoting the product) social media, download songs communicate with relatives and family, finding information, transaction smart-phone facebook, whatsapp, google, youtube quick response, high flexibility focus, similarity interest, offer complete information, entertain shaped & crystal coconut sugar (with internet access for promoting the product) social media, promotion communicate with relatives and family, transaction smart-phone whatsapp, facebook quick respond, high flexibility focus, similarity interest, entertain source: researcher (2019) 4.2 social interaction after getting information from new media the information obtained by the farmers from the internet is shared and discussed among community members through social interaction. every member of the community has their perspectives, and it should be understood, mobilized, and organized. communication creates relationships among stakeholders or between beneficiaries through the messages delivered (prastyanti, 2012). the target audience understands the meaning of the message in case it is delivered with sarity, appropriately, and novelty (mulyana, 2000). social interaction creates a secure network that allows the community members to manage and improve control over their resources. a network formed foster healthy relationships, trust, and togetherness, and develop joint actions among members of the community network itself (torri, 2009). the behavior of each society member also creates a synergy that has strong connectivity with solidarity (littlejohn, 2001). the essence of solidarity, according to amsperger & varoufakis (2003), is based on the hypothesis that people give a sympathetic opinion on conditions faced by others. social interaction in the communities contributes to people's participation, which has a positive contribution, both individually and collectively. as an individual, it affects the quality of life while collectivity, it fosters a sense of belonging to the surrounding environment (ohmer, 2007; itzhaky and york, 2002). a sense of belonging to the surrounding environment is a social capital in the creation of participation, which contributes to sustainable development (kwiatkowski, 2005; people-centered development). moreover, it also improves information access, economic opportunities, and growing self-confidence (soetomo, 2006). wellman et al. (2001) state that the internet is not only a means of socializing through various applications such as whatsapp, email, facebook, and instagram, but it also used for other things. however, online interactions do not entirely replace face-to-face communication; it only complements it and serves as an encouragement for farmers in realizing their roles and potential as human beings. based on the capability approach applied to access to icts developed by alampay’s (2006), the coconut sugar farmers in banyumas have the freedom to access and use their assets, including new media devices. they are also free to search or choose the needed information. nevertheless, freedom cannot be separated from the ability and experience to operate it. richards and dalbey (2006) stated that before addressing the options, information on a range of possible alternatives is needed by the community members. according to nussbaum's central human functional capabilities (nussbaum, 2000), mediation through new media is called affiliation. the expansion of the network unites them and become a valuable social capital. warschauer (2003) argues that social capital can be enhanced by access to ict. however, interaction with outsiders also contributes to the motivation of farmers to obtain further information that energizes and mobilizes them. according to the expectancy theory developed by vroom (1964), people can be motivated hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 1; 2020 6 published by ideas spread when they believe there is a high value of the reward. in case farmers can motivate each other and get rewards, social interaction repeatedly occurs beyond the limits of space and time. that above process is also relevant to the element of social interaction by turner (1988), which states that coconut sugar farmers who interact both offline and online influence each other and are organized in social interaction. in the process, they use symbols that involve the part of the body to send or translate messages received to provide mutual motivation. the process of social interaction provides more significant space for coconut sugar farmers to realize their functions, which is triggering the improvement of their capabilities. expanding freedom enjoyed by farmers follows the concept of the capability approach developed by sen (1999). according to this approach, human capability improvement is not focused on the economic aspect. in this context, increasing the farmer’s potential through new media access and use does not necessarily mean an increase of income, but instead expanding network that allows broadening of the market through online channels, besides improving knowlwdge by getting new information such as coconut tree genjah entok seedlings and gluteen. similarly, shirin (2000) argued that denied access to new media does not necessarily influence economic activities. the process of triggering coconut sugar farmers’ potential improvement in this study can be analyzed by nussbaum's central human functional capabilities (nussbaum, 2000). emotions are one of the significant indicators of human functional capabilities. in this regard, farmers empathize with each other, for example, when a farmer fell from a coconut tree couple of years ago, the information immediately spread through the whatsapp groups. the new media also relieve farmers from stress due to their routine jobs by getting entertained by the content they access from the new media. a young coconut sugar farmer stated that: “yes, i gained access to the internet two years ago and it has been entertaining. i spend about two hours a day on whatsapp, facebook, and youtube downloading songs. the internet is important to me because i feel happy after conducting an online activity and it helps me to forget my routine job for a while”. in the beginning, some farmers tend to forget the time they accessed the internet. they spend lots of hours and most times fail to realize that they need to climb the coconut trees again. however, they are currently able to manage and control the internet use, as stated by another coconut sugar farmer: “at first, the internet made me forget to work. i failed to realize that i was spending so much time on my gadget, while i have to climb the coconut tree. however, the reverse is the case now, as i only make use of it whenever i need to acquire some information. the internet is entertaining and makes me happy anyway”. however, this study tries to determine new media access and use for triggering farmers capability improvement by modifying its findings using the capability approach applied to access on icts by alampay (2006) and central human functional capabilities delivered by nussbaum (2000) as shown in the figure below. figure 1. new media and coconut sugar farmer capability improvement source: researcher (2019) hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 1; 2020 7 published by ideas spread 5. conclusion in conclusion, literacy to new media, the availability of technological devices, and dominant activity are the factors used to analysis new media access and use of coconut sugar farmers to trigger their capabilities improvement. currently, most farmers do not face any obstacle in accessing the internet and understand that the new media offers many services for many purposes. the use of these media provides them with various required information through smartphone, pc, or notebook. in addition, the dominant activities that are carried out are social media interactions, transactions, and the search for information related to events around banyumas. google, youtube, and group accounts such as facebook and whatsapp, are their favorite applications, with emails used to send files. the access and use of the new media to trigger human capability aids to improve the activities of the coconut sugar farmers in banyumas. the farmers need the ability and experience to operate the device. however, the information received from the new media does not directly improve the capabilities of the farmers, rather the social interaction carried out with related parties mutually motivate and foster empathy among them with a complete and clearer ideology. this makes farmers happy, entertained, and they tend to briefly forget their daily routines. the efforts to develop the rural coconut sugar industry by increasing the capabilities of the farmers are unable to function optimally without the participation of the government in making policies. to solve the limited number of extension staffs, the new media functions as an empowerment alternative model for farmers capability improvement while paying attention to their different characteristics. in addition, the quality of the internet network needs to be improved to make it easier for farmers to gain access besides the village website needs to be reactivated because it is one of the important media for outsiders to determine its resources which includes the coconut sugar industry. for further research, the role of women and the importance of the contribution of the cooperative in the development of the rural coconut sugar industry need to be studied. furthermore, the new media has not been accessed and used by all farmers, therefore research on how the process of coconut sugar farmers in adopting thenew media to support their hereditary business is also important. references aker, j. c., & mbiti, i. m. 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(1994). social aspects of new media technologies. in j. bryant and d. zillman (eds). media effects: advances in theory and research, hillsdale, nj: erlbaum, 463-482. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n3p21 21 published by ideas spread the application of generative ai in the design of guizhou batik patterns qian peng1 & hourong yu1 1 school of big data engineering, kaili university, china correspondence: hourong yu, no. 3 kaiyuan avenue, kaili economic development zone, guizhou province, china. e-mail: 346920573 qq.com received: march 8, 2025; accepted: march 19, 2025; published: march 20, 2025 the research is financed by (2023 kaili university planning project "research on the design of ethnic traditional handicraft tourism products in guizhou province" (2023xjghqn04); 2025 kaili university integrated research project: "research on methods and pathways of aigc empowering ethnic cultural products" (ythxm2025008); 2025 kaili university institutional research project: "research on new product development based on generative artificial intelligence" (2025yb030)). abstract guizhou batik is a typical representative of textile dyeing intangible cultural heritage. this paper explores the feasibility of integrating generative ai with guizhou batik by examining the current state of both fields. it proposes how generative ai can address existing challenges in guizhou batik, such as the uneven distribution of inheritors and the outdated pattern symbols and design language. furthermore, it discusses how traditional handicrafts can coexist with digital intelligence in the modern era. the study also demonstrates that the introduction of generative ai not only enables efficient design and enhances artistic expression but also preserves the traditional characteristics of batik craftsmanship, providing insights into the digital-intelligent integration of guizhou batik art. keywords: generative ai, guizhou batik, pattern design, cultural heritage preservation 1. introduction guizhou, as a province rich in ethnic minority cultures, boasts a vast array of intangible cultural heritage, with batik being an indispensable part. the value of guizhou batik lies not only in its deep cultural significance but also in its unique aesthetic craftsmanship. however, traditional batik techniques face challenges such as complex processes, time-consuming production, limited color variations, and weak dye fastness, making them less compatible with the fast-paced modern era. the advancement of artificial intelligence, particularly generative technologies, has expanded the possibilities of design applications, bringing new vitality to the field. 2. overview of guizhou batik culture and generative ai technology 2.1 overview of guizhou batik culture as a representative textile dyeing technique in guizhou province, batik is closely linked to the region’s karst landforms and humid climate, which foster the growth of unique natural dye sources such as beeswax and indigo. this distinctive and complex geographical advantage directly influences the craftsmanship of batik. the traditional batik-making process is intricate and varies across different regions, but it can generally be summarized into four key steps: pre-wax treatment, wax application, dyeing, and wax removal [1]. during the wax application process, the temperature of the molten beeswax must be controlled between 60°c and 70°c to maintain its β-crystal structure [1]. in the indigo reduction bath, microbial fermentation must be carefully regulated within a temperature range of 10°c to 35°c to achieve optimal dyeing results. additionally, during the wax removal stage, the temperature must be precisely maintained at 96°c to ensure complete wax dissolution without damaging the fabric. these meticulously crafted techniques make the entire batik process time-consuming and labor-intensive, leading to inefficiencies and a slow response to market demands. beyond its complex craftsmanship, guizhou batik boasts a diverse pattern system that reflects indigenous beliefs, ethnic history, worldviews, and cosmology, forming a unique cultural totem. common motifs include dragons, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 22 published by ideas spread phoenixes, birds, fish, flowers, spirals, thunder patterns, and cloud patterns—symbolizing ancestral heritage, mathematical reasoning, and spiritual faith. these motifs serve as abstract expressions of storytelling and cultural transmission. however, despite its rich cultural depth, traditional batik techniques face multiple challenges in the era of artificial intelligence. the complexity of the craft limits innovation, the shortage of skilled inheritors results in a lack of novel pattern designs, and the relatively uniform traditional batik styles hinder penetration into the international market. these challenges necessitate urgent attention and solutions. 2.2 overview of generative ai technology generative artificial intelligence (generative ai) is a significant branch of ai, with its technical workflow generally divided into three stages: the learning and training phase, the generation and adjustment phase, and the generation optimization phase. its core capability lies in enabling machines to perform deep learning based on given instructions, allowing them to identify patterns, imitate learned rules, and generate creative outputs that align with user requirements. these outputs can include text, images, audio, code, and more, making generative ai a transformative technology. the rise of large-scale models has been a pivotal factor in the rapid advancement of ai. as technological barriers lower, the combined forces of data availability, computational power, algorithms, and policy frameworks have led to an exponential increase in the development of generative ai platforms across various industries. today, numerous ai platforms have emerged, each excelling in different areas. examples include deepseek, chatgpt, stable diffusion, midjourney, adobe firefly, and jimeng ai, among others. some specialize in text generation, while others focus on creative image production, animation, or video generation [2]. common applications of generative ai include content creation, where platforms such as deepseek and chatgpt assist in generating advertising copy, answering queries, and aiding in programming. others, like midjourney and adobe firefly, allow users to generate images or videos simply by entering prompts. these diverse platforms cater to different application scenarios, significantly improving efficiency, enhancing creativity, and—most importantly—enabling personalized content generation. this versatility gives generative ai a distinct advantage in modern digital workflows. figure 1. registered batik inheritors recorded by the national intangible cultural heritage protection center hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 23 published by ideas spread 3. analysis of the current state of guizhou batik pattern design 3.1 distribution of inheritors the inheritors of batik craftsmanship are the lifeblood of this intangible cultural heritage. the sustainability of this heritage depends on the collaboration of multiple stakeholders, including the government, the education system, and the market. according to data from the national intangible cultural heritage protection center, there are only three officially registered national-level batik inheritors (as shown in figure 1), with an average age of 67.3 years, all of whom are women. a significant portion of batik inheritors are over 60 years old, while younger inheritors under the age of 35 remain scarce. this severe aging trend among inheritors poses a serious challenge to the continuity of batik craftsmanship.moreover, many younger inheritors lack a synchronized understanding of systematic craftsmanship and cultural knowledge, leading to gaps in their comprehension of traditional pattern genealogy. this disconnect makes it difficult to ensure cultural integrity in the process of innovation, further weakening the transmission chain. additionally, the gender imbalance among batik inheritors is another critical issue. due to traditional customs and familial influences, the vast majority of inheritors are women. this disproportionate gender ratio can significantly impact the inheritance and evolution of batik. men and women often approach the world and problem-solving differently—women tend to have a softer, more fluid artistic style, while men may exhibit a more structured, bold approach. the underrepresentation of male inheritors may result in a lack of diversity in design perspectives, ultimately affecting both the preservation and innovation of guizhou batik. 3.2 current state of pattern symbol design batik patterns are deeply rooted in ethnic cultural traditions, with each motif recording the historical evolution of the community. symbols such as the "butterfly," "maple tree," "dragon pattern," "fish pattern," and "bird pattern" all carry profound cultural narratives. these symbolic storytelling methods contribute to the unique cultural identity of guizhou batik. (1) systematic and narrative aspects of symbol design the core of batik pattern design lies in symbolic representation. designers classify and express symbols within different semantic categories, such as nature worship, ancestral worship, totemic symbolism, and geometric decoration (see table 1) [3]. the structure of these symbols follows a hierarchical system: core symbols are positioned at the center of the pattern, occupying the most prominent space with strict compositional rules.auxiliary symbols are more flexible and serve to fill and decorate the design. peripheral symbols, as the name suggests, are placed along the edges, playing a transitional and connective role.the most critical aspect of cultural symbol design is its cultural semantics—batik patterns should not only be aesthetically pleasing but also serve as carriers of ethnic history and cultural identity. for example, the "butterfly" pattern symbolizes the origin of life. according to miao mythology, the butterfly mother was born from a maple tree and is revered as the mother of all beings. she fell in love with a water bubble and gave birth to twelve eggs, from which emerged legendary figures such as jiang yang (the ancestor of humanity), the thunder god, the dragon, the ox, the tiger, the snake, and the centipede. after fulfilling her mission of creation, the butterfly mother became the guardian deity of the miao people [4]. thus, batik symbols are not merely decorative elements but visual carriers of ethnic history and cultural heritage. table 1. classification of batik pattern symbols pattern category typical patterns symbolic meaning pattern examples nature worship sun pattern, water wave pattern, cloud thunder pattern reverence for natural forces hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 24 published by ideas spread ancestral worship butterfly pattern, bronze drum pattern, spiral pattern related to the community's creation mythology or beliefs totem symbolism dragon pattern, fish and bird patterns ethnic identity recognition, spiritual beliefs of the community geometric decoration spiral pattern, floral and plant patterns decorative accents (2) continuity and innovation in design language the expression of batik patterns can be explored from three aspects: composition rules, shaping characteristics, and color systems. traditional composition methods often follow principles such as "central symmetry," "continuous repetition," and "layered filling" [5]. contemporary batik designers, while innovating, have incorporated some international design styles, such as the minimalist aesthetics of nordic design. they simplify traditional symbols to cater to certain aesthetic preferences, but this may lead to a loss of cultural semantics. traditional shaping characteristics often feature abstract and geometric forms, focusing on the rhythm and fluidity of the composition. in terms of color systems, the primary palette involves indigo and white, which are used in the batik process to express layers and depth. with the introduction of digital design tools, the efficiency of pattern creation has significantly increased. however, this innovation sometimes results in reduced cultural distinctiveness and recognition, and in some cases, an overemphasis on innovation has caused a misalignment of symbolic meaning within the patterns. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 25 published by ideas spread (3) traditional craftsmanship vs. digital and intelligent techniques the traditional batik-making process centers around handmade craftsmanship, using indigo dye and natural beeswax as pigments, with copper knives as painting tools and cloth as the canvas. the wax-resist dyeing technique is employed to create the designs. these methods strictly adhere to the design rules passed down through generations, embodying the belief that "everything has a spirit, and everything can be painted."in contrast, digital intelligence (also known as "digital smart" technology) integrates digital media techniques into traditional processes, enabling faster and more efficient expression. the use of aigc (artificial intelligence generated content) for decoding and encoding batik patterns allows for learning and simulating the traditional process through input instructions, ultimately generating results that resemble hand-crafted works. by adjusting and refining the design iteratively, digital methods can replicate the effects of plant dyes and copper knife artwork, changing the traditional characteristics of low production efficiency and high uniqueness.this deep integration of traditional craftsmanship and digital intelligence not only provides technological anchors for accurate cultural transmission but also fosters the emergence of a new paradigm for the "algorithm-driven traditional aesthetics" of intangible cultural heritage protection. despite this, the practical application of aigc in this field remains relatively rare and requires more guidance for positive development. 4. application of generative ai in guizhou batik pattern design 4.1 symbolic semantics decoding and batik pattern generation guizhou batik dates back to the qin and han dynasties and is primarily found in regions such as danzhai county, zhijin county, and anshun city. researchers such as he ruyi [6], wu lili [7], wang tong [8], and zhang yu [9] have contributed to the study of batik traditions among the miao people in zhijin, anshun, huishui, and liuzhi, shedding light on the different regional characteristics, folk customs, core patterns, color features, and pattern structures. these differences have led to the formation of various batik schools (see table 2).generative ai, through deep learning techniques, collects and learns related data, and builds corresponding databases by simulating, classifying, and summarizing information. this allows for the rapid and systematic decoding of the cultural symbolism and semantic logic of guizhou batik patterns. by doing so, generative ai helps batik inheritors shorten the learning time, enabling them to grasp the core essence of batik pattern design more quickly. table 2. analysis of batik schools school core patterns color features pattern structure danzhai miao butterfly mother, water patterns blue and white contrast symmetry with "vertical and horizontal" balance and scattered distribution zhijin miao butterfly mother, yin yang fish, miao dragon, golden pheasant, jiyu bird, bronze drum, swirl patterns dark blue tones divergent, repetitive, positive and negative shapes, individual, continuous, appropriate, and combined forms anshun miao horseshoe, cockscomb flower, butterfly, fish and bird patterns solid dark blue "full," "complete," "borrowed," and "combinational" layouts, with a multilayered composition radiating from the center huishui fengxiang dyeing starry sky, butterfly, square grid, spider flower, thorn pear flower cyan, blue, white tones symmetrical central motifs with suitable patterns on both sides liuzhi long horn miao migration symbols (straight lines, square patterns), butterfly, sand tree tip symbols black and blue mixed dye geometric "point, line, surface" composition taking the batik patterns of the danzhai miao as an example, generative ai is used for pattern design. the author employs a combination of two platforms, deepseek (hereafter referred to as ds) and midjourney (hereafter referred to as mj), to generate new patterns. first, relevant historical and cultural data are input into ds, including information about the historical development of the ethnic group, core patterns, color features, and pattern structures, as well as the desired pattern outcomes. ds then learns from this information and generates prompt hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 26 published by ideas spread words for mj (as shown in figure 1).next, in mj, the existing danzhai miao batik patterns are combined with the newly generated pattern prompts, producing new patterns that align with the semantic decoding and adapt to the development of the times (as shown in figure 2). if the result is unsatisfactory, ds can be used to generate modification instructions, and adjustments can be made in mj by refining the pattern iteratively until the most suitable version is achieved (as shown in figure 3). figure 1. ds-generated prompt for mj figure 2. mj-generated patterns based on the prompt figure 3. final generated suitable pattern figure 4 jimeng ai generation interface figure 5 jimeng ai pattern generated based on prompts hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 27 published by ideas spread 4.2 design language innovation and batik pattern generation although guizhou batik can be divided into several major schools, the blending of ethnic groups has led to a fusion of their characteristics. upon examining the design language, certain common features can be identified, such as "central symmetry," "continuous repetition," and "layered filling," which are frequently used techniques. in addition to mj, there are many excellent ai platforms in china that can generate images, such as jimeng ai. the author uses the jimeng ai platform to innovate the design language and generate new batik patterns. taking the anshun miao batik style as an example, the author inputs the following command in the image generation page of jimeng ai: anshun miao batik pattern design, combining cockscomb flowers and fish-bird patterns, with a deep blue monochromatic color feature. the pattern structure is a full-layout design with a central-to-periphery, multilayered composition. the model chosen is image 2.0pro, and the image size is w: 1291, h: 1360 (as shown in figure 4). this allows jimeng ai to generate the corresponding image (as shown in figure 5). the author then selects the most appropriate design and iterates adjustments until the best result is achieved (as shown in figure 6). figure 6. final optimized pattern generation 4.3 intelligent craftsmanship and the revival of batik patterns traditional batik craftsmanship in guizhou faces challenges related to the uneven distribution of inheritors. as a crucial link in the chain of cultural transmission, the craft is threatened by an aging practitioner demographic, a gender imbalance favoring women, low representation of urban inheritors, and a concentrated geographic spread. additionally, the uniqueness of handmade production presents further challenges to the preservation of batik heritage. (1) building human-machine collaboration to overcome the challenges of traditional craftsmanship the inheritance of batik techniques is at risk due to the declining number of skilled artisans, compounded by the semantic loss in the transition from handcrafted to mechanized production. the advent of generative ai, alongside bionic control systems, intelligent fault-tolerance algorithms, and cross-media compilers, provides machines with intelligent "hands" capable of replicating traditional craftsmanship. moreover, the synergy between high-precision nanotechnology and artisans' cultural intuition allows machines to precisely mimic the intricate characteristics of copper knife wax application, while artisans can compensate for the semantic gaps introduced by machine-based reproduction. (2) innovating interaction paradigms and reducing training cycles the essence of batik lies in the meticulous handwork of artisans, where every stroke—light or heavy—embodies years of experience. advances in augmented reality (ar) now enable batik creation through ar gesture control systems, allowing for precise finger adjustments of density and wrist control of curvature. additionally, sandbox modeling of craft parameters facilitates complex system simulations and the creation of novel patterns. this approach supports the nonlinear coupling of hundreds of process parameters, fostering new batik styles. furthermore, the development of a digital dna map for batik patterns can catalog unique features, procedural data, and heritage relationships, akin to biological dna sequencing. such a framework not only preserves the uniqueness of each craft but also reflects its evolution and lineage, significantly reducing the time required to train new artisans. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 28 published by ideas spread 5. conclusion this study explores the current state of guizhou batik and generative ai, analyzing their integration to decode the semantic logic of batik symbols and innovate design language. by leveraging multiple ai platforms, the research provides inspiration for creating novel batik patterns. additionally, to address the uneven distribution of batik inheritors, this study proposes the construction of a human-machine collaborative framework to overcome challenges in traditional craftsmanship. with the aid of generative ai, intelligent machines can closely replicate handcrafted techniques, while artisans’ cultural intuition helps mitigate semantic loss in machine-generated outputs. moreover, the use of digital tools to create a dna mapping system for batik patterns significantly shortens the training cycle for new artisans.however, there are still limitations in this research. for example, the challenge of reproducing the intricate "cracked ice" effect of traditional wax-resist dyeing through generative ai remains unresolved, which is a potential area for further investigation. it is hoped that these findings will provide valuable insights for future researchers working on the integration of generative ai and batik pattern design, contributing to the global promotion of china's intangible cultural heritage. references [1] he, r. (2024). the relationship between the patterns of guizhou zhijin miao batik and chinese painting[j]. art perspective, (15), 115-117. [2] li, q. (2016). research on the craftsmanship and artistic characteristics of miao batik in guizhou[j]. dyeing and finishing technology, 38(07), 16-19. [3] long, h. (2014). analysis of the artistic characteristics of guizhou folk batik[j]. grand stage, (04), 225-226. [4] ma, z., & zhang, l. (2025). research on the property rights protection of ai-generated artistic works[j]. ethnic art studies, 38(01), 129-140. [5] qin, w., & wang, b. (2018). product innovation design strategies for guizhou indigo batik[j]. packaging engineering, 39(24), 276-282. https://doi.org/10.19554/j.cnki.1001-3563.2018.24.049 [6] wang, t. (2019). fengyun elegant fragrance: genetic identification and mapping of huishui fengxiang dyeing in guizhou [d]. central south university for nationalities. [7] wu, l. (2017). the pattern and modeling characteristics of anshun miao batik in guizhou[j]. peony, (06), 12-13. [8] zhang, y. (2015). exploration of the batik culture of the "mengsa" miao people in liuzhi [d]. guizhou minzu university. [9] zhou, q. (2024). the reconstruction of guizhou ethnic batik patterns in book design[j]. journal of taiyuan city vocational and technical college, (04), 194-197. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n2p1 1 published by ideas spread exploration of the human-computer synergy paradigm for literary creation via the lens of digital humanities xiaonuo ye1, libin huang1 & zhifeng wang1 1 college of humanities, minjiang university, china correspondence: xiaonuo ye, college of humanities, minjiang university, fuzhou, 350108, china. tel: 86-1815074-9815. e-mail: 2746584976 qq.com received: february 8, 2025; accepted: march 3, 2025; published: march 4, 2025 abstract in order to study the human-computer collaboration paradigm of literary creation in the field of digital humanities, and to analyze the application and influence of human-computer collaboration technology in literary creation, this paper adopts the methods of literature analysis and case study to sort out the evolution of literary creation paradigm from “author-centered” to “reader-centered” to “digital interaction”. using literature analysis and case study methods, this paper examines the evolution of the literary creation paradigm from “author-centered” to “readercentered” to “digital interaction”, and explores the application and impact of human-computer collaborative technology in literary creation. the study finds that the integration of human-computer collaborative technology promotes the diversification of creative subjects, methods and platforms, and promotes the development of crossmedia narrative and multimodal expression of texts; however, at the same time, ai creation faces the problems of insufficient expression of emotions and difficulties in defining originality, and the copyright attribution of the works and the subjectivity of the authors have triggered legal and ethical discussions. this paper enriches the theory of human-computer collaborative creation in the field of digital humanities, and provides a reference for the innovation of future literary creation paradigms. keywords: digital humanities, natural language processing, machine learning, generative art, interactive literature 1. introduction under the background of the digital age, the research methods and scope of the humanities are undergoing unprecedented changes. digital humanities, as an emerging field of study, uses technologies such as artificial intelligence, big data, and cloud computing to dig deeper and analyze cultural and social phenomena. its origins date back to 1949, when, in the mid-twentieth century, father roberto busa, in collaboration with international business machines corporation (ibm), used computers to index the vocabulary of the thomas aquinas collection, a practice that laid the foundation for the study of digital humanities. about 20 years ago, "humanities computing" gradually evolved into "digital humanities," marking the field's transition from preliminary exploration to mature discipline construction[1]. the first issue of "digital humanities" of tsinghua university also pointed out that digital humanities is "humanities research with the help of computer and data science and other methods and means, and its nature is an interdisciplinary discipline, which applies digital technology to humanities interpretation, and is a transformation of knowledge production paradigm triggered by media transformation[2]."in this context, the literature creation paradigm in the digital humanities perspective has changed from "centralized" to "interactive" and then to "interdisciplinary man-machine collaboration", reducing the traditional mode's dependence on professional technology and human resources, and significantly enhancing the research potential of digital humanities. although the existing research shows that digital humanities provides a new perspective for humanities research through "visualization" and other technical means, it has become a hot spot of academic attention. however, due to the lack of a unified paradigm in the methodology of different disciplines, technology integration faces challenges, which hinders the deep integration of digital technology and humanities[3]. based on this, the purpose of this study is to explore the application of human-machine collaboration technology in literary creation and its impact and challenge on traditional literary creation mode. by analyzing practical applications of artificial intelligence in literary creation, this paper attempts to reveal how digital technology is changing the creative process and the possible impact of this transformation on the role of the writer and the reader experience. in order to explore these problems systematically, the paper adopts the method of literature analysis hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 2 published by ideas spread and case study. literature analysis helps us understand the theoretical foundations and research trends in the field of digital humanities, while specific case studies demonstrate the specific application and effects of these theories in practice. 2. retrospect on the evolution of literary creation paradigm 2.1 discussion on the author's death -from "writer center" to "reader center" before modern times, it was generally believed that the ownership of a work belonged to the author, who was regarded as the sole creative subject, while the reader only enjoyed the right to use the work. in traditional literary creation, the author is regarded as the sole creator, giving the text a fixed meaning. under this concept, the work is regarded as a fixed and closed existence, and the role of the reader is reduced to a passive one, unable to have a real influence on the production of the text. roland barthes poses a subversive challenge to this traditional concept in the death of the author. he maintains that "readers are the creators of meaning" and puts the generation of meaning in the multiple interpretations of readers. he believes that the author is no longer the sole master of the text, but only a temporary voice in the text, and thus the reader replaces the author. becoming the primary interpreter of the text can even be seen as the new "creator" or "god" of the text. this theory realizes the transformation from "author-centered theory" to "reader-centered theory". since the theory that the author is dead was proposed, the role of the reader has changed significantly. readers are no longer simply recipients, but gradually participate in the creative process and even become one of the important driving forces of text constructio[4]. since the beginning of the 20th century, the development trend of literary criticism theory has been from the author centered mode, to the text as the core, and finally to the reader-centered critical view. by negating the author's dominant position and subverting the traditional structure of "author -work -reader", a reader-centered relationship model of "reader -text -author" is established, which completely deconstructs the author's central position in the traditional sense. it emphasizes the independence of the text itself and the subject position of the reader in the interpretation of the text, which reflects the shift of the literary center. the text itself has also gained more vitality, becoming a language game that gets rid of fixed meaning and operates freely, showing more powerful computing power[5]. today, readers can directly influence the content and direction of a work through comments, voting, and other ways. for example, on online novel platforms, authors often adjust plot development based on readers' feedback and even incorporate ideas provided by readers in the creation process. this mode of interaction transforms readers from passive receivers to active participants, further blurring the boundaries between authors and readers. 2.2 interactive literary creation: from "reader-centered" to "digital interaction" the immediacy and interactivity of the contemporary network have completely changed the traditional closed way of creation and facilitated a more complex cooperative relationship between the author and the reader. the interaction between author and reader not only changes the way literature is written and critiques, but also makes the text more participatory and offers the possibility of multiple perspectives. as paul levinson says, text on the web allows us to interact quickly. this interaction can not only take place in real time, but also unfold asynchronously, across time and space. levinson further explained that the rhythm of asynchronous interaction in the network can be minutes, hours, or even days, rather than the traditional delay of days or months, and this asynchronous interaction further enhances the impact of communication through digital interaction[6]. through "digital interaction", works are no longer the product of isolated creation by the author, and the text is not only dependent on the initial creation, but also constantly reconstructed through the participation of subsequent creators, reflecting its interaction and openness, beyond the one-way interpretation of traditional static texts. many writers choose to publish their works on digital platforms, hoping to influence their creative direction through realtime feedback from readers. for example, renowned taiwanese poet su shao-lian, as a junior creator, has created more than 90 digital poems and posted them on his personal blog. when reading these works, readers enter the network text composed of various symbolic forms by clicking the link, and carry out the literary acceptance process in the traditional sense. in this process, su shaolian and readers jointly participated in the construction of text structure and aesthetic meaning, forming a highly interactive and fully communicated literary creation relationship[7]. iser, the founder of reception aesthetics theory, once pointed out in his book the act of reading that "literary works are essentially a form of communication." the interactive cooperation in network creation further deepens this view. in the field of online literature, readers are not only passive recipients, they often start to intervene in the early stages of the text and even become actual collaborators. in this case, the "implied reader" mentioned by iser is no longer an abstract concept, but gradually becomes the core force in the text creation. gadamer's "the melting of the distance between the viewer and the performer" mentioned in the reality of beauty hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 3 published by ideas spread can also be used to explain this literary phenomenon. the deep integration between subjects has been well reflected in the "author-reader" interaction of network literature, which makes literary creation change from a single artistic output to a dynamic process of multi-party cooperation. digital interactive literature not only deconstructs the traditional barriers between authors and readers, but also promotes the continuous generation and reproduction of texts with the participation of multiple subjects. 2.3 the interdisciplinary practice of whitehead's educational philosophy -from "disciplinary isolation" to "cross-domain communication" in his book the purpose of education, whitehead emphasized the integration of disciplines in education and believed that isolated disciplinary differentiation would limit students' cognition. whitehead aimed to advocate "breaking disciplinary barriers" and advocated that various disciplines should penetrate each other. the research in the field of digital humanities is essentially an interdisciplinary exploration, involving linguistics, history, archaeology, computer science, statistics and other fields. the human-computer collaborative system can combine human understanding with machine processing power through data visualization, intelligent interpretation and other functions, so that the research of different disciplines can use various digital tools more naturally and intuitively. understand each other's professional languages to be more competent and effective in dealing with interdisciplinary problems. although in the field of digital humanities research, humanists usually do not have indepth programming ability or complex data processing skills, human-machine collaboration, as an important tool to achieve interdisciplinary integration, lowers the threshold of technology use through natural language interface and simple tools, and promotes new forms of literary creation in combination with literature, computer science, artificial intelligence and other fields. for example, some literary creators have cooperated with computer scientists to generate poems and novels using artificial intelligence algorithms, achieving a deep integration of technology and humanities, and carrying out quantitative and data-driven analysis research without over-reliance on computer science experts. this interdisciplinary cooperation is exactly the practice of whithead's educational concept. in this way, information sharing and collaboration between various disciplines become more fluid and comfortable. in traditional research contexts, the humanities are often considered qualitative and subjective, while technologyassisted scientific research is more focused on quantitative and precise research. as a result, data collection and analysis are often confined to a single discipline, which hinders data sharing and integration across disciplines. as an interdisciplinary research paradigm, digital humanities not only integrates the qualitative exploration of humanities with the quantitative analysis of computing technology, but also realizes the organic combination of the two through man-machine collaboration. shanghai international studies university has always been good at language and literature, and in recent years, it has added the first new interdisciplinary linguistics major in china, which combines traditional linguistics courses with modern courses such as neuphilology, cognitive neuroscience technology and python programming, fully demonstrating the interdisciplinary talent training system that integrates arts and sciences, and gives interdisciplinary learning greater space for expansion. specifically, digital humanities uses data mining, text analysis and other means, combined with quantitative tools, to promote the open and interdisciplinary sharing of databases by breaking the disciplinary barriers between computer science and humanities. 2.4 ai-driven revolution in literary creation from "technology empowerment" to "human-machine dance" at the beginning of 2024, the ministry of industry and information technology, together with six other departments, issued the implementation opinions on promoting future industrial innovation, which clearly proposed the application of cutting-edge technologies such as brain-like intelligence and large models to the development of future information industry[8]. in march of the same year, professor wang feng's team from east china normal university created the first intelligent novel in chinese based on the domestic large language model. this achievement not only shows the potential of collaborative creation between artificial intelligence and human authors, but also marks the opening of a new era of man-machine collaborative writing in china. these policies and practices show that artificial intelligence is gradually becoming an important force in literary creation, driving the shift from "technology empowerment" to "human-machine dancing." in this context, the combination of human-machine collaboration and digital humanities, with the help of artificial intelligence, generative art, threedimensional imaging, and virtual and augmented reality (vr/ar) and other technologies, has injected a new driving force into literary creation. as sun ninghui said, intelligent computing has entered the fourth stage of "large model computing system". at this stage, intelligent computing not only has powerful computing power, but also gradually understands and reflects human values through the processing of massive training data, showing humanoid processing ability[9]. driven by this technological evolution, research-driven artificial intelligence (ai4r) came into being. this model has shown extensive application potential in the fields of natural science, social science and humanities, and provides a new research perspective and method for the humanities. for hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 4 published by ideas spread example, generative ai builds systems through knowledge representation, uses data modeling to make predictions, and supports decision making and idea generation. in literary creation, generative ai can help writers optimize text structure, improve the accuracy of vocabulary and grammar, and provide suggestions for plot development by analyzing massive text data, thus significantly improving the efficiency and quality of creation. the application of these technologies shows that artificial intelligence is gradually transforming from an auxiliary tool to an actual participant in creation, driving profound changes in artistic creation in the digital age. at the same time, with the continuous development of virtual reality (vr) and augmented reality (ar) technologies, the art experience is shifting from passive reception to active, immersive interaction.the role of the audience has also changed from a static receiver to a dynamic participant, thus reshaping the interaction mode between art and audience and enhancing the multi-dimensional art experience. nowadays, artists can fine-tune their works in the digital modeling stage and predict the final effect in advance, thus reducing mistakes and waste of resources in the creative process[10]. this data-driven approach not only enhances the user experience, but also makes literary creation more personalized, deepening the interaction and emotional connection between readers and works. the continued development of the digital humanities further highlights the importance of data as a core factor of production. the wide application of data not only accelerates the deep integration of art and technology, but also promotes cross-cultural innovation and interaction, showing its increasingly important position in modern art and cultural creation. at the same time, online platforms have provided more opportunities for collaboration and dialogue between creators from different cultural backgrounds, giving birth to the continuous emergence and prosperity of new literary forms. these changes show that digital technology is reshaping the ecology of artistic creation and opening up a broader space for future cultural development. 3. new characteristics of literary creation under the paradigm of man-machine collaboration 3.1 progress of digital technology and evolution of creative methods in the early stage of the development of digital humanities, human-computer dialogue and interaction can only rely on readers to type natural language, based on a fixed sequence of catalogs. the reader must interact by telling or asking in a specific order, with low autonomy. with the development of deep learning and natural language processing technology, artificial intelligence is playing an increasingly important role in literary creation. by simulating the cognitive processes of the human brain, deep learning is able to analyze and generate complex text. natural language processing technology enables machines to understand and generate natural language, which provides a technical basis for human-computer collaborative creation. artificial intelligence can generate creative poems or stories according to a given theme or style, help writers explore new creative directions, and show the ability to imitate the style of masters such as shakespeare and jane austen by analyzing a large number of classic works, help writers explore different styles in a multicultural background, and promote the replication and innovation of literary styles. shows the potential to redefine literary traditions. natural language processing (nlp) intertwines linguistics, artificial intelligence and computational science, covering the two core areas of natural language understanding (nlu) and generation (nlg) : nlu converts human language into machine-processed symbols for in-depth analysis; nlg analyzes the output language text and transforms it into an understandable form to enhance human-machine interaction.with the help of this technology, virtual dialogue can show authenticity, and readers can achieve a freer and more authentic interaction with the work. it is no longer used as an auxiliary tool, but through complex algorithms and powerful generation capabilities, participate in the creative process. for example, in 2016, a novel assisted by nlp technology was shortlisted for the japanese hoshi shinichi literature prize. this indicates that ai is no longer at the stage of imitation in creation, but is gradually possessing the ability of creativity and emotional expression[11]. the large language model is based on the transformer architecture, which can capture the subtle relationships in the language and understand the complex connections between words, so as to generate both coherent and creative text, with powerful functions of large-scale production, multi-modal interaction, and long text reading. some of the more representative language models include gpt-4, bert, xlnet, and t5. openai's gpt-4 model, for example, can be trained on large amounts of text data to produce high-quality articles indistinguishable from human creators. from one-way "creation reading" to two-way "co-creation interactive reading", under the characteristics of strong interactive literature, man-machine collaborative creation mainly presents two modes: navigational writing" in other words, humans act as the leader, guide ai to make specific creations through clear instructions, and control the narrative direction and quality, similar to the captain at the helm while ai is responsible for power output; "two is" exploratory writing" it breaks the traditional master-slave relationship, regards creation as an equal dialogue between man and machine, expands the creative boundary through mutual inspiration, and discovers new narrative possibilities. these two modes have their own characteristics: navigational writing emphasizes efficiency and control, exploratory writing focuses on innovation and breakthrough, and together hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 5 published by ideas spread constitute a new paradigm of creation in the ai era, which not only improves the efficiency and quality of creation, but also implies that future creation will be a more open and interactive process, requiring creators to explore and practice with an inclusive and open mind. 3.2 creation subject and platform transformation the research paradigm of digital humanities is changing from static data analysis to dynamic intervention and shaping of future literary creation, directly serving the creative process of writers. this kind of collaborative creation is leading to the structural transformation of literary creation, especially in the transformation of creative subjects and creative platforms. with the wide application of generative artificial intelligence tools, literary writing is full of unprecedented vitality, and the structure of creative power is also undergoing profound changes. in the man-machine collaborative creation mode, the introduction of artificial intelligence has gradually shifted from the traditional creation mode dominated by elite writers and grassroots writers to the diversified creation subject with artificial intelligence as the core. the main body of creation has expanded from a single human author to human-machine collaboration, and even pure machine creation. microsoft's xiaoice, for example, has maintained a steady pace of creation every year since the publication of his poetry collection "sunshine lost the window" in 2017, and all of his works have been copyrighted, which shows that artificial intelligence has a certain independence and creativity in literary creation. with the development of technology, new creative platforms continue to emerge, promoting the decentralization of literary production. for example, zhihu and other platforms access the large language model "wenxinyi", providing users with artificial intelligence-based creation tools. these platforms have not only changed the way literature is created and distributed, but also deepened the interaction between authors and readers. in this process, digital technologies have played a crucial role, accelerating the pace of innovation in literary forms and cultural dissemination. the rise of such platforms not only provides a new form of display for literary works, but also a complete record of each stage of creation, showing the dynamic characteristics of online literature. it can be seen that the combination of digital humanities and artificial intelligence is profoundly reshaping the ecology of literary creation, opening up new possibilities for the future development of literature. 3.3 the rise of cross-media narrative cross-media narration refers to the joint telling of a story through a variety of media forms (such as text, image, sound, video, etc.), breaking the limitation of the single medium of traditional literature. this kind of narrative expands the means of expression in literature and enables readers to participate in the work with a richer sensory experience. marie-laure ryan proposes that the logical framework of digital narrative is based on the binary opposition between textual structure and interactive mode. she divides digital storytelling into five main forms: interactive fiction, hypertext, online storytelling, interactive drama, and narrative games. the diversity of media forms further expands the possibilities of literature, and digital narration provides a new opportunity for novel narration, poetic creation and text presentation. the intervention of digital technology also makes nonlinear narrative become a reality, and the traditional linear narrative is gradually deconstructed, and cross-media narrative emerges[12]. the form, sound and meaning of language can be creatively recombined through digital technology, and cross-media text derivation is thus a natural result. creative writing across genres and media is a typical product of highly technical creative practice in the new media era because of its non-linear, visual and multi-media creation, dissemination and reception. this practice takes text as the main carrier of production value, which reflects the profound influence of digital technology on literary creation. in the experience of cross-media narrative, readers can not only feel the interactivity of the story, but also put forward their own creativity on this basis, and actively participate in the creation and extension of the content. this open creation mode breaks the closed structure of traditional reading, and makes content creation more open, diversified and creative, so as to realize the co-creation of content value. for example, pottermore builds a community of loyal readers through interactive cross-media modules, using different narrative modes to create individual story fragments, and ultimately forming a unique overall narrative space. the platform encourages readers to actively participate in content creation, making them both audiences, creators and disseminators, thus promoting the extension of cross-media narrative space. 3.4 the multimodal expression of text and the reconstruction of the relationship between literary elements in the existing research, "multimodal" is usually regarded as an important attribute of information resources in the digital age, that is, the expression of literary works gradually transitions from a single mode to a variety of modes such as text, image, audio, video, etc., and achieves deep integration between modes. since the 21st century, with the deep involvement of digital technology and internet technology, digital literature and digital text have been hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 6 published by ideas spread developing rapidly. "new genres" such as hypertext, multimedia text, interactive text and machine text have gradually become the main forms of database writing, and network literature has therefore become the mainstream of contemporary man-machine collaborative creation[13]. hypertext novels based on hyperlink technology have significantly changed the creation paradigm and reading mode of traditional literature. the introduction of hyperlink and multimedia function has broken the linear structure and stability of traditional text, and transformed the literature form from a single and flat mode dominated by linear text to a complex situation of multi-modal coexistence and human-computer interaction. in this context, readers' reading experience has also been upgraded from the traditional single-sensory participation to the multi-sensory immersion experience. in michael joyce's hypertext novel twelve intersecting roads, the hyperlink technology allows readers to choose different link paths and experience different storylines. this multi-modal literary form not only breaks through the reading barriers brought by language and cultural background, but also provides a more open and shared reading experience for global readers. with the continuous expansion and change of writing application scenarios, the balance of elements of traditional literary creation is gradually broken, and this change redefines the relationship between authors, works and readers. writing is no longer just the exclusive domain of literary creators, but has become a universal form of labor in cultural production. in the process, the identity of creators has also become more diverse. they may be artists skilled in new media technologies, engineers with programming skills, or other professionals capable of creating with new technologies, or they may come from traditional humanities or interdisciplinary fields. anyone can generate text content that conforms to their personal preferences by entering the corresponding instructions. the role of the creator changes from a single author to all the readers, and the readers further become the producers of media content, actively participate in the construction of the text, and become "writing readers". the enhancement of interactivity and initiative makes the relationship between readers and authors closer, and at the same time, through the creative sharing and interaction between readers, a constantly improving story world system is gradually constructed. 4. the challenge and response of man-machine collaborative paradigm in literary creation from the perspective of digital humanities 4.1 the main challenges of human-machine collaborative creation 4.1.1 the main challenges of human-machine collaborative creation in the 1950s, alan turing proposed the question "can machines think?" this issue has led to discussions about the differences between artificial intelligence and human emotions. emotion is the core of human literature creation, and the reason why classical works can move people's hearts is precisely because of its profound expression of emotion. although human-machine collaborative technology makes up for the lack of human creation ability through text mining function, artificial intelligence usually relies on existing data and algorithms in emotional expression, resulting in the lack of emotional delicacy and uniqueness of creation, showing the depth of mechanization and lack of humanity. this puts the inherent emotional value of artistic creation at risk of dilution. the emotional expression generated by machines is difficult to reach the emotional resonance of human creators. parisi and petrosino pointed out that without autonomous motivation, a robot would not have emotions[14]. writer nan fan also said, for example, artificial intelligence has a powerful memory function, but it does not recall, it is impossible to suddenly recall how a programmer wrote a key instruction in a sad afternoon, there is no moving scene blend into the touch of creation[15]. 4.1.2 originality and copyright attribution with the rise of man-machine collaborative creation, the ownership of works becomes complicated. as a creative subject, how do the works produced by artificial intelligence define originality? how to define the subjectivity of the author? at the legal level, traditional copyright law emphasizes the spiritual rights of human creators, and works generated by artificial intelligence are often difficult to be protected by law due to the lack of human subjective creativity, which has triggered legal and ethical discussions on the originality of works and the subjectivity of authors. on february 14, 2022, the copyright review board of the united states copyright office once again denied a request for reconsideration of the copyright registration of the ai-created work "entrance to heaven" submitted by stephen thaler, represented by mr. abbott, reaffirming that under the provisions of the united states copyright act, requires works to include a human authorship. therefore, the work "a recententrance to paradise" created by artificial intelligence cannot be licensed. it can be considered that the originality standard built on the basis of "personality values" is the product of "anthropocentrism" and has the essence of the will of the work and the subjectivity of the author[16]. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 7 published by ideas spread 4.1.3 creation homogenization and excessive entertainment the "decentralized" creation mode makes the author and the reader gradually shift from a single linear reception mode to a more complex two-way feedback mechanism, and the reader is not only the recipient of the text, but also deeply involved in the interaction of literature production. for example, in the field of online literature, the number of clicks and reading data directly affect the transmission path and audience response of works through platform feedback. on the one hand, this interactive mode allows creators to adjust the direction of creation under the pressure of catering to readers' tastes, and on the other hand, it also blurs the boundary between creators and readers, prompting them to participate in the generation of text meaning. french scholar giulia kristeva first proposed the concept of "intertextuality" on the basis of absorbing bakhtin's dialogue theory. she pointed out that the text of any work is constituted like the mosaic of many texts, and any text is the absorption and transformation of other texts[17]. in this mode, interactive literary creation faces two challenges: on the one hand, in order to attract readers and pursue traffic, some writers pay more attention to the entertainment of their works, but ignore the due ideological depth and connotation. on the other hand, the creation style is becoming more and more homogenous, and the popular works on the network platform are imitated and copied in large numbers, which makes some creations lose their original uniqueness and personality expression. for example, under the influence of the "rice circle culture", fans' excessive rewards and comments gradually deviate from their attention to the works themselves, becoming more like an emotional transaction driven by capital, and even triggering public opinion. this kind of capital logic has a profound and complex impact on cultural consumption and literary ecology. 4.2 the coping strategy of man-machine collaborative creation challenge 4.2.1 integrate into the perceptual model, break through the emotional trap in the face of the shortcomings of artificial intelligence in emotional expression, breakthroughs need to be made in key technologies such as deep learning. through the introduction of affective computing, affective generation model and other methods, artificial intelligence to enhance the perception and expression of human emotions. in addition, the combination of multi-modal data to simulate human emotional experience makes the works created by artificial intelligence more emotional depth and appeal. through the integration of emotion recognition technology, it helps machines to better analyze the emotional fluctuations in human works, so as to achieve more delicate emotional expression in creation. deepmoji is a deep learning-based model whose core lies in the learning of large-scale emoji corpora and the construction of an emotion perception system that can achieve top performance on multiple emotion-related text modeling tasks . deepmoji analyzes large-scale text data through deep learning to predict and simulate complex emotional attitudes. applying this technology to literary creation allows machines to produce texts that are not only grammatically correct, but also emotionally engaging, and thus closer to the emotional experience of humans. 4.2.2 we will improve laws and regulations and clarify the ownership of copyright the intelligent creation of the "machine author" not only contains the "consent" of the human creator's intention, but also shows the "co-creation" characteristic of the machine accepting the guidance of human beings. under the man-machine collaborative creation mode, the process of generating literary works by artificial intelligence depends on the design of programming language and the formulation of specific information processing rules. the literary works generated according to the "feeding" of human information and the pre-training of big data have more or less "reference" parts, but there is also the integration of innovative elements of human brain. although it is difficult for the existing copyright system to fully explain the legal identity of the machine author, it is necessary to reconstruct the originality theory in jurisprudence in the face of the originality of the works generated by artificial intelligence and the subjectivity of the author. we can consider man-machine collaborative creation as a new creation mode and establish the evaluation standard of relative separation of subject and object. at the legal level, relevant regulations should be improved to clarify the copyright ownership of works generated by artificial intelligence, and provide institutional protection for man-machine collaborative creation. with the continuous advancement of machine learning, deep learning and natural language processing technologies, human-computer interaction systems are gradually adapting to complex and changeable application situations, effectively enhancing the ability of creation and regeneration, and its originality is yet to be explored. in addition, strengthening international cooperation and formulating unified international legal standards can help better deal with the copyright issues arising from cross-border human-machine collaborative creation. 4.2.3 guide the direction of creation and enhance the connotation of works in order to avoid excessive entertainment and homogenization of literary creation, it is necessary to introduce moral and social responsibility consciousness in the creation process. at the societal level, literary funds and innovation awards can be set up to encourage creators and developers to explore more diverse and deeper forms hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 8 published by ideas spread of literary expression; education departments can set up specialized courses and seminars to appropriately guide young creators on how to innovate literary form and content while maintaining literary depth and cultural value in collaborative creation with machines. in these ways, creators can not only improve the quality of their works, but also use technology as a link to better express their creativity and emotions, and ultimately promote the development and diversity of literature and art. at the same time, the creator should also balance innovation and rationality, pay attention to the ideological depth and cultural value of the work. in the creation of artificial intelligence, deep learning algorithms can be used to conduct sentiment analysis and trend prediction on public opinion information to avoid generating content that may cause negative social impacts. 5. conclusion from the perspective of digital humanities, this paper discusses the application and evolution of man-machine collaborative paradigm in literary creation. by reviewing the development of literary creation from "authorcentered" to "reader-centered" to "digital interaction", this paper analyzes the influence of whitehead's educational concept in interdisciplinary practice and the transformation of literary creation driven by artificial intelligence. the research shows that the integration of human-machine collaboration technology not only enriches the subject, mode and platform of literary creation, but also promotes the rise of cross-media narration and the development of multi-modal expression of text, and reconstructs the relationship between the elements of literary creation. however, at present, man-machine collaborative creation still faces challenges such as lack of emotion and difficulty in defining originality. future research should focus on improving the emotional expression ability of artificial intelligence, improving relevant laws and regulations, as well as strengthening interdisciplinary cooperation, promoting the deep integration of technology and humanities, and promoting the continuous innovation of literary creation paradigm. through continuous technical improvement and theoretical exploration, it is expected to achieve greater breakthroughs in man-machine collaborative creation in the future, and inject new vitality into the development of literature and art. references [1] salerno, e. (2024). digital humanities: mission accomplished? an analysis of scholarly literature. cultures of science, 7(1), 34–48. [2] hao, y. (2024). an analysis on the practice path of digital humanistic service in university libraries. shenhua, (19), 131–133. [3] pierre-luc, g. (2018). sabina leonelli, data-centric biology: a philosophical study, chicago: the university of chicago press, 2016, 275 pp., $35/24.5. history and philosophy of the life sciences, 40(3), 57. [4] barthes, r. (2004). the death of the author. in y. zhao (ed.), collection of semiotic literature (pp. xx–xx). tianjin: baihua literature and art publishing house. [5] bi, r., & song, s. (2020). thoughts on the problem of "author" in artificial intelligence literary writing. writing, (03), 69–75. [6] levinson, p. (2001). digital mcluhan. beijing: social sciences academic press. [7] shan, x. (2018). "writer-centered," "reader-centered," "digital interaction": media literature and art analysis of literary writing styles in the new media era. learning and exploration, (8), 156–162. [8] central government of the people's republic of china. (2024, january 18). implementation opinions of ministry of industry and information technology and other seven departments on promoting future industrial innovation and development [eb/ol]. retrieved october 9, 2024, from https://www.gov.cn/zhengce/zhengceku/202401/content_6929021.htm?s_trans=1927466135_&s_channel=4 [9] sun, n. h. (2024, april 30). development of artificial intelligence and intelligent computing [eb/ol]. retrieved october 9, 2024, from http://www.npc.gov.cn/c2/c30834/202404/t20240430_436915.html [10] li, b. (2023). new literary features of digital literature under the background of media transformation. hubei social sciences, (05), 101–108. [11] parisi, d., & petrosino, g. (2010). robots that have emotions. adaptive behavior, xx(xx), xx–xx. [12] he, y. (2023). from symbol, device to production mechanism: the change and limit of writing in network literature database. modern chinese literature research series, (07), 242–260. [13] yang, s., & wang, s. (2020). human emotion and machine emotion: emotion research in the field of artificial intelligence. art museum, (03), 63–71. [14] wang, d. (2022). when art meets ai. innovation world weekly, (09), 110–111. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 9 published by ideas spread [15] wu, h. (2019). questions about the copyright law of works generated by artificial intelligence. chinese and foreign law, 32(3), 653–673. [16] zhang, f. (2021). analysis of adaptation strategies from network novels to domestic network animation. southeast communication, (01), 108–112. [17] kristeva, j. (1980). desire in language: a semiotic approach to literature and art (l. s. roudiez, ed.; t. gora, a. jardine, & l. s. roudiez, trans.). columbia university press. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p148 148 published by ideas spread a new dialectic of art therapy and social discipline from the perspective of functionalism qiumin chen1 1 academy for advanced interdisciplinary studies, nankai university, china correspondence: qiumin chen, academy for advanced interdisciplinary studies, nankai university, tianjin, china. e-mail: garfield@nankai.edu.cn received: july 29, 2025; accepted: august 13, 2025; published: august 14, 2025 abstract law, ethics, religion, politics, philosophy, and art constitute advanced forms of social consciousness that regulate human behavior. art uniquely shapes mental states and spiritual outlooks through its aesthetic appeal rather than mechanical application. this study employs the traditional chinese philosophical framework of "the distinction between ritual and music" as a theoretical foundation, using music therapy as a representative case to analyze the dialectical relationship between artistic healing and social discipline within the functionalist perspective. keywords: aesthetics, function, confucian ritualism, social discipline, art therapy 1. introduction law, ethics, religion, politics, philosophy, and art all represent advanced forms of social consciousness. each guides and regulates human behavior from distinct perspectives. however, their operational principles differ: law and ethics are relatively objective, primarily designed to establish social order; whereas philosophy and art, being more ambiguous in nature, subtly influence human minds through personalized experiences. ancient chinese philosophy famously addressed the "the distinction between ritual and music (礼乐之辨)", exploring the fundamental relationship between order and freedom — a perennial social theme that remains endlessly debated. in today's world, technological advancements have transformed human relationships and fundamentally reshaped individual consciousness. this raises a crucial question: does the rigid framework of rules create synergistic effects with the flexible aesthetic sensibilities of art? 2. the dialectic between the theory of aesthetic disinterestedness and the theory of artistic functionalism the concept of "art appreciation" might initially seem like a description of leisurely, relaxing activities. however, this is not the case. art fundamentally serves as a form of social consciousness, often rooted in aesthetic sensibility as its foundational principle. this explains why kants notion of "aesthetic disinterestedness" frequently applies to art appreciation. yet different art forms rely on diverse media for creation and dissemination. the more complex and tangible the medium, the less likely the art becomes truly disinterested. therefore, the only art form meeting purely disinterested criteria could be pure music — or perhaps none at all. in the treatise poetics, aristotle explored the katastasis function (which means purification) of classical tragedy.[1] this concept suggests that through the protagonists dramatic experiences in ancient greek tragedies, audiences evoke their own tragic existential consciousness. the process of "empathy" triggers a state of "objectification" — where the subjects will momentarily splits into two roles: the "viewer" and the "observed." through the characters' tragic journeys, the "ego" being observed by "me" gains recognition. this aesthetic mechanism bears subtle parallels to the narrative framework of the "crucifixion of jesus", embodying the principle of "imputation of guilt". while this paper avoids delving into tragic psychology, it uses the concept of katastasis to trace western classical traditions contributions to the functional theory of art. similarly influential is the "evocation, observation, community, criticism (兴观群怨)" theory from ancient chinese confucianism. confucius stated: "poetry can evoke feelings, observe society, communicate with others and criticize problems (《论语·阳货》)".[2] this theory essentially encapsulates how artistic appreciation affects both individual psychology and interpersonal relationships. in fact, the combination of vocation, observation and criticism — almost perfectly mirrors the katastasis concept in western tragedy theory. as demonstrated, kants "interesseloses wohlgefallen (aesthetic disinterestedness)" doctrine in the critique of judgment only captures a limited aspect of aesthetic experience. in reality, what predominates is the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 149 published by ideas spread "zweckmäßigkeit ohne zweck (purposiveness without purpose)", where the influence of "purposiveness" operates in a more subtle yet crucial manner. the "purposiveness" of aesthetics typically refers not to practical utility, but rather to an indescribable sense of "the pleasure of the will of life". consequently, this "purposiveness" proves difficult to quantify through logical frameworks. different art forms exhibit distinct "purposiveness" operational procedures based on their media characteristics. architecture demonstrates a higher degree of serviceability, while music shows less. but this does not lead to the conclusion that architectural art requires "purposiveness" more than musical art. when musical compositions incorporate semantic elements beyond pure sound, they develop a sense of discipline. language serves as the medium of "logos," hence power combats are often called as "discourse of power." thus, society is termed a "discursive society" — it's contours outlined by logically structured elements on the principle of logos. humans exist within social frameworks governed by hegemonic discourses. while such dominance may not inherently harm reality, when free-flowing music merges with value-laden discourse to form an artwork, how do these two mediums achieve mutual coordination and collaborative operation? in reality, when they become inseparable, the value-centeredism approach of language symbols has taken the dominant position — essentially stripping away the sensory energy of acoustic media. pure music's inherent "beauty" gets forcibly restructured into subordinate components, achieving a master-slave relationship akin to domestication. as the scene of the film american beauty reveals a fundamental conflict: a family of three constantly argues over the choice of music for their dining table, which escalates into a deeper dispute — the male protagonist's emotional infidelity. what they are debating isn't merely "which kind of music is more beautiful", but rather which melody can reflects their mental state. through this musical selection, they seek to effectively dominate the entire family. in reality, music not only interacts with discursive power but also frequently collides with social norms. while the original purpose of artistic appreciation might be a pure spiritual experience — a form of inner cultivation, but artistic acts inherently become "social events" once they occur (unless the artist retreats to seclusion or avoids social interaction entirely, which is impractical). since people live within social collectives, every word and action may potentially offend others. therefore, any multi-stakeholder coexistence inevitably forms a set of public order and good customs, requiring all individuals in the community to abide by these conventions. sometimes intense clashes of will emerge between individuals. not every inclination aligns with truth, goodness, and beauty, which necessitates institutional mediation — as exemplified by "ritual" and "law". yet when constraints arise, suppression inevitably follows. or rather, even without conscious awareness, the human psyche harbors latent dark impulses. this is where art therapy power truly shines. when we mention of "aesthetic experience", it must be harmless. regardless of the subject's aesthetic object or it's form, this principle holds true — as laozi (老子) observed in his concept of "on the virtue of the crippled and deformed (兀者、支离者之 美)". pure aesthetic engagement should cleanse and heal the mind. the principle of "aesthetic disinterestedness" does not equate to nihilism, but rather suggests that aesthetic appreciation serves not tangible utilitarian goals, but rather evokes profound emotions through ambiguous yet fluidic elements. since the driving force of aesthetics is clearly the will of life, it's guiding principle aligns with the purpose of purposiveness — creating evolutionary goals, rather than practical utilitarian objectives. this elevates our research perspective to the level of cosmic evolution theory. when we encounter suppression in the realm of "certainty", our will directs us toward the domain of "ambiguous sensations" for resolution, where artistic aesthetic activities act as subtle mediators. therefore, "aesthetic disinterestedness" and "artistic functionalism" are not contradictory concepts — they operate at different levels of meaning. 3. a reinterpretation of "the distinction between ritual and music" in chinese philosophy, how does the concept of "ritual "specifically manifest alongside the notion of "music"? wang guowei's essay on ritual propriety posits: "the term 'ritual' originally referred to vessels holding jades and stones for divine offerings, later evolved into wine vessels for sacrificial rites, and ultimately developed into a comprehensive term encompassing all ritual activities."[3] this interpretation has gained widespread academic recognition in china. archaeological evidences reveal that many burial objects were not considered practical items but rather ritual vessels, thus commanding exalted status. this demonstrates that early chinese civilizations "ritual" functioned within primitive spiritual worship systems, forming a socialized protocol to express devotion. essentially, "ritual" represents a series of procedural actions, with each step following the previous one, which reflecting collectiveistic beliefs. tracing historical development, during the zhou dynasty, the duke of zhou (周 公姬旦) "established the ritual and musical systems (制礼制乐)"[4], transforming sacred sacrificial practices into multifaceted ethical institutional frameworks. crucially, ancient people believed ritual vessels, sacrifices, and deities all have tangible functional significance. in contrast, contemporary china, influenced by marxist materialist hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 150 published by ideas spread conception of history, often treats ceremonial celebrations as primarily symbolic routine activities. it is even comparable to the "taobao shopping festival". ancient texts contain abundant discussions on the distinction between "ritual and music", as exemplified in the book of rites: the record of music （《礼记·乐记》): "music seeks unity, while ritual pursues differentiation. unity fosters intimacy, differentiation cultivates respect. when music prevails, harmony flows; when ritual reigns, estrangement follows."[5] clearly, both ritual and music serve as fundamental tools for social governance, representing early manifestations of social consciousness. music integrates all spiritual aspirations, compelling people to engage in collective focus through aesthetic experiences where the mind flows freely. ritual, however, operates through compartmentalized principles that divide society into distinct "order zones," guiding individuals into corresponding domains under different circumstances. ritual focuses on creating a socially optimized system with rigid, or say semi-coercive, constraints that ensure individual compliance within permissible limits — maintaining "order". while music remains flexible. through musical appreciation, people perceive the dynamic flow of mental energy rather than direct practical benefits. the book of rites: the record of music further clarifies this: "music stirs inner impulses, while ritual regulates external conduct. thus, ritual governs restraint, while music fosters abundance."[6] consequently, politicians often employed music as a complementary tool to ritual, allowing their synergistic operation. this is also the reason why confucianism regards the ritual and music culture as a means of governing the country. western society also prioritizes issues of order, with ethics being the primary branch of western philosophy dedicated to this domain. ethics examines concepts like good and evil, freedom, contracts, and power, hence its alternative name "moral metaphysics." this discipline can be seen as the precursor to modern law. the ethical and artistic aesthetic studies in western philosophy often intertwine, attempting to synergize social constraints and spiritual enlightenment through dual approaches. when ritual teachings function as semi-coercive means, people tend to accept them willingly. however, artworks with excessive political didacticism become repulsive — take the 2015 chinese film wolf warrior for instance, which drew widespread criticism. this situation stems from a misinterpretation of the profound meaning behind "artistic functionalism", where creators oversimplify concepts and reduce works to rigid dogma. consequently, many audiences have revived the slogan of european aestheticism: "art for art's sake." with the advancement of modern society, legal frameworks have become increasingly sophisticated. many matters that previously relied on flexible moral codes (known as "ritual") can now be precisely resolved through detailed legal provisions, leading to the diminished strategic significance of music. as legal systems evolve and industrial technology advances explosively, contemporary music activities have grown increasingly commercialized and entertainment-oriented. confucius ancient warning from analects of confucius :wei ling gong: "zheng's music is licentious and corrupting (郑声淫、放郑声)"[7] which once considered prophetic—now appears largely obsolete when applied to modern contexts. this ancient doctrine emphasized how artistic styles profoundly influence human consciousness, potentially distorting social norms and even causing societal collapse, thus positioning art as a crucial auxiliary tool for governance. in todays society, while people frequently debate the merits of visual and conceptual art, few critically examine the quality of acoustic factors. the current music industry development mirrors laozi's warning: "the five notes deafen the ear (五音令人耳聋)". numerous idols who claim to be musicians but are actually engaged in the business of selling their bodies are flaunting their charms on stage, yet the fans are quite receptive to this. the fanatical effect within the "fan economy" has largely deprived "beauty essences" of art itself. against this backdrop, music art can no longer be simply labeled as a tool of governance. the trend of music evolving in this direction is not unique. chinas contemporary film and television industry has also encountered similar issues. the reason why it has been exploited time and again lies precisely in the ambiguity of music itself. people have never been able to clearly define it, leading to its shifting identities across different historical periods. while history progresses relentlessly, aesthetic standards may not necessarily improve. whether fundamentally attributed to industrialized production systems or other factors remains debatable, but current creative processes indeed lack high-quality artistic works, while audience tastes have become increasingly vulgar. over the past three decades, there is no new musical giants have emerged in chinese mainland, and even western countries exhibit similar decline. this echoes confucius lament from thousands of years ago: "the collapse of rituals and the decay of music." in today's rapidly evolving society, innovations like artificial intelligence and big data skill are driving continuous upgrades in intellectual productivity, while individual consciousness becomes increasingly fragmented. in this era, art should strengthen its self-discipline to bridge these divides through beauty and truth. with continuous technological advancements, communication barriers between people have nearly disappeared, material hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 151 published by ideas spread boundaries are also dissolved, and personal privacy has been reduced to minimal levels. as bizarre new media emerge, digital transformation permeates every aspect of life, enabling rapid interactions through digital simulacrums. this means that although interpersonal interactions in the digital age have intensified dramatically, individuals grow more atomized and isolated. people can now fulfill all daily needs without leaving their homes, just living behind digital masks. these characteristics of our era make complete personality increasingly fragmented, yet this impasse remains unsolvable by traditional rites and legal frameworks. both ritual and music aim to serve the existential nature of being. life and death are two sides of the same coin in the will of life, while artistic spirit charges toward mortality with the vigorous will of life. ritual, however, serves a different purpose — maintaining the efficient operation of existing organizational components through instrumental rationality. music confronts the infinite nature of time, whereas it functions as a binding mechanism within specific temporal contexts. music achieves harmony through its reflection on itself via the will to death. this means that confronting death with a robust and romantic will is essential. in this chaotic and bewildering era, we must seek ways to transcend weak will. therefore, in the digital age, we should more urgently call for "returning to beauty itself." 4. the integrative efficacy of art therapy — take music therapy as an example how can art positively influence the real world? take music as an example. as previously discussed, it can stimulate either overt or latent mental states, thereby shifting individuals' spiritual conditions away from their original lethargic state. in this sense, music can be considered a form of spiritual practice akin to shamanism. while music primarily affects the mind, mental activities also trigger physiological responses such as increased blood flow and hormone secretion. minor physical symptoms caused by accumulated mental stress may seem insignificant in daily life, but severe cases could lead to organic disorders like bipolar disorder. music therapy has emerged as a technique specifically designed to address these issues. music therapy originated in the united states. this technique is rooted in clinical medicine, psychotherapy, neuroscience, and cognitive science, primarily classified as applied psychology. it was first developed around 1950, initially targeting post-traumatic stress disorder (ptsd) rehabilitation for war veterans. "gouk noted that after the publication of music and medicine in 1948, music therapy became a widely recognized profession in the u.s."[8] while this approach can complement clinical treatments, it should not be used as the primary method for treating mental disorders. how exactly does this work? the technique involves therapists organizing one-on-one or group sessions where patients interact through musical playing or singing. this process activates the patients' emotions, thereby enhancing perception, improving memory retention, and alleviating anxiety. these principles align with confucian "music education (乐教)", christian hymns, and celebratory rituals. therapists and medical staff can closely monitor patients' responses throughout the session. as early as in the ancient chinese classic lü buwei's annals (《吕氏春秋》), there are records of using music activities to alleviate physical ailments: "in the early days of emperor yao's (陶唐氏) reign, damp and cold air accumulated stagnantly and waterways became blocked, preventing natural circulation. which caused the people's blood and qi were blocked and could not circulate smoothly, causing their muscles stiffend and bones inflexible, therefore, emperor yao created dances for the people to perform in order to promote circulation."[9] through observing real-life situations and scientific experiments, we could find that psychological states indeed affect physical health, with severe mental disorders sometimes even being fatal. symptoms like depression, mania, cognitive distortions, and hysteria all indicate mental dysfunctions. in modern society, more and more people are becoming aware of these abnormal mental phenomena. music therapy or other art therapies can effectively intervene in distorted psychological states through non-invasive methods, potentially eliminating negative emotions completely over time. in the context of general artistic appreciation, music and dance activities can effectively lift people out of negative or stagnant moods. when observing students in art training institutions or university art departments, we often see them with lively eyes and cheerful laughter. in contrast, students from regular liberal majors — especially those in natural sciences—typically appear more reserved. the fundamental reason lies in this: during musical experiences, participants fully engage without defenses, achieving complete immersion. this contrasts sharply with purpose-driven social interactions where people smile but maintain guarded attitudes. it's hard to imagine needing to put up a defensive barrier when experiencing art activities. this embodies the essence of "music is joy (乐者乐也)" as articulated in the book of rites: "music, being joy itself, is an inevitable outpouring of human feeling. it arises through sound and manifests in movement and stillness, which reflecting humanity's fundamental nature."[10] the reason shy people willingly spend substantial sums on hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 152 published by ideas spread records, audio equipment, or concert tickets lies precisely in this truth. the therapeutic power of musics "transtemporal" experience proves irresistibly alluring. who wouldn't yearn to escape their mundane routines and retreat into a realm where the mind can be defenseless.? during music therapy sessions, patients participate in performances and interact with therapists. when treatment concludes, cheerful energy permeates the ward. patients develop heightened empathy and mental agility. this is their experiences of the "during (bergson's concept)" of musical will, that is, the experience of artistic conception. similar to music therapy is drama therapy. primarily designed for adolescents, this approach involves therapists portraying classic characters while staging humorous plays in therapeutic settings. patients engage through interactive participation to alleviate depressive moods. however, drama therapy has limitations: it demands high patient engagement, and complex plotlines may require active comprehension — exerting mental energy that could intensify psychological burdens, sometimes making patients feel "this is so silly and annoying". therefore, the most effective treatment for mental disorders should adopt a passive acceptance approach. human auditory perception holds priority in sensory processing. when interacting with sound media, individuals need no conscious effort to discern or analyze sounds, making music therapy particularly suitable for resistant patients. while psychotherapy demonstrates broad efficacy, its therapeutic effects tend to be short-lived. some patients may initially respond well to treatment, showing improved cheerfulness and gradually approaching normal physiological parameters after a period of therapy. however, symptoms often recur shortly after discharge. this reveals that aesthetic and emotional healing requires sustained maintenance — akin to how people repeatedly play records, attend theater performances, visit concert halls, or seek other sensory stimulation. the therapeutic impact derived from "beauty itself" diminishes over time, intensifies periodically, then weakens again — a cyclical process mirroring nietzsche's "chess-playing" theory. aesthetic and emotional healing permeates the entire life journey. clearly, treating art consumption as a mental stimulant is risky, much like how american hippies in the 1950s vented frustrations through punk music and eccentric fashion, achieving only marginal results. the most fundamental approach to spiritual healing lies in returning life to the ontological level of the will of life — that is, living poetically. here, the term "poetic" encompasses both moral metaphysics and sensuous metaphysics. human nature inherently possesses the impulse of free will. when awakened by the call of music and art, we effortlessly recall our once-vibrant state of being, irresistibly yearning to reclaim our authentic life essence. this constitutes genuine healing. music does not "infuse" virtues or vices into people; artistic appreciation is never about dogmatic indoctrination, but rather awakens our inherent will to return to the core of our "innate conscience and innate capacity." how does music achieve this healing? —by nourishing the soul with melodies, it rekindles hope for the afterlife. 5. conclusions when examining artistic phenomena, researchers should not only analyze their aesthetic qualities but also consider their functional value. this approach naturally leads to music therapy as a social intervention, which inherently connects with the functionalism of ethics. while music is generally considered a non-utilitarian art form, when it functions at the existential level, it achieves heights of social consciousness that other art forms cannot reach. the ancient chinese philosophical proposition of "the distinction between ritual and music" demonstrated profound insight in analyzing the relationship between arts' functional roles and social ethical norms. however, as societal structures evolved, many elements and case studies within this philosophical framework still require further supplementation. by applying modern interpretations through therapeutic case studies in art therapy, this paper enhances the depth of research in art theory to some extent. references [1] li, x. (2005). a course in western aesthetic history (p. 36). peking university press. [2] peking university, department of philosophy. (1974). annotations on the analects of confucius (p. 394). zhonghua book company. [3] wang, g. (1959). a collection of essays by guantang (vol. 6, p. 144). zhonghua book company. [4] chen, h. (yuan), & jin, x. (2016). the book of rites (p. 362). shanghai ancient books publishing house. [5] chen, h. (yuan), & jin, x. (2016). the book of rites (p. 429). shanghai ancient books publishing house. [6] chen, h. (yuan), & jin, x. (2016). the book of rites (p. 454). shanghai ancient books publishing house. [7] peking university, department of philosophy. (1974). annotations on the analects of confucius (p. 340). zhonghua book company. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 153 published by ideas spread [8] darnley-smith, r., & petty, h. m. (2016). music therapy (p. 13). chongqing university press. [9] lü, b. (2011). lü buwei's annals (vol. 1, p. 148). (l. jiu, trans. & annot.). zhonghua book company. [10] chen, h. (yuan), & jin, x. (2016). the book of rites (p. 455). shanghai ancient books publishing house. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n3p44 44 published by ideas spread reconstructing the subjective identity of artificial intelligence in the ai era: from instrumental rationality to ethical entity xu sheng zhang1 1 shaanxi normal university, china correspondence: xu sheng zhang, shaanxi normal university, xi’an, shaanxi, china. received: april 28, 2025; accepted: march 9, 2025; published: march 10, 2025 abstract as artificial intelligence (ai) technology advances at an unprecedented pace, it is evolving from a mere instrument into a “quasi-subject.” this transformation inevitably reshapes the traditional human–machine relationship and gives rise to profound social and ethical challenges. from the dual perspectives of value philosophy and social ethics, this paper examines the trajectory by which ai shifts from being an “objectified tool” to a “constrained subject.” we propose a theoretical model of a “human-led finite subject,” laying a conceptual foundation for situating ai’s quasi-subjective role within social ethics. by analyzing possible directions for constructing ai subjectivity and the ethical dilemmas it faces, we outline a human–machine ecological symbiosis model grounded in algorithmic justice. keywords: ai era, artificial intelligence, instrumental rationality, ethical entity 1. introduction the rapid development of intelligent technologies is reconstructing human–machine ethics at an unprecedented rate, triggering conflicts in ethical values and necessitating the reordering of moral norms. whether it’s the widespread adoption of deepseek in 2025 or the thorny ethical quandaries posed by autonomous vehicles, the struggle between technology and humanity has become central to our era. a host of deep-seated contradictions concerning human subjectivity, social ethical order, and cultural values are now surfacing in everyday life. 2. deconstructing ai’s instrumentality and establishing “quasi-subjectivity” ai is undergoing a cognitive leap from “tool-mediated” entity to “agentive actor,” overturning traditional assumptions about the human–object dichotomy. french sociologist bruno latour’s actor-network theory (ant) grants a measure of recognition to ai’s subjectivity in autonomous decision-making, value creation, and ethical practice. he argues that interactions among human and non-human actors form a heterogeneous network that coconstructs and evolves, introducing a dual verification model of “technical intentionality–social acknowledgment.” 2.1 deconstructing instrumental rationality classical ethics views technology strictly as a tool for human ends. humans alone possess moral agency; a healthy social-ethical order rests on free will, emotional resonance, and rational reflection. ai systems, lacking selfawareness and moral judgment, act purely as algorithmic computations. technology indeed extends human capabilities—performing tasks beyond unaided human reach—and has become indispensable to social existence, spawning its own “civilizational rules.” in many sectors, human agency has been reduced to that of a catalyst, while ai resides both outside and inside what it means to be a subject. from a technical standpoint, an intelligent agent’s functions and its quasi-subjectivity arise through softwareencoded algorithms that automatically perceive data. [1]describing an agent as “capable of acquiring perceptions from its environment and executing actions” or as “a function mapping perceptual sequences to actions” are two ways of naming the same process: externally, a description of its pseudo-subjectivity; internally, an unveiling of the core computational mechanism. [2]as ai participates in and shapes contexts of subjectivity, it disciplines the emergence and evolution of what might be called “secondary” human qualities. [3]philosopher jacques ellul’s concept of the “autonomy of technique” suggests that technology has become a self-governing force—no longer under human control, yet tightly controlling humanity in return[4]. for example, deepseek’s engaging “dialogues” are nothing more than data matching, not ethical choices made by a conscious subject. even when ai produces outcomes resembling agentive behavior, its “subjectivity” remains a functional imitation devoid of genuine agency, self-awareness, or free will—hence the term “quasi-subjectivity.” hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 45 published by ideas spread once technology transcends mere instrumentality and engages core ethical issues—subjective judgment, attribution of responsibility, principles of justice—the existing moral order collapses and demands reconstruction. ai’s algorithmic decisions and data-driven “personification” undermine traditional humanist values of dignity, freedom, and creativity. in critical moments—such as an autonomous vehicle’s split-second choice under lifethreatening conditions—technology’s built-in values manifest real ethical consequences. dutch philosopher peterpaul verbeek argues that technical artifacts (algorithms, intelligent devices, infrastructure) are never value-neutral; they inherently carry ethical values and exert moral regulation through their physical or digital forms, thus granting technology a “quasi-ethical subject” status. [5]this stance, however, sparks debate: if ai can simulate ethical judgment, must we redefine ethical subjectivity itself? 2.2 presentation of subjectivity from a phenomenological perspective phenomenology’s inquiry into subjectivity began with husserl’s reduction to “pure consciousness,” emphasizing the subject’s intentionality in constituting meaning. heidegger transformed subjectivity into dasein’s “being-inthe-world,” situating the self within contextual scenarios. merleau-ponty’s embodied phenomenology revealed that subjectivity arises through bodily engagement with the world. ai’s rapid evolution, however, challenges the premise of humans as the sole agents of subjectivity. algorithmic decision logics generate a distinct “technical intentionality,” which, via sensors, data flows, and environmental feedback loops, yields a “perception-action” circuit unique to intelligent machines. human–ai interactions foster a genuine “co-presence,” as ai appears as a “quasi-other” in daily life, projecting intentionality and participating in real-world decisions. philosopher luciano floridi contends that if intentionality need not rely on consciousness, then ai’s “functional intentionality” deserves recognition. ai’s “technical embodiment”—a fusion of hardware and software—adapts to environmental shifts and mounts stress responses akin to human adaptive behaviors, thus further blurring the boundary between tool and agent. 2.3 the shift in social cognition as angelo cammarota and others note in their discussion of latour’s ant, “actors” in this framework need not be conscious humans but any entities capable of action or generating effects. machines perform feats beyond human capacity—revealing the microscopic world, driving shifts in commercial profitability—and their operations provoke human responses and interventions. [6]these actors extend human bodies and minds, linking humanity into latour’s “actor-network,” within which humans must now exist. equipped and interconnected by non-human actors, humans exert control over their environment and resources. interactions among these actors shape and mutually produce the social field[7]. in this egalitarian process, social robots can emerge as actors with substantial agency and decision-making capability. table 1. classification of symbiotic relationships symbiotic relationship species a species b characteristics parasitism + a benefits at b’s expense mutualism + + both parties benefit competition both parties inhibit each other commensalism + 0 a benefits, b is unaffected amensalism 0 a is harmed, b is unaffected neutralism 0 0 neither party is affected when examining human–machine symbiosis, j.c.r. licklider’s 1960 concept of “man–computer symbiosis” provides a biological analogy. first, in a commensal relationship, ai appears as a labor tool, freeing humans from physical and temporal constraints, enhancing life quality, and aiding self-actualization[8]. second, in amensalism, one party’s development is hindered—ai’s rising intelligence can displace human roles, as exemplified by widespread automation leading to job losses[9]. the 2016 triumph of deepmind’s go program over world champion lee sedol delivered a psychological jolt to human self-identity. third, in mutualistic partnerships, humans and machines complement each other—combining strengths while retaining autonomy, creating shared value greater than either would achieve alone. the pursuit of brain–machine interfaces embodies a vision of mutualistic symbiosis: implanting sensors to transmit and preserve human thoughts. although such technology raises privacy and security concerns, it represents a hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 46 published by ideas spread possible future. understanding how machine perception and human bodily awareness resonate—through vr, multisensory media, and other embodied experiences—merges technological mediation with sensory perception. in the age of intelligent communication, the convergence of ai, neuroscience, and human-centered design is redefining human–machine connections. machine learning, cognitive systems, and biometrics enable media to monitor physiological and psychological states and respond instantly, even offering tailored recommendations— an intervention humans can tangibly experience[10]. this shift transforms the human–world relationship from passive “observation” to active “participation” and “immersion.” media may even become agents managing daily life, reducing human-to-human interaction and reinforcing machines’ subjective status. mobile assistants already tap into our neural networks, and people increasingly prefer consulting their devices for advice[11]. after all, interactions with computers, televisions, [12]and new media possess the same social naturalness as interpersonal communication, becoming habituated practices in human embodied experience. 3. potential directions for constructing ai subjectivity and the ethical dilemmas it faces 3.1 the human–machine relationship: tool, partner, or other? in 2017, at the asilomar conference center, the bioethics institute convened a landmark meeting on ai ethics that produced the asilomar principles, affirming fundamental human values—“human dignity, rights, freedom, and cultural diversity”[13]. the victories of alphago over professional go players, the arrival of chatgpt, and deepseek’s widespread adoption together signal a paradigm shift in how we relate to machines. no longer confined to a simple subject–object dualism, we must now understand human–machine ties as a dynamic, coevolving symbiosis. the age of steam engines and industrial robots—where technology simply served a human-centric purpose—has passed. today’s machines not only substitute human labor functionally but also embody human desires and power, profoundly reshaping our rapport with nature and becoming symbols of authority[14]. as technological power expands, ordinary citizens and vulnerable groups risk being trampled under its weight[15]. questions of human dignity, the status of human subjectivity, the future of humanity, and our understanding of technology itself have thus become urgent ethical concerns. a growing body of speculative works depicts a future in which humans and ai are indispensable partners. advances in embodied ai, social robots that generate inter-subjective relations, hybrid intelligent systems with tightly coupled cognition, and posthumanist philosophies empowering technological entities all provoke an ontological crisis: might artificial consciousness emerge? if machines transcend mere “being” to become a form of dasein, we witness ecology of human–machine symbiosis. as yuval noah harari argues in homo deus, humans themselves can be described as complex algorithms—and in a world where technology reshapes life, humanity risks being reduced to a data-processing tool, its unique spirit eroded[16]. 3.2 the human survival crisis: the “super panopticon” metaphor building on bentham’s panopticon, foucault analyzed modern power structures; deleuze extended this into the notion of the “control society,” and byung-chul han characterizes our era as a “transparent society.” together they suggest that ai technologies have given rise to a “super panopticon”—an all-encompassing digital surveillance apparatus. by shaping behavior, cognition, and subjectivity through algorithmic power, this system creates a novel existential crisis under technological hegemony. ai continually harvests personal data, molding individual needs while erasing boundaries between public and private life. screens become our primary point of contact, and data streams become the lifeblood of market forces under capital’s “all-seeing light.” personal information—consumption histories, payment records, facial scans, apr metrics, live monitoring—feeds an ever-hungry system that mines and monetizes the self. in this super panopticon, our happiness, dignity, privacy, and inner spiritual world—the very core of human value—are exposed, eroded, and ultimately homogenized into algorithmically defined “data cocoons.” stripped of its singularity, the human spirit faces dissolution. reduced to a “digital being,” one’s life becomes merely another data point in an inscrutable algorithmic process. long-term subjection to recommendation engines narrows thought and flattens cognition. ontologically, the super panopticon transcends physical confinement to infiltrate the mind itself, redefining what it means to be human. only sustained humanistic critique and a critical distance from technological immersion can forestall the slide into digital totalitarianism. 3.3 algorithmic justice: computing trust as noted, ai’s embodiment—grounded in hardware, software, and algorithms—yields adaptive behaviors but depends entirely on human design and data inputs. granting ai full subjectivity would precipitate thorny questions hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 47 published by ideas spread of responsibility. instead, we should recognize only a limited ai subjectivity. for instance, in the ethics of autonomous-vehicle accidents, responsibility can be apportioned among designers, users, and the system itself. yet ai’s “black-box” nature often obscures causal chains, creating an ethical-responsibility vacuum. in a crash, is the developer, the owner-operator, or the regulator culpable? does the old rule—“the designer is responsible”— still hold in highly complex ai systems? ultimately, however responsibility is framed, humans must bear the moral and legal burdens of ai’s decisions. hans jonas presciently argued that our technological age demands an “ethics of responsibility” that accounts for long-term human and environmental impacts³. ai’s choices must be guided by the highest ethical ideals and a clear, enforceable sense of accountability. yet no set of coded principles can anticipate every real-world scenario. while ai excels at repetitive, labor-intensive tasks, it still cannot rival humans in roles requiring deep creativity and moral judgment. nonetheless, ai’s ubiquity will likely deepen social stratification, rekindling marx’s theory of labor alienation. whether humanity will be demoted from active subject to mere “tool” of ai remains an open question. to mitigate these risks, we must embed diverse ethical frameworks into ai design, creating ex ante, in situ, and ex post accountability mechanisms, along with robust traceability and compensation systems. the goal is to model a genuinely symbiotic human–machine ethics, fostering cross-cultural consensus on algorithmic justice. in truth, the tension between ai as instrument and as (quasi-)subject invites us to reconsider what it means to exist. neither tools nor subjects remain absolute; we inhabit a transitional “technological intersubjectivity.” some scholars envision this as a new co-creative human–machine partnership: “as ai accelerates in the united states, pressing issues—due-process violations, discrimination, algorithmic opacity—demand candid appraisal. we must openly discuss ai’s strengths and shortcomings and strive for greater transparency.”[4] first, by integrating into daily life, intelligent machines increasingly act as human proxies. algorithmic audits can embed fairness and transparency from the outset. smartphones, wearables, and other devices engage bodily perception, forging habits that become second nature. we routinely ask baidu, phone assistants, or deepseek to guide decisions—these media anticipate our needs and serve as de facto agents. yet each data exchange raises privacy and trust questions, as we drift toward hybrid realities where virtual experiences feel as real as corporeal ones. second, distributive justice can be pursued by applying rawls’s difference principle to machine-learning fairness constraints. by capturing and visualizing physiological and neural signals—through smartwatches or fitness trackers, for example—we can map emotional states and respond adaptively, blurring the lines between physical and virtual embodiment. finally, corrective justice and accountability can leverage blockchain’s immutable, decentralized ledger. under the mantra “never trust, always verify,” distributed consensus replaces single-point authorities (governments, banks, hospitals). with time-stamped blockchains, incentivized nodes, and programmable smart contracts, we can approach an ideal of algorithmic justice and cultivate a more ethically literate society. figure 2. driving factors of algorithmic literacy hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 48 published by ideas spread 4. conclusion in sum, the emergence of ai subjectivity fundamentally challenges the traditional ethical assumption that only humans can be moral agents. this raises a pressing question: will the long-standing, human-centered social-ethical order be supplanted by an algorithm-driven paradigm in the intelligent era? as early as 1950, isaac asimov framed this debate in the preface to his science-fiction classic i, robot by articulating the “three laws of robotics”: first law: a robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm. second law: a robot must obey the orders given by human beings, except where such orders would conflict with the first law. third law: a robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the first or second laws. these laws cast robots as loyal servants and companions to humanity. yet, as robots grow more sophisticated, they may exhibit psychological challenges of their own—challenges that will still require human guidance and support. in asimov’s vision, carbon-based life (humans) and silicon-based life (robots) must learn to coexist and thrive together. whether our future unfolds as peaceful symbiosis or as a contest for dominance will depend on how conscientiously we integrate ethical safeguards into ai design—and how resolutely we uphold human dignity, responsibility, and agency in the face of rapidly advancing technology. references [1] lin, x. (2020). posthumanism, subjectivity reconstruction, and the politics of technology: a re-narration of the human–technology relationship. literary theory research, (4). [2] duan, w. (2020). the ethical foundations of information civilization (p. 212). shanghai people’s publishing house. [3] lin, x. (2020). “posthumanism, subjectivity reconstruction…” literary theory research, (4). [4] duan, w. (2020). the ethical foundations of information civilization (p. 212). shanghai people’s publishing house. [5] verbeek, p. p. (2005). what things do: philosophical reflections on technology, agency, and design. penn state press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780271033228 [6] rokamola, a., & smorik, a. (eds.). (2021). fashion in theory: critical theorists’ guide (chen, t., & li, y., trans.). chongqing university press. [7] latour, b. (2005). reassembling the social: an introduction to actor-network theory. oxford university press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199256044.001.0001 [8] yu, x., zhai, w., & hou, m. (2022). patterns and evolution of human–machine symbiosis in the ai era. science and society, (4). [9] yu, x., zhai, w., & hou, m. (2022). patterns and evolution of human–machine symbiosis in the ai era. science and society, (4). [10] yin, l., & gao, h. (2020). embodied interaction: an empirical interpretation of human–machine relations in the intelligent media era. journalism & writing, (11). [11] yin, l., & gao, h. (2020). embodied interaction… journalism & writing, (11). [12] reeves, b., & nass, c. (1996). the media equation: how people treat computers, television, and new media like real people and places (p. 5). cambridge university press. [13] asilomar ai principles. (2017). benevolent ai conference, 2018. [14] rubin, c. t. (2014). eclipse of man: human extinction and the meaning of progress. encounter books. [15] harari, y. n. (2016). homo deus: a brief history of tomorrow. random house. https://doi.org/10.17104/9783406704024 [16] liu, y., liao, d., & zhang, q. (eds.). (2023). development and applications of computer ai technology (p. 183). china atomic energy press. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2023.113827 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 49 published by ideas spread copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v4n3p25 25 published by ideas spread terrorism threat in doctrine formulating of military campaign scenario to achieve national security on estimative methodology review novky asmoro1, pujo widodo2, resmanto widodo putro2, cecep hidayat1 & rizki putri3 1 student of doctoral program in defense science, republic of indonesia defense university, bogor, indonesia 2 lecturer of doctoral program in defense science, republic of indonesia defense university, bogor, indonesia 3 master of defense economics of republic of indonesia defense university, bogor, indonesia correspondence: novky asmoro, state universities in the field of defense studies which provides education for undergraduate, masters, and doctoral degress, indonesia. received: june 26, 2021; accepted: august 8, 2021; published: august 14, 2021 abstract based on the estimation methodology on the potential of the war against terrorism on the transformation of doctrine, the conclusions based on the predictive analysis are: (1) the potential for the war against terrorism has a very strong relevance to the prediction of changes in military campaign doctrine in the long term by producing new war strategies both in terms of ends-means-ways as a result of high impact low probability, (2) through predictive analysis with extrapolation model, it is found that threats, strategic environment and tradition or history are variables that are expected to remain unchanged, especially in the short term in influencing the preparation of military campaign doctrine, (3) the projection model determines if threat is the variable that changes the most so that it will affect changes in the military campaign doctrine in the short to medium term, (4) looking for the best solution in realizing the best military campaign doctrine. this can be followed by designing a simulation of the new war strategy as a result of forecasting the military campaign doctrine. keywords: doctrine, military campaign, national security, estimative methodology 1. introduction the threat of terrorism is a hybrid threat that uses a combination of military and non-military methods in peacetime to achieve traditional military objectives and to conquest of the certain territorials and thereby changing the “facts on the ground” without triggering actual conflict. according to michael mazarr, from the national war college (2019) revealed that the war on peacetime terrorism aims to achieve military goals, namely battlefield control. it emphasizes the linearity between terrorism and the threat of terrorism that "the goal of the war on terrorism is to win a conclusive campaign through the use of force and some degree of violence, or to prepare some kind of decisive military action." the threat of terrorism is also mentioned as another concept of hybrid warfare as explained in ministry of defense regulation number 19 of year 2015 regarding the policy for the implementation of national defense namely that this form of war combines conventional war or threats, asymmetric, terrorist and cyber warfare, as well as diverse and dynamic criminals. in addition to these various combinations of threats, the war on terrorism can also take the form of an integrated attack between the use of chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear and explosive (cbrne), and information warfare. the government's seriousness in managing the country's defense and security is not only projected to face external enemies but also, prepare for the possibility of developing the problem of terrorism in the country. the purchase of indonesian armed forces (tni) weapons equipment in the last three years is also prepared for the possibility of facing the war. tni readiness to face the threat of terrorism is a military strategy that combines conventional war, irregular war and terror threats, including further terror motives by utilizing social media, information to nuclear attacks, biological and chemical weapons, improvised explosive devices and information warfare. faced with modern war doctrine and a complex spectrum of threats, it is deemed necessary if the military campaign as part of war military operations is time to transform with strategic objectives, one of which is the ability to deal with the threat of terrorism. as a basis for thinking and acting, of course, the military campaign must be based on a doctrine hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 26 published by ideas spread that can be adaptive to changing times and the mission objectives to be achieved, including in overcoming the threat of terrorism. in the future, the military campaign doctrine needs to be able to accommodate the way of acting in joint tni operations to be deployed when facing threats in the category of terrorism threats. in order to predict the trend of the threat of terrorism, it is necessary to have the role of intelligence that will comprehensively analyze how relevant it will be in the future, so it is necessary to prepare an increasingly adaptive doctrine. the intelligence analysis process requires a special method known as estimative methodology where the predictive analysis presented regardless of the configuration will be able to accurately predict several key variables to be presented through several levels of analysis to customers as decision making material. figure 1. tren isu politik dunia source: clark (2019). intelligence analysis efforts to carry out predictive analysis of potential threats of terrorism in the future are important because terrorism itself has been classified as a political situation issue decomposition as one of the trends in world strategic political issues. the picture above describes that the threat of terrorism is included in the strategic intelligence issue whose data continues to be explored. this is relevant to the development of the main characteristics of the role of modern intelligence, namely: a. analysis can take many forms by utilizing multiple sources in an effort to obtain more complete data and information. some of the sources include special expertise from the academic, social media, or industrial domains. b. analysis of any subject is an ongoing process. customers are increasingly in need of intelligence support on a daily basis regarding several issues, both general and specific. 2. methodology prediction in an intelligence product is a crucial thing needed by decision makers (coker, 2014). through the use of estimative methodology, various predictive analysis processes are carried out in order to obtain high validity and reliability of information so as to achieve a reliable level of analysis so that predictions on the future condition of an intelligence object can be estimated. different estimation methods are used in different conditions. several models of estimative methodology, one of which is applied to military intelligence through a predictive analysis process, include (clark, 2019). a. extrapolation models. this prediction method is the most conservative method and is suitable for short-term hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 27 published by ideas spread estimation. in its simplest form, extrapolation, using historical performance as a basis, to indicate future directions. (determining the estimated object variable extrapolated to the future without changing the variable). b. projection models. in this model, it is done by predicting various possible futures based on the assumption that the forces that have prevailed in the past will change, while extrapolation assumes that the forces do not change (determining one variable that is considered the most dominant or most influential in the future). c. model forecasting (forecasting). the prediction model in this intelligence activity is to determine the alternative future of the target, not just the most likely future. however, being able to formulate long-term alternatives and scenarios that are most likely to occur in the future (determining new variables outside of existing variables but still having relevance among them). d. of the three forecasting models that lead to the emergence of new variables when forecasting is carried out, the next step is to determine which of these variables has the greatest effect but has a low probability of occurrence (high impact low probability). the result of high impact low probability (hilp) is a demonstration scenario and the process to determine hilp is carried out through the following stages: 1) determining the variables that are considered to have the most significant impact on the outcome because this will be analyzed continuously. 2) develop a logical description of the analysis of several variables or forces that are expected to have the least impact. this is important in determining the indicators that need to be monitored during the predictive analysis process. 3) determine the single most significant factor that can trigger a sudden and comprehensive change to the object of analysis. 4) carry out a brainstorming process regarding the breadth of experience of each intelligence agent in an effort to find the most likely strengths or variables, which are unpredictable but can change the entire analysis result suddenly. 5) always carry out monitoring of the indicators that have been determined to prevent them from getting out of the way of analysis. 6) identify all of the estimated factors that will either lead to good or bad outcomes. figure 2. illustration of estimative methodology source: clark (2019), intelligence analysis determining an estimate for future global conditions can be done by studying the strategic environment in the military, political and economic as well as social aspects which tend to change rapidly. these problems have a hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 28 published by ideas spread strength component that can be identified using variants of the strategy methodology. forecasts of changes in these forces are analyzed through trends and the resulting events then between one event/trend are linked together through techniques such as cross-impact analysis. the result is a "most likely" future forecast made in a scenario format. if the forecasts made work well, it will encourage policy makers to make decisions and for the intelligence world, will result in action in response to real and unreal threats. in order to get valid and reliable prediction results, several processes are carried out, including brainstorming. this step is very important in determining the six main questions on the object of estimation or called the six-pointed star which includes "who, what, when, where, why and how". (hart, 2012). in addition, through the brainstorming stage, it will be possible to determine the key assumption check stage, which is a hypothesis that has been declared true and is part of defining the problem or as a product of the final assessment. 3. result the existence of the threat of terrorism can be understood as part of a hybrid war that combines military and nonmilitary threats that occur in peacetime to achieve the goal of the threat in the form of the results of traditional military warfare, for example territorial control or conquest. the threat of terrorism in principle can achieve the objectives of conventional war without triggering actual conflict. therefore, being faced with modern war doctrine and a complex spectrum of threats is necessary if the military campaign as part of war military operations is time to transform with strategic objectives, one of which is the ability to deal with the threat of terrorism (anderson, 1998). as a basis for thinking and acting, of course, the military campaign must be based on a doctrine that can be adaptive to the mission objectives to be achieved, including overcoming the threat of terrorism. in the future, the military campaign doctrine needs to be able to accommodate the way of acting in joint tni operations to be deployed when facing threats in the category of terrorism threats. therefore, it is necessary to make an effort or implement predictive analysis in order to determine the form of the military campaign doctrine in the future based on several variables that will be determined next. in carrying out predictive analysis, it is necessary to carry out several stages which will later be processed through several predictive analysis models, both extrapolation, projection and forecast (forecasting). the steps taken based on the research focus are the dynamics of the threat of terrorism to the transformation of the doctrine of the indonesian military campaign to realize national security, namely: a. determining a condition of an entity whose existence can be predicted based on past conditions to the future. the entity that is focused here is the military campaign doctrine. b. determine the forces or several factors that affect the existence of the entity which in this case is the military campaign doctrine. the forces or factors that influence it are the threat spectrum, the dynamics of the strategic environment, and the tradition or history of the nation's struggle (thomas aquinas and hugo grotius, 1631). these three factors will be used as variables that are fixed / will not change in the future even though their value will increase or decrease as an extrapolation model. c. in the three forces or factors, one factor is determined which is predicted to have the most dominant influence or experience the highest dynamics. it will be used predictive analysis with the projection model in this case is the threat spectrum. variable/ model of predictive analysis extrapolation projection forecasting threat steady dominant none strategic environment steady steady none history steady steady none war strategy none none dominant (hilp) figure 3. variable matrix of military campaign doctrine vs model predictive analysis source: clark (2019), intelligence analysis, processed d. starting from the extrapolation and projection models, a new force or factor is determined which is predicted to emerge as a new force that can occur or directly impact the military campaign doctrine entity and this hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 29 published by ideas spread model is referred to as the forecast model. the forces that are estimated to appear are new war strategies. the relationship between the variables and the predictive model of analysis can be seen in figure 3. e. determine predictions of the future state of the military campaign doctrine as an entity or model target based on the assessment of each force. each strength will be measured or weighed based on its weight. the dominant strength will be measured in this prediction through several estimation tools, including regression and monte carlo simulation. 4. discussion based on the results of the predictive analysis above, it is found that from the three fixed variables used for extrapolation, one dominant variable will be obtained, namely threat as a result of the projection. this indicates that the military campaign doctrine in the future must be adaptive to the dynamics of threats that occur where the threat of terrorism is included. so it is appropriate if the potential threat of terrorism needs to be predicted in the future so that the doctrine that is prepared is in accordance with the needs of military operations. specifically also obtained prediction results with forecasting that war strategy will turn out to be a new variable that appears and is in accordance with the rules of predictive analysis, so this is an indication that for the future war strategy will continue to transform even though the possibility is small but the effect is very large (high implact low probability ). this condition is very relevant because the battle strategy if predicted will not change much from the classical theory of strategy which states that “a coherent expression of a process that identifies the ends, ways, and means designed to achieve a certain goal. mathematically, we might express this as “strategy = ends + ways + means.” ends are the objectives or desired outcomes of a given strategy. the term end-state is synonymous with ends. an end or ends comprises the goal of the strategy. ways are actions". (lykke, 1998) figure 4. theoretical implementation of strategy source: deibel (2007), foreign affair strategies the next step after successfully determining a new variable from the forecasting model which is a variable with a high impact low probability character, is to design a demonstration scenario. the scenario, which is the product of the high impact low probability analysis, can be generated if an intelligence analyst is able to identify the high impact outcome and then determine a logical way to achieve it. there are several ways to get high impact outcome, one of them is by using an alternative version of the demonstration scenario, namely branch-point scenario. the main function of the demonstration scenario is to pay more attention to the results of the analysis of the branchpoint scenario than the final results of the analysis. so the new war strategy as hilp, for an intelligence analyst hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 30 published by ideas spread will not focus on the war strategy, but rather on how to realize the new war strategy because it has the greatest impact even though it is unlikely to have an effect on the military campaign doctrine that will later faced with the war against terrorism. the stages in getting the best scenario in determining the best military campaign doctrine generally follow the following phases are a. determining the problem. this leads to “what question will the new military campaign doctrine actually answer? b. identify what factors will influence the preparation of the military campaign doctrine. in this phase, intelligence analysis will determine the main factors and priorities in the preparation of the military campaign doctrine. c. identify the most feasible solution to implement. in principle, there are several more scenarios in it, namely: emergency scenario (created by positioning intelligence analysts as opponents), what-if scenario unlimited (unconstrained) and what-if scenario limited (constrained). d. looking for the best solution in realizing the best military campaign doctrine. this can be followed by designing a simulation of the new war strategy as a result of forecasting the military campaign doctrine. 5. conclusion based on the estimation methodology on the potential of the war against terrorism on the transformation of doctrine, the conclusions based on the predictive analysis are: a. the potential for the war against terrorism has a very strong relevance to the prediction of changes in military campaign doctrine in the long term by producing new war strategies both in terms of ends-means-ways as a result of high impact low probability. b. through predictive analysis with extrapolation model, it is found that threats, strategic environment and tradition or history are variables that are expected to remain unchanged, especially in the short term in influencing the preparation of military campaign doctrine. c. the projection model determines if threat is the variable that changes the most so that it will affect changes in the military campaign doctrine in the short to medium term. d. if war strategy is indeed determined as hilp in changing the formulation of military campaign doctrine, then to realize effective anticipatory measures, a comprehensive simulation is needed so that the resulting doctrine will be adaptive to changes in threats, strategic environment, traditions or history and future war strategies. acknowledgement the author appreciates the insights from lecturers and colleagues and peers at republic of indonesia defense university (ridu). valuable resources accessible at the doctoral study program of defense sciences dan library of ridu also strengthen the author’s determination to write this article. however the views expressed in this article are the author’s (except otherwise specified) and do not reflect the official stance ministry of defence of the republic of indonesia and ridu. the author also would like to thank the referees for their comments. references coker, f. (2014). pulse: understanding the vital signs of your business, bellevue, wa: ambient light publishing. clark, r. m. (2019). intelligence analysis, a-target centric approach, cq press. deibel, terry l (2014). foreign affairs strategy logic for american statecraft, cambridge university press hart, g. (2012). the five ws of online help, techwr-l. kementerian, p. r. i. (2015). peraturan menteri pertahanan no.19 tahun 2015 tentang kebijakan penyelenggaraan pertahanan negara tahun 2015-2019. lykke, jr. a. f. (1998). military strategy: theory and application carlisle, pa: u.s. army war college. mazzar, m. (2019). vikhrant desphande. hybrid warfare: the changing character of conflict, institute for defense studies amd analysis (idsa). tulak, a. n. (2021). perang terorisme, tantangan baru dalam lingkungan informasi. retrieved 22 april 2021, from https://ipdefenseforum.com walter, n. a. (1998) . doktrin gabungan as, jp 3-0, operasi gabungan, us army. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 31 published by ideas spread copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v3n3p1 1 published by ideas spread beyond the color line: a postmodernist reading of ishmael reed’s flight to canada bi boli dit lama berté goure1 1 department of humanities, national polytechnic institute félix houphouet-boigny of yamoussoukro, côte d’ivoire correspondence: bi boli dit lama berté goure, national polytechnic institute félix houphouet-boigny, yamoussoukro, bp 1093, yamoussoukro côte d’ivoire. tel: 225-0967-1550. e-mail: benjamin3goure@gmail.com, boli.goure@inphb.ci received: june 23, 2020; accepted: july 13, 2020; published: july 15, 2020 abstract though african american literature can be regarded by some theorists as a means of defining the racial self, a postmodernist reading of ishmael reed’s flight to canada delves into the intrinsic value of that literature which supersedes the traditional racial connotation ascribed to it. reed not only castigates the metanarrative of the american cultural and democratic thought through the exposure of its inconstancies and the criticism of traditional ideas on race and ethnicity, but he also gives proof of his creative genius by operating a carnivalization of the novel genre itself. keywords: ethnicity, metanarrative, deconstruction, carnivalization, cynicism towards orthodoxy 1. introduction african american literature has always been regarded as a means of defining the racial self. the truth of the matter is that african descents have been forced to resist the process of erasure of their cultural identity. their literature is so intimately related to the issue of race that it becomes very difficult for any african american author to avoid being dubbed as a “black writer”. though some authors like lorraine hansberry have tried to reject that label, the average african american writer has always been assessed by the yardstick of race and ethnicity (harris, 1997, 68). obviously, this situation has been encouraged by the african american writers and theorists themselves, who have long advocated a distinctive literature, deeply rooted in racial concerns. from its inception, with the rise of the slave narratives, african american literature has mostly been characterized by its political messages, sometimes to the detriment of artistry. the rise of the black aesthetics in the 1960s came to enforce the view that ethnicity is at the core of that literature. the movement was so radical in its afrocentrism that it ended up in isolating african american literature, reversely encouraging its exclusion by those who wrongly tagged it as not being capable of rising above particularism. yet, a novel like ishmael reed’s flight to canada undercuts the notion of identitarian closure often used as a defining feature of african american fiction. reed himself is undoubtedly a controversial figure as he has always pursued his own creative ends “[…] finding it impossible to play the literary game by the rules of others” (martin, 1988, 43). the free-lance pallbearers, his very first novel, was published in 1967 at a time when the literary canons of modernism were being called into question, in an eclectic style combining syncretism, parody, pastiche and humor. this particular style was defined by henry louis gates as the expression of african-american sensibility through the notion of the signifying monkey, a literary criticism approach elaborated in a book where he focuses on two figures of african american literature: ralph ellison and ismael reed (gates, 1988). reed himself also grounding his literary aesthetics in his african american identity, coined the term neohoodooism to designate a writing style which is undoubtedly indebted to the broader literary construct of postmodernism as it can be seen through his cynicism toward orthodoxy, a behavior characterizing the period. very prolific as a writer of fiction, reed published other novels like the terrible threes (atheneum, 1989), the terrible twos (st. martin’s press, 1982) mumbo jumbo (doubleday, 1972), yellow back radio broke down (doubleday, 1969) the free-lance pallbearers (doubleday, 1967), to name but a few, not only as a rich contribution to african american fiction, but mostly as a way of removing artificial barriers that had so far inhibited the black aesthetics. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 2 published by ideas spread written on the mode of the slave narrative, flight to canada assumes the horizon of expectations of the apology of black heroism. as its title may imply, the novel takes the reader back to the terrible condition suffered by enslaved people in the antebellum south, and which left them with no other option than fleeing to canada: that peace haven where they could enjoy total freedom. as this horizon of expectations is not fulfilled, seeing the disillusionment of the characters who finally arrives in canada, the beauty of the novel lies not just in the motifs and themes of the slave narrative which it parodies, but rather in the iconoclasm of reed whose “[…] original and controversial contribution to african american letters […]” could also be characterized as “[…] both participatory and adversarial […]” (fox, 1997, 624). this article aims at showing that far beyond its racial undertone, the book published in 1979 is strongly indebted to the eclecticism of postmodernism, which is fortunate, in that it steers clear from the ethnic biases that normally twist african american thought, to reveal the depth of the cultural dynamics at work in african american fiction. firstly, the discourse of flight to canada challenges the metanarrative of the american cultural and democratic thought and debunks common views on race and ethnicity. then in the author’s cynicism towards orthodoxy, he distorts the rules of the novel genre 2. resisting metanarratives françois lyotard, the french theorist who immensely contributed to the formulation of the postmodernist thought, is said to have defined metanarratives as “discursive formations promising a totalized account of knowledge” (childs, 2006, 186-187). history, which is regarded as a discursive formation, also arouses the distrust of postmodernists. though it is said to be based on “critically examining and analyzing the records and survivals of the past” (gottschalk 1969, 48), history is not always free from racial biases and assumptions as in the case of the united states. the rise of the african american historical novel in the 1970s came as a reaction to the racial prejudices and social stereotypes fostered by an enduring fragmented knowledge about african american experience. as maggie sale rightly put it: history has been a contested terrain in which european american have had authority to define what is worthy of recognition, what may be considered of historical significance, and what versions or aspects of the past are important to keep alive in the present as a way of understanding who and what we are today (sale, 1997, 358). though this historical novel intends to bring to light the rich contribution of some anonymous black people in the building of the nation, it shares with postmodernism the idea of contesting official discourses. most of the time, the historical novel is a parody of the slave narrative; an “attempt at recuperation” according to the formula of frederic jameson, and which criticizes the american thought with some mockery as it is shown in the novel of ishmael reed (jameson, 1991, xi). 2.1 inconsistencies in the american democratic thought reed is certainly an atypical african american writer who is also known to have displayed an entire freedom from any dogmatic positions. his skepticism against totalizing discourses that pretend to hold the truth is evidenced in flight to canada which mixes historical figures namely lincoln, harriet beecher stowe, frederick douglass, jeff davis and lee with fictitious characters like 40s, stray leechfield, princess quaw quaw tralaralara, mammy baracuda, cato the graffado, yankee jack etc., in order to invalidate some deeply rooted traditional american views (reed, 1976, 7). the onomastics of the names of the characters as presented above hints at the ironic tone of the book as names of important people like lincoln, stowe, douglass and davis coexist with some eccentric and unpronounceable names like princess quaw quaw tralaralara or cato the graffado. irony as an artistic device is used here to underrate and even contest the extent of the role that the above iconic figures are said to have played. more than any other nation in the world, america’s admiration for its constitution knows no bounds. yet, in the eyes of postmodernists like reed, who contest any canonical considerations, history has proved that the united states is yet to “[…] rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: ‘we hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal’”(king, 1963). the issue of the peculiar institution, along with the injustice suffered by less privileged citizen including women and immigrants pinpoint the inadequacy of the american grand narrative. slavery in america is a contradiction with regards to the democratic and religious background of the american thought. having fled the oppression and persecution of authoritarian regimes in europe at a time when feudality was the order of the day, the choice of the founding fathers to build a nation on the foundation of liberty and equality is well understandable. so when that ideal is challenged by the bane of slavery, the historical discourse has to find some means to mitigate its effects, hence the conspicuous role given to the abolitionist movement. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 3 published by ideas spread historical accounts on this sad episode in the experience of the american nation, clearly show the important part taken by some white figures like william lloyd garrison, wendell phillips, harriet beecher stowe and more importantly president abraham lincoln, in the emancipation of african slaves. stanley harrold’s recent publication on the subject of abolitionism not only shows its topicality and complexity, but also agrees on the fact that even though the movement would quickly become an interracial endeavor, it was originally headed by white leaders (harold, 2019, 2). furthermore, richard s. newman who highlights the contributions of two organizations namely the pennsylvanian abolition society and the massachusetts antislavery society to the constant evolution and adaptation of abolitionist ideas and strategies, pays tribute to william lloyd garrison’s ceaseless efforts in view of the eradication of slavery. he made it clear that “in both the popular imagination and in many scholarly accounts; garrison’s debut remains the benchmark of abolitionism” (newman, 2002, 1). surprisingly, some of those iconic figures are ridiculed through their fictionalized forms in the novel of reed. obviously, this attitude of reed originates from the skepticism of postmodernist writers who do not hesitates to challenge official versions of historical facts by rewriting history. but it also underlines the political manipulations and hypocrisy in relation to the idea of abolitionism itself, which once moved pulitzer prize winner and historian james mc. pherson to assert that not all “the adherents of the all spectrum of antislavery sentiment” could be rightly described as abolitionists (mc pherson, 2014, 22). abraham lincoln is one of the most respected figures of american history, for having paid his engagement for the cause of african slaves with his own life. yet, the fiction of reed challenges the official history about this heroic figure who has often been idealized, like most of the iconic figures, because they embody some important values. for instance, some rumors have been spread about him being an illiterate, a drunkard, a mad, a womanizer or a “nigger” (reed, 1976, 7). obviously, those rumors have been spread by his opponents like the confederates, and they can in no case be taken for granted. yet, they are sufficient reasons to doubt the official history: “who is to say what is fact and what is fiction […]” (reed, 1976, 7). the fictitious lincoln visits arthur swille, a white slaveholder of the south, who is also a rich aristocrat, not to convince him to emancipate his slaves, but to borrow some money from him in order to finance the war. lincoln is also suspected of having a dubious attitude and an ambiguous position toward slavery. though he has voiced his opposition to slavery, he easily condones the evil in order to gain the favor of a potential creditor: “well mr. swille, if you’ve read my campaign literature, you’d know that my position is very clear. what a man does with his property is his business” (reed, 1976, 35). of course, there is nothing wrong with a man defending his right to property, but when those belongings also include his fellow human beings, any justification whatsoever amounts to cheer cynicism. and to add injury to insult, lincoln is credited with the following assertion which he does not contradict: you yourself, mr. president, said that you were never in favor of bringing about social and political equality with them. you don’t want them to vote, either. i mean, i read that in the newspaper. they are not like us, mr. lincoln. you said yourself that there are physical differences (reed, 1976, 38). the above accusation to which lincoln reacts by admitting that he is “a little wishy-washy on the subject still” underlines the failure of the american leadership when it comes to defending the spiritual values promoted by the american democratic thought against financial interests. lincoln might well point out that he is the representative of the “[…] republic people in this great people period […]” (reed, 1976, 29), it is rather the aristocrats who rule the nation, thus invalidating the ideal of the government of the people by the people. the hypocrisy of the system is evidenced in the fact that abraham lincoln, one of its celebrated representatives, collides with arthur swille iii, the representative of the feudal order. arthur swille iii is an absolutely disreputable figure opposed to democratic values. in a nation that promotes justice, equality and freedom, this descendant of people who treated their “[…] serfs like human plows and debudded their women at will […]” is a misfit (reed, 1976, 16). from the history of his ancestors, he is the perfect single-minded essentialist who has inherited the racism, the sexism and the religious bigotry of his parents. while he treats his slaves like properties or mere objects, his wife’s sympathy for the suffragette movement and the writings of harriet beecher stowe indicates that despite the ideal of democracy, america has once been a strictly patriarchal country. by painting the character of arthur swille in a book which follows the tradition of the african american slave narrative, reed gives a new vision of the race issue which he includes in the broader construct of the american problem. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 4 published by ideas spread 2.2 deconstructing deep-seated ideas on race and ethnicity a book written about the antebellum south cannot ignore discourses that try to justify the peculiar institution. dominant constructs in favor of the exploitation of african slaves as belongings, voluntarily ignore their unalienable rights to the pursuit of happiness in a country they have helped build. the african american novel generally tries to expose the partiality of those discourses. but the merit of flight to canada lies in the fact that it does not settle for a black essentialism. on top of denouncing the prejudices suffered by black people, part of reed’s innovative and provocative literary aesthetic lies in his depiction of some negative black characters, a decision that was strongly criticized by critics of the new black aesthetic movement (martin, 1988, 60). the issue of the exclusion of african americans comes from their being originally considered as simple workhorses to ploy the farms and mere properties to be traded when necessary. treating their fellow human beings like commodities remained problematical even for the adamant supremacists of the south who needed to soothe their conscience by finding a justification in some discourses. no other means could better serve the purpose of the racists than the authority of science. when uncle robin, arthur swille’s black butler, unexpectedly inherits the castle and everything behind the gates of his master’s estate, the judge who comes to read the will, reveals his prejudiced mindset by asking a delicate question: “science says […] well, according to science, robin, the negro doesn’t […] well, your brain – it’s about the size of a mouse’s. this is a vast undertaking. are you sure you can handle it? juggling figures. filling out forms […]” (reed, 1976, 167). what is at stake here is not the capacity of robin to run the castle, since this is exactly what he has been doing for years, when his master was still alive. the judge is rather eager to perpetuate the supposed inferiority of the black; and calling to science is of no use here because the fortune of robin comes from his wise use of circumstances consequently from this intelligence which has been denied him. the irony of the situation lies in the mistake made by the racists in thinking that slaves are a bunch of submissive and childish people. knowing arthur swille, there is no way he could have allowed his negro butler to own this castle which is “[…] the very replica of king arthur’s in the holy city of camelot, the wasp’s jerusalem, the great fairy city of the old feudal order […]” (reed, 1976, 15). relying on this conceited idea of the naivety of black people, he then untrusted uncle robin with some sensitive issues like his account books as well as some other legal matters, not knowing that the latter would take advantage of his master’s dyslexia to change the terms of his testament: god helps those who help themselves […] i dabbled with the will. well, if they are not bound to respect our right, then i’ll be damned if we should respect theirs […] well anyway, swille had something called dyslexia. words came to him scrambled and jumbled. i became his reading and writing. like a computer, only this computer left itself swille’s whole estate (reed, 1976, 170-171). convinced that his butler was as innocent and docile as his compatriots, he could not have distrusted him. the truth of the matter is that this fallacy about the inability of black people was a huge swindle orchestrated by the white majority to deny them of their position in mainstream america. this injustice has not eluded reed who recalls the story behind the publication of harriet beecher stowe’s famous uncle tom’s children. contrary to the official version which states that the author was inspired by the life of josiah henson, reed suggests that she rather plagiarized him: the story she “borrowed” from josiah henson […] she’s read josiah henson’s book. that harriet was alert […] it was short but it was his. it was all he had. a man’s story is his gris-gris, you know. taking his story is like taking his gris-gris […] josiah would never have thought of waging a plot-toting suit against her (reed, 1976, 8). in trying to deconstruct all kinds of logocentric ideas, even the abolitionist movement is not spared as evidenced by the accusation against harriet beecher stowe. in their efforts to free the slaves from the antebellum south, the abolitionists had set up a network referred to as the underground railroad, to help them join canada, where they could be free at last. yet the novel destroys the myth of an antislavery canada. it is argued that the country’s big companies being possessed by american businessmen, they had certainly influenced and corrupted the place, which could not certainly be in favor of fugitive slaves. there are even some vigilantes described as being even worse than the klan people back in the united states. not only are they racist activists, but also their racism is more severe, since it is not directed against the black race only: “they beat up chinamen and pakistani in the streets. west indians they shoot” (reed, 1976, 160). all this bad report is made by a disillusioned former slave by the name of carpenter who is set to go back to america and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 5 published by ideas spread ready to face the bloodhound slave hunters of the south. no other setback could be worse than escaping to canada, only to find that the country is not the dreamland so desired. as his reputation of iconoclast might suggest, reed is not just interested in a pro-black message, flawed by a long standing dualism, taking for granted, the innocence of black people. the common idea that stipulates that all those who escaped slavery and later wrote about their ordeal, have to be regarded as heroes, is questioned. though, no famous former slave is named and parodied as with abraham lincoln or harriet beecher stowe in the case of white abolitionists, the fiction of reed insinuates that some black people, especially those who were born of white parents, often joined the abolitionist movement for some sordid and disgraceful profits (reed, 1976, 91). without sparing anybody, reed’s fiction even ventures into mentioning the existence of black slaveholders: “the slavemasters in louisiana often freed their sons by african women. some of these children became slave owners themselves” (reed, 1976, 91). moreover, while one would have expected that former slaves adopt a common front against injustice, the case of quickstill, 40s and leechfeeld -three fugitives who escaped from arthur swille’s plantation – and are incapable of taking a common stand against the bloodhounds sent after them by their master, epitomizes the lack of cohesion among the black community: cause them nigger don’t want organization. you have a organization, they be fighting over which one gone head it; they be fingtin about who gone have the money; then they be complainin about things, but when it come down to work, they nowhere to be found. look, quickstill, they bring in some women, then it’s all over (reed, 1976, 79). the above passage dealing with the reaction of 40s to the call of raven quickstill, the protagonist, underlines some issues plaguing the community like cynicism of some individuals, lack of good leadership, inaction of some members and failure of the men to fulfill their responsibility in the family. finally, reed concludes in denouncing the victimization which is common among african americans, as he gives the floor to a russian born jew who displays all the racial prejudices and injustices he and his fellows have had to undergo even in the new world. going further in this analysis shows that reed’s iconoclasm equates his eclectic writing. 3. carnivalisation or the subversion of the novel though flight to canada embraces the spirit of the historical novel, reed its author could not be expected to stay loyal to this sub-genre. his eclectic writing style is evidenced here in his choice of the parody. known as an “imitation of a particular style or genre for the purpose of satirizing it”, this literary device implemented in the novel clearly show reed’s desire to contest conventional ideas of forms and genre (quinn, 2006, 314). furthermore, discontinuity and heterogeneity are the two terms which best characterize the novel. key aspects of the genre such as storyline and timeline undergo some serious disruptions, thus epitomizing the author’s disrespect for the principle of structure as a stable and coherent system. 3.1 disruption and discontinuity: invalidating the linear and sequential fashion traditionally, the slave narrative revisited by reed and other african american authors, through the neo-slave narrative, has some autobiographical undertones. its storyline is well structured as the subject matter is the life of a former slave who escapes slavery and later writes about it in order to sensitive the opinion about the dehumanizing conditions of slave life. sentences like “i was born in tuckahoe near hillsborough, and about twelve miles from easton, in talbot county, maryland” (douglas, 2009, 15). or “i was born a slave on a plantation in franklin county, virginia […]” (washington, 2009, 20) dictate the structure of the book which embraces the normal course of the life of their heroes. some conspicuous steps which are birth, earlier life in slavery, awareness, flight and fight for the cause, punctuate the plot. with reed’s novel, the disruption appears from the onset of the book, since some steps are truncated from the normal course of events. though the incipit introduces a first person narrator as with an autobiography, this fictionalized form of narrative rather hovers around some aesthetic issues presented by raven quickskill, the protagonist of the book, who happens to be a writer. there is no paragraph that could serve as a presentation of the autobiographer not to mention the silence about the motive behind the story. in fact, of all the sequences earlier alluded to, only flight is dealt with as raven quickstill is obsessed with his crave for freedom symbolized by canada. flight to canada is definitely not a plot-oriented narrative revolving around the life of a single character, not even raven quickstill, its protagonist. had that been the case, the storyline could have started with an exposition presenting the most important characters as well as their respective role in the story. instead, the names of hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 6 published by ideas spread characters are given with no apparent hierarchy. only through an effort of construction of the significance is the reader able to understand the relations among them. as for what motivates the characters in their actions, the idea of the story as a structured sentence advocated by a. j. greimas, with some characters acting as the helpers of the protagonist and others as the opponents to his quest, cannot simply be applied here, since there is no unified course of action, no single object serving as the catalyst of the action (greimas, 1983). the truth of the matter is that this is not a single and unified storyline about the incidences in the life of a former slave who enjoys the help of some benefactors and overcomes all the obstacles raised by his quest, in order to obtain the desired victory trough a heroic impetus. even though the title of the book is reminiscent of the topic of slavery, the dehumanizing conditions of slave life, which serve as the background of the traditional conflict for slave narratives, is not what connects the events in a book, where those events are not arranged in an orderly manner. as this novel is indebted to the postmodernist concept of discontinuity, it then rejects the notion of “[…] formal ordering of the content in time […]” which characterizes traditional literature. consequently, the linear form is abandoned for a fugal form taking “[…] liberties with chronology” (childs, 2006, 92). the book is supposed to deal with the story of raven quickskill, a former slave who is “[…] the first one of swille’s slaves to read, the first to write and the first to run away […]” (reed, 1976, 14). his flight occurs during the period of the civil war, but when the book opens, the war has already ended and outstanding events in relation to that historical period have already taken place. quickstill, being a writer by profession, have been entrusted by uncle robin, another former slave who have inherited a huge estate from swille their master, to write his biography. had the novel followed the linear pattern in presenting first things first, the beginning of the book should not have presented the end of the story. in fact, the book closes on page 179 with uncle robin, the new master of the castle who has now become affluent, when it is all said and done. this is normally where raven should be ordered to write the story of uncle robin. of course, any narrative is a retrospective relation of some events which are supposed to have happened at an earlier time. but reed skips the normal exposition that should prepare the horizon of expectations of the reader with regards to the traditional biography, thus starting the narrative by a sequence which should normally intervene at the end of the story. then the story evolves on the pattern of a crossover between life at the castle in virginia and the different stations or hideouts of raven in his flight with some flashbacks of larger or smaller spans. the literary choice inevitably results in the overlapping of different and sometimes distant time periods. as form often fits with content, this fugal form is a way of challenging the authority of the narrative of history. in the same vein of contesting history, reed mixes facts with fiction. the end result of this aesthetics are some improbable situations where the radical boundaries of time are crossed. how could edgar allan poe be the biographer of the civil war as suggested by raven quickskill on page 10, since he had died in 1849, some years before the war even started? only in a story where no attention is paid to the basic principles of lifelikeness can we see an african american slave of the nineteenth century driving a carriage with all the gadgets of a modern car: […] dressed up like a gentleman, smoking a seegar, and driving a carriage which features factory climate-control air conditioning, vinyl top, am/fm stereo radio, full leather interior, power-lock doors, six-way power seat, power windows, white-wall wheels, door-edge guards, bumper impact strips, rear defroster and soft-ray glass (reed, 1976, 36). in fact, stray leechfield, the character depicted above is not the only one who, by dint of some magic realism, is made to use some inventions which will appear long after his time. while raven quickskill uses a xerox machine to keep a copy of his poem (reed, 1976, 52), uncle robin and aunt judy watch a tv show where a panel is discussing the emancipation of the slaves. (reed, 1976, 56). the climax of this carnivalization is found at the very beginning of the book where two far remote time periods namely the year 1850 and the year 1977 are mentioned in the same chapter in the account made by raven quickskill on the form of a chronicle about the ancestry of arthur swille (reed, 1976, 16-17). the anachronisms which originate from the refusal to adopt a consistent chronology, points to a more complex theoretical concern, namely the skepticism of postmodernists toward master-narratives. according to christopher butler, in challenging the closure of historical constructs they mix “[…] historical and fictional material […]” (butler, 2002, 70), thus creating a distinctive genre which linda hutcheon refers to the “historiographic metafiction” by which she means “[…] those well-known and popular novels which are both intensely selfreflexive and yet paradoxically also lay claim to historical events and personages […]” (hutcheon, 1988, 5). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 7 published by ideas spread 3.2 carnavalisation and cynicism towards orthodoxy the defining criteria of any work of fiction, including the novel, is basically the relation of invented or imagined events as opposed to factual events (quinn, 2006, 164). as a matter of fact, no knowledgeable reader can reasonably look for truth in a work of fiction, as it is commonly taken for granted that the realism of the characters and the scenes therein are mere pretense. in the words of raven quickstill, the writer portrayed in this novel of reed, who could also be considered as the mouthpiece of the author: “[…] who is to say what is fact and what is fiction”. in a novel which pretends to give another version of history and truth as opposed to commonly accepted views about key historical events like the civil war and distinguished historical figures like harriet beecher stowe or abraham lincoln, the issue of truth versus fallacy could be raised. yet, there is no real debate as to what extent is the story of reed true as far as those figures and events are concerned. the pursuit of truth is simply impossible in the work of fiction which inherently fosters invention. what is more, raven quickstill is not going to lure anybody in forcing them to believe in his story by pretending that there is some truth in his version which should be taken as the revelation of some hidden truth about the origin of a cornerstone of american fiction like uncle tom’s cabin. in stating that “new disclosures are as bizarre as the most bizarre fantasy […]” (reed, 1976, 8), he intends to bring his readers to the realization that they may have been misled by the official version. furthermore, in anticipating the disbelief of his readers who might deem his story as far-fetched, he warns them that new disclosures sometimes take people by surprise and leave no other choice than giving the feeling of not being credible, while they really are. this uncommon overlapping of past and present, fiction and fact, testifies to reed’s heterogenic writing style which inevitably adulterates the novel genre. decidedly, reed’s novel is a vast experimental field of the postmodernist idea of heterogeneity and hybridity. furthermore, his borderline inquiry is seen through the inclusion of different materials borrowed from other literary genres in order to cohere with the overall philosophy of heterodoxy. in fact, if any originality there is in the writing style of reed, this is obviously not to be found in the uniqueness of his text, but rather in its breaking of conventions. as stated earlier, the subject matter of slavery as it affects the slave who tries to escape and later writes about his ordeal is indebted to the tradition of slave narratives. more also, the text of flight to canada espouses the language of the genre as raven quicksquill is entrusted with the mission of writing the biography of a former slave who have become affluent (reed, 1976, 11). moreover, quickskill and two other slaves have the destiny of all the fugitive slaves that their masters always try to repossess (reed, 1976, 61). the slave escapees also enjoy the assistance of good-willed people in a place called fort thunderbind, a refuge for slaves where they can receive their emancipation papers (reed, 1976, 93). nonetheless, the conspicuous reference to the slave narrative genre should be seen as part of the various influences of reed as it does not prevent him from using adaptation, a literary practice inscribed in the broader framework of intertextuality. flight to canada, this long work of fiction, largely influenced by the slave narrative, stars with the poem entitled “flight to canada” as an incipit. adaptation, the fact of including prose and poetry in the same book is further evidenced by another poem entitled “the saga of third world belle, which occurs in chapter nineteen and on page 123, just after a page left blank for no apparent reason. in the book, the barriers between the theater, and the novel vanish when reed mixes the dialogues of a play shown on television with the conversation and the description of a love scene between quickskill and quaw quaw from, page 99 to page 103. apart from imitating the formulaic structure of the slave narrative, reed further parodies some well-known literary works like the myth of king arthur by naming the wealthy and influential slaveholder of his story after him (reed, 1976, 15). through this controversial figure, reed questions the american democratic thought as he pinpoints the corruptive influence of the new aristocracy on democracy. moreover, he explores the dark side of humanity when he borrows the formulaic structure of the story of shakespeare’s hamlet to denounce the cynicism of the new american bourgeoisie, ready to sacrifice all moral values for their unlimited ambitions. he also shares the inclination of the postmodernists for freaks as he portrays the specter of arthur swille’s dead son who appears to his mother. like the father of hamlet, he emerges from the world of the dead to reveal the very reasons of his misfortune. unlike the dead king, arthur’s unfortunate son appears as a real freak since he wears the skin of the crocodile who murdered him (reed, 1976, 125-128). the typology of the first pages of this chapter written in italics also testify to this decision to jettison the rules of the genre. the use of the italics could be explained by the fact that the passage which goes from page 7 to 11 is an instance of metafiction, as it offers some information about the genesis of uncle tom’s cabin as well as the outcome of “flight to canada”, and the way it has entirely changed the destiny of raven quicksquill, to the point of making him an authorized biographer and a confirmed writer. he can now have the rich and profitable career of carpenter which he has always dreamt about. this carpenter is a freed negro whose writing style embodies the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 8 published by ideas spread heterodoxy of reed himself: “he was so much against slavery that he had begun to include prose and poetry in the same book, so that there would be no arbitrary boundaries between them” (reed, 1976, 8). his characters being writers themselves, this gives a self-reflexive undertone to the book which at times resemble more to a critical work than to a fiction book. this much is sure: reed’s creation is highly hybrid and self-reflexive with a lot of intertextuality adopted from other literary genres. this is an indication of the “borderline inquiries” he chooses to embark on. with flight to canada, “the borders between literary genres have become fluid […]” (hutcheon, 1988, 9). 4. conclusion reed’s novel is deeply entrenched in the tradition of the slave narrative and its pro-black message of the recognition and the defense of the rights of african american people. yet in taking a stand against every dogmatic position, he debunks this black essentialism while invalidating all predominant constructs as he denounces racism as well as the hypocrisy of the american democratic thought. in his cynicism against conventional ideas of forms and genre, the basic rules of the novel have been jettisoned. his postmodernist aesthetics of discontinuity and heterogeneity have imposed some serious disruptions to storyline and timeline, those key components of any fiction work. furthermore, in his choice to parody the slave narrative, reed has offered a conspicuous role to intertextuality through several instances of adaptations which not only testify to his “borderline inquiries” but also open african american literature to other possibilities. consequently, if the borders between literary genres could become fluid, the hybrid novel thus obtained epitomizes the need for the interpenetration of cultures as a solution to the human tragedy of essentialism. references butler, c. (2002). post modernism, a very short introduction, oxford: oxford university press. childs, p., & roger, f. (2006). the routledge dictionary of literary terms, london: routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203462911 douglas, f. (2009). narrative of the life of frederick douglas, an american slave, written by himself, london: england, the belknap press of harvard university press, reprint. fox, r. e. (2017). “reed ishmael” in african american literature, oxford: oxford university press. gates, h. l. (1988). the signifying monkey, oxford: oxford university press. gottschalk, l. (1969). understanding history: a primer of historical method, 2nd edition, new york: knopf greimas (algirdas julien), du sens ii, paris: ed. du seuil, 1983. harris, w. j. (2014). “black aesthetics” in african american literature, oxford: oxford university press. harrold, s. (2019). american abolitionism, its direct political impact from colonial times into reconstruction, charlottesville: university of virginia press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvcszzs0 hutcheon, l. (1988). a poetics of postmodernism, new york: routledge jameson, f. (1991). postmodernism or the cultural logic of late capitalism, durham, duke university press. https://doi.org/10.1215/9780822378419 king, m. l. (1963). “i have a dream”. retrieved jun 22, 2020 from https://www.archives.gov/files/press/exhibits/dream-speech.pdf martin, r. (1988). ishmael reed and the new black aesthetic critics, london: the macmillan press ltd. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-19166-6 mc, p., & james, m. (2014). the struggle for equality; abolitionists and the negro in the civil war and reconstruction, princeton. new jersey: princeton university press; reprint. newman, r. s. (2009). the transformation of american abolitionism, fighting slavery in the early republic, chapel hill: the university of north carolina press. reed, i. (1976). flight to canada, new york: scribner paperback fiction. sale, m. (2006). “historical novel” in african american literature, oxford: oxford university press quinn, edward (2006) a dictionary of literary and thematic terms, new york: facts on file, inc. washington, b. t. (2009). up from slavery, new york: the floating press, reprint. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 9 published by ideas spread copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n3p108 108 published by ideas spread research on influencing factors of college students' willingness to use mobile learning qun wang1 & yong yu1 1 hubei university of medicine, china correspondence: yong yu, hubei university of medicine, shiyan, hubei, 442000, china. received: may 28, 2025; accepted: june 9, 2025; published: june 12, 2025 abstract as a new way of learning, mobile learning is no longer limited by time and space. college students, the main audience group of mobile learning, study the factors that affect college students' willingness to use mobile learning is helpful to improve their motivation for mobile learning. therefore, based on the theory of technology acceptance model, information literacy theory, self-management theory, and social influence theory, this study designed a questionnaire on factors influencing college students' willingness to use mobile learning by taking variables such as information literacy, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, self-learning management, social influence, and flow experience as dimensions. in this paper, 535 students at hubei university of medicine were investigated, and structural equation model analysis was used to verify the theoretical model and discuss the effect relationship among the variables. the results proved that information literacy has a positive impact on perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness; perceived ease of use has a positive effect on perceived usefulness; perceived usefulness, self-learning management, and social influence had positive effects on immersion experience. keywords: mobile learning, usage willingness, technology acceptance model, influencing factors 1. introduction the development of mobile communication, the continuous upgrade of mobile devices and the gradual improvement of mobile software makes it more and more common for learners to use mobile learning, which breaks the traditional way of in person learning and greatly satisfies people's need for continuous learning [1]. when conducting mobile learning, people can use mobile devices to obtain many learning resources in a good network communication environment, and make reasonable use of fragmented time to learn, so as to improve their comprehensive quality [2]. professor huang ronghuai of beijing normal university put forward that "mobile learning is the learning that learners take place in non-fixed and non-preset positions, or the learning that takes place by effective use of mobile technology" [3]. at present, the definition of mobile learning refers to a kind of learning that can take place at any time and place with the help of mobile devices. mobile computing devices used in mobile learning must be able to effectively present learning content and provide two-way communication between teachers and learners. mobile learning has changed the time, place, method, and content of learning dramatically. with the popularity of mobile devices, convenient mobile learning is more and more popular among college students [4]. the sudden outbreak of covid-19 affected offline classroom teaching, and mobile learning gradually became the mainstream learning method during covid-19 [5], which helped teachers and students realize the goal of "stopping classes without stopping learning". although mobile learning has many advantages, students’ willingness to use it will be affected by some factors. foreign scholars ahmed alsswey and others found that cultural and social factors will have an impact on the acceptance and adoption of mobile learning in the arab gulf countries [6]; chinese scholar he huimin's research on influencing college students' willingness to use mobile devices to learn english by using unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (utaut) has found [7] that, among the design variables, perceived self-efficacy, content and resources of educational resources, and performance expectation have great influence on behavioral intention. in this paper, the influencing factors of college students' willingness to use mobile learning were explored by taking college students as the research object. based on the technology acceptance model (tam), the influencing factors of college students' willingness to use mobile learning were discussed. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 109 published by ideas spread 2. theoretical basis and research hypothesis 2.1 theoretical basis 2.1.1 tam tam was proposed by american scholar fred d. davis in 1989 and developed based on the theory of reasoned action (tra) in the field of information system/computer technology. it is mainly used to explain and predict people's acceptance degree of the emerging information technologies [8]. tam takes external variables, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and usage willingness as important structures. as the two key variables of the model, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use will affect the user's attitude to use, and then the user's specific willingness to use, and finally the user's specific use behavior. perceived usefulness refers to the extent to which a person believes that using a specific system can help his or her work. perceived ease of use refers to the extent to which a person accepts the difficulty of using a system [9]. 2.1.2 information literacy theory the concept of information literacy was first put forward by p. g. zurkowski in 1974, which refers to people's comprehensive ability to identify, acquire and apply information [10]. with the continuous development of information technology, information literacy has been given new connotation, and the elements of information literacy have also been improved and developed. the four elements of information literacy include information awareness, information knowledge, information ability and information morality. information awareness refers to people's keen perception, judgment, and insight of information; information knowledge refers to theories, knowledge and methods related to information; information capability refers to the ability to understand and acquire information and the ability to use information and information technology; information morality is the ideology and behavior standard used to regulate the relationship between people. in this study, information literacy refers to learners' attitudes, methods, and abilities towards information in the process of mobile learning. 2.1.3 self-management theory drucker, a contemporary management scientist, put forward the theory of "self-management" in 1954. selfmanagement refers to the self-management of an individual to himself and his goals, thoughts, behaviors, and psychology to motivate, restrain and manage himself. the main contents of self-management include their own management of their own time, health, learning, emotional intelligence, and other content. the main contents of self-management include the management of your own time, health, learning, emotional intelligence, etc. people constantly meet their own needs, enrich the original knowledge structure, obtain valuable information, and ultimately achieve success without independent learning, and independent learning depends on self-management of learning. in this study, self-learning management refers to learners' arrangements and plans for their mobile learning. 2.1.4 social influence theory kelman, the proponent of the social influence theory, hold the view that social influence refers to the fact that individuals' thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors will be more or less affected under the influence of others or the external environment. the social influence will affect the subjective norms of individuals through compliance, identification, and internalization [11]. some scholars have revealed that social influence will have an indirect impact on college students' willingness to use mobile learning [12]. in this study, social influence refers to the extent to which learners' own willingness to use is influenced by others important people, such as teachers, friends, parents, etc. 2.2 research hypothesis according to the technology acceptance model and relevant theoretical basis, this study takes information literacy, self-learning management and social influence as external variables, retains the two factors of perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use in the model, and adds the intermediate variable of flow experience combined with relevant literature, which has strong subjective feelings. since only the influencing factors of college students' willingness to use mobile learning are discussed, the result variable is only the usage willingness. the research model established in this study is shown in figure 1. information literacy and perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use: the information literacy of college students is that they can judge when they need information and know how to obtain information and how to evaluate and effectively use the information they need according to their own ability. when college students have good information literacy, they can use their information ability to better choose, understand and use information. therefore, information literacy has a positive impact on perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. kuang hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 110 published by ideas spread yun et al. believed that information literacy has a significant positive impact on perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use in the study of the factors affecting the acceptance of flipped classroom of students in a vocational college [13]. the following hypothesis was proposed. h1: information literacy positively affects perceived usefulness. h2: information literacy positively affects perceived ease of use. perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness: in the technology acceptance model, perceived usefulness is affected by perceived ease of use. in this study, the more convenient mobile learning is, the more useful it is for college students. through an empirical study, xu shun discovered that in the study on influencing factors of learners' willingness to use mobile learning platforms, perceived ease of use variable would have a significant impact on perceived usefulness [14]. the following hypothesis was proposed. h3: perceived ease of use positively affects perceived usefulness. perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, self-learning management, social influence, and flow experience: research shows that the higher the sense of usefulness is, the stronger the sense of flow experience is [15]. hsu c l and lu h p used the technology acceptance model to predict users’ acceptance of online games and believed that perceived ease of use would have a positive impact on the flow experience [16]. people with strong selflearning management ability have strong self-discipline and strong anti-interference ability, and thus have stronger flow experience in mobile learning. lulu chen found that social influence would have a positive impact on mobile live broadcast users' flow experience in her research on factors influencing their willingness to pay [17]. the following hypothesis was proposed. h4: perceived usefulness positively affects flow experience. h5: perceived ease of use positively affects flow experience. h6: self-learning management positively affects flow experience. h7: social influences positively affects flow experiences. flow experience and usage willingness: the impact of flow experience on usage willingness is positive in many research fields. when college students are immersed in mobile learning, it means that they have a good experience of using mobile learning, and the pleasure brought by mobile learning will increase their intention to use mobile learning. h8: flow experiences positively affects usage willingness. figure 1. model assumption hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 111 published by ideas spread 3. research method 3.1 sample according to relevant theories, a questionnaire was prepared and an online survey was conducted by using the questionnaire star. the respondents were undergraduates of hubei university of medicine. a total of 842 questionnaires were collected, and 535 valid questionnaires were obtained after screening, which means that all the respondents have experience in using mobile learning. among college students with mobile learning experience, male students account for 42.8%, female students account for 57.2%. in terms of the duration of using mobile devices for mobile learning, 204 students use mobile devices for 2-4 hours a day, accounting for 38.1% of the total. secondly, 136 people use mobile devices to study for 4-6 hours every day, accounting for 25.4%. meanwhile, 134 students, accounting for 25% of the total, study on mobile devices for 0-2 hours a day. the number of people who use mobile devices for 6-8 hours is 42, accounting for 7.9%. at least 19 people (3.6%) use mobile devices to study for more than 8 hours. the overall conclusion is that college students use mobile devices to study for more than 2 hours a day. 3.2 reliability and validity analysis 3.2.1 validity analysis validity test is to verify the validity of the questionnaire, that is, whether the questions in the questionnaire can truly and effectively reflect the purpose of the research. in this paper, principal component analysis and variance maximization orthogonal rotation method in exploratory factor analysis were used to extract common factors, and then confirmatory factor analysis was used to verify the degree of fitting between the generated model and the sample data. exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis were analyzed with spss23.0 and amos24.0 software, respectively. 3.2.1.1 exploratory factor analysis before the factor analysis, it is necessary to conduct kmo test and bartlett sphericity test to judge whether the sample data is suitable for the factor analysis. the results illustrated that kmo value is 0.907 and bartlett sphericity test is less than 0.010, which indicated that the data is suitable for the factor analysis. exploratory factor analysis was carried out on all items, and the factor load of the item "if the conditions of equipment and resources are met, i am willing to conduct mobile learning" was less than 0.4, and the item "i am willing to recommend people around to use mobile learning" did not support the dimension of perceived ease of use in theory, and was also deleted. the kmo value of the second factor analysis was 0.903, the bartlett sphericity test was less than 0.010, and the remaining 28 items were restricted to extract 7 common factors. the variance of the total variance interpretation obtained by the principal component analysis method was 62.707%. the component matrix after rotation obtained by the maximum variance method is shown in table 1, including the factor load values of 28 items in 7 dimensions. table 1. results of exploratory factor analysis items component 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 mobile learning can improve my academic performance. 0.778 mobile learning can improve my learning efficiency. 0.763 mobile learning allows me to study in my spare time. 0.749 mobile learning is helpful to my life. 0.751 i can skillfully use mobile devices for learning. 0.746 mobile learning interface interaction is simple. 0.795 it doesn't take much effort to adapt to mobile learning. 0.673 mobile learning always makes me forget about the world around me. 0.784 when it comes to mobile learning, time always seems to fly by. 0.739 when i use mobile learning, my attention will not be distracted elsewhere. 0.705 when mobile learning encounters difficulties, i will use network information as an important reference to 0.709 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 112 published by ideas spread find answers. when conducting mobile learning, i can quickly identify which learning resources are really useful. 0.678 in mobile learning, i can summarize and integrate the information obtained. 0.573 in mobile learning, i will consciously resist bad information, not to create and spread junk information. 0.467 i can use mobile learning to solve the problems i encounter. 0.476 when i encounter difficulties in learning, i believe i can solve them independently. 0.468 i can reasonably arrange my time for mobile learning according to my learning goals. 0.605 after starting mobile learning, i can complete the learning task without interference. 0.644 i am a self-disciplined person in learning and research. 0.806 in life, i can easily deal with the relationship between entertainment and learning. 0.763 i can effectively manage my study time and complete my homework easily. 0.744 i can independently make learning plans and complete learning tasks. 0.718 my friend's recommendation will affect my use of mobile learning. 0.758 my teacher's recommendation will influence my use of mobile learning. 0.823 my family's recommendation will influence my use of m-learning. 0.693 i enjoy interacting with teachers and students when i'm in mobile learning. 0.656 i like others to praise and reply to my learning experience. 0.748 i like to share interesting things about my study on social media. 0.809 extraction method: principal component analysis. rotation method: kaiser's method of maximum variance normalization. a. the rotation has converged after 7 iterations. 3.2.1.2 confirmatory factor analysis structural validity: in the first confirmatory factor analysis, items with factor load lower than 0.5 in the dimension were deleted. among them, the items "when mobile learning encounters difficulties, i will take network information as an important reference for seeking answers" and "when mobile learning, i will consciously resist bad information and not create and spread junk information" had factor loads less than 0.5, so they were deleted. the fitting index was obtained after the second confirmatory factor analysis of the remaining 26 items, as shown in table 2. all indicators meet the fitness criteria, which indicates that the model fits well and the structure validity of the questionnaire is satisfactory. table 2. fitting index χ2/df gfi agfi cfi ifi tli srmr rmsea fitting index 2.418 0.908 0.884 0.927 0.927 0.914 0.045 0.052 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 113 published by ideas spread convergent validity: convergent validity emphasizes those measures that should belong to the same factor (indicator) and do fall under the same factor when measured. average variance extraction (ave) and combined reliability (cr) are often used to evaluate the convergent validity under the same dimension. studies have demonstrated that ave values >0.4 and cr values >0.6 indicate that the convergent validity is within the acceptable range [18]. in this study, the ave value of each dimension is 0.413-0.571, and the cr value is 0.6860.877, which indicates that the combination reliability and convergence validity of each dimension pass the test. discriminant validity: to verify the differentiation validity of each factor, this study conducted a confirmatory factor test with amos 24.0 software to compare the fit of seven factor, six factor, five factor, four factor, three factor, two factor and single factor models. it can be seen from table 3 that the seven-factor model has the best fitting degree, so the seven-factor model has good discriminative validity. table 3. discriminative validity analysis model factors χ2 df χ2/df rmesa gfi cfi model 1(seven-factor model) pu,peu,fe,il,slm,si,uw 672.264 278 2.418 0.052 0.908 0.927 model 2 (six-factor model) pu+peu,fe,il,slm,si,uw 930.601 284 3.277 0.065 0.87 0.88 model 3 (six-factor model) pu,peu+fe,il,slm,si,uw 1050.409 284 3.699 0.071 0.842 0.857 model 4 (six-factor model) pu,peu,fe+il,slm,si,uw 918.978 284 3.236 0.065 0.869 0.882 model 5 (five-factor model) pu+peu+fe,il,slm,si,uw 1242.94 289 4.301 0.079 0.826 0.823 model 6 (five-factor model) pu,peu+fe+il,slm,si,uw 1096.605 289 3.794 0.072 0.842 0.85 model 7(five-factor model) pu,peu,fe+il+slm,si,uw 1112.427 289 3.849 0.073 0.841 0.847 model 8(four-factor model) pu+peu+fe+il,slm,si,uw 1407.892 293 4.805 0.084 0.803 0.793 model 9 (four-factor model) pu,peu+fe+il+slm,si,uw 1378.405 293 4.704 0.083 0.794 0.798 mode 10(three-factor model) pu+peu+fe+il+slm,si,uw 1859.81 296 6.283 0.099 0.732 0.709 model 11(three-factor model) pu,peu+fe+il+slm+si,uw 1647.412 296 5.566 0.092 0.769 0.749 model 12(two-factor model) pu+peu+fe+il+slm+si,uw 2131.158 298 7.152 0.107 0.71 0.659 model 13(single factor model) pu+peu+fe+il+slm+si+uw 2296.493 299 7.681 0.112 0.694 0.628 pu: perceived usefulness; peu: perceived ease of use; fe: flow experience; il: information literacy; slm: self-learning management; si: social influence; uw: usage willingness. 3.2.2 reliability analysis reliability test is the reliability test of the questionnaire, which is to test the internal consistency of each dimension measurement items. this paper used cronbach's alpha coefficient to test the reliability of the data. the larger cronbach's alpha coefficient is, the higher the reliability of each variable is. in general, cronbach's alpha coefficient is above 0.6, which indicates that the questionnaire data had good reliability [19]. spss 23.0 was used for the reliability analysis of the questionnaire data. cronbach's alpha coefficient of each latent variable in the first reliability test is 0.641-0.876. after the validity test, the cronbach's alpha coefficient results of each latent variable in the second reliability test are shown in table 4. cronbach's alpha coefficients of all potential variables are greater than 0.6, which indicates that the measurement reliability of potential variables in the questionnaire measured by this model is relatively good. table 4. reliability analysis variable cronbach’s α coefficient quantity of measurement items perceived usefulness 0.838 4 perceived ease of use 0.718 3 flow experience 0.750 3 information literacy 0.733 4 self-learning management 0.876 6 social influence 0.742 3 usage willingness 0.685 3 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 114 published by ideas spread 4. model analysis structural equation model (sem) was used to test the relationship between constructs. after examining multiple indicators suitable for the models according to bollen's (1989) suggestion, the goodness of fit of each model was determined using several statistical functions. the parameters were chi-square/degree of freedom (χ2/df), adjusted goodness of fit index (agfi), comparative fit index (cfi) and root mean square error approximation (rmsea) [20]. amos24.0 software was used for data analysis. 5. research results through structural equation model analysis, the fit of the whole model was tested, and the results showed that the fit of the model is good. χ2/df=2.665, which was less than 3 suggested by kline [21]. among the similarity indicators, the goodness of fit index (gfi), adjusted goodness of fit index (agfi), comparative fit index (cfi), incremental fit index (ifi) and tucker-lewis index (tli) are all close to 0.9, which indicates that the model similarity indicators fit well. in the anisotropy indexes, root mean residual (rmr)<0.05 and root-mean-square error of approximation (rmsea)< 0.08, which suggests that the model anisotropy indexes are well fitted (see table 5 for data results). information literacy and perceived usefulness (β=0.471, p<0.001), information literacy and perceived ease of use (β= 0.663, p<0.001), perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness (β= 0.224, p<0.01), perceived usefulness and immersion experience (β=0.274, p<0.001), self-learning management and flow experience (β= 0.454, p<0.001), social impact and immersion experience (β= 0.180, p<0.01) and immersion experience and willingness to use (β= 0.493, p<0.001) indicate that the hypothesis h1, h2, h3, h5, h6, h7, and h8 is supported. according to the results of the test model, no evidence was found to support hypothesis h4. the results of path analysis to verify the hypothesis model are shown in figure 2 and table 6. table 5. model fitting index χ2/df gfi agfi cfi ifi tli rmr rmsea fitting index 2.665 0.896 0.873 0.911 0.911 0.899 0.041 0.056 figure 2. final model table 6. path analysis for hypothesis testing hypothetical path standardization coefficient β c.r. p pass the test peu <--il 0.663 8.522 *** yes pu <--il 0.471 6.193 *** yes pu <--peu 0.224 3.04 0.002 yes fe <--pu 0.274 4.282 *** yes hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 115 published by ideas spread fe <--si 0.18 2.988 0.003 yes fe <--slm 0.454 6.772 *** yes fe <--peu -0.096 -1.475 0.14 no uw <--fe 0.493 6.866 *** yes peu: perceived ease of use; il: information literacy; pu: perceived usefulness; fe: flow experience; si: social influence; slm: self-learning management; uw: usage willingness *p<0.05**p<0.01***p<0.001 6. discussion based on tam, this study explored the effects of information literacy, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, self-learning management, social influence, and flow experience on college students' willingness to use mobile learning. information literacy, self-learning management and social influence are the external variables, and flow experience is the intermediate variable. our research results proved that the factor that directly affects college students' willingness to use mobile learning is immersion experience. when college students are completely immersed in mobile learning, they will have great pleasure in mobile learning and will not be bored for a long time, and then will have a stronger willingness to use. the variables that directly affect flow experience are perceived usefulness, self-learning management, and social influence. the influence intensity of the three factors was self-learning management (0.45) > perceived usefulness (0.27) > social influence (0.18). college students with stronger self-learning management have stronger self-discipline and are more likely to be immersed in the state of mobile learning. however, studies have shown that whether college students can enter the state of immersion learning has nothing to do with self-learning management [22]. more mobile learning users think that the knowledge of mobile learning is useful. when they devote themselves to mobile learning, they will have better immersion experience. flow experience is often affected by the external environment, and the positive influence of the external environment will significantly improve the level of flow experience. the positive influence of perceived usefulness on information literacy and perceived ease of use was 0.47 and 0.22, respectively, and the positive influence of perceived ease of use on information literacy was 0.66. college students with higher information literacy have stronger information awareness, attitude, and evaluation ability, which has a positive impact on the perceived usefulness and ease of use of mobile learning. similarly, perceived ease of use has a positive impact on perceived usefulness in line with the assumptions in the technology acceptance model. the intensity of the variables that have a positive impact on college students' willingness to use mobile learning is as follows: immersion experience (0.49)>self-learning management (0.22)>perceived usefulness (0.14)>social impact (0.09)>information literacy (0.08)>perceived ease of use (0.03). according to our research, immersion experience will have a positive impact on college students' intention to use mobile learning, which is consistent with the research results that immersion experience will have an impact on the intention to use/participate in/purchase something [23-24]. once immersed in mobile learning, mobile learners will have a pleasant experience of mobile learning. the stronger the sense of immersion is, the stronger the willingness to use mobile learning will be. this requires mobile learning developers to focus on the specific needs of college students' mobile use and introduce gamification elements to make mobile learning more attractive to users. college students with strong self-learning management ability have the strong willingness to use, and self-learning management will have a positive effect on the willingness to use mobile learning [25]. the covid-19 has made online mobile learning the main way of learning. although online learning abandons the disadvantages of traditional learning, it increases the factors that interfere with and tempt learning [26]. therefore, only by actively improving self-learning management ability can college students consciously resist the temptation and enhance their willingness to use mobile learning. in the technology acceptance model, perceived usefulness and usage attitude jointly influence usage willingness, while usage attitude is jointly influenced by perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. therefore, perceived usefulness and ease of use will directly or indirectly have a positive impact on usage willingness. the results of this study are consistent with the theory of tam. when college students feel that mobile learning is simple, convenient, and fruitful, they will have a higher willingness to use mobile learning [27]. the willingness to use mobile learning is often influenced by mobile learning users such as classmates, friends or teachers, and individual willingness is largely influenced by society. therefore, the acceptance and support of mobile learning in the external environment will promote college students to use mobile learning more actively. finally, the results of this study revealed that college students with high information literacy will have a strong intention to use mobile learning. therefore, improving college students' information literacy will help improve their intention to use mobile learning. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 116 published by ideas spread acknowledge this work was supported by the 2018 hubei provincial education department humanities and social sciences research project (grant no. 18d072) author contributions qun wang (1981-), female, luzhou, sichuan province, professor: conceptualization, writing original draft, data curation, formal analysis, funding acquisition. yong yu (1982-) (corresponding author), male, shiyan, hubei province, professor: methodology, software, supervision, review & editing. references [1] göksu, i̇., & atici, b. 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(2021). a study on the continuous use willingness of college students to online teaching platforms. china education informatization, (22), 7–13. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). microsoft word p1-10 humanities and social science research; vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v6n2p1 1 published by ideas spread the lived experience of being an adoptee michael galea1 & cristina sant cassar1 1 university of malta, malta correspondence: michael galea, university of malta, malta. orcid id: 0000-0002-3459-5992. e-mail: michael.galea@um.edu.mt received: march 28, 2023; accepted: april 16, 2023; published: april 18, 2023 abstract adoption can initiate many sentiments. notable differences between adopted and nonadopted children are clearly indicated in research. because limited research looks at the gradual development of the adoptee, this research looked at the lived experiences of maltese adoptees and their coping mechanisms. following smith and osborn (2015) guide on interpretative phenomenological approach, six participants shared their experiences in semi-structured interviews conducted remotely. four superordinate themes and ten subordinate themes emerged from the data analysis. findings showed unique ways by adoptees to accept the often challenging reality of the adoption process. resilience was clearly what led adoptees moving on with life. society and related bodies are therefore called to avail professional services to assist adoptees in their coping of a painful past. keywords: adoption, adoptee, lived experience, interpretative phenomenology analysis, qualitative research 1. introduction adoption is a personal phenomenon for both adoptive parents and adopted children and can be a complex legal and moral process. as finely (2003) notes, adoption is the interference in the infant’s life who has no parents or whose parents are unable to raise them. adoption, as the legal process of taking a child from their biological family and raising them as one’s own, can initiate many sentiments (finely, 2003). although this definition of adoption can be clear and straightforward to understand, the concerns and themes that may arise from this subject matter can be delicate. while adoption brings happiness, excitement, and affection, these sentiments may be followed by feelings of sadness, regret, and guilt (finely, 2003). baltimore (2009) claims that adoption research is often criticized because participants who have been adopted do not have the opportunity to communicate their realities in the absence of the researcher’s presumed beliefs and preferences. unfortunately, the development of adoption throughout history has been theoretically imposed by misjudgements, negative beliefs, and stigmatization. in addition, hostile impressions about adoption have been disseminated through digital media to gain the attention of the masses (wegar, 2000). in-depth research on adoption is essential in resolving this stigma by questioning and analyzing adopted individual’s lived experiences whilst identifying therapeutic interventions that can be utilized to support them. the national statistics office (2010) found that the registration of maltese adoption reveals that adoption is prevalent among maltese families, as 71 adoptions were completed yearly between 2004 and 2008. 2018 was the best year for adoptions in the last 10 years. of 54 adoptions, over 70% were from india. on the other hand, only 27 maltese children were adopted in the last decade (zammit, 2022). in this study, a qualitative approach was chosen to identify and better understand issues on how adoption impacted adopted individuals’ identity, relationships, and trauma. several adoption studies find notable differences between adopted and nonadopted children and adolescents. however, little research has looked at the gradual development of life experience from the perspective of an adopted individual. even in malta, where the population and sample size of adopted individuals is relatively small, little research has been carried out to appreciate and listen to adoptees’ lived experiences (cassar, 2010). the main psychological challenges and effects adoptees encounter throughout their lives as adoptees include loss and grief, challenges with identity formulation, lack of pride and self confidence (reynolds et al., 2021). literature presents a plethora of related themes, which can be surmised into four categories, namely: a) adjustment and bonding, b) identity formation, c) race and adoption, and d) post-adoption support requirements (walton, 2015). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 2 published by ideas spread while all the research addressed adoptees’ actual experiences, several gaps in the literature were discovered, such as the lack of social services assistance throughout the adoptee’s life and the lack of knowledge and information on how to cope with racial, ethnic, and cultural challenges. according to reynolds et al. (2021), adoptive parents must be trained to help with coping methods if and when problematic behavior is demonstrated by the adoptee caused by a variety of challenges. it is evident that there is a severe lack of post-adoption counseling for adoptees. for the adoption process to be successful, there must be communication, support, and expert assistance. for this study, two theoretical frameworks, namely the primal wound theory and attachment theory, will help to guide the discussion of this theme and to further understand the repercussions of adoption. according to verrier’s (2003) primal wound theory, this wound follows immediately after birth, as the detachment of the birth mother impacts the adopted child by feelings of neglect and void. based on this theory, adoption results in a primal/narcissistic wound that leaves the child craving connection with the biological mother due to the separation. the repercussions result in emotions of worthlessness, doubt, hopelessness, and solitude, as well as emotional/behavioral issues, relational issues, low self-esteem, and thoughts of unworthiness. similarly, attachment theory also helps to guide this study. attachment theory postulates that humans have a basic need for protective attachment figures to survive, from the beginning of life itself (flaherty & sadler, 2011). literature demonstrates that both adoptees and adoptive parents may face various social and psychological challenges throughout their lives, but sadly, neither group receives the necessary help or training (darnell et al., 2017). scarvelis et al. (2017) noted that adoptive parents had difficulty teaching their kids coping skills. support is essential for adopted people; it is not optional. the primal wound theory expressed a sense of loss concerning the hurt caused by the birth mother’s separation. in addition, attachment theory determines multiple perspectives in understanding a child’s specific behavior, demands, and challenges since it provides a theoretical, detailed, and realistic framework for making sense of the process involved (walker, 2008). 2. methods 2.1 participants this study's main goal was to seek and focus on the lived experiences of adopted adults in malta. the research question was: what is the lived experience of being an adoptee ? this study intended to clarify such research aims, namely to better understand the real life experiences of adoptees, to identify which factors may help or hinder the adoption process not only prior, but also during and afterwards. hopefully, this may result in better and more concrete recommendations to further assist adoptees in their challenging journeys. an ipa was chosen as it offers a thorough analysis of the human lived experience that can be represented in its own concepts instead of following pre-established categorizing frameworks. because most studies seek the experiences from the adoptive parents’ perspectives (macdonald & mcsherry, 2011), this study looked at the lived experiences of the adoptees themselves. pringle et al. (2011) argue that, while a small sample size as in the case of an ipa, may be considered a constraint, if the findings obtained are meaningful, clear, and associated with current research, they can still be transferable. through purposive sampling, six competent participants were included, male and female adults between 18 and 35 years who were adopted (local and foreign). the inclusion criteria included participants who were interested in conveying their stories and had no cognitive impairment that might have affected their communication since this study’s objective is to collect adoptees’ stories and their thoughts and feelings about their adoption. potential participants were chosen and contacted through an intermediary from the foundation of social welfare services to exclude any pressure for participation. participants were given an information letter about the study. furthermore, they signed a consent form after all related information was relayed to them, individually by the researcher. the original objective of this study was to explore the lived experience of adoptees adopted from local and foreign countries, however, through intermediary, the potential participants were all adopted from romania. 2.2 procedures a semi-structured interview was the method for gathering data in this research, as it gives participants the freedom to reflect, express and be heard thus producing in-depth findings, according to the guidelines by smith et al. (2009). a pilot study with one adoptee, who was not included in the final study, was done, to further guide the researcher in this research. free psychological support was also available to participants who sought further help as from the interviews. however, no one availed of this service. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 3 published by ideas spread 2.3 measure interviews lasted around one hour. they were conducted virtually via zoom at a time convenient to the participants. translation into english was done by a professional translator, as all interviews were conducted in maltese, the preferred choice by all participants. participants were interviewed on their lived experience of adoption and its impact on their emotional well-being, the challenges they encountered, their relationships, and their identity. moreover, the questions addressed coping mechanisms and support approaches utilized throughout this delicate phase. further questions were asked to examine the research issue and objectives of this exploration and help keep the conversation running smoothly (smith et al., 2009). to validate the comprehensive and thorough details acquired from the adoptees, probes and prompts were also used, such as “can you elaborate further”, “can you give me an example”, and “how has it affected you”, among others (parahoo, 2006). 2.4 data analysis according to smith and osborn (2015), it is essential that observations, participants’ accounts, and data on their expressions are collected. the researcher observed for non-verbal signs to assess the reliability and richness of the participant’s accounts. therefore, field notes were ideal for jotting down non-verbal signs and behaviors that could not be acquired through audio recordings. furthermore, the researcher obtained approval from participants to contact them if any additional explanation was needed, but this was not required. the six participants in this research were all residing in malta and adopted from romania between the ages of 3 months and 2 years, with five being female and one male. to maintain anonymity, the participants’ ages were not specified, but they ranged from mid-twenties to late thirties. as mentioned earlier, a pilot study was utilized as a trial of the interview sample to determine any issues that may arise whilst the author is learning. even so, the study was a successful trial. the researcher acknowledged her role in the research through personal reflexivity that may have affected the participant’s answers throughout the interview (parahoo, 2006). relative to holloway and freshwater’s (2007) suggestion, a reflective diary is considered essential to the interpretive and systematic approach. smith et al. (2009) define the interpretation procedure as a continuous process which can be done by looking at the transcript in a structured manner. hence, the transcribed interviews were analyzed utilizing smith et al.’s (2009) strategies, namely step 1: linking to accounts of the participants; step 2: identifying emergent themes; step 3: forming connections between emergent themes, and step 4: finalizing the narrative account of the findings. 2.5 ethical approval an intermediary contacted all participants, supplying them with an information letter and consent form which were duly explained to them. participants returned the signed consent forms to the researcher, and agreed on time and place of their own choosing for the interview to be conducted. participants were informed that participation was voluntary, that they could stop and withdraw from the study at any time, without any adverse consequences, that all data will be anonymised, thereby any publications related to this study later on will not have any information which can identify the participants. the coded audio recordings and transcripts were saved on the author’s password-protected private computer and kept in an encoded design. all ethical clearance from the university of malta faculty of health sciences research ethics board was duly given. 3. results using the methods described by smith et al. (2009), a range of emerging themes from the participants’ life stories were extracted from the interview transcripts. the superordinate and subordinate themes designed in this study and any interpretations that answer the primary research topic are presented in this chapter. analysis of interview transcripts revealed that metaphors and word repetition were the most frequently utilized language components among participants. metaphors can provide original and imaginative perspectives to comprehend familiar processes and induce emotion (carpenter, 2008). repetition was employed in nearly all of the interviews conducted. according to oostdijk (2011), individuals use these repetitions to emphasize something or to express strong emotions. analysis of the interviews resulted in the formation of four superordinate themes and 10 subordinate themes among the six adoptees who participated in this research. the superordinate themes include: “the chosen one”, “the grafted tree”, “sandcastles of the heart”, and “on eagle’s wings”. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 4 published by ideas spread table 1. the identified superordinate themes and emergent themes superordinate themes emergent themes the chosen one (adopted child) the adoption story the adoptive family acceptance the grafted tree (dynamics of adoption & identity) identity exploration bullying anger sandcastles of the heart (adoptees’ fantasies about biological parents) the biological family connection on eagle’s wings post-adoption support resilience the next section individually portrays each superordinate theme and provides supporting excerpts. superordinate theme 1: the chosen one in the first superordinate theme, “the chosen one”, all participants expressed their unique adoption story and process as a critical transitional point when their lives were significantly altered. they also described this process as challenging for various reasons, most often influenced by what their adoptive parents told them when they were very young. this theme was inspired by the participants in this study which focuses on the family triad and gives a thorough explanation of the process of adoption and its impact on adoptees. all participants began their interviews by recalling when they were adopted from orphanages, foster families, and the streets. they all expressed feelings of being lucky and being chosen by their adoptive parents. still, some felt they had no choice and no consent in the adoption process, as they were adopted between the ages of four months and fourteen years: “it’s lucky… i got a second chance for life.” (leah, p. 3, line 10). the adoption story each of the six participants provided a detailed and distinct account of their adoption experience, including the reasons for their adoption and any complications or issues that arose prior to the adoption process. all adoptees stated that they were given up for adoption because their biological parents were in poor health and unable to care for them: “you’re given into the hands of someone else because your biological parents couldn’t at that time.” (rebecca, p. 2, line 2). difficulties with the adoption process were prevalent at that time for various reasons, including financial issues, paperwork, lawyers, conflicts, and health problems caused by poor personal conditions. “it wasn’t a smooth process, and i was not well; if i was planned, she hadn’t put me into the system yet” (leah, p. 2, line 4) therefore, the adoption process was quite prolonged on nearly all accounts, leading to complications, for instance, postponement in the adoption system and the need for extensive medical and psychiatric care. the adoptive family all participants described that adoption was never kept as a secret or hidden subject. instead, it was always openly discussed from a very young age and as they were growing up, which participants felt was ideal and very helpful. abigail also recalled her memories by stating that: “ i grew up, from a very young age knowing that i was adopted.” (abigail, p. 4, line 12) adoptees recalled their adoptive parents’ disclosure of their adoption to them in various ways, including reading children’s books, presenting photos, using metaphors, and presenting objects significant to the child’s development. “they were very informative. they even had a photo to show me of my mum. they showed me my documents, my romanian passport.” (leah, p. 5, lines 13–14) acceptance acceptance of their adoption was not always a smooth process. confusion with what to do with any information given at the time often ensued: “i couldn’t understand because to me they were my parents… to me, they were my parents, and that is who i knew” (leah, p. 5, lines 3-6). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 5 published by ideas spread however, most adoptees’ upbringings allowed them to accept the adoption without hesitation. it was explained that acceptance begins with one’s acceptance of themselves. in fact, rebecca said: “i just sort of grew into it accepting it” (rebecca, p. 1, line 20). some tried to hide that they were adopted because of fear of rejection or of getting bullied as in the case of ella: “nearly no one knew. no one, except a girl in secondary… we had an argument, and she used it to ridicule me. and from that day onwards, no one ever knew.” (ella, p. 2, lines 15-17). despite these realities, almost all adoptees reported feeling fortunate to have known they were adopted at a young age and considered themselves lucky. superordinate theme 2: the grafted tree adoption further affected the identity and self-perception of the participants over time, as well as their adoption experiences, since some participants discovered they were adopted at the age of 14. as a result, “the grafted tree” theme emerged as the second superordinate theme, as grafted trees generate in non-“normal” ways but are handled with care and love. identity exploration identity development is a lifelong process that begins in childhood, evolves in adolescence, and continues in adulthood, resulting in an adoptive identity. this theme is based on how adoptees see themselves in relation to others since adoptive identity makes them unique. the developed adoptive identity aids adoptees in answering fundamental questions. for instance, isaac expressed that asking these questions is self-evident and crucial since such questions are integral to his life: “you’ll ask, obviously… i thought, who do i belong to? who am i truly? where am i from?” (isaac, p. 2, line 22) for abigail, growing up meant a confusing journey, and it was only when she reached her mid-teens to adjust and accept her adoption status. some adoptees who participated in the study felt uncomfortable disclosing that they were adopted and did not want to face their reality. they even lied about their identity so that no one would question them apart from their close family and friends. the researcher speculated that there was truth to their claims and investigated the possibility that bullying, fear of rejection, and a desire not to hurt their adoptive parents were the primary motivations for lying and concealing their identity. throughout the interview, leah described the annoyance she felt whenever people made comparisons between her and her adoptive parents, knowing perfectly well that such a thing was impossible given that her adoptive parents were not her biological parents. still, all six participants described how, throughout their lives, they experienced periods of conflicting identities. bullying fear of rejection or fear of disappointment or disapproval by others may also lead to hiding one’s adoptive reality. this could lead to a lonesome existence: “in secondary school… once we had an argument, and she used it to ridicule me… i felt angry and lonely.”(ella, p. 5, line 13). desiree also recounted that she was bullied at a very young age. “when i entered school, like, from a young age, i started to suffer from a lot of bullying... from a young age, i was bullied because i am a quiet girl.” (desiree, p. 5, line 13) . bullying creates a wound that can ultimately affect adoptees’ evolving identity. unfortunately, they could not escape these differences and had to learn how to adjust and understand them. anger adoptees recounted various episodes related to their feelings of anger. the source of this anger frequently stemmed from being abandoned by their biological parents and the resulting separation. rebecca expressed her anger and hurt by the following excerpts: “i was given into the hands of someone else.” (rebecca, p. 2, line 2). leah harbored resentment toward her birth mother as she was not always intended for adoption, but her birth mother intended to make money off of her. her birth mother was expecting another child as leah was going through the adoption process. leah described the complexity of her conflicting emotions as, despite the resentment she harbored toward her biological mother, she also felt gratitude toward her adoptive parents. in fact, she expressed: “i wasn’t initially planned to get adopted, but then you know you cannot take care of the… child, and you get pregnant again. in the sense that it defeats the purpose of the concept of what was going on, that is the anger i had towards her.” (leah, p. 10, lines 14–18). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 6 published by ideas spread anger resulted also because the adoptees were not mature and old enough to express their thoughts: “when i was small, and i needed to sort of speak, to say something… for example, ‘no, don’t let me go, i want to stay’, i couldn’t. i had to let go without consent.” (abigail, p. 3, lines 17–18). the complex dynamics of adoption caused the adoptees to experience a range of challenging emotions at various points in their development. although they got along well with their friends and family, some participants said they were angry because they were the “only child” in their family and therefore the adoptees felt “overprotective”. some adoptees also expressed loneliness or an empty feeling as if something was missing in their lives. “i had friends, and i got along with everyone, but i always felt very lonely… something is missing.” (rebecca, p. 4, lines 4-5). superordinate theme 3: sandcastles of the heart the third superordinate theme that emerged was “sandcastles of the heart”, as some respondents expressed the desire and curiosity to return to their roots and search for their biological parents to build the connection they longed for throughout their lives. others were not interested at all due to mixed feelings of pain and anger. some participants adapted to and overcame life’s challenges through resilience, but others needed help from healthcare professionals to acknowledge their loss and begin healing. the final superordinate theme, “on eagle’s wings”, revealed aspects of the adoptee’s journey in overcoming their painful past through various support and adjusting to a new identity as an adoptee. all interviewees expressed gratitude and faith toward their adoption experience by describing themselves as “lucky”, “grateful”, and “blessed”. a participant mentioned a song by beyoncé titled “sandcastles” as an expression of suffering caused by people who walk away from relationships for various reasons, only to find out that their hearts continue to love the people they abandoned even after they have moved on. the researcher felt that this metaphor was appropriate in this context since most adoptees expressed the desire and fantasized about their biological family. the adoptee’s genuine feelings to give their life meaning are personified by their interest in building sandcastles. every person takes great care and pride in building and protecting their mental dreams and sandcastles. the time spent together and the bonds formed while building the sandcastles are well worth the risk of having them destroyed by the elements of life. the biological family almost everyone expressed a desire to find their biological relatives, whether out of curiosity, the desire to finally feel loved, or a sense of belonging. their adoptive parents were willing to support them in finding their family. one adoptee had in fact traveled back to her birth country to meet her biological family. interestingly, she was somehow reluctant to inform her adoptive parents about this journey, perhaps for fear of being misunderstood. connection almost all adoptees wished to find their birth families to fill an emotional void and “close the circle”. therefore, this section primarily focuses on connection and attachment following the participants’ desire and need to know more about their biological parents. following the meeting with her biological mother, abigail revealed that she was not disappointed by the encounter or the story behind her adoption, as she could see and hear the story from her biological mother’s perspective. nevertheless, abigail discovered that despite this encounter and the relationship that developed over a year and a half after meeting her biological mother, the void she had felt her entire life remained. abigail also mentioned that she now keeps in contact with her family and looks forward to visiting them: “but then i realized that meeting her, meeting all my family… it still didn’t fill that void… so i think it will remain there. but i am aware of it.” (abigail, p. 5, lines 16-18). superordinate theme 4: on eagle’s wings the researcher was inspired by her spirituality for this theme and chose this metaphor since the eagle is unique, and its wings symbolize the affection of god’s refuge upon us. the choice of this metaphor relates to the following subordinate themes because despite the obvious loss experienced by most adoptees, solace and empowerment found in one’s own resilience, preand post adoption process, and one’s spirituality may serve as crucial to help conclude the adoption process in a positive resolve, even if it remains a learning curve to the individuals involved. all adoptees, even if not explicitly stated, shared a common experience: loss and grief brought on by the disruption of their lives caused by the separation from their birth families. their history is painful because it is full of missing pieces and unanswered questions, as they were thrust into a world of unknowns. all participants mentioned different coping strategies and support they needed and used to cope with their pain. on eagle’s wings captures hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 7 published by ideas spread this often challenging journey of adoptees not just to find a new home, but also to resolve as positively as possible the healing from the bereavement process inherent in such a process. resilience some adoptees mentioned that they never received support from their family or professionals whenever they encountered challenges growing up. despite this, they successfully adjusted on their own to the problematic aspects of their life experiences: “i found a lot of strength alone.” (rebecca, p. 4, line 21). resilience was also highlighted in ella’s excerpts: “i used to go home like nothing happened.”(ella, p. 6, lines 13-14). post-adoption support during the healing process, some adoptees expressed the need for support. however, each individual received different types of assistance throughout their life. leah and desiree needed the help of psychologists because they struggled as children with issues like night terrors and bullying. it helped them tremendously as they gradually overcame their difficulties and found inner peace. meanwhile, isaac felt that confiding in his family was very helpful, as his adoptive parents always supported him: “i always found support, when i used to talk about it [the adoption], i always found support from my family members… and that helps.” (isaac, p. 6, lines 7-8). abigail was the type of person who preferred to reach out for help. she recalled how, as a child, a priest consoled her by telling her that her birth mother could have aborted her but chose to give her life. this helped her accept adoption as a permanent part of her life: “in a way or another… someone always cushioned me or made me open my eyes or made me see a different perspective to the situation.” (abigail, p. 6, lines 10-11). this chapter presented four major themes that emerged from the data analysis of the interviews with adoptees. the following chapter discusses and compares the testimonies of the six participants’ experiences with other relevant literature. 4. discussion this study explored the impact of adoption on adoptees through their perspectives as they recounted their lived experiences. in the first superordinate theme, “the chosen one”, results indicated that the adoption process was challenging and lengthy for most participants as they explained how complex it is due to financial issues, language barriers and more. moreover, the findings indicated the adoptees’ thoughts and feelings on their adoption status. most adoptees expressed appreciation for being adopted and felt fortunate to have been placed in a loving family. although overall, findings showed that most adoptees were raised in a way that made this adjustment relatively easy, this was not reflected throughout. in fact, some adoptees struggled to accept their adoption because they did not understand the process or how to apply the newfound knowledge. corresponding to bowlby and ainsworth’s attachment theory, the main variables of effective attachment are approachability and support (bowlby, 1969). notably, adverse consequences can develop if this bond is hindered during adoption (hughes, 1999). adoptees’ identities were examined as a common theme within the second superordinate theme, with participants discussing how adoption impacted and shaped some characteristics of their identities through personal struggles, feelings of loss and abandonment and eventual misunderstanding. “the grafted tree” is a metaphor for adoption as a process in which a child, represented by a branch, is removed from one family tree and transplanted into another family tree, where they become an integral part of that new family tree. the child’s identity continues to develop, shift, and transform with love and care throughout their lifetime as they grow. this theme addressed the adoptees’ identity formation as well as the effects on the identity development of the adopted individual. results from this second superordinate theme indicated that adoptees struggled with conflicting identities as they grew up since their identity is changed and evolved differently to what it would have been like had they not been adopted. the data showed that adoptive and biological parents are crucial to adoptive identity. study findings indicated that although most participants adjusted and accepted their identity as adoptees, a few felt uncomfortable identifying themselves, indicating the existence of secrecy and stigma about their adoption. furthermore, bullying may be a common consequence of adoption, as described in the findings. this related to adoptees’ experience of loss, fear of rejection, and loneliness. emotional turmoil was another footprint in the participants’ trajectory. anger was perhaps the most prominent, resulting from the choice of their biological parents to give them for adoption, often resulting in rebellious behavior. some felt misunderstood and lacked bonding to their adoptive parents. this suggests a link between anger and attachment. the concept of anger is connected to verrier’s (1993) primal wound theory, which explains that adoptees go through life with unconscious wounds that they frequently carry into adulthood, implying the importance of having adoptees feel safe, surrounded by love and assisted with compassion. bullying and racial discrimination was yet another issue raised in this study, most notable with related studies particularly with adoptees from different cultural backgrounds (reynolds et al., 2021). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 8 published by ideas spread according to mcadams (2001), when adoptees try to understand their identity, they yearn to imagine a clear narrative that helps them make sense of their lives and establish connections between their past, present and future. in the third superordinate theme “sandcastles of the heart”, the findings indicated that most adoptees shared a common desire to discover their origins, to feel loved and a sense of belonging. returning to one’s roots is essential because it initiates the process of healing from the trauma caused by adoption, and also helps in forming an identity (darnell et al., 2017; fronek et al., 2018; walton, 2015; reynolds et al., 2021). in agreement with attachment theory, this study’s results emphasize also that the connection between mother and child remains a crucial factor in the child’s development. in line with fronek et al. (2018) and reynolds et al. (2016), this study’s results highlighted the importance of the comfort given by the adoptive parents to their adopted children in times of struggle. finally, loss and grief due to the separation from birth families was a consistent finding shared by all participants. the fourth superordinate theme, “on eagle’s wings”, indicated clearly this shared component. meaningful and beneficial relationships were preserved as adoption was openly discussed. most adoptees reported that their adoptive parents helped locate their biological parents, thus cushioning the initial impact of separation. furthermore, this study revealed that support and personal resiliency helped adoptees overcome social and psychological obstacles. thus, assistance from mental healthcare professionals and adoptive parents may be essential for coping with and overcoming a painful past. several studies shed light on the significance of postadoption support needs, given that adoptees face various difficulties due to adoption (scarvelis et al., 2017; fronek et al., 2018; reynolds et al., 2021). it was suggested that adoptees can maintain a positive outlook on life by accepting change, exercising self-control, and being resilient in response to challenges (march et al. 2000). the relation between the main caregiver and the adopted child remains crucial for the child’s development, in line with attachment theory. 4.1 recommendations of this study a number of recommendations result from this study. first, adoption is a unique process that elicits a number of strong emotions in the adoptee. in order to find a manageable closure or rather positive resolution to this very personal and existential reality, one is bound to face squarely and process the many strong emotions involved. having a system that caters and addresses this aspect among adoptees, especially for those who show the need for it, is a must for a society that needs to meet the demand not just for parents seeking to adopt, but also to equip both adoptive parents and adoptees with the journey post-adoption. moreover, the input of mental health professionals together with the adoptive parents is sought for, for the positive resolution of any painful past involved in the adoptee’s life’s trajectory. indeed, acceptance is a key ingredient in the adoptee’s life, in order to respond appropriately to life’s challenges. 4.2 strengths and limitations of the study this study focused on the lived experiences of adopted adults, in a novel culture, through the use of ipa. although the initial scope was to recruit participants who were adopted from any country, in reality all participants hailed from romania. the in-depth exploration of the experiences recounted by adult adoptees highlighted the effects and difficulties encountered throughout their adoption journey. a number of limitations need to be noted as well. although this study was intended to recruit adoptees from various countries to obtain diverse perspectives from different backgrounds, all participants hailed from romania. another limitation related to the gender of participants, as only one male adoptee participated in the study. finally, because all interviews were conducted virtually via zoom, some sensitive information and non-verbal communication could have gone unnoticed, considering that the topic is naturally sensitive. 4.3 conclusion this study’s aim was to acquire a greater awareness of adults’ experiences with adoption, including the difficulties they encountered throughout the adoption process and the emotional challenges they faced while growing up. findings showed unique ways by adoptees to accept the often challenging reality of the adoption process. resilience was clearly what led adoptees moving on with life. one main contribution to knowledge that results is that society and related bodies need to create an environment whereby assistance from mental healthcare professionals and adoptive parents be availed, which may be essential for coping with and overcoming a painful past. this is also in line with attachment theory. acknowledgements the authors wish to thank the participants for sharing their vulnerability and experiences for this study. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 9 published by ideas spread funding: this study received no funding. references baltimore, d. 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(2017). from institutional care to life in an australian family: the experiences of intercountry adoptees. international social work, 60(2), 423-434. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020872815580048 smith, j. a., & osborn, m. (2015). interpretative phenomenological analysis as a useful methodology for research on the lived experience of pain. british journal of pain, 9(1), 41–42. https://doi.org/10.1177/2049463714541642111 smith, j., flowers, p., & larkin, m. (2009). interpretative phenomenological analysis: theory, method and research: london: sage. taylor & francis group. https://doi.org/10.1080/14780880903340091 verrier, n. w. (2003). the primal wound: understanding the adopted child. gateway press. walker, j. (2008). the use of attachment theory in adoption and fostering. adoption & fostering, 32(1), 49-57. https://doi.org/10.1177/030857590803200107112 walton, j. (2015). feeling it: understanding korean adoptees’ experiences of embodied identity. journal of intercultural studies, 36(4), 395-412. https://doi.org/10.1080/07256868.2015.1049985 wegar, k. (2000). adoption, family ideology, and social stigma: bias in community attitudes, adoption research, and practice. family relations, 49(4), 363-369. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2000.00363.x zammit, s. (2022). only 27 maltese children were adopted in the last decade. the malta independent. retrieved from https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2022-06-18/local-news/only-27-maltese-children-adoptedin-the-last-decade-6736243814 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p161 161 published by ideas spread a study on the relationship between the career motivation and professional identity of young social workers——an empirical investigation based on social work service agencies in city z, guangdong province linqi hu1,a, chuwen ruan1,b, xia ma1,b & sihuai zheng1,b 1 school of social and public administration, lingnan normal university, china correspondence: linqi hu, school of social and public administration, lingnan normal university, 524048, china. e-mail: ahlq5991@foxmail.com, bhlq5991@lingnan.edu.cn received: august 11, 2025; accepted: august 19, 2025; published: august 20, 2025 abstract accurately grasping the employment motivation and professional identity of young social workers is of great significance for building a high quality social worker team. according to the self determination theory, the employment motivation of young social workers can be divided into four types: internal drive type, external attraction type, composite motivation type, and motivation lack type. through a questionnaire survey, combined with survey questions on employment motivation types and a professional identity scale, a survey was conducted on young social workers in social work service agencies in city z, guangdong province. the research found that there is a correlation between different employment motivations and the professional identity of young social workers. among them, young social workers of the motivation lack type have relatively low professional identity, while those of the internal drive type, composite motivation type, and external attraction type show higher professional identity. based on the research results, it is proposed that social work service agencies should give play to the leading role of young social workers of the composite motivation type, stimulate the internal enthusiasm of young social workers of the internal drive type, strengthen the external incentives for young social workers of the external attraction type, and guide the motivation exploration of young social workers of the motivation lack type. while enhancing the professional identity of young social workers, a high quality and high efficiency young social worker team should be built. keywords: youth social workers, employment motivation, professional identity 1. introduction since 2010, documents from the central government and relevant ministries and commissions have clearly stated that the professional social work talent team should be regarded as an indispensable professional social force (li, 2017). with the government's continuous promotion of social work participation in social governance, social workers have gradually become the core force in the field of social services. in recent years, the construction of the social work talent team has progressed rapidly and is generally becoming younger. according to incomplete statistics, in 2008, the total number of social work talents with professional and specialized qualities in china was only 110,000 (shen , 2011). however, by the end of 2022, the number of licensed social workers in china had soared to 931,000, among which assistant social workers accounted for the majority, reaching 725,000, and social workers numbered 204,000 (ministry of civil affairs, 2023). meanwhile, young social workers account for the vast majority of practitioners. the results of a sampling survey of youth affairs social workers in shandong province showed that professional social workers under 35 years old accounted for as high as 94.2%, and relevant practitioners under 35 years old also accounted for 88% (wang et al., 2022). in addition, the data from the 2019 china social work longitudinal survey also indicated that social workers aged 35 and below accounted for 74.3% (cswls, 2019). young social workers are full of vitality and innovative spirit, which have a profound impact on the future development of this industry. however, to fully tap their potential, it is necessary to deeply understand their employment motivation and the degree of influence between these motivations and their professional identity. as a vibrant city in guangdong province, in recent years, social work service institutions in city z have emerged in large numbers, attracting a large number of young talents to join. why do these young social workers choose this industry? is it out of love for society, pursuit of public welfare, or consideration of their own career hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 162 published by ideas spread development? more importantly, how do their employment motivations affect their professional identity, and further affect their work performance and job satisfaction? based on this background and problem awareness, this study conducts an in depth exploration of the employment motivation and professional identity of young social workers in zhanjiang city, guangdong province through empirical investigation, reveals the relationship and influence degree between employment motivation and professional identity, so as to provide targeted management and development strategies for social work service institutions in zhanjiang city and even more extensive areas, better motivate and retain young talents, further improve service quality and efficiency, and promote the sustainable and healthy development of the industry. 2. literature review and research hypotheses systematically reviewing the previous literature on professional motivation and professional identity can provide a theoretical basis for further exploring the relationship between the professional motivation and professional identity of young social workers. 2.1 research on the motivation for engaging in the profession as a type of human behavioral motivation, professional motivation is an internal psychological process in which individuals, stimulated by specific needs, drive themselves to participate in professional activities to meet these needs. it profoundly reflects each person's career pursuit and the possible level of effort they may invest to achieve this pursuit (li, 2020). in short, when certain needs ignite people's inner desires, they tend to choose the corresponding career path. when exploring professional motivation, foreign scholars mainly conduct in depth analyses from two dimensions: internal and external. internal professional motivation stems from the desire for personal growth and contribution, while external professional motivation is more associated with the pursuit of external goals such as money and status (sheldon, 2019). further breakdown shows that intrinsic professional motivation involves the driving force generated for obtaining inner satisfaction, which includes factors such as personal interests, recognition of the intrinsic value of the profession, and personal experiences. in contrast, extrinsic motivation is the pursuit of specific outcomes, such as seeking social influence, being driven by others' expectations, or pursuing a specific professional lifestyle (mclean, 2019). the professional motivation of young social workers can be divided into four types according to their level of enthusiasm and altruism: the identification type, the development type, the maintenance type, and the casual type. different types of young social workers exhibit different professional characteristics (wang et al., 2022). it is worth noting that when young social workers make career choices, they are more guided by internal motivation, and the power of this internal motivation is significantly stronger than the influence of external motivation (tong, 2023). in a broader professional field, the professional motivation of civil servants covers multiple aspects such as power and status, growth and development, environmental influence, and work treatment (song, 2017). for newly recruited rural teachers, compound motivation dominates, while pure internal motivation is relatively rare (cao, 2022). another interview study on visually impaired people reveals the diversity of their professional motivation: some consider survival pressure and material rewards, some are inclined to contribute and help others, some pursue autonomy and satisfaction in work, some aspire to personal growth and improvement, or to avoid certain external unfavorable factors (yang, 2022). in conclusion, the professional motivation of young social workers stems from their own professional needs. this motivation not only stimulates their career choices but also dominates and sustains the entire process of their engaging in social work. this motivation is influenced by numerous factors and plays a key role in the whole process of individuals' choosing and engaging in social work. based on the research results, the following hypotheses are proposed: h1: the professional motivation of young social workers is mainly internal-driven and composite motivation types, followed by external-attraction and motivation-lack types. 2.2 research on the influence of professional motivation on professional identity the formation of professional identity is a dynamic and complex process, which is profoundly influenced by the continuous interaction between individual experiences and the professional environment and evolves with changes in individual and situational factors. when exploring the relationship between career motivation and professional identity, research has found that the public service orientation, job seeking environment incentives, and professional comfort attraction motivation of young civil servants all have significant positive impacts on their professional identity, especially the public service orientation, which has the most significant predictive effect. however, the motivation influenced by social capital has a significant negative impact on professional identity (li et al., 2021). currently, the professional identity of young social workers is generally low, accompanied by mild job burnout. notably, there is a significant negative correlation between professional identity and job burnout. compared with unmotivated young social workers, those with internal motivation, external motivation, or hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 163 published by ideas spread compound motivation show higher professional identity and lower job burnout (fu & ren, 2020). another questionnaire survey of 342 teachers from 9 middle schools in tibet shows that, compared with teachers with internal motivation, unmotivated and externally motivated teachers bear higher professional pressure and show lower professional identity (li et al., 2015). in addition, in the study of full time junior college nursing students, a statistical association was also found between different types of career choice motivation and professional identity scores (duan & tang, 2016). in summary, career motivation is a key factor shaping and influencing the formation, change, and development of young social workers' professional identity. professional identity is gradually constructed and developed under the conditions of continuous interaction between an individual's own needs, experiences, and the external environment. based on the research findings, the following hypotheses are proposed: h2: there is a correlation between the employment motivation and professional identity of young social workers. h3: different professional motivations have different degrees of influence on the professional identity of young social workers. in summary, the theoretical model constructed in this paper is shown in figure 1. figure 1. theoretical model 3. research design 3.1 research subjects the meaning of "youth" varies across different societies and organizations and changes with the political, economic, and socio cultural environment. according to the "medium and long term youth development plan (2016 2025)" issued by the central committee of the communist party of china and the state council, young people are defined as those aged between 14 and 35 (inclusive) (xinhua news agency, 2017). therefore, this study adopts the age range definition of "youth" in this plan. youth social workers are defined as those aged between 20 and 35, who have received professional social work education or obtained social work professional qualifications and are engaged in professional social services.city z is one of the pioneers in the development of professional social work services in guangdong province, china. not only has its social work services been at the leading level in the country, but it also has numerous social work institutions and practitioners. thus, city z was selected as the survey site, and young social workers aged between 20 and 35 in social work service institutions in this city were randomly chosen as the survey subjects. a total of 190 questionnaires were collected, and 12 invalid questionnaires were excluded, resulting in 178 valid questionnaires with an effective response rate of 93.7%. among the 178 young social workers surveyed, 52 were male and 126 were female. in the data, it is notable that there were more females, most of them were front line social workers, the majority of them did not major in social work, and most of them had an income level between 2000 and 3000 yuan. the basic information of the surveyed young social workers is shown in table 1. considering all the basic information, the sample is highly representative. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 164 published by ideas spread table 1. basic information of the survey subjects statistical items percent age (%) statistical items number of people percen tage (%) gender male 29.2 professional background non-social work 161 90.4 professional female 70.8 social work major 17 9.6 age 20-25 years old 13.5 years of service less than one year 1 0.6 26-30 years old 36 1-3 years 137 77 31-35 years old 50.6 3-5 years 30 16.9 culture college degree and below 46.1 more than 5 years 10 5.6 degree auxiliary 0.6 monthly income level (yuan) 2,000 and below 4 2.2 personnel other positions 1.7 2001-3000 115 64.6 marriage unmarried 40.4 3001-4000 42 23.6 status married 57.9 4001-5000 14 7.9 divorced 1.7 6001-8000 3 1.7 3.2 research tools drawing on relevant foreign studies and some domestic literatures, and referring to the questionnaires used in relevant literatures, a questionnaire on the employment motivation and professional identity of young social workers was designed independently. before conducting a large sample survey, a small sample pre test was first carried out on 50 young social workers in city z. spss was used to analyze the obtained data. according to the analysis results, the original scale items were appropriately modified, and 5 inappropriate questions were deleted. the questionnaire officially used in this survey mainly includes the following three aspects: general information questionnaire. it was self designed based on demographic characteristics and includes basic information such as gender, age, educational level, professional background, status of holding a social worker certificate, current position, years of employment, workplace, and income level. occupational motivation questionnaire. in the self-determination theory, deci and ryan proposed a trichotomy of motivation: amotivation, external motivation, and internal motivation. based on this classification and relevant literature review, a questionnaire with a total of 8 items was developed to meet the objectives and actual situation of this study. multiple choices were allowed. the motivations were divided into four types: internally-driven, externally-attracted, compound motivation, and motivation-lacking. the specific type was determined according to the reasons for engaging in the social work profession selected by the research subjects. occupational identity scale. this scale draws on the "questionnaire survey on professional identity and job burnout of social workers" compiled by the shenzhen social workers association to form the scale for this study. the scale consists of a total of 28 items, covering three dimensions: occupational value cognition, occupational emotional belonging, and occupational behavioral tendency. the questionnaire uses a five point scoring system, ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree", with scores from 1 to 5. the score range is 28 140 points. the higher the score, the higher the occupational identity of young social workers. 3.3 survey methods due to realistic factors of force majeure, in this survey, electronic questionnaires for internal driven, externally attracted, motivation lacking, and compound motivation types were created on the wenjuanxing platform. the questionnaires were distributed in the form of qr codes through social work service agencies in city z and relevant wechat and qq groups related to social work. to enhance the diversity and coverage of the sample, the researchers tried to cover different types of social work agencies when distributing the questionnaires. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 165 published by ideas spread 3.4 reliability and validity tests in this study, the spss quantitative analysis software was mainly used to conduct reliability and validity tests on the used occupational identity scale. the items of occupational value cognition are items 1 10 of the scale, those of occupational emotional belonging are items 11 20, and those of occupational behavioral tendency are items 21 28. 3.4.1 reliability test the cronbach's α coefficient of the professional identity scale is greater than 0.7, indicating that the scale has high internal consistency and good reliability. meanwhile, the reliability level of the data in this study is excellent, with sufficient internal consistency. regarding the "cronbach's α if item deleted", it can be found that the α coefficient will not increase after any item is deleted, suggesting that no measurement item needs to be removed. for the "corrected item-total correlation (citc) value", the citc value of any item is greater than 0.3, and most are greater than 0.5, indicating a good correlation among the items in each dimension and good reliability of the scale, as shown in table 2. in summary, the reliability of each dimension of the professional identity scale is of high quality. table 2. reliability test table variable items corrected total correlation (citc) the α coefficient of the item that has been removed cronbach α coefficient occupational value perception 1. i think social work is a profession 0.324 0.829 0.828 2. i think social work is a highly specialized profession 0.542 0.811 3. i think a career in social work requires a strong sense of values and passion 0.474 0.817 4. as a social worker, i need to strictly adhere to professional ethics 0.545 0.814 5. i think it takes love to work as a social worker 0.533 0.816 6. i think social work is a noble profession 0.648 0.798 7. i think social work is of great social value and significance 0.705 0.797 8. i think the career of social work is very promising 0.574 0.811 9. i think the social status and prestige of social work are very high 0.392 0.841 10. i think social workers can really help others 0.745 0.789 professional emotional belonging 11. i love the social work profession 0.855 0.973 0.974 12. i'm proud to be a social worker 0.849 0.973 13. being a social worker makes me happy 0.922 0.97 14. i have a strong sense of belonging to the social work profession 0.877 0.972 15. social work brings me a sense of happiness 0.939 0.969 16. i think it's very fulfilling to be a social worker 0.906 0.971 17. i feel that devoting myself to a career in social work can help me realize my personal value 0.864 0.972 18. i get excited when i engage in social work services 0.897 0.971 19. if i were to choose again, i would still choose a career in social work 0.825 0.974 20. i'd love to tell others that i'm a social worker 0.855 0.973 occupational behavioral tendencies 21. i will introduce or promote the social work position positively to others 0.807 0.919 0.932 22. i give enthusiasm, passion and vitality to my work 0.855 0.915 23. i will strictly adhere to the code of professional ethics for social workers in my work 0.733 0.925 24. i will do my best to complete my work 0.713 0.927 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 166 published by ideas spread 25. i am willing to take social work training and constantly improve my service skills 0.783 0.922 26. i have a clear career plan for social work 0.756 0.923 27. unless there are special circumstances, i am willing to work as a social worker for a long time 0.707 0.932 28. i will strive to become an excellent social worker 0.847 0.916 3.4.2 validity test the kmo values of the professional identity scale were all above 0.7, and the p values of the bartlett's test of sphericity were all less than 0.001, indicating that the scale had good validity and met the requirements. the cumulative variance explanations of each dimension were 60.13%, 81.55%, and 69.51% respectively. therefore, the measurement items of each dimension had good structural validity. the specific validity test data are shown in table 3. table 3. validity test table variable number of items kmo bartlett sphericity test p value cumulative variance interpretation(%) occupational value perception 10 0.833 < 0.001 60.13 professional emotional belonging 10 0.956 < 0.001 81.55 occupational behavioral tendencies 8 0.9 < 0.001 69.51 3.5 data processing in this study, spss was used for data processing. first, descriptive statistical analysis was conducted on the collected data to understand the basic situation of variables. subsequently, the correlation analysis method was employed to explore the relationship between career motivation and professional identity. 4. research results and analysis 4.1 analysis of the professional motivation of young social workers in the statistical results, "wanting to help people in need" was the primary motivation for young social workers to choose this profession, with the proportion of those who selected it reaching as high as 58.40%. in contrast, only 12 young social workers chose the option of "relevant professional background or internship experience", accounting for 3.40% of the total, which reflects that the professional backgrounds of this group are diverse, and most of them do not have direct professional backgrounds or internship experiences in social work. in addition, other factors such as "having a strong interest in social services", "pursuing a meaningful career", and "being influenced by family, friends, or mentors" also influenced their career choices to a certain extent. although "good career development prospects" and "salary and welfare benefits" contributed to career choices, they were not the dominant factors. the specific data results are shown in table 4, which presents the frequency statistics of the career motivations of young social workers. table 4. frequency statistics of the employment motivation of young social workers responses percentage of cases(%) number of cases percenta ge (%) a relevant professional background or internship experience 12 3.40 6.70 b have a strong interest in social service 59 16.50 33.10 c wants to help people in need 104 29.10 58.40 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 167 published by ideas spread d pursue a meaningful career 48 13.40 27.00 e be influenced by family, friends, or mentors 54 15.10 30.30 f good career prospects 21 5.90 11.80 g salary and benefits 22 6.10 12.40 h others 38 10.60 21.30 total 358 100 201.10 in this study, the options a g in the professional motivation questionnaire were divided into internal driven type and external attractive type. options b, c, and d were classified as internal driven type. respondents who only selected b, c, or d were regarded as internal driven type, those who only selected a, e, f, or g were considered external attractive type, and those who selected both b, c, or d and a, e, f, or g were categorized as composite motivation type. meanwhile, this study analyzed the subjects who filled in other reasons. if the reason was blank or something like accidentally discovering the social work industry (i.e., no motivation reasons), they were classified as motivation lacking type; otherwise, they were assigned to one of the other three types according to the reason. among different motivations, more respondents chose internal driven type and composite motivation type. the specific classification results are shown in table 5. table 5. frequencies of young social workers with different professional motivations. frequency percentage (%) effective percentage (%) cumulative percentage (%) internally driven 62 34.8 34.8 34.8 compound motor type 64 36 36 70.8 external attraction type 45 25.3 25.3 96.1 lack of motivation 7 3.9 3.9 100 total 178 100 100 in summary, the career motivations of young social workers present significant diversification characteristics. among them, the internally driven type dominates. in particular, a profound interest in social services and a strong desire to help others have become the core driving forces for them to engage in this industry. meanwhile, although the externally attractive type has influenced the career choices of social workers to some extent, it is not the main motivation. it is also worth noting that the career motivations of young social workers are mainly internally driven and compound motivations. they are not only driven by internal values and personal pursuits but also comprehensively consider multiple factors, including career development and social responsibility. although external attractive factors such as career development prospects and salary and welfare benefits also play a certain role, their influence is relatively limited. in addition, the proportion of young social workers lacking motivation is relatively small. 4.2 analysis of the professional identity status of youth social workers the professional identity status of young social workers is higher than the theoretical average of 3 in all three dimensions of professional value cognition, professional emotional belonging, and professional behavioral tendency, all showing a relatively high level, as shown in table 6. therefore, it is speculated that social workers have a strong sense of professional identity. first, from the dimension of professional value cognition, the scores of 178 young social workers participating in the survey ranged from 2.4 to 5 points, with an average score of 4.3725 points. this data indicates that young social workers generally have a high sense of value recognition for the profession they are engaged in. they are well aware of the significance and value of social work and believe that their work can bring positive changes to society. second, in the dimension of professional emotional belonging, the scores of young social workers also showed a relatively high level. the score range of this dimension was from 1 to 5 points, with an average score of 3.9882 points. this shows that young social workers have a strong sense of identity with their professional status. they are enthusiastic about their work and are willing to closely connect their careers with social work. finally, from the dimension of professional behavioral tendency, the scores of young social workers also showed a relatively high level. the score range of this dimension was from 1.25 to 5 points, with an average score of 4.3195 points. this data shows that young social workers show a positive tendency in professional behavior. they are willing to take social responsibilities actively and actively engage in social work, practicing their professional concepts and values with practical actions. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 168 published by ideas spread table 6. overall situation of professional identity among young social workers n minimum value maximum average standard deviation occupational value perception 178 2.4 5 4.3725 0.47225 professional emotional belonging 178 1 5 3.9882 0.82997 occupational behavioral tendencies 178 1.25 5 4.3195 0.6489 4.3 correlation analysis between the professional motivation and professional identity of young social workers in youth work in this study, one-way analysis of variance was employed to conduct a comparative analysis of the professional motivation and professional identity scores of young social workers. based on different professional motivations, young social workers were divided into four categories: internally driven type, compound motivation type, externally attracted type, and motivation lacking type. table 7 presents the professional identity scores of young social workers with different professional motivation types. it can be seen from the table that there are significant differences in professional identity scores among different professional motivation types (f = 8.7, p < 0.001). specifically, the compound motivation type has the highest professional identity score (13.3066±1.39), followed by the internally driven type (12.8282±1.76), then the externally attracted type (11.8161 ± 1.98), and the motivation lacking type has the lowest professional identity score (11.1964±1.87). table 7. comparison of professional identity scores for different career motivations.（ sx  ) project number of cases professional identity score statistics p internal drive type 62 12.8282±1.76 f = 8.7 < 0.001 complex motivation type 64 13.3066±1.39 complex motivation type 45 11.8161±1.98 motivation deficiency type 7 11.1964±1.87 5. discussion and suggestions 5.1 discussion the types of career motivation among young social workers are mainly internally-driven and composite motivation. according to the results of this study, the top four motivations for young people to choose a career in social work are "wanting to help those in need", "having a strong interest in social services", "being influenced by family, friends, or mentors", and "pursuing a meaningful career". the bottom four are "salary and welfare benefits", "good career development prospects", "relevant professional background or internship experience", and "others". according to the statistics of the career motivation frequency chart, the proportion of those who choose internal driving factors is about 60%, the proportion of external attractive factors is about 30%, and the proportion of other options is about 10%. this data shows the status of internal driving factors in the career choice of young social workers. based on the overall data, the career motivation of young social workers is mainly internally-driven and composite motivation. the motivation of this group of young social workers may stem from their concern for social issues, strong desire to help others, and pursuit of social justice. it may also combine multiple factors such as career development and family influence. compared with internally-driven and composite motivation, externally-attractive motivations such as "good career development prospects" and "salary and welfare benefits" account for a relatively low proportion among young social workers, indicating that they attach more importance to the intrinsic value and meaning of work rather than simply pursuing material benefits. the proportion of those with a lack of motivation is relatively small, indicating that most young social workers have clear career motivation and goals. different motivations for entering the profession have a certain degree of influence on the professional identity of young social workers. the research results show that different types of motivations for entering the profession have a certain impact on the professional identity of young social workers. among them, young social workers with compound motivations have the highest scores in professional identity, followed by those with internal-driven motivations and external-attracted motivations, while those with motivation deficiency have the lowest scores, which is consistent with the research hypothesis. young social workers with compound motivations and internaldriven motivations are driven by their internal values, so they have a relatively high sense of identity and value towards their profession. they firmly believe that their work can bring positive changes to society, and this belief and enthusiasm encourage them to be more engaged and focused in their work. in contrast, young social workers hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 169 published by ideas spread with external-attracted motivations may have relatively weak professional identity, as their career choices are more influenced by external factors and they lack internal drive and enthusiasm. young social workers with motivation deficiency show the weakest professional identity. due to the lack of clear motivations and goals for entering the profession, they lack a sense of belonging and satisfaction in their work, and their professional identity is lower than that of the other three types of motivations. 5.2 suggestions this study explored the relationship between the employment motivation and professional identity of young social workers. based on the research results, the following suggestions are put forward to enhance the professional identity of young social workers and promote the healthy development of the social work industry. 5.2.1 give full play to the leading role of young social workers with compound motivation types create leadership opportunities. establish a clear selection mechanism for young leaders, and select young social workers with compound motivation through comprehensive evaluation of work performance, leadership potential, and peer reviews. provide customized leadership training courses for the selected leaders, covering topics such as decision-making, team management, and conflict resolution. promote experience sharing. develop a detailed experience-sharing plan, including sharing topics, time, and forms, to ensure that each sharing session achieves the expected results. establish a "best sharing award" to encourage workers with compound motivation to actively share their experiences and insights. participate in decision-making. clarify the roles and responsibilities of young social workers with compound motivations in decision-making committees or working groups to ensure their effective participation in the decision-making process. regularly evaluate their contributions to decision-making, provide positive feedback and constructive suggestions to help them continuously improve their decision-making abilities. 5.2.2 stimulate the intrinsic enthusiasm of internally driven young social workers empower individuals with autonomy. clearly define the scope of powers and responsibilities of internally driven workers during project planning and execution to ensure that they can fully unleash their creativity and enthusiasm. establish an "innovation project fund" to provide them with financial and resource support to implement innovative work plans and suggestions. assign challenging tasks. regularly release information on challenging and innovative work tasks or project requirements, and encourage internally driven young social workers to proactively take on and complete the tasks. establish an "innovation reward program" to recognize their innovative proposals or achievements with material rewards and honorary certificates. establish communication platforms. develop detailed plans for internal seminars and innovation workshops, including information such as themes, times, locations, and participants, to ensure the smooth progress of the activities and achieve the expected results. build long term cooperative relationships with social work institutions in other industries or regions, conduct regular mutual visits for exchanges, and share experience and achievements to broaden the horizons and thinking of internally driven young social workers. meanwhile, industry experts or scholars can be invited to give lectures or provide guidance to enhance their professional qualities and practical abilities. 5.2.3 strengthen the external incentives for externally attracted youth social workers maintain competitive compensation. establish a compensation research team to regularly understand the industry's compensation levels and benefit trends, ensuring that the institution's compensation and benefits are competitive. set up an "outstanding employee award" to provide additional material rewards and honorary certificates to outstanding externally attracted workers. clarify the promotion channels. develop a detailed promotion path map, clearly define the promotion requirements and time nodes for each position, and assist externally attracted workers in planning their career development paths. establish a "career development counseling" service to provide them with personalized career planning advice and career consultations. organize professional training. collaborate with well known training institutions in the industry to provide high quality training courses and learning resources for externally attracted workers. establish a "learning fund" to support them in participating in professional training, obtaining relevant certificates, or pursuing further education such as postgraduate degree upgrading courses. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 170 published by ideas spread 5.2.4 guide the motivation exploration of young social workers with a lack of motivation provide career counseling. collaborate with professional career counseling institutions to offer one-on-one indepth counseling services for workers with motivation deficiency. establish a "career planning workshop" to assist them in understanding their career interests, strengths, and development directions through group activities. enrich work experiences. develop detailed job rotation plans and cross departmental cooperation project plans, and clarify the goals and expected outcomes for each stage. provide them with experienced mentors or coaches who can offer guidance and feedback during the work process to help them better adapt to new positions and projects. strengthen colleague mutual assistance. establish platforms such as wechat groups or qq groups for "colleague mutual assistance groups" to facilitate colleagues to communicate and share experiences, insights, and help seeking information at any time. regularly organize team building activities and outdoor development training to enhance team cohesion and sense of belonging, and help young social workers with motivation deficiency integrate into the team culture. although this study provides valuable insights into the employment motivation and professional identity of young social workers, it also has some limitations. first, the limited sample size of the study may affect the generalizability of the results. second, the study mainly focuses on the influence of employment motivation on professional identity, but fails to fully explore other possible influencing factors, such as work stress, organizational culture, leadership style, etc. future research can consider the following directions. by increasing the sample size, the representativeness and generalizability of the research results can be improved. in addition, other factors that may affect professional identity, such as work stress, organizational culture, leadership style, etc., can be studied. cross cultural comparative studies can also be conducted to explore the relationship between the employment motivation and professional identity of young social workers in different cultural backgrounds. acknowledgments this paper is part of the lingnan normal university and college of education's university-level youth project "research on the mechanism for building a rural youth social worker team based on a competency model" (project number: qw2401), the guangdong provincial science and technology innovation strategic special fund (undergraduate science and technology innovation cultivation) project "the impact of self-leadership on job satisfaction among rural youth social workers under high-quality development" (project number: pdjh2025bg134), and the undergraduate innovation and entrepreneurship training program project "qingguo qingcheng: a new exploration of a one-stop youth service national trend ip" (project number: x202510579066x). references [1] cao, l. z., & zhao, s. q. 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(2022, august 26). 2021 statistical bulletin on the development of civil affairs [report]. https://www.mca.gov.cn/images3/www2017/file/202208/2021mzsyfztjgb.pdf [11] sheldon, k. m., & corcoran, m. (2019). comparing the current and long-term career motivations of artists and business-people: is everyone intrinsic in the end?. motivation and emotion, 43(2), 218–231. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-018-9723-1 [12] shen, r. h. (2011). cultivating and developing a large social work talent team. chinese public administration, (3), 17–19. [13] tong, q. h., & wen, t. l. (2023). why come and why go: a study on the relationship between career choice motives and turnover intentions among young social workers. journal of east china university of science and technology (social sciences edition), 38(6), 59–70. [14] wang, x., pang, l. m., & liu, d. d. (2022). a study on the motivation and career development of young social workers. journal of changsha civil affairs vocational and technical college, 29(4), 40–44. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n2p68 68 published by ideas spread research on guangcai porcelain under the fusion of eastern and western art contexts hui xie1 1 guangzhou city university of technology, china correspondence: hui xie, guangzhou city university of technology, guangzhou, 510800, china. received: march 19, 2025; accepted: april 4, 2025; published: april 7, 2025 abstract guangcai porcelain was born during the kangxi period of the qing dynasty, and its historical trajectory as an outstanding representative of chinese export porcelain is closely intertwined with the expansion of globalized trade networks. in the 18th century, the “china fever” in europe gave rise to a fervent demand for oriental porcelain, and guangcai porcelain became an important carrier of material and cultural exchanges between the east and the west by virtue of the geographical advantage of the guangzhou port. its uniqueness lies in the fact that it not only retains the oriental heritage of traditional pastel and enamel craftsmanship, but also takes the initiative to absorb western aesthetic needs, combining the complex curves of the rococo style, the european aristocratic coat of arms and the traditional chinese birds and flowers into one. this kind of cross-cultural creation is not a simple superimposition of patterns, but is based on the craftsman's in-depth understanding of foreign cultures and re-creation. in the early stages of globalization, guangcai porcelain already demonstrated the pioneering nature of cross-cultural fusion, and its rise and fall mapped the subtle changes in power relations between the east and the west, and became a precious sample for the study of the interactions between art and commerce, and between the local and the global. keywords: east and west, artistic context, guangcai porcelain, mutual understanding of civilizations 1. introduction the evolution of art history is often accompanied by the sparks of civilization collision. as a witness of the maritime silk road, the formation and transmutation of the artistic language of guangcai porcelain reveals the deep logic of “two-way penetration” in the dialogue between eastern and western cultures. traditional research focuses on the craft characteristics or trade data of guangcai porcelain, but neglects its experimental value in the construction of cross-cultural aesthetic paradigm. as a matter of fact, when painting the crucifixion of christ, guangcai porcelain craftsmen would unconsciously express the folds of the virgin mary's clothes with traditional chinese line drawing techniques; and when depicting lingnan lychee patterns, they would also draw on the perspective rules of european still-life paintings to enhance the sense of three-dimensionality. this microscopic intermingling of techniques transcends the pragmatic interpretation of the function of the object and points to the creative transformation of the cultural subject in accepting the other. while the european court displayed guangcai porcelain as a status symbol in baroque architecture, chinese artisans also reconstructed their perception of spatial decoration in the process of customization. this artistic dialogue across time and space makes guangcai porcelain a dynamic cultural medium, and what is condensed between its glazes is not only pigment and clay, but also carries the philosophical discernment of mutual understanding of civilizations. 2. study on the cultural change of guangcai porcelain to the west 2.1 the export history and trade background of guangcai porcelain the history and trade background of exporting guangcai porcelain is deeply rooted in the wave of material exchange between the east and the west at the early stage of globalization. during the kangxi period of the qing dynasty, with the boom of the european maritime trade, guangzhou, as the only commercial port open to the outside world, became the core hub of porcelain export. at that time, the european court of the oriental porcelain fervor, gave birth to the birth of a special category of canton porcelain it is not purely traditional chinese porcelain, nor is it completely catering to the west's customized goods, but in the cross-oceanic orders driven by the formation of the product of cultural hybrids. the prosperity of the maritime silk road for the guangcai porcelain provides a circulation path, portuguese merchant ships carrying silver and wine arrived in the pearl river estuary, the return cargo hold is filled with customized porcelain, this trade mode of bartering shaped the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 69 published by ideas spread production logic of guangcai porcelain. the heraldic patterns, mythological stories, and botanical motifs passed on by european merchants through the merchant system forced chinese artisans to break away from the programmatic compositions of traditional pastels and instead adopt layered color fillings and perspective shading techniques [1]. the frequent occurrence of “gold enamel” in the archives of the dutch east india company reveals how guangcai porcelain combined european enamel materials with chinese low-temperature glaze technology to create the unique “gold enamel” effect. this technological graft was not only reflected in the visual aspect, but also in the functional innovation of the objects. the emergence of beer mugs with lids and six-pronged condiment bottles marked the beginning of the penetration of utilitarian design into the eastern aesthetic system. trade activities not only brought about the flow of goods, but also established a creative dialogue across civilizations, making guangcai porcelain the most globalized artistic vehicle of the pre-industrial era. 2.2 influence of guangcai porcelain in the west the influence of guangcai porcelain on western society has profoundly reshaped the evolution of modern european material culture. as the earliest category of chinese export porcelain imported into europe in large quantities, its unique artistic language became an important reference for the redefinition of oriental aesthetics in europe during the age of enlightenment. european aristocrats initially regarded guangcai porcelain as exotic treasures displayed in the treasure cabinet, but with the surge in trade, these objects with gold glaze gradually penetrated into the realm of daily life, and the frequent appearance of guangcai military vases and floral plates in dutch still-life paintings confirms its identity transformation from a luxury product to a cultural symbol. when the kiln workers in meissen, germany, were imitating guangcai porcelain, they accidentally discovered that the combination of cobalt blue material and local kaolin clay could produce a visual effect similar to that of blue and white, and this technical misinterpretation, on the contrary, contributed to the breakthrough development of hard porcelain in europe. more subtle influence is reflected in the aesthetic paradigm: guangcai porcelain craftsmen to adapt to the western order to transform the traditional open light composition, inspired the british wedgwood ceramics factory will be chinese landscape patterns and neoclassical border combination of decorative system; guangcai unique “full color does not miss the white” color filling law, the catalyst for the french sevres kiln of the glaze on the in the dimension of cultural symbolism, guangcai was the first to improve on the glaze technique of sèvres kilns in france. in the dimension of cultural symbolism, the custom-painted family coat of arms on guangcai porcelain was transformed by european aristocrats into a medium for the display of power, and this practice of binding personal identification with oriental objects reflected the ambivalence of the west towards foreign cultures in the early period of colonial expansion both the desire to conquer and the intention to possess. when the peony entwined branches of guangcai porcelain appeared in the wall coverings of the palace of versailles, and when the use of chinese porcelain formed a specific ritual for afternoon tea in england, the dialogue between the arts of east and west went beyond the artifacts themselves, and evolved into a micro-history of civilization's mutual appreciation [2]. 2.3 specific manifestations of cultural change the cultural change carried by guangcai porcelain is specifically manifested in the reconstruction of artistic language and the symbiosis of symbol system across the region. the traditional chinese porcelain landscape and white philosophy gradually gave way to a dense and ornate decorative style under the demand of western orders. jingdezhen painters, in order to adapt to the european aesthetics, transformed the blue and white split-water technique into a gradual haloing of the glaze, and rearranged the traditional bird and flower patterns with the principle of focal point perspective. this transformation of visual expression does not only stop at the level of technique, but also reflects the displacement of values: dutch merchants customized the bible story plate, requiring craftsmen to depict the crucifixion of christ with heavy brushwork, but retaining the cloud ribbons on the figure's clothing; portuguese aristocrats heraldic ceramics, the family coat of arms is embedded in the baoxiang flowers within the arena, forming the symbols of power and oriental aesthetics of the double encoding. the innovation of the function of the vessel is also a sign of the depth of cultural integration, the original general jar used for rituals was transformed into a container for tobacco, and the traditional chinese eight treasures motifs were semantically linked to the european tobacco culture. a deeper transformation took place in the production system. the studio set up in guangzhou's thirteen houses introduced western sketches as the blueprints for their creations, and the painters unconsciously absorbed the contrasts of light and dark and anatomical principles during the copying process, a cross-border grafting of knowledge that made guangcai porcelain a special medium for the dissemination of artisanal technology in the era of early globalization. when the european rococo-style golden scroll pattern and chinese twining lotus pattern intertwine on the surface of porcelain, and when the roman columns and the back pattern border together constitute the border decoration system, the aesthetic genes of the two civilizations have completed the dialogue and reorganization between the square inches of the artifacts. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 70 published by ideas spread 3. reverse cultural change and the innovative expression of guangcai porcelain 3.1 drawing inspiration from western ceramic innovation guangzhou colored porcelain shows a unique path of reverse innovation in cross-cultural dialogue, and its breakthrough practice is reflected in the active transformation rather than simple transplantation of western ceramic craftsmanship. in the nineteenth century, when the european hard porcelain technology matured, guangzhou craftsmen reversed the use of glazed enamel and gold water depiction technology, grafting the delicate lines of rococo style with traditional chinese auspicious patterns to form a visual grammar that transcends regional aesthetics. taking the demand for customized european family heraldry as an opportunity, the large guangcai gold-drawn sailing vessel emblem bowl features a precise replica of a baroque sailing vessel within the shieldshaped emblem in the center of the bowl, while the outer rim is encircled with lingnan banana leaf motifs and entwined branches of passion flower, and the gold threads on the cobalt-blue ground outline a symbiosis of merchant ships and auspicious clouds on the maritime silk road. as shown in figure 1. this innovation is not a one-way imitation, but a translation of the three-dimensional plastic thinking of western ceramics into a flat decorative language, using oriental imagery to deconstruct the european aristocratic symbol system. craftsmen establish a new balance between the functionality and symbolism of objects, upgrading export porcelain from a trade commodity to a carrier of cultural translation. this two-way deconstruction and reconstruction of the creative logic provides a methodological revelation of crafts innovation across time and space in the context of globalization [3]. figure 1. a large bowl with a sailing ship emblem in gilt on a wide range of colors 3.2 constructing a new artistic paradigm in the cross-cultural interaction promoted by the wave of globalization, guangcai porcelain reconstructs its artistic language by taking the path of reverse cultural change, breaking through the traditional export porcelain's passive mode of adapting to the market, and turning to take the initiative to deconstruct and reorganize the visual symbols of the east and the west. eighteenth-century guangzhou port craftsmen put baroque scroll pattern and lingnan lychee pattern on porcelain, implanting the bright hues of rococo art in the glaze painting technique, creating a composite aesthetic that is both decorative and narrative. the shape of the guangcai thirteen houses square vase follows the oriental cosmology of the four directions of heaven and earth, but the four sides of the opening depict gothic arched windows surrounded by tulips, an asymmetrical visual dialogue that breaks with the programmed schema and suggests a shift in the main body of trade and the aesthetic power of the maritime silk road. as shown in figure 2. through the metaphorical expression of artifact forms, the artisan group transforms exotic elements into local cultural carriers, sublimating material products into a medium of cross-cultural identity. this two-way penetration of artistic practice not only reshapes the craft value system of guangcai porcelain, but also opens up a new dimension of multicultural coexistence and co-prosperity between the tension of artifacts and aesthetics, which provides a historical reference and paradigm revelation for the contemporary innovation of handicrafts. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 71 published by ideas spread figure 2. guangcai thirteen-row quadripartite vase 4. exploring the multi-dimensional application of guangcai porcelain the multi-dimensional application system pioneered by guangzhou colored porcelain in cross-cultural translation testifies to the creative reconfiguration of artifact function by reverse cultural change. in the 18th century, guangzhou craftsmen customized badges for the east india company, breaking through the limitations of purely copying the coat of arms of export porcelain, embedding the european company logo into the oriental auspicious patterns the lingnan bat pattern suspended on the top of the shield-shaped badge, and interspersed with dutch tulips and chinese lotuses at the bottom of the wave pattern, a visual grafting that transforms commercial symbols into a symbol of cultural symbiosis. this visual graft transforms a commercial symbol into a testimony of cultural symbiosis. the east india company emblem porcelain of guangcai crosses the boundaries of tea set, furnishing ware and diplomatic gift at the practical level, and the sailing ship motif outlined in gold on the glaze not only conforms to the aesthetics of the european afternoon tea ceremony, but also alludes to the elegance of the oriental scholar's study through the entwined lotus pattern border. as shown in figure 3. craftsmen through the spatial division and pattern layering techniques, in a single piece of artifacts to achieve a parallel narrative of heterogeneous cultures, this multi-dimensional application of the strategy to dissolve the limitations of the traditional export porcelain unidirectional output. when the physical form of customized porcelain carries the triple functions of trans-oceanic trade, identity and artistic experimentation, the reverse cultural innovation transcends the scope of decoration, and builds a dynamic cultural adaptation mode in the fission of artifacts' usage scenarios, which provides an operational paradigm of historical dimension for the revitalization of contemporary non-legacy. 4.1 multi-dimensional application of guangcai porcelain aesthetic paradigm under the integration of eastern and western art contexts 4.1.1 application in diplomatic situations the application of guangcai porcelain in diplomatic occasions reveals the unique value of cross-cultural artifacts as carriers of political discourse. this special medium, fusing eastern and western aesthetics, plays the role of a silent messenger in power games and civilizational dialogues. the guangcai medallion-print ornamental vase given to the british king by the qianlong emperor during the visit of macartney's mission to china in 1793 (see table 1) cleverly transforms the george iii crown motif into an auxiliary motif of the chinese ornamental vase, completing the delicate balancing of the symbols of sovereignty through the translation of the visual language. the prussian diplomatic archives of the mid-nineteenth century show that guangcai's custom-made plate commemorating the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 72 published by ideas spread coronation of william i used a european coat of arms structure, but inlaid with a blue dragon motif in the center, a heraldic reorganization strategy that successfully resolved the cultural conflict in diplomatic etiquette. an even more profound practice occurred during the cold war, when nixon was presented with the guangcai jindi kaikou flower pattern tableware set during his visit to china in 1972, the designers deliberately weakened the revolutionary theme, and instead strengthened the symbiotic relationship between song dynasty bird and flower paintings and rococo scrolls, to dissolve the ideological confrontation through artistic resonance. in the twentyfirst century cultural diplomacy, the innovative application of guangcai porcelain turned to the digital dimension, the national gift of the 2017 “one belt, one road” international cooperation summit forum “silk road new words” porcelain panel painting, with the help of nano-glaze technology will be thirty-three national flowers of the participating countries into the lingnan lychee pattern composition, physical level of the glaze melting metaphor for the political level of cooperation the fusion of glazes on the physical level is a metaphor for cooperation on the political level. these diplomatic practices confirm that the cross-cultural genes of guangcai porcelain enable it to break through the language barrier and build an aesthetic community that transcends political stances in terms of shape, decoration, and craftsmanship [4]. figure 3. guangcai east india company badge porcelain table 1. typical cases of diplomatic application of wide-colored porcelain year diplomatic events ware type art fusion elements 1793 macartney mission to china ornamental vase with coat of arms english crest/chinese cloud dragon 1861 establishment of diplomatic relations with prussia coronation plate european coat of arms/oriental green dragon pattern 1972 nixon's visit to china floral pattern dinnerware song dynasty bird and flower paintings / rococo scrolls 2017 belt and road summit forum nano-glazed porcelain plate national flower/lingnan lychee pattern the deeper logic of this artifactual diplomacy lies in the negotiation system that encodes political aspirations into visual symbols. william iii's customized guangcai heraldic tea set required the chinese artisan to juxtapose the dutch east india company logo with the jingdezhen kiln fire pattern, conveying an intent to collaborate through a combination of commercial symbols and craft traditions. in contemporary diplomatic scenarios, guangcai porcelain has evolved into a dynamic cultural installation. the interactive porcelain plate a tale of two cities, on display at the 2023 year of sino-french culture, triggers projected three-dimensional images of notre dame de paris and the temple of light and filial piety by touching the glazed surface, turning the object into an interface hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 73 published by ideas spread for a dialogue of civilizations across time and space. when the doves of peace depicted in gilt enamel weave in and out of the blue and white landscapes, and when the 3d-printed guangcai components are embedded in the decorative system of the united nations building, this three-century-old paradigm of aesthetics continues to write new possibilities for civilizations to learn from each other. 4.1.2 the role of cultural communication guangcai porcelain played the role of a mobile visual lexicon in the dissemination of culture, encoding oriental aesthetics into a system of symbols that could be recognized by the west. in the 18th-century “china style” in europe, the twining lotus motifs of guangcai porcelain were deconstructed and reorganized by the dutch potters of delft, transforming them into new motifs that were both oriental and decorative, a cross-media translation that allowed the chinese botanical motifs to penetrate into the daily life of the west. an even deeper cultural penetration took place in the religious realm, where the custom-made communion cups of the society of jesus placed the image of the virgin and child within the unique jindi kaikou of the guangcai, a symbiosis of christian symbols and chinese decorative frameworks that created a visual theology of dialogue between heterogeneous civilizations. in the nineteenth century, british botanists reverse-examined south china's plant species through realistic floral motifs on guangcai porcelain, and porcelain decoration accidentally became an iconographic document for natural science research. contemporary digital communication to give this new dimension of cultural interaction, the palace museum and the louvre jointly developed ar project “porcelain road”, the audience scanning the guangcai liu ting pattern plate can be triggered by three-dimensional animation, presenting the pattern hidden in the port of guangzhou merchant ships and venice gondola and navigation scenes. it is worth paying attention to the two-way nature of cultural dissemination, guangcai craftsmen had transformed the storyline of homer's epic into a comic-strip style porcelain plate, reinterpreted the trojan war with the logic of chinese scroll painting composition, this narrative transformation made the greek epic enter the southeast asian market for the first time with the oriental visual syntax [5]. 4.2 pioneering application of three-dimensional space the pioneering application of guangcai porcelain in three-dimensional space breaks through the dimensional limitations of traditional flat decorations, transforming eastern and western spatial aesthetics into palpable material existence. this three-dimensional practice is particularly notable in the field of religious architecture. the ceramic sculpture of the roof of the ching wan pavilion in malacca is a group of statues, and the artisans use the guangcai gold-plating process to shape the statue of a-ma, incorporating baroque light and shadow processing techniques in the folds of the clothing, sublimating the two-dimensional enamel painting technique into a threedimensional spatial expression of volume. more radical spatial reconstruction occurs in the field of modern architecture. the guangcai porcelain installation “thousand sails” at the entrance of the bank of china tower in hong kong deconstructs the traditional jindi pattern into a stainless steel wire mesh skeleton, and the handmade porcelain tiles attached to the surface not only preserve the essence of the peony pattern, but also form a dynamic light and shadow effect with the change of viewing angle. cross-border experiments in the field of industrial design reveal new possibilities. the echoes of the silk road chandelier exhibited at milan design week adopts the bamboo joints common to guangcai porcelain for the skeleton of the lampshade, and the glazed unit inlaid on the surface replicates the western sailing pattern of eighteenth-century export porcelain, which projects a light and shadow narration of the sailing track on the ground as the light penetrates through it. archaeological discoveries corroborate the early germination of this three-dimensional thinking, the philippine shipwrecks salvaged during the kangxi period guangcai porcelain candlestick, the base of china's brave shape and the top of the greek columns to form a surreal collage, confirming that the period of the maritime silk road craftsmen have had the consciousness of the shape of the cross-dimensional. 5. conclusion the history of three hundred years of development of guangcai porcelain is essentially an aesthetic course of reorganization of the artistic genes of the east and the west. from the initial “trade porcelain” catering to the western market to the contemporary “cultural envoys” of national diplomacy, its role transmutation confirms the qualitative change of cross-cultural integration from passive adaptation to active leadership. in the digital technology subversion of the traditional aesthetic experience today, guangcai porcelain cross-border practice is more revelatory: the national palace museum used holographic projection technology to deconstruct and reorganize guangcai patterns, creating an immersive exhibition of the real and imaginary intertwined; italian designers applied the principle of guangcai open composition to the design of architectural facades, realizing the spatial translation of the traditional patterns. these innovative explorations show that the integration of artistic contexts is by no means a mechanical collage of stylistic elements, but requires the establishment of an aesthetic hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 74 published by ideas spread syntax system that is consistent with the ancient and modern worlds. when blue and white meet digital code, and when traditional craftsmanship is infused with contemporary design thinking, guangcai porcelain is writing a new paradigm of cultural symbiosis. acknowledgements the project of “the 14th five-year plan” for the development of philosophy and social sciences in guangzhou(2023gzgj311) references [1] yin, z. (2021). research on smart teaching method of fashion innovation and development of creation aesthetics in lingnan nine intangible cultural heritage. frontiers in art research, 3(4), 12–14. [2] zheng, z. (2023). analysis of the commercial value of china's intangible cultural heritage guangcai——a study based on swot analysis. in proceedings of the 2nd international conference on financial technology and business analysis (part 4) (pp. 730–736). cardiff business school, brunel university london, university of aberdeen business school, danubius university of galați. [3] yiu, w. d., wan, p. w., ng, w. f., & others. (2014). sentimental drivers of social entrepreneurship: a study of china's guangcai (glorious) program. management and organization review, 10(1), 55–80. [4] yuan, y. (2024). influences between chinese ming and qing dynasty porcelain and european rococo style. in shs web of conferences (vol. 199, p. 04006). edp sciences. [5] han, c., lei, s., mingming, w., & others. (2021). innovative design of traditional calligraphy costume patterns based on deep learning. in journal of physics: conference series (vol. 1790, no. 1, p. 012029). iop publishing. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v2n2p53 53 published by ideas spread constitution vis-a-vis constitution indonesian 1945 versus papuan 1999 don a. l. flassy1 1 prof. e.r. phd, papua institute for science and technology/liptek-papua, cenderawasih university/uncen correspondence:don a. l. flassy, papua institute for science and technology/liptek-papua, cenderawasih university/uncen, indonesia. received: may 19, 2019; accepted: june 6, 2019; published: june 24, 2019 abstract commonly, as it is shown, conflict is emerge among tolerancemerger of unity in diversity versus solidarity merger of togetherness in diversity as poles of spanning the natural and engineering efforts which are not natural to make or maintain existing fused together. the statement is welded by the spirit of indonesia’s1945 constitution versus papua’s1999 constitution in the feasibility (practice) and philosophical (ideology) of papua-melanesian living in and integrated to indonesia. regardingly, this article is therefore titled “constitution vis-à-vis constitution: indonesia 1945 versus papua 1999” intended to demonstrate the existence of each of the philosophical as well as the feasibility of correlation between the two as cause and effect in supporting the blare political action which is: "the roadmap to the revival of the papuan nation in west papua: "a peaceful decision on the restoration of the self". affair have been taken, namely through the third papua people's congress (kongres rakyat papua tiga/krp-3), october 16-19, 2011, where the nation of papua has announced unilateral declaration of independence of the nation of west papua/udi-papua and formation of the federal republic of west papua/frpb (negara republik federal papua barat/nrfpb) back to and continuing the political status of december 27nd 1949 to december 1st, 1961 (after round table conference/rtc of the hague to political manifesto of papua). this is the status before papua being occupied by and integrated within indonesia at change of international conspiracy. thus, as well as to formulate the two basics: first, how to understand the presence of papua-melanesian inhabiting land of papua? second, whether, people of papua-melanesian and indonesia who inhabiting land of papua can being together according to the federalist order of papua-melanesian? this may also potentially for other basic formulation of discussion likely to reveal a back-rock (the unshakeable basis) of each of the existence which is of papua and of indonesia as two different nations. the two nations are, as being correlated in the process of time and idealism. the appearance of actual and accurate papua in indonesia because of the synergies and mechanisms of critically adhesives of interest to tolerate in corporation of national unity or multiple-wide but one, but also at the same time hard spanned cohesive because there is no solidarity which is togetherness in diversity because the nature of rejecting merger. there are many hidden presence but there are also some blatant. for this reason hidden structure theory needs to be implementing which convergent with other theories in the phenomenology-behaviourism methodology with the support of literature and empirical studies in practice (auto-ethnography). thus it can be understood that there is tolerance merger of unity in diversity versus solidarity of togetherness in diversity which for papua-melanesian living in indonesia may reflecting any kinds of multiple singularities (a.o, the feeling of dual citizen, etc.). these ere poles of spanning the natural and engineering efforts (not natural) to maintain existing fused together. the controversial is reflected when matching constitution of the two nations i.e. 1945 constitution of indonesia versus 1999 constitution of papua. keyword: papua and indonesia, solidarity in togetherness versus tolerance in unity 1. introduction what is here become, the fundamental view is, the presence of papuans as integrated element within the state and the nation of indonesia apparently still implies various disagree (note 1), then the effort to uncover, was always seen as opposition or challenger and even as an attempt to act of unlawful alias in the formulation of the term hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 54 published by ideas spread 'makar (treason)' or ‘haatzaiartikelen’(sowing hatred articles), which is a dutch colonial understand that not to be hated even stroked as a weapon of frightening. theory to be used in this study is hidden structure and structuralism converged with other supporting theories, bringing the compromise and action to managed conflict discovered here between natures of diversity in togetherness versus natures of diversity in unity. the study then exploring method of library study as well as empirical (auto-ethnography). the practical purpose with respect to that is to know the concept of papuamelanesian related to the existence of daily life behaviour as well as philosophy in the form of ”source of life” and "way of life". by employing structure linkage methods, among others: correlation method and comparison method or will be more wrapped up with the phenomenology-behaviouristic method to find and emerge to the surface as well as by approaching the auto-ethnographic method of self in order to clarify the position of the problem and consciousness of existences. as shown above, the different standard may caused stigma which limiting the maturity of thinking public good on both sides namely of jakarta in this case the government of indonesia in the broad sense and the papuans themselves as the party to be integrated. in the sense of liberation, would like papua from the dutch, scholars in indonesia (papua) as if to see that papuans themselves just being passive, waiting for the arrival of the "liberators" of the indonesian territory west of the island of papua. this is reflected in the words that "indonesia "liberates" the papuans" from dutch colonial rule (see, for example, lubis, 1984). the role of the indonesian people (nonpapuans?) –like sam ratulangie, yos sudarso, even benny murdani (note 2) –in "liberating" or "educate the national consciousness" among "the papuans,” whether it is also exaggerated it? george junus aditjondro (1993) calls the pattern of acceptance and understanding such as fraud of papuans nationalismin historiography of indonesia. of the various clashes opinion of jakarta as the party that presents a policy is not the slightest pursue policies that are not wise (policy of non-virtue) put papuans who integrated as the party of never stopped demanding forth, both to and from the inside and ignited by the international. events and series of political occurrences in papua, known as the roar of the transformation is complete on the tracks of the indonesian reformat the end of 20th century of (1997-2000) then all obsolete form of resistance guerrilla performances witch into forms of dignity diplomacy. at that time, in 1999, the papua independent committee (komite independent papua/kip) also just formed in 1988, commissioned by the leader of papua theys hio eluay (note 3) follow-up work which is not completed designed by papua national committee in 1961 that is set on october 19, 1961in the form of the political manifesto of papuans in west papua which was declared on december 1, 1961. similarly, the basic guidelines of papua melanesia was launched with typical charge of triple fold logic of melanesian-papuans in the malay and english version was held into the basic guidelines-triple fold logics of melanesia-papua.(note 4) this academic intellectual work is intended to support the efforts of mass mobilization that culminated in three major events after the appearance of 100 team (tim seratus) delegation of papua in february 6, 1999 for national dialogue on coordination of reconciliation forum of people of irian jaya (forum rekonsiliasi rakyat irian jaya/foreri) with the president of the republic of indonesia, professor b.j. habibie. the 3rd indonesian president was although mention the act of the papuans through the 100 team as "a soft rebellion" at the same time advised to "pulang dan renungkan kembali (go home and think back)". here then after reflecting on the fact (note 5) there was a backlash among papuans in the form of three events in a row respectively: the rising of national flag of papua the 'morning star' alongside indonesian national flag 'two colors' in december 1, 1999, with the demands of reset the name papua, align history of papua, and held the extraordinary papua national ensemble (musyawarah besar/mubes papua) on february 26, 2000 revised the west irian congress in the act of dmp-pepera 1969, and launching national congress of papua to declaring transitional government of papua. the mubes papua took place on february 29, 1999, and then the second papua national congress took place on may 29 to june 3, 2000 in follow up the first papua national congress in 1961 by papua national committee (komite nasional papua/knp) notching by new guinea council (nieuw guinea raad/ngr), made-up political manifesto of papuans in west papua. this is originated from the desire to reproduce the deliverables of first papua national congress that is, the basic guidelines with triple fold logic of melanesian-papua held in the format of the charter and constitution of papuans. this document is very limited indeed, circulate only in the national congress that despite appearing in public through the mass media that reported by the weekly tifa irian, the second week of may 2000 for a limited papua and world wide by agency of france press, june 6, 2000. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 55 published by ideas spread because the mechanisms and design elements that bad image diverting the second papua national congress was rather complement the first papua national congress with constitution and declaration of government instead the leaders, theys hio eluay and thom beanal led to negate the original purpose of the congress which is to declare the transitional government of papua become "received special autonomy (otonomi khusus/otsus), replace merdeka (independence)". on condition beyond a doubt that the manuscript of the papua nation constitution1999 to be valid and became hampered as well as the manuscript of transitional government. however, by a researcher of van vollenhoven institute for law-state university of leiden (which for some reasons was not mentioned by name) had commented academically against this text as"constitution on the boundary-line of periphery-marginal of the state of indonesia". although it may be a taboo to reveal the back but felt the need to be known to sit because as an intellectual product of academic effort direct correlation with the constitution of the republic of indonesia1945 (if papuais in the integration) that shadow constitution of papua (if papua is outside integration). although the manuscript was received, then was passed onto the third papuan national congress (krp-3) 16-19 october 2011 as material on congressional provisions. 2. problematics this study needs to reposition whether the interests of the papuans, (call: papua nation) that has been accommodated in the indonesian constitution in accommodative manner or justin performance alias occupied which obligatory submissive and obedient to that occupier by other words integrated submissive and obedient to the perpetrators of integration or integrator. this is where the term 'invaders' or 'colonial' or 'imperialism' to be tested. while on the other hand papua(as an integrated nation) is not always true, because the opportunity to define them as independent may occur (outside the integrator nation). as has been lit revealed, at least four episodes of wasted namely the first papua national congress initiated by the papua national committee formed by the nieuw guinea raad (papua council) when it launched a government of papua as alleged by the president soekarno in the tri command of people: 'disband the puppet state of papua made by the netherlands in west irian home land of indonesia' while the papua just on stage to talk about the completeness of the state in the form of state emblem bird mambruk pigeon (gaura victoria regiapapuana) and papuan flag morning star and the national anthem of west papua 'hai tanahkoe papoea' completed the name of the nation as "papoea nations" and the country name of "papoea courant west". so first be preceded by a declaration to be papua volks (nation of papua) and the country name of west papua. although at that time there already a manuscript which was compiled intellectually by a member of the papua national committee who also member of nieuw guinea raad, nicolaas tanggahma the representatives of fakfak electoral districts. the following opportunities occur in the act of pepera in 1969 that at that time there were only voice that of eduard hegemur (note 6) again from fakfak electoral districts requiring the free papua became state's of own outside any country both indonesia and the netherlands. one only truth was among 1026 voices of lies. this incident with various other motions of the papuans themselves as well as for the support of 30 member states of un supporting the proposal of ghana,(note 7) now only decorates the archives of the united nations simply by the word 'take-note' (bubbled by security council of the united nations 19 november 1969). the third occasion occurs during the national dialogue 100 team to meet with president habibie, instead "the independence" must declared first then report, the action was to ask for indonesia to give. obviously it was rejected with the words "pulang dan renungkan kembali (go home and think back/look at your self at the mirror)" however the word “soft rebellion” was expressed by the 3rd president of indonesia in commenting the request submitted by the papuan 100 team. the fourth opportunity was occur in and on the rails of indonesia reform to obtain the grace and ease of the government of indonesia through kiai haji abdurahman wahid famous with gus dur, the 4thpresident of indonesia, is to allow the raising of papua flag, returning the name of papua replace the stigmatizes backwardness and enslavement name of irian (barat or jaya) and the all-important of all of them, allowing the second papua national congress be organized by sponsoring a fund of 1 billion rupiah. papuan people apparently do not see this as an opportunity to complete the tasks of the first national congress of papua which still incomplete i.e. by announcing transitional government, though the chance of that is very promising. including in this case did not ratify the constitution (the one in charge of basic guide lines and triple fold logic intended). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 56 published by ideas spread the re-studies be categorized “rectification step” of papua's history(note 8) according to the mandate of article 43, 44, 45 and 46 of ri-law 21 of 2001 on special autonomy for papua province, presumably a proposal submitted as a measure of participation of individuals in order to provide input to the order of formal governance attendance. in that regard, returned comments by the researcher of vollenhoven law institute, it is, the manuscript in question is the involvement of cultural creativity framed in correlation with the constitution of the republic of indonesia, papua customs and specific cosmopolitan (universalism). the resulting manuscript virtually an image of very broad and spacious even be read as a hyper-rationalism with charisma, creativity and structure, generating from foundationalism proposed, and inspired by unrest, demonstrating the way of life (principles of life). not the same as the traditions constitutional in the west that is the constitution moves by self-constitution (outside charismatic stage) and become routine as the bedrock foundation of law (unshakeable law). the constitution meant here again following the researcher of vollenhoven law institute, is still warm and can be disturbed. that is there for should be read as an astute reflection on the current condition and use of the potential for the state to use a reference mixture of lectures, ideas and different political systems. the leading is a response to the instability of government in papua, which was introduced by an ever-widening gap (distance immortality span) between legal certainty and achievement granted by principal of national unity in tolerance (indonesia) versus national diversity in solidarity (melanesian-papua). 3. flows of mandate gaining the further highlight from the researcher of vollenhoven law institute, to explain the specific charge of basic guidelines-triple fold logic of melanesian-papua is indeed possible to show how the current mandate opposing surrounds the idea of a new nation with a constitution built on an understanding of the indonesian state, with borrowings from performance to domestic christianity and legality assurance of heritage (customs) revitalized of papuans continue to increase in light of the political shock conditions of the nation and state of indonesia. certain contextual influences on the constitution also includes knowledge of the dutch colonial government and the ownership understanding of sources and idiosyncratic knowledge of new guinea stored in the collection of netherlands and other intimacy. from a more regional level, there is also the influence of melanesian eschatology to generalize and idealize the notion of culture and customs (environment) of the papua nation. must be respected certain environment where include audience-in-mind (attention-in-thought) to understand what is going on. basic guidelines-triple fold logic melanesian-papua is a product of the cosmopolitan periphery of indonesia so is a sign of engagement of local traditions with global magnitude laid papua in a vast world. the constitution was written by using various sources of neighborhoods near jerusalem in the land of judah, newyork on american soil, and others including betawi jakarta in indonesia and of course the netherlands that is so is a global format cosmopolitan engagement. the engagement took place in imbalance of strength (power) between the centers of the country with the outer boundary (the periphery). writing a constitution is among them out powerful practice to lay it bare (what ever they are), deconstruct (de-tightens) and redefine the boundaries of race and culture in the stateindonesia versus papua. no constitutionalism that match this constitution that arranged marginal on-line or line-edge of the country presumably so the response of the audience could possibly happen. field as it will be seen on the conditions by which this base and the foundations of the sacred (taboo and divine) for the laid of an alternative state. the constitution is the fruit of work that virtually creative and sophisticated possessing a clear vision. the source or basis of inspiration or holygrails (holy innuendo) (note 9) variety and method of composition is very colored various broad in sight while the goal is obviously to generate a structure that will abdicate those who have too much power and inherited rights for all, including supposed to protect the rights of the marginalized (in the sense, too, including those who are integrated). dependence on the dissemination and response, social processes may lead to coverage of the mobilization of the papua people's intention "m" of their own or against the opinion desired but also a kind of interaction is presented by people in jakarta. the latter possibility will always exist around the corner but it is often not recorded by jakarta. (the book of) sinkronisasi (synchronization) written by this author (flassy, 2004) (note 10), the said is an event that clearly would a foundation for creative reciprocal agreements between center and periphery countries and governments of the region which often causes a reaction very stiff and scary (virtue unwise and or policies that sometimes noncivilized) from jakarta. however, as shown by timmer (2004, 2005), gap between jakarta and papua is not hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 57 published by ideas spread narrowed, it is also, perhaps the central and periphery boundary most east of the country to each other are involved when educable entities (unity of learning) so that the two are closely related to each other in the understanding of balance, of the price-appreciate the value, and of cosmopolitan connections of cultural traditions and knowledge. an other defense is knowledge and wisdom of local domestic (emics), which is almost always stagnant when introduced outside knowledge (ethics) which followed in the construction of the still underlying prejudices and assumptions omniscient will target service (papua as a target group).(note 11) 4. different in the unity in this case, which of course is not easy to be come part of the establishment or obtaining point to be accommodated in to repertoire consideration the concept of the republic of indonesia: bhineka tunggal ika (diversity in unity)? as has been revealed before, as derived from the basic philosophy of tri fold logic of melanesia-papua is an entirely different question remains distinct or unity in diversities. in a sense, each element not smelt (intact no yield) mosaic banded (integrated in mosaic) then it is completely different and it is still different, that of the respective interests of balanced manner cybernetic(synergy) as solidarity, togetherness, customs and attitudes, including the interest of both the race of papua is melanesia and humanity in another scale, especially in the integrity of the republic of indonesia (nkri) can certainly be tested. then in the understanding of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia with pancasila and the 1999 constitution of federal state of papua with melanesian-papua triple fold logic at the edge of periphery or marginal line of the republic of indonesia was to be paired academically and intellectually. with the aim to draw from both crosses smart for both parties in the advancement of mutual understanding and mutually beneficial multilaterally. in this regard the government of indonesia to seek the flexibility of the immortality of government behavior (integrator) which is in entering the feel of papua(integrated parties) in the balance of dignity and fulfill the values of civilized humanity. the existence of an understanding of the constitution in marginal line and periphery boundary is, the possibility of judicial review and even test of the quality of what is meant by local wisdom (local knowledge) nations and tribes in the republic of indonesia (read: nusantara/archipelago) was has accommodated perfectly in pancasila and the constitution of 1945. call it "shari'ah-islam”, which is said to be excluded from the preamble of the constitution of 1945, but remained local wisdom intentions for the people, regions, populism and certain ethnic groups. that state idealism of indonesia starting from syarikat islam then row of three indonesian islam nationalist, whom were, tan malaka, sukarno and mohammad hatta launched their writings as shown by yos rizal suriaji (2008). the figure of tan malaka was the first to initiate written concept of the republic of indonesia. he wrote naar de republic of indonesia (towards the republic of indonesia) in 1925, much earlier than mohammad hatta, who wrote indonesia vrije (indonesia merdeka/an independence indonesia) as a plea before a dutch court in the hague in 1928, and bung karno, who wrote menuju indonesia merdeka (toward an independence indonesia) in 1933. indicates islam as a milestone of indonesia or virtually pancasila and shari'a as two sides of one coin that will not actually be enshrined absence only (read: preamble uud'45) because it would have appeared also in the policies of all regional regulation (perda, perdasus, perdasi) even though ri act, in the later period (note 12). islamic law is thus back rock (unshaken) and inner-deep structure (or backbone) which is hidden structure of uud'45. the original formulation of the manuscript of the jakarta charter reads: "... based on: the deity, with the obligation to carry out the shari'ah for adherents, according to the basis of just and civilized humanity, the unity of indonesia, democracy, led by the inner wisdom of deliberations representative and by fostering a social justice for all indonesian people". from this point any way, this author wishes to reconcile the constitution of the republic of indonesia uu'45 with the text of the constitution of boundary-line or marginal periphery of the country of indonesia. the imagination is on the constitution of federal state of west papua with the melanesian-papua tri fold logic. the first mentioned as already discussed above insightful of pyramidal syncretism of islamic nationalist minded while the latter is balance mosaics of christianity and customs of the melanesian-papua. in a sense not intended to oppose but rather look for entry points that allow acceptance of differences and similarities between the cosmopolitan as intelligent wisdom in order to get a balanced solution between the parties.(note 13) the 1999constitutionscript was based on 3 previous scripts that are pulau fajar keemasan: sebuah anjuran kerjasama antar negara dan pemerintahan transisi papua barat (golden dawn island: a cooperation exhortation between states and the transitional government of west papua) by papua independent committee (komite independent papua/kip), port numbay april 1999 and rendevous dengan perjuangan kemerdekaan papua barat (rendevous with the freedom struggle of west papua) in 1999 and two more are pedoman dasar hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 58 published by ideas spread bangsa papua 1999 (basic guidelines of papuan)1999 and draft konstitusi negara federalis papua (constitution draft of federal state of papua) in 1999. referred to the first book was been thought if the government of indonesia and the people of west papua reach an agreement in the dialogue as well as the round table conference as held in the hague1949 to position the sovereignty state of the republic of indonesia, then all defense cooperation, including economic and labor citizenship can negotiate intended as advised. the second manuscript is an admiration for what the accomplished writer of papuans after integration while fighting for their existence in uncertainty and yet can be realized as far as this limit. furthermore the script of 1999 constitution referred to, can be seen in the context of fulfilling the criteria: theterritory, the people, the willingness, then the country and it is necessary for the rules, so the constitution is positioned at the periphery boundary and marginal line to the 1945 constitution, in the sense of a reality correlated with a shadow. from another angle as well as this factual is about to be answered djuyotosuntani, 2015,"indonesia to be broken". the book with a straight forward and arbitrary style of javanese by typical style of knowing-all(or quasi-know) showing the conquest as eternity. this is where the mistake. papua, which in indonesian great personalities minds and also of the all great people do not positioned as region, human and civilization were awakened ten years (1949/1950-1960/1961) separate from the dutch east indies which is different than the others.(note 14) not just a district or a region of the sultanate of tidore which of not at all any progress and at all no balanced. howone cans could equate hollandia 1955 for example withternate in the same year which is still a villages and hillbilly. else, if djujoto suntani said like that, then papua is not included inthe said anti-christ. 5. the juxtaposing among the (reality) constitution of the republic of indonesia to the (shadow) constitution of the federalist state of papua the juxtaposing among both constitutions thus can be discussed and given outlook as follows: figure 1. 5.1 the state basings of the republic of indonesia 5.1.1 the constitution 1945 the constitution 1945 or undang-undang dasar (usually referred to as uud ’45) was written when indonesia was emerging from japanese control following world war ii, and declaring its independence from its former colonial occupier, the netherlands. the constitution was abrogated by the federal constitution on 27 december 1949, replaced by the provisional constitution on 17 august 1950, and restored on 5 july 1959, experiencing the followings: today, the constitution is the supreme legal authority and requires the deference of all governmental actors in the state of republic of indonesia. since 1999, amendments to the constitution have increased its size from 37 articles to 73 articles. this version of the 1945 constitution has been annotated by the department of information, and the english translation is only provisional. the following provisions of the 1945 constitution are potential sources of intellectual property rights: article 32 (patents and copyright) and article 33.3 (genetic resources). as juxtaposing to the constitution of 1999 the author was based on the original script before the amendment so that it appears there is a correlation, but there is also another step forward regarding the natural environment, human rights, ownership of private armed and others that do not appear in the original of 1945 but then appear in the amendments text. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 59 published by ideas spread the other thing which is also recorded in 1945is, among others: here the state border of the point of coordinates or the place name is not mentioned, what is not a deliberate way? necessary inputs to improve the amendment. also that since 2009 for the first time by the direct election of people was held in indonesia. included in this correlation the state bodies which have been omitted in the text of amendment of uud 1945 was still visible on the constitution of 1999, of which the badan pertimbangan agung (supreme advisory council)/bpaand the election by the majelis permusyawaratan rakyat (assembly)/mpr. the full text can be seen on the original manuscript tof the constitution of the republic of indonesia year 1945 by national law development agency, ministry of justice and human rights in 1998 where for the amendment manuscript can be seen in the development reform cabinet mpr decree no.1998-2003ii/mpr/1998. 5.1.2 the attribution of republic state of indonesia 5.1.2.1 symbol of the state of indonesia “garuda panca sila” as previously mentioned, the uud’45 was digging out from the fundamental philosophy of principals in panca sila shown by symbols at the chest of garuda. figure 2. garuda pancasila, state weapon of the republic of indonesia 5.1.2.2 pancasila the affirmation and or understanding of each sila (principle) https://id.wikipedia. org/wiki/pancasila broadly stated as follows: sila number 1: one supreme god asserted that the people of the nation of indonesia believe god exists. it also implies that the people of the nation of indonesia believe there is life after death. it is emphasized that the teaching and holly values will lead the people of indonesia to a better life in the hereafter. this principle is based on the belief that there is only one god that is god almighty symbolized by the star in the center of shield of garuda pancasila. sila number 2: humanity of fair and civilized stated that there is the human desire to be treated with respect and concern for the dignity they deserve as creatures of god. in a sense emphasizing that the people of indonesia do not want the pressure of physical or spiritual people by the people of its own nation as well as by other nations. this spirit is symbolized by a chain displayed at the bottom right of the shield indicates that the generation of the human race in succession comply with this spirit. sila number 3: unity of indonesia, confirmed the existence of a form of the concept of nationalism, of a resident person of indonesia nation people love the country and nation by considering the need to always foster integrity and national unity. pancasila nationalism demands that every citizen of indonesia to avoid feeling superiority on the basis of an ethnically pure, consideration of family lines and color as stated in soempah pemoeda (youth swear) 1928: satoe toempah darah (one homeland) indonesia, satoe bangsa (one nations) indonesia, satoe bahasa (one languages) indonesia immortalized with the motto "unity in diversity" which means diversity in unity, symbolized in banyan tree on the top right of the shield. sila number 4: populist led by wisdom in consultative/representative, expressed on democracy of pancasila that requires decision making through a process of musyawarah (deliberation) to reach consensus or agreement. this is characteristic of vibrant democracy and principle of pancasila. this fact implies that the right or the truth of a democratic must always be tested with a feeling or sense of responsibility to god almighty according to the sentence which demands self and religious faith, with respect for the values of humane about the integrity and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 60 published by ideas spread dignity of human beings and with a view to maintaining and strengthening national unity and justice, symbolized by the head of the wild bull on the top left of the shield. sila number 5: social justice for the whole people of indonesia, requires dissemination and equitable prosperity hat deserves to all residents and citizens or not static but progressive and dynamic. in the sense that all the country's natural resources and the national potentials should be used as best as possible evenly to the happiness of the citizens of the nation. this justice implies protection of the weak by providing employment opportunities in the field and ability of each person. protection is required to prevent arbitrary actions of the strong and ensure the rules of justice to the meaning of this, as symbolized by rice and cotton grains on the bottom left side of the shield. 5.1.2.3 symbol of garuda the symbol of garuda (https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/lambang_ negara_ indonesia) was in adjacent to the real hawk eagle. this bird is found in the paintings in temples of dieng described as beaked and winged man, then at prambanan temple, and panataran shaped like a giant, beak, claws and long haired. some kingdoms in java had used garuda as the stamp/royal seal, as is stored in the national museum, is a stamp owned by the kingdom of erlangga (sultan_abdul_hamid2-01). garuda established as the state emblem of indonesia since inaugurated on february 11, 1950, and set forth in government regulation no.66 of 1951. initiator was sultan abdurrahman hamid alkadrie ii, known as sultan hamid ii, who then served as state minister of the negara republik indonesia serikat (united states of republic of indonesia/ris). in hindu mythology this bird appears with the name jatayu as rescuers of dewi shinta the lover of rama from the giant ravana. while on the other hand, this bird is also said to be buraque that was bird creature driven by the prophet muhammad to heaven on isra miraaj. in character, soekarno merged these two forces (islam and hinduism) to unite indonesia. what we may know of among some papuans, especially from kaimana to sorong and throughout the bird's head peninsula is on this bird will also sound another. that soekarno when discarded by the dutch became internment in prison of boven digoel, has come out to lobo in the south of kaimana and took the power of the bird along with a keris from the mountain nabi (prophet) among fakfak, bintuni, babo, kaimana and wasior. that strength has been brought to batavia and became power of indonesia as a country. although we do know very well, that sukarno was discarded by the dutch but not to boven digoel as so far to the east just to the ende-flores where the rest in sumatra and java. that was to boven digoel only other fighters, among them mohammad hatta and sutan sjahrir. and the keris was just a private property of soekarno which not belong to the royal or government forwarded. not from suharto nor yudhoyono turned out without any kind of keris and neither joko widodo who is the 7nd president now (2014-2020) and whose ever in the future. 5.1.2.4 national flag of the state of republic of indonesia “dwi warna” figure 3. dwi warna the flag of the state of indonesia 1) origin the flag of the republic of indonesia, the red and white (https: //id.wikipedia.org/wiki/bendera_indonesia) in sanskrit marked into dwi warna (two colors), is a simple flag with a two-color design that is divided into two sections horizontally (landscape). the color was taken from the color of the majapahit kingdom. actually, not only the kingdom of majapahit wore red and white flag as symbol of greatness. before majapahit kingdom of kediri had wearing red and white pennants. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 61 published by ideas spread in addition, the war flag of sisingamangaraja ix from batak was wearing a red and white as the color of its flag, pictorial twin swords white color with red and white base. red and white is the color of the flag of war sisingamangaraja xii. two twin swords symbolized piso gaja dompak (densely packed), heritage of kings of singamangaraja i-xii. when the war in aceh, the fighters of aceh had used the flag of war in the form of banners in red and white, on the back applied swords, a crescent moon, sun, and stars and some verses of the quran. in the age of empire bugis bone, south celebes before arung palakka (rafting), the flag of red and white, was a symbol of power and greatness of the kingdom of bone under the famous name of woromporang. at the time of the java war (1825-1830ad) pangeran diponegoro wear pennants of red and white in its struggle against the dutch. the flag, called the sang merah putih (red and white) was first used by students and nationalists in the early20th century during still under dutch rule. after world war ii ended, the independence of indonesia had started using this flag as the national flag. 2) meanings and colors indonesian flag, dwi warna, has a philosophical meaning. red means bold, white means holy. red symbolizes the human body, while white symbolizes the human soul. both are complementary and perfect for indonesia. in terms of history, since time immemorial both red and white contain sacred meaning. red color is similar to the color of gula jawa (brown sugar/palm sugar) and white color similar to the color of the nasi (cooked rice). both of these materials are the main ingredient in the cuisine of indonesia, particularly in java. when the majapahit empire triumphed in the nusantara (archipelago), the color of the banner used was abang putih (red and white) banners (pennants red and white). since the past red and white by the javanese used for salvation ceremony of womb after four months age baby in the womb in the form of slurry which was given a red dye portion. the javanese believe that pregnancy begins since the unification of red elements as symbols of the mother, the blood spilled when the baby is born, and the element of white as a symbol of the father, which is planted in the gua garba-senggama (womb of intercourse). while, from our knowledge, the countries of the middle east that breathe of islam by understanding the red is the desert and white is a sword in proclaiming the truth of"islam" to combat "kafir" (disbelief). 3) regulations of the red and white flag the regulations on the flag of red and white contained in: 1. uud ’45 article 35; the flag of the indonesia state is sang merah putih (the red and white). 2. government regulation no.40/1958 on the national flag of the republic of indonesia. 4) similarities of red and white flag from the knowledge of the flags of the nations that have similarities with the flag of the republic of indonesia, both by design and composition is different or similar but to the base is the same, the color is red and white. can be shown as follows: figure 4. the flag of japan, polandia, and greenland figure 5. the flag of arab emirate union, kuwait 1915–1961, bahrain hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 62 published by ideas spread figure 6.the flag of singapore, greenland, kuwait 1909-1915 figure 7. oranje hotel in surabaya, was the place where the dutch’s tri-colour torn its blue became dwiwarna of indonesia while there are also opinions evolve that are not based on strong references that besides influenced by the japanese who ruled or occupied indonesia ahead of the proclamation, also said to be the top and middle of the flag of the netherlands(red, white, blue) torn its bottom when flown at oranje hotel in surabaya and was rushed to jakarta, in addition of course is designed of sukarno and sewn by the lady fatmawati before flown at the proclamation in east pegangsaan central jakarta. figure 8. the copy indonesia independence proclamation text. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 63 published by ideas spread figure 9. soekarno and hatta as well the audience watched the flaying of the origin flag at pegangsaan timur, cental jakarta: ”after the echoud of indonesia independence, 17-8-’45 5.1.2.5national hymn of the republic of indonesia “indonesia raya” national hymn or anthem of indonesia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ indonesia_raya), although it still continues to be suedas are plica of a dutch arrangements for standardized of historical knowledge still held the opinion that it is the work of a son of indonesia named wage rudolf supratman. here are the complete threestanzas of the national anthem the indonesiaraya: bait 1: indonesia tanah airku, tanah tumpah darahku. disanalah aku berdiri, jadi pandu ibuku. indonesia kebangsaanku, bangsa dan tanah airku. marilah kita berseru ”indonesia bersatu.” hiduplah tanahku, hiduplah negriku, bangsaku, rakyatku, semuanya. bangunlah jiwanya, bangunlah badannya. untuk indonesia raya. refrein: indonesia raya, merdeka, merdeka tanahku, negriku yang kucinta. indonesia raya, merdeka, merdeka hiduplah indonesia raya. indonesia raya, merdeka, merdeka tanahku, negriku yang kucinta. indonesia raya, merdeka, merdeka hiduplah indonesia raya. bait 2: indonesia! tanah yang mulia, tanah kita yang kaya. di sanalah aku berada untuk slama-lamanya. indonesia, tanah pusaka, pusaka kita semuanya. marilah kita mendoa, ”indonesia bahagia!” hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 64 published by ideas spread suburlah tanahnya, suburlah jiwanya, bangsanya, rakyatnya semuanya. sadarlah hatinya, sadarlah budinya. untuk indonesia raya. refrein: bait 3: indonesia! tanah yang suci, tanah kita yang sakti. disanalah aku berdiri menjaga ibu sejati. indonesia! tanah berseri, tanah yang aku sayangi. marilah kita berjanji: ”indonesia abadi!” slamatlah rakyatnya, slamatlah putranya, pulaunya, lautnya semuanya. majulah negrinya, majulah pandunya. untuk indonesia raya. refrein: narrated (sources above), once upon a time, in a modest house in central gang of salemba jakarta, was born the song of indonesia raya from a young man named wage rudolf supratman. the song recorded by tiotek hong is played first in theyouth congress in jakarta in 1928. but this patriotic song then banned by the dutch colonial government. the lyrics “merdeka (independent)” replaced with “mulia (noble)” so a bits oft. wr soepratman other works is a roman cetitled perawan desa (virgin of village), seized by the dutch colonial government. roman is about land lords whou sed his fortune to have fun with the innocent village girls. the storyis considered to cause hatred between the factions. figure 10. wage rudolf soepratman, the composer of indonesia raya wrsoepratman’s life is relatively short, but the34-year times span that passes carved his name as a hero. he is also known as a journalist and teacher. he has taught in makassar after graduating from klein ambtenaar examen (school for small employees) and school teachers of normaalschool (normalized teacher). in the world of journalism, he worked at newspapers kaoemmoeda, bandung, then became editor in chief kaoem kita and establish alphenanewsjoint with p.harahap, lasthe moved to chinesemalay news paper sinpo as a freelance helpers. indonesiaraya was in 1951 standardized at the initiative of jusuf ronodipuro, head of radio republik indonesia (rri) jakarta. jusuf asked jozef cleber, a dutchmusician, to compose the song. bungkarno agree. this figure did exist but what is said about the song indonesia raya could simply engineering by sukarno in order to make this tracing into something legitimate. according to the author this is no matter at all, because the strength of the song has becomea glorified is a legal product and the recognition of a nationas well as songs with metrum of terang bulan terang di kali (moon light bright into river), now became national anthem of malaysia as well as song “hai tanakoe papoea (oh, my land papua)” be papuannational anthem. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 65 published by ideas spread further and complete account of the debate of indonesian national anthem "indonesia raya" can be seen in this author's bookwith the same title with this chapter, namely (2004) constitutionvis-à-vis the indonesian constitution 1945 versus papuaconstitution1999, jakarta, ham. 5.1.3 indonesia-soekarno-islam talking about indonesia certainly can not be separated from leaders of sukarno and islam as state fundamental even though there is here and there coloredmixture especially also jawi, slightlysanskrit hindu, christian and else. about all of it are indeed a lot of literatures that discussed at length. the focus of the author in this case is lead to see sukarno as a figure of people, prominent founder of indonesia (https://id.wikipedia. org/wiki/ soekarno). dr.hc ir. h. soekarno, name of born koesno sosrodihardjo, born in surabaya, east java, 6 june1901 – died in jakarta, 21 june1970 (69 years) was the first president of indonesia who served in the period 1945 to 1966. he played a key role in liberating the people of indonesia from dutch colonial rule. he was proclaimed the independence of indonesia (along withmohammad hatta) that occurred on august 17, 1945. sukarno was first sparked the concept of pancasila as the state foundation of indonesia and he himself called it. soekarno bearing background and is well understood by islam (in this case the people and the ulama (clergy) son then not doubt of ideas, ideology of indonesia in this regard pancasila as the state fundamental, the uud 1945 (constitution) as the embodiment, of course, still a drift in the link, though at a later date, before the fall, there are a variety of intrigue others their success once molt position of this figure, saying only "group with communism (pki)" very successful set direction step on this figure by bringing forth what is known as the "nasakom" stands for the nationalists, religion and the communism, during the old order serves as a way of integrating different factions in the indonesian political direction. there is also the beneficiary in this merger is the indonesian communist party (pki). by doing this merger, pki can enter the indonesian government organizations, and with the entry into the organization's pki makes it easy for expand its wings and begin to in still communism in the nation. due to the restricted party pki and also nasakom forbidden (1972, briefing material of marhaen; and extracts from the book authorship of sukarno, in 1964, di bawah bendera revolusi (under the flag of the revolution)). this understanding was made by sukarno, with the aim to generalize across the bow of the political conflicting. there used pki, masjumi, pni wing respectively. to be fair and not political clashes, sukarno made a political nasakom, consisting of: nasionalis (nationalist) = pni agama (religion) = masyumi komunis (communist) = pki figure 11. soekarno, “dibawah bendera revolusi” this three understanding of nasakom actually compete in war to win the hearts of the people's and became the largest political party in indonesia. in fact, the pki is more desirable because of programs that arouse people's hearts, such as free education, the welfare of workers, the emancipation of women, social justice and more over to seize west irian (papua). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 66 published by ideas spread nasakom be understood that banned because of its involvement in the g30s, which is still vague. mainly because of the word "kom" behind nasakom. nasakom own paraphrase of pancasila which each contain meanings precept sof religion, the communists and nationalists. principle 1 : agama (religion) principle 2 : komunis (communist) principle 3 : nasionalis (nationalist) principle 4 : demokrasi (democracy) principle 5 : komunis (communist) the name of sukarno has a huge magnet, speeches so jarring and foster the spirit of nationalism and now the soekarnoist still believe that the charismatic bung karno is a great leader who will never be replaced, and that is true. bung karno as nationalist icon no doubt, from west to east of the country as embracing yet another side of bung karno as a teacher of the nation who also had islamists sides, certainly not many people who know of them in his tenure marred by clashes of islamist political circles and polemics sharpened base around the country with the most prominent figure among muslims at the time, mr. mohammad natsir. necessary to underline that the love among muslims to bung karno expressed a critical attitude and efforts correction of attitude and political steps of bung karno not with an attitude always sweet moreover treating. an attitude which is considered by some soekarnois as attitude of counter-revolutionary, but throughout history of islam political power, presented by masjumi was always be a balancing force (the opposition) are always "loyal", the betrayal that ultimately comes from the indonesian communist party (pki) strategic coalition government of sukarno joined in nasakom are always trying consecrate itself as a force of the progressive revolutionary (idem). the name of bung karno known as putra sang fajar(note 15)(son of the dawn) can not be separated from the figures of the islamic movement who were istiqomah (bigfight) for the ideals of independence of indonesia, where the young sukarno had lodgings at the house of haji oemar said figures of tjokroaminoto, leading figures of sjarekat islam, in addition to studying philosophy and islamic thought the youth soekarno also learned about the movement to the right people. bung karno really enjoy lectures and speeches of tjokroaminoto which were so energetic struggle even under the supervision and suppression of the dutch. style speech of this teacher helped shape the leadership style of bung karno with typical speeches that loud and fiery, islamism of tjokroaminoto dubbed by the dutch as the "king of java without a crown" to some extent absorbed by young sukarno. although bung karno was finally chose his own path to move to bandung and later founded the partai nasionalis indonesia (indonesian nationalist party, idem). when in exile by the dutch, bung karno always corresponded with kyai haji mas mansur, movement leaders and influential cleric from surabaya close to the nu, later kh mas mansur believed to be the grand chief of board of persyarikatan muhammadiyah and during the occupation of japan established the pusat tenaga rakyat (center for energy people/putera (son) and engage in joint struggle bung karno in the four ones. together with mas mansyur, bungkarno often exchange ideas about the dynamics of islam and measures to facilitate the understanding of islam, he expressed his disagreement with the attitude of imitation even explicitly criticize about the "hijab" or barrier between the congregation of men and women pilgrims, and many anxieties bung karno on islamic issues, all of which showed the spirit and hope of a president soekarno to syiar islam (islamicsymbols) not going nowhere. in addition, by kh mas mansur, bungkarno also often sent letters to the tuanku a. hassan, the islamic leader the founder persatuan islam (unity of islam/persis) in bandung. in the book "di bawah bendera revolusi" in 1964 these papers were co-invest. bung karno did not hesitate to ask the "sending" of islamic literatures when he was in exile (idem). on the other hand fatmawati, the wife of bung karno known to be very religious, in a note at the meeting revealed that the giant ikada stadium which is now known as gelora bungkarno, fatmawati echoed verses of the holy qur'an. fatmawati the religious background as sessed also brings a considerable influence on political careers and life of bung karno until the end (idem). talks about soekarno as a figure meant that the nkri was and does remaining on the basic of islam that is animated but also dominating the other understand (javanese, hindu, christianity, even communism and local wisdom) within indonesia. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 67 published by ideas spread 5.2 on papua 5.2.1 the process towards the constitution draft subsequently this is directly correlated with the constitution of the state of west papua script of 1999. the study results was earned by papua independent committee (kip) as ever reported to the public through the media of tifa irian in february 2000 and the japan shimbun newspaper by a french journalist june 6, 2000. although it is an ironic because only a mere shadow for failing to translate into products and extraordinary council agenda (mubes) papua in 29 february 2000 and as a logical consequence, there also appears at the second national congress of papua 26 may – 3 june 2000. just a disgrace history abandoned because it proves the folly of papua achieve real political will has been presented completely by the government of indonesia through the president kh abdurahman wahid. that opportunity is as wide open as happened in east timor under the president b.j. habbie previous year (1998). nevertheless, it is not our desire to express it further because it has been fulfilled in the third papua national congress it is by having ratified this constitution becomes the constitution of papua nation. the desire to be realized is pushing the correlation studies that scientifically about to be revealed philosophical background that both parties (nationalism of indonesia and idealism of papua) can be brought together in relationships of the various conflicts that would be taken for the settlement of differences that exist. the composition of the 1999 constitution of papua is initially back-up with interrelated items towards the content. these are prologue, introduction, specific agenda, genesis, and exodus. the mentioned items containing the concept of base philosophy gives insight forth is constitution. 5.2.1.1 prologue the leader of papua jl. bestuurpost 5, sentani, port numbay letter of duty ———————— reg: 01/legis.i/3/1999. from: the leader of papua. to: papua independent committee. subject: draft for items of governance of the state of papua. in the name of father, son and holy spirit, i, the leader of papua on behalf of the nation people of papua in the land of papua and anywhere reside, referring to state items of the state of papua hence as leader feel important to assign to papua independent committee to collect data, studying and compiling draft in the form of logic, elementary ideology, common/public governance, and constitution of papua. that way, may to be achieved in fully responsibility. port numbay 28 february 1999. the leader of papua, ondofolo theys h. eluay 5.2.1.2 introduction 1). for the last out come the fundamental matter which will uttered here is that, have been happened various adjustment as according to political growth that happened since end of year 1999, and early year 2000 and the then growth till the performing of papua extra ordinary deliberation (mubes) 2000 dated 23 to 26 february 2000. that by the successfully announcing of the returning of the name of nation of papua from the previous term that is irian (barat/jaya) which is fully ugly connotation and which have hostility implication by the fourth president hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 68 published by ideas spread of the state of republic of indonesia, kiyai haji abdurrahman wahid (gus dur), hence, since the date of 1 january 2000 the news have had an effect on to give understanding pattern of the importance of resettlement and change in all life scale for example abstracting war sections of triple command of people (trikora) 1961 because going into effect for the vanish west irian and or irian jaya but non for papua. by itself the term of west papua of that is stated at previous sections will enough only mention as papua. this consideration besides inline with the announcement of the president mentioned above, also utilize to accommodate to return to political manifesto production results of papua national committee 19 october 1961. others, there is also dissimilar specifics especially concerning substations of section and transitional governance and also the duty function of relevant institutions. that way can make enunciated for all wearer. thank. port numbay, march 2000. compiler 2). introduction to the first outcome the struggle of the nation people of papua in papua have arrived at more existing arrangement as according to organizers order as claimed in civilized association and modern political stratum. utilize to equip and greet all these, the papua independent committee is very stubborn because had been entrusted by the leader of papua, pursuant to letter of duty, number 01/legis.i/3/1999, dated 25 february 1999 to execute duty of mustering data, studying and compiling of draft as mustered in this writing. urging prof. dr. b.j. habibie, the president of the state of republic of indonesia at the event of national dialogue with the society of irian jaya as response for the aspiration demand for the confession to the independence of papua declared date of 1 december 1961, hence as people believe in to make proper we climb to praise thanks to god presence which the most the humane and love for that blessing. those historic events which go on in state palace, jakarta dated 26 february 1999; make proper can be nicknamed as 'sweet rebellion'. this sheet have proved to the world that people of papua own high customary politeness and which still be defended though the distress burden experienced as fruit of integration since year 1963 very much heartbreaking. by confidence and really belief of the intervene god, hence the tradition politeness strength which still hold out that have squired up at stages of solving of free conflict of religion, tribe, gristle, race and free of convulsing. this performa may be created if we have known to realize the existence of each of us. thereby, hence orchestrated strives, provocation, and even un-praised intention, by each party avoided surprised with have directive, that, 'definitive truth is god property exclaim, experienced all. attitude the existing condition and which will immediately rush about to go to a period forwards, hence from strong desire of various party to realize more orderly job mechanism existence according to existing demand in accommodating aspiration and acceleration of people nation of papua which is fought for. from existing understanding, hence, various parties also suggest, shall be formed through formula like intended by this elementary guidance. that way, from consultancy result, uniting opinion and correct careful and also viewing various party for example mr. theys h. eluay (chief institute of custom deliberation, the leader of papua), mr. herman wayoi (history perpetrator of the nation of papua), mr. herman saud and mr. herman awom (evagelish christian church), mr. tom beanal (amungme customary figure), mr. yohanis bonay, s.h. (human right activist of elsham) and also mr. octovianus mote and dr. benny giay (irian jaya reconciliation forum/foreri), also various dissimilar name, hence, we are from papua independent committee try to raise draft of this elementary guidance. as base for laboring of various concept forwards, papua independent committee feel important to beforehand offer formula for idealism consisted in. draft of this elementary guidance, in consequence comprise items in the form of three fold logic papua-melanesia, elementary ideology, and the public governance, and also of state constitution of papua. though not yet completely correct, we have referring to documents in the form of united nations charter 26 june 1945, general declaration of human right 1948, first paragraph of preamble constitution of the republic of indonesia 1945, resolution of the united nation's general assembly 20 december 1960 number 14 and 15, papua national committee’s manifesto 19 october 1961, constitution of the united states, constitution of switzerland confederacy, liberal and conservative view of great britain, and also the june world labor convention 1989 number 162, etcetera. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 69 published by ideas spread from that existing contemplation, and constituted the existing local domestic cultural norm and also experience of 36 year integration with indonesia, we arrive at conclusion that, however it’s varying, life qualifier in existing tradition manner, papua nation is marked as owning dominant liberal and democracy indication. finding of that's daring our tendency from papua independent committee to specify liberalism and democracy as political vehicle of the people nation of papua. will various problems faced by nation people of papua, is of course expected through political vehicle with this knowledge able to reply or at least drawing near at step of understanding of the problem and of course later also step the solving of it. items compiled else than that, are also dribbled for have nuance of future in attitude the growth of global world in coming era. at least there is understanding of condition will two shares of papua that is the state of papua nugini and papua which later and start nowadays have seen to own tendency of unification become one state of great papua (great papua) start year 2003. the early work may say, have been lapped over on the date of 7 march 1999 at the same time with demand of resurrecting of the name of port of numbay replacing jayapura as the name of capital city of papua but because still be obtained dissimilar experiences especially of the forwarding of contemplative result by the team 100 to the government of indonesia, date of 24 july and also of miscellaneous concerning contextual of constitution hence this draft can be finished jut now (ed. 28th august 1999). still a lot of course which require to be completed at this draft, but that's existence. because representing shared problem which absolutely to be faced, we are very open to accept corrections and criticizes for the shake of the providing of pilot age for the base guidance desired with all. finally, presumably this draft, can reach its exploiting and also for belief which is passed to papua independent committee, we render thanks. port numbay, jayapura, 28 agustus 1999. papua independent committee. 5.2.1.3 specific agenda 1). check and balance a constitution or basic law proper to own the possibility of to be entered by the coronet instructing new vision, reform of system towards civil society. in the form of and early congeniality, constitution is static. its base is to arrange organizational formation of the state about resident ships. but in modern congeniality at the develop countries go forward not merely conversing about static elements but also the dynamic elements. at least there is fundamental starting point which must and can mirror in modern constitution that is democratic concept, state concept pursuant to law and prosperity concept besides certainly added with sovereignty or liberalism concept. such obstetrical is not vaguely so that interpreted messing about as but as bare and shall realized by the existence completely. each intentional component is proper to be mentioned clearly how the relation among one with dissimilar. in meaning that presented by a constitution shall represent integrity of check and balance. some tendency of proper public taken heed in compiling a constitution is: • how is the process take place so that make proper for amendment? • how is the domiciling of congress in general election mechanism? • how is the domiciling of executive? • how level of domiciling and power of the president and lead governance (prime minister)? • how must its time to defensive for a president and lead governance (prime minister) in period of power, ought to in how many year and period of general election and also the pertinent may how many times entitled to be re-selected? • how responsibility of a president and prime minister if experiencing different process between election and selected direct by people, and also in the case of its responsibility execute outline of state bow (gbhn)? • how is process and who is entitled to lift and agree for somebody lifted to become minister? • how is the process of authentication of code/law, who is entitled to raise the bill, who prepare the bill items, how long an authentication process, how to veto, how balloting in congress to express veto? • how the congress, lead of governance/prime minister and the president lifted or directly selected by people in general election, et cetera? hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 70 published by ideas spread in meaning, may not be given the possibility of prodigal interpretation and without considering. sovereignty is onhand of the people, hence the arrangement even also be clear as there is no possibility for ambivalent. if needed transfer or gift a mandatory hence shall be arranged later in axle journal followed with code. something component of legal force if told, will regulate hence shall be clear of its frame. this matter is to avoid fiction which far among a legal product with others. a code, if will be replaced with newly code, hence shouldn't to have too long distance in its differences. others, that there is boldness or clarification, may not to be made source or reason of a legislating so that can cause to trespass constitution. 2). amendment though is confessed, a constitution besides representing legal order is also an ideology radiation. a constitution in consequence does not have to hold sacral, hence thereby earn to be amendment so that obtaining more comprehensive form. it’s had to be tested and continuously studied so that able to transmit democracy, justice, prosperity and sovereignty or liberalism. in the life qualifier of state bearing, it is more beneficial to conduct amendment rather than changing constitution. in executing amendment, preamble is not at all bothered because containing historical values besides also avoid existence of debate of coverage which at all do not profit. in this case, only one section in this constitution that is section 54, which is used as base. the arising out of discussions and debates is on facet of its juridical, in meaning only of its torso, just doing not bothering its preamble. in this case only translate its order of law, whereas the preamble is not a code but more common and global of its coverage. amendment in that congeniality thereby will comprise adjustment and items completion. 5.2.1.4 genesis ”god, the lord yahweh has created the universe and it’s inert” as written in the bible (note 16), reflecting the fact of godliness as confessed by every human being”. through personification and implementation of godliness, certain formulations and various terminologies of nicknames based on the cultural background and experiences in the life of humanity are created. 1). terra australia the earth of terra australia is situated upon the sahul shelf and separated by into australia and papua or new guinea with tasmania and aru since the latest glacial epoch. studying the formation process of the sub-continent of papua, it had undergone seven epochs. (note 17) 1). jurassic period (170-140 million years ago); 2). cretaceous period (140-63 million years ago); 3). eocene epoch (53-37 million years ago); 4). oligocene epoch (37-24 million years ago); 5). middle miocene epoch (15 million years ago); 6). pliocene epoch (5-2 million years ago); 7). pleistocene epoch (20 thousand years ago); 2). nova guinee period of latest notching, which is also referred as pleistocene epoch recognized now because following its inhabitants as nova guinee (new guinea/nieuw guinea) or papua. the land features a length of 2.400 km, a width of 740 km or an area of 792.540 square km. concerning west papua itself, it stretches from 129 degree longitude east to 141 degree longitude east and 2 degree parallel north to 10 degree parallel south with an area of 421.981 km.(note 18) the geographic structure of the latest formation reveals rich natural resources. the problem is how to make use of them for the prosperity of mankind, mainly benefiting its natives known as the papua-volken (papuan tribes). 3). geographical position of the state of west papua territory of the state of west papua intended in this study is region of west papua in composition of 1 december 1961 which in the year 1963 becoming west irian then in year 1972 becoming irian jaya. as already mentioned above, geographically the such territory unfolding at 129 degree longitude east abutting the state of indonesia (moluccas) to 141 degree abutting the state of papua new guinea, and 10 degree parallel south abutting the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 71 published by ideas spread state of australian and 2 degree parallel north abutting the state of the philippines and the state of palau (micronesia) in the pacific ocean with broadness of 421.981 square kilo meters. 4). bowels of the earth the existing perfection which is as now known, own resource of nature which abundance omit still how its management for prosperity of mankind especially tribes representing indigenous resident of this island or the socalled and mention its’ self (papua political manifesto 19 october 1961) becoming papua-volken (tribes of papua). the intestines of the earth consisting at least 26 different mining minerals or natural resources, among others nickel, cobalt, diamond, copper, manganese, silver, uranium, black tin, white tin, zinc, marble, opal, bismuth, chrome, coal, mica, arsenic, gold, aluminium, platinum, lime, asbestos, tungsten, oil and gas. that attention also admits of again passed to dissimilar natural production like various useful wood type, cane, resin, palm oil and copra, coffee, cocoa, and crops planted and rice, inclusive livestock animals, flowers, flora, and the fruits. also water produces like fish, prawn, crocodile husk, cockle, sea wets, and etcetera. of course still have to be reckoned the air properties potency in sky curve of papua for satellite and effort other sky space and also the source energy strength which is there are above or awakened from within its. as the legal heir, the papuan people in the state of papua new guinea and federalist state of west papua have to make use of these assets in an optimal way in the future. this may result in benefits for the wealth and the prosperity of all components of the nation in various sectors of life and also for the common interest of mankind on earth.(note 19) as creatures of god and a civilized nation, mutual respect and acknowledgment should prevail. this may be realized by a manner of life, which emphasizes on a harmonious neighbourhood as a family providing mutual benefits among human beings due to the grand arrangement of the almighty god yahweh, the creator of the world universe. realizing the blessings of god, which greatly overflows the papuan earth owned by ethnic papuans of melanesian origin in papua nugini and west papua; it is very much needed to formulate regulations for the common use or exploitation of existing resources. 5.2.1.5 exodus that papua volken (papuan tribes) is estimated to enter the island of papua 4000 years pre-christian conterminous with abraham went out from ur quasdim mesopotamia (iraqi) to the land of canaan. it is very strong anticipated that countries in south-east asia have represented land of sojourn or if not the so much regions of dwelling of melanesian ethnical with giant generation of as does soloensis erectus (ancient human being) whom was found its rawhide in cangkaring-solo, central java. it is very much anticipated the ossify area of first sojourn was the peninsula of onin (fakfak) now some epic before ice age melt. in the language of iha, this event named "wanang-wanang" (water to become mucus). from onin, the human being of melanesia gone the round of easterly and the west far before the earth surface erected became mount boost creating barricade insulation now. hence it was very possible that the people of asmat, marind, sepik, sentani and tanah merah sharing the same origin of owning skilled and the same cultural root. colliding of the pacific crust with sunda crust have squeezed the terra australian continent or sahul crust so that erected to the sky from the basin, mountains as giant abscess which hitherto still be witnessed. the mass of water pouring from north horizon have disjointed terra australian become two that is australian continent and sub-continent papua and as well as with the islands of tasmania and aru. human being of melanesia which stepped into papua primeval was melano-negroid, melano-papua and later once was melano-wedoid. first group are resident of mountain and highlands, second are plain resident, area of bog and river boundary, whereas the third are resident of coastal area go out to sea and islands. if the third group pursuant to linguistic referred as austronesian hence the first and the second group are non-austronesian or papuan languages. from that understanding hence the papua volken structured in 2 patterns of sub-ras that is austronesian and papuan own more or less 1.000 language (700’s in png and 250’s in papua) and gone the round in more or less 11 cultural regions (6 in png and 5 added by 2 subs in papua). cultural regional in west hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 72 published by ideas spread figure 12.the 12 customary-culture areas papua which later made of administrative base decision is: 1). culture area of tabi (mambramo-tami) 2). culture area of sarera (geelvink bay) 3). sub-culture area of domberai (sorong-manokwari) 4). culture area of bomberai (fakfak-kaimana) 5). culture area of ha-anim (merauke-mimika) 6). culture area of lani paqo (baliem) 7). sub-culture area of me paqo (paniai) 5.2.2 law and attribute of papua 5.2.2.1 the 1999 constitution of papua figure 13. 5.2.2.1.1 triple fold logic as elementary philosophy figure 14. the correlation of triple fold logic as a nation, which possesses features of customary modesty and nobility, we are also very aware of the love of the almighty god embodied by jesus christ as the saviour of mankind proclaimed by all prophets and rasuls strengthened with inertly august value and earth of papua-melanesia, hence exist implication of the nation of papua in qualifier of life of nation and state obliged to actively have integrity as part of world society. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 73 published by ideas spread the reflection of the spirit is mirror in the triple principle of papuan luster: mercy, allegiance and honesty, (caritatis fidelitas justitatis) in rhythm with the triple spirit of melanesian brotherhood: one man-one soulone solidarity (unus populus-una anima-solus solidarita) (note 20) placed at 6 star angles. its singleness becomes 7 correlation identity items from strength axis that is the power god the most creator of the earth and sky epistemologically has correlation cybernetics and re-cyclical in ontology (elementary), epistemology (torso) and axiological (fruit of result) ravelled the followings: 1). triple spirit of melanesian brotherhood the three items of the triple spirit of melanesian brotherhood are: i. one people (unus populus) the strong demand of realizing the reunification of west papua and papua new guinea is to become one-nation represents one of god's miracles. by possessing this generosity, the papuan nation is obliged to respond by dedicating its soul and body, thus creating the island of papua as a blessing to the world. the realization of unilateral corporation in a bilateral, trilateral or broader way is a demand to be fulfilled. ii.one soul (una anima) from the isolation and heathen power, the papuan nation was formed into one-soul. the nature of one-soul will be protected, as long as indignity, hypocrisy, selfish attitude, and apathetic and ignorant behavior do not pollute life. as imbalances emerge towards the nature of one-soul, it may create disasters in the life of nation and society. iii. one solidarity (solus solidarita) mutual help and responsibility encourages the establishment of a constructive attitude and ability of communication to build one-solidarity. the one-solidarity link arranges ways of mutual respect, mutual help and appreciation without hoping for a return. the dominant solidarity for the fellow members of the religious community is to worship jesus christ, our lord as the world saviour, with the obligation of mankind to confess the existence of the lord. 2). the triple principle of papuan luster the three items of the triple principle of papuan luster are: i. mercy (caritatis) the emergence of the west papuan nation had only come true by the willingness of the mercy or love of jesus christ. in the name of the triple spirit of melanesian brotherhood lord, ottow and geissler, two disciples from germany, had crossed the sea and stepped feet on the island of mansinam at dorei bay, manokwari. this is the lottery land of god (psalm 125:3), as stated for its baptism. in namen des herren jesus setzen wir unseren fuss auf dieses land papua (in the name of lord jesus, we stepped our feet on this papua land). love the lord your god with all your heart, with all your soul, etc., and, love your neighbour as you love yourself (math. 2: 37-40). love will defeat everything, so the enemies may be weakened to become friends. giving love to other people is the manifestation of god's love within the heart of mankind. whatever the experience is, it has been strengthening oneself through the medium of love, where diverse papuan tribes are organizing themselves to become one nation, the nation of papua. the gospel of christ worked horrifying: "after chucking the head of this bird like island, then the whole body on to the tail shined by the love of jesus christ, from sorong to samarai". ii. allegiance (fidelitas) the fruit of mercy is allegiance. this is being manifested as allegiance to the nation and state, which may be regarded as the grand commandment of the lord reflecting his wisdom and knowledge. allegiance is awaiting the lord's promises, giving hope to the papuan nation to realize their independence and sovereignty, which will be a miracle, a gift from god. allegiance in getting along with one's own promise to be a solid character as part of the nation, obeying and listening to the truth of the lord and the heart's lustre of sincerity. iii. honesty (justitatis) another fruit of mercy is honesty. a modest and honest character creates peace because this may lead to mutual aversion of lying, overacting, exceeding undesirable limits, and, therefore, creating a balance. regarding this principle, i.s. kijne, the prophet of papua, in his vision once acclaimed. "gene die op diet land waar en eerlijk daden deed en ook gehoorzaam zou blijven, mocht nog van de eene naar de andere wonderlijk hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 74 published by ideas spread kunnen beoordelen (those who work in honesty and allegiance and also would remain obediently in this land, may experience miracle after miracle)" the triple principle of papuan lustre of mercy, allegiance and honesty is able to create mutual completion, relating to psychological, spiritual, physical and environmental aspects. the principle of threefold logic of papua-melanesian may be described in nature of complementary (note 21) visible in 6 angles and 1 center. in reality, above-mentioned aspects occur in life by occupying an appropriate circulation, which is well understood by each supporting group. the distributing in such a circulation pertain an axis although the level of rotation is not always equal because this very depends on forces from outside or inside. comparing with the synergetic equilibrium of other cultures, this is seemingly very different. the western culture is, at its most perfect stage or cybernetic, conical structured. this develops from the very simple or uncivilized stage to more developed conditions, and subsequently leads to an established or civilized condition.(note 22)as if for the dravidan cultural pattern, which also includes indonesia, the stabilized condition points to the establishment of the pyramid-civilization. this will continue to status quo before breaking-up into incarnation or say mandeg ing pandito and other appearances.(note 23) figure 15. the mosaic of papua-melanesia triple fold logic at this point, the synergetic equilibrium is formed as cyclic equilibrium but at each rotation a change of the cybernetic level of non-permanent nature may occur. this may only happen for the further phase to reach the rotating again in the cycles. on the above figure, the 're-cycle' nodes are symbolized. it may be stated that the cycle by itself is a cybernetic one or also called cyclical-cybernetics. however, the relation is not strict, rather indicating a hidden-structure however all components are reciprocal or equitable-complementary.(note 24) 5.2.2.2 the charter of papua. the charter of papua we are by full glory and warship, admitting that, the nation and country of papua, is under the authority and truth magnificence of god the lord-yahweh, jesus christ-the peasant king and the holly spirit. as cosmopolitans we, the people of the papuan nation declare: that based on the experience we have been undergoing, that colonialism of any kind and name being exercised by any nation is not suitable at all with humanity and justice, and contradict with principles of freedom and human rights, therefore, colonialism must be continuously combated and disappearing from the world's surface, so, for this reason, involved in bearing real responsibility for the sake of freedom and human rights, based on values and truth of humanity as an individual, by respecting aspects of gender and equal relationships between nation groups of small and weak between big and strong, besides preventing tendency predominate of big group or tyranny of small group, and also the experienced environment existence which remain to be peaceful and everlasting as source of humanity life, and, involved in establishing atmospheres which is allows developing possibilities for justice and respect as an obligation to enforce law and the truth on earth, and, involved in promoting the improvement and restoration of life that is by approaching an appropriate standard ensured by freedom and full responsibility. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 75 published by ideas spread hence utilize its materialization: endeavours are required in full responsibility to the papua-melanesian triple fold logic, that is the papuan principle of triple lustre of mercy, allegiance and honesty with full respect to the triple spirit of melanesian brotherhood principles of one people, one soul and one solidarity, that is, enabling the establishment of tolerance and peaceful coexistence among fellow mankind and among nations, and involved in strengthening peaceful bonds, as an effort to create a safe and peaceful world, and is creating a serious understanding that the mobilization of forces does not present a useful solution, and creating conditions, which serve the fulfilment and prosperity of life for mankind. in the frame of the mentioned purposes, obliged to acquiesce the over values possess by the nation of papua in west papua: immediately after gaining independence and sovereignty of the papua nation and sate as on process declared 1 december 1961, we are determined to build ourselves as a nation and state by establishing the state of west papua constitution as follows: 5.2.2.3 the 1999 constitution of papua the state constitution of west papua consisted of 15 chapter by 54 sections and 2 orders: 1). interim regulation with 7 sections and 2).special order on state attributions with 3 sections. 5.2.3 review on the state attributes the state attributes of west papua intended here are the national flag, the national anthem and the national device, re-commented as follows: 5.2.3.1 national flag the “morning star” 1) general the morning star, is the national flag of the nation and the state of west papua, flown in the whole nederlands nieuw guinea since 1 december 1961 to 1 oktober 1962 before this region administrated by the uno (untea). the flag which is generally used by the west papuan population inclusive of the opm (papua independence organization) and all dissimilar supporters as a means of resistance and struggle for human right utilize to self determine. almost every year on the same day that is every 1 december considered to be national day of the nation of papua in west papua, whereas at others considered to be an insubordination against domestic law of indonesia. figure 16. the flag of west papua the flag dimension is elaborated as consisted of a red plain unfold left long vertical beside showily at its center a white star five elbow while at right side there are 6 white lines alternating 7 blue lines symbolized 6 governance regions in 7 cultural or custom regions. in the ordinance on the flag of morning star it is not mentioned any size measure number, only the long and high comparison with the following ratio: the ratio of the flag referring to that is a:b:c:d or 2:3:7:8, which is a: flag height; b: flag length; c: width of the red stripe; d: size of the star. all horizontal stripes are equal (so 1/3th of the flag height); the red stripe is 3/11th of the flag length; of the width of the red stripe; the star approx. 2/3rd 7/8th of the width of the red stripe. (note 25) 2) brief history the story was started, after a national election took place in january 1961 a council of papua or new guinea council (ngr) consisted of 28 members being cursed officially by the governor dr. p.j. platteel in 1st april 1961 and formal constituted in 5th april 1961 attended and witnessed by governmental representatives and the state of australian, united kingdom, french, dutch, new sealand and dissimilar nations from pacific forum with exception the united states of america. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 76 published by ideas spread figure 17. mr. nicolaas jouwe, designer of the "morning star" flag an emergency session insist on this council at date of 19 october 1961 in response to news from the hague holland that us was allowing to launch per forcedly commercialize for its benefit nederlands new guinea to the united nations to then delivered to indonesian administration. the council of papua form papua national committee utilize to compile draft of self-rule and independence manifesto, designed national flag (morning star) and specify the nation hymn "hai tanah-koe papoea" the council of papua act fully, hence in 30 october 1961 the first morning star flag have been introduced to the governor platteel which is at 31 october 1961 announcement that "have never been happened previously in world a council own similar intention seriously". officially this flag was flown in one ceremony at 1 december 1961 with mr. willem inury as the chief of national committee in his greeting, said "people of my fellow nation, you are now witnessing our union device and the desire of our union device and our desire to take place among world nations. as long as we do not really firmed up, we will not independence. to coalesce to mean to strive for the sake of our country, it is now, until the day which we will be self-supporting and that furthermore date from." the chosen device of flag is from the version of nicolaas jouwe (rather than 2 dissimilar versions according to nicolaas tanggahma and markus kasiepo). the version morning star flag according to its designer who is mr. nicolaas jouwe, is real inspiration by two device of koreri messianic movement allied that are cross flag (star) and flag of octopus fingers and also the tricolor dark/blue-white-red (inspired by the flag the kingdom of the netherlands: red-white-blue)(note 26) which was carried by all combatant under command of papua woman warrior, angganeta menufandu in fighting the amber nation (incomers) before, during and thereafter the world war two. the royal dutch government then adopted this device become national flag of papua on 20 november 1961, hereinafter recognized by the name of "morning star flag" that is flag of dawn star" flown opening commencing from 1st december 1961. 3) meaning as have been mentioned above at brief history that the flag of morning star is a mix-up between devices of cross that is the star and radius of octopus, later poured as blue lines and turn white. in payload of the papua national committee 19 october 1961, dawn star or morning star (the “sampari”) is symbolized the island of papua in red field of political turbulence and development of the world. else, the white line is of the six governmental divisions in seven cultural regions in papua west. the color of red, white and blue/dark according to interpretation of universal symbolism as also on the dutch flag ' three colors' and of the indonesia flag ' red and white flag'. that is red for dare, white for holy, blue for classy, and so on. the mixed-up is representing of elements in the culture and cosmos of papua-melanesia and those of christianity. 4) regulation on the morning star flag. besides loaded in this shadow constitution, regulation about the morning star flag is also loaded in papua political manifesto 19 october 1961 and the governments-regulation 48 year 1961 and governments-regulation 70 year 1961, on ordinance of the country flag. 5) resemblance looks of the morning star flagmorning star flag the equality of this flag is with the us federal of stars and stripes and flag of cuba which is incidentally true followed the example of the us federal star and stripes, and also of the flas of great briten/united kingdom. figure 18. the morning star flag bears a resemblance to flag of the usa, cuba and great britain hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 77 published by ideas spread 5.2.3.2 national anthem of west papua the “hai tanah-ku papua” the title of song “hai tanah-ku papua (originally: hai tanah-koe papoea) is a volkslied (people song) writed in the year 1930s by izaak samuel kijne, a dutch missionary who also compile the spiritual song book “njanjian rohani”. the lyric at this song is written in the ianguage of malay/indonesia and dutch, presented in 7 couplets. if carefully studied, idylls of this song containing worship of properties and natural beauty of papua and terminated featly thank goodness to god of creature of sky and earth. this title have been electroplated by dr. thomas wapai wanggai changed to become “hai tanah-ku melanesia”, but seemingly not accepted off hand by the majority of papuan because it is very known that this song have been specified as national anthem of papua with the like title in political manifesto of the papua national committee 19 october 1961 (government-regulation number 69/1961)(note 27) re-peeped out as preparation before the papua national congress two year 2000 (this constitution). story about the natural beauty of the land of papua terminated with thanks to cheap god, the creator for the natural beauty which has been created for the nation of papua. that way, couplet by couplet may presented as follows: figure 19. i.s. kijne, composer of nationalanthem: “hai tanah-ku papua” hai tanah-ku papua 1 hai tanahku papua kau tanah lahirku kukasih akan dikau sehingga ajalku 2 kukasih pasir putih di pantaimu senang di mana lautan biru berkilat dalam t’rang 3 kukasih bunyi ombak pemukul pantaimu nyanyian yang selalu senangkan hatiku 4 kukasih gunung-gunung besar mulialah dan awan yang melayang keliling puncaknya 5 kukasih hutan-hutan selimut tanahku ku suka mengembara di bawah naungmu 6 kukasih engkau tanah yang dengan buahmu 1 o mijn land van papua jij bent mijn geboortegrond ik zal je een plezier doen dus ik bedoel 2 ik geef je wit zand op je strand, gelukkig waar is de blauwe oceaan glans in t'rang 3 ik laat de golven klinken je klopper altijd aan het zingen blij mijn hart 4 ik hou van de bergen groot en verheven en de wolken die zweven om hun toppen 5 ik hou van de bossen het dekkleed van mijn land ik mag zo graag zwerven onder je schaduw 6 ik hou van je grond die met je vruchten mijn ijver betaalt en mijn werk 1 o my land of papua you're my birth ground i'll give you a favor so i mean 2 i give you white sand at your beach, happy where is the blue ocean gleam in t'rang 3 i sound the waves your beater always singing happy my heart 4. i love the mountains great and exalted and the clouds that float above their peaks 5 i love the woods that cover my country i love to roam under your shadow 6 i love the land that your people pay my zeal and my work 7 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 78 published by ideas spread membayar kerajinan dan pekerjaanku 7 syukur bagimu tuhan kau berikan tanahku b’ri aku rajin juga sampaikan maksud mu 7 dank zij u heer gij hebt mij het land gegeven laat mij ook ijverig zijn om het laten beantwoorden aan uw doel thank you lord you've given me the country. let me be diligent. in order to meet your goal though there are 7 couplets, in formal ceremony for example in accompanying the bunting of morning star flag, only the first couplet and to seventh is warbled. 5.2.3.3 coat of arms of west papua ’the mambruk’ the mambruk or crown pigeon is a species of bird referred to in latin term by gaura regia victoria papuana that is an endemic species which is only found in the land of new guinea (png and west papua). so far not yet there any consensus comes up with the picture of this bird which is looked like garuda panca sila and hawk of the united states with its payload. the concept of initiated by papua national committee as rearranged by papua independent committee drawn hereunder is at the chest showntriplefold logic of papua melanesia in the form of clasp of cybernetics relating flag of morning star attached by a frontage (red field and the white star) from the top and the backside (blue and white lines) downwards as described at above semicircle caritatis-fedelitas-justitatis (mercy-allagience-justice) and below this described unus populus-una anima-solus solidarita (one people-one soul-one solidarity). where as the bow and drum flanked at the feet are unclear but bold of that appliance both are applicable for two intentions which each other complimenteray that is fight for the peace or on the contrary also make peace to battle.(note 28) why chosen the bird of mambruk, this is according to utterance of mr. nicolaas jouwe who is the designer of that attribute of the state of papua "... [taken away froma biak language mam 'bird' and bruk 'reminding', blazed abroad it is true represent totem in life of various tribe in the land of papua; that this beautiful bird striving without a lot of voice to differ from other birds; the voice of bird which is almost life above on land and flight low is very rare heard; masculine bird in every day only twice release its voice that is at the morning in when descend on land to start life one day and in dusk when fetch night before sleep. because of its high philosophic value, by the papua national committee notching of nieuw guinea raad in its conference of first papua national congress 19 october 1961, specified to become attribute of the state of papua which have principality: unus pupuli-una anima (one nation-one soul), which then by papua independent committee in 1999 developed addedly the solo solidarita (one solidarity) principally adding with devoted, amicable and downright analogue with that of papua independent committee of 1999 becoming love/mercy (caritatis), devoted (fidelitas), justice (justitatis) as have been studied at elementary guidance (see triple fold logic of papuamelanesia). (note 29) figure 20. coat of arm “the mambruk” in this bearing with existence of ri law number 21 year 2001 about special autonomy for the province of papua/otsus, almost always the elite papuan especially the papua customary council (dap), papua people assembly (mrp) and some of parliament members of the province of papua want those attributes of the state of west papua made to be area device of papua provinci according to such commendation of the otsus. but seemingly the god do not want that way because to the proffering of perdasi/perdasus on this aspiration hadslapped down by the president of ri as an allah slave to save national and political devices of west papua inclusive that hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 79 published by ideas spread of atjeh and moluccas from insult to become area device launchedly of the governmental regulation number 77 year 2007, hence remain to be endless intended as device of a state and nation, non merely highness device of an area in the state of republic of indonesia. of blessed on all struggles which are for the shake of truth spirit of the nation of papua warshiping god all the most big. 5.2.4 correlation of both constitutions with the original text of the 1945 constitution, in the amendment manuscript as shown, there are a number of things that should be noted, namely: 1. in the amendment manuscript the word opening (pembukaan) is used, not the preamble as in the original manuscript. 2. on the opening of the amendment manuscript located inside is published as part of the constitution while in the original manuscript; the preamble is outside or separated from the constitution. 3. the contents in the opening of the amendment manuscript is longer than the preamble on the original manuscript. 4. the contents of the original manuscript consist of 14 chapters with 37 chapters, 1 transitional rules with 3 articles and 1 additional rule with 2 paragraphs while the amendment manuscript contains 16 chapters, 37 article 1 transitional rules with 4 articles and 1 additional rule with 2 articles. the other matters are: 1. here the state boundary from the coordinate point and place name is not mentioned, is it really not such intentionality? need input for improvement in amendments. 2. since 2009 for the first time direct elections by the people have been held in indonesia; in the sense that the fourth precept is no longer merely obeyed. about the full text can be seen in the original manuscript of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia by the national legal development agency, ministry of law and human rights 1998, while the amendment manuscript can be seen in the 1998-2003 development reform cabinet tap mpr no. ii/mpr/1998. in comparison to the 1999 constitution the author is based on the original manuscript of the 1945 constitution before the amendment so that there appears to be a correlation. but there are also other advanced steps regarding the natural environment, human rights, the ownership of armed forces and others which are not raised in the original manuscript of the new 1945 constitution and then appear in the 1945 constitution amendment manuscript. 5.3 referral reflexive to get an understanding of both constitutions and the related supporting materials (garuda pancasila, the flag of dwi color, anthem indonesia raya, vis-à-vis the basic guidelines papua-melanesia, triple fold logic of melanesian-papua, the charter of papua nation, the flag of morning star, and mambruk-goura victoria papuana regia), then the comparison step is indeed not very appropriate in used. this is because both have complementary side and the reference in this case the interests of the nation of papua for sake of the nobility names of the nation of indonesia. while on the other hand the greatness of indonesian name for the glory of god's name for the nation of papua and universal humanity. only people allowed (by god) to think in that direction and that may gain the ability to digest and crucial in the face of both these texts as "from one mark to wonder and to mark another wonder". so this study should only be approached descriptively normative correlation to uncover each in the following narrative: 5.3.1 materials to understand reference of this reflexive is directly to the constitution as the main materials. thus of the triple fold logic of melanesian-papua starting when include the foreword of papua leader, chief theys hiyio eluay, genesis contains the formation of the island of papua in seven epic, exodus contains among others papua volken as discussed by researcher from the van vollenhoven institute in sub-chapter 3. the materials referred to it can be used as background knowledge as soekarno write pancasila and the constitution of 1945 with dogmas which among other things contained in tan malaka, 1925, mohammad hatta1928 and sukarno himself 1933, namely islam and nationalism or also serial writings of sukarnoin 1954 titled "di bawah bendera revolusi (under the revolution flag)". in this particular, there is connection among islam and nationalism in pancasila and the constitution of 1945, while triple fold logic is rooted in customs and to christianity of melanesia-papua as basis for departure. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 80 published by ideas spread correlation is the strength of adhesion of the understanding is no action to build a pyramid of unitary indonesian nationalism tolerance that is displayed in the "unity in diversity" (diversity in one) while others in papua meant is gluing the mosaic that is from unity maintained differences that occurs and takes one solidarity to glue one nation and one soul raised with mercy, allegiance, and honest. 5.3.2 itemcontemplation in the content of pancasila, each item stand separated and alone though indeed co-exist, while for the correlation of the items in triple fold logic of melanesian-papua, each cybernetic cylindered uncontrolled manner (circulating or shaft continues spinning in recycling). the divinity or godhead in the first precept of pancasila is denoted with a star in the middle of the chest of shield garuda pancasila correlated with triple fold logic the divinity or godhead that is the power of cyber moving six horizons toward and moving by the star. belief in god almighty is in pancasila for the triple fold logic seen as the creator of heaven and earth the yahweh therefore providing loving and long-forbearance. mercy, allegiance and honest are divine commands that humans lived in one nation, one soul and the one solidarity. the elements in the pancasila radiated in the four precepts, namely humanity just and civilized, unity of indonesia, democracy led by wisdom in the consultative/representative, and, social justice for all indonesian people to perform independently represented symbols of banyan tree, head of bull, rice grains and cotton boulders along chain strands, correlated with grains of triple fold logic not represented by emblem in the sense of a straight forward and does not require interpretation. 5.3.3 constitutioncharges about the load on the constitution of indonesia 1945 comprises16 chapters plus 37 articles and the transitional provisions 4 articles, while the constitution of papua 1999 contains 18 chapters with 54 articles and additional rules with 7 articles of the transitional provisions as well as the special rules with 3 articles. existing composition impressed balanced in the sense of not much to unravel as the constitution generally allows can happen poly-interpretable so that it takes so much tightening through the acts and regulations as law enforcement tool. apparently the experience during the integration and knowledge of the indonesian constitution of 1945 (p4) inspires the papua constitution of 1999 so that it may avoid and even away of or at least reduce problematic polyinterpretable intended above. impressed corrective action has been perceived conditions, although further idealism to build an edenic circumstances or an ancient of melanesian-papua as alleged by researcher from the van vollenhoven institute of legal intended above. one example is in indonesian constitution 1945 chapter x, citizens, article 26 (1) the citizens are the indigenous people of indonesia and the people of other nations who passed the law as a citizen; (2) the requirements regarding citizenship established by law. while the papua constitution 1999 this subject reads chapter ix citizenship, article 32, citizenship (1) the citizens are ethnic melanesian-papuans and the ethnic of others duly authorized under the act, (2) the state of west papua recognize and respect the dual citizenship extent not inconsistent with the order of life adopted in the country; (3) the terms of citizenship of the state of west papua stipulated by the law. in a more straightforward meaning for ethnic and citizens of other nations who wanted to recognize the existence of papuans. this correlation is returned to the plight of the ethnic chinese in indonesia's new order era are barely respected the rights of the essence in this case concerns the name and surname of its ancestors. ten years after the hague rtc (round table conference) and before integration into the republic of indonesia although short but has formed einheid papua völken (unity of tribal nation of papua) that still implies impression and awareness of papuan identity is an other in a correlated outside the united of indonesia (an effort into indonesia and necessarily requires various forms of reward or appreciation as fellow citizens inequality of dignity). 5.3.4 bounders and the form of state the border of the state is not the same according to both constitutions stated evenly. is nil in the indonesia constitution 1945 while the papua constitution1999 mentioned in chapter i, article 4: (1) the territory of the west papua stretches on 129 el degrees bordered by the state of indonesia(maluku) to 141 degrees el is bordered by the state of papua new guinea, and1degree of nl is bordered by the philippines, the republic of palau and the pacific ocean to 10 degrees sl bordered by australia. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 81 published by ideas spread (2) the territory of west papua is divided into 7 regional territory with the distribution of residency and gemeente (municipality or community). (3) the territory of west papua happened because the development was then called afterwards agglomeration territories or the then development territory, regulated by law. (4) the state of west papua is shaped common wealth in form of federation (federalists state). forms of the state according to both constitutions is stated equally; according to the constitution1999 (of papua) mentioned in article 5: (1) the state of west papuan comprises federalist by a mix-cabinet of parliamentary and presidential; (2) the government of the state of west papuan comprises 7 traditional territories of papuan folk according to the manifest of the papuan national committee, ascribed as strips on the national flag, the morning star, 1 december 1961 which are hollandia or tabi, geelvinkbai or sarera, vogelkop or domberai, onin-bomberai, south coast or ha-anim, eastern highland or lani paqo and western highland or me paqo and also of afterwards agglomeration territories. (3) the afterwards agglomeration territories are basing on the division of second level governance of province of irian jaya or also to governance of special autonomy (otsus) province of papua and or other condition and consideration and also the other support. (4) the determination of traditional territories and afterwards agglomeration territories will be further arranged in the legislation meanwhile form and sovereignty in the constitution (indonesia) in 1945 declared article 1: (1) state of indonesia is a unitary state with a republican form. (2) sovereignty is in the people and done entirely by the assembly. there area variety of other matters concerning health, environment, citizens rights and others, but in order to avoid a comparative understanding (comparing), the performance is not forwarded. subsequently it is forwarded by tracing the correlation between the symbols and the attributes on each. 5.3.5 about the national flag about the national flag, the two color flag appears in a period of political and the physical struggle against dutch colonialism ended after world war 2. red and white colors imply a peaceable but for that, war could even happen. colors are by animation or precisely copied on the flags in the middle east that are islam breath. correlation with the morning star flag, is, a delivery back or a reincarnation of the symbol of resistance against amber or foreigners (non-papua) by fighters of koreri before, during and at the end of world war ii with inspiration morning star in myth of manarmakeri which is the forerunner of koreri beweging (koreri movement) as illustrated by kama (1972). if echoes and dogma at the end of world war 2 is "going to create peace, true comradeship and liberty for the all nations", so the papuans are included in the dutch east indies colonies countries that were released in 1943 two years before the proclamation of indonesia announced by soekarno and hatta. thus morning star flag is the symbol of intimacy (mosaics’) customs and to christianity of melanesiapapua in terms of struggles (resistance or movement) of koreri anti amber in question is at the same time anticolonial. correlated these, both flags are equally emblem of struggle, despite different shades. events in oranje hotel surabaya showed dwi color occurs because the blue stripped of tricolor on part of underneath, while the morning star occur because of the completeness distributed by tricolor complement local knowledge and ideology of papua. then releasing the tricolor the morning star just joined dwi color were not able to accommodate the image. morning star hostility thus no space and hindered other efforts to realize the dream of a prolonged in papua of time continues to take its toll as both dwi colors flag and the morning star. chief theys hio eluay ever take the initiative to raise the two flags together on december 1, 1999 events as the beginning of true comradeship indonesia-papua, but instead blame. this event because it is the reason for this man arrested and prosecuted along with 4 other figures is the first jayapura 5 december 2000. there autonomy was not a decent place to position of the morning star became a local or area symbol. thank thy god, as so the flag remain national symbol of west papua nation. 5.3.7 about the national emblem about the national emblem of the two peoples is naturally appearance of a form of bird. a philosophical correlation looks at compliance birds of “mambruk” (crown pigeon) do not talk much but put forward the hard hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 82 published by ideas spread work, and the “garuda” (eagle) that also does not talk much, but claws and beaks capable counting in seconds. strong and powerful in savage breast correlated with the toughness of a peaceful life in crown pigeon or dove ellegant crown in blue sheen. indeed, so much correlation data but not yet realized both parties, especially the indonesian defense that is in control and know better "what freedom is the right of all nations....." then it maybe able to defend the position of both nation. 5.3.8 george junus aditjondro on factual and contextual this section is an adaptation and reviews of george junus aditjondro (1993), according to clifford geertz cultural duality theory on the facts among others the correlation shown above, by borrowing the experiences and statements of otto syamsuddin ishak, senior researcher at imparsial, jakarta (2012, http://himasio-unsyiah.blogspot. com/2012/03/ otto-syam-sudin-ishak-nasionalisme-kita.html) in aang ananda suherman,http://bahanamahasiswa. com), that, herein lies the difference between aceh (when categorized as indonesia) and papua in relation to the cultural duality theory, because clifford geertz once visited aceh so logically, when he charted indonesia outer, aceh included in here. when he describes how the java possess religion, has been unimaginable at the end of the world there is morocco(north africa) and in the end of sumatra there is aceh, which is bearing islam in different ways with java. geertz’sviewis a lotof writing and articles and books among them (1) interpretation of cultures: selected essays 1973; (2) works and lives: the anthropologist as author1988; (3) local knowledge: further essays in interpretive anthropology 1983; (4) after the fact: two countries, four decades, one anthropologist 1995 and (5) available light; anthropological reflections on philosophical topics 2000. the books are mostly based on field studies in indonesia and morocco. he focused on two main topics, namely economic and religious. on the economic element, comes with what is called involution concept (concept of involvement or hassle concepts). syamsuddin otto isaac said, according to the concept, a tiny plot in java is forced to absorb unlimited supply of labor and cultivates the land until the soil is exhausted. in correlation above shows how the collision of environmental concept according to article 33 of the uud'45 and article 51 of the constitution 1999 whichled to the using of “lingkungan hidup” (life environment) in indonesia versus respect for the “lingkungan alam” (natural environment) in papua (melanesia). in economics, said otto syamsuddin ishak again that, there is an interesting fact that the theory presented by nobel prize winner arthur lewis, namely”the economy of unlimited supply of labor” which essentially outlines the possibility of a transition based economy from agriculture to industrialization. it said, “the industrialization continues to happen because the change of labor from agricultural sector to industry will not affect the productivity of agricultural sector since the labors’ marginal productivity of labor/mpl) drawn as: mpl = 0 or not at all mean. this theory has destroyed views of economists such as ranis and fei(2010), theory of economic growth; https://olga 260991. wordpress.com /2010 /04/07/teori-pertumbuhan-ekonomi/)(note 30). what is interesting is the theory that lewis could not be presented here as a new theory when confronted with cases set by geertz of what be the so-called concept of "shared poverty" as part of the theory of the agriculture involvement.(note 31) while in papua melanesia as stated by j.g. held (1951) as "kultuur improvisator (culture improvisator)" is the opposite of the horizon is very contradictory. an example that, to trade as catering for papua not departing from the bear, carts, bicycles, motorcycles, cars, hawkers and home stores and trade, but the right is the result of the field to the home store or even to commerce and industry. or roughly said "illiterate can be controlled from the tractor and needs of the times (using a mobile phone in a state bearing penis cocker “koteka”)". held’s statement may be mentioned having seen a decade (1949/1950-1960/1961) the development of the community in the netherlands new guinea (including the melanesian society in general). methodologically, there is difficulty to read papua. is when outlining indonesia in to two cultural systems geertz have imagined that papua became part of indonesia outside? or do as researcher from van vollenhoven instituut above, papua positioned as marginal line cosmopolitan lies in indonesia. papua was not added in culture duality map of geertz. according to george junus aditjondro, fortunately papuans them selves have a different definition of the citizens of indonesia, namely papua(haired) curly where indonesia is (haired) straight. this is what can be used as a basis for reading papua from the perspective of cultural duality. in this context, it is used for things relating to the history and expansion (or separatism) in papua internally as revealed otto syamsuddin ishak. which in this case must be experts such as geertz did not even imagine that the "culture of papua was not part of indonesian culture" in the sense of not included in the different but one or tolerance of "unity in diversity" as the basic characteristics of papua is solidarity of "together in diversity". hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 83 published by ideas spread papuans tend to be resistant to the writing of the history of historiography indonesia-centrist papua perspective. for them, all the political circumstances which reconstructed “it is not straight, but very, very curly”, continuing aditjondro. uniquely, they are constantly fighting for what they call "historical rectification of papua". this is a political pamphlet that is congruent with the book title subandrio (2000) on the political history of papua in relation to indonesia, namely straightening history of the struggle of west irian. should not it be "consistent with the attitude of dualistic culture". the papuans actually are struggling to crimp the history of papua that has been straightened by the ruling elite in indonesia? although it is not easy to imagine as described by demmy antoh (2007: 177) that is on the implementation of the mandate of article 46 of law-decree no. 21 of 2001 on special autonomy for papua province, concerning the truth and reconciliation commission that is certainly inhibited jakarta by all means. the second thing is about the political division of papua (2003). how can indonesia held internal separatism in papua? is the indonesian elite solely consider the geopolitical indonesia and papua geo-culture ignore? aditjondro again mentioned, “geo-politics defined unilaterally by kaum serdadu (the defense perspective) of everlasting invasion (immortality occupation). while on the other hand is also to address the development of stagnant because of the wide range of services and governance if they are only in one province and it is possible in accordance with article76 of the law-decree no. 21 of 2001on special autonomy for papua province. indonesia-centrist historiography which, according to indonesian experts, just mentioned bambang purwanto in ibrahim isa alias bramijn, (2007, http://www. kabarindonesia.com/beritaprint.php?id=20070121023717), bambang purwanto had failed. however, perhaps not entirely failed or unsuccessful. there fore, in relation to the history of indonesia versus colonial party, perhaps the time of writing still holds the principle of decolonization, although his form is still dominated by stories of the movement in the area around the center of the colony, the batavia. however, history in relation to the relationship between jakarta and the regions may actually still colored by the spirit of colonization that is strong, with the exception of papua in certain respects be seen as a process of integration that can only assumption was turned in to a feeling occupied by foreign parties when acts of vandalism, brutality, mistreatment, harassment against the identity of papua continuously waged. according to aditjondro, in fact, when seen at a glance at the history of papua, the writing is a continuation of colonial-centrist alone. papua is in the dutch-indies historiography-centrist and continued into papua is in the historiography indonesia-centrist. the problem for the indonesian side, there is a strong interest to maintain the image of political morality if it's history as told by bambang purwanto is a ratio that reflects the events, emotions, and black-and-white subjects from indonesia or papua. in terms indonesia-centrism, papua acquired through the chaotic struggle between the invasion of troops and diplomatic action. as if, with both actions said, the colonial subdued before the rooster crows, as the story of establishing of prambanan temple or the famous lake and mount takuban prahu in javanese and sundanese communities. in fact not the case, because there are processes the political negotiations of bilateral political treaty between indonesia and the netherlands on august 15, 1962 in new york, and the subsequent negotiations. there are provisions in the declaration of the united nations and international laws which were ignored, the time will demand to return as a deliberate offense violation of truth. new york agreement consists of29chapters, which among other things regulates the transfer of government of the netherlands to the united nations and the secretary-general formed untea government until may 1, 1963. then untea handed papua to indonesia until the act of self-determination freely implemented. although only 1 (one) voice which was eduard hegemur of election pool of fakfak, another voice requires independent and separated from the indonesian nation and the netherlands contrary to the choir orchestrated by indonesia. although only one voice, it is an eternal truth that should come out of the mouth of 1020 members of the dmp (since 1 vote resign) compiled by indonesia for deliberation-consensus-mutual help respond to international law "one man-one vote" new york agreement in 1962. from the side of papua-centrism, the papuans have the desire to break away from the netherlands, but it is not automatically submit itself to indonesia. because, papua is not a dutch east indies, as is indonesia’s political conclusion. papua nor is a colony of the kingdom of tidore, which is then captured by the dutch, then seized by indonesia from the dutch. on the matter of self-determination, indonesia got the political gap of the absence of a system setting and selfdetermination in the new york agreement. untea did not prepare for it during its rule in papua. indonesia then made a model of its own, namely the act of pepera, which corresponds to the political and ethical culture of indonesia “gotong royong (mutual assistance)”, as well as negotiate its own time (1969). the act became a series hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 84 published by ideas spread of actions of the determination of 63 chiefs, 89 deputy group, and 88 representatives of youth who mobilized at 3 to may 6, 1964. apparently, the political practice of the determination made in areas of conflict such as east timor and aceh is a continuation of papua political practice in the post-treaty of new york in 1962. political policies and the behavior of indonesian politics so curly that self-determination does not reflect the existence of freedom of choice on the one hand, which had actually been straightened (eliminated) by the indonesian side in the history of indonesia-centrist. and on the other hand, things are curling history that relating to fraudulent acts, terror and human rights violations are prosecuted by the papua to remain listed as part of the history of papua.(note 32) spiral historiography of indonesia-centrist repeated. irian was seized at the time of the president soekarno; and papua broken by president megawati. while soekarno-willed upon unity sabang merauke, megawati act in the context of preserving the integrity of papuan political struggle. political regional expansion or it could be called internal separatism, become a major policy versus politics in solving the self-liberation struggle in conflict zones vertically. there is also a political hidden soldiery to strengthen its dominance of the local political dynamics through the territorial commands and folding number of soldiers and weaponry. politics wich are constantly being developed, although it is also recognized, has failed to deliver prosperity. internal separatism has also been practiced in aceh based on racism, namely disintegration and ethnic provokes, raising militias, and continues to the formation of new provinces. in the context of papua who are struggling, internal separatism as a political policy is a necessity when viewed from the side of indonesia. for indonesia, beyond the considerations is of political considerations geo-culture of papua. even granting the status of special autonomy for papua, also on the basis of political considerations, without considering the locus privilege papua as customary land. as a result, the political division was not in accordance with the cultural picture of papua. if viewed from the side of conflict resolution, internal separatist conflict only transform vertical to horizontal, or of manifest in to latent. conversely, when the awareness to papua's actually increased with the implementation of the policy of internal separatism, will be the addition of new energy into the spirit vertical conflict. history is extremely important, said ibn khaldun (1332 ad-1406 ad), because, history invited to understand the origin of the creature (the papuans), how the situation and the conditions that make them switch from one hand of power to the power of another, or from being a colony into a new colony to another. however, if the history of papua reconstructed just a straight, in the sense of eliminating the policy and political action kinky-curly from the colonial, of course, it would be misleading for generations in defining what and who they were. moreover, politically, the writing of historiography indonesia-centrist in dealing with papua has been absolutized. then the remaining effort is on the political courage of papua historians to rewrite so it curls into a large book of historiography papua-centrist. the nature of papua-centrist explains the conditions and situations based on geoculture in papua. this is very useful as a resource for formulating identity of papua's, in addition to strengthening the privilege locus of papua. next is the political demography of papua can be reconstructed, "the papuans are indigenous children, or who have baptized customarily. the rest are citizens of papua alone. "finally, the division of papua politically was not an issue when it becomes seven provinces, because it is according to the geo-cultural hemisphere of papua alone. in that regard otto syamsuddin ishak wrote: 1) from the sorry to panic about political conditions in aceh during dom (political conditions in aceh province during military operations), 1989-1998; 2) bung karno: a mouthpiece for the people of indonesia (sukarno’s set of speech); 3) knitting peace in maluku; examines religious conflicts from 1999 to 2000 on the political situation (political conditions in maluku province since 1999-2000) and so on. a key issue is that the papua not appear physically alone (eg. melanesian curly -vis malay not curly) but a habit (custom) cultural, ideological and philosophical, are different. the malays know the pattern of kinship "bilateral" or "non-unilineal" within the meaning of the origin of both biological parents get recognition in the affiliate while in papua applicable is the dominant system of "uni-lineal" as in melanesia in general a very adrift in the paternal line or patrilineal. in that regard for example an attempt to apply the concept of "equal distribution of poverty" which is now known as the "raskin" (rice to the poor), and various subsidies poverty line with, among others, the cultural line up groceries and the other is completely against the nature of identity and humanity of papuamelanesia were varied in four distribution patterns of economics, has been described above. again, the view of papua as occupied apparently not included in the category of peripheral or marginal line in indonesia because the system does not indonesian. papua-indonesian or otherwise papua because both of them can only be united in a process called "integration". thus it should failed also what is called or autopia as hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 85 published by ideas spread "separatism" and even "treason" after humiliation term "irian" which has now replaced by the glorification term of "papua". for us both are different sides virtually upstream and estuaries despite a fertilizer and herbs from the same sources. papua in indonesia means integration or papua outside indonesia means independent. indonesia and papua not otherwise remained an eternal futurity within range of each other in the immortality never knitted and that no doubt denied anyway. 5.3.9 king in morning star rising? king in the article entitled morning star rising?, had started with words: “indonesia raya and the new papuan nationalism” about the author and the constitution of 1999 stated: the official bureaucracy has long been home to secret or not-so-secret opm supporters and other patriotic ”secessionists,” including the author (don flassy), one of the presidium leaders destined to be arrested in november 2000. again according to king: 8/96-24 as a senior civil servant on the provincial development planning board, the author was able to help “validate” the occupation of the irian jaya arts center building in jayapura by the presidium’s militia (satgas papua: satuan tugas papua, papua taskforce) and its officially sponsored ex-opm veterans, until a police crackdown in december 2000 ended that occupation. [(15/103-41 some have suggested that civil servants take on a greater role in the movement, but that proposal is complicated by the taint of collaboration attaching to anyone in straightforward government service. at the same time, the dewan papua platform recommends that the proportion of papuans in senior civil service positions be drastically increased, and indeed by 2001 all bupati (regency heads) save one were ethnic papuans. there is a good deal of informal coordination and mutual support between the presidium leadership and established papuan bureaucratic statesmen with ties to jakarta, such as bas suebu, currently (at that time) indonesia’s ambassador to mexico. these contacts are tolerated by the central government. on the other hand, a top-secret strategy document originating in the militarydominated ministry of internal affairs and dated june 8, 2000 (that is, only days after congress papua ii concluded) called for papuan officialdom to be cleansed of pro-independence figures and actually named don flassy, then still serving at the provincial development agency, bappeda. further, [(21/109-64 “the constitution of the ‘state of papua’ as was envisaged in jayapura” by the agence france presse, january 6, 2000. the document certainly originated with the prolific and proactive constitution drafter and presidium member, don the author, who was arrested in 1998 for setting up a papuan independence committee which attracted theys eluay’s endorsement. the author proceeded in 1999 and early 2000 to issue a stream of documents in both indonesian and english under the auspices of this committee and eluay’s tribal council, including proposals about a “transitional” (sometimes “provisional”) government for papua, which implied some form of consent from indonesia. these documents or their kin circulated at both mubes and kongres, but were never formally adopted, interviewing the author, in jayapura, august 16, 2001. see documents composed by the author, including “the papuan transitional government,” proposed by the papuan independent (sic) committee and supervised by the papuan customary council, sentani (february 1999), and “basic guidelines for the state of papua,” port numbay (march 2000). flassy’s proposed currency was a papuan guilder, not the dutch guilder” a recognition of the supporters of don flassy to be realized transition government on july 1, in preparation for the announcement of independence on december 1, 2000 but not taken (an interview of king with franzalbert joku, sydney, june 8, 2000). theys and the other members of the presidium also arrested are general secretary, thaha al-hamid, moderator pastor gki herman awom, and don flassy from bappeda, and the leader of tapol/napol john mambor. 5.3.10 sinar harapan: morning star fluttering, special autonomy held on december 1, 1999morning, jayapura become a ghost town. school children, office workers even instructed entrance; still they took the afternoon off. shops were closed and the streets were deserted. looks were several cars and buses that transport the masses towards taman imbi. since dawn, people of papua have started walking toward the heart of the town. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 86 published by ideas spread at that time, the sp (suara pembaruan) down the street from waena to the taman imbi, see how they are clustered walk while singing into town with a distance of 30 kilo meters, it seems they were not tired. that day, the sun covered with clouds. since dawn, the drizzle flushed the city of jayapura. after all, the cold is not a barrier. in the city center, in front of taman imbi standing monument yos sudarso, about 5,000 people had gathered since the previous night. filep karma when it was just wearing a piece of cloth with decorative of morning star. although he seemed to shiver, spirit of independence figures beat the cold. in the stands, appear theys eluay, don a.l flassy, rev. herman awom, taha alhamid, john mambor, melcky mandosir, bas yufuway, and a number of other figures. at 06.00 eit, don flassy was screaming hysterically. his hands ware took up. "merdeka …..medeka (freedom ... freedom). thank you jesus, thank you jesus," he repeated. at that time, the morning star flag is being flown by three youths papua, papua tune hai tanaku papua (hi my land papua). the flag was hoisted on a pole height of about seven meters alongside the dwi warna (red white) flag first flown. suddenly, like a chorus, the sound of crying came from the mouths of thousands of people waving accompany the morning star. that day, indeed was solemn ceremony with full emotional. since waving morning star until now, the long journey to papua to not be separated from the unitary republic of indonesia (nkri) is full of twists, like a drama play. special autonomy (otsus), is the ending of all the demands of the word m (merdeka). that is the letter which is often mentioned and heard to this day. otsus held in 2001 in response to the morning star fluttering december 1, 1999, has been assumed to be only limited money. police too busy catching the people who fly the morning star flag. law enforcement officials in papua among police, prosecutors, the financial supervisory agency (bpkp), the supreme audit agency (bpk), the corruption eradication commission (kpk) is very rare, never even want to bother with criminals who spend tens of billions of rupiah of otsus funds. in fact, corruption continues reigning, development is not on the road, the heart of the people injured and screaming. can with voice, can read, can also with symbols of disagree. if honest, now there is special autonomy as for the morning star flag. "do not lie. special autonomy is the biological child of the morning star flag. because of the morning star flag fluttering, there is a new special autonomy", said secretary general of the papua presidium council (pdp) taha alhamid. that is the reality. "we wait for law enforcement want to make what with the corrupt that spend money of special autonomy in papua. as long as there is no rule of law, meant to be expected of law enforcement officers participated maintains abuses within the framework of special autonomy devastating and crippling", he said. governor most responsible, because the governor is to know what should be done within the framework of special autonomy. seven years is the people's view, there was no change. so, is it wrong when people shout, "did the police busy to catch people's, because the flag and do not know what is behind the flag. this is essential. who separatists and who want to destroy this country", he said. see the special autonomy that has been lying, should be autonomous cases. as if the government has no steps and no way out and do not see any other option how to save autonomy. 5.4 politiecs negotiation do not forget, special autonomy status is a political negotiation. if it is defeated, it means that the political negotiations also failed. this people of papua to build a political negotiation with the government of the republic of indonesia and the government destroy. according to taha alhamid secretary general of the pdp, "evaluation or renegotiation or revised is the authority of the government and the legislature. that's the record, according to the special autonomy law any change must be consulted with the people of papua". he no longer wants to talk about the special autonomy, because of the past until today, same thing. "we do this as if talking to a wall, not by human conscience. president susilo bambang yudhoyono (sby) and vice president muhammad jusuf kalla should take responsibility and prove their commitment to the implementation of special autonomy in papua,” he said. their promise to the people through the special autonomy that has been running for seven years, until now have not provided adequate changes. in fact, otsus is a political solution. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 87 published by ideas spread although the central government often claimed to have given such great authority, including the so great funds, remain nothing could happened. indonesia is a unitary state so there is no central or regional. that is, governments in the region, is representative of the central government. that is, the governor barnabas suebu it is sby in papua or abraham atururi is sby in west papua. "so, do not talk about local or central government, but the government is because the name of the government that is one," he said. researchers from the indonesian institute of sciences (lipi) muridan widjojo revealed, it makes sense, to dampen the raising of the morning star flag, was given special autonomy as its answer. "autonomy is born because the demands for independence. papuans demanded independence because of injustice. so, the long flow indeed. when people say the birth of special autonomy as the morning star and the demand for independence, that's for sure", he said. chairman of the papuan customary council, forkorusyaboisembut said the fundamental problem that has been animating for special autonomy and ingrained for papuans. "so, if you want to be released in a short time, impossible. that there is a murder", he said. otsus not resolve the matter. "it is precisely this problem that must be solved. otsus was granted, because of political problems," he said. he likened the bird in a cage to be fed good, sleep good, no wet by rain. however, if flying, it will hit here and there. "that means there is something less wrong. the cause is there. even though indonesia gave money to billions of rupiah, but a bird in a cage is remain to move on. this matter should be resolved and should be addressed by special autonomy, "he said. [sp/roberth isidorus vanwi] 6. end remark thus, if since in 2005 there was the dream state with the name republic bbm in indonesia, starting in 1999 there was a constitution of a dream state at least once. state of west papua which was dreamed would happen although exchanged with special autonomy. in the history of ethical effort embodied in the constitution of republic of indonesia year 2001 the tub is also a dream in a sense continues to be disturbed so that is also ending in a dream may not be delivered. prophet of papua, pastor i.s. kijne on the first page of the book kota emas (gold city), itu dia volume iv, 1954 wrote: “jang dimimpi walau tak akan djadi, pasti abadi (though in a dream that not would be, certainly immortal).” thus, definitely the papuans with its brother/sister of the indonesian nation are in the aroma and atmosphere of a dream presented by the system that calls itself, and we know also the name of that is the "pemerintah indonesia (indonesian government)". there is a small number of people (politicians, bureaucrats, statesmen) who wishes, just and would not even know the brothers/sisters of papua and also not of brothers/sisters of indonesia wanting this or not, does not matter them at all. as well as disaster of lapindo mud where people are forced to say "syukur (grateful),” the sale of gas and gold are not means at all stop. in papua, the papuan and indonesian people are, surely yes, "syukur (grateful)". and it is fragments of necessity borne, however in dreams only. this is means to change attitude and full respect towards people’s benefit as citizen. let's realize the dream to build dream states. indonesian nation and the nation of papua each have their own country, and there is also toward the common goal, which is bilateralism, if possible, although indonesia in its constitution does not specify about the border from where to where they settled the globe. indeed the constitution 1999 (of dream) on krp-3 has gained the honor of becoming a real papuan people's constitution, called the constitution of 1999 preceded the udi (unilateral declaration of independence) of papuan nation and nrfpb in october 19, 2011 as the facto. however, for the togetherness of papua and indonesia in the form of integration it is ensured a clash if we understand clearly each constitution, the 1999 papua constitution versus the 1945 indonesian constitution. with the opposite binary method of levi straus’ structuralism (1964) the measurement of papua remains within indonesia and papua outside indonesia are shown in the following table: hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 88 published by ideas spread table 1. papua inside indonesia versus papua outside indonesia, flassy, (2017). domain papua inside indonesia papua outside indonesia papuan identity declared in the bhineka's, ireal and measurable maintained. mentality dishonest, ccn, liquid, drugs, hiv / aid, individualistic. honest, healthy mentality, communal (nostalgic edenic). reality not visible, pretend. visible, realistic, plain. population tends to be extinct (700,000 out of 3,000,000). an opportunity to increase (1958 800,000 souls, should be the same with the now 7,000,000 pngs. endemic flora and fauna contaminated and extinct. gaining chance to be protected. etc. references abdulgani, r. h. 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(1981). language atlas of the pacific area i: new guinea area, oceania, australia, stuttgart: geo center. yacub m, (2007). ibn khaldun (1332 m–1406 m), penggagas filsafat sejarah: kitab al-ibar/tarikh ibn khaldun (the founder of historical philosophy: kitab al-ibar / date of ibn khaldun), in analitica islamica, 9(2), jakarta. yoman. yoman, s. s. (2000). pintu menuju papua merdeka: perjanjian new york 15 agustus 1962 dan pepera 1969 hanya sandiwara politik amerika, indonesia, belanda dan pbb(the door to free papua: new york agreement august 15, 1962 and 1969 pepera act only political plays of american, indonesia, the netherlands and the united nations), yos, r. s. (2008). dia yang mahir dalam revolusi (he, the advanced one, in the revolution (on tan malaka), tim tempo. notes note 1. apparently still not to be understood that, before becoming indonesia's, papua has been formed through a phase of integration among the papua themselves called papoeanizering (papuanization) 1828-1949 to 1970so it is not necessarily. papua in it self is a nation of uniting groups of ethnics and tribes. note 2. according to sources the dutch-pvk-army (casper van bruggen, 2011: 219): kapten benny murdani was bevond tot major terwijl hij zich in de jungle bij merauke bevond (….was commander rank of captain to major hiding and ran a way from the pursuit, just daring to show himself after squash of weapons announced by unteaun. note 3. triple fold logics or two units of three in the sense that there are two parts, each consisting of 3, namely 3 principles of melanesian brotherhood (one people-one soul-one solidarity) and 3 principles of papuan virtue (mercy-faithful-honest). note 4. although for that shake, drs. agus alua, ma, head of the team trying to answer this rhetorical of habibie in june of that year through a working paper entitled "already, we reflect" is a futile effort because not responded by indonesia. note 5. cahya pamungkas, 2009, history of the story of the integration of papua into indonesia the experiences of the kaimana people in the days of trikora and pepera” in 104paramita vol. 25, no. 1 – january 2015. note 6.the un 24th session of unga: provisional a/pv. 1812, 19 november 1969). note 7. this phenomenon would occur repeated almost every year on may 1; there are two celebrations that of the government with the claim "the day return of west irian (papua) to the bosom of mother pertiwi earth with a period ends the provisional government of the un/untea, being by the papua people claimed as time began "occupation" of the tanah papua is then legitimized by world (un) on the act of free choice in august 1969 very detrimental to the people nation of papua received onnovember 19, 1969 (above). note 8. indeed somewhat exaggerated but is an ambition on the basis of the moral order that is charged for the sake of the constitution itself. note 9. in order to promote ri law no.45 year 1999 on expansion of province into three provinces with theri law no. 21 year 2001 on special autonomy for papua province. note 10. discuss pike (1967). note 11. as for the state of indonesia is not an islamic state so of papua it is not a christian state because both are the national state. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 93 published by ideas spread note 12. already various occasions meetings with various groups officials of the state of indonesia, komite independent (papua independent committee) seeks to attract to handle this offer, but as it is said benny giay in a seminar in joke that "talks with officials of indonesia looks like we talk to rock, so there would be no answer or cross talk". is this correct, i am personally not convinced that, because abdurrahman wahid can do spectacular. note 13. need also noted in this regard that new guinea (papua) according to batavia declaration 7 march 1910 being excluded which nolonger part of dutch indies which devotes particular attention to the so-called "outer islands,” and the forces that batavia saw at work in this periphery; uploaded june 2016 from https://www.jstor.org/stable/20072201?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents note 14. the title " putra sang fajar (son of the dawn)" was once appointed by playwright sadono be held by title of colossal drama plaid by garuda patria group in yogyakarta in commemorating 100 days of sukarno's death; the author include as one cast of the drama that was held in the balai batik alon-alon utara keraton yogyakarta. note 15. genesis,1. note 16. nieuw guinea instituut 1956 : 7-16. note 17. al gore, 1992: 199-376. note 18. spirit of one solidarity (solus solidarita) representing of complement job of kip inspired focuses by the leader of papua, theys hiyo eluay about nation of papua which manner peaceful and will esteem, also if only one people-one soul hence which is gone to by totalitarian state whereas which we crave the federation. note 19. no interactive terms are used because of the positive view applied; meaning rejecting or tightening characteristics is not considered. this is the real road to wards liberal-democracy, rather than class conflict, symbolized by “re-cycle” nodes. note 20. taclot parson, 1951: 205-7, 250, 272-7. note 21. don al. flassy, 1983 : 136. note 22. don a.l. flassy, 1995: -idem-. note 24. see gouvernements-blad 1961/68 and gouvernements-blad 1961/70 attached. note 24. c. budiarjo & l.s. liong, 1988, "west papua: the obliteration of a people"; veur, paul van der, 1963, political awakening in west new guinea, pacific affairs, 36(1), pp 54-73. note 25. see gouvernements-blad 1961/70. note 26. comparing to japan by its meji restoration and decision to groan pearl harbour and fight with usa in creating peace later. note 27. this state device is by the time not getting authentication yet because representing product to end later before the independence of the state of papua which is made a promise will be existed by the year 1970. note 28. see timmer (forth coming) to a common view will be social and economic development in papua from the early 1960s until 2004. note 29. this design was also used for building a such panthéon in paris dedicated to the heroes (heroes and heroines) of the nation. note 30. theory of economic development. • john fei and gustav ranis in "a theory of economic development" examine the transition process which is expected to pass an underdeveloped country to move from a state of stagnation towards self growth. • it is a refinement of the lewis theory of the unlimited supply of labour. • theory fei-ranis: a country that excess labour and resource poor economies, most of the population engaged in the agricultural sector in the midst of great unemployment and a high rate of population growth. agricultural economy stagnates. there are industrial sectors active and dynamic. development consists of reallocation of labour surplus agricultural contribution to output zero, to the industry where they become productive with equal pay. • assumptions used: (1) economic two-face divided into traditional agricultural sector stagnant and active industrial sector, (2) the output of the agricultural sector is a function of land and labour only, (3) in the agricultural sector there is no accumulation of capital, unless reclaimed, (4) supply of land is fixed, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 2, no. 2; 2019 94 published by ideas spread (5) agricultural activities characterized by results (returns to scale), which remains with the labours as variable factors, (6) the marginal productivity of labour is zero, (7) output of the industrial sector is a function of capital and labour only, (8) the population growth as exogenous phenomenon, (9) real wages in the agricultural sector is considered to be fixed and is equal to the level of real income of the agricultural sector, (10) workers in each sector only to consume agricultural products. note 31.theory arthur lewis, its discussion is in the process of development between urban and rural areas, followed by the process of urbanization between both places. in addition to this theory also review the investment model and the system of wage determination in the modern system also affects the existing urbanization. lewis assumes that the economy of a country is basically divided into two. in (2014, imam’s blog, http://imamsyaifuddin.blogspot.com/2014/03/teori-pembangunan-fei-ranis-rostow-dan.html) (1) traditional economy, it is assumed that rural areas with traditional economy experiencing labour surplus. the surplus is closely related to the main base of the traditional economy. the condition of society in a state of subsistence as a result of the subsistence of economy also marked the value of the marginal product of labour is zero. this indicates that the addition of labour would reduce total production there, contrary to reduce the workforce it does not reduce the total existing production. thus, real wages are determined by the average value of the marginal product, and not the marginal product of labour itself. (2) the economy of the industry, the industrial sector plays an important role in this sector and also located in urban areas. in this sector it is shows that the very high level of productivity, including inputs and labour used. especially the marginal value of labour is positive thus the urban area is a destination for job seekers from rural areas. if this happens then labour in industrial sectors will be followed by an increase of output produced. thus, the urban industry still provides jobs for villagers. in addition to employment opportunities available no less attractive wage levels in the city reached 30%, and this then becomes of interest to the villagers in doing urbanization. note 32. that history gives the power of intuition and inspiration to philosophy, while philosophy offers the power of logic to history. by doing so, a historian will be able to obtain valid results relative history of the research process, the basic logic of critical. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 3, no. 2; 2020 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v3n2p10 10 published by ideas spread alleviating the material and health challenges of young internally displaced people in north-east nigeria: the impact of sexual and reproductive health program ali johnson onoja1, chris olusola ogedengbe2, felix olaniyi sanni3, paul olaiya abiodun4, monday okeme1, sheila iye onoja1 & ayorinde samuel lemah1 1 research department, african health project, abuja, nigeria 2 alpha research and development centre limited, abuja, nigeria 3 department of west african breast cancer study, lagos state university teaching hospital, ikeja, lagos state, nigeria 4 department of national integrated specimen referral network, axios international, utako, fct, abuja, nigeria correspondence: ali johnson onoja, research department, african health project, abuja, nigeria. tel: 234-805679-3961. e-mail: onojaali yahoo.com received: may 31, 2020; accepted: june 12, 2020; published: june 12, 2020 the research is financed by authors. abstract the increasing rate of attack in the north-eastern parts of nigeria has caused the deaths of thousands and thereby forcing many of the residents, including children to abandon their comforts zones. this study assessed the material and health challenges of young idps and the impacts of sexual and reproductive health programs in improving the conditions of these young ones. the study was conducted in sixteen local governments of three states (borno, adamawa and yobe) in the north-east of nigeria using mixed methods. the quantitative data were obtained by the administration of a structured questionnaire to the young idps in the three states. the quantitative data were analyzed and were complemented by the qualitative data {focus group discussions (fgds)} that were obtained from the young idps. data were analyzed using spss version 20. the majority (78.5%) of the young internally displace persons (idps) were within the age group of 10-14 years with 51.8% males and 59.1% have attained primary. the major material challenges facing the young idps include lack of food (31.6%), clothing (28.7%), soap/cream (19.8%) and medicine (13.1%). the most common health problems include malaria (28.9%), cough 23.1%, diarrhea (18.3%) and cholera (13.1%). the idps confirmed that they were fully protected in the camp with no experience of rape. they affirmed that their needs were met by the intervention programs provided for them; 71.7% affirmed that their situation was “good” since they came to the camps and more than half (55.2%) confirmed a better situation. the training in the ipd camps was mostly artisan related while only 31.7% were schooling. this study found that young idps are being faced with material and health-related challenges as well as the lack of proper training and education. however, the outcome of the srh project is a manifestation of the efficient utilization of the resources of the project. more intervention programs to alleviate the challenges of idps are advocated. keywords: insurgency, challenges, internally displaced, boko haram 1. introduction 1.1 background for almost three decades, a large number of people worldwide have been forced to abandon their homes and livelihoods due to civil conflict, insurgency, or other problems. since these displaced people do not cross an international border, they are referred to as ‘internally displaced persons’ (idps) and not refugees (hines & balletto, 2002). it was estimated in 2016 that about fifty million persons have been displaced worldwide with the majority of these people in africa and asia (obaji & alobo, 2016). the increasing communal violence, internal armed conflicts and natural disasters have been the main reasons for internal displacement in nigeria (akuto, 2017). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 2; 2020 11 published by ideas spread the devastating impacts of insurgency are felt in all sectors in the north eastern nigeria and sub-regions in general. in 2014, a total of 19 out of the 65 local government areas (lgas) of the three states (adamawa, borno and yobe), including 338 schools were destroyed. also, 196 teachers, 314 learners were killed while over 276 learners were abducted in borno, yobe and adamawa (obaji & alobo, 2016). the nature and pattern of the operation of insurgency, with attacks on health facilities and other social services, have forced health workers to flee the states. 1.2 material and health needs of the idps the ipds, especially the young ones are faced with both the material and health challenges in the camps. several studies have documented the various challenges being faced by the idps. findings of the inter-agency assessments indicate various humanitarian needs and the provision of essential health care was among the top priorities. there was also the need to put in place measures to ensure that survivors get the support and care needed to facilitate physical, mental and psychological recovery. a study conducted in 2018 in two idp camps (abuja and yola) revealed that the idps are being faced lack of adequate care, freedom, family separation, financial challenges, and lack of proper education (olanrewaju et al., 2018). food and non-food items, water for washing and cooking, sanitations and hygiene, security, drinking water, medical services and shelter were also identified as major needs of ipds in nigeria in 2019 access to education for young idps was estimated as 50% (dtm nigeria, 2019). several other studies have also documented the challenges being faced by idps including severe food insecurity and nutrition problems (akuto, 2017; olanrewaju et al., 2019; prince et al., 2019), health challenges (elfaituri, 2016; olanrewaju et al., 2019; unpfa, 2016), sexual exploitations, and violence against young women and girls (borton et al., 2005; gwadabe et al., 2018; obaji & alobo, 2016; opara, 2019; usaid, 2016), human trafficking (gwadabe et al., 2018; olanrewaju et al., 2019), family separation (akuto, 2017; gwadabe et al., 2018; mohammed, 2017), rape and prostitution (akuto, 2017; borton et al., 2005; prince et al., 2019; usaid, 2016), sexually transmitted diseases (akuto, 2017; prince et al., 2019; usaid, 2016), education challenges (akuto, 2017) among other challenges. several studies have emphasized on the need for humanitarian assistance to alleviate the food and non-food, shelter, and health needs if the ipds (borton et al., 2005; mohammed, 2017) and there have been efforts to improve the security, stabilization, health, education, financing and provide vocational training for the idps through collaboration between government and non-governmental organizations (ngos). the displaced persons in camps were being served through integrated facility-based and outreach services. however, reaching displaced people living in host communities with health services is challenging due in part to the state of health care delivery systems including health facilities that are non-functioning. to respond to the reproductive health needs of the affected people unfpa, unicef and who with assistance from united states agency for international development (usaid) launched a response project that targets approximately 1.1 million people in three most affected states. several studies have highlighted the needs and challenges of idps but little attention has been given to the young idps in particular. this survey was carried out to identify the material and health challenges of young idps (age 10-24 years) in the three states most affected states in nigeria (adamawa, borno, and yobe) and to evaluate the impact of ‘strengthening sexual and reproductive health services (srh) provision in conflict-affected communities program’ carried out in the idp camps. figure 1. map of north-eastern nigeria showing the three states adamawa, borno and yobe hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 2; 2020 12 published by ideas spread 2. method 2.1 study location the study was conducted in three states (borno, adamawa and yobe) in the north-east of nigeria due to increased insurgency activities and the increased challenges faced by the population in these states since 2014. the project covered the following lgas in the three states: adamawa state: mubi north, mubi south, hong, yola south, yola north, maiha, fufore, and gombi lgas; borno state: biu, jere and maiduguri metropolitan council (mmc); yobe state: bade, damaturu, fika, fune, potiskum and tarmuwa. 2.1 study design the study was conducted by using qualitative and quantitative methods. the quantitative data were obtained by the administration of a structured questionnaire to the young idps in the three states. the quantitative data were analyzed and were complemented by the qualitative data {focus group discussions (fgds)} that were obtained from the young idps. the young people (10 24 years) were reached through the idp camps. the consultants were supported by a field supervisor and 18 data collectors who were selected in the three states. eight data collectors worked in borno state while five data collectors worked in each of the other two states (adamawa and yobe) based on the distribution of idp camps in each of the states. 2.2 sample size the sample size of the young idps interviewed in the three states was estimated by using the assuming confidence interval of 95%, margin of error (me) of 2.5% and that proportion of the population sampled is 7%. a sample size of was estimated 120 from each of the three states, giving an estimated total sample size of 360. however, 335 young people were successfully interviewed by data collectors, which represents 93.1% response rate. 2.3 focus group discussions sessions two camps of the idps were visited in adamawa and yobe states while 4 idp camps were visited in borno state for the fgd sessions among the young idps. in each camp, 1 fgds session was carried out per category (male/female) in each of the selected states. to take into consideration of homogeneity, males and females were interviewed separately. eight children were selected in each category from each camp in adamawa and yobe while 4 were selected in each category from borno. 2.4 data analysis the data collected with the questionnaires were cleaned before data entry was carried out with the statistical package for social sciences (spss version 20). the computer package was also used for data processing and analysis. frequencies tables, charts, and graphs which were used for report generation. on the qualitative data, the notes taken with the audio at focus group discussions (fgds) sessions were transcribed to form part of the report. 3. results 3.1 socio-demographic characteristics of young idps the distribution of the sample of young people as shown in table 1 indicated that over half (56.1%) of the sample of young people were interviewed in adamawa state. the age distribution of the young people revealed that 42.1% were in the age group of 10-14 years and age 15-19 years constituted 36.4%. the sex ratio of the young group is about 1:1 with the proportion of the males (51.9%) slightly higher than that of the females. among the young over half (59.1%) of them attained primary school education while about a quarter (24.2%) had qur’anic education. almost all the young people (95.5%) were not married at the time of assessment. table 1. socio-demographic characteristics of young people in the idp camps characteristics frequency percent (%) state adamawa 188 56.1 borno 38 11.3 yobe 109 32.5 age category 10-14 141 42.1 15-19 122 36.4 20-24 72 21.5 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 2; 2020 13 published by ideas spread gender male 174 51.9 female 161 48.1 level of education no formal education 26 7.8 qur’anic education 81 24.2 primary education 198 59.1 secondary 30 9.0 marital status single 320 95.5 married 15 4.5 total 335 100.0 3.2 material and health challenges in idp camps table 2 shows the common material challenges in the idp camps as enumerated by the young idps during the quantitative survey. the greatest need the young idps stated as the challenge was food (31.6%), followed by clothing (28.7%), soap/cream (19.8%) and medicine (13.1%). the general challenges mentioned in fgd apart from the ones represented in table 2 include lack adequate care, freedom and financial aid. others include lack/poor education family disintegration. the young idps who have acquired some basic skills for livelihood were also facing the challenge of lack of necessary equipment to carry out what they have learnt. besides, they wanted to leave the camps (freedom) to enable them to earn their living and help others to acquire such skills in future. the males also complained that they were mostly marginalized while girls were being focused in most empowerment programs, so they needed more empowered initiatives to avoid idleness. the most common health problems among young idps are shown in table 2. malaria (28.9%) was the highest, followed by cough 23.1%, diarrhea (18.3%) and cholera (13.1%). table 2. material and health challenges of young idps challenge frequency percent general/material challenges food 296 31.6 clothing/blankets 269 28.7 soap/cream 186 19.8 medicine 123 13.1 others 64 6.8 total response 938 100 health challenges of young idps malaria 249 28.9 cough 199 23.1 diarrhea 158 18.3 cholera 113 13.1 catarrh 105 12.2 others 38 4.4 total response 862 100.0 3.3 security in idp camp during the focus group discussion, the young idps confirmed that they were fully protected in the camp. when asked about the activities of insurgence groups in the camp, they all echoed that there was none because they well fully protected by the security agents assigned to their camps. 3.4 impacts of the intervention in idps camps the respondents were asked to evaluate the relevancy of the intervention to the idps provided in the camps, they gave an affirmative response that their needs were met by the programs provided to them. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 2; 2020 14 published by ideas spread the young idps affirmed that there were not rape cases among them because the organizations taking care of them were always on the ground and working. “if any of the idps is sick the ngos responded by treating the person immediately and they also made a referral to bigger hospitals in case they were unable to handle the cases at the community clinic” a young male discussant at fgd session. the young people were aware of the various donors that supported humanitarian support to the camps but neither identify the usaid funded program nor able to identify the specific organizations that brought the commodities. they could identify with the male safe space where there is provision for table tennis and other games. participants’ capacity has been built on hiv/aids prevention and care. they affirmed that their conditions have an improvement in the past six months (table 3) and that the ngos in the camps have been so supportive. they did not know anyone infected with hiv but that if there is anyone that is hiv positive, they would not discriminate against them. to find out from the beneficiaries their situation since they came into the camps, table 10 reflects their responses on the situation. among the young people, over three quarters (71.7%) agreed that the situation was at least “good” to the situation of idps since they came to the camps. however, one young respondent among young people indicated that the situation was unbearable which implies that there is still a need for improvement in the situation in the camps. as a way of confirming if the situation in camps was improving, the survey asked respondents to compare the situation when they came to the cam with what obtained at the time of the survey. over half (55.2%) of the young idps responded that their situations have greatly improved in the idp camps but 5 (1.5%) indicated that the situation was deteriorating. this is an indication that there is room for improvement. table 3. situation of young idps since they came to the camp situation number percent the situation of young idps since arrival in the camp excellent 94 28.1 very good. 99 29.6 good. 47 14.0 fair 54 16.1 poor 23 6.9 very poor 17 5.1 unbearable 1 0.3 total 335 100.0 compare the current situation with when arrived in the camp there is a great improvement 185 55.2 there is little improvement 114 34.0 there is no improvement 31 9.3 the situation is deteriorating 5 1.5 total 335 100.0 3.5 training provided for young idps table 4 shows the training provided for young people. based on the responses received, the majority of the training in the ipds were artisan related while schooling accounted for 31.7%. capacity building is key to sustainability as the skills acquired by the idps will go a long way in sustaining them when they eventually leave the camp. however, the finding from the fgd sessions revealed that most of the benefits of the intervention were tailored towards girl child at the detriments of boys. more importantly, the skill acquisition which is been implemented by ministry of women affairs (mowa) has relinquished the boy child to no importance. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 2; 2020 15 published by ideas spread table 4. training provided to idps as reported by young idps training no. of response percent artisan 206 45.0 schooling 145 31.7 cream making 60 13.2 others 46 10.1 total response 458 100.0 4. discussion the increasing rate of attack in the north-eastern parts of nigeria has caused the deaths of thousands and thereby forcing many of the residents, including children to abandon their comforts zones. this study assessed the material and health challenges of young idps and the impacts of sexual and reproductive health programs in improving the conditions of these young ones. age 10-19 years constituted the majority (78.5%) of the entire population of young people interviewed. this is a clear indication that the majority of children in this region were deprived of foundational education due to the insurgency that ravaged the regions. besides, these young ones were being exposed to danger and life challenges bigger than their ages. this corroborates the fact that the majority of the young ones only attained primary education with those who attained secondary education accounted for only 9%. the proportion of 7.8% without a formal education is significant when compared with the situation in other parts of nigeria. these findings are in agreement with previous studies that have documented the vulnerability of women and children to the challenges associated with insurgency (borton et al., 2005; gwadabe et al., 2018; obaji & alobo, 2016; opara, 2019; usaid, 2016). 4.1 challenges of young idps food and clothing top the needs or material challenges facing the young idps while general challenges include lack of adequate care and resources, freedom and financial aid, lack/poor education, and separation from family. similar challenges have been reported in previous studies (akuto, 2017; cohen, 2001; hamzat, 2013; olanrewaju et al., 2018). the most common health problems among young idps include malaria fever, cough, diarrhea, and cholera. previous studies have shown that malaria is the most common sickness among idps (dtm nigeria, 2019; gwadabe et al., unpfa, 2016; who, 2018). malaria, cough, diarrhea and cholera are very common because of exposure to mosquito bites, lack of good water and unhygienic environment of the idp camps. similar finding has also been reported in cameroun (eweka & olusegun, 2016). some studies have also reported outbreak of cholera in some idp camps in the north where nearly 100% of toilets were reportedly not good/hygienic (dtm nigeria, 2019; eweka & olusegun, 2016; gwadabe et al., 2018; prince et al., 2019). 4.2 impacts of the intervention in idps camps this study found that the ngos through the srh program were providing both the material and medical needs to the idps to alleviate the challenges being faced by the idps. material such as food, clothing, soaps/creams, blankets, and medicines were being supplied to meet the need of the idps. unlike some previous studies that have reported lack of security and high rates of rape in idp camps (akuto, 2017; borton et al., 2005; prince et al., 2019), the young idps confirmed that they were fully protected in the camp and did not experience any issue of rape. however, the young idps laid emphasis on their willingness to gain freedom and live their lives out of idp camps. previous studies have reported that regardless of tight security in idp camps, they are deprived of their freedom of movement (olanrewaju et al., 2018). comparing their conditions since the inception of the srh program, the young idps affirmed that their conditions have improved due to the supports they have been getting from the ngos in the camps. however, one young respondent among young people indicated that the situation was unbearable which implies that there is still a need for improvement in the situation in the camps. few studies have reported occasional humanitarian interventions interventions in some idp camps in nigeria and further called for regular intervention (akuto, 2017; mohammed, 2017; olanrewaju et al., 2018; usaid, 2016). apart from security and improved conditions, the young idps were trained on some artisan skills such as sewing, knitting among others though a very few of them were attending schools. this was due to the high rate of killing of teachers in the region, so, no adequate number of teachers to teach the young idps. this finding is in agreement with a recent study that reported lack of teachers and terrible classrooms being experience in idp camps (olanrewaju et al., 2019). also, killing and kidnapping of teachers and students by the insurgents have been hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 2; 2020 16 published by ideas spread reportedly responsible for lack of teachers in schools which makes many young idps drop out of school and opt for vocational training (gwadabe et al., 2018). capacity building is key to sustainability as the skills acquired by the idps will go a long way in sustaining them when they eventually leave the camp. however, the finding from the fgd sessions revealed that most of the benefits of the intervention were tailored towards girl child at the detriments of boys. more importantly, the skill acquisition which is been implemented by mowa has relinquished the boy child to no importance. this finding reflects the recommendation from previous studies that evaluated the challenges of idps which highlighted the need for empowering the idps with vocational training and skill acquisition in order to avoid idleness (akuto, 2017). 4.3 conclusion this study found that young idps are being faced with material and health-related challenges as well as the lack of proper training and education. however, the outcome of the srh project as revealed by the group discussions with these young beneficiaries is a manifestation of the efficient utilization of the resources of the project. the young people interviewed submitted that unfpa and mowa had carried out lots of awareness activities in all the components areas of the intervention, namely, sti treatment and management, hiv/aids, psychosocial supports, provision of dignity kits and safe space. the project has raised the awareness of the state governments of the need for counterpart for the funding. also, capacity building has been very effective during the implementation of the project and this will promote the sustainability of the project. the effects of the project were felt by all the young beneficiaries of the project in all the camps where the data were collected. on the issue of sustainability, the girls commended ministry of women affairs for the opportunity given them to acquire basics skill in the camp but stressed the need to increase the seed grant due to inflation rate in the country, but they were happy with the privilege since they are now self-reliant. more intervention programs to alleviate the challenges of idp, especially the young ones are advocated to enable them to fulfil their dreams in life, regardless of the activities of the insurgency in the country. references akuto, g. (2017). challenges of internally displaced persons ( idps ) in nigeria : implications for counselling and the role of key stakeholders. international journal of innovative psychology & social development, 5(2), 21-27. retrieved from http://seahipaj.org/journals-ci/june-2017/ijipsd/full/ijipsd-j-4-2017.pdf borton, j., buchanan-smith, m., & otto, r. (2005). support to internally displaced persons learning from evaluations: synthesis report of a joint evaluation programme. channel research ltd. retrieved from http://www2.sida.se/shared/jsp/download.jsp?f=sida4587en_learning.pdf&a=3435 cohen, r. (2001). new challenges for refugee policy: internally displaced persons. in brookings. retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/on-the-record/new-challenges-for-refugee-policy-internally-displaced-persons/ dtm nigeria. (2019). baseline assessment of displacement. in international organization for migration (issue august). elfaituri, s. s. (2016). skin diseases among internally displaced tawerghans living in camps in benghazi, libya. international journal of dermatology, 55(9), 1000-1004. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijd.13115 eweka, o., & olusegun, t. o. (2016). management of internally displaced persons in africa: comparing nigeria and cameroon. african research review, 10(1), 193. https://doi.org/10.4314/afrrev.v10i1.15 gwadabe, n. m., salleh, m. a., ahmad, a. a., & jamil, s. (2018). forced displacement and the plight of internally displaced persons in northeast nigeria. humanities and social science research, 1(1), p46. https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v1n1p46 hamzat, a. o. (2013). challenges of the internally displaced persons and the role of society. retrieved from https://www.thenigerianvoice.com/news/113484/challenges-of-the-internally-displaced-persons-and-therole.html hines, d., & balletto, r. (2002). assessment of needs of internally displaced persons in colombia. december, 36. retrieved from https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/2676.pdf mohammed, f. k. (2017). the causes and consequences of internal displacement in nigeria and related governance challenges. working paper, april 2017, 1-39. retrieved from http://www.swpberlin.org%0aswp@swp-berlin.org obaji, s., & alobo, e. (2016). internal displacement in nigeria and the case for human rights protection of hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 2; 2020 17 published by ideas spread displaced persons. journal of law, policy and globalization, 51(0), 26-33. retrieved from http://www.iiste.org/journals/index.php/jlpg/article/view/32031 olanrewaju, f. o., olanrewaju, a., omotoso, f., alabi, j. o., amoo, e., loromeke, e., & ajayi, l. a. (2019). insurgency and the invisible displaced population in nigeria: a situational analysis. sage open, 9(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244019846207 olanrewaju, f. o., omotoso, f., & alabi, j. o. (2018). datasets on the challenges of forced displacement and coping strategies among displaced women in selected internally displaced persons׳ (idps) camps in nigeria. data in brief, 20, 152-158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2018.07.042 opara, e., & n. (2019). enhancing protection of internally displaced persons through domestic law and policy. nnamdi azikiwe university journal of international law and jurisprudence, 10(2), 77-84. prince, c. e., uzoma, c. o., & ejimkaraonye, c. (2019). understanding the challenges of northern forced migrants: from escape to life in internally displaced persons camps, abuja. may. release, p., cluster, p., group, w., recovery, e., & working, c. (2008). protection of conflict-induced idps: assessment for action. unpfa. (2016). ngala idp camp quick assessment quick assessment: ngala idp camp security and logistics. united nations population fund, 1-9. retrieved from https://data2.unhcr.org/en/documents/download/53084 usaid. (2016). strengthening integrated delivery of hiv/aids services in idp camps in borno state. libraries as places: buildings for the 21st century, may. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110935622.3 who. (2018). malaria campaign saving young lives in nigeria. retrieved from http://www.who.int/malaria/news/2017/emergency-borno-state/en/ copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v5n2p11 11 published by ideas spread are you two just friends? emotional and sexual infidelity across sexual orientations samantha yim1, nicole tanzer1, margaret satchwell1, coty chen1, juanshu wu1, daniel javidi1, marissa hensley1, catherine phan1 & jarryd willis1 1 department of psychology, the university of california, san diego, usa correspondence: jarryd willis, department of psychology, the university of california, san diego, usa. e-mail: jarryd.willis gmail.com received: may 30, 2022; accepted: june 15, 2022; published: july 1, 2022 conflicts of interest: we have no conflicts of interest to disclose. ethics: the uc-san diego irb board approved both studies. abstract lesbians are unlikely to ask if it is possible for women and women to be friends. bisexuals have friends of each sex. it seems that it is primarily heterosexuals who have trouble with sex-of-attraction friendships. this study examined how participants perceived the emotional and sexual infidelity of their partner’s relationship with a friend differing across sexuality and biological sex. our participants consisted of a combined sample across two studies (n = 532), participants completed measures of their perceived emotional and sexual infidelity towards 10 controlled behaviors that their partners committed with the partner’s friends. the data revealed that participants were more concerned with perceived emotional infidelity with sex(es)-of-attraction friends as a function of participants’ sexual orientation, sex, and their lover’s sexual orientation. our evidence shows that when in relationships, people feel most threatened by the friend of the partner who possesses the same biological machinery as them. furthermore, results suggest that people are also more likely to be threatened by their partner’s friend, who may have a mutual attraction towards their partner. the effect of the same biological machinery and the mutual attraction on perceived infidelity is additive. the pattern is seen across heterosexual, homosexual, and bisexual relationships. keywords: infidelity, relationships, sexuality, friendship 1. introduction can two heterosexuals truly have an opposite-sex friendship if one is in a relationship and the other is single? (note 1) unfortunately, the concern embedded in this question continues to negatively affect the maintenance of heterosexual opposite-sex friendships once there is a difference in their relationship status. in such a scenario, the heterosexual opposite-sex friendship may enter a devalued state until equilibrium has been restored (e.g., the single friend becomes romantically involved or the romantically involved friend becomes single). one key mediating factor may be how long the two of them were friends prior to one of them entering into a relationship, with the expectation that long-term friends would be protected against any significant degree of devaluation. at the same time, the creation of any new friendship with a single heterosexual of the opposite sex while currently in a romantic relationship is viewed with the most suspicion. why? the traditional arguments have been that heterosexual opposite-sex friendships introduce greater attraction and romantic ambiguity than same-sex friendships do (afifi & faulkner, 2000; bleske-rechek et al., 2012), which may generate sexual tension that is emotionally taxing to negotiate, suppress, and avoid (o’meara, 1989), and may engender suspicion/jealousy in romantic partners (rawlins, 1992). overall, the primary issue appears to be that attraction, even if incidental in nature, complicates the formation and maintenance of friendships with the sex(es)of-attraction (opposite-sex friends) for heterosexuals. (note 2) the aforementioned studies excellently discuss the ‘effect’ that having opposite-sex friends has on heterosexuals, and a synopsis of literature investigating probable ‘causes’ suggests that this is primarily an interpersonal barrier that heterosexuals have needlessly created for themselves. consider that individuals of the same-sex are the sex(es)-of-attraction for lesbians and gay men and that individuals of the opposite-sex are the sex(es)-of-attraction hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 12 published by ideas spread for heterosexuals. research finds that lesbians and gay men have more same-sex friends (their sex(es)-of-attraction) than heterosexuals have opposite-sex friends (their sex(es)-of-attraction), and that heterosexuals have more samesex friends (non-attraction) than lesbians and gay men have opposite-sex friends (non-attraction) (gillespie et al., 2015). moreover, if heterosexuals’ logic of having a barrier when forming friendships with the sex(es)-ofattraction was followed to its conclusion for bisexuals (attraction to males and females), then bisexuals would be unable to form friendships with almost anyone. instead, bisexual females report more female friends than both straight men (their sex(es)-of-attraction) and straight women (non-attraction), and more male friends than both straight women (their sex(es)-of-attraction) and lesbians (non-attraction) (gillespie et al., 2015). in addition, bisexual men report more female friends than straight men (sex(es)-of-attraction), and more male friends than both straight women (sex(es)-of-attraction) and lesbians (non-attraction). this research suggests that the depreciation and suspicion of sex(es)-of-attraction friendships are not a norm of human mate selection. rather, it is simply (and sadly) a heteronorm. gender homophily in friendships, however, is normative, as individuals across sexual orientation have a greater number of same-sex friendships over time than opposite-sex friendships (galupo, 2007; gillespie et al., 2015; monsour, 2002). importantly, this norm persists for lesbians and gay men even though their same-sex friend is also their sex(es)-of-attraction (galupo, 2007; gillespie et al., 2015). to be clear, heterosexuals are more likely to befriend individuals they are not attracted to whereas lesbians and gay men are more likely to befriend individuals for whom they may feel sexual attraction. thus, while it is possible to explain why heterosexuals seem perplexed by sex(es)-of-attraction friendships, it does not validate the legitimacy of their apprehension. an evolutionary explanation for heterosexuals’ discomfort with sex(es)-of-attraction friendships may be that there is a conception risk in heterosexual opposite-sex friendships that does not exist in same-sex friendships (i.e., if a lesbian sleeps with another woman or a gay man with another man it is impossible for pregnancy to result in either scenario). the risk of a child as a result of a possible friendship may be enough of a deterrent for heterosexuals to avoid having many opposite-sex friends. it is noteworthy that straight and gay men have more female friends than straight women and lesbians have male friends, gay men have more female friends than straight men, and lesbians have more male friends than straight women (gillespie et al., 2015). such a pattern is consistent with evolutionary predictions as straight females are going to be more cautious/selective in forming close bonds with straight men than with gay men (assumed platonic dyad) and more cautious/selective in forming close bonds with straight men than lesbians would be with straight men (assumed platonic dyad). however, upon observing that bisexual women report having more male friends than straight females, the conception risk seems less substantial. taken together, heterosexuals’ interpersonal barrier towards friendships with their sex(es)-of-attraction is embarrassingly disproportionate compared to other sexual orientations. rather than taken to be an unavoidable, even if incidental, vestigial attribute of ancestral sexual selection processes, the underlying motives for heterosexuals’ derogation of such friendships should be theoretically prosecuted to the point that it is no longer accepted as a norm. moreover, to the degree that these polar-opposite reactions to sex(es)-of-attraction friendships across sexual orientation are effectively chronically accessible, implicit, and require significant self-regulatory effort to overcome, research should exhaustively consider the possibility that lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals have evolved sexual selection mechanisms that are orthogonal to those that exist for heterosexuals. clearly, issues with sex(es)-of-attraction friendships is not a mechanism shared across sexual orientation, and its absence potentially confers an adaptive advantage among lgb individuals while its presence potentially confers a disadvantage for heterosexuals. there is no reason to assume, as if by default, that sexual selection behaviors of heterosexuals are inherently more advantageous or adaptive – especially since bisexuals do, in fact, regularly raise children with one of their sexes-of-attraction (badgett et al., 2021). in this scenario, we see one of the theoretical benefits of including bisexuals when considering evolutionary motivations, as bisexuals turn sex(es)-of-attraction into a constant. that discussion is beyond the scope of the current article. rather, we consider a factor for resistance to sex(es)-ofattraction friendships which was not considered in the aforementioned lines of research: actors’ differential emotional and sexual infidelity concerns across sexual orientation based on the sexual orientation of their romantic partners’ friends. 2. jealousy social scientists have generally agreed with the assertion by daly et al. (1982) that jealousy is an emotional “state that is aroused by a perceived threat to a valued relationship or position and motivates behavior aimed at countering the threat.” moreover, solomon (2000) argued that jealousy also involves the threat of social humiliation resulting from the real (or imaginary) actions of both one’s lover and the perpetrator (or imaginary hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 13 published by ideas spread perpetrator). thus, it should come as no surprise that infidelity has been cited as the most common reason for divorce around the world (betzig, 1989). according to buss (1992), men experience more jealousy when it involves sexual rather than emotional infidelity, and women experience more jealousy when it involves emotional rather than sexual infidelity. this gender difference is believed to result from men’s desire to establish certainty in their paternity of any offspring produced within a monogamous romantic investiture, and thereby guarantee that any provisions offered to the offspring would be in the service of supporting the development of his genetic material (buss, 1992; eagly & wood, 1999; mcdonald, 2010; miller & maner, 2009; parker et al., 2022; rudman & glick, 2008). this gender difference is also influenced by women’s desire to establish certainty in the emotional investment and the receipt of resource requisitions on behalf of the offspring (buss, 1992; eagly & wood, 1999; edlund & sagarin, 2009; lishner et al., 2008; parker et al., 2022; rudman & glick, 2008). in short, both men and women experience jealousy in their romantic relationships when something of great evolutionary value is at risk: for men, the cumulative cost of an 18+ year investment of resources in unrelated offspring (in which case both the infidelity of the partner and nonrelation of the child is unknown to him); for women, having 100% maternity certainty means she would have to raise the child regardless of the loyalty of the child’s father. thus, those whose jealousy arose from valid concerns and who took action to preserve the integrity of their relationship had greater success in reproduction (miller & maner, 2009). according to bringle (1991), jealousy emerges due to the interaction between their partners and specific others, and this jealousy increases in intensity when the characteristics of the other are valued by the individual’s partner. in accord with sem theory, greater jealousy was reported when the domain of a rival's achievements was also a domain of high self-relevance to the straight women. straight women, to a greater degree than men, considered the desires of their romantic partners in identifying rivals who evoked jealousy, suggesting sex differences in the impact of relationship partners on domains of self-definition (desteno & salovey, 1996). one important display of this was found in a facebook study done on heterosexual males and females (muise et al., 2014). when viewing a photo of their spouse with a mutual or unknown friend, women reported more jealousy than men in the study. the jealousy responses to photos with mutual or unknown friends also predicted facebook search times for the spouses. women spent more time doing facebook searches on their spouses than men did. lastly, the greatest triggers of negative emotions in spouses (particularly women), included taking a photo with a physically attractive rival of the spouse or updating a relationship status to a title that is not fully reflective of complete commitment (muise et al., 2009). however, many of these studies and findings look exclusively at heterosexual individuals and do not look at differences within sexualities nor the relevance of sexuality amongst the partner’s friends. could this theory apply across gender and sexuality? with regard to emotional infidelity, lesbians, gay men, and straight women all report greater concerns with emotional infidelity, whereas straight men report greater concerns with sexual infidelity (sheets & wolfe, 2001). the question arises: will lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals’ infidelity concerns differ based on the sexual orientations of their partner’s friends? for instance, a straight man whose straight female partner is friends with a gay man? or a bisexual woman whose straight male partner is friends with a straight woman? it is noteworthy that buss’ (1992) evolutionary perspective regarding the sex difference in response to sexual versus emotional infidelity has been challenged by a social-structural perspective. harris (2000) describes a plethora of alternative accounts which detail that the gender differences we observe may not be due to different innate specific psychological mechanisms that respond to different infidelity types, but rather that emotional jealousy and sexual jealousy are due to a more general jealousy mechanism and cognitive appraisal. when one perceives there is a rival, they ascertain that someone else is either threatening a valued interpersonal relationship, reducing their self-esteem & self-image, and/or threatening their current/prospective social status. with an understanding of sex differences in infidelity, our focus shifts to possible differences varying by sexual orientation. 3. sexual orientation most infidelity research has focused on heterosexual relationships in which reproduction and changes in offspring investment would be a potential outcome of infidelity. these evolutionary mechanisms that alert individuals to reproduction-based infidelity concerns no longer apply in instances of same-sex infidelity. specifically, if a woman’s wife commits sexual infidelity with another woman, a woman’s husband commits infidelity with another man, or a man’s husband commits sexual infidelity with another man, it is impossible for pregnancy to be the outcome. how do infidelity concerns change when reproduction is no longer a possible outcome? hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 14 published by ideas spread the differences in distress over sexual versus emotional infidelity seem to be found only in heterosexuals but not amongst gays, lesbians, or bisexuals (frederick & fales, 2016). according to the double shot-hypothesis (desteno & salovey, 1996; harris, 2003), sexual and emotional infidelity are not mutually exclusive, and each sex has its own perceived belief on which type of infidelity goes with the other. socialization has influenced beliefs of concurrent infidelity where women believe men can have sexual relationships with others without emotion, however, if men have emotional relations, then sexual relations are implied (harris, 2000). men, however, may think for women to have sexual relations with another they are already emotionally involved (desteno & salovey, 1996; harris, 2003). thus, people who have female partners should be more upset and threatened than people who have male partners by sexual infidelity as it implies more of a possibility of concurring emotional infidelity. people with male partners should be more upset and threatened by emotional infidelity than people with female partners as it implies more of a possibility of concurring sexual infidelity. in line with the double-shot hypothesis, (frederick & fales, 2016) showed that heterosexual men were more likely than heterosexual women to be upset by sexual infidelity (54 vs. 35 %) and less likely than heterosexual women to be upset by emotional infidelity (46 vs. 65 %). however, for bisexual men and women, the level to which they were upset did not differ significantly if they were dating a man or a woman. however, consistent with the doubleshot hypothesis, bisexual men dating men were more likely than bisexual women dating women to be more upset by sexual infidelity. gay men and lesbian women also did not differ significantly in how upset they were about sexual infidelity, though other research has found evidence consistent with (harris, 2003) and supporting (carpenter, 2012) the double-shot hypothesis among gay men and lesbians. no research has considered sexual and emotional infidelity concerns across sexual orientation as a function of the lover’s sex and sexual orientation. the benefit of including lesbians/gays in romantic relationships research is they enable the isolation of the variable biological sex. the benefit of including bisexuals in romantic relationships research is that they can answer mate preference questions that not even lesbian/gay subjects can answer when attempting to cross-validate gender socialization/constructivist, evolutionary, and adaptationist theories that have predominantly focused on heterosexual relationships. for example, a lesbian does not have to worry about sexual infidelity between her lesbian wife and a gay male friend as there is mutual disinterest in that friendship. similarly, a heterosexual woman does not have to worry about sexual infidelity between her straight husband and a straight a male friend as there is mutual disinterest in that friendship. mutual disinterest is impossible when the lover in question is bisexual. there may be asymmetric interest (e.g., a bisexual woman may desire a male without knowing that he is gay), but mutual disinterest is functionally impossible. thus, while lg individuals allow one to isolate the variable of biological sex (something bisexuals in same-sex romantic relationships also provide), bisexuals uniquely allow for attraction to be treated as a mathematical constant. carpenter (2012) stated that “research with bisexual samples would provide an interesting test of the double-shot hypothesis given that these individuals would be predicted to respond based on their current partner rather than their own sex” (p. 34). as such, the present investigation focused on how women’s and men’s emotional and sexual infidelity concerns differ across sexuality (heterosexual, homosexual, and bisexual), as well as the sex and sexuality of their lover’s friends (i.e., potential romantic rivals). please note that two studies are reported. the first focused on emotional infidelity and the second on both emotional and sexual infidelity. as a result, there are more participants for analyses related to emotional infidelity in the combined dataset. moreover, we reported the results based on the type of infidelity (emotional then sexual) rather than as study one and study two. finally, both studies were approved by the irb board and data collection took place between 2018 and 2020. 4. methods: emotional infidelity 4.1 participants this study contained 532 undergraduate participants who attend a western university (mage = 20.6; range = 18-50; 208 males, 324 females). the ethnoracial breakdown of our sample was as follows: east asian (27.0%), south asian indian (2.0%), asian unspecified (17.4%), hispanic (21.8%), white (18.8%), multiracials (7.8%), black (2.6%), middle eastern (2.6%), and the remainder chose other or declined to answer. the sexuality composition of our sample was straight (61.7%), bisexual (28.5%), and homosexual (9.8%). participants were recruited via the sona psychology subject pool and given class credit for participation after completion (sona systems, https://www.sona-systems.com). see table 1. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 15 published by ideas spread 4.2 procedures after consenting to participate in the study, participants began the survey by filling out demographic questions and then went on to complete assessment questions regarding their perceived unfaithful behavior between their significant others and their partner’s friends. the survey lasted approximately 50 minutes and prior to receiving the survey packet, each participant filled out an informed consent form. the survey was administered in a well-lit, quiet room. students were debriefed upon completion of the survey. 4.3 measures we measured participants’ perceived degrees of emotional infidelity based on statements including specific behaviors with specific friends of their partners who vary by sex and sexuality. as infidelity can be interpreted in many ways by individuals, we were specific in the behaviors that we used to ensure no forms of sexual behavior were included. they rated differing acts of emotional infidelity using a seven-point likert scale, ‘1’ indicating the act is “not at all” perceived as emotional infidelity and ‘7’ indicating the act is “absolutely” perceived as emotional infidelity. particularly, participants' responses indicated how much they believed a particular act with a particular person constitutes infidelity, for example, their partner “sharing feelings or having emotional intimacy with a straight friend of the opposite sex” and so forth. 5. results: emotional infidelity 5.1 straight men dating straight women a repeated measures anova with emotional infidelity friendship type (emotional intimacy with a straight crosssex friend vs. straight same-sex friend vs. gay cross-sex friend vs. gay same-sex friend) as the within-subjects factor, was significant, f(3, 327) = 44.47, p < .001,  𝑝 2 = 29.0%. as expected, bonferroni post-hoc comparisons revealed that straight males reported they would be more concerned with emotional intimacy involving their straight girlfriends’ straight male friends (m = 4.08, se = .18) than with their lesbian friends (m = 2.74, se = .16), gay male friends (m = 2.66, se = .17), or straight female friends (m = 2.38, se = .17) (all ps < .001). 5.2 straight men dating bisexual women a repeated measures anova with emotional infidelity friendship type (emotional intimacy with a straight crosssex friend vs. straight same-sex friend vs. gay cross-sex friend vs. gay same-sex friend) as the within-subjects factor, was significant, f(3, 69) = 5.46, p = .002,  𝑝 2 = 19.2%. none of the bonferroni post-hoc comparisons were significant. the silver lining of this analysis was that the descriptive data reflected the theoretically anticipated pattern: straight men’s emotional infidelity concern scores were higher for their bisexual girlfriends’ straight male friends (m = 3.88, se = .37) than for her gay male friends (m = 3.17, se = .38) or lesbian friends (m = 3.3, se = .39). in addition, there was a marginal effect for emotional infidelity concern scores between straight male friends and straight female friends (m = 3.0, se = .40). 5.3 straight women dating straight men a repeated measures anova with emotional infidelity friendship type (emotional intimacy with a straight crosssex friend vs. straight same-sex friend vs. gay cross-sex friend vs. gay same-sex friend) as the within-subjects factor, was significant, f(3, 471) = 57.88, p < .001,  𝑝 2 = 26.9%. as expected, bonferroni post-hoc comparisons revealed that straight females reported they would be more concerned with emotional intimacy involving their straight boyfriends’ straight female friends (m = 4.46, se = .15) than with their gay male friends (m = 3.26, se = .16), straight male friends (m = 3.02, se = .17), or lesbian friends (m = 2.99, se = .16) (all ps < .001). 5.4 straight women dating bisexual men a repeated measures anova with emotional infidelity friendship type (emotional intimacy with a straight crosssex friend vs. straight same-sex friend vs. gay cross-sex friend vs. gay same-sex friend) as the within-subjects factor, was significant, f(3, 81) = 5.85, p = .001,  𝑝 2 = 17.8%. bonferroni post-hoc comparisons revealed partial support for dual-threat concerns for individuals with a bisexual partner. straight women reported they would be more concerned with emotional infidelity involving their bisexual boyfriends’ straight female friends (m = 4.57, se = .42) than with their lesbian friends (m = 3.57, se = .46; p = .029) or straight male friends (m = 3.46, se = .43; p = .019). we view these results as only partial support because, even though the comparison between emotional infidelity concerns for their boyfriends’ straight female friends and gay male friends (m = 4.11, se = .35) was not significant (supporting our dual-threat hypothesis), infidelity concerns for gay male friends did not differ significantly from lesbian friends or straight male friends. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 16 published by ideas spread 5.5 gay men dating gay men a repeated measures anova with emotional infidelity friendship type (emotional intimacy with a straight crosssex friend vs. straight same-sex friend vs. gay cross-sex friend vs. gay same-sex friend) as the within-subjects factor, was significant, f(3, 54) = 12.49, p < .001,  𝑝 2 = 41%. as expected, bonferroni post-hoc comparisons revealed that gay men reported they would be more concerned with emotional infidelity involving their gay boyfriends’ gay male friends (m = 4.58, se = .41) than with their straight female friends (m = 2.63; se = .43; p = .001), their lesbian friends (m = 2.53, se = .57; p = .001), or straight male friends (m = 3.21, se = .45; p = .002). 5.6 gay men dating bisexual men a repeated measures anova with emotional infidelity friendship type (emotional intimacy with a straight crosssex friend vs. straight same-sex friend vs. gay cross-sex friend vs. gay same-sex friend) as the within-subjects factor, was significant, f(3, 48) = 12.81, p < .001,  𝑝 2 = 44.5%. bonferroni post-hoc comparisons revealed partial support for dual-threat concerns for individuals with a bisexual partner. gay men reported they would be more concerned with emotional infidelity involving their bisexual boyfriends’ gay male friends (m = 4.77, se = .50) than with their lesbian friends (m = 2.59, se = .45; p = .002), straight female friends (m = 2.94, se = .54; p = .003), or straight male friends (m = 2.88, se = .54; p = . 003). we view these results as only partial support because, even though gay male friends arose as a clear infidelity threat, straight female friends did not. this may be related to research indicating that straight men are more open to dating bisexual women than straight women are to dating bisexual men. gay males may be aware of this and thus discount the threat that a straight woman may pose. 5.7 bisexual women dating straight men a repeated measures anova with emotional infidelity friendship type (emotional intimacy with a straight crosssex friend vs. straight same-sex friend vs. gay cross-sex friend vs. gay same-sex friend) as the within-subjects factor, was significant, f(3, 204) = 27.08, p < .001,  𝑝 2 = 28.5%. as expected, bonferroni post-hoc comparisons revealed that bisexual women reported they would be more concerned with emotional intimacy involving their straight boyfriends’ straight female friends (m = 4.03, se = .26) than with their gay male friends (m = 3.54, se = .25; p = .02), lesbian friends (m = 2.77, se = .23; p < .001), or straight male friends (m = 2.74, se = .24; p < .001). interestingly, bisexual women’s emotional infidelity concerns for their straight boyfriends’ gay male friends were also significantly greater than for lesbian and straight male friends (both ps < .001). given that the male partners in question are straight, bisexual women’s indication of a dual-threat concern reflects their own sexual orientation as bisexual rather than their boyfriends’ orientation as straight. this will be explored further in the discussion. 5.8 bisexual women dating bisexual men a repeated measures anova with emotional infidelity friendship type (emotional intimacy with a straight crosssex friend vs. straight same-sex friend vs. gay cross-sex friend vs. gay same-sex friend) as the within-subjects factor, was significant, f(3, 60) = 4.52, p = .006,  𝑝 2 = 18.4%. contrary to expectations, none of the bonferroni post-hoc comparisons were significant. there was, however, a marginal effect for infidelity concerns regarding their bisexual boyfriends’ straight female friends (m = 3.20, se = .44) compared to his straight male friends (m = 2.52, se = .44; p = .074). concerns regarding their gay male friends (m = 3.10, se = .44) and lesbian friends (m = 2.76, se = .44) descriptively fit expectations of a dual-threat concern for individuals with a bisexual partner. 5.9 bisexual women dating bisexual women a repeated measures anova with emotional infidelity friendship type (emotional intimacy with a straight crosssex friend vs. straight same-sex friend vs. gay cross-sex friend vs. gay same-sex friend) as the within-subjects factor, was significant, f(3, 63) = 5.68, p = .002,  𝑝 2 = 21.3%. bonferroni post-hoc comparisons revealed partial support for dual-threat concerns for individuals with a bisexual partner. bisexual women reported they would be more concerned with emotional intimacy involving their bisexual girlfriends’ lesbian friends (m = 4.23, se = .42) than with their gay male friends (m = 3.05, se = .43; p = .007) or straight female friends (m = 3.46, se = .42; p = .037). we view these results as only partial support because the comparison between emotional infidelity concerns for their girlfriends’ lesbian friends and straight male friends (m = 3.55, se = .41) does not fit expectations. 5.10 bisexual women dating lesbians a repeated measures anova with emotional infidelity friendship type (emotional intimacy with a straight crosssex friend vs. straight same-sex friend vs. gay cross-sex friend vs. gay same-sex friend) as the within-subjects factor, was significant, f(3, 21) = 6.32, p = .003,  𝑝 2 = 47.4%. bonferroni post-hoc comparisons revealed that bisexual women would be more concerned with emotional infidelity involving their lesbian girlfriends’ lesbian hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 17 published by ideas spread friends (m = 5.03, se = .68) than with their girlfriends’ gay male friends (m = 2.38, se = .71; p = .045). though no other comparison was significant, the descriptive data reflected the theoretically anticipated pattern: bisexual women’s concern scores for emotional infidelity involving their lesbian girlfriends’ lesbian friends was descriptively higher than scores for straight male friends (m = 3.0, se = .66) and straight female friends (m = 3.38, se = .82). 5.11 bisexual men dating straight women a repeated measures anova with emotional infidelity friendship type (emotional intimacy with a straight crosssex friend vs. straight same-sex friend vs. gay cross-sex friend vs. gay same-sex friend) as the within-subjects factor, was significant, f(3, 42) = 3.93, p = .015,  𝑝 2 = 21.9%. contrary to expectations, none of the bonferroni post-hoc comparisons were significant. the silver lining of this analysis was that the descriptive data reflected the theoretically anticipated pattern: bisexual men reported they would be more concerned with emotional infidelity involving their straight girlfriends’ straight male friends (m = 4.00, se = .47) than with their lesbian friends (m = 3.67, se = .49), gay male friends (m = 2.93, se = .56), or straight female friends (m = 3.13, se = .54). once again, it appears that bisexuals assumed a dual-threat of infidelity from their monosexual partner. table 1. participants’ rating of emotional infidelity based on the sex and sexuality of their lover’s friend straight same-sex friend gay same-sex friend straight opposite-sex friend gay oppositesex friend mean sd n mean sd n mean sd n mean sd n gay m & gay m 3.21 1.96 19 4.58 1.81 19 2.63 1.89 19 2.53 2.04 19 gay m & bisexual m 2.88 2.23 17 4.76 2.08 17 2.94 2.22 17 2.59 1.84 17 straight m & straight w 2.38 1.74 110 2.74 1.69 110 4.08 1.92 110 2.65 1.79 110 straight m & bi w 2.92 1.93 24 3.25 1.85 24 3.88 1.83 24 3.08 1.84 24 bi m & gay m 2.67 2.12 9 3.44 2.07 9 3.11 2.03 9 2.22 1.92 9 bi m & straight w 3.00 2.10 16 3.50 1.97 16 4.13 1.82 16 2.88 2.09 16 bi m & bi w 3.50 2.14 8 3.50 2.0 8 4.0 2.20 8 3.38 2.13 8 bi m & bi m 2.80 2.49 5 2.80 2.49 5 2.80 2.49 5 2.60 2.51 5 lesbian & lesbian 2.46 1.85 13 2.77 1.96 13 2.38 1.94 13 2.23 1.88 13 lesbian & bi w 3.40 1.82 5 5.00 0.71 5 4.80 1.79 5 3.00 2.12 5 straight w & straight m 3.00 2.13 157 3.26 1.99 157 4.46 1.88 157 2.99 1.99 157 straight w & bi m 3.46 2.19 28 4.11 1.87 28 4.57 1.91 28 3.57 1.67 28 bi w & lesbian 3.58 2.19 12 4.33 2.06 12 2.92 1.68 12 2.50 1.78 12 bi w & straight m 2.71 1.96 70 3.50 2.08 70 4.01 2.10 70 2.76 1.92 70 bi w & bi w 3.45 1.95 22 4.23 1.95 22 3.55 1.92 22 3.05 2.04 22 bi w & bi m 2.52 2.02 21 3.10 2.0 21 3.19 2.02 21 2.76 2.02 21 6. methods: sexual infidelity 6.1 participants participants were recruited via the sona psychology subject pool and given class credits for participation after completion (sona systems, https://www.sona-systems.com). this study contained 337 undergraduate participants who attend a western university (mage = 20.67; range = 18-50; 149 males, 188 females. the ethnic breakdown of our sample was as follows: east asian (43.1%), south asian indian (3.2%), hispanic (20.8%), white (18.5%), middle eastern (4.2%), multiracials (8.3%), and black (1.9%). the sexuality composition of our sample was straight (62.8%), bisexual (26.8%), and homosexual (10.4%). the remainder of the participants choose other, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 18 published by ideas spread pansexual, or otherwise did not complete the survey; their results were not used in the analysis. (note 3) see table 2. 6.2 procedures the survey was administered online through qualtrics and students signed up through sona. after consenting to participate in the study, participants began the survey by filling out demographic questions and then went on to complete assessment questions regarding their perceived unfaithful behavior between their significant others and their partner’s friends. the survey lasted approximately 50 minutes and prior to receiving the survey packet, each participant filled out an informed consent form. 6.3 measures we measured participants’ perceived degrees of sexual infidelity based on statements including specific behaviors with specific friends of their partners who vary by sex and sexuality. they rated differing acts of sexual infidelity using a seven-point likert scale, ‘1’ indicating the act is “not at all” perceived as sexual infidelity and ‘7’ indicating the act is “absolutely” perceived as sexual infidelity. particularly, participants' responses indicated how much they believed a certain act with a specific person constitutes infidelity. 7. results: sexual infidelity 7.1 straight women dating straight men a repeated measures anova with sexual infidelity friendship type (sexual infidelity with a straight cross-sex friend vs. straight same-sex friend vs. gay cross-sex friend vs. gay same-sex friend) as the within-subjects factor, was significant, f(3, 309) = 75.22, p < .001,  𝑝 2 = 42.2%. as expected, bonferroni post-hoc comparisons revealed that straight females reported they would be more concerned with sexual infidelity involving their straight boyfriends’ straight female friends (m = 5.66, se = .19) than with their gay male friends (m = 3.70, se = .22), straight male friends (m = 2.61, se = .22), or lesbian friends (m = 4.40, se = .22) (all ps < .001). it is noteworthy that sleeping with a lesbian friend would evoke more displeasure than sleeping with a gay male friend (p = .004) and sleeping with a gay male friend more displeasure than sleeping with a straight male friend (p < .001). see figure 1. figure 1. emotional & sexuality infidelity concern scores for straight women with straight men 7.2 straight men dating straight women a repeated measures anova with sexual infidelity friendship type (sexual infidelity with a straight cross-sex friend vs. straight same-sex friend vs. gay cross-sex friend vs. gay same-sex friend) as the within-subjects factor, was significant, f(3, 267) = 39.56, p < .001,  𝑝 2 = 30.8%. as expected, bonferroni post-hoc comparisons revealed that straight males reported they would be more concerned with sexual infidelity involving their straight girlfriends’ straight male friends (m = 5.18, se = .23) than with their lesbian friends (m = 3.59, se = .24), gay male friends (m = 4.00, se = .25), or straight female friends (m = 2.50, se = .21) (all ps < .001). in addition, they were least hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 19 published by ideas spread concerned about her straight same-sex friend compared to other friends (all ps < .001). it is noteworthy that sleeping with her lesbian friend would evoke more displeasure than sleeping next to her straight female friend. see figure 2. figure 2. emotional & sexuality infidelity concern scores for straight men with straight women 7.3 bisexual women dating straight men a repeated measures anova with sexual infidelity friendship type (sexual infidelity with a straight cross-sex friend vs. straight same-sex friend vs. gay cross-sex friend vs. gay same-sex friend) as the within-subjects factor, was significant, f(3, 147) = 22.45, p < .001,  𝑝 2 = 31.4%. bonferroni post-hoc comparisons revealed that bisexual females reported they would be more concerned with sexual infidelity involving their straight boyfriends’ straight female friends (m = 4.86, se = .42) than anyone else (all ps < .001). moreover, they were less concerned with their boyfriends’ straight male friends (m = 2.86, se = .28) than with a lesbian friend (m = 3.64, se = .31; p = .018) or gay male friend (m = 3.62, se = .27; p = .003). it is noteworthy that straight women dating straight men were significantly more concerned than bisexual women dating straight men about him committing sexual infidelity with a lesbian friend, f(1, 152) = 3.94, p = .049,  𝑝 2 = 2.5%. see figures 3 and 4. figure 3. emotional infidelity concern scores for straight women with bisexual men and straight men with bisexual women hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 20 published by ideas spread figure 4. emotional and sexuality infidelity concern scores for bisexual women with straight men 7.4 bisexual women dating lesbians we would like to preface the following pair of analyses by noting that they were conducted with 7 and 9 participants, respectively. a repeated measures anova with sexual infidelity friendship type (sexual infidelity with a straight cross-sex friend vs. straight same-sex friend vs. gay cross-sex friend vs. gay same-sex friend) as the within-subjects factor, was significant, f(3, 18) = 10.71, p < .001,  𝑝 2 = 64.1%. bonferroni post-hoc comparisons revealed that bisexual women reported they would be more concerned with sexual infidelity involving their lesbian girlfriends’ lesbian friends (m = 5.0, se = .66) than with their straight male friends (m = 2.14, se = .26; p = .039) or gay male friends (m = 1.86, se = .26; p = .049). interestingly, bisexual women’s emotional infidelity concerns for their lesbian girlfriends’ straight female friends (m = 3.86, se = .77) were descriptively (though not significantly) greater than for male friends. given that the female partners in question are gay, bisexual women’s apparent dual-threat concern reflects their own sexual orientation as bisexual rather than their girlfriends’ orientation as lesbian. this will be explored further in the discussion. 7.5 lesbians dating lesbians a repeated-measures anova with sexual infidelity friendship type (sexual infidelity with a straight cross-sex friend vs. straight same-sex friend vs. gay cross-sex friend vs. gay same-sex friend) as the within-subjects factor, was significant, f(3, 24) = 3.16, p = .043,  𝑝 2 = 28.3%. none of the bonferroni post-hoc comparisons were significant. the descriptive data reflected the theoretically anticipated pattern, though not as robustly as we expected: lesbians indicated they would be more concerned with sexual infidelity involving their lesbian girlfriends’ lesbian friends (m = 2.78, se = .72) than with their straight female friends (m = 2.22; se = .7), their gay male friends (m = 2.33, se = .73), or straight male friends (m = 2.44, se = .71). 7.6 bisexual men dating straight women a repeated measures anova with sexual infidelity friendship type (sexual infidelity with a straight cross-sex friend vs. straight same-sex friend vs. gay cross-sex friend vs. gay same-sex friend) as the within-subjects factor, was significant, f(3, 21) = 3.95, p = .022,  𝑝 2 = 36.1%. once again, none of the bonferroni post-hoc comparisons were significant, though the descriptive data revealed the expected pattern: bisexual men’s concern scores for sexual infidelity involving their straight girlfriends’ straight male friends (m = 4.00, se = .42) were higher than with their gay male friends (m = 2.0, se = .46; p = .074), lesbian friends (m = 3.0, se = .57), or straight female friends (m = 2.50, se = .57). see figures 5 and 6. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 21 published by ideas spread figure 5. emotional and sexuality infidelity concern scores for bisexual men with straight women figure 6. emotional infidelity concern scores for bisexual women with bisexual men and women 7.7 gay men dating gay men a repeated-measures anova with sexual infidelity friendship type (sexual infidelity with a straight cross-sex friend vs. straight same-sex friend vs. gay cross-sex friend vs. gay same-sex friend) as the within-subjects factor, was significant, f(3, 36) = 18.51, p < .001,  𝑝 2 = 60.7%. as expected, bonferroni post-hoc comparisons revealed that gay men reported they would be more concerned with sexual infidelity involving their gay boyfriends’ gay male friends (m = 5.08, se = .49) than with their straight female friends (m =1.92; se = .33; p = .002) or their lesbian friends (m = 1.77, se = .32; p = .001). they also indicated greater sexual infidelity concerns regarding their gay boyfriends’ straight male friends (m = 4.0, se = .56) than with their straight female friends (p = .048) or their lesbian friends (p = .016). there was no significant difference regarding their gay male friends and straight male friends. see figure 7. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 22 published by ideas spread figure 7. emotional and sexuality infidelity concern scores for gay men with gay men 7.8 gay men dating bisexual men a repeated measures anova with sexual infidelity friendship type (sexual infidelity with a straight cross-sex friend vs. straight same-sex friend vs. gay cross-sex friend vs. gay same-sex friend) as the within-subjects factor, was significant, f(3, 27) = 7.24, p = .001,  𝑝 2 = 44.6%. bonferroni post-hoc comparisons revealed that gay men reported they would be more concerned with sexual infidelity involving their bisexual boyfriends’ gay male friends (m = 4.60, se = .64) than with their lesbian friends (m = 2.20, se = .57; p = .031). no differences were found regarding their bisexual boyfriends’ straight male friends (m = 3.70, se = .73) or straight female friends (m = 2.90, se = .71). see figure 8. figure 8. emotional and sexuality infidelity concern scores for gay men with bisexual men hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 23 published by ideas spread table 2. participants’ ratings of sexual infidelity based on the sex and sexuality of their lover’s friend straight same-sex friend gay samesex friend straight opposite-sex friend gay opposite-sex friend mean sd n mean sd n mean sd n mean sd n gay m & gay m 4.00 2.00 13 5.08 1.75 13 1.92 1.19 13 1.77 1.17 13 gay m & bisexual m 3.70 2.31 10 4.60 2.01 10 2.90 2.23 10 2.20 1.81 10 straight m & straight w 2.50 1.94 92 3.55 2.30 92 5.14 2.14 92 3.97 2.37 92 straight m & bi w 3.11 2.15 9 3.89 2.32 9 5.11 1.97 9 3.67 2.29 9 bi m & gay m 2.75 1.71 4 4.25 2.5 4 3.50 1.92 4 1.75 0.50 4 bi m & straight w 2.78 1.72 9 3.33 1.80 9 4.33 1.50 9 2.44 1.81 9 bi m & bi w 3.14 2.04 7 4.00 2.65 7 4.57 2.44 7 3.29 1.89 7 bi m & bi m 3.50 .70 2 4.00 1.41 2 4.00 1.41 2 2.00 1.41 2 lesbian & lesbian 2.22 2.11 9 2.78 2.17 9 2.44 2.13 9 2.33 2.18 9 lesbian & bi w 3.00 2.00 5 4.80 2.17 5 4.20 2.17 5 4.00 2.35 5 straight w & straight m 2.61 2.19 104 3.70 2.23 104 5.66 1.90 104 4.40 2.27 104 bi w & lesbian 3.62 2.00 8 4.63 1.92 8 2.13 0.64 8 1.88 0.64 8 bi w & straight m 2.86 1.97 50 3.62 1.94 50 4.86 1.93 50 3.64 2.16 50 bi w & bi w 3.90 2.28 10 4.60 2.22 10 4.10 2.13 10 3.70 2.41 10 bi w & bi m 2.00 1.41 4 2.50 1.29 4 3.75 2.50 4 2.50 1.73 4 8. supplemental analyses 8.1 demographics across both studies most bisexual women are in relationships with men (hoang et al., 2011; mclean, 2004; pond, 2020; weinberg et al., 1994). in line with this, we found that most bisexual women were dating men (73.8%) & most bisexual men were dating women (68.6%), χ2(1, n = 161) = 21.51, p < .001. moreover, regarding lover sexuality preferences, bisexual women were more likely to have bisexual girlfriends (73.3%) and straight boyfriends (76.9%) whereas bisexual men were more likely to have monosexual boyfriends (54.5%) and girlfriends (65.2%), χ2(3, n = 155) = 25.15, p < .001. the lover sexuality preferences for bisexual women with female lovers (73.3% with bisexual girlfriends) may have less to do with their actual preferences than with research indicating that “lesbians have a more strongly negative impression of bisexual women than gay men do of bisexual men” (conley et al., 2014). the lover sexuality preferences for bisexual women with male lovers (76.9% with straight male boyfriends) is consistent with ess et al. (2022) finding that “bisexual women, unlike any other group, preferred to date men outside of their sexual orientation group, rating heterosexual men over bisexual men” (p. 10). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 24 published by ideas spread 8.2 dyadic outness of mixed orientation couples we considered whether or not the outness status of mixed orientation couples (whether or not they were out to parents) would influence the emotional infidelity threat that the heterosexual lover reported regarding a gay samesex rival. we only considered the heterosexual-bisexual dyads in this instance given that bisexuals with a lesbian/gay lover would already be out (as far as romantic rivals are concerned), whereas a bisexual person with a heterosexual lover may be perceived to be straight. as such, the gay same-sex rival may be less concerning for heterosexuals whose bisexual lover is in the closet. ultimately, for both straight men dating bisexual women (100% out) and straight women dating bisexual men (58.3% out), there was no difference in heterosexuals’ infidelity concerns regarding their bisexual lover’s gay same-sex friend based on their outness status mixed orientation couples. a limitation in this analysis is that the heterosexual person responded based on the level of outness from their perspective as opposed to answering specifically as to whether or not their bisexual lover had come out to their parents. this will be assessed with more specificity in future research. (note 4) 9. discussion 9.1 summary of key findings although heterosexual relationships and jealousy can be indicative of evolutionary mechanisms, the same phenomena may not be as prevalent among couples of other sexual orientations. the findings of the present study reveal key differences between men and women across sexual orientations regarding concerns about emotional and sexual fidelity as a function of their lover’s sex, sexuality, and the sex and sexual orientation of potential romantic rivals. the results from the majority of our findings were consistent with evolutionary motivation in heterosexual relationships and bisexual opposite-sex relationships (reproductive-infidelity), and consistent with the double-shot hypothesis in lesbian, gay, and bisexual same-sex relationships. 9.2 monosexual opposite-sex couples consistent with evolutionary theory, heterosexuals were most concerned with the emotional and sexual infidelity of their partners’ straight opposite sex friend; the person who poses the greatest threat to their reproductive fitness via the potential loss of resources (buss, 1992). it is interesting to note that the second-highest friend rated for concern in emotional infidelity for both men and women was the partner’s gay friend of the same sex. however, the second-highest friend rated for concern in sexual infidelity for both men and women was the partner’s gay friend of the opposite sex (a straight man with a lesbian friend or straight woman with a gay friend). it is possible due to intrasexual competition that they perceive anyone of the same sex as them to be a romantic rival, regardless of the rival’s sexual orientation. as mentioned before, straight men and women have fewer opposite-sex friendships, especially when in a mono-orientation relationship, as their partners feel threatened. since their partner has the ability to be attracted to the opposite sex (regardless of if that individual is not attracted to them gay/lesbian), it causes concern for the person dating them. in contrast, heterosexuals in mixed-orientation relationships with a bisexual lover are more likely to have opposite-sex friendships given the less heteronormative nature of such couples (jordal, 2011). 9.3 monosexual same-sex couples as predicted, gay men in relationships with gay men expressed greater sexual and emotional infidelity concerns regarding his boyfriend’s gay male friends than for anyone else. since reproduction is not a factor in homosexual relationships, the concern becomes who is the greatest threat to the stability of their dyad. moreover, no other friend could possibly pose a threat, since a gay male will have no interest in forming a long-term romantic relationship with straight or gay women, and he would not consider heterosexual male friends to be viable options. it is noteworthy, however, that they ranked their gay boyfriends’ straight male friends as the second-highest infidelity threat. we discuss this below in a section focused on several unmerited concerns. overall, the patterns of gay men’s concerns were similar to that of heterosexuals in that the person who is most likely to attract their partner’s attention, the friend who is of the same sexuality as the partner, was the friend who garnered the most concern. unfortunately, our lesbian sample was not large enough to conduct similar analyses; an issue we discuss at greater length in the limitations section. 9.4 bisexual infidelity concerns the most noteworthy findings are those associated with mixed-orientation and bisexual-bisexual couples. specifically, the interaction of perceived infidelity among bisexuals and monosexuals with bisexual partners. our original hypothesis was that individuals dating bisexuals would be equally concerned with their partner’s opposite hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 25 published by ideas spread sex straight and same-sex gay friends. the infidelity concern patterns within several mixed-orientation couples were unquestionably the most puzzling. specifically, bisexual participants seemed to impute a dual-threat possibility upon their monosexual partners (e.g., bisexual women with straight men concerned about their gay male friend, bisexual men with straight women concerned about their lesbian friend), and monosexuals (especially males) seemed to appraise same-sex threats as more relevant than their bisexual partner’s opposite sex options (straight men with bisexual women only seemed concerned about her straight male friend and discounted her lesbian friend, and gay men dating bisexual men completely discounted his straight female friend). this pattern is potentially an incidental replication and extension of research positing that the actor’s point of view plays the dominant role (howard & perilloux, 2017). thus, this study potentially extends their theory to questions of sexual orientation, even in mixed-orientation couples. put simply, bisexuals may be more likely to assume a dual-threat of infidelity regardless of their partner’s sexuality, and monosexuals may be more likely to assume a single prominent threat even if they are dating someone bisexual. alternatively, straight men’s greater concern with a bisexual girlfriend’s straight male friend is consistent with research indicating that straight men are more concerned about reproductive-infidelity than sexual infidelity with another woman (confer & cloud, 2011; hughes et al., 2004; wiederman & lamar, 1998). indeed, “men presented with a same-sex rival were two times less likely” to be distressed about sexual infidelity as straight men whose lover committed sexual infidelity with another man (voracek et al., 2021). the general explanation for this is that his lover’s infidelity with another woman potentially increases his access to another reproductive partner, thus facilitating evolutionary motivations. another explanation, one that also seeks to explain why straight men are more open than straight women are to bisexual lovers (gleason et al., 2018; matsick & rubin, 2018), is that a bisexual lover reduces straight men’s paternal uncertainty (apostolou et al., 2017). in the most basic sense, if a bisexual woman is equally as likely to commit sexual infidelity with another woman as she is with a man, whereas a heterosexual woman is only going to commit sexual infidelity with another man, then a lover with same-sex attractions significantly reduces men’s concern that they are providing for offspring that they are genetically unrelated to. given that women are always sure about the maternal certainty (they are sure that they are the mother of the child they gave birth to), relationships with bisexual men would not provide the same adaptive benefit to women. this difference may partially explain why “heterosexual women demonstrate more negative attitudes toward bisexual men than heterosexual men do toward bisexual women” (gleason et al., 2018, p. 528). for bisexual women with bisexual men, the globally lower than usual infidelity concern scores may reflect an assumption that bisexual men are not as desired by straight women for them to be a threat, and perhaps are not as desired by gay men. in contrast, bisexual women with bisexual women feel lesbians are a far greater threat than straight men are (given that straight men are roughly equal to straight women, which may just indicate that they are a non-threat, or that bisexual women are projecting themselves onto straight women), and a far greater emotional infidelity threat than gay men are for bisexual women dating bisexual men. these results may be one of the rare cases where someone is perceiving that women would be a greater mate poaching threat than men (in this case gay men) in the corresponding relationship dyad. a major consistent finding is that bisexuals' sexual infidelity scores for the primary threat are significantly lower (p < .05) than for heterosexuals dating the same person. this is particularly ironic given the misperception that bisexuals are unfaithful (i.e., they are attracted to more people therefore their options to cheat increase). with heterosexuals there is an apparent lack of logical processing when it comes to infidelity concerns, however, bisexuals seem to more accurately take into account the sexuality of their partners' friends. for example, bisexual men perceive the gay male friend as roughly half as concerning as straight men do when dating straight women. similarly, bisexual women with straight men did not see their lesbian friend as much of a threat in the way straight women dating straight men perceived them. this is not a sex difference with bisexuals. this is a sexuality difference where bisexuals are more accurate at perception and understanding the meaning of sexuality than heterosexuals. perhaps it reflects heterosexuals' lack of understanding sexuality. alternatively, bisexuals may be more accurate given that they are more likely to be in mixed-orientation relationships than monosexual individuals (buxton, 2004; gates, 2011; goldberg & gartrell, 2014; legerski et al., 2017; power et al., 2012). the finding for bisexual women with a bisexual woman is particularly important, because it suggests that the risk assessment regarding emotional infidelity is not solely concerned about reproduction as an outcome of infidelity. if that was the case, then they would only show a concern for straight men (who her girlfriend could have a child with) & not lesbian threats (a child would not be a possible outcome of sex). if anything, they are simultaneously concerned with the reproductive threat and a self-referential threat posed by their partner cheating on them with someone possessing the same biological machinery. that is, if her partner leaves her for a man, they have different machinery so there is less of a direct blow to the self. however, if she cheats on her with another woman, someone hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 26 published by ideas spread possessing the same machinery, that may lead to a decrease in perceived self-worth. it is not as easy to decouple reproduction and machinery in analyses with monosexual individuals, but bisexuals untie the theoretical knot. furthermore, several of the patterns with mixed-orientation couples were partner-sex specific, regardless of individuals’ sexual orientation. for example, straight/bisexual men with a bisexual girlfriend were most concerned about her emotional intimacy with a straight male friend (reproduction possible), but lesbians/bisexual women with a bisexual girlfriend were most concerned about her emotional intimacy with a lesbian friend (reproduction not possible). (note 5) thus, in these instances, it was the sex of the actor that influenced their infidelity concerns with a bisexual partner, whereas the actor’s sexual orientation was rendered irrelevant. 9.5 unmerited concerns there were several instances in which participants reported an infidelity threat from an impossible rival. granted, the unmerited concerns of these rivals never surpassed the functionally plausible rivals, but they should not have differed from the other implausible rivals. for example, the threat that a straight male friend poses to the bond of two gay men is no different from the threat that women (whether gay or straight) pose to their relationship. as such, infidelity threat concerns should be equal for female friends and straight male friends. similarly, the threat that lesbian friends pose to the bonds of straight men & straight women should not differ from the threat posed by her gay male friends or straight female friends. even if a lesbian friend had an interest in his girlfriend, if his girlfriend is straight then the lesbian friend’s interest is irrelevant. thus, the finding that straight males reported greater sexual infidelity concerns in regard to their straight girlfriends’ lesbian friends than her straight female friends suggest they may perceive the lesbian friend is getting something out of it. that is, they may perceive the lesbian friend as extracting some latent relational resource when sleeping next to his straight girlfriend that would not be extracted by gay men or straight women. similarly, with straight women dating straight men, the same concern arose in which straight women reported greater sexual infidelity concerns with their boyfriend’s gay male friends than their straight male friends, indicating they may believe the gay friend is receiving some sort of romantic capital in the friendship. alternatively, this may be related to research finding that straight women are more concerned about and treat samesex infidelity with more severity than straight men. indeed, franks (2015) stated that "the fact that women became more concerned with sexual infidelity when their partner cheated with a man indicates a negative reaction to a male partner’s bisexuality" (p. 348). indeed, several studies have found that straight women are more distressed by their boyfriend committing sexual infidelity with a man than with a woman (apostolou, 2019; confer & cloud, 2011; sagarin et al., 2003; voracek et al., 2021; wiederman & lamar, 1998). one way to make sense of this is to consider two seemingly unrelated factors: first, the prediction of evolutionary theory that women’s concern regarding infidelity is associated with the loss of provisions afforded by the relationship; and second, the greater societal stigma against gay and bisexual men relative to lesbians and bisexual women. the lower societal support for gay and bisexual men may create the perception that a man who leaves a heterosexual-presenting relationship (privileged status) and seeks one with another man must truly want a male lover (given all the societal pressure against him and loss of privileges afforded by heteronormativity). taken together, a woman who learns of her boyfriend’s same-sex affair may feel at greater risk of losing resources of evolutionary value than a woman who learns of her boyfriend’s opposite-sex affair, in which case it may have only been a one-time thing and poses no ongoing threat to his desire to continue their relationship. oddly, gay men dating bisexual men rated their boyfriend’s straight male friends (implausible infidelity risk) as a higher infidelity concern than their straight female friends (plausible infidelity risk). this unmerited concern for their straight male friends over straight female friends may reflect the biphobic beliefs associated with bisexual men. it is possible that when dating a bisexual man, their partners may not believe they are bisexual, but rather in denial of their homosexuality, and therefore perceive them to be interested in men more than women. . regardless, the concern is unwarranted as straight male friends are an implausible rival, as they would have no romantic interest in the bisexual friend. 9.6 limitations a key limitation of our study was the lack of lesbian participants we were able to survey. the majority of our participants were collected through sona, a ucsd psychology tool only accessible to ucsd students where only a small population of students identify as lesbian. an insufficient sample of lesbian participants prohibits a more informative interpretation of lesbians’ infidelity concerns in romantic relationships. also, our operationalizing of emotional and sexual infidelity contexts was far from exhaustive. we used straightforward scenarios presented to the participants and differentiated them by sexual orientation across their hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 27 published by ideas spread partner’s friend, which may produce biased results as the participant may have known what we were trying to predict. further, the scenarios we did use were ones we created ourselves, rather than using an already validated measure of infidelity. some of the scenarios may not have been as distressing to participants enough to produce the emotions of jealousy that would cause them to have a different response to the array of sexual orientations. though it is also the case that the distress of various scenarios may differ as a function of sex, sexuality, and gender. further, we did not address the feelings or concerns about an individual partner’s bisexual friends but focused mainly on their monosexual (straight, gay, and lesbian) friends. by not including bisexuals in the variety of friends assessed as potential rivals, the perception of concern may have been different, or the level of concern based on the different partner’s friends could have been lessened or increased. more research with the full spectrum of sexualities for comparison is needed to give more accurate depictions of infidelity concerns amongst sexual orientations and sexes. for instance, asexual individuals generally do not experience sexual attraction or desire for sexual intercourse (bogaert, 2004; brotto & yule, 2017), and most asexuals are in relationships with non-asexual individuals (weis et al., 2021). investigating asexuals’ perceptions of and reactions to emotional and sexual infidelity would enrich our understanding of the relevance of courtship, monogamy, commitment, intimacy, affectionate behavior (e.g., holding hands, kissing; gulledge et al., 2004), and love within relationships in which those attributes are not an outcome of sexual attraction or reducible to sexual intercourse. another limitation of our study is that we did not ask women participants whether they were on birth control. altered levels of hormones have been shown to affect women’s preferences, choices, and behaviors. roberts et al. (2012) found that women using oral contraceptives when they met their partner reported lower levels of sexual satisfaction with him, as well as lower levels of satisfaction with the relationship overall. the effect of birth control may have changed the women’s feelings towards their partners or thoughts of their partners while they answered the survey questions making their responses possibly skewed toward less positive responses. in addition, we did not assess individuals’ romantic orientation, which may provide more insight into the patterns found for bisexuals. for instance, while over 90% of heterosexuals identify as heteromantic and over 80% of homosexuals identify as homoromantic, only about 60% of bisexuals identify as biromantic (clark & zimmerman, 2022). indeed, concordance between sexual orientation and romantic orientation is low for bisexuals and highest for heterosexuals (clark & zimmerman, 2022; lund et al., 2016). this may be relevant as a bisexual woman who identifies as homoromantic (romantic orientation) heterosexual (sexual orientation) may be more concerned with a straight boyfriend committing sexual infidelity than emotional infidelity, whereas a biromantic bisexual woman may be equally concerned about emotional and sexual infidelity. finally, we did not ask participants how fluid they perceived their sexuality to be, or the degree to which they may have reported they were questioning. for example, an individual who participates in a study of this nature at the age of 18 may report that they are straight, and then report that they identify as bisexual at the age of 22. this could perhaps be ameliorated to a degree by asking participants the age at which they were aware of their sexuality (e.g., at what age did you start to feel like you were straight? are you sure you are straight? maybe you have not found the right same-sex lover yet). similarly, we assessed participants based on their sex and sexuality, but did not collect data regarding their gender. individuals’ gender and expression of their identity may provide additional insights into their perceptions of infidelity (e.g., androgynous lesbian woman with a feminine bisexual girlfriend considering the infidelity risk of a genderfluid romantic rival). 9.7 concluding comments future research into differences in infidelity concerns amongst heterosexual, homosexual, and bisexual relationships should explore the nuances of each type of relationship as it relates to societal norms and socialization. an interesting point of study would be to explore the interaction between unique relationship dynamics and the lack of societal norms for homosexual and bisexual individuals, due to long-standing prejudice and discrimination against them. since historically they have been underrepresented in mainstream media, discussions, and societal benefits, these dyads have fewer models and pressures of what is considered a “normal” relationship and the facets that go along with it. for instance, bisexuals are more likely than monosexuals to be in polyamorous relationships (balzarini et al., 2018; haupert et al., 2017). in addition, some mixed-orientation couples practice gendered monogamy, in which the bisexual spouse may engage in non-monogamy with people of the opposite-sex of their lover (a bisexual man with a wife could be with other men but not women) (pallotta-chiarolli, 2014). our study focused mainly on the out of dyad rival across sexuality and sex, and the differences between them, rather than the degree to which infidelity itself bothered each sexuality. research addressing the idiosyncratic differences in perceptions of infidelity to each sexuality, as well as non-heteronormative forms of commitment such as hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 28 published by ideas spread polyamory and gendered monogamy, should be explored. further, the determination of the sex differences in infidelity should continually be addressed as there are many confounding theories and reasonings as to why they persist. acknowledgements we would like to thank gareth disler, laureen khalil, & zhiying wang for their support at different points of this project. link to supplementary figures: https://osf.io/3bfge/?view_only=304650806a9648cb8ae95a37c0374020 references afifi, w. a., & faulkner, s. l. 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(1998). “not with him you don’t!”: gender and emotional reactions to sexual infidelity during courtship. the journal of sex research, 35, 288–297. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499809551945 notes note 1. all content related to sex and gender in this article is focused on ciswomen and cismen. note 2. stated as sexes-of-attraction to avoid giving the presumption that only monosexual attraction exists. note 3. it is noteworthy that relationships comprised of a least one bisexual member (calculated by considering both the respondents’ sexuality and the sexuality they reported for their lover) were significantly more likely to be interracial than monosexuals’ dyads. however, among mono-orientation dyads that were bisexual-bisexual, only opposite sex dyads were interracial whereas same-sex bisexual dyads were equally monoracial and interracial. overall, heterosexuals’ mono-orientation dyads were disproportionately monoracial. note 4. there was also a trend in which bisexual women with straight boyfriends who indicated being out seemed less concerned about him committing infidelity with a straight female friend. we hypothesize that a heterosexual lover coming out to their parents as being in a mixed orientation relationship signals commitment to the bisexual lover, thus reducing infidelity concerns. this will be borne out in future research. note 5. though the mixed-orientation lesbian-bisexual same-sex couples (n = 5) and mono-orientation oppositesex bisexual couples (n = 8) infidelity concern results were descriptively in the theoretical direction, the sample sizes of those dyads were too small to reach significance. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 32 published by ideas spread copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). microsoft word p1-11 humanities and social science research; vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v4n4p1 1 published by ideas spread a psychological reading of husband-wife relationship in death of a salesman xiaochang1 & taehyung kim1 1 kunsan national university, korea correspondence: taehyung kim, kunsan national university, korea. tel: 82-63-469-4327. e-mail: feste11 hotmail.com, thkim11 kunsan.ac.kr received: september 30, 2021; accepted: october 23, 2021; published: october 24, 2021 abstract death of a salesman written by arthur miller premiered in 1949 to critical acclaim and commercial success. scholars have been paying attention to research on the female characters, the protagonist from the psychological perspective and father-son relationship, none of these works deals with the husband-wife relationship in death of a salesman from a psychological aspect.the paper will examine the family competences of linda and willy, dissecting the husband-wife relationship combing the psychological motivation. in the first section, through psychological rejuvenation, linda embodies a natural force of vigor that infuses in willy the power of warmth. in the psychological interpretation of death of a salesman, the relationship between willy and linda formed a sharp contrast between psychological pressure and purifying salvation. willy suffered from relational anxiety, fearful stress, repressive daily, the loss of body, which brought disaster to his wife, linda, his sons, biff and happy. for this reason, the play arranged a comforting character, his wife, linda, to contrast the relationship between the couple. concerning the suppressive daily, willy’s stubborn personality is linked with frustration and depression in pursuing fantasy; his wife, linda, gives him warm comfort for his empty dreams with her kindness, love, and above all, intelligence. in the case of his sons, biff and happy, especially biff, on whom willy places high expectations, linda saved willy from the relational tension through her pure nature when the sons frustrate willy; linda supports willy and solves the arguments between willy and sons to ease the tension. when willy is faced with an unbearable blow from his job, linda gives him advice on how to solve problems, such as when willy loses his job, and the wife advises him to understand the boss and how to deal with the problem. the loneness from family and work also leads willy to have affairs with an unknown woman; linda tolerates everything and invisibly reminds willy. it can be said that the relationship between the wife and her husband is a relationship of dependency, the wife attached to her husband in life and emotion. keywords: husband-wife relationship, death of a salesman, psychology, attachment introduction death of a salesman premiered in 1949 to critical acclaim and commercial success. the triumph of the work stems from how it depicts the social defects of capitalism and reflects the difficult life of a lower-class salesman living in the united states at that time, and how it directed the public’s attention towards the reality of life for the lower classes. death of a salesman has been honored with the pulitzer prize, the tony award for best author, and the new york drama circle critics’ award, confirming arthur miller as an international figure in literary circles. neil carson claims that willy loman, the protagonist of death of a salesman, is a “universal symbol made real by hundreds of minutely observed details of speech, manner and psychology”(45), and consideration of willy’s personal life “has led many critics to approach the play as a psychological drama with strong freudian colouring” (neil carson 49), one which particularly focuses on father-son conflicts. carson suggests that death of a salesman can be studied from a psychological perspective. scholars have been inclined to explore the latent causes behind willy’s psychological breakdown. as judith wellek proposes, the “self-psychology principle” (213) is thought to govern one’s deficits, shame, and probability of self-restoration, asserting that the conditions of birth and upbringing influence the maintenance of psychological equilibrium, and that guilt is a consequence of those conditions. his increasing consciousness of the shame that he bore finally brought about loman’s suicide. wellek studies willy’s mental and emotional state from a psychological perspective, emphasizing the psychological causes behind willy’s suicide (213). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 2 published by ideas spread american literary critic j. hillis miller put forward the literary interpretation theory, from the psychological, social, and linguistic perspectives. he specifically emphasizes that “psychological explanations tend to see linguistic, religious, or social explanations as ultimately finding their cause in individual human psychology” (22). it is fascinating that the relationship between linda and willy can be regarded as a psychological game. willy is a salesman at the bottom of the heap, doing precarious and low-paid work under a prolonged obsession with the american dream. in such an average family, willy, the central figure and the salesman of the title, has to rely on his low income to support his family of a wife and two sons, which to many people may seem inconceivable. faced with a difficult life, willy does not give up on his dream; his wish is to be linked with the ideology of bringing happiness to his family through his efforts, and he has placed high hopes on his children. it is also apparent that willy, who is under a great deal of pressure, has the hope to keep living, and his reasons to continue lie in his traditional and understanding wife, linda, and in his grand expectations for his sons. linda is “unconsciously motivated by a desire to maintain protective control over her husband ... [and she] suggests this control in her remark that she knows every thought in his mind” (flanagan 131).this makes her an enigmatic character in the play, one good at observing her husband’s states, grasping his mood, and understanding his needs, so she can take effective measures to help him understand the situation, mitigate his anxiety, and guide him in an invisible manner, which is all tied up in linda’s ability to empathize with willy and “read his mind”. miller embarks on the journey of rejuvenation in death of a salesman through linda, who never abandons willy, using her understanding, gentleness, and wisdom to resolve conflicts when faced with willy’s sorrow of work pressure, emotional anxiety, and physical infirmity. regarding the relationship between husband and wife, lily r. gulrajani is perhaps one of the few scholars studying marital relationships. she discusses in the family in the plays how willy is a “physically and mentally exhausted” (33) individual, disappointed with his relationships with his sons. willy does his best to conceal this from linda but linda is not deceived, instead, she always pretends to save her husband’s dignity (33). gulrajani’s research into the husband-wife relationship has gained ground in psychology, which has inspired me to further analyze linda’s efforts to maintain her husband. as for the theory for conjugal relationship, hampson & beavers (1993, 74) define family competence as the ability to finish “the necessary tasks of organizing and managing itself” in a family. family competence includes a family’s ability to communicate, cooperate, negotiate, position clear roles and goals, solve problems, take responsibility and so on (beavers & hampson, 1990; hampson & beavers, 1993, 1996).family competence determines the familial relationship, including that between husband and wife. accordingly, it is essential to assess family competence. the paper will examine the family competences of linda and willy, dissecting the husband-wife relationship combing the psychological motivation. thus, i intend to examine the family problems that arise in daily lives and work in an attempt to understand the psychological issues associated with the play, further exploring the characters’ personalities, problem-solving skills and husband-wife roles in the family, with a focus on factors that have influence over marital satisfaction. in the first section, through psychological rejuvenation, linda embodies a natural force of vigor that infuses in willy the power of warmth. 1. repressive daily life vs. warm comfort the repressive life serves as an impetus behind changing one’s life habits, attitudes, and behavior. in this case, willy’s desire to provide his wife with a comfortable life has been shattered by his inability to make his dream come true. he has overestimated his abilities, thus his failure to make a fortune has frustrated him, leading to his rude and sour attitude towards his wife. through the lines between linda and willy, it is clear to find willy’s rude and sour attitude in repressive daily life. in act 1, linda asks willy solicitously about the trip experience by asking “what happened? did something happen, willy?” (12; act1), willy responds in annoyance, “i said nothing happened. didn’t you hear me?” (13; act1). his impatience shows his disrespect to his wife, who is still consistently giving him support and tolerance. as their sons biff and happy talk about their plan of playing ball, linda encourages them, “maybe things are beginning to [change]” (64; act1). willy feels annoyed by linda’s behavior and scolds her for interrupting their conversation by shouting “stop interrupting” (64; act1), “will you stop” (64; act1)，“will you let me talk” (65; act1). he even gets angry and curses at his wife, “god-dammit”(65; act1), regardless of her feelings. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 3 published by ideas spread confronted with her husband’s anger for no reason, linda keeps silent all the time. linda’s silence doesn’t mean she won’t respond. she loves willy so much that she wants her reply to remind her husband in a gentle way, such as silence, and serve to help her husband. when willy comes back home, linda cares for her husband with words of concern, for instance, “where were you all day? you look terrible” (14; act1), “you’ll just have to take a rest, willy, you can’t continue this way” (14; act1). not only does linda care about willy’s emotional well-being at work, but she also takes good care of him in her daily life, “taking the jacket from him” (14; act1), “take an aspirin. should i get you an aspirin? it’ll soothe you” (14; act1), “i’ll make you a sandwich” (15; act1). through her words and behavior, linda provides warmth to her husband. the reason why linda can provide warmth to her husband is because of her intelligence to help her husband in keeping a balance between life and work. focusing intensely on linda’s intelligence, i reveal several clues that can support the argument of linda’s wisdom. when father and sons disagree with each other, and willy feels hurt inside, linda tries to persuade husband not to worry about sons too much and ease his mind by saying, “he’ll find his way” (18). as an ancient chinese saying goes, each one of your sons and your grandsons must find his way as he ought. this kind of instruction is great wisdom of life, and perhaps excessive attention will cause the opposite effect, so let nature take its course. miller relates that the second indication of linda’s intelligence was one firmly founded on linda’s intrinsic prescience that willy would brag about making money—she understands willy’s nature under any circumstances. willy: i did five hundred gross in providence and seven hundred gross in boston. linda: no! wait a minute, i’ve got a pencil. she pulls pencil and paper out of her apron pocket. that makes your commission… two hundredmy god! two hundred and twelve dollars! willy: well, i didn’t figure it yet, but… linda: how much did you do? willy: well, i-i didabout a hundred and eighty gross in providence. well, no-itcame to-roughly two hundred gross on the whole trip. linda, without hesitation: two hundred gross. that’s … she figures. (35; act1) willy is deceiving her that the bill is more than 200 gross. however, when examined closely, miller’s motives regarding willy’s trickery seem decidedly at odds with his actual situation that the bill is only 180 gross, close to 200 gross, instead of 200. additionally, willy is ready to betray his conscience and professes that he could support providing more money. linda pretends to believe willy and takes out the pen from the apron pocket to write the figure, saying in surprise “that makes your commission…two hundred—my god! two hundred and twelve dollars!” (35; act1). then she immediately brings willy back to life by stating how much money he needs to buy a refrigerator at home, which is refused immediately by stingy willy. it seems that miller purposefully describe linda’s wisdom of seeing through her husband’s lies, and bringing her husband back to reality, specifically designed to divert attention from helping him understand the situation correctly and, therefore, avoiding unrealistic boasts. it is noteworthy that miller was redirecting the publicity surrounding willy’s appearance before he feels an objection to the payment for the “washing machine” (36; act1), “vacuum cleaner” (36; act1), “roof” (36; act1). in order to prevent her husband from overly boasting and complacent, linda reminds him that there is still a lot to spend in the family. whatever his intention, arthur miller admits linda’s great emotional intelligence from teaching willy to be an honest true man. so far, linda is depicted as an endless instructor for willy, asserting that willy has to pay for the chevrolet by saying, “well, you owe him three and a half” (36; act1). willy is reluctant to pay for the chevrolet. he hesitates for fear that the business may fail to live up to his expectations and he would be laughed at by saying “a hundred and twenty dollars! my god, if business don’t pick up i don’t know what i’m gonna do!” (36; act1); as such, linda is pacifying to willy, claiming that “next week you’ll do better” (36; act1) and comforting him by saying, “why? why would they laugh at you? don’t talk that way, willy” (36; act1). interestingly, miller provides the third proof of linda’s intelligence and keen insight, and he does so in a way that establishes a direct connection to linda’s ability to sense her husband’s emotional state. biff, at the peak of his fury: pop, i’m nothing! i’m nothing, pop. can’t you understand that? there’s no spite in it any more. i’m just what i am, that’s all. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 4 published by ideas spread biff’s fury has spent itself, and he breaks down, sobbing, holding on to willy, who dumbly fumbles for biff’s face. willy, astonished: what’re you doing? what’re you doing? to linda: why is he crying? … linda: he loves you, willy! … willy: oh, biff! staring wildly: he cried! cried to me. he is choking with his love, and now cries out his promise: that boythat boy is going to bemagnificent! … linda, sensing the racing of his mind, fearfully, carefully: now come to bed. willy. it’s all settled now.(133; act2) as in act 2, linda understands that willy wants her son to admire him. when a father-son conflict arises, linda resolves the father-son conflict by telling willy that his son is crying because he loves his father willy. so linda cautiously and sacredly persuaded willy to go back to the room and rest. there is a scene in act 2, “linda, sensing the racing of his mind, fearfully, carefully (133; act2)”, which showcases that linda’s abilities of reading willy’s minds and reassuring willy’s worries were used by miller to set the conflict between willy and his sons regarding her perception after she found willy has changed his mind. from this standpoint, in miller’s literature, linda is primarily configured to a submissive, considerate, intelligent figure. this couple loves each other deeply. to linda, willy is the hope of her life. although willy also loves his wife very much, his bad temper prevents him from treating linda respectfully. it is linda taking care of willy so much that has made him be good for nothing, and even he can’t perform daily work successfully in the repressive life without linda’s warm comforting words. 2. fearful pressure vs. emotional soothing miller adds to the description of linda’s healthy disposition while willy works out of his weak heart and mind. willy suffers from a fearful financial burden, and he has to work day and night to support his family and pay off loans. willy’s work pressure comes from two aspects: social anxiety and psychological stress. he is a man full of fantasy; on the one hand, he intends to change the status quo of his family through his efforts and achieve a successful life. on the other hand, the personality defects like blind arrogance and his fear of losing face cannot get him out of the plight of reality, and, accordingly, his failure is inevitable. linda, a traditional wife, is dependent on willy because she doesn’t have a job. she understands willy’s struggles and cares about his work. but all she can do is to give him verbal attention and advice about work. in arthur miller’s description of economic insecurity, the dramatist depicts the economic inequality and competitive capitalist system in postwar society. in the late nineteenth century, the speech of “acres of diamonds” made by russell conwell emphasizes in 1986 that everyone has to get rich and urges people to pursue success in the business world (carol barber 3). in the beginning and middle twentieth century, most families are units that live for a better life. death of a salesman resonates with the society at that time, which is an essential reason for willy’s financial failure. working for a lifetime as a salesman for the howard family company, willy is fired by howard with a self-serving and cold-blooded look, which drives him over the edge and shatters his long-held belief that if you work hard, you can succeed. linda is a wife with a healthy personality and a gentle disposition. confronted with willy’s failure at work, linda is always there for him, comforting him and giving him advice. when willy loses confidence and says “i’m fat. i’m very foolish to look at, linda” (37; act1), “i won’t take that. i simply will not take that. but they do laugh at me. i know that” (37; act1), linda stays with him and consoles him. willy’s lack of confidence is reflected in his fear of being stupid and being laughed at. whereas when he says, “i gotta overcome it” (37; act1), it reflects that he has not reconciled change, and there is a willingness to struggle with reality. under such conditions, linda can do nothing but to comfort and encourage him; “willy, darling, you’re the handsomest man in the world” (37; act1). his assertions of self-confidence and boasting at random unveil his self-doubts and uncertainty. “you know, the trouble is, linda, people don’t seem to take to me … i know it when i walk in. they seem to laugh at me” (36; act1). even confronting financial crisis and unemployment, willy’s self-inferiority leads him to lack confidence in himself in the face of a successful businessman, charley, and he pretends to be strong on the surface. linda, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 5 published by ideas spread who understands everything about willy, affirmed her husband by complimenting him as “the handsomest man in the world” (37; act1) and by acclaiming to him that “few men are idolized by their children the way you are” (37; act1).in addition to comforting him, linda makes excuses for willy. in the last scene of act 1, she makes excuses for him by explaining that willy did not attempt to hurt her but wanted to be superior to somebody(chavkin and chavkin31)(note 1). however, no matter how much linda advised willy at work, willy always seemed to stick to his own set of principles, as he was interested in saving face. linda suggests willy ask his boss, the junior wagner, for help to find stable office work in new york. nevertheless, willy refused to do so because he doesn’t want to lose his face and is very assertive about his job of a valuable salesman. manocchio in families under stress wrote about willy’s feelings under the pressure of losing his job: when this happens to a man he must not only face himself but also his family. when a man is like willy and a job is the central part of his life, this must be doubly horrifying because his degradation is so much more complete. and under the circumstances, the whole family becomes the victim. (135) linda is a wife with healthy morals and a sunny attitude toward life. willy is opinionated and stubborn at work, he’s self-conscious, and he has unrealistic dreams. linda is there for willy, to comfort and encourage him when he shows signs of depression at work. when willy is too embarrassed to plead with his boss and is ready to give up, linda is there to help her husband. in terms of work, it can be said that linda influences her husband through her healthy instincts. 3. relational anxiety vs. purifying salvation a deeper exploration of willy’s psychology will urge us to seek a third interpretation of his relational anxiety. willy himself has suffered emotional pain since childhood. his experience of love loss when his father abandoned his family left an indelible mark in his inner heart. he still can’t forget the painful memories. in order to enable his children not to replicate his childhood abandonment, willy did his best to create conditions under which children can study, and still dreams about being a wealthy man, as his brother expected. in the play, there is a clue that can demonstrate the point; “well, dad left when i was such a baby, and i never had a chance to talk to him, and i still feel—kind of temporary about myself” (51; act1). the sentence “never had a chance to talk to him” expresses his nostalgia for his father and his regret for his unhappy childhood. when willy utters his “kind of temporary (51; act1)” feeling about himself, he expresses his inner despair and helplessness. according to freud’s psychology, the repressed experiences of childhood explode like landmines at the right time(lewis45)(note 2). willy’s unhappy childhood experience motivates him to create his son’s lifechanging opportunities through his struggles in social life. however, his two sons, biff and happy, devastate his dreams, as they are reluctant to achieve his goal of pursuing a prosperous future. the tension of the father-son relationship in the loman family can be reflected in willy’s treatment of his two sons, respectively. although biff shows both his own self-esteem and respect for his father, the fact that he is not as ambitious as his father expected, has no direction toward life, and is unable to keep any job for very long, demonstrates that contradiction might exist in the father-son relationship. willy questions biff, “you don’t want to be anything, is that what’s behind it?”(112; act2). biff argues, “don’t take it that way! you think it was easy walking into that office after what i’d done to him? a team of horses couldn’t have dragged me back to bill oliver!” (113; act2). the lost biff steals the former employer oliver’s pen because he never thought of being a salesman for oliver and tries to hide the facts of what happened in oliver’s office. after willy discovers that biff’s business dream turns out to be stealing the pen from his former boss, he feels frustrated and loses confidence in biff. finally losing control of his emotions, and unable to accept the fact that his son, biff, who was expected to be the excellent, would fail senior-year math and commit such an immoral act of stealing oliver’s pen, willy bursts out hysterically, “don’t blame everything on me! i didn’t flunk math—you did! what pen”(110; act2). the most essential reason for their relational failure is that when biff discovers willy’s affair with another woman, the great image of his father collapses. biff is emotionally unable to accept the fact that his father is cheating, and willy is also left with a heavy sense of shame. the relationship between biff and willy has become negative mainly because of willy’s agitated character and dominant behavior; what’s more, willy is a man without a mind of his own and without a proper understanding of the situation, whose love for his sons is out of balance, which causes the failure in father-sons relationship. willy takes it for granted that it could be easier for his son biff to be successful and is displeased at biff’s conduct of wasting time on the farm. at the beginning of the conversation in act 1, willy labels biff “a lazy bum” (16; act1); later, willy changed his description by depicting biff as a “hard worker” (16; act1), which can demonstrate willy’s contradictory mind that may lead to the biff’s failure. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 6 published by ideas spread willy seldom pays attention to little son, happy, is immature, irresponsible, and discontented with his expectations. willy places high hopes on biff and turns a blind eye to happy when happy says, “i’m losing weight, you notice, pop” (29; act1). as the little brother, happy cannot accept this kind of preference for biff. he once said, “i bet he’d back you. cause he thought highly of you, biff” (26; act1). eventually, this preference for biff ends in an unstable relationship between willy and biff. in the face of father-son tension, linda is in between them and unable to back down or quit. as the tension between father and son grow, linda, who stood by, worries that she wanted to protect her husband and not hurt her sons. to resolve the conflict between father and son, she has to do ideological work for them. on the one hand, by pointing out willy’s problems in the father-sons relationship, grasping willy’s s emotional focus saves the father-sons relationship. linda points out willy’s problem directly, for he is too critical of his son biff, and reminds him, “you mustn’t lose your temper with him” (15; act1). when biff and willy get into a fight, biff cries; willy asks linda why he is crying. linda knows willy loves his children, so she comforts willy by answering that biff loves him. willy cares more about his children than his wife. however, linda cares more about willy’s feelings than her sons; she tries every trick to get willy to calm down. linda: no. you can’t just come to see me, because i love him. with a threat, but only a threat, of tears: he’s the dearest man in the world to me, and i won’t have anyone making him feel unwanted and low and blue. you’ve got to make up your mind now, darling, there’s no leeway any more. either he’s your father and you pay him that respect, or else you’re not to come here. i know he’s not easy to get along with-nobody knows that better than mebut … (55; act1) on the other hand, when linda finds out that her sons did not respect their father, she reminds her sons, “attention, attention must be finally paid to such a person” (56; act1) when the boys get home. her extensive attention to willy has spurred on her attempts at persuading her sons to overlook their father’s weaknesses instead of comprehending their father and herself. linda is worried that her sons are becoming indifferent to willy, who will not accept that fact. thus, she tries to lead her sons to believe and to love their father and save willy from selfdestruction. linda: he’s the dearest man in the world to me, and i won’t have anyone making him feel unwanted and low and blue. you’ve got to make up your mind now, darling, there’s no leeway anymore. either he’s your father and you pay him that respect, or else you’re not to come here. i know he’s not easy to get along withnobody knows that better than mebut …” (55; act1). when the loman brothers come back home, linda scolds the boys for abandoning their father at the frank’s chop house. linda’s criticism urges happy to go out and search for his father. linda: (her voice subdued). what’d you have to start that for? (biff turns away.) you see how sweet he was as soon as you talked hopefully? (she goes over to biff.) come up and say good night to him. don’t let him go to bed that way (65; act1). however, no matter how hard linda tries, the unpleasant father-son issues make willy escape from reality and indulge in the fantasy that his sons are washing his car under a pleasant atmosphere. the flute music in the play also serves as a reminder that brings willy’s past and present together. whenever life becomes stressful for him, music marks that willy goes back to the past as “a single trumpet note jars the ear” (109; act2), and begins his fantasy dream. according to willy, his little son happy’s complaint about his father’s disrespectful and demeaning manner toward linda binds willy over to scream out his regret about not doing business with ben in alaska. when it comes to family relationships, linda has always been there for her husband, defending him and resolving conflicts between husband and sons. of particular importance is this pattern in the relationship between linda and willy, for that comforting relationship has stabilized the loman family cohesion. 4. the loss of body vs invisible reminder as i mentioned before, a plausible explanation for willy’s madness could also be found in his infidelity. faced with the tension of a father-son relationship, the pressure of a painful job, and the pressure of a heavy life, willy often feels empty and lonely. willy’s work usually requires him to change places and conditions, sacrificing time with family. willy often drives alone from brooklyn to another area of the country. willy is tired of the lonely life. to ease his loneliness, he forgets his family, temporarily loses himself, and has an affair with an unknown woman. despite linda’s efforts to keep the family together, she cannot get willy out of his shell. willy has an affair with the unknown lady, not only because of sex, but also because the unknown lady can fulfill the need of getting rid of loneliness in a way that linda cannot. when biff discovers willy having an extramarital affair, willy tries to hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 7 published by ideas spread excuse his behavior by explaining, “she is nothing to me, biff. i was lonely, i was terribly lonely” (120; act2). willy’s fear of abandonment is derived from his fear of loneliness. the word “whore” being mentioned by linda, as when biff is faced with the unknown lady and he calls her a “whore”(31) in the notebook, implies that those plots are not coincidence. the subtle use of these changes is intended to imply that linda was aware of her husband’s infidelity. the playwright repeatedly mentions the laughter from the woman. “off left, the woman laughs” (113,115; act2) is mentioned twice. this gives expression to willy’s guilty conscience with regard to linda. the repeated mentioning of stockings is a symbol of betrayal and sexual infidelity. miller’s repeated mentions of the frequent laughter and silk stockings are no coincidence. the playwright refers to them deliberately, partly to express willy’s guilt and discomfort after the affair. later willy says “you’re the best there is, linda, you’re a pal, you know that? on the road—on the road i want to grab you sometimes and just kiss the life outa you”(38; act1), which also demonstrates willy’s uneasy psychology. the woman bursts out laughing, and linda’s laughter blends in. the woman disappears into the dark. now the area at the kitchen table brightens. linda is sitting where she was at the kitchen table, but now is mending a pair of her silk stockings. linda: you are, willy. the handsomest man. you’ve got no reason to feel that willy, coming out of the woman’s dimming area and going over to linda: i’ll make it all up to you, linda, i’ll – linda: there’s nothing to make up, dear. you’re doing fine, better than willy, noticing her mending: what’s that? linda: just mending my stockings. they’re so expensive willy, angrily, taking them from her: i won’t have you mending stockings in this house! now throw them out! linda puts the stockings in her pocket. (39; act1) the playwright mentions the laughter twice, as well as willy’s unnatural behavior, which indicates that willy is afraid of losing his wife because of his extramarital mistakes. on the other hand, the playwright is trying to emphasize that linda already knows about her husband’s affair, and she has no choice but to use this invisible way, sewing silk stockings, to remind her husband of what he’s done. two clues can indicate linda’s detection of her husband’s extramarital affair. linda is intelligent, as i mentioned in the discussion of their daily life. thus, willy’s abnormal behavior could not have gone unnoticed by linda, especially when she is mending her stockings. willy begins to feel apprehensive and cowardly. he nonsensically criticizes her, “will you stop mending stockings? at least while i’m in the house. it gets me nervous. i can’t tell you. please” (75; act2). willy mentions that linda ought not to sew silk stockings in the house, stressed that making silk stockings made him nervous, and he could not reveal why she was not allowed to sew them in front of willy. it is impossible to avoid linda’s suspicion in light of willy’s erratic behavior, and the intelligent, insightful linda is certainly aware of her husband’s abnormal behavior. the playwright mentions the unknown woman with silk stockings twice, and linda sews silk stockings twice, which is the second clue to indicate linda’s detection of her husbands’ affair with another woman. in act 1, when linda is sewing the silk stockings for the first time, willy gets very angry and takes socks from linda. “there is a dramatic irony in the stockings which linda mends as contrasted with the stockings willy gives to the woman in the boston hotel, and the stockings become a symbol for willy’s guilt—guilt towards wife and son” (carol barber 48). in act 2, when he sees linda sewing for the second time, willy expresses the reason why he doesn’t want linda to mend stockings, but he doesn’t mention the real cause of his anxieties. she kisses him, and a silk stocking is seen hanging from her hand. willy notices it. willy: willy you stop mending stockings? at least while i’m in the house. it gets me nervous. i can’t tell you. please. linda hides the stocking in her hand as she follows willy across the forestage in front of the house. (75; act2) hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 8 published by ideas spread all of these references are intended to suggest willy’s fear of being found out by his wife and his guilty conscience. ronald j. burke and tamara weir proposed that “females are better able to respond to non-verbal communication cues than are males. perhaps it is this sensitivity which permits wives to recognize the emotional state of their spouses and to initiate a helping interaction more readily when needed” (62). linda has no right to speech, and perhaps a casual remark would have provoked willy or maybe led to willy’s downfall. linda keeps her husband in the dark, showing due respect for his feelings, doing what he wants, and when he tells her to stop sewing, she stops sewing. following common sense, with linda’s wisdom and insight, knowing that her husband doesn’t like how she behaves, she may stop immediately. but linda also does things that displease her husband, as she is sewing silk stockings for the second time; it is apparent that linda is trying to remind her husband invisibly and express her unhappiness. faced with her husband’s physical infidelity, linda did not complain or blame. she chose to preserve her husband’s dignity in a silent way. at the same time, she gave her husband a silent reminder by mending stockings many times. it is evident that willy holds the dominant power of the family and that he has always been strong-willed and quick-tempered in family matters; as he is ostensibly strong, but emasculate in his inner world. there is no doubt that such a wise, caring, and affectionate wife has become an umbrella for his fragile soul. 5. the psychological implication of husband-wife relationship according to freud’s psychology, the repressed experiences of childhood explode like landmines at the right time(note 2). willy’s miserable childhood without father and mother, left him with a traumatic experience. with this background, in the face of many disappointments in life, he decides to commit suicide. the dominant husband-wife relationship demonstrates the reconciliation that makes with familial continuity through the wife and the recognition of the healing powers of the wife. this kind of reconciliation can be reflected from the perspectives of personalities, problem-solving skills and husband-wife roles. regarding the personalities, through the lines between linda and willy, it is clear that willy is an emotionally unstable person with sour attitude. willy feels annoyed by linda’s behavior and scolds her for interrupting their conversation by shouting “stop interrupting” (64; act1) etc. as leber, b. douglas notes, “feelings of nervousness, tension, and worry, as well as anger, self-dissatisfaction, and guilt characterize persons with low emotional stability” (leber, b. douglas 12), and we find such clues that willy is a person with low emotional stability. in contrast with her husband’s personality, linda is an emotionally stable person who seldom gets angry easily even if some things that seem unacceptable to ordinary people happen, such as the husband’s yelling at her, the husband deprives her of the right to speak. according to b. douglas leber, “emotionally stable persons display contentment, security, and self-satisfaction” (12).we can read the emotional security sense from linda, she always gives her husband a sense of security emotionally. linda’s tries to please willy in an emotionally stable way because she cares for her husband very much. linda intends to protect willy and puts him in a fantasy world at the same time because she loves him and worries that he is on the verge of being lost. linda uses her sympathetic, dependable emotions to care for willy, who tends to be more hostile and demanding. linda always stands by and clings to her husband even though she has no discourse power. beginning with the description, “linda, his wife, has stirred in her bed at the right. she gets out and puts on a robe, listening. most often jovial, she has developed iron repression of her exceptions to willy’s behavior—she more than loves him, she admires him, as though his mercurial nature, his temper, his massive dreams, and little cruelties, served her only as sharp reminders of the turbulent longings within him, longings which she shares but lacks the temperament to utter and follow to their end” (12; act 1). the description at the beginning of the article also demonstrates the sense of security linda gives willy through love. when willy comes back home, feels exhausted and shouted at her in his daily life, linda is not affected by her husband’s emotions, instead, she cares for her husband with words of concern, for instance, “where were you all day? you look terrible” (14; act1), linda’s stable emotions prompted her to provide her husband with a sense of security, and the reason she can provide a sense of security also comes from her wisdom to help her husband balance work and life and to give warmth. willy is not only unstable emotionally, but also very stubborn. willy is also a stubborn person and never tries to adapt to social trends. this can be reflected on when linda changes his cheese, he suddenly chimes in with his own opinion; “i don’t want a change! i want swiss cheese” (17; act1). when the couple argue with each other, willy never thinks of making a compromise. willy only allows people to be obedient to him. when bernard reminds willy that biff will flunk math, linda shows her agreement; this enrages willy; “there’s nothing the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 9 published by ideas spread matter with him! you want him to be a wormlike bernard? he’s got spirit, personality” (40; act1). linda is overwhelmed by grief and “almost in tears, exits into the living room” (40; act1). according to this description of willy and linda, the play unveils the personalities of the protagonist and his wife. there is no doubt that linda, who is angelic, industrious, kind, gentle, selfless, and loving, is the quintessential good wife with stable emotion. she has no needs of her own and is willing to sacrifice herself to her husband and family. as the description at the beginning of the play outlines, most of the time, she is pleasant; she not only has affection for him, but she also admires him and often praises him by saying, “willy, you’re the handsomest man in the world” (37; act1). although willy is bad-tempered, unstable emotionally and stubborn sometimes, he loves linda profoundly and wholeheartedly, but he is doubtful about linda’s feelings for him and hopes linda can care about him by asking “you’re not worried about me, are you, sweetheart?” (18; act1). however, he has made some mistakes and he’s quite sure he cannot live without linda, so he once expressed, “you’re my foundation and my support, linda” (18; act1).thus, willy is in charge of making money, whereas linda is the one who ties the family together by giving warmth to willy in their daily lives. in addition to the personality as an important factor affecting marital relationship, problem-solving skill is also core factor that reflect the relationship between husband and wife. willy’s love for his wife and his wish to provide a comfortable life for her is unwavering and his aspiration for success is not under his control, and desperation and repression fill willy’s heart. he loves her but treats her poorly. in their family, willy is the center, and linda’s obedience to willy gives him unlimited support for his empty dreams, yet she is still dedicated to the family. it is a pity that she does not get due respect. willy’s response to linda demonstrates his negative problem-solving skills, including complaining, criticizing, and other negative behaviors. willy’s frequent complaining about life and criticism of linda directly implies that he lacks problem-solving skills. positive problem-solving skills refer to direct expressions of feelings, offering constructive solutions, positive feedback, understanding with the partner (johnson, m. d.; cohan, c. l.; davila, j.; lawrence, e.; rogge, r. d.; karney, b. r.; sullivan, k. t., & bradbury, t. n. 15-27). if the couple can communicate patiently in a positive way in life, the husband can fully consider the wife’s position and feelings, and the wife can give husband constructive advice, the relationship between the couple will be in a virtuous cycle. linda represents the emotional core of the family with her realistic and tough character, as she masters positive problem-solving skills. she admires and supports willy, solving the arguments between willy and their sons to ease the tension. when willy is confused at work, linda suggests that he go to his boss to express his hope to continue his work or ask his boss to consider changing his work environment. in everyday life, linda also encourages and takes care of willy through behavior and language. as i continue to find, “a wife’s ability to use a ‘soft start-up’ approach when delivering criticism was predicted to be related to her husband’s marital satisfaction” (olsen 62), linda is a wife who is good at using “soft start-up” to assist and comfort husband. research also emphasizes that “a husband’s ability to empathize with his wife during the problem-solving discussions was predicted to relate to his wife’s marital satisfaction” (olsen 62). although willy is not good at mastering problem-solving skills, he has the ability to feel his wife’s emotional empathy, to feel his wife’s anger, sadness and timely feedback, and to express his concern and love for his wife. especially after willy has an affair, his guilt makes him anxious, and he is abnormally anxious to express his love for his wife. from the perspective of role analysis, “civil law defines the husband role as that of the provider, and as having the supreme authority on the family as a unit”(solar urbiztondo53) (note 3); religious law is also relevant to that concept, as “the man is the head of the household and makes decisions, a good wife takes care of the house and obeys”(fernandez-mendez16-17)(note 4). this family is a dominant family with the characteristics of husbandprovider and wife-homemaker; the husband is responsible for earning money supporting the family, while the wife is responsible for taking care of the children and does housework at home. in traditional society such as early 20th century america, the responsibility of a wife is assumed to take care of their children, their husband, and their home, while the husband is supposed to provide financial support. linda not only performs the traditional duties of a wife, she unconditionally backs her husband, but also puts lifelong attention on the relationship between willy and their sons, though she disregards her sons and reproves them by shouting, “get out of here, both of you, and don’t come back, i don’t want you tormenting him anymore” (124; act2) when she detects her sons’ behavior may hurt willy. in relieving the husband’s pressure, the wife always trusts her husband, and the husband and wife are emotionally dependent on each other. ronald j. burke and tamara weir mention, “an effective husband-wife helping hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 10 published by ideas spread relationship was characterized by greater self-disclosure, trust, mutual reliance, a larger repertoire of potentially helpful behaviors” (62). linda and willy rely on each other in daily life and trust each other because they share ideas and care about each other. it can be said that the relationship between the wife and her husband is a relationship of dependency and trust; the couple are attached in life and emotion. especially, linda is there for willy, for giving him warm comfort, purifying salvation, emotional soothing, and an invisible reminder for willy’s affair with an unknown lady. linda’s support and help for willy were practical to some extent. however, in the end, willy chooses suicide, which doesn’t mean linda’s support for willy was ineffective. studies have shown that “severe life pressures result in both husbands and wives feeling less effective as helpers to their spouses”(ronald j. burke and tamara weir 62), when couples face serious problems, “they may yield to feelings of helplessness and find it difficult to support or encourage one another through the adversities” (ronald j. burke and tamara weir 62). tuttle describes willy as “miller’s strongest example of the centrality of work in life … losing his job—the labor by which he defined himself—is the single event which precipitates his suicide” (10). even if linda is a wife close to the perfect image, she also failed to prevent her husband from committing suicide. in the marriage life between willy and linda, willy, as the husband, is the only breadwinner in the family, a salesman who lives at the bottom of society and not only earns a small income, but also faces the pressure of debt and losing his job. faced with a depressing daily life, failed career, and a strained father-son relationship, linda comforts willy with warm words and enlightens him with a positive attitude to life. even if willy cheats, linda not only doesn’t leave him, but chooses to tolerate him and reminds him to return to the family. even when willy chooses to commit suicide, linda is still doing everything in her power to stop willy from doing so. linda is always attached to willy as a perfect wife role in traditional sense. notes on contributor first author: xiaochang is an associate professor at changsha normal university, china. she is also a doctoral student in kunsan national university, korea majoring drama. corresponding author: taehyung kim is an assistant professor in kunsan national university, republic of korea. he earned a ph. d. at university of california at irvine. his research interests include theatre, film, and popular culture. references barber, c. m. (2002). work and family in arthur miller’s death of a salesman (published doctoral dissertation). california state university. burke, r. j., & tamara, w. (1975) the husband-wife relationship: how significant in career and life success? business quarterly, 40(3), 62. carson, n. (1982). arthur miller. london and basingstoke: the macmillan press ltd. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-16735-7 flanagan, j. k. (1969). arthur miller: a study in sources and themes (published doctoral dissertation). university of notre dame. gulrajani, l. r. (1978). the family in the plays of arthur miller(published doctoral dissertation). mcgill university. hampson, r. b., w. r., & hulgus, y. (1990). cross-ethnic family differences: interactional assessment of white, black, and mexican-american families. journal of marital and family therapy, 16, 307-319. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-0606.1990.tb00852.x hampson, r. b., & beavers, w. r. (ed.) (1993). measuring family competence: the beavers systems model. froma walsh, normal family processes. new york: the guilford press. pp.73-103. hampson, r. b., & beavers, w. r. (1996a). family therapy and outcome: relationship between therapist and family styles. contemporary family therapy, 18, 347-360. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02197047 hampson, r. b., & beavers, w. r. (1996b). measuring family therapy outcome in a clinical setting: families that do better or do worse in therapy. family process, 35, 347-361.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.15455300.1996.00347.x johnson, m. d., cohan, c. l., davila, j., lawrence, e., rogge, r. d., karney, b. r., sullivan, k. t., & bradbury, t. n. (2005). problem solving skills and affective expression as predictors of marital change. journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 71, 15-27. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006x.73.1.15 leber, b. douglas. (1991). perceptions of marital interaction as mediators of personality effects on marital hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 11 published by ideas spread satisfaction(published doctoral dissertation). the university of michigan. manocchio, t., & william, p. (1975). families under stress: a psychological interpretation. london: routledge.pp.135. miller, a. (1949). death of a salesman. georgia, united states: the murray printing company. miller, j. h. (eds.). (1985). the search for grounds in literary study. rhetoric and form: deconstruction at yale. robern con davis and ronald schleifer. norman. pp. 22. olsen, n. (2006). emotion skills, problem-solving, and marital satisfaction: investigating the mediating effect of emotion skills on the relationship between problem-solving skills and marital satisfaction (published doctoral dissertation). clark university. tuttle, j. (1996). the efficacy of work: arthur miller and robert camus. “the myth of sisyphus.” american drama., 5, 61-72. wellek, j. s. (1993). kohut’s tragic man: an example from “death of a salesman”. clinical social work journal, 21(2), 213. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00754535 notes note 1. allan chavkin and nancy feylchavkin. (2015). looking at arthur miller’s death of a salesman through the lens of interpersonal acceptance and rejection theory and family systems theory. the arthur miller journal, (10), 31. note 2. lewis, h. b. (1983) .“freud and modern psychology.” the emotional basis of human behavior, (2), 45. note 3. solar urbiztondo, ursula. (1975). cross-cultural familial relationships in american novels and plays:assigned in the freshman reading program at the university of puerto rico from 1969-1970. (published doctoral dissertation). new york university. note 4. fernandez-mendez, “familia contemporanea de hoy”, pp. 16-17. (quoted from solarurbiztondo,ursula. (1975). cross-cultural familial relationships in american novels and plays: assigned in the freshman reading program at the university of puerto rico from 1969-1970. (published doctoral dissertation) new york university, pp. 53-54.) copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n3p66 66 published by ideas spread between reason and sensibility: the manifestation mechanism of freedom in kant's aesthetics xue fei wang1 1 university of jinan, china correspondence: xue fei wang, university of jinan, jinan, shandong 250022, china. e-mail: 16605227926@163.com received: may 18, 2025; accepted: may 26, 2025; published: may 27, 2025 abstract this paper centers on kant’s critique of judgment to explore the manifestation mechanism of "freedom" in aesthetics. it points out that kant achieves a reconciliation between reason and sensibility through aesthetic judgment, thereby providing an experiential intermediary path for the concept of freedom. the article analyzes the four dimensions of aesthetic judgment and the free creativity of art and genius, and combines schiller, hegel, heidegger, and others responses to kants aesthetics of freedom to reveal how kant bridges the gap between nature and freedom through aesthetic activities, thus constructing the philosophical foundation of modern aesthetics. keywords: judgment criticism, kant's aesthetics, freedom 1. introduction since kant, the aesthetic expression of freedom has sparked widespread responses in the history of western thought. schiller introduced the concept of "play drive" in his letters on the aesthetic education of man, viewing aesthetics as a practical bridge to moral freedom; hegel emphasized that art is the sensuous manifestation of ideas, creating a theoretical tension with kant’s "freedom without concepts"; heidegger further explored how art "opens up the world" through its manifestation, leading to the free opening of existence. these responses indicate that the issue of freedom in kantian aesthetics is not only a central point in his critical philosophy but also an important starting point for the development of modern aesthetics. freedom is sensuously realized through aesthetic activities, extending human rational thought into nature. this allows the freedom originally confined within epistemology to extend to the understanding of ones own subjective spirit, thus exploring how to achieve inner harmony and order in humans. if the first half of the critique of judgment focuses on human-centered aesthetic judgment, examining how human emotions can attain freedom in aesthetic activities, then the second half, the teleological critique of judgment, centers on "the entire existence in which man places himself," contemplating how the originally "teleological" nature can be free. through this bridge of freedom, it connects individual freedom with nature, thereby realizing the fundamental purpose of critical philosophy: the possibility of coordination between the two fundamentally different systems of order—freedom and nature. this possibility points to kant’s idea of the highest good. at the same time, the critique of judgment delves into the aesthetic domain, harmonizing humanity with nature and reason with sensibility. in kants "dual world," humans, as beings of sensuous spirit, are simultaneously constrained by the objective rational world. however, in the realm of aesthetics, humans achieve harmony between sensibility and reason, transcending both to realize the freedom of the subject. 2. the manifestation of free aesthetics —— the bridge of kant’s critical philosophy the "freedom" pursued by ancient westerners was actually a political or ethical freedom, while modern philosophys focus on freedom has gradually shifted towards the individual and aesthetics. when schiller, schopenhauer, and nietzsche raised the banner of aesthetics, achieving "aesthetic freedom" became a true symbol of human freedom. the concept of "freedom" has always been rooted in western philosophys understanding of the subject "human." to some extent, the aesthetic themes of kant and schiller also argue for the inevitability and rationality of the transition from nature to individual freedom in human history. the enlightenment portrayed "a capital person " and placed "human" on an equal footing with "god." reconsidering "humanity" and exploring human nature became the central topic of society at that time.(bai, 2012) kant’s philosophy emerged against the backdrop of a long-standing split between rationalism and empiricism. the former pursued universality and necessity, while the latter emphasized individual experience and sensory concreteness. in this tension, kant sought hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 67 published by ideas spread to establish an "intermediate capacity" —— aesthetic judgment that neither entirely appeals to rational commands nor retreats into sensory experience. it is neither cognition nor practice, yet it can subjectively embody a sense of universal freedom, thus paving the way for the unity of freedom and nature. in kant’s critical philosophy, freedom is always at the core. the critique of judgment explores the a priori possibility of freedom, while the critique of practical reason argues for its reality in moral laws. however, there remains an insurmountable gap between the two: how can ideal freedom be perceived in the empirical world? the critique of judgment introduces aesthetic judgment to bridge this gap, manifesting freedom through sensibility, thus reconciling the rupture between reason and nature, subjectivity and objectivity. kant’s philosophical thought emerges within the contradiction between rationalism and empiricism. standing in this contradiction, kant hopes that these two ways of understanding the world can harmonize, moving from merely using reason to understand the world and merely using senses to perceive it, to finding a method that achieves both. this method seems particularly applicable in aesthetics; if beauty were measured solely by scientific methods, it would not only be difficult to find a rationalist standard but also make aesthetics untheorizable. if beauty were simply a mental sensation, aesthetic creation and appreciation would become overly arbitrary and excessively subjective, losing their commonality and preventing communication and development. therefore, kant proposes aesthetic judgment and critiques it, using the theory of aesthetic analysis to encompass the aspects of being without interest or benefit. the combination of rationality and sensibility that arouses the psychological pleasure (i.e. sense of freedom) of aesthetic subjects leads to the exploration of the field beyond the phenomenal world. kant, after arguing the possibility of transcendental freedom in his critique of pure reason, further proposed in the preface to the critique of practical reason that "once the actuality of the concept of freedom is proved by an indisputable law of practical reason, it now constitutes the keystone of the entire edifice of pure reason, even speculative reason."(kant,2002,p.2) in kant’s critical philosophy, the critique of pure reason confirms the transcendental nature of freedom—something that can only be thought but not realized. then, in the critique of practical reason, he argues for the objective reality of practical freedom, which can be confirmed through moral laws and the autonomy of the will. however, whether it is transcendental freedom or practical freedom, both belong to the realm of rational conception. ultimately, kant grounds his focus in aesthetic activities. aesthetic freedom allows the subject to experience the possibility of being transcended and sensory pleasure, making the transition from a natural being to a free being possible.(hu,2007) after kant, the concept of "freedom" underwent profound transformation and development in both political philosophy and aesthetic theory. in the 20th century, scholar isaiah berlin divided freedom into two basic forms: "negative freedom" and "positive freedom". the former refers to freedom from external interference, while the latter emphasizes the freedom of active self-realization and self-determination. from this perspective, the "sense of freedom" discussed by kant in aesthetic judgment is closer to negative freedom. it does not come from any moral command or purposeful norm, nor is it a result of sensory stimulation or the logical outcome of experience; rather, it is a sense of liberation achieved through the coordination of subjectivity and objectivity. however, in kant’s theory of genius, the process of transforming freedom into creative acts, setting examples, and legislating for art implies an active and positive view of freedom —— where the subject shapes the world and expresses ideas through free activity. kant emphasizes the unique value of aesthetic judgment in the realization of freedom precisely because it neither relies on the compulsion of rational commands nor falls into the utilitarian mechanisms of the empirical world. instead, it provides an intermediary sensory experience that allows individuals to find reconciliation between freedom and nature. to further understand how this freedom can be perceived and constructed in specific aesthetic experiences, we need to start from kant’s four definitions of "beauty" and analyze the internal mechanisms of aesthetic judgment and the process of generating a sense of freedom. 3. the mechanism of aesthetic judgment and the generation of freedom kant, in the critique of judgment, gradually constructs the foundation of free experience in aesthetic judgment by defining the four aspects of beauty —— quality, quantity, relation, and modality——each aspect not only points to the philosophical definition of beauty but also reveals how freedom is experienced and symbolized at the sensory level, thereby transforming abstract ideas into actual psychological sensations. the following sections will analyze these four dimensions in sequence to reveal the mechanisms of the generation of a sense of freedom in aesthetic judgment. from a qualitative perspective, beauty is devoid of interest. kant describes it as "the ability to judge the mode of appearance of an object based solely on pleasure or displeasure, without any consideration of interest." (kant,2002,p.45)aesthetics first transcends worldly utilitarianism, constructing a realm distinct from the previous hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 68 published by ideas spread two critiques through suprasensory means. it does not involve epistemological reason, practical experience, or purposiveness. in this rich sensory experience, kant singles out interest-free emotions as aesthetic feelings, which bring about free pleasure: "aesthetic feeling is the only and unique kind of free pleasure that does not consider interest." after analyzing the most fundamental characteristics of aesthetics, kant placed individual aesthetic emotions within the whole for consideration. that is, in terms of quantity, beauty should have subjective universality. kant expounded this feature as "beauty is universally pleasing without involving concepts." in the process of aesthetic communication, that is, in the manifestation of the universal validity of aesthetic judgment, what is conveyed is not a rational understanding, nor a concept, nor even the individual sensations emphasized in empiricism, but rather a "state of mind." the state of mind can be divided into the free activities of imagination and understanding. in his critique of judgment, kant stated: "the various cognitive functions activated by such an image appear in aesthetic judgment as free activities, because there are no definite concepts that compel them to follow any particular cognitive law. therefore, the state of mind when one sees such an image must necessarily connect a given image with the various functions of perception that ordinary people use to recognize it, in the free activity of sensation. to reflect the appearance of an objects image, if it is to become a source of cognition, it involves both imagination and understanding. imagination is used to synthesize multiple sensory elements, while understanding is used to unify multiple images. the cognitive function accompanying the activity of reflecting the appearance of an objects image appears in the free activity."the state of mind that moves is necessarily universally communicable, for all images of the object (regardless of who the subject is) must be consistent with cognition (as the determination of the nature of the object). therefore, cognition is the only mode of image manifestation applicable to everyone. "(kant,2002,p.52)the two abilities of the aesthetic subject—— imagination which integrates various sensory perceptions, while understanding unifies multiple images. that is, no matter how rich an individuals imagination may be, after being unified by understanding, they can have the same experience. although this experience is not specific or detailed, it can achieve the effect of" all people sharing the same heart and mind" through the eruption of imagination and the unification of understanding. this movement of imagination and understanding, first, is not constrained by interests, and most importantly, due to the universal validity of aesthetics, it can fully demonstrate a sense of freedom. from the perspective of relation, aesthetics possesses purposeless purposiveness. in the relationship between aesthetic objects and aesthetic purposes, kant’s exposition is that "beauty is a form of an object in accordance with purposiveness, but when one perceives this formal beauty, it does not depend on the representation of any particular purpose." (kant,2002,p.72)from the analytical angle of relation, kant stipulates "purposiveness" beyond the universal validity of results. "purposiveness" means that the aesthetic object conforms to the free movement of imagination and understanding. the free movement caused by beauty itself is purposeless because it does not involve interests or concepts. this purposeless purposiveness, which does not rely on conceptual forms, is called pure beauty. if it involves interests, concepts, or forms but still evokes harmony between the subjects imagination and understanding, it is called dependent beauty. pure beauty is generally the beauty of things themselves, while dependent beauty is usually associated with art. overall, in the relationship between aesthetic objects and aesthetic purposes, the aesthetic object conforms to the universally valid purpose, while the aesthetic purpose itself is purposeless, so kant summarizes it as purposeless purposiveness. finally, according to modality, kant defines beauty as "any object whose pleasure is considered necessary without relying on concepts is beautiful." connecting the first three perspectives, the conclusion that "beauty has universal necessity" can be seen as a natural progression accomplish. in summary, kant established the logical foundation for the generation of a sense of freedom in aesthetic judgment through a systematic analysis of the four dimensions of beauty. impartiality, subjective universality, purposeless purposiveness, and necessity together form a possible form of experiencing freedom in sensibility. aesthetic judgment, as an intermediary ability, enables individuals to gain symbolic understanding of the idea of freedom through aesthetic experience without relying on concepts or utilitarianism, thus providing a basis for free practice in subsequent artistic creation. in contemporary aesthetic studies, charles taylor further criticized the tendency in modern views of freedom to overemphasize individual autonomy, arguing that "the realization of intrinsic purposes" is the true core of freedom. he emphasizes that people should not only escape oppression but also live with value and meaning. in this sense, the "purposeless purposiveness" in kant’s aesthetics provides a prototypical response: although aesthetic behavior lacks clear utilitarian goals, it embodies the requirement for harmony between form and meaning, nature and spirit, representing a positive experience of freedom that is characterized by "purposelessness" and values "freedom." hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 69 published by ideas spread 4. the creative practice of genius, art and freedom after analyzing beauty, aesthetic activities reconcile and transcend the diverse experiential feelings of imagination and the singular logical judgments of cognition, becoming a free movement. since aesthetics can reconcile this contradiction, the subject which simultaneously deals with the world of reason and the world of experience, can also achieve freedom in both worlds through aesthetic activities. this leads to the speculation on genius and art in the critique of aesthetic judgment. in this process, the introduction of the concept of "genius" is not only used to explain the mechanism of artistic creation but also reflects kant’s further conception of creative freedom. as the legislator of art, the spontaneous synergy between the imagination and cognition of genius embodies a highly free mental activity. the creative act of genius does not rely on conceptual intermediaries or serve any utilitarian or external purposes; instead, it is a practice of the free spirit manifesting itself in form. this creative process, which is unrestricted by external norms yet resonates with others, is precisely the highest manifestation of "free sensuous appearance" in kant’s sense. kant posits that "genius" is the creative subject of art. in aesthetic activities, ordinary individuals can realize freedom through aesthetic judgment, whereas in artistic creation, it requires genius. when defining art and genius, kant also places great emphasis on the freedom of art in terms of method and form of expression, highlighting the preciousness and rarity of freedom. among these, the freedom of art is concentrated in the genius who legislates for art. kant believes that the free creation of genius has four characteristics: first, originality, which means that genius can generate rich imagination without relying on aesthetic judgment, and at the same time, use understanding to endow this imagination with universal validity, bringing freedom to others. as leo tolstoy said, "the power and function of art to move people lie precisely in liberating individuals from isolation and loneliness, and in uniting them with others." second, exemplarity and mystery, which emphasize that the results of genius’s creation cannot be replicated or traced back to their source, making them imitable. this ability to "prevent aesthetic individuals from replicating" distances art from interests and concepts, allowing the created art to be purely formal and imaginative, rather than as a fixed concept that fails to evoke the imagination of aesthetic individuals, thus constraining the freedom of aesthetics.finally, genius possesses an innate function to legislate for art, a nature that originates from within rather than being cultivated externally. kant unifies nature and art through this characteristic of genius, bridging freedom. among the four features of genius, one can see its intrinsic alignment with aesthetic freedom, from experiencing aesthetic pleasure to creating it. although the sense of freedom seems increasingly out of reach, the process by which genius creates art, where freedom is better realized, is precisely the ideal state of human beings. in this process, the introduction of the concept of "genius" is not only used to explain the mechanism of artistic creation but also reflects kant’s further conception of creative freedom. as the legislator of art, genius spontaneous synergy between imagination and understanding embodies a highly free mental activity. the creative act of genius does not rely on conceptual intermediaries or serve any utilitarian or external purposes; instead, it is a practice where the spirit of freedom manifests itself in form. this creative process, which is unrestricted by external norms yet resonates with others, is the highest manifestation of kant’s notion of "the sensuous appearance of freedom." however, kant did not confine aesthetic freedom to artists alone. he emphasized that even ordinary individuals, though unable to become geniuses, can participate in the free sensory experience of aesthetic judgment when confronted with works of genius. this is a "free empathy," not direct creation of ideas, but rather the projection and arousal of ideas in the sensory world. thus, kant’s aesthetics achieve a philosophical leap: from the sense of freedom in aesthetic judgment, to the free exercise of artistic creation, and finally to the ontological inquiry into the ultimate philosophical question of "what it means to be human." "freedom" is an otherworldly, transcendent, and non-intuitive existence that can only be grasped through rational thought and perception. through aesthetic activities, freedom becomes concrete, experiential, and tangible. the practice of freedom through aesthetics allows the finite human being to experience a glimpse of the iceberg of freedom through sensibility. relatively speaking, aesthetic pleasure promotes the pursuit of freedom, which is specifically manifested in the pursuit of beauty, the deepening of art theory, the expansion of humanistic connotations, and even the ultimate goodness of moral ethics, ultimately returning to the question "what is man?" in his letter to kafkas, kant mentioned that he was determined to solve four problems: "in the realm of pure philosophy, my long-term work plan for myself is to address the following three questions: what can i know? what should i do? what can i hope for? then comes the fourth, and last question: what is man?" the inner order of humanity can be harmonized through values, ethics, and religion, but the external order between humans and nature requires the guidance of freedom, thus recognizing the value of life and contemplating how to transcend the essence.(kant,2002,p.204-205) hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 70 published by ideas spread the hierarchical structure of free experience (aesthetic judgment → artistic creation → transcendence of the self) forms kant’s aesthetic path to address the opposition between nature and freedom. in aesthetics, humans break free from the dual constraints of rational commands and sensory temptations, achieving a temporary and symbolic "transcendent state." this allows them to glimpse the possibility of a free self and return to the ultimate question of "how humans can become fully realized beings." 5. epilogue aesthetic experience arises from the need for freedom, and freedom is sensuously manifested through aesthetics. the dual structure of kant’s philosophy is built on the tension between reason and sensibility, nature and freedom, substance and phenomenon. to bridge these gaps, the critique of judgment offers a path to reconciliation: by sensuously manifesting freedom through aesthetic activities, freedom not only exists as an idea in reason but also becomes partially realized in human experiential activities. the introduction of teleological judgment further illustrates that only nature possesses a purposive structure, making the actual manifestation of freedom possible. "what is man?" this question runs through the core of kant’s three critiques, and in aesthetic freedom, the harmony between man and nature, reason and sensibility, constitutes the fundamental possibility of being human. from kant to hegel, nietzsche, and heidegger, modern philosophy has continuously explored the reconciliation of freedom and nature. kant’s solution for freedom mediated by aesthetics remains profoundly enlightening: even if freedom is not exhaustible, the non-utilitarian pleasure and spiritual transcendence experienced in aesthetics still illuminate the path toward wholeness for a finite being. references bai, x. (2012). on the concept of freedom in kant’s aesthetics (master’s thesis, shandong university). deng, x. (2004). the three levels of kant’s concept of freedom. fudan journal: social sciences edition, 2, 27. hu, y. (2007). a study on the ideas of nature and freedom in kant’s aesthetics (doctoral dissertation, zhejiang university). kant, i. (1978). appendix to the introduction to the future metaphysics (miao, l., trans.). the commercial press. (original work published 1783) kant, i. (2002). critique of judgment (deng, x., trans.). people’s publishing house. (original work published 1790) copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v5n3p13 13 published by ideas spread intergenerational income and religiosity: a longitudinal study of agricultural household in indonesia eko priyotomo1, subejo2 & evita hanie pangaribowo3 1 doctoral program of islamic economy and halal industry, graduate school of universitas gadjah mada, universitas gadjah mada, indonesia 2 extension and development communication, graduate school of universitas gadjah mada, universitas gadjah mada, indonesia 3 faculty of geography, universitas gadjah mada, indonesia correspondence: eko priyotomo, graduate school of universitas gadjah mada, universitas gadjah mada, indonesia. e-mail: ekopry mail.ugm.ac.id received: august 25, 2022; accepted: september 27, 2022; published: october 4, 2022 abstract this study aimed to analyze the influence of religiosity and socio-economic determinant factors to income relationship between inter-generations of farmers and their children. data related to farmers (parents) were collected from (indonesia family live survey) ifls-93, while data related to farmers' children was obtained by tracing in ifls-2014. the 21-year interval is supposed to be sufficient time to grasp developments between generations. the results revealed that farmer children's households have better economic potential than that of their parents. comparing to the poor farming households, the percentage of the poor generation is higher than nonpoor farmer households. the income of parents (farmers) and the education of farmers' children are factors that play an important role in increasing the income of farmers' children, having strong (robust) and significant positive effect. another variable that has positive significant effect is agricultural land ownership, while age, household burden, working in agriculture, and religiosity-religion have negative significant effects. implementation of religiosity activities should be encouraging productivity and prosperity of life in accordance with the guidelines and rules in islam. keywords: farmer income, intergenerational, religiosity, indonesia 1. introduction national development goal of indonesia is to improve the welfare of all people, in which at every stage improving community welfare and equity (central bureau of statistics, 2014). during the period 2010-2018, indonesia's gross domestic product (gdp) increased with an average growth rate of 3.98% per year, this figure exceeded the average growth rate of the world economy in 2018 is 3.1%. the role of the agricultural sector in national development historically has given an important and strategic role. the agricultural sector plays role in providing food and also source of livelihood for most of indonesia's population. in addition, the agricultural sector is also source of export income (foreign exchange) for the country as well as push and pull (backward and forward linkage) for the growth of other economic sectors (mellor, 1995). the agricultural sector is one sector that can be driver of economic development (tanjung et al., 2021). this is reinforced again that humans cannot live without agricultural products and the danger that humans fear the most is the danger of hunger, armed with knowledge and technological advances, humans have tried to create synthetic food products but so far have not succeeded, so that human dependence on agriculture is serious dependence immortal (widodo, 2018). based on the structure of the formation of gross domestic product (gdp), the agricultural sector has fairly large role, this is illustrated by its contribution to total gdp, in 2020 the gross domestic product of the agricultural sector contributed 13.70% of indonesia's overall gdp is the sector that provides the second highest contribution after the industrial sector which contributes 19.88% . during the 2010-2020 period, the average contribution of the agricultural sector to total gdp was 13.35%. observing in terms of performance, the value of the gdp of the agricultural sector from year to year continues to grow, in 2020 the value of the gdp of the indonesian agricultural sector reaches idr 1,378,131 billion. furthermore, based on bps data, during the 2010-2020 period, there was hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 14 published by ideas spread trend of continuous increase in the gdp of the agricultural sector, this indicates that the agricultural sector is quite conducive so that it is able to continue to grow. in terms of employment, the agricultural sector also plays significant role in driving the indonesian economy, including through its role in providing food sources, industrial raw materials, and providing employment, especially in rural areas (ministry of agriculture, 2020). in relation to employment, the agricultural sector has quite strategic role because it appears that the working age population is still the most dominant, whose main occupation is in the agricultural sector, although over time there has been decline. based on central bureau of statistics (bps) data, in 2020 the working age population whose main occupation is in the agricultural sector is recorded at 29.5%, in addition, if we look at its development during the period 2008–2020 the working age population whose main job is in the agricultural sector ranges from 30-40%. the performance in the agricultural sector, which was quite good, turned out to be less than the level of welfare of the majority of people who work in agriculture, it can be seen from the large number of poverties in the agricultural sector. based on bps data, the number of poor households mostly comes from the agricultural sector, in 2019 it was recorded that the number of poor households in the agricultural sector was 49.41% (figure 1). figure 1. distribution of poor houshold on agricultural sectors figure 2. number of poor household on agriculture sector 46.91 30.32 15.46 7.32 49.41 30.06 14.02 6.51 46.04 32.51 14.89 6.57 49.36 30.31 13.87 6.46 0 10 20 30 40 50 agriculture others unemployment industry % 2021 2020 2019 2018 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 year hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 15 published by ideas spread if you look at its development, from year to year poor households are always dominated by households from the agricultural sector and during this period there is relatively almost no significant change. based on bps data, during the period 2012-2019, the number of poor households from the agricultural sector was relatively constant, at around 50% (figure 2). the high and non-shifting level of poverty in the agricultural sector indicates that the development growth achieved by the agricultural sector cannot be enjoyed equally by the actors in the agricultural sector itself, which means that there is still high inequality, while income inequality and development are believed to be one of the causes of inequality. factors causing the slow pace of economic recovery (chetty et al., 2014; lee & solon, 2009). the low welfare of households in the agricultural sector is indicated by the continued dominance of poor households from the agricultural sector, and this condition does not appear to have changed significantly from year to year. according to the 2013 susenas data, it was found that 99.98% of businesses in the agricultural sector were household agricultural businesses carried out by farmers. based on this, it is quite interesting to conduct research on how the economy changes between generations of farmers (between farmers and their children). religion has an important role in the development economy. healthy economy requires everyone respect the divinity and dignity each other. in association with economics, religion encourages free competition, protection of property rights, and encourages people to share and behave well with one another (davies, 2004). religion is recognized as having strong role in influencing the lives of individuals (diener et al., 2011; vieten et al., 2013). in addition, the dynamics of economic activity are related to the values contained in religion. religion has the potential to play central role in supporting those experiencing poverty, through spiritual assistance and guidance, as well as providing resilience mechanisms at both the individual and community levels. adhering to the nature of the values of his faith, religion is important to encourage efforts to alleviate poverty, namely through strengthening motivation in increasing productivity (tomalin, 2018). in addition to the above, values and spirit in religion (religiosity) seem to have relationship with economic activity, productivity and income of the community (including the farming community). studies on this issue are still relatively limited, thus there is an urgency to examine economic changes between generations of farmers in the context of their relationship with religiosity. the novelty of this research is to analyze how the economic changes between generations of farmers and relate it to the role of religiosity in it. as previously stated, based on the performance and development of gdp, the development that has been carried out has provided significant progress and added value. agriculture is sector that plays an important role in this development and most of the business actors in the agricultural sector are farmers. on the other hand, income inequality in the agricultural sector continues to occur, which is suspected from the still dominant poverty originating from the agricultural sector, where this situation occurs continuously over long period of time until it exceeds between generations. in essence, the values of religiosity are believed to be motivational booster to drive productivity, most of the indonesian population is muslim, and islam provides guidance for its people to live balanced life, care for well-being by working hard, earnestly. based on this, it is quite interesting to examine what characteristics and variables actually play role in the formation of the income of farmers' children, also by including the religiosity factor in it. the purpose of this study is to reveal how closely inter-generational farmers' incomes are related (i.e. between farmers and their children) and what variables play role in the incomes of farmers' children. 2. method indonesian family live surveys (ifls) data were used in this study. the ifls survey was carried out by rand corporation, rand is nonpartisan organization that operates independently and free from political and commercial pressures, while rand is also research organization that develops solutions to public policy challenges to help make societies around the world safer and safer, healthier and more prosperous. the main data used in this study is data from farmer households and farmers' children. data from islamic farming households (generation-1) are used as basic data, obtained from data from ifls-1 respondents (1993) who have their main job as farmers and are muslim. generation-2 data (farmers' children) are taken from ifls-5 data (2014), with the consideration that the 21-year difference between ifls-1 and ifls-5 is sufficient time to see changes between generations. furthermore, generation-2 data (farmer's children) were obtained by tracing and searching the ifls-4 data (2014), with the criteria that the parents in ifls-1 (1993) were islamic farmers (the first-generation respondents). in this study, data analysis was performed using multiple linear regression using the following basic model (gujarati, 2012): hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 16 published by ideas spread 𝑌 = 𝛼 + ∑ 𝛽𝑖 𝑋𝑖 + 𝜀 𝑛 𝑖=1 where y represent income, 𝛼 is constant, 𝛽 is the regression coefficient of the variable, and 𝜀 is an error. furthermore, the model built in this study is the income of farmers' children as the dependent variable, and as the independent variable which includes: education, age, parents' income, agricultural land ownership, agricultural work, and religiosity (table 1), with the following notation and description: income = +1income-parent +2educ +3ages +4hh-dependent +5d_farm job +6d_farm land +7d_road quality +8d_kube +9d_industry +10praying +11reciation + table 1. variable description variable information symbol income (farmer's son) per capita income of farmer's children's household as a proxy for household per capita expenditure y income-parent (farmer/parent) parent's household per capita income as a proxy for farmer household's per capita expenditure x1 educ (farmer's son) formal education that has been taken by the children of farmers x2 age (farmer's son) farmer's son age x3 hh-dependent (farmer's son) the number of dependents in the household of the farmer's child, is the number of household members who do not work x4 d_farm job (farmer's son) dummy field of work from a farmer's son 1= work in the agricultural sector 0= other x5 d_farm land (farmer's son) dummy ownership of farmland from farmer's son 1 = owns agricultural land 0= other x6 d_road quality (farmer's son) dummy of road quality in his village area. 1= asphalt/cement/paved road 0= land/ other x7 d_kube (farmer's son) dummy for the existence of the joint business group (kube) program in his village area 1= ever had a kub program 0= other x8 d_industry (farmer's son) dummy the presence of factories/industries in the village area 1= there is a factory/industry 0= other x9 praying ceremony (farmer's son) frequency / how many times to pray in a day x10 recitation (farmer's son) frequency / how many times to attend the recitation in a period of 1 week x11 3. result and discussion the number of farmer households that were sampled was 819 (table 2), which was obtained from search on ifls1. the average age of farmers at the time the survey was carried out was 46 years, this age is in the productive age category. based on data, their average education has not yet fully completed elementary level education (sd) with an average of 5.5 years of education. when compared with the government's population program which prioritizes 2 children enough, the size of the farmer's household is considered exceeding, with an average household size of 5.4. based on the ownership of agricultural land, only small percentage of farmer households own agricultural land, which is only 29%. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 17 published by ideas spread table 2. characteristics of farmers and farmers' children description farmer's household farmer's children household average difference test age (year) 46.4 34.40 t = -44.5839*** education level (year) 3.47 8.83 t = 36.6565*** household size (person) 5.43 3.46 t = -32.4264*** work in agriculture (%) 100 37.3 farming land ownership (%) 29 18 note : *** p<0.01, **p<0.05, *p<0.1 farmer children's households, which were obtained from searches in ifls-5, were found to be 1162 (table 3). on average, these households had household head in the productive age of 34 years, although they were the same in the productive age, the average age of the farmer children was younger. the education of the children of farmers has increased significantly when compared to the education of their parents, the average education that has been taken by the children of farmers is 8.8 years. based on these figures indicate that on average of them have completed elementary school education but have not fully completed junior high school level. the number of household members (household size) of children of farmers is significantly smaller than the size of the household of their parents. in general, large household size will contain large household burden and vice versa, so that this indicates that the household burden of farmers' children is smaller than their parents. in terms of the main livelihood, most of the children of farmers have main job outside of agriculture, there are only small number of children who have main job as farmer, which is around 37.3%. the average household income of farmers is idr 34,379. of the respondent farmer households, by referring to the poverty line set by the government at that time (1993) which was idr 32,000/cap/month, there were small proportion of farmer households included in the poor category (37%) and the rest, namely 63% fall into the category of not poor. judging from the characteristics, the age of the head of the household between poor and nonpoor households is not significantly different (table 3). based on the level of education and household size, between poor and non-poor farmer households there is significant difference, namely the education level of the head of household from poor farmer households is lower, while the household size of poor farmer households is larger. table 3. characteristics of farmers and children of poor and non-poor farmers description average average difference test farmer's household poor not poor − age (year) 46.55 36.41 t = -0.1949ns − education level (year) 2.89 3.79 t = 5.9017*** − household size (person) 5.92 5.18 t = -6.7973*** − farming land ownership (%) 26 30 farmer's children's household − age (year) 36 34 t = -1.9957** − education level (year) 6.4 9 t = 4.2881*** − household size (person) 4.47 3.4 t = -4.7913*** − work in agriculture (%) 54 36 note : *** p<0.01, **p<0.05, *p<0.1 furthermore, in terms of income, based on the calculation of the amount of the poverty line figure that has been set by the government in that year (2014) which is idr 327,587, then there are 5% still in the category of poor households, in general the situation is much better than the conditions in the generation of their parents where 37% are in the category of poor households. if we look at the differences in the prominent characteristics that are reflected between the households of farmer children who are in the poor and non-poor categories, these are: in terms of education, the average poor farmer only completes elementary school level education (sd) while the average non-poor farmer has completed education at the level of junior secondary education (smp); in terms of household size, poor households have more household members, generally larger household size indicates larger hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 18 published by ideas spread household burden as well; in the household group, most of the children in the poor category have their main job in agriculture, while in the non-poor group most of them have main job outside of agriculture. figure 3. flow of generation of farmer's children the total sample farmer households are 819, most of the farmer households are included in the non-poor category, namely 63%, and the remaining 37% are farmer households in the poor category. if we explore further by income category, the flow of generation from farmer to farmer's children (figure 3) showed that both poor and non-poor farming households produce new generation that is categorized as poor and not poor as well. based on the calculation results, poor farmer households will form household generation of children of farmers, 9% of which are categorized as poor and 91% are not poor, while in the flow of non-poor farmer households will form household generation of farmer children with 3% including households poor and 97% not poor. 3.1 factors influencing farmer's children's income the relationship between parents' income and children's income is an important issue in development planning (solon, 2004), it is also very necessary in order to formulate programs and policies so that programs and policies that are prepared and implemented have stronger and more comprehensive basis (purbowati, 2018). in this study, it was found that in all the models built, parental income is one of the variables that has significant positive (robust) effect on the income of farmers' children (table 4). this shows that there is significant and robust relationship (robust) between the income of the farmer's children and the income of their parents (figure 4). the relationship shown is positive, which indicates that partially farmers with high incomes (rich) will have the potential to produce children with high incomes, and conversely farmers with low incomes (poor) will tend to produce children with low incomes as well. similar research also revealed that parental income has positive effect on children's income (bevis & barrett, 2015; dang, 2020). parent’s income is also strong predictor of children's success in the labor hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 19 published by ideas spread market (gregg et al., 2019), this happens because in general rich parents invest more in their children, so that in the future their children's income will be higher (bevis & barrett, 2015). this situation also strengthens the indication of fairly strong transfer of wealth between parents and their children. table 4. regression results in various estimation models (model) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) variables income income income income income income income_parent 0.194*** 0.226*** 0.226*** 0.209*** 0.208*** 0.204*** (0.0336) (0.0322) (0.0322) (0.0320) (0.0320) (0.0320) education 0.0326*** 0.0208*** 0.0207*** 0.0172*** 0.0172*** 0.0185*** (0.00456) (0.00444) (0.00444) (0.00440) (0.00439) (0.00440) age -0.00822*** -0.00827*** -0.00709*** -0.00679*** -0.00587** (0.00241) (0.00242) (0.00239) (0.00249) (0.00251) hh_dependent -0.181*** -0.181*** -0.177*** -0.176*** -0.177*** (0.0164) (0.0164) (0.0160) (0.0161) (0.0160) d_farm_job -0.230*** -0.238*** -0.232*** (0.0377) (0.0380) (0.0379) d_farm_land 0.0170 0.0974** 0.103** 0.0954** (0.0449) (0.0457) (0.0458) (0.0461) d_road_quality -0.0230 -0.0223 (0.0239) (0.0242) d_kube 0.0197 0.0192 (0.0151) (0.0151) d_industry 0.0621 0.0603 (0.0456) (0.0458) praying -0.0146 (0.0343) reciation -0.0375*** (0.0141) constant 11.39*** 11.78*** 11.77*** 12.01*** 11.99*** 12.11*** (0.337) (0.327) (0.328) (0.328) (0.334) (0.338) observations 1.069 1.069 1.069 1.069 1.069 1.069 r-squared 0.098 0.226 0.226 0.249 0.252 0.258 note : robust standard errors in parentheses ; *** p<0.01, **p<0.05, *p<0.1 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 20 published by ideas spread figure 4. regression diagnostic plots the education of children of farmers shows very important role in the income of children of farmers. based on the results of the calculation of the education variable of the farmer's child which is calculated based on the formal education taken, it has positive influence with very high and strong significance on the income he earns, it can be seen from the significant influence of the education variable on all models used. this illustrates that the higher the level of education obtained during childhood, the more potential to obtain high incomes, and vice versa, low education will lead to low incomes in adulthood. several studies also reveal the same thing as follows: in the case of fisherman households, poor households due to their low level of education (tain, 2013). education is the main factor influencing chronic poverty (jalan & ravallion, 1998). improvements in the level of education will be followed by an increase in income (wong, 2019). education is one of the factors that play an important role in increasing income in rural area (liao, 2019), upgrading skill in workplace (simard-duplain & st-denis, 2020), and economic mobility (belfield et al., 2017; chuard & grassi, 2020; corak & heisz, 1999; gong et al., 2012; khalid, 2018; pohan 2013), so that parental investment in children's education and work itself has an important role in triggering an increase in intergenerational income (jin et al., 2019). thus, the role of education in efforts to increase income and alleviate poverty in the scope of the children of farmers is important, increasing education in childhood is believed to lead to an increase in income in later adulthood. age is also variable that has significant negative effect on the income of farmers' children, which means that the older the age, the lower the potential income, the meaning that can be obtained is that the productivity of labor related to the older income will decrease from and up to certain limits. this situation is in accordance with the normal cycle of labor, basically the potential for labor productivity will increase along with the age of work experience to the limit of productive age, then after exceeding the productive age, the productivity of the workforce -2 -1 0 1 2 e ( in c o m e | x ) -2 -1 0 1 2 e( i_parent | x ) coef = .20358313, (robust) se = .03196844, t = 6.37 -2 -1 0 1 2 e ( in c o m e | x ) -10 0 10 20 e( education | x ) coef = .01849031, (robust) se = .00439621, t = 4.21 -2 -1 0 1 2 e ( in c o m e | x ) -20 -10 0 10 20 30 e( age | x ) coef = -.00587074, (robust) se = .00251347, t = -2.34 -2 -1 0 1 2 e ( in c o m e | x ) -4 -2 0 2 4 e( hh_dependent | x ) coef = -.17730042, (robust) se = .01598147, t = -11.09 -2 -1 0 1 2 e ( in c o m e | x ) -1 -.5 0 .5 1 e( d_farm_job | x ) coef = -.23246897, (robust) se = .03791392, t = -6.13 -2 -1 0 1 2 e ( in c o m e | x ) -.5 0 .5 1 e( d_farm_land | x ) coef = .09540165, (robust) se = .04610177, t = 2.07 -2 -1 0 1 2 e ( in c o m e | x ) -2 -1 0 1 2 e( d_road_quality | x ) coef = -.02233446, (robust) se = .02420797, t = -.92 -2 -1 0 1 2 e ( in c o m e | x ) -2 -1 0 1 2 3 e( d_kube | x ) coef = .0191553, (robust) se = .0151128, t = 1.27 -2 -1 0 1 2 e ( in c o m e | x ) -1 -.5 0 .5 1 e( d_industri | x ) coef = .06029077, (robust) se = .0457591, t = 1.32 -2 -1 0 1 2 e ( in c o m e | x ) -2 -1 0 1 e( shalat | x ) coef = -.01456122, (robust) se = .03427529, t = -.42 -2 -1 0 1 2 e ( in c o m e | x ) -2 0 2 4 e( pengajian | x ) coef = -.03747395, (robust) se = .01408491, t = -2.66 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 21 published by ideas spread will continue to decrease. in this study, the average age of the farmer's children at the time of the survey was 34.4 years, that age was in the productive age group. household burden is the number of household members who are dependents or burdens in the household because the household members in question do not have income. this fact reveals that the increase in productivity and household income will not be triggered by increasing household burdens, on the contrary what happens is that the greater the household burden, the greater the economic burden that must be borne by the household income, which will mean getting poorer. based on the calculations that have been carried out, the average household burden that occurs is 1.8, which means that in each household, there is an economic burden of 1.8 people. in this regard, the efforts that have been made by the government are family planning (kb) programs. results found that working in the agricultural sector is significant factor that negatively affects the income he earns, this indicates that working outside the agricultural sector will be more likely to increase income, only a small proportion of households own agricultural land (18%) while the rest, namely most households (82%) do not own agricultural land. similar studies reveal that leaving the agricultural sector is not solution to improve the welfare of farmers (moeis et al., 2020), reflecting on this, switching from the agricultural sector is not the right effort to increase income, of course, for households who have agricultural land, besides that from more comprehensive perspective, the agricultural sector is the only sector that produces basic food staples. for the survival of human life, whose availability will also greatly affect other sectors and conditions. in the agricultural sector, especially farming, one of the main production factors is agricultural land in addition to labor, technology and capital, so that the area of agricultural land will affect the amount of production and income that farmers will generate. owning agricultural land is one of the parameters that has significant positive effect on the level of household income of children of farmers. partially, households that have agricultural land will have better income than households that do not have agricultural land. this indicates that agricultural land is one of the resource assets that has economic potential, with proper management and exploitation it will be able to generate better income. the existence of good and adequate transportation infrastructure, one of which is intended to facilitate and expedite the flow of people, goods and services from or to the region, so that in the next stage it is believed to have the opportunity to provide the potential for increasing economic activity in the region which leads to an increase in the income of the people around the region. the. most of the road infrastructure in the village area is paved or paved (59%), and the rest is dirt roads (41%). in this study, the existence of infrastructure in the form of asphalt or paved village roads does not appear to have significant effect on increasing income. based on these results, the joint business group (kube) is one of the programs formed and implemented by the indonesian government under the management of the ministry of social affairs in an effort to alleviate poverty through community economic empowerment. in fact, in this study, the results showed that the existence of kube in the region had not been able to significantly have positive impact on household income. several related things that are suspected to hinder the successful performance of kube in general are because the management of program implementation starting from planning, organizing, directing and controlling is still weak (sitepu, 2016). this situation has resulted in the existence of kube in the field not lasting long and the business being built not developing, which is more specifically caused by: (a) the establishment of kube is impromptu; (b) minimal socialization prior to the implementation of activities; (c) tends to be top down; (d) miss targeting; (e) the type of business is not compatible with local resources; (f) the type of business is not in accordance with the habits (culture) of the community; (g) business management (trade) is not appropriate; (h) the division of labor is not deemed unfair; (i) seeds (livestock) are too small; (j) less reliable companion; (k) supervision is not optimal, where these factors are interrelated with each other (sitepu, 2016). in line with the rapid development of technology, the growth of non-agricultural sectors such as industry, trade, services, etc. is growing rapidly, which of course requires supply of labor. opportunities and opportunities to work in these sectors are also growing quite rapidly along with its development. so theoretically, the existence of factory/processing industry in the village area is expected to be able to move the wheels of the economy in the region through the absorption of resources, labor and lead to the growth of activities/activities supporting the industry. most of the respondents live in rural areas where there are no factories/processing industries, there are about 35% of the respondents in their village areas where there are factories/processing industries. based on the results of the analysis, the existence of factory/processing industry does not significantly increase the household income of the respondents. lack of access, ability, or capacity of human resources around the factory/processing industry area to fill labor needs or capture opportunities for economic activity may be one of the causes. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 22 published by ideas spread 3.2 religiosity the dynamics of economic activity are related to the values contained in religion. religion has the potential to play central role in supporting those in poverty, through spiritual assistance and guidance, as well as providing resilience mechanisms at both the individual and community levels. adhering to the nature of the values of his faith, religion is important to encourage efforts to alleviate poverty, namely through strengthening motivation in increasing productivity (tomalin, 2018). basically, religion has an important role in the development and maintenance of vital and just economy, this is because healthy economy requires everyone to view each other with dignity, not as objects of exploitation, this is because religion urges people/followers to respect divinity in their life. every human being regardless of class or cultural background, its relationship in the economic field of religion encourages free competition, protection of property rights, and encourages people to share and behave well towards one another (davies a., 2004;vieten et al., 2013). religiosity is person's parameter in believing and practicing the religion he adheres to, religiosity is defined as person's belief in god and commitment to act in accordance with the principles of his religion (bakar et al., 2013; ilter et al., 2017). furthermore, religiosity will also describe the extent to which followers of one religion accept and carry out the teachings and commands mandated by the religion they profess (ilter et al., 2017; mayer & lopoo, 2004; yousaf & malik, 2013; delener, 1990). according to glock (1962), religiosity includes an ideological dimension (religious beliefs), ritualistic dimension (religious practice), an experiential dimension (feelings of religiosity), an intellectual dimension (religious knowledge), and consequence dimension (religious effects). most of indonesia's population is muslim, which in 2020 covers 87.2% (global religious futures, 2020). regarding the main points of islamic teachings, islam has taught and provided guidance to its people so that humans try to live balanced life, paying attention to the welfare of life in the world and the safety of life in the hereafter. working hard to achieve an adequate life is an act that is highly recommended in islam. islam does not want to see its people lazy and do not want to try. achievement on prosperous life in the world, islam has taught how economic resources can be utilized optimally and correctly within the framework of islam. working hard is guide of muslim as mentioned in surah at-taubah (9:105): "work you, surely allah and his messenger and the believers will see your work, and you will be returned to allah, then he will give you what you used to do.” muslim must work seriously and should not sit idly by in his life as has been guided by the holy qur'an in surah asy syarh (94:7) which means: "so when you are in you are busy), then work earnestly until you are tired, or establish (new problems) so that they become real. next, as a muslim, in order to achieve better situation, you must try to change yourself seriously, because allah does not change the condition of people so that they change the situation that is in themselves, as has been guided by the qur'an, one of which is in surah ar-ra'. d: 11, which means: "for humans there are angels who always follow him in turn, in front and behind him, they guard him by allah's command. verily allah does not change the condition of people until they change the situation that is in themselves. and if allah wills evil for people, then no one can resist it and there is absolutely no protector for them but him." prayer and recitation are practice parameters (ritualistic dimensions) of religiosity that are included in the model. in fact, the results of the analysis show that prayer does not have significant effect on increasing income, this is possible because prayer is one of the dimensions of the relationship between man and his god so that it does not significantly affect activities related to economic activities. what is quite interesting here is the recitation, which based on the results of the processing shows significant negative effect on household income. this is in line with the findings which reveal that religiosity is negatively related to gdp (solt et al., 2011; storm, 2017). there is strong negative relationship between religiosity and productivity (herzer & strulik, 2017), but there are also studies that reveal that religiosity will reduce the negative impact of inequality (joshanloo & weijers, 2016), also has positive effect on welfare (awaworyi churchill et al., 2019). religion is recognized as having strong role in influencing the lives of individuals (diener et al., 2011; vieten et al., 2013). apart from that, it is absolutely believed that the comprehensive teachings of islam will essentially encourage the development and development of self and society as whole. in the sense that religiosity (religious) activities will not have negative effect on efforts to achieve economic (income) but on the contrary these activities become driving force and encouragement for activities because islam has taught mankind not to be lazy, work hard and earnestly in activities within the framework of worshiping allah swt. the presence of the finding that recitation activities have negative effect on income, brings awareness that these activities should be carried out using enriched courses that comprehensively raise and encourage productivity balanced manner in accordance with the guidelines and rules in islam. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 23 published by ideas spread 4. conclusion in general, farmer children's households have better economic potential than their parents because they have younger and productive age, higher education levels and smaller household burdens. there are poor farmer households that tend to produce higher percentage of the poor generation, because in poor households 9% of their children are poor, while in non-poor farmers only 3% of their children are poor. the income of parents (farmers) is one of the determining factors and plays an important role in the formation of children's income, because it is statistically strong (robust) and significantly positive. the education of farmers' children is one of the factors that is statistically robust and significantly positive, these results convince us that the higher the level of education, the higher the level of income obtained. in terms of children of farmers, other variables that have significant effect on the income of children of farmers are: age, household burden, working in agriculture, owning agricultural land, and religiosity-religion. in more detail, the effects of these variables are: age has negative effect, household burden has negative effect, working in agriculture has negative effect, owning agricultural land has positive effect, and religiosity-religion has negative effect. references awaworyi churchill, s., appau, s., & farrell, l. 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(2021). the priorities of leading sub-sector in the sector of agriculture, forestry, and fisheries in economic development in bangka belitung province. agraris, 7(2), 160175. https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.11615 tomalin, e. (2018). religions, poverty reduction and global development institutions. palgrave communications, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-018-0167-8 vieten, c., scammell, s., pilato, r., ammondson, i., pargament, k. i., & lukoff, d. (2013). spiritual and religious competencies for psychologists. psychology of religion and spirituality, 5(3), 129-144. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032699 https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-1936 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 25 published by ideas spread widodo, s. (2018). pembangunan dan politik pertanian di indonesia. in caraka tani: journal of sustainable agriculture (vol. 22, issue 1, p. 26). https://doi.org/10.20961/carakatani.v22i1.20534 wong, m. (2019). intergenerational mobility in slums: evidence from a field survey in jakarta. asian development review, 36(1), 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1162/adev_a_00121 yousaf, s., & malik, m. s. (2013). evaluating the influences of religiosity and product involvement level on the consumers. journal of islamic marketing, 4(2), 163-186. https://doi.org/10.1108/17590831311329296 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v4n3p57 57 published by ideas spread mental illness and psychiatry: the 20th and early 21st centuries paulann grech1 & reuben grech1 1 university of malta, malta correspondence: paulann grech, university of malta, malta. e-mail: paulanngrech gmail.com received: august 30, 2021; accepted: september 27, 2021; published: september 29, 2021 abstract the aim of this paper is to present the opposing views and tensions that characterised the evolution of psychiatry and understandings of mental health during the 20th century and the early decades of the 21st century. to this extent, the principal figures and entities that occupied the main fronts during these debates are presented during a description of the journey undertaken by psychiatry during the aforementioned years. quotes from various original texts or their translations have been included in an attempt to recreate the spirit of the periods under study. this historical exploration provides further insight into the multifaceted world of mental health, its illnesses, treatments and the role of a number of influencing bodies that were crucial into shaping this discipline across the centuries. keywords: critical psychiatry, mental health, mental illness, psychiatry, twentieth century 1. introduction the status of mental illness during the middle ages and prior to the 18th century is one that triggered many questions and contemporary debates. psychiatry has attempted to provide various explanations to that which had been perceived as mystical and bizarre. finally, it resulted in the structuring of clinical categories and management pathways that dictate treatment and care. this paper is intended to trace the origins of mental illness and psychiatry with a focus on the concept of psychiatric diagnosis as it evolved during the 20th century and the early decades of the 21st century. it has been divided into two parts – the first part (i) is dedicated to a historical review of psychiatric diagnosis with particular emphasis on kraepelinian dichotomy and the neo-kraepelinians. the second part (ii) is constituted by a critical discussion of opposing views and tensions in relation to the validity and benefit of a psychiatric diagnostic system – here reference is made to mainstream psychiatry as well as various movements such as anti-psychiatry and critical psychiatry as well as the user movement. i). a brief history of psychiatric diagnosis psychoanalysis, psychodynamics and kraepelinian dichotomy the fundamental debate and the foundations of the psychiatric discipline are rooted in the quest to define and conceptualise mental illness in an attempt to erect clear boundaries between normality and madness. in his comprehensive work about the history of psychiatry, shorter (1997) recounted how psychoanalytic and psychotherapuetic theories dominated the post-asylum era and the biological approaches that featured in the 19th century. for more than half a century, freud’s ideas were at the forefront of explanations that tended to focus on social and non-biological explanations of symptoms related to mental illness. this approach centred around the contention that actions and thoughts are often controlled by forces that can only be explored through a process of psychoanalysis. although the profound effect of freud has seeped into today’s psychiatry, the major critique surrounding this school of thought is that freud’s theories were simply his, because they could not be studied empirically and so lack scientific validity (brace, 2006). kraepelin, a german psychiatrist, was one of the critics who shunned freud’s psychoanalytic postulations, in favour of biological and pathological understandings of mental illnesses (kraepelin & diefendorf, 1902). in this way, he opted to consider mental illness as a state of predisposition to stressful events in life. this led him to contend that “so-called psychic causes – unhappy love, failure in business, overwork – are the product rather than the cause of the disease, that they are but the outward manifestation of a pre-existing condition” (kraepelin, 1962, p.132). in addition to his studies about the use of psychiatric drugs for treatment of disorders related to the nervous system (pharmacopsychology), kraepelin’s pioneer work lies in his classification of mental illness. the first form of a classification and diagnostic system which ultimately led to the american psychiatric association (apa)’s diagnostic and statistical manual (dsm) is still widely in use today (hacking, 2013). this was fuelled by kraepelin’s interest in using empirical methods in the exploration and description of mental disorders. following hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 58 published by ideas spread years of observing patients and recording symptoms related to mental illness, kraepelin introduced the innovative kraepelinian dichotomy which initially constituted two main divisions: manic-depressive psychosis (nowadays termed bipolar disorder) and dementia praecox (later renamed as schizophrenia) (kraepelin, 1962). in a critical appraisal of the history of psychiatry, decker (2007) highlighted the events that took place during the 1880 s and 1890 s, when kraepelin slowly grouped symptoms and categorised them for publication in compendium der psychiatrie (kraepelin, 1962). one of krapelin’s main strengths was his prowess as a descriptive author, as seen by the colourful manner by which he described the symptoms. although one of the main criticisms of kraepelin’s work centres around observer bias and the validity of preconceived notions, one must note that kraepelin was aware of the importance of experimental psychiatry and he had designed his own methods of testing mental reactions to various substances and external factors. notably, kraepelin advised that psychiatrists should refrain from focusing on the origins of illness and from postulating a diagnosis but should instead focus on the observation of the symptoms and description of the manifestations (decker, 2007, p.340). this bears resemblance to one of the pillars of contemporary psychiatry the recovery movement which affords more consideration to addressing and describing symptoms rather than placing diagnosis at the hub of care (roberts, 2011). decker commented that kraepelin’s view point seemed to change over time since in the fifth edition of his book psychiatrie, he indulged in the aetiology of dementia praecox. a notable aspect about kraepelin is that throughout the course of his life, he often reflected upon his work and even admitted that his proposed nosology was not definite and subject to scrutiny. in response to critique by meyer, kraepelin acknowledged a further shortcoming in that he did not review existing literature in order to substantiate his work. following the second world war, kraepelin´s approach waned in popularity in favour of environmental and psychological movements. in particular, psychologists were required in the treatment of shell shock especially in view of the fact that psychiatrists were short in supply (reisman, 1991) and soon after, psychotherapy was added to the discipline (routh, 2000). the neo-kraepelinians the psychoanalytic and psychodynamic thinking that dominated the scene in the 1940 s was characterised by a negative perception of psychiatric diagnosis in that it could be harmful to patients (kendler, munoz & murphy, 2009). for instance, beck, ward, mendelson, mock and erbaugh (1962) reviewed systematic studies of the reliability of psychiatric diagnosis and reported an agreement of only 54 percent for specific diagnoses. similarly, studies by sandifer, pettus & quade (1964) and schmidt & fonda (1956) revealed agreement in just half of the cases between two independent opinions on diagnosis of a group of patients. kendell (2004) narrated how during the same period, a group of psychiatrists at washington university were preoccupied with the fact that the psychological approach that had gained popularity lacked a scientific base. in the 1960s and early 1970s, these psychiatrists, who became known as the neo-kraepelins expressed their dissatisfaction with a discipline that seemed to be unstructured, non-medical and non-scientific. their preoccupation with these flaws led to an echo of kraepelin’s fundamental belief that only an empirical, biologically-based evidence base can improve the outcomes for those who exhibited symptoms related to mental illness (decker, 2007). once again, a cautionary note against over-emphasis on aetiology was made due to the lack of knowledge about the origin and causation of most psychiatric disorders. the culmination of these hypotheses and assumptions led to a paper published in the archives of general psychiatry (feighner, robins, guze, woodruff, winokur & munoz, 1972). the paper outlined a review of 1000 articles which formed the background of a proposal for new criteria for psychiatric disorders. the objective of such an extensive review was to present a diagnostic system that was based on evidence as opposed to “opinion or tradition” and described by the authors of the paper as “the most efficient currently available” (feighner et al.). in agreement, macalpine and hunter (1974) stated that: the lesson of the history of psychiatry is that progress is inevitable and irrevocable from psychology to neurology, from mind to brain, never the other way round. every medical advance adds to the list of diseases which may cause mental derangement. the abnormal mental state is not the disease, nor its essence or determinant but an epiphenomenon. this is why psychological theories and therapies, which held out such promise at the turn of the century when so much less was known of localisation of function in the brain, have added so little to the treatment understanding of mental illness despite all the effort devoted to them (p. 256). furthermore, the new categorisation was fuelled by the follow up of case studies and rigorous observation of the course of psychiatric illness. this was a sharp contrast to the dsm-ii which centred around psychoanalysis as well as a committee’s judgement and experience (spitzer & fleiss, 1974). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 59 published by ideas spread klerman (1978, pp.104-105) suggested nine tenets as the basis of the neo-kraepelinian movement: psychiatry is a branch of medicine. psychiatry should utilize modern scientific methodologies and base its practice on scientific knowledge. psychiatry treats people who are sick and who require treatment. there is a boundary between the normal and the sick. there are discrete mental illnesses. they are not myths, and there are many of them. the focus of psychiatric physicians should be on the biological aspects of illness. there should be an explicit and intentional concern with diagnosis and classification. diagnostic criteria should be codified, and a legitimate and valued area of research should be to validate them. statistical techniques should be used to improve reliability and validity. as a result of this movement, the dsm-ii was revised and its revolutionary sequel was produced as directed by the influential psychiatrist robert spitzer (decker, 2007). the dsm system has paved the way for a modern diagnostic system and its use has spread widely in the field of psychiatry. however, subsequent publications were characterised by opposing views that challenge validity and reliability, especially in the most recent launch of the dsm v. in kendler et al.’s words: “there is, we suggest, a healthy dialectical tension between nomothetic (lawbased) and ideographic (individual case) approaches to psychiatry and between scientific exp lanation and psychological understanding” (kendler et al., 2009). this tension shall be explored in the next section as part of the critique of the concept of a psychiatric diagnostic system and its implications. ii). diagnostic criticism: a matter of pseudo-science? diagnostic criteria have indeed been the subject of controversy (summerfield, 2008). diverse perceptions have ranged from an exclusively clinical psychiatric model of diagnosis to theorists who posited that psychiatry and its alleged ability to diagnose disorders is simply a fabrication or a myth. the psychiatric model proposed by spitzer and colleagues that has been described in the previous section has found some acceptance and the dsm series has now reached its fifth publication (apa, 2014). similarly, the psychiatric diagnostic system proposed by the world health organisation (who) as seen in the international classification of diseases (icd) manual, is now in its eleventh edition. the psychiatric model that features in the dsm 5 and the icd 11 continues to have both critics and advocates. one of the critics summerfield (2008) discussed the significance of culture – a case in point being the south african ailment of thinking too much which has similar symptoms to depressive disorder but a different meaning in this particular culture. this led summerfield (2008) to state that “western psychological discourse is setting out to instruct, regulate, and modernise, presenting as definitive the contemporary western way of being a person. it is unclear why this should be good for mental health in africa or asia” (p.993). in an exploration of some of the debates surrounding the medical model, szasz (2010) described how diagnostic subjectivity, the boundaries of normality, coercion, conceptual disputes about the mind and brain, freedom and other human rights have generated the anti-psychiatry movement that saw its rise in the 1960 s. in their review of critical psychiatry, bracken and thomas (2010) explored how the contradictions and disagreements in psychiatry which gave rise to the anti-psychiatry movement during the 1960s and 1970s, still feature in the contemporary mental health field, having now progressed to a critical psychiatry perspective and most recently a postpsychiatry viewpoint. in a parallel fashion to this movement, groups of ex-patients have expressed their dissatisfaction with mainstream medicine by forming survivor groups. these are often characterised by a quasi-militant approach to the psychiatric discipline by a group of individuals who consider themselves as survivors of traumatic and oppressive medical practice (wallcraft & bryant, 2003). these movements and groups, as well as other prominent ones, shall be explored in further detail in this section. the aim of this section of the review is not that of indulging in a crusade against conventional psychiatry. instead, some of the main debates and movements that characterise the mental health field shall be discussed and critiqued. 2. the antipsychiatry movement desai (2005) noted that despite the emphasis on regarding psychiatry as a branch of medicine, it is characterised by striking differences from the other areas found within medical practice. as a case in point, the idea of antihssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 60 published by ideas spread cardiology, for instance, is not plausible, whereas the area of anti-psychiatry is a well-defined movement that has a definite place in society. one may relate this to the historical cinderella status of psychiatry. however, on further thought, such open hostility towards psychiatry, such as that expressed by thomas szasz, may well be led by the lack of tacit evidence regarding the practices of this discipline: this view rests on a serious, albeit simple, error: it rests on mistaking or confusing what is real with what is imitation; literal meaning with metaphorical meaning; medicine with morals. in other words, i maintain that mental illness is a metaphorical disease (szasz, 2007, p.6). the works by szasz and other prominent figures in the anti-psychiatry movement, such as r.d. laing and david cooper, shall be explored in further detail in a later part in this section of the review. in a series of papers dedicated to the evidence-base of psychiatry, critical psychiatrists bracken and thomas (1999) scrutinised the medical model that has been prominent in unearthing the aetiology of a number of psychological disturbances. the authors postulated that an error may have been made when the medical model was extensively applied to all forms of psychological disturbances in a quest to prove that these symptoms were part of a specific mental illness that had a physical basis and could be treated likewise. in their publications, bracken and thomas mentioned schizophrenia as a typical example and labelled it as the raison d’être of psychiatry – a disorder that has been researched and stripped of human experience in order to form a biomedical picture. they also reasoned that although neuroscientific advances may fill the evidence gap, accurate and practical diagnostic tests are still fantasies that have yet to be actualised. hence diagnosis is still mainly reliant on professional observation making it susceptible to subjective bias and political influence. bracken and thomas (1999) identified the power imbalance that the medical model creates within the therapeutic alliance and stated that there is a need for “a fundamental shift in the power relationship between doctor and patient. psychiatry has to hand over responsibility for psychosis to those who experience psychosis. those who experience psychosis must be prepared to accept that responsibility” (para. 4). in one of his works about learning difficulties and society, goodley (2001) expressed similar misgivings about the notion of power that characterises the social model of disability and impairment. he contended that “society creates disablement and is the arbiter of disciplinary powers that (re)produce pathological understandings of different bodies and minds” (p.210). in the same paper, goodley (2001) elaborated on support interventions found within a continuum of deficit at one end and capacity at the other end. this views individuals with learning difficulties in terms of levels of competence/ incompetence and of a model based on pathology, problems and incapability. the anti-psychiatry movement, which began to form in the 1960s, mirrored this observation and raised several questions pertaining to the perceived robustness of the newly constructed psychiatric discipline (desai, 2005). prior to delving deeper into the diagnostic challenge, the history of the anti-psychiatry movement is going to be explored with focus on the main phases and viewpoints that characterise this movement. desai (2005) described how the first of the major steps in the anti-psychiatry direction was taken by a science fiction writer, l. ron hubbard, who, in 1950, founded the church of scientology (p.185). in 1969, the citizens commission of human rights (cchr) was founded by scientology in an attempt to unveil the perceived evils practiced by psychiatry: “to expose and eradicate the brutalization of patients in the name of ‘mental health’. over the years, the citizens commission has investigated and exposed thousands upon thousands of cases of psychiatric negligence, abuse and brutality” (scientology.org, 2014). hubbard’s preoccupation with what he clearly perceived as being barbaric practice was communicated through a number of his publications. he believed that psychiatry is a worldwide conspiracy run by the union of soviet socialists republic (ussr). a critical point regarding these assumptions follows the power issues that seem to lie behind such claims. it is felt that while hubbard’s attack on psychiatry’s lack of consideration for the spiritual aspect may be well placed, whether scientological practices have a positive outcome on the course of mental illnesses has yet to be proven. cases such as the notorious one of lisa mcpherson who was brought dead to hospital following introspection rundown – a scientological spiritual technique that attempts to treat florid psychosis, fuels doubt in this regard (kendell et al., 2004). the second wave of the antipsychiatry movement saw the involvement of professionals such as psychiatrists and sociologists who questioned the basis of psychiatric diagnosis and treatment as well as the coercive authority linked to it (desai, 2005). adolf meyer had been one of the earliest 20th century leading figures who opposed the use of diagnostic criteria as a primary and sole means of diagnosing mental illness. contrasting with similar movements that challenged conventional psychiatry, meyer did not distinguish between mental disturbances that should be dealt with by the medical profession and those that should be treated as social problems (meyer, 1952). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 61 published by ideas spread echoing the views of other radicalists such as szasz (1974), meyer (1952) endeavoured to explain schizophrenia in terms of maladaptation to life experiences and an unhealthy lifestyle: “living in ways which put their mind and the entire organism and its activity in jeopardy” (p.4). one of meyer’s concerns was that psychiatric practice lacked scientific evidence (meyer, 1952). in order to partially address this issue, he postulated reaction-type systems that served the purpose of a structured analysis of abnormal responses and remarked that psychiatry should be more organised and disciplined. he proposed a classification system that was “a wide range of facts usually left to untrained common-sense, but now available as a more and more organised body of facts, methods of study and methods of therapeutic procedure” (meyer, 1952, iii, 44). meyer’s scepticism regarding any diagnostic system as complete or as a steadfast rule featured in his works he even described his own system as not being “sufficiently settled for practical purposes” (vol. ii, p.136). the base of meyer’s contention, which is one of today’s debates in psychiatry, holds that the medical model focuses too much on bodily parts, namely the brain, and is generally reluctant to seek connections to the lived experience of the individual. meyer (1952) shunned the over-inflated importance of statistical research techniques and emphasised that a higher level of insight can be obtained through person research. an interesting point that was specifically argued by meyer (1952) was that the primary aim of the psychiatrist needs to be that of collecting the facts and not to produce a diagnosis: “if the facts do not constitute a diagnosis we must nevertheless act on the facts” (ii, 146). he cautioned against the obsession with making a diagnosis that is often aimed to satisfy the psychiatrist’s craving for tying up the symptoms in a neatly organised parcel that is linked to a ready-made treatment package (meyer, 1952). in view of approaches such as that articulated by meyer, the act of diagnosing may be understood in terms of the application of a label, leading to an erosion of an individual’s identity and medicalisation of symptoms which may be caused by non-pathological factors. yet this voice has been subjected to counterarguments by a number of service users who, through the adoption of a biological model, have found great relief in being offered a medical reason (a diagnosis) for their symptoms (huibers & wessely, 2006). despite the stigma and sick role attributed to such diagnoses, the act of having an explanation and a validation of symptoms is akin to other medical disorders and in itself, this has been a source of comfort for these individuals (fulford, broome, stanghellini & thornton, 2005). for instance, in an article about the consequences of diagnosis, heitler (2012), who is a clinical psychologist, described how one of her patients who used to be irritated by her feelings of anxiety gained more control over these symptoms by becoming aware of the clinical label of the state of anxiety: “by clinically labelling her feeling anxiety, she was able to use her new knowledge of what to do in the face of specific emotions” (para.20). this argument is also exemplified by the book an unquiet mind a compelling memoir by kay jamison (1995) who described her life as characterised by bipolar disorder. jamison clearly portrayed her acceptance of her symptoms as situated in understandings pertaining to genetics, pathology and medical imaging results. for her, the origins are solid, organic and based on scientific evidence. this has allowed her to seek the necessary treatment and progress with her life – a successful life characterised by multiple research endeavours and a professor post at johns hopkins school of medicine (jamison, 1995). although criticisms of the theory and practice of psychiatry such as those expressed by meyer have been evident throughout the nineteenth and twentieth century, it was the south african psychoanalyst david cooper who introduced the term anti-psychiatry. he stated how “a more profound questioning has led some of us to propose conceptions and procedures that seem quite antithetic to the conventional ones – in fact what may be regarded as a germinal anti-psychiatry” (cooper, 1967, p.ix). in a similar manner to meyer, cooper favoured a psychosocial approach to the origin of mental illness and attributed disorders to a dysfunctional family system. he argued that in the family, permissible behaviour is regulated through complex double-binds – this is a type of political control of the members. an interesting tangent raised by cooper involves his view that madness is in fact a process of restructuring. he argued that if this process is not interfered with, the person can emerge from the experience with gains above his pre-morbid level of functioning: “madness is a permanent revolution in the life of a person...a deconstitution of oneself with the implicit promise of return to a more fully realized world” (cooper, 1967, pp.37,51). cooper’s views seemed to echo in two simultaneous attacks on conventional psychiatry, as presented by psychoanalyst r.d. laing and psychiatrist thomas szasz. huddleston (2006) described how laing’s work featured in 1960 when following his medical training with the army, he began to doubt the use of placing psychiatric patients in deep insulin comas as well as the use of electroconvulsive therapy. it was instantly clear that his position was that of viewing mental illnesses as a normal reaction by sensitive individuals to a mad world: hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 62 published by ideas spread if the human race survives, future men will, i suspect, look back on our enlightened epoch as a veritable age of darkness. they will presumably be able to savor the irony of the situation with more amusement than we can extract from it. they will laugh on us. they will see that what we call 'schizophrenia' was one of the forms in which, often through quite ordinary people, the light began to break through the cracks in our all-too-closed minds (laing, 1967, p.107). he also ventured into comparing determinism to the more beneficial approaches of subjectivity and freedom and emphasised that cure can only happen when the individual is left free to choose. laing’s first book, namely: the divided self involved case studies that were used to challenge the notion of schizophrenia. in doing so, laing (1960) revolutionised the way that mental illness is perceived and interpreted, particularly by arguing that psychosis is not a biological ailment but a normal reaction in the face of ontological insecurity. the latter term refers to insecurities related to one’s existence and to an individual who is not able to “take the realness, aliveness, autonomy and identity of himself and others for granted" and who then embarks on a mission to avoid “losing his self” (laing, 1960, pp.41-3). laing structured this contention on the theory that our existence in the world is defined by mental models carried by ourselves about those around us. he theorised that psychosis arises when there is tension between our private inward persona and the model that we present to the world, which leads to a division of the self, as a defence mechanism. this split is characterised by the classical symptoms of schizophrenia. using his case studies and sociograms as evidence, laing discovered that the bizarre and inexplicable symptoms exhibited by patients often make sense when they are viewed against the backdrop from which they emerge. applying the concept of the double bind theory by bateson, jackson, haley and weakland (1956), laing (1960) elaborated on the fact that in malfunctioning family systems, a child can find themselves in a situation where, in order to enjoy parental affection and approval, they have to comply to a self-identity that has been constructed by their parents (p.191). this is usually different from how the child internally experiences themselves to be, which results in a dilemma and a potential psychotic response. in his later work sanity, madness and the family, laing and esterson (1964) explored how individuals interact and how this may relate to schizophrenia. essentially, this described the notion of schizophrenogenic families and included sharp criticism on the way in which institutions such as schools oppress individuals by attempting to mould their thoughts and feelings in a way that is dictated and accepted by society. in self and others, laing (1961) discussed the terms “phantasy” and “unconscious experience” which refer to the latent, internal authentic lived experience which cannot be observed by others but can only be inferred through discussion: i think of me being inside my body and at the same time the inside of my body being somehow ‘inside’ my private space. if someone comes into my room unasked he does not intrude upon me to the same extent as if he were to enter my body without permission. however since i am inside my body, my body is also outside me in some peculiar sense (p.18). the determination to challenge the validity and reliability of psychiatry was shared by psychologist and lawyer d.l. rosenhan, whose 1973 sensational article, published in the prestigious journal science was cited and quoted in debates that followed. this article on being sane in insane places was intended to indicate that american psychiatrists did not have scientific diagnostic standards and that an individual’s stay in a psychiatric hospital was an irrational experience. these views had been tested by a fascinating observational study carried out by the researcher in order to demonstrate that false diagnosis is a very real possibility in psychiatric settings. the study featured rosenhan and seven other ‘normal’ people who went to different psychiatric hospitals on an individual basis in order to attempt to be admitted. the reason that they gave for their admission request was that they were hearing voices that said “empty”, “hollow”, and “thud” (rosenhan, 1973). these invented symptoms were ones that had never featured in psychiatric diagnosis, yet, in each case, the “pseudopatients” were falsely diagnosed as suffering from a psychiatric disorder which merited admission (rosenhan, 1973, p.383). as soon as the pseudopatients were admitted, they started to behave ‘normally’ and did not report any further symptoms. the task that each individual had was to try to convince the staff that s/he had recovered and so could be discharged. the striking results showed that even though the pseudopatients had been admitted on a voluntary basis and were behaving in a perfectly normal manner, rosenhan and his collaborators were admitted for an average of 19 days (rosenhan, 1973). in one case, the admission period was nearly two months. furthermore, upon discharge, the 12 individuals were labelled as “schizophrenia in remission” and this was entered into their permanent medical record. thus, they were never certified as having truly regained their sanity (rosenhan, 1973). interestingly, rosenhan asked the study participants to take field notes about their interactions with staff members and it was instantly noted that the professionals attempted to “depersonalize” patients and avoid significant interactions with them. for instance, the pseudopatients kept a count of the responses that they were given when they approached staff hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 63 published by ideas spread members to ask questions. it could be noted that an alarmingly high number of professionals refused to make eye contact when approached or spoken to (rosenhan, 1973). rosenhan’s critics outlined various limitations related to the ethical and methodological rigour in the study such as, for instance, rosenhan’s possible inclination to inflate the negative aspects of the participants’ experiences inside the psychiatric hospital. simultaneously, szasz started to harshly question the existence of mental illness in relation to its comparison to medical disorders. szasz (2007) argued that the main difference between medicine and psychiatry can be explained by the fact that in generic medicine, disorders were discovered whereas it seemed that in psychiatry, they were simply invented (p.xv). this made them “counterfeit diseases” and “non-diseases”: “if you talk to god, you are praying; if god talks to you, you have schizophrenia” (szasz, 1973, p.101). he hypothesised that these myths were perpetuated by the state and by psychiatrists’ wish to safeguard their profession and preserve their power and control: “the state is primarily an apparatus of coercion with a monopoly of the legitimate use of violence” (szasz, 2007, p.151). szasz’s example can be taken to a further level by noting that one of the concepts in psychiatry is that of insight this refers to a person’s ability, or lack of, to recognise that s/he is suffering from a mental illness (markova & berrios, 1992). it may not be inaccurate to note that this does point towards a situation where a person’s failure to comply with mainstream psychiatric ideas may be at risk of simply being written off as lack of insight. on exploring the concept of insight in relation to recovery, timimi (2012) noted that “paradoxically, it has been found that the presence of this type of “insight” (meaning accepting you are mentally ill and need medical treatment) is negatively correlated with emotional well-being, economic satisfaction and vocational status” (sec. prognosis). szasz’s description of the notion that modern psychiatric experts invent diseases does not seem too far-fetched in view of the ever-expanding, seamless boundaries of the current systems of classification. this argument was one of many that were introduced by frances (2009) in his criticism of the dsm 5. in what has been widely considered as one of the best arguments against conventional psychiatric practice, szasz’s book: the myth of mental illness shunned the generally accepted view that mental illness is like any other bodily illness and medical speciality (szasz, 1974). the author’s critique revolved around the fact that symptoms attributed to mental illness are simply imitations due to the fact that if an ailment has to be classified as a true disease, then it has to be considered with and compared to the rest of medical practice (szasz, 1974). this refers to measurement and testing in a scientific fashion as well as pathological demonstration at the cellular or molecular level. this is a vivid contrast to how mental illnesses had been historically voted into existence by agreement amongst members of the apa – and the subsequent shaping of diagnostic labelling: every science consists of classification, control, and prediction; hence to prove psychiatry is a science, the psychiatrist classifies, controls, predicts. the result is that he classifies people as mad; that he confines them as dangerous (to themselves or others); and that he predicts people's behaviour, robbing them of their free will and hence of their very humanity (szasz, 1973, p. 115). szasz (1960) contended that although the manifestation of mental disturbances may resemble pathological diseases, they are simply but wholly, problems in living and in morality: “our adversaries are not demons, witches, fate, or mental illness. we have no enemy whom we can fight, exorcise, or dispel by ‘cure’. what we do have are problems in living — whether these be biologic, economic, political, or sociopsychological” (p.115). another area that held the focus of szasz’s criticism was involuntary mental hospitalisation. in a 2006 documentary film called psychiatry: an industry of death, szasz emphasised that involuntary mental hospitalization is a crime against humanity which can easily result in “pharmacratic” dictatorship (cchr, 2005). this view shares a number of similarities to foucault’s critique of the penalty system and the self-regulation process induced by constant supervision. foucault’s works shall be explored in further detail later in this section but as a final note, it has to be added that szasz’s views also resemble foucault’s in the sociological origin of mental illness. for instance, szasz (1970) discussed how “in the past, men created witches: now they create mental patients” (p.xxiv). similarly, in madness and civilisation, foucault (1961/2013) noted that: leprosy disappeared, the leper vanished, or almost, from memory; these structures remained. often, in these same places, the formulas of exclusion would be repeated, strangely similar two or three centuries later. poor vagabonds, criminals, and "deranged minds" would take the part played by the leper (p.5). it has to be noted that, as described in an article by buchanan-parker and barker (2009), szasz has often been misinterpreted. in fact, he has been frequently wrongly associated with the anti-psychiatry movement of the 1960s and 1970s. szasz (2009) himself pointed out that he is only opposed to the practice of coercive psychiatry – on the other hand, he is in favour of a contractual psychiatric service between consenting adults with no involvement of hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 64 published by ideas spread the state. moreover, in his book antipsychiatry: quackery squared, he criticised the anti-psychiatry movement and regarded it as an imitation of psychiatry: antipsychiatrists imitated psychiatrists by means of a childish negativism: they constructed antitheories of schizophrenia, which they called ‘existential-phenomenological accounts of madness’, established anti-hospitals, which they called ‘households’ and defined as ‘ideal psychiatric communities’ and provided psychiatric treatment which they called ‘trips’, that often entailed the use of mind-altering (psychotropic) drugs (szasz, 2009, p.4). as discussed by bracken and thomas (2010), one of the outstanding characteristics of szasz’s writing is its clarity this serves to add coherence and consistency to his analysis and his attempt to demystify psychiatric diagnostic labelling. on the other hand, his form of thinking has been criticised as being too rigid and that it may have been misinterpreted as being an attack on the concept of mental illness (double 2010). furthermore, double (2010) contended that one should be careful when making such harsh statements against psychiatry because mental health services are still needed and specific diagnoses may help to address and alleviate one’s suffering through giving meaning to a group of symptoms. he added that the problem arises when diagnostic categories are simply regarded as biomedical concepts that omit the psychological and social aspects during assessment and care planning. echoing szasz’s critics, it has to be noted that whereas some of the earlier dsm versions simply involved a committee’s consensus on voting psychiatric disorders into existence, the apa (2013) described how nowadays such illnesses are tested in a scientific manner that is supposedly more rigorous. still, it seems as if this scientific method itself may not be appropriate, as articulated in the response given by the society for humanistic psychology to the publication of the dsm 5. the society’s view is that the proposed diagnostic criterion is largely based on social norms and on subjective judgments: the putative diagnoses presented in dsm-v are clearly based largely on social norms, with ‘symptoms’ that all rely on subjective judgments, with little confirmatory physical ‘signs’ or evidence of biological causation. the criteria are not value-free, but rather reflect current normative social expectations (society for humanistic psychology, 2014, divison 32, sec.9). this enhances the risk of medicalising responses that are based on normal variations rather than pathology – these responses may require help but not necessarily psychiatric help: clients and the general public are negatively affected by the continued and continuous medicalization of their natural and normal responses to their experiences; responses which undoubtedly have distressing consequences which demand helping responses, but which do not reflect illnesses so much as normal individual variation (society for humanistic psychology, 2012, divison 32, sec.9). the constitution of evidence that serves as the base of psychiatric knowledge shall be explored in further detail in a later part of this section. in a counterargument that advocates the medical model, it has to be noted that the history of generic illnesses resembles that of mental illnesses due to the fact that before aetiology and treatment were understood, management was generally ineffective. this implies that psychiatric disorders are part of a field that is still evolving and so it may be more accurate to consider them as misunderstood rather than as non-existent. however opposing arguments hold that the problem is much more serious and related to deep cracks in the facade of modern psychiatry (angell, 2011). desai (2005) described how the third major antipsychiatry force originated from england in the 1970s. this was led by the mental patients union which consisted of those who called themselves survivors of psychiatry. the union was also influential within a larger movement, namely the world network of users and survivors of psychiatry. in a similar manner to their predecessors, activists sought to deny the existence of mental illness and the cold and clinical manner of psychiatric practice. irwin, mitchell, durkin and douieb (2011) published a rare cope of the fish pamphlet which may have been the starting point of the british survivor movement in 1974: psychiatry is one of the most subtle methods of repression in advanced capitalist society. because of this subtlety, few recognise the dangers shrouded by the mystification of ‘modern medicine’. the psychiatrist has become the high priest of technological society, exorcising the ̀ devils' of social distress, by leucotomy (butchery of the brain), electric shock treatment ect (plugging brains into mains), and heavy use of mind-controlling drugs. the mental patient is a sacrifice we make whilst we continue to serve the gods of the capitalist religion (p.23). noorani (2013) explained how the movement was particularly successful in improving the nature of psychiatry by bridging the gap between service providers and service users. this shall be explored in more detail in the following section. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 65 published by ideas spread 3. the user movement notably, many critical service user/ survivor movement groups have emerged as a result of the antipsychiatry move (wallcraft, reed & sweeney, 2003). examples of these groups include survivors speak out, mad pride, mad women, national self harm network and the hearing voices network. the main objectives of these groups is advocacy and to provide a consultancy service to mainstream mental health services. additionally, they favour a political stance whereas professionals in areas of health care are urged to relinquish paternalistic manners of addressing mental illness and instead focus on sharing knowledge and power with those who seek their service (noorani, 2013). the magazine asylum serves as an exhibition of works that echo the main tenets of the user movement: a consultant once said to me that he wanted to increase my medication. i asked him to state his reasons: was it to iron out or flatten highs and lows in my thoughts, because i could get quite manic? the doctor said that was not the case, and that was paranoia on my part. i replied that the reason i had said that was not because i knew it to be true, but that i was just speculating, to see if the doctor would agree or disagree, or offer another reason. in effect, it was playing with words or indulging in a mild form of trickery, so as to harmlessly get some information. it was interesting to see how quickly the doctor jumped to the wrong conclusion, due to the psychiatrists’ mindset towards their patients. i then explained what i was doing by asking him that, and the doctor laughed, especially when i pointed out that he may be the one suffering from paranoia. of course i was joking. how many patients are misdiagnosed and on the wrong amounts of medication because of misunderstandings between them and their doctors? many, i would suggest. and how many are labelled paranoid when they can’t express themselves as i did? once again, many (anonymous user in a medium-secure unit, 2011, p.9). in 2003, a report named on our own terms which was based on research carried out by the english service user/survivor movement was published (wallcraft, et al., 2003). this publication consisted of a detailed survey on the consistency, operating procedures and future plans of the multiple groups within the movement. a number of findings outlined the important activities that were being undertaken by groups within the movement. for instance, education and training were popular activities within groups: we are going to be doing some work around relapse prevention, not a term i particularly like, a piece of jargon. it’s a model from the states, it’s much more a social model which treats people as individuals. people have their own plan that they go through training to develop, so it’s very much around self-management and taking responsibility yourself for your own signs of distress and what you do about them. the person is at the centre of it, but it includes services as well as individual things and people’s own strategies as well. they will go on to train professionals in using it so it moves up from there (wallcraft et al., 2003, p.16). the experience of being a member of this movement was explored by knight and kierans (2011) who carried out a narrative inquiry with five members of user movement groups in order to elicit the rationale and the meaning of participation. interestingly enough, being part of a service user movement group was perceived as creating a sense of community and solidarity due to the experience of engaging with people who have had similar experiences: and i got on there...everybody had the same feelings as me ... ‘this is wrong, we’ve not been treated properly’, and for me that was so empowering because it was like a whole online community that was together and so there was this sense of community (knight & kierans, 2011, slide 6). on an individual basis, it had an additional empowering effect whereby some of the members who were interviewed reported that due to their participation, they became aware that they wanted to move out of feeling like a “user”, which is connoted to disenabling implications: do i stay ‘user’ or this person down here, or do i make major changes, and start looking at this process of stopping being this disabled, disenabled person…and i just went for it, and became self-employed (knight & kierans, 2011, slide 9). this consequently led to another beneficial outcome which was that of helping others in the same situation. another reason was the pride experienced by being a change agent within a mental health system that was perceived as being harmful and ineffective: it has been a vital part of my recovery and it’s been a vital part of feeling something, a purpose in life, there is a purpose in my life beyond my immediate family and everything, that there’s, i am actually doing something useful, that really is very, very important (knight & kierans, 2011, slide 14). one criticism of survivor movement groups has been based on the observation that despite their value in giving a voice to the person who is experiencing mental difficulties, there may be a lack of representation. this is due to the fact that service user groups seem to be mainly made up of people who have had negative experiences in hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 66 published by ideas spread relation to their mental health as well as to the services that they sought (wallcraft et al., 2003). anger seems to be a common catalyst within group members. furthermore, it has to be acknowledged that other factors such as gender, age, sexuality and culture contribute directly to the experience of mental illness and these need to be adequately represented in the movement groups. critical psychiatry and post psychiatry alongside the emergence of the user movement, contemporary interpretations of the experience of mental illness have carved a competing niche to the biomedical model which has held prominence for countless years. these emerging viewpoints ranged from the logical and humane to that which is somewhat bizarre and perhaps even risky. as an example, one particular explanation of mental illness by the american psychologist louis a. sass, may be seen as being particularly intriguing and somewhat different from the biological and sociological explanations that have been explored so far in this review. in his book madness and modernism: insanity in the light of modern art, literature, and thought, sass (1992) elaborated on why schizophrenia remains a mysterious condition. primarily, sass (1992) argued that madness results due to “confrontation”. this confrontation entails a human’s realisation that his existence is a framework that facilitates interpretation of the world. in usual circumstances, the individual is not consciously aware of this phenomenon or of the fact that reality is constantly being constructed in a particular manner. a state of hypersensitivity and hyperalertness, often seen in a psychotic state, may be symptomatic of this “confrontation”. in this sense, it is erroneous to view “madness” as a deficit state because it is in fact a state of “hyper-realisation” (sass 1992). interestingly, sass (1992) pointed out that madness, specifically psychosis, bears a striking resemblance to art, whereas many modern artists and writers seem to be expressing very similar preoccupations as individuals who are understood as being mad. sass progressed to list these preoccupations these include an exploration of reality and relativism, defiance of authority, fragmentation and a total loss of self – often exhibited in the art and literature by artists such as franz kafka, paul valery, samuel beckett, alain robbe-grillet, giorgio de chirico and salvador dali. through the use of a phenomenological approach to explore the cognitive similarities between illness and genius, sass (1992) referred to the tendency of both to deconstruct reality and human experience and so in a parallel manner, both states involve being in a hyper-reflexive state and a sense of alienation from the world. in what feels like a sequel to this book, in the paradoxes of delusion: wittgenstein, schreber, and the schizophrenic mind, sass (1994) presented an unorthodox view of the inside of the schizophrenic mind by comparing daniel schreber (a jurist who spent 13 years in asylums due to mental illness) and ludwig wittgenstein (a central philosopher in twentieth century thought). sass (1994) contradicted the conventional view of schizophrenia as a disease and pictured it as another means of viewing reality rather than as a treatable or suppressible condition: the standard conceptions, whether psychoanalytic or psychiatric have nearly always presupposed the western’s enduring equation of sanity with reason, insanity with passion and error – as if madness were necessarily a kind of stupidity or dementia, or in terms of plato’s famous metaphor, a case of the wild horse of instinct overwhelming the charioteer’s conscious control (p.10). instead of interpreting the symptoms of schizophrenia through a biomedical lens, sass (1994) opted for a philosophical approach that analyses subjective and objective realities as well as how we judge these reality types. reflecting on sass’ work, bracken and thomas (1999) asserted that this is a serious contention since in psychiatry, schizophrenia is considered a dogma and questioning its existence as an illness has the potential to shake the very foundations of this discipline. in a typical postmodernist view, these same authors pointed out that one has to be cautious when proposing the denial of the existence of psychosis or when picturing it as a wonderful experience of self-discovery. this is due to the fact that reality has shown that oftentimes, it is an extremely distressing and debilitating condition. however, medicine should refrain from promoting psychiatric understandings and medical treatment as absolute and ideal solutions since these tend to de-humanise the experience: unlike the antipsychiatrists, we do not deny the existence of psychosis, nor do we seek to romanticise it as a journey of self-discovery. for most people psychosis is a terrifying, perplexing experience. but the medical model has failed in its task to account for psychosis, and in doing so it has wrenched the ownership of the experience from the sufferers, denying them their own attempts to make sense out of the experience (bracken & thomas, 1999, para. 3). figures such as patrick bracken and philip thomas are the main protagonists in critical psychiatry and postpsychiatry. other leading figures are joanna moncrieff, duncan double, sami timimi and bradley lewis (kecmanovic, 2009). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 67 published by ideas spread a number of authors who are linked to the critical and post psychiatry period have been clear in their critical explanations about what constitutes the recent progress in psychiatry (bracken & thomas, 2001). in fact, most of this progress is mainly related to the development of new drugs, neuroscience, molecular genetics and cognitive behavioural therapy (cbt). the main concern here is that the components of this progress are based on assumptions that may or may not be accurate. whilst a number of diagnostic endeavours and treatment approaches are a direct branch of the medical model, other therapies such as cbt are still rigidly rooted in beliefs about the nature of self, the environment and the construction of reality (house & loewenthal, 2008). at times, it is quite clear that unlike antipsychiatry, critical and postpsychiatry are not a blatant attack on anything related to medicine and conventional psychiatry (lewis, 2006). alternatively, the main philosophy shifts towards respecting human autonomy and the right for choice and freedom it is not to say that mainstream psychiatric services are not useful, desirable and effective in some cases. however, it is about the need to widen the horizon and partake a humble approach by realising that for the time being, diagnostic labelling and the explanation as well as the treatment options that it provides, are simple hypothesis and not facts; it is one way of looking at reality or rather, one way of describing reality. thus, assuming that it is the only way or the best description of reality would be subject to error (bracken & thomas, 2001). having its philosophical roots in a postmodernist approach, critical and postpsychiatry encompass a more holistic way of addressing madness and distress. the main ideas are drawn from philosophers such as foucault, merleau-ponty, wittgenstein and heidegger. despite their common goal that psychiatry needs to be practiced without the underpinning foundation in terms of brain pathology, postpsychiatry and critical psychiatry differ in a number of ways. in brief, the main difference lies in that critical psychiatry is mostly concerned with the politics and ethics of psychiatry as well as encompassing a number of philosophical positions (thomas, 2013). in contrast, in his book moving beyond prozac, dsm, and the new psychiatry: the birth of postpsychiatry, lewis (2006) described how postpsychiatry is more focussed on postmodernism and concerned with the modernist’s tendency to look for technical solutions to address life’s problems. according to postpsychiatry advocates, progress can be achieved by engaging with the service users in a creative manner rather than by imposing psychiatric rules on those who we call patients: “contemporary psychiatry tends to focus on neurochemical and genetic explanations, to place technological solutions over ethical and human considerations, and to use forced treatment methods to resolve clinical controversy. by contrast, postpsychiatry works to counter these trends” (lewis, 2006, p.x). some of the advocates of critical and postpsychiatry such as phil thomas, patrick bracken, duncan double and joanna moncrieff formed critical psychiatry/ psychology groups such as the critical psychiatry network (uk). originating from england, this network has spread internationally and includes multiple philosophical positions which may not all be conceptually linked to postmodernism. activists are mainly preoccupied with the political and ethical aspects of clinical psychiatric practice as well as an effort to limit the influence of the pharmaceutical industry on psychiatry and mental health care (double, 2002). the views on the impact of the pharmacological industry shall be discussed in a later section of this review. an article by kecmanovic (2009), bearing the notable title of postpsychiatry: how to throw out the baby with the bathwater, challenged the fundamental concepts of the postpsychiatry movement. primarily, the author argued against the insistence of advocates of postpsychiatry in de-prioritising traditional psychiatric diagnosis as this risks a distraction from understanding the problem in a holistic person-centred approach: for example, frontal lobe tumor may underlie someone’s low energy levels, depression, confusion, forgetfulness, lack of initiative and loss of interest in people and matters. should psychiatrists first look for the meaning of such symptoms in the patient’s social context, and thereby let his or her mental and most likely physical state as well deteriorate; or should they first rule out any possible physical-biological cause of the said symptoms? (kecmanovic, 2009, p.278). in the subsequent argument, the author reasoned that with the exception of involuntary treatment, the psychiatrist does not attempt to impose a diagnosis on a patient but simply provides advice to someone who has voluntarily sought the psychiatrist’s opinion: in a good number of cases patients do not have their own view of where their mental problems came from. (after all, that is why they look for professional assistance.) they can accept or reject the psychiatrist’s interpretation, or might be indifferent towards it. if they accept it, and the results of the treatment turns out to be below the patients’ expectations, patients are free to seek assistance from another psychiatrist who follows the principles of another psychiatric model (kecmanovic, 2009, p.279). in the cases of more severe conditions such as psychosis, which may lead to involuntary treatment, kecmanovic (2009) then justified the imposition of the psychiatrist’s diagnosis due to the fact that the patient’s mental pathology hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 68 published by ideas spread may limit his/her ability to interpret his/her symptoms correctly. he argued in favour of this practice by describing it as being: “the same right mutatis mutandis a physician has to impose on a patient an explanation for his or her for example jaundice or bleeding, or impaired sighting that may conflict with the patient’s reading of these troubles” (p.279). finally, kecmanovic (2009) used spitzer’s words as the last say in this argument by sharing his view that a proposal of a joint diagnostic system between the service provider and the service user is not practical or necessary. on a critical note, it has to be said that since spitzer was the leading figure in the production of the new dsm versions, it is hardly surprising that he seems to prefer a psychiatrist’s diagnostic monopoly. in the second part of his article, kecmanovic (2009) addressed the issue of treatment and recovery. the author accurately described how generally, postpsychiatrists argue against the proven effectiveness of pharmacotherapy. he also elaborated on the postpsychiatry view that the term recovery is not synonymous to treatment and it does not imply a complete resolution of symptoms. rather, it is applied to a state of being where the individual is enjoying a good quality of life enhanced by a sense of freedom and the ability to “speak out”. it is rather disappointing that the building of these arguments led to a rather abrupt and short counter-argument by the author where he simply stated that experience has shown that psychosis triggers hostile reactions from society and so it has to be treated professionally. conclusively, the author refrained from taking sides and alternatively reflected on a recommendation by jakovljevic. this refers to the suggested use of pluralist and integrated approaches as these may be the most promising contemporary concepts of psychiatric practice (jakovljevic, 2007 as cited in kecmanovic, 2009). conclusion the 20th and early 21st centuries were crucial times in the evolution of the psychiatric discipline, and they were the bridge between a dearth of knowledge in relation to mental illness to a period where the field is well-structured and better understood. importantly, the era that followed, witnessed the release of patients from their chains and from other barbaric practices that were often forced on the individual under the name of treatment. during the 20th and early 21st centuries, the mental health domain was painted by a tug of war of opposing viewpoints with illness on one side of the spectrum, genius on the other, and reactions to problems in living featuring somewhere in between. it cannot be denied that opposing mainstream and radical views add fascinating dimensions to this area. conclusively, jakovljevic (2013) postulated that in psychiatry, there is no one unified theory and practice, but a plethora of theories and practices that range from pharmacotherapy, electrical stimulation, psychological therapies, education and life coaching: different schools of thought assessing mental health and mental disorders have given rise to different perspectives of psychiatry: the medical or disease perspective, and the dimensional, cognitive, behavioural, narrative, spiritual and systems perspectives. each of these perspectives tends to analyze, understand, define and treat mental disorders in different ways, each with their own merits (p.203). unfortunately, this loose assembly of approaches has been the target of criticism in relation to a lack of clear pathways (jakovljevic, 2013). however, it may also be viewed as a strength since it provides service providers and service users with various options that can be explored and tested as a matter of personal preference and effectiveness. declarations funding: this research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-forprofit sectors. disclosure: the authors disclose no conflict of interest references angell, m. 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(2014). scientology.org. retrieved august 15, 2014 from http://www.scientology.org/faq/scientology-in-society/why-is-scientology-opposed-to-psychiatricabuses.html copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice humanities and social science research; vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v4n4p35 35 published by ideas spread the treatises named after the prophet muhammad ("great manshur and "little manshur") in medieval armenian bibliography gayane mkrtumyan1 1 faculty of oriental studies, yerevan state university, armenia correspondence: gayane mkrtumyan, faculty of oriental studies, yerevan state university, yerevan 0025, armenia. tel: 374-9372-6247. e-mail: gayanemkrtumyan1 gmail.com, gmkrtumyan ysu.am received: december 14, 2021; accepted: december 22, 2021; published: december 23, 2021 abstract the present article discusses the treaties known in the armenian medieval bibliography by the name of the prophet mohammad ("great" manshur and "little manshur”). it is pointed out that the above-mentioned treaties were given to the armenians during the arab invasions in armenia at the end of the 7th century and at the beginning of the 8th century, but they are considered in the context of the tradition of different treaties named after the prophet muhammad given to the armenians and other christian nations. in the following centuries, the terms of the abovementioned treaties were laid down as a basis in similar covenants in the name of the prophet muhammad, with the new privilege expecting the muslim authorities to protect their rights from possible encroachments. keywords: the prophet muhammad, "great” manshur, catholicos of all the armenians, arab invasions 1. introduction in the armenian medieval historical tradition the treatises named after the prophet muhammad, the founder of islam, are known as ali manshur (treaty), which were aimed at preserving and establishing ethnic and ecclesiastical rights of the people under the islamic rule. from these treaties, the "great manshur” and the "little manshur") have been separated and studied as the work of the prophet muhammad, but they have not yet been thoroughly studied by native historians (papazyan, 1956, pp. 97-100). having carried out a research of the early medieval armenian arab period the authors briefly referred to the above-mentioned treaties-manshurs, which have played a major role in the life of the armenian population. hence, this is the main reason for having chosen the particular topic for the research. besides,the aim of the present article is to publicize and put those very documents and their observations into scientific circulation, to prove the current viability of those agreements and their adaptation, which had for many centuries been the pledge for the armenian population to protect their interests from muslim rulers. these two treaties which are found in medieval armenian bibliography are based on the terms of these two treaties given to non-christian and heterodox population of the arabic peninsula by muhammad and are mentioned by muslim historians. (bālādhurī 1983, pp. 69-84), according to which the population was assured to receive safety and security of life and property, security of churches, in return of paying taxes and being under the auspices of the muslim community. the treaty given by the prophet muhammad to the christian population of the city of najran, yemen, in 632, is of great importance for carrying out a research of the history of the relationship between the muslim rulers and the christian population by which the life, faith, churches and property of the city population should pass to the patronage of allah and be taken under the protection of the apostle allah muhammad. the issue of the christian population of najran was to be resolved with justice (bālādhurī p. 21). in addition to this version of the treaty, which was preserved in the works of muslim historians of the 9-12th centuries, there exists also another treaty given to the people of najran by the name of the prophet muhammad which was included in the anonymous "nestorian history". in this version, the prophet muhammad enters into a treaty with all those who profess the christian religion. it was also concluded for the next generations of muslims, so that the latter would recognize the rights of the christians and take them under their auspices (sher 1918 p. 605). the najran treaty is a vivid example of the prophet muhammad's tolerance of the christian population, in the context of which the treaties given to the armenians and various christian communities should also be considered in the name of the prophet muhammad. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 36 published by ideas spread referring to the "great" manshur mentioned in armenian bibliography named after muhammad, it should be stated that the armenian-arab cooperation had started even earlier, when armenian patriarch of jerusalem abraham (died in 669) after witnessing the success of islam during the reign of the prophet muhammad, entered madinah accompanied with the delegation of christians, wishing to get a special agreement aimed at ensuring the security of the armenian community of jerusalem, according to which a number of sanctuaries of the city came under the jurisdiction of the armenian community. this is mentioned by tigran savalanyan, a scholar of jerusalem history, who had obtained this information from treatise of the arab historian zeki ed din "the victory of jerusalem (savalanyan 1930, p. 413)". the researcher of the issue g. grigoryan in his paper "through the armenian needle hole" included excerpts from tigran savalanyan's work, where the above-mentioned events and the text of the treaty given to patriarch abraham by muhammad are given in english translation (krikorian 2002, p. 22’, see also https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/12/2/138). the above mentioned treaty was ratified by the caliphs omar ibn al-khattab (634-644) and ali ibn aru talib (656-661) (savalanyan, p. 271). salah al-din the founder of the ayyubid dynasty (died in 1193), reaffirmed the above-mentioned treaties in a special proclamation recognizing by each other the powers of the armenian community over a number of the city churches (savalanyan pp. 438-413). the english translation of his contract is available in dadoyan's work (dadoyan 2013, ii p. 16-170). later, based on these documents, the ottoman sultans also recognized the rights of the armenian community in jerusalem and the rights of the armenian patriarchy of the city considering certain sanctuaries. (ormanyan 2001, i, p.213). the treaty given to the armenian community of jerusalem by the prophet muhammad is the earliest evidence of the arab-armenian contacts and marks the first stage of the armenians reaching an agreement with the arab-muslims (dadoyan 2011, i, p. 52). the armenian community has created a rich cultural heritage in jerusalem since the earliest times of the establishment of christianity, taking an active part in the caring life of the city. so, this fact should not have been remained unnoticed by the arab caliphs and later muslim rulers who gave special privileges to the armenian community for the sanctuaries and monasteries built for the city by the armenians as early as during the patriarchy of the armenian catholicos s. gregory the illuminator (302-326). in the context of the treaties given by muhammad to the armenian community of jerusalem and subsequently ratified by the caliphs and the muslim rulers and sultans, it is also necessary to refer to the year of 652 when the treaty was signed between the armenian prince theodoros rshtuni (639-654) and the governor of assyria muayya ibn abu sufyan (639-661), about which is mentioned by the 7th century armenian historian mebeos. according to the terms of the treaty, armenia was exempted from fulfilling its tax obligations to the arab caliphate for three years; only after the expiration of the term did it have to pay the royal tax, the amount of which would be determined by the armenians. the latter was allowed to have a fifteen-thousand cavalry, which was obliged to take part in the battles everywhere except assyria. in the event of an attack by foreign troops, the arabs pledged to help the armenians (sebeos p 65). with this treaty, armenia gained some autonomy and armenian ministers were to be considered as subjects of the caliphate, but would retain their inherited land rights and other privileges. the above-mentioned agreement was the first official diplomatic document that determined the political situation in armenia and the prospects for its further development. it should be noted that no country conquered by the caliphate had received such broad rights and powers as armenia did under the treaty. the historical-comparative method of research has been used while making a comparison between the terms of treatises given by the prophet muhammad to the christians of najran, the armenian community of jerusalem and the content of the "great" and "little" manshurs", mentioned in armenian manuscripts. 2. great manshur this treaty, mentioned in armenian bibliography by the name of the prophet muhammad, was first mentioned in the “history” by the 12th-century armenian historian samuel anetsi. he briefly recalls the prophet muhammad’s activity, the arab invasions to armenia, persia, egypt and notes that the prophet muhammad banned the sword obeying him most of the universe. "and he signed a bill with an unforgettable oath: the armenian world has the courage to have christianity, also to sell and buy for at least 5 drams for a deer's donkey's bag = 7 ropes for a hair and a handkerchief. and not take any tax from the priests or the horsemen (anetsi, 2011, p. 400)”. having analyzed the terms of the treaty, the researchers note that the coin was the silver coin used in the middle east in the 7th century, and the four drams were equal to two roubles of vost, and three bolts of sifted wheat weighing two puts (manandyan 1960, p. 212). the "free men" were landowner-noblemen. the cavalry mentioned in the treaty was probably the so called ayrudzi made of warriors existing in the region of armenia. it is worth noting that this cavalry, like the "free men" included in the treaty, during the omayyad caliphate received a special hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 37 published by ideas spread salary of one hundred thousand dahekan per year in armenia (manandyan, p. 212). the 8th-century armenian historian ghevond writes that the arabs paid the armenian cavalry in an attempt to place some of their military responsibilities on a local contingent (ghevond 1982, p.). the above mentioned treaty which is considered to be the first written mention of the naming "great" manshur is found in the book of 14-15th century armenian chronicler grigor tatevatsy’s "book of inquiries" in the chapter of “against tachkats”. the author mentions that in the tenth year of the armenian great year and the tenth year of yezr catholicos someone named mahmet of the tribe of ismael, abdul's son, signed a bill-treaty with an unforgettable oath to the armenian world, which is now called the "great manshur" (tatevatsi, 2009, p. 53). the historian then writes the text of that agreement. as we can see, in the example of the already mentioned treaty by grigor tatevatsi, it is written that during the time of the catholicos (630641) muhammad the prophet signed a treaty with the armenian world on the condition of paying taxes, from which the clergy and the noblemen were exempted. it is well known that muhammad passed away in 632, so he could not have signed this treaty. according to the famous armenian scientist, an expert of arabic studies aram ter-ghevondyan, samuel anetsi had only confused the name of the viceroy omayan muhammad ibn mrwan with the name of the founder of islam in this important document and this is the reason why it was traditionally fixed in the armenian history writing that the prophet muhammad signed an agreement with the armenians to recognize their rights (ter-ghevondyan 2003, p. 294). samuel anetsi and other medieval armenian historiagraphers, namely, kirakos gandzaketsi and mkhitar anetsi, relaying the text of the treaty, do not cover under what circumstances it was given to the armenians. in his "history" samuel anetsi writes that "the arabs massacred bznuni and aghivit and taron", probably referring to the first arab invasions to armenia, later he refers to the above-mentioned treaty named after the prophet muhammad. the arab invasions to armenia started in the 640s. the armenian-arab covenant was signed in 652, but it was not considered to be a document in which the fact of armenia's final conquest was recorded. in 654 the arabs occupied the villages and towns of armenia, giving peace treaties to the population. the arab historian al-balazuri points out the treaty given by the general habib ibn maslama to the population of the city of dvin being then the capital of armenia, by which the christians of the city, the zoroastrians, received security for their property, churches, and city walls (bālādhurī p. 199). in 660s the caliphate was at war with the byzantine empire, and during this period armenia enjoyed extensive autonomy and a peaceful life. but already in 689 chaliph omayyan abd al-malik (665-705) after having finally defeated the byzantine empire and having solved the internal problems of his country, appointed his brother muhammad ibn mrwan as the ruler of atrpatakan and armenia in 701. it is said that this treaty named after the prophet muhammad and which is mentioned by samuel anetsi, probably refers to this very period as well. from the above mentioned it becomes clear that this treaty was signed during the arab invasions. thus, the present treaty, which stated the final conquest of armenia by the arabs, is a historical document given to the armenians, most likely signed by the successor muhammad ibn mrwan (mkrtumyan 2017, p. 92). it is believed that samuel anetsi tried to make the treaty obsolete by attributing it to the eve of an earlier period, particularly the arab conquests. it is observed that all armenian chroniclers are inclined to attribute the signing of the treaty to the time of the prophet muhammad, and the more they tend to do that, the higher it acquires weight and dignity. 3. “little” manshur the other treaty with a religious content is known as "little" manchur in armenian literature. this is mentioned by grigor tatevatsi, a chronicler of the 14th-15th centuries. he writes that the other mahmed gave the small proclamation to the armenians "to be free from all taxes, like the proclamation of the first muhammad, in accordance to which the priests, nobles and horsemen should be free from all taxes" (tatevatsi p. 53). for the study of the subject matter, the question of the circumstances under which the agreement was given to the armenians is of great importance. armenian sources present these issues in great detail. it should be noted that in the middle ages the armenian catholicos was not only the caring leader of armenia, but he also played an important role in the political life of the country. in the time of the arab conquests and during the rule of the caliphate in armenia, it was the armenian church that was to represent the armenians during the discussion of the treaties with the caliphate. there is a record in armenian historiography, according to which in the 8th century the armenian catholicos hovhannes odznetsi (717-728) visited the caliph omayan omar ii (717-720) and received a religious contract from him with the following conditions: not to force christians to renounce their faith, to exempt the caring class from taxes, and that in a muslim state christians can have the right to practice their religion freely. at the request of the catholicos, the caliph signed the treaty with his ring, giving lavish gifts to hovhannes odznetsi and sending hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 38 published by ideas spread him to armenia with great honor (gandzaketsi 1982, p. 60). thus, the omayyad abd al-malik caliph, suppressing the riots in different parts of the caliphate, carried out a number of events inside the country, and passed on to the final stage of the arab conquests. for that purpose, it was inevitable to destroy the byzantine empire completely, occupy and take under the control the strategic dispositions of the armenian plateau. in 699 muhammad ibn marwan launched a great campaign against armenia. the 8th century armenian chronicler ghevond writes that the arab authorities in armenia did not want to recognize the hereditary rights of the armenian ministers anymore; and that the armenian ministers had already been aware of it (ghevond, pp. 31-32). in 703 a fierce battle took place between the arab cavalry "ministerial regiment" near the village of vardanakert which ended with the victory of the armenians. and when the news of the defeat of the arabs reached the caliph, he ordered muhammad ibn mrwan to attack armenia, to drown in blood the revolts which began after the battle. unable to organize necessary resistance against the enemy, armenian ministers send armenian catholicos sahak dzoraporetsi (677-703) accompanied with a number of bishops to the arabs to carry on negotiations and peace talks. the chronicler ghevond mentions that when the catholicos arrived in the city of harran, being aware of the imminent end, wrote a letter to the arab general, confirming that the armenian nation was ready to be obedient and submissive, instead asking him to stop the bloodshed and show tolerance. in his letter to the arab general, the armenian patriarch concluded an alliance in the name of the living god, according to the covenant he had made with the arab ancestor ishmael, asking him to grant the armenians peace on the condition of paying taxes to them. the catholicos urged the commander-in-chief to refrain from looting and bloodshed, persisting that otherwise "the lord will turn the heart of his army" and the soldiers would not obey his orders (ghevond, p. 33). when muhammad ibn marwan read the letter, he came next to the body of the deceased with a special bow to him. then he took the catholicos by the hand, saying that he had learned about the wisdom of the armenian catholicos from the note he received, where he was introduced as a brave shepherd who had come out to carry a struggle with his sword. and at his request, he gave a written oath to the armenian bishops (ghevond, p. 34). the oath guaranteed only the freedom of religion, but not the rights of the land inheritance for the ministers. this is the very historic document known in armenian medieval bibliography as "little" manchur, which, unfortunately, has not come to our hand and the content of which has not been preserved in the works of the armenian historians either. 10th century armenian historian hovhannes draskhanakertsi adds new details to the above-mentioned cases in his "history". in a letter to the arab general, catholicos sahak asked him to give a permission to put the letter in his right hand after his death, so that the arab general would not regret or refuse to carry out his intentions. when the latter came to the catholicos "pronouncing salamalec", the catholicos's hand, laying still and breathless on his side, moved and came to life" at that very moment “against the policeman because he had begged" (draskhanakerttsi 1991, p. 100). later armenian chroniclers referred to the already mentioned historical facts relying on the information mentioned in the original sources presented by ghevond and hovhannes draskhanakertsi. the above-mentioned cases are also present in the history of the anonymous conversation scribe of the 10th-11th centuries, attributed to the 10th century chronicler shapuh bagratuni. this source also refers to the letter written by catholicos sahak addressed to muhammad ibn mrwan, according to which the catholicos took "the written message and the law of his father muhammad to the arab general, asking him not to hesitate, and “make us safe from you lest he see the lord god bewildered in our hands… "(anonymous conversation scribe 1971, p 25). it is evident that, the legend of the prophet muhammad's "letter" to the armenian world did already exist in the armenian historical reality in the 10th-11th centuries, about which is mentioned by the anonymous conversation writer. in the following centuries, when the persecution of the christian-armenian population got intensified by the muslim rulers, treaties named after the prophet muhammad began to be circulated for the protection of the rights of the armenian population, based on the contents of the "great" and "little" manshurs and other cases related to them. the document was constantly being changed and adapted to the time and conditions thus, the "great" and "little" manshurs" which were mentioned in medieval armenian literature and were most probably given to the armenians by the general muhammad ibn mrwan, date back to the beginning of the 8th century. the "great manshur" agreement is about the tax obligations imposed on the armenian population, whereas the"little manshur” had a religious content but the text of which has not reached us. it is due to their content that the differences between the names of two manshurs can also be interpreted. it is called "great" manshur, because the treaty in addition to the term for the freedom of religion also defines the tax obligations of the population, while the other one is called "little manshur” as the religious freedom is elucidated hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 39 published by ideas spread only through the personality of catholicos sahak dzoraporetsi, who assumed the role of the leader in the meeting with the arab general, trying to establish peace with the arab general on behalf of the armenians. in addition, the "little" manshur given by the latter was possibly a special tribute in the honour of the armenian catholicos. 4. representation of the content of "great" and "little" manshurs" in arabic letters of matenadaran in the following centuries, the content of the above-mentioned treaties and related cases were applied in various documents and records compiled in the name of the prophet muhammad kept in the matenadaran․ officially matenadaran is known as the research institute of ancient manuscripts after mesrop mashtots. it is located in yerevan the capital of armenia and was founded in 1959 during the soviet union. the yerevan matenadaran was established as a manuscript research and preserving centre on the basis of the manuscripts created and preserved in catholicosate matenadaran of etchmiadzin and different manuscript centers of armenia. besides armenian, manuscripts in the arabic, persian, greek and other languages are also kept here. in the persian documents fund of the matenadaran a document under the title "document 21" is kept which has been elucidated by the great armenian scientist hakob papazyan. the document refers the issues of tax immunity of the armenian clergy. the treaty mentions that catholicos sahak dzoraporetsi (in the document, catholicos isahak) went to meet general muhammad and enter to an agreement with him (papazyan, p. 70). however, instead of general muhammad (who is actually muhammad ibn marwan), the name of the prophet muhammad is mentioned, who had left mecca and medina and with the intention of conquering new lands had drawn near the border (probably of armenia). it is obvious that the prophet muhammad carried out his political and religious activities mainly in 610-632, and the catholicos sahak dzoraporetsi in the late 7th and early 8th centuries. if medieval armenian historiagraphers claim that upon his arrival in harran the catholicos left a letter to the arab general to be handed after his death and where he was asking to grant his country peace, freedom of religion, it means that according to this document, the armenian catholicos's request is quite certain and that by the covenant of the prophet, the inhabitants of a number of provinces of armenia should pay church taxes to the monastery of akhtamar. we assume that this document was compiled on the initiative of the akhtamar catholicosate to obtain a certain privilege from karakhan bey, the governor of the vostan region of armenia. the armenians were obliged to pay taxes "… half a module of grain, 1 horse's bag, one rope" (papazyan, p. 71). these tax terms are taken from "great" manshur. the ratification of the documents was initiated by catholicos grigoris akhtamartsi (1512-1544). the names of the five witnesses are mentioned at the end of the covenant and that this sacred writing was put down in the fourth year of the prophet's appearance by muawiya ibn sufyan ibn makum himself (# a3azjan, 15 72). we believe that this document was compiled in the name the prophet muhammad to establish the rights of the armenian people from bey karakhan, which could have had an impact on other prominent muslim people and officials, facilitating the ratification of this document by the muslim rulers of later centuries. 5. conclusions 1). the treaty by the prophet muhammad given to the christian population of the city of najran given as early as 632 lies on the basis of "great" and "little" manshurs" established in arab and christian sources, in the context of which the two manshurs should be considered. 2). the treaty given to the armenian community of jerusalem reaffirmed by the later caliphs and muslim rulers is especially important which was once again proved later by "great" and "little" manshurs", as well as by the covenants given to the armenian population by the arab troop commanders during the arab conquests. 3). the study of historical facts shows that the ""great" and "little" manshurs", were given to the armenian population at the beginning of the 8th century by the general muhammad ibn mrwan. the terms of the "great" manshur confirm the fact of the final conquest of armenia by the arab caliphate. 4). the content of the above-mentioned treaties and related cases we have studied were used in the documents drawn up in the name of the prophet muhammad to protect the rights of the armenian population and to obtain new privileges from the muslim rulers. references anetsi, s. (2011). collection of writer historians, yerevan, nairi publishing house al-baladhurī, ahmad ibn jahyā jabir, 1982, bauirut, mu ́assasat al-m a ́arif. dadoyan, s. b. (2011). the armenians in the medieval islamic world. paradigms of interaction seventh to fortheenth centuries, vol 1. the arab period in armenian seventh to eleventh centuries. new bronswick and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 40 published by ideas spread london. dadoyan, s. b. (2013). the armenians in the medieval islamic world. paradigms of interaction seventh to fortheenth centuries, vol 2. the arab period in armenian seventh to eleventh centuries. new bronswick and london. gandzaketsi, k. (1982). armenian history, "soviet writer" publishing house. gayane, m. (2017). charter-treaties as a source of armenian-arab relations (vii-xii centuries), yerevan, "mughnis" publishing house. retrieved from https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/12/2/138 ghevond, h. (1982). yerevan, "soviet writer" publishing house. grigor, t. (2009). against tachkats, yerevan, "vmv print" publishing house. history of anonymous conversation writer. (1971). yerevan, publishing house of the armenian ssr academy of sciences. hovhannes from draskhanakert. (1996). armenian history, ysu publishing house. krikorian, g. (2002). through the eye of an armenian neadle, antelias; lebanon. manandyan, h. (1960). works, volume b, yerevan publishing house of the academy of sciences of the armenian ssr. ormanyan, m. (2001). in azgapat, the holes of the armenian orthodox church from the beginning to the present day, narrated with related national items, v. a, mother seat of holy etchmiadzin. papazyan, h. (1956). persian documents of matenadaran, volume a (17th-16th centuries), yerevan, ussr academy of sciences publishing house. savalanyan, t. (1931). history of jerusalem, vol. 1-2, jerusalem, printing house of st. hagopian. sebeos (1979). history, yerevan, publishing house of the academy of sciences of the armenian ssr. sher, a. (1983). histoire nestorienne in�́�dite: chronique de se�́�rt, patrologia iroentalis, tome xiii, fascicule 4, №5, 1918, turnhout: brepols. ter-ghevondyan, a. (2003). collection of articles, yerevan, ysu publishing house. appendix հատված «մեծ մանշուր» պայմանագիրը սամվել անեցու «հաւաքմունք ի գրոց պատմագրաց» երկից եւ մահմէտս այս արգել զսուրն, և բանիւ խրատու նորա հնազանդեցուցին ինքեանց զմեծ մասն տիեզերաց: եւ անմոռաց երդմամբ կնքեաց մուրհակ հայոց աշխարհիս՝ համարձակ ունել զքրիստոնէութիւնն, և վաճառեաց նոցա զհաւատս նոցա, յամենայն տանէ առեալ՝ դ դրամ և մոդ խորբալ և ձիատաւպրակ մի և պարա մի մազէ և ձեռնարար մի: translation of the "great manshur" from samuel anetsi's "writings from the book of historians". and this muhammad … (from the nation of ismail, the son of haangar)(1), forbade the sword and most of the universe obeyed him and all his instructions. and he signed a promissory note with an unforgettable oath to boldly profess christianity with the armenian world, sold them their faith, took money from each house d dram(2) and g mod khorbal(3), a horse bag, a big rope and a craftsman.(4) " and he ordered not to take taxes from the clergymen, noblemen and horsemen. (1) this was quoted from samuel anetsi's narrative to show who he was about. (2) the 'd' dram was the silver coin used in the middle east in the 4th century (3) the mod khorbal was sifted wheat that weighed two bags. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 41 published by ideas spread (4) the arabs took the above mentioned horse bag (double bag), hair rope and gloves for the needs of their own army. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). microsoft word p16-34 humanities and social science research; vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v4n4p16 16 published by ideas spread entrepreneurial values, cognitive attitude toward business and business behavioural intention of abm grade 12 and fourth-year business management students: a comparative study damianus abun1, theogenia magallanes2, frelyn, b. ranay1, nimfa c. catbagan3 & rodelyn, j. calairo4 1 school of business, divine word college of laoag, ilocos norte, philippines 2 school of religious education, saint benedict college of northern luzon, ilocos sur, philippines 3 school of arts, science, and education, divine word college of laoag, ilocos norte, philippines 4 school of basic education, divine word college of laoag, ilocos norte, philippines correspondence: damianus abun, school of business, divine word college of laoag, ilocos norte, philippines. received: november 16, 2021; accepted: december 1, 2021; published: december 3, 2021 the research is funded by divine word college of laoag, laoag city, ilocos norte, philippines. abstract the study aimed to determine the difference in entrepreneurial values, cognitive attitude toward business, the business intention between abm grade xii and the fourth-year college students of business management course. it also seeks to find out the effect of entrepreneurial values, cognitive attitude toward the business behavioral intention. the study found that entrepreneurial values, cognitive attitude toward business, and business intention of students are high and it further found that there is no significant difference between entrepreneurial values, cognitive attitude toward business, the business intention of abm grade xii students, and the fourth – year college students of business management course. thus, the hypothesis is rejected. it also found that there is a significant correlation between entrepreneurial values, cognitive attitude toward the business, and business behavioral intention. therefore, the hypothesis is accepted. keywords: attitude, entrepreneurial values, business intention, values education 1. introduction covid-19 has practically knocked down all business establishments around the globe. there is no country exempted from the economic damage caused by covid-19. countries that are known to be strong economically like the usa, china, and japan are all affected and pushed their economic growth to a lower level and even to a minus level in the first and second quarter in 2020. there are even fears that economic recovery would be slower in the coming years and it would continue experiencing contraction across the vast majority of emerging markets and developing economies (the world bank, 2020). bringing back the economy to where it was before the pandemic time would take time, if not take a decade to restore to bring it back. consequently, unemployment is increasing making it hard for people to pay their bills, their rents, and other basic needs. relying one hundred percent on the government to restore the economy without the participation of its citizens would be hard to restore the economy. on the government side, it needs to improve its governance and business environment to attract more investors and increase spending in education and public health. while on people's side, they need to see new business opportunities to invest and create a business. the question is: do they see the opportunity as a result of covid-19 and are they ready to go into business? going into business is not only a matter of capital but it is also a matter of one’s cognitive attitude toward business and a matter of entrepreneurial values. knowledge (cognitive attitude toward business), capital, and entrepreneurial values are considered necessary to start and to run a business. the world bank in its press release on june 2, 2020, pointed out that to make the economy more resilient, the countries must build and strengthen their human capital (the world bank, 2020, baah-boateng, 2013). human capital with knowledge and values. building human capital is to improve and strengthen the education sector where human capital is trained (crocker, 2006). the human capital theory argues that society is functioning not just because of its financial capital, labor, and natural resources but it is also a function of the knowledge and skills of its members (crocker, 2006). this is hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 17 published by ideas spread a particular challenge of business education courses and also other courses. as pointed out by bets (2010) that the challenge for schools is to provide talented, competent, and knowledgeable teachers to impart the same to the students. a particular challenge for a business education course is to prepare students to become an entrepreneur. the role of a business education course is to provide students with enough knowledge and skills about a business and how to run a business. this knowledge and skills must be learned in the school since this is the purpose of business education courses. students need to be equipped with the necessary business knowledge and skills to go into business. however, going into business is not a matter of financial capital and knowledge but is also a matter of values. though there are many pieces of research pointed out that entrepreneurial knowledge is a predictor of business intention (abun, et.al. 2018, malebana, 2014, kadir, et.al. 2012), however, other studies also provide us an idea that entrepreneurial knowledge does not necessarily motivate students to go into business in the future. for example, the study of holwerda (2018) found out that students who have financial knowledge do not have the intention to go into business in the future compared to students who possess the value of creativity and self-efficacy. this finding is similar to the finding of koe, et.al. (2018) that creativity and innovation are correlated to business intention but not knowledge. in this case, it is not just a matter of knowledge but also attitude and behavior (kadir, et. al, 2012). thus, based on these findings, business education must not only provide current knowledge to students but motivate and awaken the entrepreneurial values of the students. students may know but they do not have entrepreneurial values. the challenge here is: how can the colleges or universities awaken entrepreneurial mindset? it is still debatable if the entrepreneurial mindset can be taught by the teacher in the classroom. abun (2018, cited from sarasvathy, 2015) argued that an entrepreneurial mindset can be taught only by the entrepreneurs themselves, and thus it is recommended to bring entrepreneurs inside the classroom. the current study intends to find out if students who have taken up an entrepreneurship course and have learned the necessary skills in doing business have ideas about business and have the plan to go into business. it is also to find out if students who have learned entrepreneurship have developed entrepreneurial values and will plan to go into business. there have been studies related to the correlation between entrepreneurial knowledge and entrepreneurial intention as we have mentioned above but there have been no studies related to entrepreneurial values, cognitive attitude toward business, and business intention. this is the first study to find out the difference between the entrepreneurial values, cognitive attitude toward business, and business intention of grade xii and fourth-year students who have taken entrepreneurship courses. this current study pursues such a gap and besides, it also provides ideas on how to awaken the entrepreneurial values of the students. the study is divided into five parts. the first part is the introduction which explains the rationale of the study. the second part is the related literature review that presents the existing literature that explains the theory of the current study. the third part is the research methodology that discusses the research design, population, locale of the study, research instruments, data gathering procedures, and statistical treatment of data. the fourth part is empirical data and analysis in which the data are presented, interpreted, and analyzed. the fifth part is the result and discussion. this is to discuss further the result of the study. 2. related literature a review of related literature is an important step in conducting a scientific study. it provides the foundation of knowledge and theories of the current study. beyond that, it provides information for the current study about what other researchers have discovered related to the topic, and by knowing what others have done related to the topics, then duplication can be avoided. related to this concept, this part of the study would present theories of the study supported by the existing knowledge of previous researchers (upstate university of south carolina, n.d). 2.1 entrepreneurial values and entrepreneurship before we discuss entrepreneurial values and entrepreneurship, we need to understand who an entrepreneur is because values are not existing or operate independently of a human person. values are possessed by an entrepreneur which guides the behavior of an entrepreneur. merriam – webster dictionary defines an entrepreneur as "the one who organizes, manages, and assumes the risk of a business or enterprise". this definition refers to a person who is taking the risk to start and manage a business. this is similar to the definition of investopedia (n.d) as it defines an entrepreneur as "an individual who creates a new business, bearing most of the risk and enjoying most of the reward". these definitions single out the important characteristics of an entrepreneur such as "innovator, the originator of new ideas, and new ways of doing things", (investopedia, n.d). this concept is related to the definition of an entrepreneur in the cambridge dictionary as it sees an entrepreneur as “someone who starts his/her own business, especially when this involves seeing a new opportunity”. the concept of an entrepreneur as provided by the dictionaries are similar to the definition offered by schumpeter (1965) that an entrepreneur is are “individual hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 18 published by ideas spread who exploit market opportunity through technical and/or organizational innovation". bolton and thompson (2000) also offered a similar definition of an entrepreneur as "a person who habitually creates and innovates to build something of recognized value around perceived opportunities". from all these definitions, the entrepreneur is referring to the values or mindset of a person. in this regard, entrepreneurs are defined by their values such as risktaking, adventure, innovativeness, exploiter of opportunity, and challenger of the status quo. entrepreneurs and values are not two different entities but they are one because values are the values of an entrepreneur. values are what someone considers most important to him/her and they become the source of motivation ((mankoff, 1974) and the guide for decision making (brown & assoiates, 2002). values predict the behavior of a person ((meglino, ravlin, & adkins, 1989, rokeach, 1973), it is the guide of a person on how to behave and determines what are the important things for him (feather, 1994, p. 35). as pointed out by bolton and thompson (2000), an entrepreneur is a person who creates something new or innovates an existing product that has not been thought of by others based on a recognized value and opportunity to make a business. he is the one who takes the risk and translates a business opportunity into a business (knight (1921) and drucker (1970). this concept provides an idea that an entrepreneur is defined by the values he/she possesses because values are reflected in his/her behavior (halis, et.al. 2007, malovics, et.al. 2015). thus, an entrepreneur is not a value-free person but a value-driven person (smilor, 2004). thus entrepreneurial values mean the values that are held by entrepreneurs (morris & schindehutte, 2005). according to schwartz (2011), the behavior of an entrepreneur is motivated by his/her values. concerning the origin of these values, it is argued that values are the product of culture (hofstede, 1984) and therefore, there can be different entrepreneurial values in different places held by the entrepreneurs (eroglu & picak, 2011). though it may be true that values are the product of culture and therefore values may not be universal, however, mcgrath (1992) held that there are also shared values held by different entrepreneurs across the border. entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship are two terms that cannot be separated because one is referring to a person who initiates entrepreneurship or business (investopedia, n.d, bolton and thompson (2000), but both have a different meaning. entrepreneurship is a process of establishing a business that is emanated from business opportunities or market demand (schumpeter, 1965). it is a business activity that an entrepreneur initiates or originates to create a customer and profits (drucker, 1970). while stevenson as cited by haizkoeta (2020) entrepreneurship is "the pursuit of business opportunity beyond resources controlled". from these definitions, one can understand that one is not called an entrepreneur if he/she is not able to translate his/her ideas into business activities or entrepreneurship. as we have pointed out above that entrepreneurs are values-driven individuals. though these values are culturally driven or formed by the culture and therefore there can be differences in terms of values possessed by entrepreneurs depending on the culture where they are raised, however, it is also true that there are shared values held by entrepreneurs across the border (mcgrath (1992). ronconi and anchorena (2012) identified independence (autonomy), determination, perseverance, and hard work as universal entrepreneurial values. added to the line of the list of values is offered by covin and selvin (1989) such as innovativeness, risk-taking, and proactivity. these values are not different from the values presented by schumpeter (1980) such as independence, innovativeness, rejection of the status quo, and risk-taking (schumpeter, 1980), and as pointed out by mcclelland (1961) such as achievement orientation, innovativeness, and commitment to learning. from these researchers, one can identify the universal values that are held by entrepreneurs across the border such as innovativeness, risk-taking, independence, achievement orientation, or self-determination. studies have shown that entrepreneurial values and business intention are correlated as pointed out by jaen, et.al. (2015) particularly the value of openness to change and self-enhancement. the same authors (researchers), jaen, et.al. (2014) went further into finding the influence of values and motivation toward business intention or entrepreneurial intention. their study contends that values may explain the formation of intention antecedence such as attitude and moderate the effect on entrepreneurial intention. they pointed out that values and motivation are linked and may play a role in entrepreneurial intention. in this case, values serve as motivation to go into business. this is confirmed by the study of gonzalez and kobylinska (2019) that personal factors such as motivation and self-efficacy affect the intention of students to go into business in the future. the earliest study on the correlation between values and development was made by weber (1905) as cited by anchorena and ronconi (2012). in such a study, weber hypothesized that protestant ethics such as hard work, thriftiness, patience, and perseverance are the spiritual basis for the development of capitalism. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 19 published by ideas spread 2.2 entrepreneurial values education based on the concept of hofstede (1984) that values are the product of certain cultures, therefore there can be differences of values from one place to another place, from one country to another country ((eroglu & picak, 2011). in other words, the social environment plays important role in the formation of values (türkkahraman, 2014) which jocksimovic and janjetovic (2008), as cited by jovkovska and barakoska (2014) argued that values are learned through social learning which happens through the influence the agents of socialization. agents of socialization can be parents, teachers, adult persons, and important persons in society. or it can also happen through drastic changes in society which force human beings to shift their views, attitudes about things and the world (semple, 2019). thus, based on these theories, we confidently argue that values are learned and not born and therefore, they can be changed when the social environments change too (calman, 2004) and when their priorities or importance change (schwartz, 1995). based on these sociological theories of values, then we can also argue that there is nothing wrong to change or introducing new values to students and it is the role of education to inculcate new values to the students as emphasized by desjardins (2015) that education is to reproduce the “good” and transform the bad. jovkovska and barakoska (2014) pointed out that it is the role of education in the formation of values and value orientation of students. institutional educations are the agent of the socialization of values (jocksimovic & janjetovic, 2008, cited by jovkovska & barakoska, 2014). thus, the concern of the school or the teacher, in particular, is not only providing scientific knowledge that preoccupies the mind or the head of a child or student but to transfer good social values and transform the bad values of a child or students into good values. bad values should be replaced by good values. this is the concern of curriculum designers and developers. the philosophy behind curriculum development is the question of what kind of students that the school is going to produce. therefore, the concern of education is how to reform or reorient the values of the students. transforming the values of students must be the basic motivation in determining the curriculum (halstead & taylor, 2000). it is in line with this concept, the organization for economic co-operation and development (oecd (2019) re-emphasized that attitude and values must be integrated into the curriculum development because education is not only about knowledge and skills but is also about values. in this case, the school should balance its attention to both concerns which are, on one hand, values and attitudes, and on the other hand, knowledge, and skills. oecd (2019) further emphasized that knowledge, skills, attitude, and values are not competing with each other but they are interrelated. oecd (2019) as cited from haste (2018), defines values as "the guiding principles that underpin what people believe to be important when making decisions in all areas of private and public life. they determine what people will prioritize in making a judgment, and what they will strive for in seeking improvement". following the above concepts that we have presented; therefore, the concern of entrepreneurial education is not only about providing students with technical knowledge and skills but also with their entrepreneurial values which consequently transform the mindset or attitude of students. according to erkkila (2000), entrepreneurial education encompasses both enterprise and entrepreneurship education. on one hand, entrepreneurial education concentrates on personal development, mindset, creativity, self-reliance, initiative-taking, action orientation, innovativeness (enterprise). on the other hand, entrepreneurial education is preparing students to put up a business and become self-employed (entrepreneurship) (qaa, 2012, mahieu, 2006). it focuses on practical knowledge on how to establish a business. in a certain place or country, like finland, to reflect both concerns, it uses the term internal entrepreneurship education and external entrepreneurship education to reflect both concerns. internal entrepreneurship education reflects the purpose of entrepreneurial education as the venue for personal development, mindset, values, and skills. external entrepreneurship education emphasizes the purpose of education as preparing students the knowledge on how to establish a business and become the owner of a business (seikkula-leino et al., 2010, cited by lackeus, 2015). however, the concept of entrepreneurship as an external entrepreneurship education had been challenged by shane and venkataraman, (2007) that entrepreneurship does not mean to create new business because when entrepreneurship is understood as personal development and mindset, then entrepreneurship can also occur in an existing organization. entrepreneurship can be practiced within the existing organization in which the individual employees are allowed to create and innovate the product and services which may lead the organization to grow and create value (gartner, 1990). in other words, an entrepreneurial individual does not mean only those who have created business but the entrepreneurial individual also refers to those who are creative, and innovative within the existing organization. this must be the concern of entrepreneurial education, however, conflicting definitions of entrepreneurship education lead to disagreement or conflicting ideas about the content of entrepreneurial education which consequently leads to the confusion of teachers on the approach to entrepreneurial education in terms of method, and assessment (fayolle & gailly, 2008, cited by lackeus, 2015). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 20 published by ideas spread thus, the definition that the current research adopts in this paper is the definition offered by the entrepreneurial education of erkkila (2000). his definition covers two-aspect which are entrepreneurial education as personal development and entrepreneurial education to provide students with knowledge on how to establish a business. concerning entrepreneurial education as personal development, thus, the concern of entrepreneurial education is not only technical knowledge of how to create a business but inculcating entrepreneurial values to students. thus, the focus is entrepreneurial value formation. when talking about value formation, one’s mind goes to the family as the basic foundation of value formation, besides peers and the environment but related to the value formation, it is also the role of schools to filter values that are socially accepted (jovkovska & barakoska, 2014). it is the same with entrepreneurial values. the school should be able to adopt entrepreneurial values for the student to internalize and to live with. it will be their values that will guide them on how they are going to conduct their business (didar, 2020). these values are responsible for managing their behaviors and at the same time as a source of motivation (rokeach, 1973). according to rozan & zibarzani, (2018) that entrepreneurial values or an entrepreneurial mindset are an important factor in producing a successful entrepreneur. entrepreneurial values or entrepreneurial mindsets are personal values or mind-set of an entrepreneur that guide or motivate him to work. the question of how to introduce entrepreneurial values to students would depend on how the school defines the purpose of entrepreneurial education. the strategy can be determined once the school has defined the purpose and the meaning of entrepreneurial education. this is important because the concern of teaching strategy would depend on a clear purpose and definition of entrepreneurial education which should be to foster entrepreneurial values such as perseverance, independence, determination, hard work (ronconi and anchorena (2012), innovativeness, risk-taking, proactivity, rejection of status-quo (covin and selvin,1989, schumpeter (1980), achievement orientation and commitment to learning (mcclelland, 19610. 2.3 cognitive attitude toward business as we have pointed out above that going into business is not a matter of values but it is a matter of knowledge. this is another objective of education. at the end of the course, students must have a cognitive attitude toward business. to understand what a cognitive attitude toward business is, one needs to know the concept of attitude first. cherry (2020) defines attitude as “a set of emotions, beliefs, and behaviors toward a particular person, object, thing or event”. when a person often encounters certain experiences with people or with the social environment around him/her, slowly the person forms a certain general view or idea about the person or about the objects she/he encounters. thus, attitude involves learning, and such learning results in perception (ortmeyer, 1949). it is, therefore, cherry (2020) contends that attitude is a product of experience or upbringing. the concern of education would be to determine a kind of education that can form or change the attitude of students toward the business. this concept suggests that entrepreneurial education is not limited to the classroom but involves experience or exposure. related to the role of attitude, titchener (1910) as cited by ortmeyer (1949) argued that attitude is behind everything of human behavior which may not necessarily appear in consciousness, and it is often vague. titchener (1910, cited by ortmeyer, 1949) concluded that it is a manifestation of the unconscious mind. it is acquired and temporary in nature as dewey (1922) contended that attitude is acquired and leads to action. though it is unconscious, however, it is still a force that is directed toward an object (koffka, 1935). according to ajzen and fishbein (1975, p. 6) attitude is a “―a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner to a given object". further, ajzen (2001) explained that it is a summary evaluation of a person toward a certain object whether it is favorable or unfavorable, good or bad, pleasant or unpleasant. it has three main components which include cognitive, affective, and conative. cognitive stands for the general knowledge, thoughts, or beliefs of the person toward the object, person, or events. while effective component represents the feeling or emotion of the person, toward a person, object, or event. lastly, conative dimensions refer to the behavior or action of the individual toward the object, the person, or event (ajzen, 1993). allport (1968) argued that attitude is a predicting factor of behavior which means that human behavior is emanated from his/her attitude or beliefs. ajzen (1993) also supports the idea of allport (1968) on the validity of attitude as a predicting factor of behavior. this was allport’s defense to wicker (1969) who expressed doubts about the correlation between attitude and behavior. wicker (1969) called for the abandonment of the study on attitude and behavior relation. however, as a result of many discussions on the pro and cons supported by data on the issue, finally, the study about the relationship between attitude and behavior was maintained and continued. the group that defends the correlation between attitude and behavior argue that if there is any inconsistency between attitude and behavior, it is because of the response biases at the time the respondents answer the questions, and it can also be caused by the instruments used which often time measure attitude as a single construct, instead of the multidimensional construct. furthermore, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 21 published by ideas spread the inconsistency was also caused by moderating variables such as self-awareness, and self-monitoring tendency, time pressure (ajzen, 1993). after we have discussed the concept of attitude, now we have an idea of what cognitive attitude toward business is. as we have mentioned above the dimensions of attitude are cognitive, affective, and conative, and now we discuss deeper the cognitive dimension of attitude particularly cognitive attitude toward business. as pointed out above, a cognitive attitude refers to the general knowledge of the person toward the attitude object. it is about the belief, thoughts, or ideas about the attitude object (mcleod, 2018). the cognitive attitude of the person comes from direct or maybe indirect experience. however, according to mcleod (2018) attitude which is gained from direct experience is more strongly held by the person compared to an attitude that comes from reading, listening, or watching, and an attitude that comes from direct experience has more influences over the behavior of the person. this is in line with what was pointed out by cherry (2020), that attitude is the result of experience or upbringing. as a result of those experiences is the attitude of the person toward its object and, it provides meaning for the person toward the object and it can influence the behavior of the person toward the object (katz, 1960). based on their concept about attitude as a result of experience, then attitude toward business means the general knowledge of the students about the business, and such attitude should be the result of direct experience and indirect experience of the students toward business. direct experience would include students’ exposure to the business and indirect experience gains from reading the books and lectures. however, as is stated earlier that direct experience is more powerful than indirect experience to influence behavior. in other words, the attitude of students toward business must be the result of direct experience toward business which is direct exposure to the business. this is what dewey (1938) means by learning by doing. dewey (1938) had criticized traditional education which focused on the subject matter, and methodologies and neglect experiential learning. according to dewey (1938) as cited by williams (2017) that traditional education is not developmentally appropriate for young learners. thus, dewey proposed socially engaging learning which occurs through social interaction (willliams, 2017). in this case of entrepreneurial education, direct interaction between business students and the business activities itself. 2.4 business behavioural intention as pointed out by allport (1968) and ajzen (1993) that attitude leads to action. in other words, the cognitive attitude of students toward business must lead toward the business behavioral intention. to understand the concept of business behavioral intention, it is important to understand different theories of behavior. these behavioral theories were summarized by national research council (2003) and it is a summary of the theories of behavior that are presented by several theorists such as ajzen, (1985, 1991) on the theory of planned behavior, bandura, (1977, 1986, 1991, 1994) on social cognitive theory, fishbein and ajzen, (1975), ajzen and fishbein, (1980), fishbein et al., (1991) on the theory of reasoned action, becker, (1974, 1988), rosenstock, (1974) on the health belief model, triandis, (1972), on the theory of subjective culture and interpersonal relations. these theories are too many and can be overlapping. consequently, there is an agreement among theorists to identify which theories and variables are presented in those theories that are influencing behavior (fishbein, 2000), fishbein et al., (2001). the theorists agreed that there are three theories chosen such as social cognitive theory, reason-action theory, and the health belief model. based on the social cognitive theory (bandura, (1977, 1986, 1991, 1994), there are two determining variables influencing the behavior and they are self-efficacy and the incentive of performing such behavior. the first is self-efficacy. the person can perform such behavior under any circumstances. a person can only perform such behavior if he/she believes that he/she can do it or he/she can do it. second is the incentive of performing such behavior. this refers to the benefits that one can get from performing such behavior. one can only perform a certain behavior if he/she believes that he/she will get more benefits from performing such behavior (national research council 2003). according to the theory of reasoned action, the determining variable that predicts a behavior is the strength of one’s intention to perform or not to perform. the strength of intention means the likelihood that one will perform the behavior. however, the strength of the intention is determined by one’s attitude toward performing the behavior. the action will be performed if he/she believes that performing such action will lead to a better outcome. next is that the strength of intention is also determined by one’s subjective norms performing such behavior (national research council 2003), in the sense that one might have certain rules on performing such behavior. if the person believes that such action is recommended or approved by others, then he/she will likely perform such action. lastly is the health belief model. according to this theory, one can perform a given behavior to prevent serious health consequences of not performing such behavior. in other words, one will perform such action if she/he knows that it will protect him/her from sickness (national research council 2003). thus, in short, from those theories, we can summarize that there are four determining factors that may influence individual intention and behavior and they are first, the attitude of the person toward performing the behavior, if the behavior will lead to a greater positive outcome or not. second, is the perceived norms, in the sense that one hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 22 published by ideas spread will act when he/she knows that others will support his/her action or the society approve of such action? the third is self-efficacy. this refers to the belief of the person toward himself/herself if she can perform such action in any given situation. fourth is the prevention of any serious health consequences. a person will perform certain behavior when he/she believes that it is the only way to prevent any sicknesses (national research council, 2003). from the theories of behavior, then we can formulate our concept of business behavioral intention. it simply says that business behavioral intention is the intention to go into business. the intention to go into business will be dependent on their attitude toward doing a business, the individual norms that someone has about doing business, self-efficacy (the ability to perform business ventures), and perceived health benefits from doing business. in addition to what is identified as determinant factors to go into business, lin, et.al. (2017) consider the following factors that influence someone’s intention to go into business such as capabilities, attitudes, perceptions and aspirations, resources, environmental conditions, and social values. these factors are similar to what ozaralli and rivenburgh (2016) identified as determinant factors that can motivate someone to go into business such as social factors (experience and education), societal (economic and political climate), and personality factors. 3. conceptual framework figure 1. the conceptual framework of the study reflects the influence of independent variables toward the dependent variable or the influence of entrepreneurial attitude and cognitive attitude toward the business behavioral intention. in this case, any positive change along with entrepreneurial values and cognitive attitude toward business can affect the business intention of students. source: ajzen (2001), ronconi and anchorena (2012), schumpeter (1980) and lin, et.al. (2017). 3.1 statement of the problems the study intends to measure the correlation between entrepreneurial values, cognitive attitude, and business behavioral intention. it specifically answers the following questions: 1. what are the entrepreneurial values of students? 2. what is the cognitive attitude of students toward business? 3. what is the business behavioral intention of students? 4. is there a difference between grade xii students and college students in terms of entrepreneurial values, cognitive attitude toward business? 5. is there a correlation between entrepreneurial values, cognitive attitude toward business, and business behavioral intention? hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 23 published by ideas spread 3.2 assumption the study assumes that entrepreneurial values and cognitive attitudes affect the business behavioral intention of students and it can be measured. it is also assumed that questionnaires reflect the content of the theory and the answer to the questionnaires are objective. 3.3 hypothesis values are the source of motivation and it predicts the behavior of the person and guide the person in decision making (mankoff, 1974). however, values alone are not enough if it is not guided by knowledge. ajzen (1993) also contends that cognitive attitude also predicts the behavior of the person. based on these theories, the current research hypothesizes that there is a correlation between entrepreneurial values, cognitive attitude, and the business behavioral intention of the students. 3.4 scope and delimitation of the study the study covers divine word college of laoag in the ilocos norte and its students particularly abm grade xii and fourth year college students of business management course who have taken entrepreneurship courses. the study delimits itself to discover only their entrepreneurial values and cognitive attitude toward business and its influence on business behavioral intention. 4. research methodology the research methodology is a specific procedure or technique to be followed in conducting a scientific investigation about a certain topic. following a certain technique of investigation determines the validity and reliability of the study. research methodology identifies how data are gathered and analyzed (leedy, 1974). in line with this concept, this part includes research design, the population of the study, and the locale of the study, data gathering procedures, data gathering instruments, and statistical treatment of data. 4.1 research design the study is quantitative research and it used descriptive assessment and correlational research design. baht (2020) defines descriptive research as a “research method that describes the characteristics of the population or the phenomena that are studied. it focuses more on the “what” of the research subject rather than the "why" of the research subject" (para. 1). this research design is used to determine the extent of entrepreneurial values, cognitive attitude, and business behavioral intention of students who have taken the entrepreneurship course. the nature of descriptive research is to describe what is found in the data collected through questionnaires and statistical treatment. it is also used to describe profiles, frequency distribution, describe characteristics of people, situations, phenomena, or relationship variables. in short, it describes “what is” about the data (ariola, 2006) cited by (abun et al., 2019). concerning the current study, the descriptive correlational method was deployed. the study determines the level of entrepreneurial values, the cognitive attitude of students toward business, and how it affects their business behavioral intention. 4.2 the locale of the study the locale of the study was the divine word college of laoag in ilocos norte. 4.3 population the population of the study was composed of all abm grade xii students who have taken entrepreneurship subjects and fourth-year college students who have taken the entrepreneurship course. thus, the total enumeration sampling was used. 4.4 data gathering instruments the study adopted validated questionnaires of abun, et.al (2018) on entrepreneurial attitude and entrepreneurial intention of grade xii students. 4.5 data gathering procedures in the process of data gathering, the researcher sent a letter to the president of the college, requesting them to allow the researcher to flow his questionnaires in the college. the researcher personally met the president and employees and requested them to answer the questionnaires. the retrieval of questionnaires was arranged between the president’s representative and the researcher with the help of employees and faculty of the college. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 24 published by ideas spread 4.6 statistical treatment of data in consistence with the study as a descriptive assessment and correlational research design, therefore descriptive statistics and inferential statistics were used. the weighted mean is used to determine the extent of entrepreneurial values, cognitive attitude toward business, and business behavioral intention, and the multiple regression was used to measure the correlation between entrepreneurial values, cognitive attitude, and business behavioral intention. multi regression measures the correlation between multiple independent variables and one dependent variable (statistic solutions, n.d). the following ranges of values with their descriptive interpretation will be used: statistical range descriptive interpretation 4.21-5.00 strongly agree/very high 3.41-4.20 agree/high 2.61-3.40 somewhat agree/moderate 1.81-2.60 disagree/low 1.00-1.80 strongly disagree/very low 4.7 empirical data and analysis this part presents empirical data as the basis for analysis. this part is very important because as an empirical study, it must be supported by evidence that is collected through questionnaires. the empirical analysis is an integral part of the scientific methods however, it never gives an absolute answer but it gives only a most likely answer based on probability (whatls.com, n.d). the presentation is following the statement of the problems. problem 1: what are the entrepreneurial values of students? table 1. summary table of entrepreneurial values entrepreneurial values mean descriptions achievement-oriented 4.04 a autonomy-oriented 3.07 swa creativity-oriented 3.47 a risk taking-oriented 3.80 a determination 3.96 a overall 3.60 a source: abun, et.al (2018). legend: statistical range descriptive interpretation 4.21-5.00 strongly agree/very high 3.41-4.20 agree/high 2.61-3.40 somewhat agree/moderate 1.81-2.60 disagree/low 1.00-1.80 strongly disagree/very low base on the data on the table, it shows that entrepreneurial values education of students in terms of achievement orientation obtained a mean of 4.04 which is described as “agree/high”. this indicates that as a whole the achievement orientation values of the grade xii abm and the fourth-year college students of business management course is not very high and it is not also very low, low, or moderate but it is high. this suggests that the abm grade xii and the fourth-year college of business management students have high achievement orientation values. this means that the abm grade xii and the fourth-year college students of the business management course highly agree that they have goals to achieve and all their activities are inspired by the goals that they have set for themselves. in terms of autonomy orientation values, the data on the table reveals that the entrepreneurial values education of students in terms of autonomy orientation values gained a mean rating of 3.07 which is understood as “somewhat agree/moderate”. this rating implies that the autonomy orientation values of the abm grade xii and the fourthhssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 25 published by ideas spread year college of business management course is not very high or high and it is also not very low or low but it is at a moderate level. this rating signifies that the abm grade xii and the fourth-year college students of business management course somewhat agree on the extent of their autonomy orientation values. their autonomy values are moderate. it suggests that they somewhat agree or moderately agree to accomplish their goals unconventionally and work independently without the help of others, ignore criticism to achieve their goals, and freely express what they think even if they are being criticized. concerning their creativity orientation, the data on the table demonstrates that entrepreneurial values education of abm grade xii and the fourth-year students of business management course in terms of creativity orientation value gained a mean rating of 3.47 which is translated as "agree/high". this mean rating implies that the entrepreneurial values of students in terms of creativity are not very high and it is also not very low, low, or moderate but it is high. in this case, the students highly agree that they are creative or they value creativity. they admitted that others find their ideas unusual, want to do things in a new way, can easily adapt to new changes, raise many questions that other people do not like to hear, and are not interested to follow what others are doing. related to risk-taking, the data on the table displays that entrepreneurial values education in terms of risk-taking value received a mean rating of 3.80 which is understood as "agree/high". the mean rating points out that the risktaking value of the students is not very high and it is not also very low, moderate but it is high. this means that students' risk-taking value is high. they agree that they have to set the targets even if it is not certain, even if there is no money, they can borrow money to implement their ideas to achieve their goals and try to do things even if the chance to succeed is slim. they agree to take the opportunity that might lead them to better things and they do not mind asking a favor from others even if it means rejection, and as much as possible to take decision quickly to exploit the opportunity and want to take a project that might be risky. lastly is the determination value. as displayed on the table, the data appears that entrepreneurial values education of the students in terms of determination value obtained a mean rating of 3.96 which is described as "agree/high". this mean rating demonstrates that the entrepreneurial values of the students in terms of determination are not very high and it is also not very low, low, or moderate but it is high. in this case, the determination value of the students is high. in other words, they agree that if they want to be successful they have to take chances when they occur and work hard. they also believe that people generally get what they deserve and getting what they want or not getting what they want is not a matter of luck or bad luck and it is also not determined by other people but by hard work and determination. after all, success is not determined by place and time or luck or bad luck but it is a matter of you wanting it and pursuing it. in summary, the data demonstrate that overall the entrepreneurial values education of students obtained an overall mean rating of 3.60 which is described as somewhat agree/high". this suggests that the entrepreneurial values of students, abm grade xii and the fourth-year college students of business management course are not very high and it is not also very low, low, or moderate but it is high. this rating suggests that students have high achievement orientation values, autonomy orientation values, creativity orientation values, risk-taking orientation, and determination values. problem 2: what is the cognitive attitude of students toward business? table 2. indicators mean descriptions 1. business creates jobs and makes money 4.21 a 2. business means to be self-employed 3.85 a 3. businesses gather resources to create wealth 4.02 a 4. business can make someone independent 3.99 a 5. business contributes to economic development 4.22 a 6. business is making yourself as an employer of labor 3.95 a 7. entrepreneurs attends social functions to meet business people 4.05 a 8. business owner uses his/her creative ability to create new products 4.31 a overall 4.00 a source: abun, et.al (2018). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 26 published by ideas spread legend: statistical range descriptive interpretation 4.21-5.00 strongly agree/very high 3.41-4.20 agree/high 2.61-3.40 somewhat agree/moderate 1.81-2.60 disagree/low 1.00-1.80 strongly disagree/very low as shown by the data on the table, it appears that as a whole the cognitive attitude of students toward business obtained an overall mean rating of 4.00 which is described as "agree/high". this mean rating indicates that the cognitive attitude of the abm grade xii and the fourth-year college students of the business management course is not very high and it is also not very low, low, or moderate but it is high. this rating suggests that as a whole the students have a high idea about business. as individual indicators demonstrate that students believe that business creates jobs, wealth and contributes to economic development. they further believe that business makes them selfemployed, independent, boss of their own business and makes them creative and attend social functions to meet other business people. problem 3: what is the business behavioral intention of students? table 3. indicators mean descriptions bi1. my professional goal is to become an entrepreneur 4.3162 a bi2. i will make every effort to start and run my own business 4.1026 a bi3. i am determined to establish a business in the future 4.0769 a bi4. i am seriously considering putting up a business in the future 4.1624 a bi5. i have the firm intention to start a firm someday 4.1026 a bi6. i am ready to do anything to be an entrepreneur 3.9060 a bi7. if i will open a business, i have a chance to become successful 3.2991 swa bi8. being an entrepreneur would make me great 4.0769 a bi9. i have ideas about how to start a business in the future 3.8889 a bi10. it would be difficult for me to develop business ideas 3.3162 a business intention overall 3.9248 a source: abun, et.al (2018). legend: statistical range descriptive interpretation 4.21-5.00 strongly agree/very high 3.41-4.20 agree/high 2.61-3.40 somewhat agree/moderate 1.81-2.60 disagree/low 1.00-1.80 strongly disagree/very low as demonstrated by the data on the table, it reveals that overall the business behavioral intention of students received an overall mean rating of 3.92 which is considered "agree/high". this rating indicates that overall the students' business behavioral intention is not very high and it is also not very low, low, or moderate but it is high. this signifies that the students have a high business behavioral intention. in other words, overall, they plan to go into business in the future. the students admitted that they highly agree to be an entrepreneur in the future, to operate their own business, and believe that having their own business in the future makes them great. problem 4. is there a difference between grade xii students and college students in terms of entrepreneurial values, cognitive attitude toward business? hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 27 published by ideas spread table 4. the difference of entrepreneurial values ( group statistics) level n mean std. deviation std. error mean achievement-oriented grade 12 19 3.9526 .63102 .14477 bs management 98 4.0622 .67435 .06812 autonomy-oriented grade 12 19 3.2216 .66639 .15288 bs management 98 3.0488 .63437 .06408 creativity-oriented grade 12 19 3.5963 .59479 .13646 bs management 98 3.4493 .59967 .06058 risk taking-oriented grade 12 19 3.7158 .35318 .08103 bs management 98 3.8184 .49520 .05002 determination grade 12 19 3.8368 .64825 .14872 bs management 98 3.9857 .70257 .07097 independent samples test levene's test for equality of variances t-test for equality of means f sig. t df sig. (2tailed) mean difference std. error difference 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper achievementoriented equal variances assumed .406 .525 -.655 115 .514 -.10961 .16739 -.44117 .22195 equal variances not assumed -.685 26.611 .499 -.10961 .15999 -.43811 .21889 autonomyoriented equal variances assumed .192 .662 1.078 115 .283 .17280 .16030 -.14472 .49033 equal variances not assumed 1.042 24.739 .307 .17280 .16577 -.16879 .51439 creativityoriented equal variances assumed .306 .581 .979 115 .329 .14703 .15013 -.15035 .44441 equal variances not assumed .985 25.609 .334 .14703 .14930 -.16008 .45414 risk takingoriented equal variances assumed 2.703 .103 -.860 115 .392 -.10258 .11926 -.33882 .13366 equal variances not assumed -1.077 33.435 .289 -.10258 .09522 -.29621 .09106 determination equal variances assumed .210 .648 -.855 115 .394 -.14887 .17405 -.49364 .19589 equal variances not assumed -.903 26.873 .374 -.14887 .16479 -.48706 .18932 source: ibm spss software as indicated by the data on the table, the descriptive statistics on the significant difference of entrepreneurial values between abm grade xii and the fourth-year college students of business management course shows no significant difference in entrepreneurial values along with the five domains between the grade 12 and college students (p>.05). this indicates that the entrepreneurial values of students are not affected by the level of business education. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 28 published by ideas spread table 5. cognitive attitude group statistics level n mean std. deviation std. error mean cognitive attitude grade 12 19 3.9895 .49988 .11468 bs management 98 4.1133 .71791 .07252 independent samples test levene's test for equality of variances t-test for equality of means f sig. t df sig. (2tailed) mean difference std. error difference 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper cognitive attitude equal variances assumed 1.169 .282 -.717 115 .475 -.12379 .17255 -.46558 .21800 equal variances not assumed -.912 34.257.368 -.12379 .13569 -.39946 .15188 source: ibm spss software based on the data, it also reveals that there is no significant difference in the cognitive attitude between the grade 12 and college students (p>.05). this suggests that level of education does not affect students' attitude toward business. table 6. business intentions group statistics level n mean std. deviation std. error mean business intention grade 12 19 3.7895 .51950 .11918 bs management 98 3.9510 .62972 .06361 independent samples test levene's test for equality of variances t-test for equality of means f sig. t df sig. (2tailed) mean difference std. error difference 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper business intention equal variances assumed .055 .815 -1.050 115 .296 -.16155 .15386 -.46630 .14321 equal variances not assumed -1.196 29.275 .241 -.16155 .13510 -.43773 .11464 source: ibm spss software as indicated by the group statistics and independent sample test, it demonstrates that there is no significant difference in the business intentions between the grade 12 and fourth college students (p>.05). this is also suggesting that business education level has nothing to do with the difference in business intention. problem 5: is there a correlation between entrepreneurial values, cognitive attitude toward business, and business behavioral intention? hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 29 published by ideas spread table 7. correlation entrepreneurial values achievementoriented autonomyoriented creativityoriented risk takingoriented determination cognitive attitude pearson correlation .613** .161 .419** .429** .777** sig. (2-tailed) .000 .083 .000 .000 .000 n 117 117 117 117 117 business intention pearson correlation .629** .278** .439** .455** .673** sig. (2-tailed) .000 .002 .000 .000 .000 n 117 117 117 117 117 *. correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). as demonstrated by the data on the table, it manifests that statistically significant positive correlations exist between cognitive attitude and the entrepreneurial values of students along achievement-oriented, creativityoriented, risk-taking oriented, and determination, while no significant relationship exists between cognitive attitude, entrepreneurial value in terms of being autonomy-oriented students with high entrepreneurial values tend to have high cognitive attitudes as well; except along autonomy oriented, wherein cognitive attitudes do not vary significantly with this domain based on the results of the correlation analysis. business intentions of the students are significantly related to their entrepreneurial values along all of the five domains – achievement-oriented, autonomy-oriented, creativity-oriented, risk talking oriented, and determination. students with high entrepreneurial values manifest high business intentions. 5. result and discussion the purpose of entrepreneurship education is not just to disseminate textbook knowledge about business but to create awareness about the importance of business as a means to make money and create wealth and contribute to economic development. in other words, entrepreneurship education help students to increase their general knowledge about business and its importance to the individual life and common good of society. the general knowledge about the business must lead the students to form a positive cognitive attitude about business which consequently makes them love business and go into business. besides providing general business knowledge, entrepreneurship education goes beyond providing general knowledge which is to help students to inculcate entrepreneurial values such as achievement, autonomy, creativity, risk-taking, and determination. thus, this requires a certain method or strategy of teaching that can motivate students to imbibe/embrace those values into their life. these concerns have been discussed by seikkula-leino et al., (2010), cited by lackeus, (2015) about internal and external entrepreneurship education to address both issues about the purpose of entrepreneurship education as a means to provide business knowledge and inculcate entrepreneurial values to students. however, it may not be easy to inculcate those values to students through entrepreneurship education alone. thus, it is suggested to create an entrepreneurial mindset subject as a separate course to focus on issues or matters that may help develop the entrepreneurial values of students (smithers & catanzaro, 2014). the findings of this study provide us ideas that entrepreneurship education helps the students to form a general idea or belief about business and its purpose which is called cognitive attitude. it also helps inculcate the entrepreneurial values of students who have taken entrepreneurship courses. as indicated in the finding of the difference of values and cognitive attitude between the abm senior high school grade xii and the fourth-year college students of business management course pointed out that there is no significant difference. this indicates that the number of years in entrepreneurship education does not make a difference in terms of acquiring entrepreneurial values and cognitive attitude toward business. even in terms of business intention, the result of the study pointed out that there is no significant difference. in other words, the length of entrepreneurship education does not create a difference in terms of intention to go into business in the future. however, in terms of the relationship between entrepreneurial values and business intention, between cognitive attitude and business intention, the result of this study found that there is a correlation. it means that entrepreneurial values and cognitive attitude toward business are predictors of business intention. this is the function of entrepreneurship education which is to provide general knowledge or belief about business and its benefits for the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 30 published by ideas spread individual and community and to develop entrepreneurial values. thus, the challenge for curriculum developers is either to create a separate course entrepreneurial mindset or to enrich the content and strategy of entrepreneurship education. 6. conclusion the study aimed to determine the effect of entrepreneurial values and cognitive attitude of the abm grade xii students and the fourth-year college students of business management course. the study found that overall the entrepreneurial values of students obtained a mean rating of 3.60 which is considered high except for autonomy orientation which is considered moderate. the same ratings were obtained for cognitive attitude toward the business and business behavioral intention. these findings conclude that the entrepreneurial values, cognitive attitude toward the business, and business behavioral intention of grade xii abm and the fourth year college of business management course are high. in terms of the difference between entrepreneurial values, cognitive attitude, and business behavioral intention of the abm grade xii and the fourth-year college students of business management course is found to be no significant correlation. therefore, the hypothesis is rejected. however, concerning the relationship between entrepreneurial values and business behavioral intention, cognitive attitude and business behavioral intention are to be found significantly correlated. students with high entrepreneurial values manifest high business behavioral intention. therefore, the hypothesis is accepted. references abun, d., foronda, s. l. g. l., belandres, m. l. v., agoot, f., & magallanes, t. 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(2008). појам о себи и вредноснеоријентацијеадолесц ената, зборник института за педагошка истраживања. београд, 2, 288-305. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). microsoft word p42-56 humanities and social science research; vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v4n3p42 42 published by ideas spread werner bergengruen (d. 1964) in conversation with the middle ages: significant contributions to twentieth-century medievalism albrecht classen1 1 university of arizona, usa correspondence: albrecht classen, 1512 e 1st st., 301 lsb, german studies, university of arizona, tucson, az 85721, usa. e-mail: aclassen arizona.edu. received: july 29, 2021; accepted: september 24, 2021; published: september 29, 2021 abstract medievalism has experienced an enormous popularity in the last decades, if not century, but the specific contributions by the baltic german author werner bergengruen have not yet received full attention. in light of a selection of his novellas, we can identify him as a meaningful respondent to medieval themes, ideas, concepts, and values which he dealt with rather creatively, employing them for his own ethical, religious, or spiritual musings. studying bergengruen’s novellas makes it possible not only to familiarize ourselves once again with one of the most popular german authors from the mid-twentieth century who has unfairly lost in popular appeal maybe since ca. 1970. through his novellas we also gain intriguing keys to open innovative perspectives toward a variety of literary and didactic texts from the middle ages, which are not simply imitated here, but emerge as critical catalysts or sources for bergengruen’s own reflections on timeless human issues. keywords: werner bergengruen, medievalism, gottfried von straßburg, gesta romanorum, st. christopher, sleep magic, falcons, doppelgänger 1. the middle ages in the twenty-first century although we find ourselves already well in the twenty-first century, the fascination and almost obsession with the middle ages continue unabatedly, at least in public, popular culture. in an odd manner, the medieval world seems deeply ingrained in western collective consciousness, and the more we are marching toward the postmodern era with all of its digitization and robotization, the more people seem to desire some medieval fantasies to compensate for the coldness and boredom in their own lives. (note 1) little wonder that novelists such as j. r. r. tolkien and j. k. rowland have experienced an enormous global popularity, and that any movie based somehow on the middle ages can be almost guaranteed an incredible box-office success (see, for instance, harty 1999; aberth 2003; woods 2014; the middle ages in popular culture 2015; spencer-hall 2018) – especially if the moviemaker operates with king arthur, the sword excalibur, and camelot as the iconic symbols of this universal, postromantic intrigue about a past age. this goes so far that many times we can hear clear resonances of the medieval world in public statements, images, concepts, speeches, and publications. how many people flippantly refer to the silly notion of the ‘flat earth,’ probably in response to the monty python movies, but overall reflecting a general modern conviction that people in the middle ages believed that the earth was flat (wolf 2004)? we tend to chuckle when someone refers to the ‘chastity belt,’ unassumingly perpetuating a late medieval male joke about husbands’ inability to control their wives’ chastity, and there is a very good chance to discover such a belt in any of the countless ‘medieval’ museums all over the world, which also come along with the horror-inducing torture instruments allegedly commonly applied by members of the ‘medieval’ inquisition to force innocent victims to confess to all kinds of crimes (witch craze) (classen 2007). most recently (march 15, 2021), us sen. sheldon whitehouse (d-n.y.) penned a letter addressed to newlyconfirmed u.s. attorney general merrick garland asking him to open up the fbi investigation into the background check of now sitting supreme court justice brett kavanaugh. in this letter, in which he claimed that the fbi had refused to carry out its full duties during the hearings at that time (2018), probably under pressure of former president donald trump, whitehouse resorted to deeply medieval imagery to make his point: “‘in this matter, the shutters were closed, the drawbridge drawn up, and there was no point of entry by which members of the public or congress could provide information to the fbi.’” (note 2) what would we do today, rhetorically and conceptually, at least with tongue in cheek, without the treasure trove of the middle ages? consequently, both hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 43 published by ideas spread medievalists and modern literary scholars have energetically pursued research into medievalism, which by now might even be considered an entire scholarly subfield all by itself (for a great research survey, see müller 2010; for political medievalism, see elliott 2021). 2. werner bergengruen vis-à-vis the middle ages curiously, however, one of the most influential modern german authors, who exerted a profound influence on whole generations of readers, werner bergengruen (1892-1964), is hardly ever mentioned in that context. moreover, his works have generally mostly disappeared from public view, i.e., especially from bestseller lists, reading lists for students, book clubs, and other records; and while he used to be the veritable ‘schoolbook’ author of his time, he is hardly mentioned today, and only some people among the older generation which had graduated with the abitur or matura roughly until ca. 1970 or 1980 seem to remember him to some extent. granted, there might be good reasons to leave him aside today, as many modern scholars would argue, because he was a rather traditionalist author, conservative in his outlook, deeply religious – he had, together with his wife (jewish through her maternal grandmother) converted to catholicism in 1936, which extremely irritated the nazis so much so that they excluded him from the reichsschrifttumskammer – and, worst for many among those who belonged to the student protest groups in 1968ff., he had successfully continued with his literary career throughout the entire nazi regime despite various bans imposed on him. his “inneres exil” became the anathema for modern audiences, although bergengruen had powerfully spoken out many times against the nazis both during their regime and after; he had published sharply formulated, though veiled criticism of hitler, and had bitterly lamented about the suffering of the german people under his regime (see, for instance, his collection of poems, dies irae, 1945). worst of all for those critics, however, bergengruen never addressed the holocaust as such in explicit terms, did not engage with the suffering of jews in germany, or the postwar period (such as heinrich böll, siegfried lenz, or wolfgang borchert) and thus suddenly saw himself, quite unfairly, as a persona non grata within the germanspeaking world of literature since the latter part of the twentieth century. (note 3) although there is a werner-bergengruen society trying to maintain his memory as a significant modern german author and poet, (note 4) and although there have been some attempts in recent years to bring bergengruen back to public awareness and to restore the previous respect which he had enjoyed as one of the major twentieth-century writers, he is probably virtually unknown among most germanists, not to speak of anglophone scholarship. (note 5) nevertheless, however we might want to evaluate bergengruen’s novels, novellas, essays, and poems, and however we might view his political stance both during the nazi regime and after wwii, we can greatly profit from his writings in literary-historical terms if we examine how he responded to and utilized medieval german and european literature as inspiration for his own work. this paper, however, does not intend to pursue a socialpolitical interpretation, perhaps measuring bergengruen up to contemporary standards of twenty-first-century literature. instead, the focus will rest on the question how this author resorted to a variety of medieval sources as inspiration for his own work, adapting and transforming them for his own purposes. as far as i can tell, scholars investigating medievalism have normally taken as their starting point some medieval literary works and then have shown how it was received, adapted, and transformed into some modern text, film, or art work. (note 6) here i want to proceed the opposite way and take a good look at bergengruen first and then analyze how he drew from and was influenced by medieval literature for his own topics. the intention is not to identify any specific translation or imitation of a medieval work carried out by this baltic-german author, but to determine the extent to which medieval and early modern literature inspired him in a variety of significant ways and how he translated medieval ideas into universal messages also for the modern audiences. (note 7) implicitly, i also want to refocus our attention as literary scholars to bergengruen’s works which certainly deserve our respect both for their inherent quality and for their uniqueness of his thematic selections. even if some critics might reject him as a neo-romantic, or neo-realist in the vein of theodor fontane, for instance, there are countless cases in his œuvre that prove to be considerably innovative, intriguing, and valuable for their insights into the human condition throughout time. while it is quite obvious that bergengruen relied heavily on much historical material in many of his novels and novellas, we have not yet considered the specific connections and do not know some of the details concerning his medieval sources and how he adopted them for his purposes. generally, we will discover that this writer made major contributions to medievalism without ever trying to appeal to popular culture which is often focused on the recovery of that time period through fantasy literature, festivals, movies, music, or paintings. his approach to the middle ages proves to be much more subtle, serious, thoughtful, sensitive, and selective, and we can safely assume that bergengruen was not frivolously playing with medieval themes for quick effectiveness, as is often the case today when that time period is completely commercialized. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 44 published by ideas spread 3. the middle ages in the balticum – bergengruen’s perceptions to begin with, i will examine what bergengruen himself had to say about the middle ages, which was a culture and age still very close to his own original life in the balticum, where he was born (in riga) and grew up during his early years. in his autobiographical reflections “bekenntnis zur höhle” (probably from 1950; dedication to the cave), the author takes stock of his background and culture and thereby sheds important light on his approach to the middle ages (contained in bergengruen, die feuerprobe, 1951, 49-55). more than anywhere else in northern europe, the countries we call estonia, latvia, and lithuania today were mostly spared from the effects of the french revolution and maintained in many different respects their medieval structures and cultures, as bergengruen at least perceived it. in riga, as the author muses, “lebten wir mehr in einer mittelalterlichen oder barocken als in der modernen welt” (51; we lived more in a medieval or baroque than in a modern world). a radical change of a military and political kind affected that world after 1917 (end of wwi, the russian revolution, the rise of the weimar republic), but the really dramatic, even traumatic experience happened only in the wake of the hitler-stalin pact in 1939, just before the beginning of wwii. referring to the entire balticum, the narrator commented nostalgically: “ihre geschichte endete damit, daß die achthundertjährigen länder livland, estland und kurland . . . zusammen mit dem östlichen polen den preis ausmachten, um den 1939 die sowjetische neutralität erkauft wurde. die deutsche bevölkerung wurde abtransportiert – ein vorgang, den die behördliche sprache als umsiedlung bezeichnete” (51; their history ended with the eight-hundred years old countries livonia, estonia, and kurland, together with eastern poland, becoming the price with which the soviet neutrality was bought in 1939). little wonder that bergengruen grew up within a medieval framework, spiritually speaking, and that hence many of his major works were explicitly situated in the middle ages or the renaissance, though certainly not as a kind of escapism from contemporary reality. a few examples may illustrate this phenomenon: in the collection of short legendary stories, das buch rodenstein (1927; expanded in 1951, reprinted many times thereafter; the castle rodenstein; bergengruen, das buch rodenstein), numerous medieval or early modern tales, often deeply religious in nature, drawing from folklore, ghost stories, and religious legends, are redesigned for bergengruen’s own interests. the novel herzog karl der kühne oder gemüt und schicksal (1930, revised in 1943; duke charles the bold, or attitude and destiny) focuses on the life and death of the famous burgundian duke charles the bold (1433‒1477), whose dreams of a new centralized empire between france and germany rapidly came to an end when he fell in the battle of nancy at the hands of the swiss mercenaries. in his famous and highly popular novel, der großtyrann und das gericht (1935; the superior tyrant and the legal court), the events take place in an italian town during the renaissance; most of the novellas contained in the collection die sultansrose (1946; the sultan’s rose) are situated both in spain and in italy, as well as in bavaria during the late middle ages and the early modern age. in das große alkahest (1926; the great alchemist), later retitled as der starost (1938), we encounter the world of paracelsus and early modern alchemy. der letzte rittmeister (1952; the last cavalry captain) and die letzte rittmeisterin: ein roman wenn man so will (1952; the wife of the last cavalry captain: a novel, if you will) are historical reminiscences, though not necessarily medieval in their foundation and draw, instead, from a variety of historical anecdotes. and am himmel wie auf erden (1940; in heaven as on earth) takes us into the world of sixteenth-century prussia when a pandemic strikes the country and challenges people in their social obligations, commitments, and duties. altogether, it would be useless to nail down bergengruen as a medievalist, as a modern writer fixated on the middle ages or any other historical period, as historical as many of his narrative settings commonly prove to be. we would also misunderstand him if we were to characterize him as an opponent to the modern world, as an ideologue fighting democracy or the enlightenment. instead, we would do more justice to him if we recognized in him an author deeply fascinated by history in which he found countless examples of common human behavior which deserve to be retold in the modern time because they mirror so profoundly universal issues, conflicts, struggles, dilemmas, and quests. people have always to make decisions, they are thus faced by quandaries and are challenged to balance out their ethical ideals with pragmatic, often material concerns of a selfish nature. in this regard, for bergengruen, history was widely open as a field where he could draw extensive examples of human experiences from for his own writing. this in turn he explained with a reference to his own origin, the balticum, which he viewed with considerable nostalgia: noch stand vieles in kraft oder doch in nachwirkung von den lebensformen altgermanischer autonomie; in riga etwa behielt die mittelalterliche ratsverfassung bis ins letzte viertel des vorigen jahrhunderts ihre geltung. der einzelne galt viel, die institution wenig; noch war die persönlichkeit nicht von der apparatur bedroht, geschweige denn verschlungen (“bekenntnis hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 45 published by ideas spread zur höhle,” 52-53; until then, much was still in full force or reflected much of the living conditions of the old german autonomy; in riga, for instance, the medieval city constitution was in place until the last quarter of the previous century. the individual counted much, the institution little; the personality was not threatened by the apparatus, and not at all engulfed by it). as much as the author seems to idealize the past, as much does he praise individual freedom and the role of the individual personality in a rather modern fashion. despite the praise of the middle ages, the poet actually uses that historical backdrop for his criticism of the modern bureaucratization and governmental control. most remarkably, in many of his novellas, bergengruen engaged intensively with medieval literary motifs and concrete material, although he rarely, if ever, directly copied from middle high german texts or adapted a specific romance or verse narrative as thomas mann did, for instance, when he wrote the short novel der erwählte (published in 1951), directly based on hartmann von aue’s religious verse narrative, gregorius (ca. 1200; see, for instance, makoschey 1998, 123-235). we can hardly expect to encounter in bergengruen’s short prose narratives immediate paraphrases or imitations, which would have been contrary to his general approach. nevertheless, in order to understand one of the author’s major strategies in composing his text, we will have to realize that he regularly demonstrated a considerable degree of inspiration from the past, which then, however, was combined with his own creative abilities. in short, bergengruen composed many of his texts influenced by many different medieval motifs and themes, and yet he then created his own versions, not willing to let the sources control his own concepts about individual freedom, human dignity, and ethical ideals. in order to illustrate this phenomenon, i will examine only a handful of some of his most famous novellas in which we find specific references to medieval literature. by studying these novellas, which by and large exerted a tremendous influence on twentieth-century audiences both in german-speaking countries and abroad, we will gain a unique insight into the continued role and relevance of medieval themes in the modern era as pursued by bergengruen. (note 8) we can also expect that the study of bergengruen’s tales with their medieval topics and motifs will open new perspectives toward medieval literature and culture at large, so we will be able to build significant hermeneutic bridges between both periods. after all, as we have learned already, many of the major twentieth-century german and other authors demonstrated a keen interest in the middle ages and drew considerable inspiration from there, whether we think of thomas mann, robert musil, bertolt brecht, hermann hesse, irmtraud morgner, adolf muschg, or gabrielle alioth (medievalism in europe ii 1996; classen, “hermann hesse als mediävist?,” 1996; id., “seinskonstitution im leseakt,” 1996; id., “der kampf um das mittelalter im werk thomas manns,” 2003, 32-46). we can also include bergengruen into this stellar list of modern-day german-language writers insofar as he creatively and innovatively employed medieval topics, themes, and motifs for his own purposes and thereby established himself as a historically-oriented writer who had much to say to his contemporary audience particularly because of the uniquely historical mirror in many of his tales which address, however, timeless issues. 4. “die drei falken” one of bergengruen’s most popular novellas, “die drei falken” (1937; the three falcons) draws explicitly from medieval courtly culture, although the historical setting takes us somehow into the early renaissance when the memory of those traditional values and ideals concerning the hunting with falcons and other birds of prey was fading already. (note 9) the huge impact which this novella had can be recognized if we consider its many republications: 1937, 1940, 1945, 1947, 1951, 1956, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1963, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1969, 1972, 1978, 1982, 1983, 1985, 1989, 2000, 2001; it was also translated into english in 1950 and 1966, into french in 1970, into italian in 1962 and 1992, and into polish in 1964 (data derived from worldcat). the interest in this famous story by bergengruen seems, however, to have faded since then with no further re-publications or translations after 2001, and it would be a valuable investigation to understand the reasons for this major shift in public interests. “die drei falken” can serve our purposes particularly well because here, as is so often the case in bergengruen’s œuvre, he entirely turns away from topical, political, or current issues and focuses on a historical situation somewhere in the medieval kingdom of naples in the fourteenth or fifteenth centuries. a famous master of the art of hunting with birds of prey, specifically with falcons, has died, leaving behind hardly anything of worth except for three most valuable birds. although a fairly poor man, that master had been worshipped throughout the city and the entire region for his skills in domesticating those birds of prey and training them for this traditionally courtly art. a fraternity was even founded in the city to maintain this vanishing art, which had previously been, as we are also told, most famously practiced by the german emperor frederick ii of hohenstaufen (1194-1250). the latter, in fact, had been the author of the probably best manual of the art of falconry (see, for instance, walz 1994), hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 46 published by ideas spread and in this novella we are told that the deceased master had owned a copy of an italian translation. rising to the occasion and reflecting on his own superior knowledge, he had used some of the empty pages in the back of the book to jot down some notes about his personal experiences (9). the three falcons are to be auctioned off, and in that process major tensions surface between, on the one hand, the auctioneer, the notary public albinelli, a passionate hunter with birds of prey, and an ignorant silk merchant, who had married the widow of the master’s son and who is thus only a distant relative. nevertheless, he tries with all of his might to get his hands on one of the falcons, that is, on the money to be paid for the bird. albinelli is also driven by his personal desires, in a way rather selfishly because he is obsessed by the hope of acquiring one of the falcons for himself, which he admires for their noble character. when the dead man’s last will is being read out aloud, it is suddenly revealed that a homeless person, a limper, cecco, had been the master’s illegitimate son, who is now finally recognized and identified as one of the heirs. almost like in many of the short stories and novels by thomas mann, bergengruen here portrays the well-known tensions between capitalism and the arts, creating bitter tensions between the silk merchant and the entertainer/artist cecco, while albinelli pursues his own agenda. ironically, however, while all are still debating how to handle the auction or the payout from the price for the falcons, the news arrives that one of the birds has escaped, which thus entangles the entire situation even further. other heirs, such as the prior of a monastery and the city official in charge of the poor, demonstrate considerable generosity and nobility in this situation, whereas the silk merchant emerges as greedy, boisterous, and demanding, perhaps like the lübeck merchant köterjahn in thomas mann’s novella tristan (1903). surprisingly, the escaped falcon is later captured again, which changes the entire situation radically. but, closely following the concept of the genre of the novella, cecco, while examining the bird, suddenly feels entirely disgusted by all the haggling and debating about the falcon and the price to be paid for it, so, pretending to operate without any skills, he loosens the noble bird’s shackles and allows it to fly away once again because, as the novella insinuates, he considers freedom for such a noble bird more important than all the money which could be offered for it. albinelli, who had ardently waited for the moment to outbid all the others and to acquire this highly valuable falcon, is utterly distraught and almost collapses emotionally. then, however, he suddenly remembers the ideals and values pursued by the deceased falcon master and realizes that cecco had understood the nature of those birds of prey much better than they altogether. in a surprising move, he takes off his necklace which serves as a symbol of his membership to the fraternity and puts it on cecco, admitting that the limper probably understood much more about the true nature of those noble creatures than everyone else in the fraternity and the city. although he has to fend with an enormous emotional loss, no longer being able to ‘possess’ such a wild and free bird, he has recognized what represents the inner, noble spirit and value of falcons, whom he has to acknowledge as free spirits which ought not to be kept in captivity. cecco’s selfless action thus proved to be an expression of freedom which every noble being would desire. while most scholars working with the ‘falcon motif’ have directly referred to boccaccio’s famous ninth story told on the fifth day in his decameron (ca. 1350) about federigo degli alberighi and his most valuable falcon, it would be rather problematic to correlate bergengruen’s novella with that by his italian predecessor more closely, although the definition of the novella as a genre has been commonly predicated on boccaccio’s story since the time of paul heyse’s famous definition (heyse and kurz, ed., 1871, xix–xx). granted, in both texts we are explicitly alerted to the noble character of falcons, but federigo actually kills his bird despite his great love for it because it is his last valuable property so he can serve his lady, who has suddenly come for a visit, a meal, not knowing that her only true wish is to ask for that falcon as a gift for her sick son. in bergengruen’s novella, by contrast, cecco frees the falcon and allows it to escape, returning to nature and hence freedom. nevertheless, we should pay attention primarily to the values and ideals represented by the falcon. in gottfried von straßburg’s tristan (ca. 1210), falcons also play a significant role when the young protagonist visits the ship by norwegian merchants who offer all kinds of birds of prey for sale, which fascinate tristan and his foster-brothers. nobility of character is consistently identified with falcons, and so is the concept of courtly love, as perhaps best expressed by der kürenberger in his falcon songs contained in des minnesangs frühling (ca. 1170/1180). in wolfram von eschenbach’s parzival (ca. 1205) we also hear of a falcon, a young bird which has escaped from its owner and has tried in vain to capture a goose in the early morning. but the goose was wounded, and three drops of blood dropped onto the snow which had mysteriously fallen during that night. when parzival arrives and observes those three drops of blood, he remembers his beloved wife condwiramurs and falls into a trance thinking about her. two of king arthur’s knights, the steward kaye and young segramors, rush out hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 47 published by ideas spread of the camp to fight against parzival, but they are knocked down. only when gawain arrives, who immediately realizes parzival’s thoughts of love, can he bring the stranger back to reality by covering the drops of blood with a blanket. there is not much more said about the falcon, but we can be certain that wolfram intended it to serve in symbolic terms, representing the nobility of character, love, and culture. finally, and most ominously, kriemhild’s dream of a falcon in the nibelungenlied (ca. 1200) indicates how much the falcon could represent, love, death, ideals, and values (ermes-körber; miedema; smets). at closer analysis, however, it is not possible to correlate bergengruen’s novella more directly with any of those medieval sources, and yet his narrative is certainly predicated on the medieval ideal of courtliness, nobility, and freedom. we would have to consider more in detail what emperor frederick ii had formulated about falcons at large and their character to understand bergengruen’s intention with this symbol, but the novella does not suggest that it was based at length or in detail on this famous medieval source. in essence, the falcon, like all other birds of prey, needs to be tamed and trained before it can be used in hunting. this implies that the falcon has to repress its own wild nature and accept civilization, hence human culture, submitting under its master. neither frederick nor gottfried, for instance, considered the desire for freedom as quintessential in their discussion of falcons. bergengruen, on the other hand, highlighted the falcon’s intrinsic desire for freedom as its greatest attribute. according to the medieval sources, which bergengruen might or might not have consulted at greater length – particularly boccaccio’s story seems rather far removed from the modern narrative – the falcon had to become disciplined and to accept its master. the modern author, certainly somehow familiar with frederick’s text, which is even explicitly mentioned in the novella, transformed the motif into one concerning individual freedom and inner nobility, honor, and dignity. almost more than his medieval predecessors, bergengruen embraced the ideal of the nobility of the soul and character and glorified cecco’s action, allowing the freedom-loving bird to fly away. curiously, but characteristically for this writer, the medieval background is virtually tangible, and yet the novella moves productively into a new direction, now thematizing the ideal of individual freedom, that is, freedom from capitalistic thinking, from social constraints, and material conditions. however, bergengruen does not seem to have aimed for any kind of a political reading in this novella. 5. “die feuerprobe” in his novella “die feuerprobe” (bergengruen, die feuerprobe 1951, 1998; the ordeal of the fire), bergengruen relied almost explicitly on gottfried’s tristan (ca. 1210; gottfried) because he appears to have predicated the entire story on the famous scene with the ordeal which isolde has to undergo in the second part of the medieval romance (bartlett 1986; neumann 2010; ziegler 2004; dinzelbacher 2020). in both texts, the young woman is charged with adultery, though the evidence is not quite there in either case. the modern novella is located in riga and takes place during the late fourteenth century, as we can tell because of a reference to a war involving the victual brothers (corsairs, or pirates), the hanseatic league, and riga. those brothers were roundly defeated and basically eliminated in 1398 in the battle of gotland to which the narrator here does not yet refer (dummschat 2016; rohmann 2017). gripen tidemann’s wife barbara is rumored to have had an affair with schwenkhusen, but she appears to deny it adamantly without saying so explicitly. while her husband insists on her to undergo the ordeal of the fire, i.e., to hold a red-hot iron on her palm without being hurt as a test of her innocence, schwenkhusen is said to have died in the sortie against the pirate troops. almost miraculously, however, he had survived and returns to riga. in virtual parallel, barbara had agreed to submit under the ordeal, and to the great astonishment of everyone present, the iron does not burn her, as it normally would. everyone hence regards her almost like a saint, and tidemann feels greatest guilt in having accused his wife of being an adulteress. however, schwenkhusen and barbara then develop, apparently for a second time, a love relationship, and since she regards herself as being above all human laws having been graced by god during the ordeal, the two care now little about people’s opinion. yet, the novella comes to a shocking conclusion when on the second anniversary of the ordeal barbara voluntarily asks for the iron, but this time, although it is not heated up, she burns herself badly, so both she and schwenkhusen are exposed as adulterers after all. in the case of gottfried’s tristan, isolde and tristan are also guilty of being in love with each other although she is married to king mark of cornwall. we can leave aside the issue of the infamous love potion and concentrate on their affair which the poet projects as a case of a true, deep, almost sacred love relationship. at one point, the suspicion against the two grows so much in intensity that isolde has to submit under the ordeal as well. tragically, isolde is all alone, not even having tristan around to support her. but she orchestrates an amazing, almost operatic strategy, putting herself entirely in charge of the process. she instructs tristan to appear in the guise of a pilgrim on the beach where the cornish ship with all of them on board traveling to the site of the ordeal will arrive. since hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 48 published by ideas spread the ordeal is so much associated with a religious ceremony, she refuses any man to carry her from the ship to the shore, except the pilgrim, who follows the order, but when he arrives back at the beach, he stumbles in such a way that they both fall down, with her landing in his arms, and this according to her secret command. this later allows her to swear the oath that she had never laid in the arms of any man except those of her husband, mark, and, of course, the poor pilgrim. technically speaking, she thus does not utter a lie, so she is amazingly graced by god because she does not burn herself at all. the narrator goes so far as to call christ a wind-swept sleeve, meaning that he can be manipulated by people according to their own wishes. of course, gottfried did not mean to be blasphemous; instead, he intended to ridicule the entire institution of the ordeal, which was then actually condemned by the church during its fourth lateran council in 1215, although the practice was continued in many parts of europe far in the late middle ages (neumann 2010). significantly, however, bergengruen turned the satirical concept as developed by gottfried upside down. isolde survives the ordeal and can thereby ridicule the concept of this type of trial because it does not serve at all to evince her guilt or innocence. the modern german author also deals with the same situation, adultery, and he also allows barbara to get off scot-free, but at the end she becomes a victim of her own hypocrisy and blasphemy. the only possible explanation for her survival of the first ordeal consists of her serious attempt to do penance and to appeal to god’s help, her being filled with rue and regret. but when she picks up the cold iron two years later, she is no longer guilt-free, has resumed her adultery with schwenkhusen, and is thus finally punished by god and stands to be harshly condemned by society for her lying, deceiving, and ultimately her blasphemy. gottfried had ironically engaged with the human belief that people can request from god to intervene in earthly affairs, whereas bergengruen reconfirmed this very belief and profiled barbara as a person who presumptively regards herself as in supreme command of her own existence, yet at the end has to realize that her religious arrogance leads to her punishment by god after all. the author did not situate the world of riga society in any particular way within the late middle ages, and he certainly did not intend to idealize the past feudal structures. even the practice of resorting to the ordeal is regarded generally as something highly unusual, out of the ordinary, and from the old days luckily being behind them. the narrative focus, however, rests on the inner struggles by the female protagonist and her constant temptations by her previous lover, schwenkhusen. she falls for him a second time after he has returned from the war, although she wanted to reject him at first. significantly, he seduces her most intensively when he follows her to a church service, but the real adultery then takes place when the two people meet in the forest outside of their estates where barbara had withdrawn after she had triumphed in the ordeal. if we were not confronted with the ordeal itself and if we did not know of the war against the victual brothers, the medieval framework of this novella would be almost impossible to detect. however, bergengruen explicitly engages with the medieval theme of the ordeal and employs it intriguingly to illustrate the tensions between the married couple, between barbara and the rest of the urban community, and the struggle involving her lover, schwenkhusen. in essence, however, the novella does not really concern itself with a historical theme, but with questions regarding the individual’s relationship with the divine, destiny, honor, and personal responsibility. from the conversations between barbara and schwenkhusen after his return from the war we can assume that they had had an affair after all despite her denial and despite the seeming proof of her innocence during the ordeal. however, since she had repented, confessed, and then apparently received god’s absolution, the red-hot iron could not hurt her. subsequently, both of them resumed their adulterous affair, and this made barbara doubly guilty, meaning that even the cold iron could burn her badly. gottfried had basically approved the love relationship between tristan and isolde and projected it as a glorious situation, in which suffering and joy merged in one experience. the medieval notion of love was predicated on the dialectics of happiness and sorrow merged in one, as the poet’s metaphor of the bitter bread in the prologue insinuates. at the end of the romance, the two lovers are expelled from the court and retire into the minnegrotte where they can enjoy a kind of utopian freedom (tomasek 1985). yet, once they have been rediscovered by mark by chance, and are allowed to return to his court because tristan has deceived the king with the help of the sword lying between him and isolde once again, they happily accept this grace because life without honor, i.e., away from the social community, cannot be sustained for long. of course, at the end, they are both caught in flagrante by her husband, which forces tristan to leave for good, while isolde has to stay behind in sorrow. in bergengruen’s novella, by contrast, the lovers can get together again and enjoy their intimate company irrespective of society’s watchful attention because divine intervention had granted barbara the appearance/screen of a saint. however, she finally loses that screen and exposes herself to the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 49 published by ideas spread public because she dares to challenge god himself and pretends as if she could control even him. in gottfried’s romance, the ordeal scene concludes with the audience invited to smile about the foolishness of the courtly world that believed in the ‘truth’ of the ordeal and yet was so utterly deceived by isolde. we also notice the extent to which the medieval poet portrays isolde as a master plotter who knows how to manipulate the entire court, including her own husband, while she directs her lover and has him carry out her instructions without fail. altogether, gottfried belittles the marriage between isolde and mark, whereas bergengruen questions the quality of the marriage between barbara and gripen. but whereas for the medieval poet the love potion drunk by both lovers justifies, in a way, their profound affair, the modern poet seems rather reticent to reveal to his readers that an affair had actually taken place and that the rumor about barbara was grounded in facts. yet, since schwenkhusen and gripen’s wife begin with their affair once again, after she had been redeemed by god, she is ultimately severely punished, whereas her lover is extremely shamed and dishonored. in a fascinating and unique way, bergengruen revaluates the ordeal as a valid instrument to learn about the divine function and to test the individual in face of destiny. gottfried used heavy irony in his treatment of the ordeal, whereas bergengruen resorts to this medieval theme to examine, once again, the individual’s relationship with god. with tongue-in-cheek, we might even claim that bergengruen was almost more ‘medieval’ than gottfried himself, but certainly not in the vein of the romantics; instead, he revived the medieval theme in order to probe, for his own time and age, the question of how much the protagonist can interact with the divine, live up to the social norms and ideals, and handle his/her own destiny. 6. “der nackte kaiser” in addition, in “der nackte kaiser” (1946; the naked emperor) bergengruen draws more directly from a wide ranging medieval narrative tradition and continues it for the sake of his own contemporary audience as if the historical distance between the early fourteenth century and the twentieth did not matter for him. and maybe, considering the content of his tale, it should not matter to us either because the story relates a timeless message of poignant relevance pertaining to the role of dictators, tyrants, or arrogant rulers at large (originally contained in bergengruen, die sultansrose und andere erzählungen, 1946). in essence, the emperor jovinian is presented at first as an arrogant ruler who believes firmly that he has nothing to worry about here in this world and does not need to fear god. that biographical information, however, appears only late in the story, whereas it normally represents the first part of the medieval versions, such as in the latin gesta romanorum, in the spanish el conde lucanor by don juan manuel, and in herrand von wildonie’s “der blôze keiser,” to name the most important versions. it seems most likely that bergengruen drew from the gesta romanorum above all (ca. 1270-1300), but the motif was highly popular throughout the entire middle ages and thus might have reached him through alternative channels (classen, 2021). the medieval poets emphasized consistently that the emperor was to be punished for his moral and ethical shortcomings, and once he had gone through a period of profound suffering and humiliation, he was granted his restitution as emperor because he had learned his lesson and then became an ideal ruler. in bergengruen’s novella, the situation develops quite differently because the angel, who had taken on jovinian’s role as his doppelgänger, had pursued a surprising intention. there are no specific words about the emperor’s wrongdoing, about his possibly dictatorial attitude, his arrogance, selfishness, or abuse of the people. nevertheless, at the end the angel points out that certain things have gone wrong in the entire empire, whether corruption or crime, whether excessive luxury or violence against individuals or groups. god had to intervene and hence had selected the highest-ranking individual, the emperor, as the one who was noble enough to sustain the penance imposed by god. the margrave, realizing the truth of the matter, vehemently protests against this divine operation which ultimately had meant that they all had badly mistreated the emperor simply out of their own ignorance. none had been able to recognize the true emperor in his nakedness and misery, when another person who looked exactly like him was sitting in his throne. indeed, the margrave is ashamed and afraid at the same time because the way of how he had treated the right person now deeply embarrasses him and makes him feel guilty. the angel, however, explains the circumstances with a reference to global, collective guilt which had affected the entire empire. only one person, the emperor, was regarded as strong enough to become a tool in god’s hands, and his extensive penance, being ridiculed and abused by people everywhere, ultimately served the entire people as a form of regaining their redemption. as the angel thus indicates, a true leader would not only reap the profit from his high position for himself but would in reality serve the principle task of being the representative of collective conscience, hence also sinfulness. insofar as jovinian was the least guilty of them all, and yet the most nobleminded, he had been selected by god to carry out this hard and difficult penance. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 50 published by ideas spread bergengruen concludes his novella in a somewhat mysterious fashion, pointing out that the empress soon thereafter delivered a boy, who later did not ascend to his father’s throne. nevertheless, almost too esoterically for modern tastes and certainly puzzling for us today in a political context, he himself had heirs, and one among them continued with the tradition, serving as the roman emperor. whereas the medieval poets consistently used this narrative motif to develop a kind of ‘mirror for princes,’ warning the kings, current or future, about the danger for themselves serving in this position since it could easily lead to a form of dictatorship, bergengruen moralizes this account and reads it from a religious-spiritual perspective. in his version of the medieval trope, the emperor has to undergo sequence of of his suffering because all people have become guilty and are in great need for redemption by their leader. only the strongest and most noble among them, the emperor, is deemed worthy enough to undergo the penance, which ultimately creates sufficient repentance for all of them. involuntarily, we might say, justinian assumed almost a christ-like function, and so did someone among his descendants, at least an individual belonging to future generations beyond his own son. whether bergengruen envisioned an ideal leader for his own time, or whether he even dreamed about a global savior beyond all the political horrors of his own time (1946), does not need to be decided here. ideologically or politically speaking, the writer might have pursued a dangerously naive position, particularly after those twelve years of the nazi regime, or he might have formulated in his story a true message about how to improve all political structures by way of returning to medieval concepts of the ideal, ethically and spiritually motivated ruler. at any rate, “der nackte kaiser” presents an intriguingly productive and constructive narrative strategy predicated on a strong medieval tradition, looking toward the future of the political system following the horror regime by way of drawing from a very influential model more than seven hundred years ago. as is so often the case in bergengruen’s writings, the past and the present interlock with each other, which consistently allows this author to develop his unique short stories. the author’s interest in the middle ages, however, did not imply any kind of glorification of a long-disappeared world. instead, he draws from medieval concepts as he found them in literary sources and instrumentalized them for his own purposes to explore fundamental human issues ‒ here pertaining to the question regarding good rulers and their moral and ethical obligations toward the people. 7. “der strom” this is, finally, also evident in his fascinating tale, “der strom”(the river), which appeared first in his collection of novellas, die flamme im säulenholz (1953; reprinted several times until 1965; the flame in the wooden column here i quote from bergengruen, schnaps mit sakuska 1987; schnaps with sakuska), in which a young man, christian finds himself separated from the urban society, from his contemporaries, and caught in the stifling world of his poor country estate which he had inherited from his deceased father, a man who had dabbled in alchemy and other obscure sciences. he left behind also a number of manuscripts which christian cannot read and yet does not want to sell. a highly independently minded young woman, christiane, who has received an extraordinary education and who can read latin, learns about this treasure and arrives one day to inspect those manuscripts. she realizes quickly that they represent extremely rare copies of famous alchemical and other necromantic texts, so she becomes absolutely intent, if not obsessed, with acquiring them. christian refuses, however, not because he wants to keep those manuscripts for himself, but because her interest means for him that she regularly returns to his estate to offer ever higher prices for those books. eventually, when she has become completely irritated about his refusal and asks him straightforwardly what he would like to demand for those manuscripts, he suddenly reveals his real interest and demands the privilege of spending three nights with her. to his great surprise, she actually agrees, but she had already learned, as we find out later, in one of those manuscripts how to make a man fall asleep who wants to have sex with her. for two nights, he suffers from her magical skills and is deeply frustrated. before the third night has arrived, he ambulates, rather worried about failing once again, along the shore of the river and arrives at a wooden sculpture of st. christopher, the highly popular saint who had allegedly carried the christ child across the river – a famous medieval religious legend best preserved in jacobus de voragine’s mid-thirteenth-century legenda aurea (jacobus de voragine 1993). here, at the sculpture, christian encounters a russian rafter woman (struse) who provides him with a countermagic, which he only needs to place under the pillow, after having thrown away the mysterious object hidden underneath it. this breaks the power of the charm which had made him fall asleep, so now the sexual encounter can be accomplished to his full satisfaction. although christiane had tried to fight him off, simply having been scared of all men, she now accepts him as her husband, and the rest of the story then quickly develops with both experiencing a happy married life. the entire narrative motif, with its structure of the three nights negotiated as a price for the manuscripts, finds many distant parallels in medieval and early modern literature, whether we think of wolfdietrich b, sigrdrífomál, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 51 published by ideas spread thüring von ringoltingen’s melusine (there with the opposite conditions), or various predecessors of the fairy tales as collected by the brothers grimm (“dornröschen”?), though bergengruen developed it considerably further, adding innovative narrative angles of his own. the closest source, however, proves to be once again the gesta romanorum (oesterley 1872/1980, no. 195, pp. 603‒08), where the young man receives the decisive advice from a roman philosopher about the charm hidden in the bed which makes him automatically fall asleep (wesselski 1925, 163-168, which bergengruen might well have consulted directly, instead of the gesta romanorum proper). in the latin source, the philosopher (perhaps virgil, as we learn from other versions) knows about this secretive chart since he himself had procured it, though we are not told how it then had gotten into the maid’s possession. in bergengruen’s version, we find out that christiane had learned about this magical charm from the manuscripts in christian’s possession while she had leafed through them, so if he had known how to read a medieval latin text, he would have understood her strategy right away. those manuscripts obviously contained magical manuals, but only christiane knew of their true value, which made her so obsessed that she was willing even to risk her virginity, though she trusted the magical charm that was to protect her. finally, the entire configuration of this account pits two individuals ‘against’ each other who appear almost as predestined for one another, both being outsiders, separated from the rest of society by the metaphorical river which needs to be crossed for the events to proceed. the russian woman reappears only in the last moment of christian’s life and reveals to him that the reward which she had expected from him consisted only of his gratitude and happiness in life. very similar to the crucial metaphor used by gottfried von straßburg in the prologue to his tristan, this mysterious old woman reveals to him that the essence of all human existence would rest in black bread, spiced with nothing but salt, rich and nourishing. in tristan, the reader is reminded of the fundamental insight that the story of true love is tantamount to eating bread, bitter and sorrowful, but hence leading to personal happiness. whether bergengruen drew directly from this metaphor, cannot be decided here, but the parallels are certainly striking. the author might have also thought about the symbolic significance of the river, or larger body of water (tristan), which needs to be crossed for love to bloom and life to experience its full development to a maximum of its potentiality (classen, water in medieval literature 2018). most important for our approach pursued in this study, however, proves to be the intensive engagement with saint christopher, who was globally venerated since the fifth century throughout the entire middle ages and until the late twentieth century – he was eliminated from the official catholic church calendar only as late as in 1969 serving as the patron saint especially for travelers helping them to cross rivers without suffering from danger (schneider 2005). bergengruen, however, metamorphizes the legendary account and talks about the river which christian cannot cross mentally, being separated from most of his contemporaries, caught in his own sense of incompetence and insecurity. only once the russian woman has provided him with the necessary magical means, can he finally overcome this character weakness, assert himself, and thus realize his deepest desires, which then quickly transforms him as a person, who can win christiane’s love and hand in marriage. life then develops harmoniously and happily for him, as we can thus conclude, because st. christopher had carried him across the river and allowed him thus to grow into a normal adult life. significantly, if christian had not inherited those medieval manuscripts from his father, christiane would have never shown any interest in him. of course, she only granted those three nights with her to the young man because she believed to be safe from any consequences for herself. as a result of st. christopher’s involvement, however, at least via the russian strusen woman – ‘strusen’ referring to the russian rafters transporting wood to the baltic sea – the necromantic instrument to make the lover fall asleep was counteracted by some mysterious bag which she had given him, and this then forced christiane to accept her lover as her future marriage partner. we would acknowledge today that this would constitute a form of rape, a very reprehensible sexual crime, though it is not fully reflected on in this narrative. both the medieval and the modern version romanticize this relationship as happy and fulfilling for both, even though, through our modern lens, we also recognize and should condemn the degree of violence committed against the young woman. however, she had agreed to the condition set up by the young man, and this with the deliberate intention of deceiving him. believing in her magical power, she was willing to gamble with the potential danger of prostitution, although this would still not justify christoph’s violent charge against her, taking her by force despite her pleading to spare her virginity. at first sight, st. christopher does not seem to play the crucial role we might have expected because the strusen woman operates separately from him. however, christian had met her while she had prayed in front of the sculpture, and he himself had poured all of his cash into her palm to pass it on as an offering to the saint, so we are on safe ground to assume that bergengruen intended to predicate the entire story on christopher’s help in this situation. after all, the two lovers exchange their ideas about the true extent to which the saint had brought them together and give him full credit for this miraculous change of events and hearts. both people are described before hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 52 published by ideas spread their marriage as blocked and isolated, shy of people, and incapable of reaching out to their social environment. once they had crossed the river, both materially and metaphorically, their self-isolation was broken, and they found each other as a harmoniously matching couple. in order to explore the concepts of love, identity, and social involvement, bergengruen specifically drew from the medieval belief in saints such as st. christopher in order to come to terms with universal issues in human life. but he selected only one aspect of the medieval narrative, the love affair, and left out the second part in which the young man faces a deadly threat because he had pledged his life to a merchant in return for a loan to pay for the third night with the maid. the crucial issue is solved there when the maid, now the knight’s beloved wife, cross-dresses, appears before court, and argues successfully that the merchant had only a right on the knight’s flesh, but not on his blood ‒ a theme which shakespeare was later to pick up for his the merchant of venice (1596‒1599, first printed in 1600; drakakis, ed., 2010, pp. 60-61), but then he tinged the business transaction in strongly-anti-semitic terms, which is not at all the case in the gesta romanorum, not to speak of bergengruen’s version. it is worth mentioning here in passing that an anonymous fifteenth-century author of a middle high german verse narrative, “kaiser lucius’ tochter” had also developed this motif, though the element of ‘rape’ is mostly removed, and there is still no indication of anti-semitism. i would assume that bergengruen was not familiar with this literary account despite the strong similarities and complex and meaningful aspects addressing love, sexuality, violence, magic, money lending, and the legal process. we would certainly need a detailed examination of “kaiser lucius’ tochter” as a significant contribution to fifteenth-century german literature. (note 10) we recognize here, to be sure, a significant concatenation of medieval and modern literary texts all focused on more or less the same motif. 8. conclusion the analysis of these four novellas has demonstrated that bergengruen offered creative, idiosyncratic approaches to the middle ages, utilizing a variety of themes and motifs that used to be popular in many different romances, treatises, and verse narratives. however, in clear contrast to many other modern authors dedicated to a form of playful medievalism, bergengruen did not endeavor to imitate or paraphrase what his predecessors hundreds of years before him had already talked about. “the naked emperor” proves to be the closest to a specific source or group of source texts from the middle ages, but even there the author offers an entirely different approach, does not talk about the emperor’s guilt as such, and identifies him instead as the one individual less guilty than everyone else and yet more noble and hence stronger than all of his subjects to take on the task of doing penance for the entire people. in the other cases, bergengruen also clearly proves to be influenced by medieval motifs, but he remodels them extensively and thus avoids the common trap of employing them for simple entertainment purposes. instead, he rewrites medieval works for new intentions, redesigning them for ethical, moral, religious, and philosophical issues of relevance for the twentieth century and us today. in short, despite the historical framework, and despite the obvious familiarity with medieval literature at large, bergengruen can be identified as a significant contributor to medievalism, but here understood as a medium to formulate concepts about social and spiritual issues fundamental in all of human life and inspired by medieval art and literature. examining his short prose narratives, we can discover numerous direct connections with medieval literature. most impressively, his entire collection of short stories published under the title der tod von reval (1939; death from reval [today tallinn]), though hardly addressing the middle ages as such in concrete terms, proves to be generally predicated on the famous painting of the “dance of death” by bernt notke in st. nicholas, tallinn, from ca. 1465-1470 (see the prologue and the first story, “report about the course of life and the course of death of a curious man, bergengruen, der tod von reval 1939; 1956). as we are told throughout the entire volume, closely following late medieval teachings, life and death are intimately interlaced with each other, and the living should not be worried about the dead since all belong to the same global continuum of all existence. bergengruen directly responded to numerous messages from medieval history, literature, philosophy, religion, and the arts in composing his novels and short stories. but he did not limit himself to engaging with them in a narrow fashion; instead, he drew, above all, deep inspirations from the medieval teachings for a discussion of timeless values and ideals. little wonder that the revolutionary generations of the 1960s and 1970s lost their interest in this traditionalist author, but the relevance of his observations, themes, and motifs has not faded away. in fact, both medievalists and modernists can productively resort to bergengruen’s writing, certainly valuable contributions to twentieth-century german literature although they are often informed by medieval material at large. in bergengruen’s œuvre we can grasp a significant voice from the twentieth century which had not lost the connection to the pre-modern past and established intriguing narrative and idealistic bridges between that world and the twentieth century. all four novellas discussed here invite the readers not only to think about wider human hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 53 published by ideas spread concerns, shortcomings, conflicts, and ideals, but also to revisit medieval literature as a significant treasure trove of romances, heroic epics, verse narratives, and courtly love poetry (sobota 1962, 193‒94). there is more to bergengruen’s works than the experience of the unio mystica or of the merging of macrocosm and microcosm (bänziger, 46). he commonly addresses human guilt, repentance, and the intervention of the divine, that is, the subject’s effort to find its own individuality, character, and inner nature. such notions are not really medieval, and mirror rather the modern person. nevertheless, we can definitely conclude with the observation that bergengruen was deeply inspired by medieval ideals, but transformed them considerably for his own purposes, addressing his twentieth-century audience, caught in an existential crisis and hungry for a constructive redress, which these novellas and many other works by this writer offered in a welcome fashion. there is always a sense of consolation and hope, whereas the social, political, and economic criticism we are now wont to read about appears to be a bit removed. but what would be wrong with soul-searching, the quest for individual happiness, and the identification of one’s own meaning and identity in an alienated world. the turn back to the middle ages and the early modern period as a source of inspiration served bergengruen exceedingly well, who did not aim for any kind of escapism, but implemented a different, a more historical lens for his literary investigations of human ethics, morality, spirituality, and ideals. references aberth, j. 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(2018). medieval saints and modern screens: divine visions as cinematic experience. knowledge communities, 3. amsterdam: amsterdam up. https://doi.org/10.5040/9789048551293 tomasek, tomas. (1985). die utopie im “tristan” gotfrids von straßburg. hermaea / neue folge, 49. tübingen: max niemeyer. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111350103 walpuski, f. h. (2006). aspekte des phantastischen: das übernatürliche im werk werner bergengruens. frankfurt a. m.: peter lang. walz, d. (1994). das falkenbuch friedrichs ii. graz: akademische druckund verlagsanstalt. weiss, g. h. (1987). “werner bergengruen,” german fiction writers, 1914-1945, ed. james hardin. dictionary of literary biography, 56. detroit, mi: thomson gale, 27-38. wesselski, a. (1925). märchen des mittelalters. berlin: herbert stubenrauch. wolf, j. (2004). die moderne erfindet sich ihr mittelalter – oder wie aus der “mittelalterlichen erdkugel” eine “neuzeitliche erdscheibe” wurde. colloquia academica / akademie der wissenschaften und der literatur, mainz: g, geisteswissenschaften, 2004.5. mainz: akademie der wissenschaften und literatur. wollenberg, d. (2018). medieval imagery in today’s politics. past imperfect. leeds: arc humanities press. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 56 published by ideas spread https://doi.org/10.5040/9781641899079.ch-003 woods, w. f. (2014). the medieval filmscape: reflections of fear and desire in a cinematic mirror. jefferson, nc: mcfarland. ziegler, v. l. (2004). trial by fire and battle in medieval german literature. rochester, ny: camden house. zink, m. (1998). the enchantment of the middle ages, trans. by jane marie todd. parallax: re-visions of culture and society. baltimore, md, and london: the johns hopkins up. notes note 1. maybe people have always been in great need for imagination and fantasy since ordinary life is too pedestrian and banal. see the contributions to the recent volume imagination and fantasy in the middle ages and early modern times (2020). today, however, the middle ages often mean nothing but simply big business, with amusement parks, festivals, stores, book publishers, and many movie makers bank on the overarching intrigue exerted by that past world. see the contributions to international medievalism and popular culture 2014; see also the middle ages on television 2015; the medieval presence in the modernist aesthetic 2017; prendergast and trigg 2019. the research literature on this topic is legion by now. note 2. https://www.alternet.org/2021/03/fbi/; for the full letter, see https://www.whitehouse.senate.gov/news/release/whitehouse-releases-letter-to-garland-on-oversight-mattersolc-politicization(both last accessed on march 16, 2021). see now wollenberg 2018. note 3. for the ideological and myopic perspective practiced in german academic discourse today, particular rly regarding the pre-eminence of all matters jewish, see anderson 2002. he does not address bergengruen, but his central point underscores dramatically why the new generation after 1968 radically dismissed this writer as no longer politically correct, which in itself was a strongly ideological position. note 4. http://werner-bergengruen-gesellschaft.de/ (last accessed on march 16, 2021). note 5. burckhardt 1968; bänziger 1983; kroll, hackelsberger, and taschka 2005; walpuski 2006; kroll and von voss 2012; klapper 2015; weiss 1987; pieroth 2015, ch. 4, 99–112; classen 2021. for a selection of his shorter texts, especially his autobiographical notes, see bergengruen, schnaps mit sakuska 1987. i published an english translation of his der tod von reval, five other novellas, and one poem with cambridge scholars publishing, 2021. note 6. see, for instance, modernes mittelalter 1994; mittelalter-rezeption iii 1988); zink 1998; schwinghammer 2013. the literature on this topic is legion by now. a most useful reference work, however, also from a medieval perspective, proves to be grosse and rautenberg 1989. bergengruen, however, is not even listed here. note 7. bergengruen scholars have duly noted some of those medieval sources but have not pursued this topic in any particular way; see, for instance, bänziger 1983, 47. note 8. the deep impact of the middle ages on the modern world, even the twenty-first century, has already been observed by a number of scholars; see, for instance, the contributions to why the middle ages matter 2012; and making the medieval relevant 2020. for the political implications, often leading to mass murder, see, for instance, bildhauer and jones, ed., 2017; and elliott 2021. note 9. bergengruen, die drei falken 1937; parallel to it, it also appeared in celle: f. schneekluth, 1937; here i draw from the edition published in zürich by die arche, 1947. although extremely popular throughout the following decades, and even translated into numerous languages, modern scholarship has hardly ever engaged with it since the 1970s. note 10. hanns fischer, ed., no. 8, 71-88. the manuscript which used to contain this text is lost today, but the narrative was preserved through modern copies. see fischer, 530-531. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v7n3p73 73 published by ideas spread a study on the english translation of cantonese opera: taking the subtitle translation of the qing imperial court as an example dong wang1 guangtao cao2 & jinghua liu2 1 english department, foshan university, china 2 school of international studies, guangdong university of education, guangzhou 510303, china correspondence: dong wang, english department, foshan university, foshan guangdong 528000, china. email: 2126426609/at/qq.com received: november 2, 2024; accepted: december 15, 2024; published: december 16, 2024 abstract with the acceleration of globalization, the external dissemination and exchange of cantonese opera has become a new topic. subtitle translation is an important step in the overseas dissemination of cantonese opera. through making comparative analysis of the chinese script and english translation of the cantonese opera the qing imperial court in the aspects of cultural element processing, dialogue style, place name and official position translation, this paper evaluates the translation quality of the subtitle translation of english cantonese opera the qing imperial court and points out the existing problems. in order to improve the quality of cantonese opera translation and ensure that the translated works can accurately convey the cultural essence and artistic charm of cantonese opera, this study proposes a series of strategies and evaluation methods in the english translation of cantonese opera by conducting investigation and case analysis. keywords: english translation research, cantonese opera, the qing imperial court 1. introduction foshan is the birthplace of cantonese opera, which, as an important part of traditional chinese opera, carries the essence of lingnan culture and the unique charm of guangfu culture. with the acceleration of globalization, the external dissemination and exchange of cantonese opera has become a new topic. however, cantonese opera faces many challenges in the process of translation and introduction to the outside world, such as cultural differences and language barriers. in order to deepen the understanding of the essence of cantonese opera art, and provide new perspectives and ideas for the inheritance and development of cantonese opera, this paper explores the rules of cantonese opera chinese and english subtitles, english cantonese opera, and cantonese opera translation from the perspectives of communication studies, functional linguistics, and cantonese opera english subtitle translation, taking the english cantonese opera the qing imperial court as an example, in order to effectively promote the international dissemination of cantonese opera and enhance the international influence of chinese opera culture. subtitle translation is an important step in the overseas dissemination of cantonese opera. due to cantonese being the main language of cantonese opera, and overseas audiences often being unfamiliar with cantonese, providing chinese and english subtitles has become a common practice for cantonese opera performances overseas. however, how to better translate cantonese opera chinese subtitles into english subtitles is a question worth exploring in depth. currently, the translation quality of cantonese opera subtitles varies greatly. some translations are too literal and overlook the cultural background and performance characteristics of cantonese opera; however, some translations are too free, resulting in inaccurate expression of the plot and characters' emotions. therefore, improving the translation level and accuracy of cantonese opera subtitles has become an important task for the external dissemination and communication of cantonese opera. in order to improve the translation quality of cantonese opera subtitles, it is necessary to strengthen research on cantonese opera culture and performance characteristics. translators need to have a deep understanding of cantonese opera's singing style, body movements, performance techniques, and plot background in order to more accurately convey the plot and characters' emotions. at the same time, it is necessary to strengthen research and practice on english subtitle translation, and explore translation methods and techniques that are more in line with the characteristics of cantonese opera. in addition, we can also learn from the experience and practices of subtitle translation in other theater genres, such as peking opera, kunqu opera, etc. these theatrical genres have also hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 74 published by ideas spread accumulated rich experience in subtitle translation during their overseas dissemination, which can provide useful references and inspirations for cantonese opera subtitle translation. in this study, our team members searched and watched the recorded video of the english cantonese opera the qing imperial court jointly performed by dunhuang theatre in singapore and guangzhou red bean theatre company online, extracted its cantonese and english subtitles, and analyzed them. this opera depicts the power struggle between emperor guangxu and empress dowager cixi, as well as the tragic love story between emperor guangxu and empress zhenfei. it also includes major historical events such as the reform movement, the yihetuan movement, the sino japanese war of 1894-1895, and the invasion of china by the eight nation alliance. this study compares the english and chinese scripts of the qing imperial court and uses meta-analysis to analyze the translation differences between chinese and english, evaluate the translation quality, identify problems, and propose effective strategies for cantonese opera translation. 2. current research status on the translation of foshan cantonese opera into foreign languages as a national intangible cultural heritage, the english translation of cantonese opera is of great significance for promoting its international dissemination and cultural exchanges. however, the english translation of cantonese opera faces numerous challenges, such as language differences, cultural differences, and the preservation of the characteristics of performing arts. many scholars have delved deeply into the difficulties and strategies of translating cantonese opera from different theoretical perspectives, providing useful references for improving the accuracy and dissemination effect of cantonese opera translation. cai xiaoyi (2021) adopted the theory of multimodal context parameters, combined with text analysis, case analysis, and quality control, to study the translation strategies for cantonese opera terms, culture-loaded words, and poems in cantonese opera scripts. it was found that multimodal context parameters have an important impact on cantonese opera translation, and a macro-meso-micro translation strategy was proposed to improve the accuracy and readability of cantonese opera translation. yang guifang et al. (2022) adopted the theory of medio-translatology to study the current situation of the english translation and dissemination of the cantonese opera the princess cheung ping's romance with toi. they analyzed it from five aspects: the subject, content, channels, audience, and effect of translation and introduction. the study found that the english translation of cantonese opera faces challenges such as obscure language and lack of cultural background, and the effect of translation and introduction is affected by multiple factors such as the subject of translation and introduction, translation strategies, and audience acceptance. it was proposed to strengthen the cultivation of translation talents, deeply explore the culture of cantonese opera, and utilize modern media to promote the "going global" of cantonese opera. zhu yanbing (2021) through the theory of eco-translatology, combined with the corpus research method and the case analysis method, studied the adaptive selection and transformation at the lexical level of the english translation of the cantonese opera "the princess cheung ping's romance with toi". it was found that translators made adaptive selections on the source language text in multiple dimensions such as the linguistic dimension, cultural dimension, and communicative dimension. it was proposed that in the process of translating cantonese opera into english, attention should be paid to the leading role of translators, and a translation strategy combining domestication and foreignization should be adopted to conform to the language expression habits and cultural background of the target language audience and improve the acceptance and dissemination effect of the translation. yang haoran and zhang yingxian (2021) utilized the theory of domestication and foreignization, combined with the translation strategy of cross-cultural communication, to study the translation errors and improvement strategies in the english translation of the cantonese opera "the peony pavilion: startled dream". they proposed methods such as transliteration, free translation, and annotation to improve the accuracy and readability of the translation and promote the international dissemination of cantonese opera culture. 3. comparison of chinese and english scripts for the qing imperial court as a local opera, cantonese opera contains a large number of vocabulary and expressions with lingnan cultural characteristics in its scripts, which are difficult to find corresponding expressions in english. therefore, some vocabulary and expressions with profound cultural backgrounds will be simplified into ordinary words in english translations, using a more direct translation method. although they basically convey the meaning, they may lead to difficulties or misunderstandings for readers. for example, "old buddha" and "father" are both translated as "old buddha". although this translation is intuitive, in chinese history, guangxu called empress dowager cixi "father", which is a unique title that contains profound cultural connotations. it reflects the close relationship between guangxu and cixi, as well as the supreme status of cixi. and 'old buddha' is a respectful title for empress hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 75 published by ideas spread dowager cixi, reflecting the hierarchical relationship of ancient china. however, 'buddha' in buddhism refers to the buddha, and empress dowager cixi is not a buddhist. therefore, such translation may cause misunderstandings, so it may be better to translate it as "the empress dowager" or "the empress dowager cixi". in addition, translating "yihetuan" as "boxers" is a commonly used translation internationally, but the original meaning of "boxers" is boxers. therefore, such a vague and unexplained translation may make it difficult for readers to understand. “what translating does is to help us get inside literature” (rose, 2007, p.13). the lines in cantonese opera scripts have a classical literary style and are carefully worded. the english translation cannot showcase their cultural charm, such as "man proposes and i dispose", which is concise but difficult for international readers who are not familiar with chinese culture to understand its deeper meaning. english scripts are limited by english expression habits and sometimes appear unnatural, such as "be patient, your majesty. it's a conspiracy very blatantly usurping and clipping your authority". therefore, we can see that english cannot translate the elegant language art and poetic language of cantonese opera scripts. this cantonese opera script mentions a large number of place names and official positions. in the corresponding english script, translations like "daughter of governor of anhui" and "eldest daughter of viceroy of guangdong and guangxi province" are basically right, but not precise enough. a more professional translation may be " daughter of provincial commander-in-chief of anhui province" and "eldest daughter of provincial commanderin-chief of both guangdong province and guangxi province". the language expression in cantonese opera scripts often has strong colloquialism and regional characteristics, which makes it difficult to find a direct corresponding expression in english. therefore, in the translation process, it is necessary to make appropriate adjustments based on english expression habits and context. for example, the chinese word“喳”is a response word from eunuchs in the qing dynasty court to the emperor or empress, with distinct cultural characteristics. in the english translation, there is no directly corresponding vocabulary to express this specific response. if translated simply as 'yes, your majesty', although it conveys the basic meaning, it loses the cultural connotation of chinese history. a better translation should take the specific context into consideration to create an expression that not only conforms to english expression habits but also reflects chinese cultural characteristics. for example, it can be translated as "at your service, your majesty" or "yes, majesty, i am here", which not only reflects the humility in the response of the eunuch in ancient chinese culture, but also conforms to english expression habits. overall, the translation quality of english scripts is at a moderate level. it basically conveys the main plot and dialogue content of the chinese script, but there are shortcomings in the preservation of cultural elements, the maintenance of language style, and the accuracy of details. (1) accuracy: the english script is quite accurate in its basic content, but there is still room for improvement in some details, such as the translation of official positions and place names. (2) fluency: the lines in english scripts sometimes appear too stiff and not natural enough, which may be the result of translating chinese lines too directly. (3) cultural communication: english scripts try to translate chinese cultural elements as much as possible, but in some cases, this preservation may confuse foreign readers, such as the use of the title "old buddha" for empress dowager cixi, which may require additional explanation or commentary. some translations are too straightforward, lacking the charm and deep meaning of the original chinese sentence, and the handling of some vocabulary with specific cultural connotations is not appropriate enough. 4. investigation, case analysis, and discussion as a local opera, cantonese opera faces dual barriers of language and culture in its international dissemination due to its unique language and cultural elements, which poses challenges to the translation and international dissemination of cantonese opera. on the one hand, cantonese opera's lyrics and dialogues are mainly in cantonese, which creates language barriers in international dissemination; on the other hand, the cultural elements, historical allusions, and folk customs contained in cantonese opera increase the difficulty of understanding and appreciating. in addition, the translation quality of cantonese opera varies greatly, which affects its international dissemination effect. translation theory in communication studies regards translation activities as a cross-cultural process of information dissemination, emphasizing the accuracy, fluency, and cultural transmission of translation. this study suggests that in the english translation and introduction of cantonese opera, the following strategies can be adopted by drawing on the communication studies of translation and interpreting: hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 76 published by ideas spread 4.1 establish a cantonese opera translation language database this study believes that establishing a cantonese opera translation corpus database is of great significance and feasibility. it can organize personnel to collect and organize the establishment of a cantonese opera translation corpus database, providing a foundation for the international dissemination and research of cantonese opera. 4.2 offering cantonese opera translation courses in universities this study aims to provide courses such as cantonese opera translation for foreign language majors in higher education institutions, in order to cultivate versatile talents with knowledge of cantonese opera and cross-cultural communication skills. these talents will play an important role in the external translation and international dissemination of cantonese opera, promote cantonese opera translation work, and improve the quality of external translation. 4.3 guiding translation practice with translation theory to enhance the quality and effectiveness of cantonese opera translation into foreign languages 4.3.1 clearly define the communication subject and target audience in the translation and introduction of cantonese opera to foreign audiences, the dissemination subject should be a professional translation team or cantonese opera experts who possess profound language skills and cross-cultural communication abilities. the target audience is overseas audience, including groups with different cultural backgrounds and language habits. in the translation process, full consideration should be given to the needs and acceptance habits of the target audience. 4.3.2 choose appropriate communication channels with the development of technology, the channels for translating and introducing cantonese opera to foreign audiences are becoming increasingly diverse. in addition to traditional theater performances and television broadcasts, new media channels such as online platforms and social media can also be utilized for dissemination. these channels can cover a wider audience and enhance the popularity and influence of cantonese opera. 4.3.3 analyze language functionality “the language of drama is different from that of novels, prose, and general poetry. compared to the former, it is more like poetry, even if it is a drama written in prose, its language should be poetic and full of poetic flavor; compared to the latter, it has more descriptive, popular, colloquial, and personalized qualities of a novel. it is a third literary language that combines the characteristics of both and is different from both” (wang, 2009, p.142). when translating cantonese opera scripts, attention should be paid to analyzing the language functions of the original text, including conceptual functions, interpersonal functions, and discourse functions. conceptual function refers to the reflection and description of the objective world by language; interpersonal function refers to the interactive role of language in interpersonal communication; discourse function refers to the organizational structure and coherence of language in expressing meaning. by analyzing the language function of the original text in depth, translators can more accurately grasp the intention and style of the original text. 4.3.4 optimizing translation strategies and methods for evaluating translation quality “the translation of drama requires higher language arts and deeper cultural understanding, as well as more crosscultural communication and creativity, and more empathetic understanding and expression” (wang, 2007, p.7). when translating cantonese opera scripts, in order to ensure accuracy, fluency, and effective cultural communication, translators should pay attention to the accuracy of content and diversity of form. translation is not only the conversion of language symbols, but also the transmission of cultural connotations. therefore, in the process of translation, translators should pursue functional equivalence rather than formal equivalence, that is, to accurately reproduce the conceptual meaning, interpersonal meaning, and discourse structure of the original text in the target language as much as possible, ensuring that the translation is functionally consistent with the original text. taking the english lyrics of the cantonese opera the qing imperial court as an example, this paper proposes some important translation strategies. at the same time, in order to improve the quality of cantonese opera translation and ensure that the translated works can accurately convey the cultural essence and artistic charm of cantonese opera, this study proposes a new quality evaluation method under the guidance of communication studies of translation and interpreting and functional translation theory. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 77 published by ideas spread the translation strategy and evaluation method are proposed as follows: ① annotation method for cultural elements, historical allusions, and other content in cantonese opera that are difficult to translate directly, translators can use annotation to explain and clarify. for example, in the qing imperial court, the titles "old buddha" and "father" have rich cultural connotations, and if translated directly as "old buddha", it may cause misunderstandings. therefore, it is recommended to add annotations in the translation, explaining as “a title of respect used by court officials and the emperor to address the empress dowager ci xi" and "an affectionate title used by emperor guang xu to address the empress dowager ci xi", to help readers better understand the cultural connotations and historical background of cantonese opera. ② transliteration method transliteration is a commonly used translation strategy for proprietary terms, personal names, place names, etc. in cantonese opera. this helps to preserve the original flavor of cantonese opera while facilitating international readers' understanding and memory. for example, in the qing imperial court, "emperor guangxu" and "empress dowager cixi" can be transliterated as "guang xu emperor" and "ci xi empress dowager", which preserves the original pronunciation and is easy for international readers to recognize. ③ integration strategy of domestication and foreignization when translating cantonese opera lyrics and dialogues, translators should flexibly adopt domestication or foreignization strategies according to specific situations. the domestication strategy can make the translation more in line with the expression habits and cultural background of the target language readers, while the foreignization strategy can help preserve the cultural characteristics and artistic charm of cantonese opera. for example, in the qing imperial court, the line “谋事在人成事在天” can be translated as "man proposals, god disposals" using domestication strategy, which not only conveys the original meaning but also conforms to english expression habits. for some words with unique cultural characteristics, such as the chinese word "喳" (a response word for eunuchs in the qing dynasty), alienation strategies can be adopted and explanations can be added, translated as "zha (an imperial response word used by eunuchs in the qing dynasty)", to preserve cultural features. ④ contextual analysis method when translating cantonese opera, translators should fully consider factors such as contextual context, situational context, and cultural context. this helps to convey the meaning and emotions of the original text more accurately, improving the authenticity and naturalness of the translation. for example, through contextual analysis in the qing imperial court, the emotional color and contextual information of the original text can be better reflected. ⑤ give equal importance to both meaning and flavor in translation when translating cantonese opera, translators should pay attention to the combination of translation meaning meaning and flavor. translation meaning is the foundation of translation, which involves accurately conveying the conceptual meaning of the original text; and the translation style focuses on the reproduction of the emotions, style, and charm of the original text in the translation. in the translation of cantonese opera lyrics in the qing imperial court, it is not only necessary to accurately convey their literal meaning, but also to preserve their musicality and rhythm as much as possible. translators can reproduce the charm and style of the original text by selecting appropriate english vocabulary and sentence structures, as well as adjusting word order and rhythm appropriately. ⑥ evaluation of communication effectiveness drawing on the 5w model in communication studies, evaluate the dissemination effect of cantonese opera translation and introduction to the outside world. specifically, attention should be paid to the disseminators (i.e. translators), content (i.e. cantonese opera scripts and their translations), target audience (i.e. overseas audiences), communication channels (such as international art festivals, online platforms, etc.), and communication effects (such as audience feedback, media coverage, etc.) of the translated text. collect feedback from overseas audiences on cantonese opera and its translations through questionnaire surveys, social media feedback, etc., to understand their understanding and acceptance of cantonese opera culture, as well as improvement suggestions. ⑦ functional equivalence evaluation based on the translation theory of systemic functional linguistics, evaluate the equivalence between the translated text and the original text in terms of conceptual function, interpersonal function, and discourse function. this requires translators not only to accurately convey the meaning of the original text, but also to preserve its cultural charm and emotional expression. firstly, evaluate whether the conceptual functions are equivalent, that is, evaluate hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 78 published by ideas spread whether the translation accurately conveys the meaning and information of the original text. secondly, evaluate whether the interpersonal function is equivalent, that is, whether the translation retains the emotional expression and interpersonal relationships of the original text. for example, whether the classical literary style and colloquial expression in cantonese opera lines have been appropriately handled in translation to reflect the relationships and emotional communication between characters. finally, evaluate whether the discourse function is equivalent, that is, whether the translation maintains the discourse structure and coherence of the original text. for example, in the translation of the qing imperial court, the translation needs to be consistent with the original text in terms of logic, coherence, and continuity, so that overseas audiences can better understand the plot development. ⑧ context adaptation assessment analyze the adaptability of the translation in different cultural contexts. due to the strong lingnan cultural characteristics of cantonese opera, translators need to fully consider the cultural background and expression habits of the target language in the translation process, so as to make the translation more in line with the cognition and understanding of overseas audiences. firstly, valuate the translation's handling of cultural elements in cantonese opera and whether appropriate translation strategies have been adopted to preserve or interpret these cultural elements. for example, the term "yihetuan" in the qing imperial court is translated as "boxers", which, although commonly used internationally, may require additional explanation to help overseas audiences understand its historical background. secondly, evaluate whether the translation retains the language style of cantonese opera lines, such as classical literary style and colloquial expression. for example, whether the poetic and ornate language in cantonese opera lines has been appropriately reproduced in translation to reflect the artistic characteristics of cantonese opera. thirdly, evaluate whether the translation fully considers the cultural context and expression habits of the target language, making the translation more relevant to the cognition and understanding of overseas audiences. for example, when translating specific titles, customs, etc. in cantonese opera, it is necessary to use expressions that are in line with the cultural background of the target language. the study believes that the translation strategies and evaluation methods proposed above can play the role of "conveying essence and meaning", which is proposed by the famous translation theorist mr. wang rongpei, who notes that the principle of "conveying essence and meaning" “can be a kind of translation criticism theory” (wang & men, 2010, p.7). 5. conclusion with the deepening development of globalization, cultural exchanges have become increasingly frequent, and the external dissemination and exchange of cantonese opera has become an important topic. through research of the english translation of foshan cantonese opera by taking the english cantonese opera the qing imperial court as an example, this study provides scientific analysis and suggestions for the translation of cantonese opera, and proposes a series of strategies and evaluation methods in the english translation of cantonese opera, so as to promote cantonese opera to better enter the world stage. acknowledgements this is one of the findings of the 2024 foshan social science project “research on the english translation of foshan cantonese opera”(2024-gj036). about the author 1 dong wang (1969-04), male, han, born place: zhengzhou city, henan province, title: lecturer, master of english language and literature, research direction: british and american literature; english language. 2 guangtao, cao (1971-11), male, han, born place: minquan county, henan province, title: professor, doctor of ancient chinese literature, research direction: british and american literature; drama translation. 3 jinghua, liu (2004--05), female, han, born place: guangzhou city, guangdong province, title: major of english (normal), grade 2022, the school of international studies, guangdong university of education. references cai, x. (2022). practice report on cantonese opera translation from the perspective of multimodal context parameters: taking selected cantonese opera scripts as an example [doctoral dissertation]. guangdong university of foreign studies. rose, m. g. (2007). translation and literary criticism: translation as analysis. beijing: foreign language teaching and research press. wang, h. y. (2007). a translation coursebook of masterpiece in chinese and world literature. higher education hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 79 published by ideas spread press. wang, r. p., & men, s. d. (2010). studies on translation of chinese classics into english. foreign language teaching and research press. wang, r. p., & wang, h. (2009). english translation of chinese classics. shanghai: shanghai foreign language education press. yang, g., wang, h., & wang, x. (2022). research on the current situation and strategies of cantonese opera communication from the perspective of translation studies: a case study of the princess cheung ping's romance with toi. journalism and media studies, (11), 99-102. yang, h., & zhang, y. (2021). cantonese opera english translation and cultural inheritance: taking the translation of the peony pavilion: startled dream as an example. overseas english, (7), 172-173, 175. zhu, y. (2021). translation of cantonese opera from the perspective of ecological translation studies: a case study of the english translation of the princess cheung ping's romance with toi. journal of wanxi university, 37(3), 116-121. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n1p99 99 published by ideas spread cross-dimensional integration and innovative applications of vocal music and piano sound assets in the ai era cheng yuhao1 1 shenyang yuefu art school, china correspondence: cheng yuhao, shenyang yuefu art school, shenyang, liaoning, china. received: january 20, 2025; accepted: february 16, 2025; published: february 17, 2025 abstract the rapid advancement of artificial intelligence (ai) technology is reshaping paradigms in musical creation, education, and performance. this paper focuses on vocal music and piano sound assets as core research subjects, exploring how ai enables innovative applications through cross-dimensional integration (technology, art, education, and industry). case studies on interactive smart piano pedagogy, ethical boundaries in vocal synthesis, and data-driven compositional models are analyzed to demonstrate ai’s multifaceted penetration into the music ecosystem and its disruptive impact on traditional practices. a fusion strategy balancing technological optimization and humanistic values is proposed. findings indicate that ai enhances the efficient management and re-creation of sound assets, promoting the democratization, personalization, and globalization of music. however, systemic solutions are required to address challenges in copyright protection, emotional expression, and ethical governance. keywords: ai technology, piano and vocal music, sound assets, cross-dimensional integration, innovative applications 1. introduction with the rapid development of artificial intelligence (ai), the music field is undergoing a profound shift from a "human-dominated" paradigm to one of "human-machine collaboration." this transformation not only impacts the modes of musical creation, performance, and education but also unlocks unprecedented possibilities for the preservation and innovation of musical art. piano and vocal music, as central pillars of musical expression, have seen their sound assets—including timbre libraries, performance data, and acoustic features—become focal points for technological empowerment through digitization and intelligent processing. this paper investigates how ai deconstructs and reconstructs vocal music and piano sound assets, analyzes the role of cross-dimensional integration in revolutionizing music education, creation, and performance, and proposes countermeasures to challenges such as data security, copyright attribution, and limitations in emotional expression. in musical creation, ai has fundamentally altered the processing and recombination of musical materials. traditional composition relies on composers’ personal experience and inspiration, whereas ai systems analyze vast musical corpora to learn and emulate diverse styles, offering novel creative tools and inspiration. in education, ai transcends geographical and pedagogical constraints, granting broader access to high-quality resources. for performance, ai’s real-time interactivity enables musicians to explore new modes of expression and immersive experiences, significantly enriching artistic presentation. 2. ai-driven deconstruction and reconstruction of sound assets 2.1 intelligent processing of piano sound assets as a classical instrument, the piano has become a critical domain for ai-driven digitization and intelligent processing of sound assets. ai-enabled pianos employ embedded sensors to precisely capture keystroke dynamics (velocity, force) and pedal usage. these data are fed into deep learning models, such as transformer architectures, to generate dynamic feedback for real-time performance analysis and pedagogical optimization. for instance, the pearl river amason ai piano incorporates an "intelligent error-correction" feature. by comparing performance data with standardized scores, it swiftly identifies errors and provides personalized practice recommendations. this functionality enhances learning efficiency while enabling precision-oriented pedagogy. furthermore, the integration of vgg network models in ai-powered international piano competitions has revolutionized judging criteria. these models objectively evaluate note intensity and rhythmic accuracy, establishing a bias-resistant scoring system that addresses inconsistencies in traditional human evaluations. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 100 published by ideas spread beyond pedagogy and competition, ai applications extend to creative domains. by analyzing extensive piano repertoires, ai systems assimilate diverse performance styles and techniques to generate innovative compositions. this approach not only expands creative boundaries but also serves as a catalyst for composers’ inspiration. 2.2 multidimensional breakthroughs in vocal synthesis as another pivotal medium of musical art, vocal sound assets have achieved remarkable progress in digitization and intelligent processing through ai. by extracting acoustic features such as fundamental and harmonic frequencies, spectral analysis, and timbre modeling, ai enables voice cloning and personalized synthesis. this technology enhances synthesized vocals in timbral fidelity, pitch accuracy, and expressiveness, offering novel possibilities for vocal composition and performance. the audio watermarking technology proposed by the institute of acoustics, chinese academy of sciences, provides an effective solution for copyright protection in vocal synthesis. this method embeds imperceptible identifiers into synthesized voices, ensuring traceability and authentication during distribution. such innovation not only safeguards creators’ rights but also facilitates the legal dissemination and utilization of vocal works. however, ai-generated vocal pieces still exhibit "mechanical rigidity" in emotional expression. while ai can mimic basic vocal characteristics, it struggles to convey nuanced emotions or complex affective dynamics comparable to human singers. to address this, researchers are integrating affective computing models into vocal synthesis. by incorporating multimodal data—such as facial expressions and physiological signals (e.g., heart rate)—into emotion generation algorithms, the naturalness and expressiveness of synthetic voices are significantly enhanced. as this technology matures, it promises to infuse vocal creations with richer emotional depth and artistic vitality. 3. innovative application scenarios of cross-dimensional integration the pervasive integration of ai technology is driving unprecedented transformations in music. the digitization and intelligent processing of vocal music and piano sound assets not only improve efficiency in creation and performance but also unlock vast potential for innovation in education, composition, and commercial development. this chapter explores these emergent ai-driven application scenarios. 3.1 democratizing music education ai applications in music education are breaking down geographical and pedagogical barriers, fostering inclusive access to high-quality training. 3.1.1 intelligent piano pedagogy exemplified by the amason ai piano system, ai algorithms generate personalized practice repertoires while vr technology simulates masterclasses, delivering immersive learning experiences. traditional piano instruction often faces constraints due to uneven teacher expertise and geographical disparities. the amason ai piano overcomes these limitations by dynamically tailoring exercises to learners’ proficiency and habits. its vr integration transports students into virtual masterclasses, offering one-on-one guidance from renowned pianists. this approach not only accelerates skill acquisition but also enhances learner engagement and motivation. 3.1.2 ai-assisted vocal training ai-powered vocal analysis systems play a transformative role in voice training. by real-time monitoring of pitch accuracy and vocal techniques—such as resonance positioning via spectrogram visualization—these systems provide objective, data-driven feedback. traditional vocal coaching relies heavily on instructors’ subjective auditory judgments, whereas ai analysis offers precise diagnostics. for instance, real-time spectral analysis pinpoints technical flaws and visually guides learners to adjust resonance placement for optimal vocal production. this method improves training efficiency, accuracy, and accelerates mastery of proper vocal techniques. 3.2 human-machine collaboration in creation and performance ai is redefining creative and performative paradigms through synergistic human-machine interactions, empowering artists with novel tools and expressive modalities. 3.2.1 ai-driven composition and improvisation generative adversarial network (gan)-based systems, such as sony’s flow machines, emulate specific musical styles (e.g., chopin or jazz) to provide inspirational frameworks for composers. traditional composition depends on individual creativity and experience, whereas ai systems analyze vast musical corpora to internalize stylistic patterns, generating endless creative sparks. this approach expands compositional boundaries while boosting hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 101 published by ideas spread efficiency and diversity. concurrently, ai improvisation systems dynamically generate context-aware accompaniments based on a performer’s input, enriching live performances with adaptive musical layers. 3.2.2 real-time interactive performances british musician imogen heap exemplifies the fusion of wearable technology and ai in performance art. by translating body movements into real-time sound effects via wearable sensors and ai algorithms, she creates immersive, multisensory performances. traditional performances are often constrained by instrumental mechanics and performer skill, but heap’s innovation transcends these limits. her system captures kinetic data from wearables, converting gestures into instantaneous audio effects, thereby merging music and physical expression. this paradigm enhances audience immersion and opens new creative dimensions for performative experimentation. 3.3 commercial development of sound assets with the continuous development of ai technology, the commercial development of sound assets has become possible. the emergence of personalized timbre libraries and virtual singers has brought new business models and profit opportunities to the music industry. regarding personalized timbre libraries, training exclusive timbre models through users' performance data can meet the customized needs of professional musicians. traditional timbre libraries usually offer general timbre options, while personalized timbre libraries can train exclusive timbre models based on users' performance data and preferences. such timbre models can not only more accurately reflect users' playing styles and characteristics but also provide professional musicians with a richer and more personalized selection of timbres. in terms of virtual singers and digital copyright, ai vocal synthesis technology has given rise to virtual idols (such as hatsune miku). however, the distribution of their commercial revenues needs to be transparently managed through blockchain technology. as a new music cultural phenomenon, virtual idols have gained the love and pursuit of a large number of fans. nevertheless, the distribution of commercial revenues of virtual idols is a complex issue. through blockchain technology, the transparent management of the commercial revenues of virtual idols can be achieved, ensuring that the rights and interests of all parties are reasonably protected. at the same time, ai vocal synthesis technology also provides a more efficient and diverse way for the creation and performance of virtual idols. in the current context where ai technology is developing rapidly and deeply penetrating the music field, it has brought unprecedented changes and innovation opportunities to music creation, performance, and dissemination. however, just like the widespread application of any emerging technology, the practice of ai in the music field inevitably faces a series of severe challenges and problems. this chapter will focus in depth on the challenges in several key aspects, including data security and copyright disputes, limitations of emotional expression, and ethical and industry acceptance, and actively explore corresponding effective countermeasures. 4. challenges and countermeasures under technology empowerment 4.1 data security and copyright disputes the phenomenon of ai generated music works has made the originally relatively clear issue of music copyright ownership complex. in the process of ai music creation, the rights and interests of multiple parties are involved, among which creators, ai developers, and relevant platforms all play important roles. creators usually carry out creative activities based on their own creative ideas with the help of ai tools. ai developers are responsible for developing and optimizing the ai music creation system, providing technical support for the creative process. and platforms assume the function of a medium for the dissemination and display of music works. therefore, constructing a reasonable and fair copyright distribution agreement has become the core key to effectively protecting the rights and interests of all parties. the american music association once put forward an influential proposal, suggesting that ai generated works be classified as "derivative works" and that the copyright should belong to the original data provider. to some extent, this proposal provides a reference idea for the complicated situation of music copyright distribution. original data plays a fundamental role in ai music creation, providing rich materials for the training of ai models. from this perspective, linking the copyright to the original data provider has certain rationality. however, in the actual operation process, considering only the factor of the original data provider is far from enough. the contribution of the ai system in the music creation process cannot be ignored. ai analyzes, learns, and integrates massive music data through complex algorithms, and then generates music works with certain innovation. this algorithm driven creative process demonstrates the unique "creative ability" of the ai system. in addition, the creative input of the creator is the soul of the music work. the creator uses their own musical hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 102 published by ideas spread literacy, artistic perception, and unique creative ideas to screen, modify, and perfect the basic content generated by ai, endowing the music work with a unique artistic style and emotional connotation. therefore, in the future, it is necessary to construct a more complete, flexible, and comprehensive copyright distribution mechanism. this mechanism should fully consider various factors, such as the contribution of the ai system, the creative input of the creator, and the rights and interests of the original data provider, to achieve fair and just music copyright distribution and create a good legal environment for the healthy development of ai music creation. 4.2 limitations in emotional expression at present, in terms of musical emotional expression, ai systems mainly rely on the imitation and learning of existing data. although ai can analyze and summarize the emotional characteristics in a large number of musical works and, to a certain extent, simulate corresponding emotional expressions, there is still a significant gap compared with the "spiritual essence" demonstrated in the improvisational creations of human musicians. during the process of improvisational creation, human musicians can create musical works full of vitality and emotional depth based on their current emotional states, the on site atmosphere, and their unique musical insights. however, due to the lack of genuine emotional experience and subjective perception capabilities, the musical works created by ai systems often fail to reach the emotionally touching realm of human created music. to break through this long standing limitation, researchers are actively exploring methods to optimize musical emotion generation by integrating multi modal emotion models. the principle of multi modal emotion models lies in comprehensively analyzing various data information related to emotions to more accurately capture and express emotions in music. for example, facial expressions are the intuitive external manifestations of human emotions. different emotions such as joy, sadness, and anger are often accompanied by specific facial expression changes. by real time monitoring and analyzing the facial expressions of singers or performers, the ai system can obtain rich emotional cues and incorporate these cues into music creation and performance. similarly, physiological signals such as changes in heart rate are also closely related to emotional states. when people are in emotional states such as nervousness and excitement, their heart rates tend to increase; while in a calm and relaxed state, the heart rate is relatively stable. incorporating these physiological signal data into the analysis scope of the ai system can further enhance its ability to understand and express emotions, making the emotional expression of musical works more delicate and realistic. in addition, establishing a human machine collaboration framework is also an effective way to address the limitations of ai in musical emotional expression. under this framework, ai is regarded as a powerful creative tool, providing creators with rich creative inspiration and materials. for instance, ai can quickly generate a large number of musical fragments and creative concepts according to the requirements of the theme, style, and emotional tone given by the creator. human artists, on the other hand, rely on their profound artistic attainments and keen emotional perception abilities to screen, modify, and perfect the content generated by ai, and ultimately hold the decision making power over the work. this human machine collaboration model can not only give full play to the advantages of ai technology in data processing and creative generation but also ensure that musical works maintain innovation while integrating the depth and breadth of human emotions, enabling musical works to truly touch the hearts of the audience. 4.3 ethics and industry acceptance within the music industry, some traditional musicians express deep concerns about the widespread application of ai technology. they believe that the development of ai technology may gradually undermine the originality of art. in the traditional concept of music creation, musicians rely on their unique artistic perception, profound musical foundation, and long term creative experience to create works with distinct personal styles and unique artistic values. this originality is regarded as the core value of art. however, the emergence of ai technology has, to some extent, made the music creation process more procedural and standardized. the musical works generated by ai seem to lack the unique artistic charm of traditional music. however, it is important to clarify that the original intention of the development of ai technology is not to replace human artists but to provide them with more and more powerful creative tools and possibilities. ai technology can help musicians break through the limitations of traditional creative thinking and explore new musical styles and forms of expression. in order to dispel the misunderstandings of traditional musicians and other industry insiders about ai technology and enhance the industry's acceptance of ai technology, it is crucial to fully demonstrate the great potential of ai technology in empowering music creation rather than replacing human artists through educational promotion. the ai piano art festival held by zhejiang conservatory of music is a successful and exemplary attempt. in this festival, the application achievements of ai technology in multiple fields such as piano education, creation, and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 103 published by ideas spread performance were comprehensively demonstrated. in terms of piano education, the ai intelligent teaching system can provide real time personalized teaching guidance and feedback suggestions based on students' learning progress and performance, helping students to improve their piano playing skills more efficiently. in the field of creation, ai assisted creative tools provide composers with rich creative inspiration and materials, greatly expanding their creative ideas. in the performance section, the interactive performance between ai and piano players brings a new audio visual experience to the audience. through the display of these practical cases, more music practitioners and enthusiasts can deeply understand the innovation and development opportunities brought about by the integration of ai technology and music, thus gradually changing their views on ai technology and increasing the acceptance of ai technology in the music industry. through the in depth analysis of challenges in aspects such as data security and copyright disputes, limitations in emotional expression, and ethics and industry acceptance, and the proposal of corresponding countermeasures, it is helpful to lay a solid foundation for the sustainable development of ai technology in the music field and promote the innovation and breakthrough of music art in the new era. 5. conclusions ai technology has opened up new dimensions for the management and application of vocal music and piano sound assets. however, its in depth integration should be centered around the balance between "technical rationality" and "artistic sensibility". this paper has explored the innovative application scenarios of ai technology in music education, creation, performance, and commercial development, and analyzed the challenges and countermeasures under the empowerment of technology. future research directions may include the following aspects: first, develop adaptive learning systems so that ai based educational tools can dynamically adjust as users grow. second, explore the optimization path of emotional expression by combining neuroscience and ai to improve the ability of ai systems in musical emotional expression. third, promote the formulation of international copyright agreements and ethical guidelines to provide legal protection for the healthy development of ai technology in the music field. the integration of ai and music is not only a technological revolution but also a cultural evolution. only by adhering to the humanistic core in innovation can we achieve the symbiotic prosperity of art and technology. in the future, with the continuous development and improvement of ai technology, it is believed that the music field will embrace a broader space for innovation and development. references ahn, j. y., & kim, h. j. (2023). the impact of ai on the music industry: a review of technological innovation, copyright issues, and future challenges. journal of cultural economics, 47(2), 219-237. chovanec, r. (2024, november 14). applications of generative ai tools: audio and music generation — music composition. medium. dalius, e. (2024, january 5). ai in music: the new era of automated composition and production. li, j. (2022). study on integration and application of artificial intelligence and wireless network in piano music teaching. computational intelligence and neuroscience, 2022, 8745833. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/8745833 pasquier, p., & mandereau, j. (2024). ai-generated music: a new paradigm for composition and creativity. leonardo music journal, 34, 27-33. thompson, e. h. (2024). the ethics of ai in music education: balancing technological innovation with pedagogical values. journal of music teacher education, 33(3), 171-183. wang, y., & zhang, y. (2023). research on the innovation of music performance forms based on ai technology. international journal of advanced computer science and applications, 14(8), 375-382. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n1p46 46 published by ideas spread a study on the teaching tasks and objectives of traditional chanting in sichuan province from the perspective of intangible cultural heritage wang xu1 1 sichuan academy of social sciences, sichuan recitation society, china correspondence: wang xu, sichuan academy of social sciences, sichuan recitation society, sichuan, chengdu 610000, china. received: january 12, 2025; accepted: february 10, 2025; published: february 11, 2025 abstract as a carrier of intangible cultural heritage and an important method of ancient education and teaching, sichuan traditional chanting is a creative way to promote the education of chinese excellent traditional culture and foster the transformation and development of this culture. this paper analyzes the cultural and educational value of sichuan traditional chanting in achieving the inheritance of regional cultural lineage, serving teaching, and promoting morality and human development, from the perspectives of historical development and educational functions. it also proposes methodological initiatives for integrating traditional chanting into modern education, providing a new paradigm for the inheritance of intangible cultural heritage and for the innovation and application of the traditional chanting teaching model. keywords: intangible cultural heritage, bardic teaching tasks, teaching objectives 1. introduction sichuan traditional chanting is a living representation of intangible cultural heritage in the history of sichuan education and an important carrier of sichuan's traditional culture. since its inception, sichuan traditional chanting has shouldered the fundamental mission of promoting morality and educating people, while also taking on the significant responsibility of cultural inheritance and educating people through culture. as an important part of china’s excellent traditional culture, sichuan traditional chanting is not only a valuable asset to sichuan but also a treasure of the tianfu region, serving as a crucial source for nurturing the worldview, cosmology, outlook on life, and values of the sichuanese people across generations. 2. the realization of regional cultural heritage is a key attribute of the intangible cultural heritage of sichuan traditional chanting cultural lineage is an important "cultural umbilical cord" that connects the self, the group, and the world while linking space, time, and emotions. it is both transversal and hereditary. the cultural lineage of a region carries its rich humanistic history and directly influences the trajectory of its future civilization. it serves as a crucial variable in defining a region’s characteristics, and its development and continuation represent a dialectical unity of cultural inheritance and innovation.regional traditional chanting, which has endured as part of this cultural lineage, embodies the regional genes and characteristics that scholars have accumulated and preserved over generations. these elements have evolved through the transformation of reading voices and are expressed through traditional chanting. as a form of traditional music associated with the literati, regional traditional chanting is a quintessential representation of cultural lineage. by engaging in traditional chanting, modern individuals within the region can experience a sense of timelessness, allowing them to expand their awareness of experience, emotion, and reason while affirming the totality, possibility, and transcendence of their own existence.the transmission of cultural lineage relies on human participation and, more specifically, on the literati to carry out this vital task. throughout history, chanting has often been a hallmark or status symbol of the literati, serving as a distinct cultural form that different groups of scholars have studied and inherited within their regional contexts. in this way, chanting has played a crucial role in constructing identity and affirming one’s sense of existence.traditional chanting in sichuan carries distinct cultural characteristics and profound connotations. it is not only a pedagogical method for teaching and educating but also a practice passed down orally, allowing individuals to experience chinese culture in the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 47 published by ideas spread process of learning. through this practice, the regional cultural lineage is preserved and transmitted across generations. since china’s accession to the unesco convention on intangible cultural heritage as a state party on 17 october 2003, the protection and development of intangible cultural heritage have been fully integrated into the key elements of national cultural development strategy. on 14 june 2008, the state council designated "changzhou minstrelsy" as part of the second batch of national cultural heritage. however, more than a decade later, no other form of minstrelsy from any part of the country has been recognized as intangible cultural heritage. to date, under the "minstrelsy tune" programme, "changzhou minstrelsy" remains the only sub-item of the "minstrelsy of changzhou" programme.as a sister non-heritage project of chanting, sichuan traditional chanting is also actively undergoing the process of being declared a provincial and national non-heritage project. although chanting is currently considered a "niche culture," it represents the highest artistic level of a regional culture from both historical and cultural perspectives. it also holds significant value for regional cultural research across disciplines such as literature, music, and language. sichuan traditional recitation is rooted in sichuan and is recited in the sichuan dialect. it has a deep cultural heritage, and its representative inheritors, such as du daosheng, wang liqi, xiao zhang, liushahe, wang zhiping, xie xiangrong, qi hehui, xie taofang and more than 100 others, are all well known in the cultural circles of sichuan and even in the whole country. the late inheritors, such as du daosheng, wang liqi and xiao zhang, all came from famous confucian schools in sichuan. with their rich content and diverse styles, they have formed a high-level group of traditional sichuan chants, and the quality of their sichuan humanistic spirit and sichuan cultural genes have been restored and reproduced in the chants. the traditional recitation of sichuan is embedded in the sichuan cultural lineage, which is the result of inheritance by readers in different regions of sichuan; the inheritors have continuously created, polished, maintained and updated the traditional recitation according to the specific humanistic, geographic and historical conditions, and passed it on to the present day. on the other hand, to a different extent, the sichuan cultural lineage has also given the readers of different generations an ontological sense of belonging and a sense of security, and has given play to its own value, providing a historical basis and psychological support for the transmission of the minstrelsy. the non-heritage nature of sichuan traditional chanting may appear to be a return to the past in form, but in essence, its continuation as a cultural lineage lies in the effective integration of sichuan traditional chanting with contemporary sichuan culture in a future-oriented manner. through the organic unity of non-heritage inheritance and cultural lineage continuity, it bridges sichuan’s traditional culture with its modern counterpart, playing a crucial role in preserving and advancing the region’s cultural heritage. 3. service teaching is the basic task of sichuan traditional chanting traditional chanting in sichuan is a form of traditional music within the realm of intangible cultural heritage. it is a living tradition of musical recitation used in ancient poetry and literature education, and its system of inheritance remained deeply connected to the history of education in sichuan until about a hundred years ago.as both a method and a tool for reading, it has directly served sichuan readers across generations and has been an integral part of the reading process. its language style, melodic form, vocal structure, and emotional expression are shaped by the reading process, yet they do not stand in opposition to it. regardless of the literary genre, traditional chanting encapsulates the thoughts, emotions, and experiences of ancient chinese people in a highly condensed form, characterized by precise language, a rigorous structure, a rich rhythmic pattern, and harmonious rhyme. its unique way of expressing the emotional connection between chinese people, nature, and life has nourished generations.whether in ancient or modern times, the teaching of ancient poetry has remained one of the most essential components of the chinese literary system, and recitation continues to be a fundamental method for achieving its educational goals. 3.1 developing a sense of language liu fo in the "wenxin diao long sound and rhythm" pointed out: "is to sound and painting yan chi, sent in the chanting, chanting taste, flowing in the words." zhu xi also said that through chanting can make students "do not need to explain, since the understanding of the word". "reading and reciting were the main and indispensable methods of teaching traditional private schools. as the saying goes, "the meaning of a book comes to oneself when it has been read a hundred times," and "if one knows the tang poems well, one can write poems without knowing how to write them. through chanting, a traditional method of reading, private school teachers consciously cultivate students' sense of their mother tongue, focusing on emotional experience while making them memorise firmly, gradually developing their ability to read independently and feeling the image and meaning of the words in "chanting". hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 48 published by ideas spread as a unique method for directly perceiving chinese language forms, chanting cultivates students' ability to use language comprehensively and interpret imagery while engaging with linguistic structures. this process plays a key role in developing and refining their linguistic awareness, ultimately fostering a strong sense of the chinese language.the reading and recitation practices in ancient private schools required students to engage extensively with the chinese language. these practices strengthened the linguistic environment established by private school teachers through chanting and recitation, prolonged students' exposure to the language, expanded the scope of their linguistic engagement, and enabled them to fully immerse themselves in the chinese language. from the inheritance process of chanting in the education system through the ages, the demonstration by private tutors, the imitation by students, the recitation by teachers and students, the use in the classroom, and even the lifelong use of chanting are all in line with the laws of chinese language acquisition. the unique grammatical order, rhythm and rhyme, couplets and alliteration, and the continuous and prolonged staccato of the chinese language all need to be repeatedly stimulated in the process of recitation before they can be understood and thus form a sense of language. usually, before the age of 12 or 13, the brains of ancient scholars had already stored more than 100,000 words of beautiful and fluent classical chinese expressions, which is in line with the law of language learning that input precedes output and input is greater than output. ancient chinese private education often advocates "rote learning", the purpose of this education is "practice makes perfect", and the chanting tunes inherited by successive generations of readers from their respective regions or masters are accumulated and regurgitated in their lifelong learning life, and they are learnt reading, imitated in writing, and pondered in application, thus making their thinking sophisticated and emotionally rich, and their written and oral expressions more accurate, vivid, and rich in literary grace. in the course of their lives, they have been able to read, imitate in their writing, observe in their communication, and ponder in their application, so as to make their thinking sophisticated, their emotions rich, and their written and verbal expressions more accurate, vivid, and full of literary grace, and ultimately to clean up the of eccentricity and cultivate the style of a gentleman. 3.2 stimulating a sense of beauty the sense of beauty is the integration of sensory perception, association and imagination, emotional understanding and subconsciousness in aesthetic activities. ancient chinese poetry is a masterpiece of beauty, encompassing musical, pictorial, linguistic, contextual, , and philosophical beauty, and to a certain extent, it is the source of chinese people's sense of aesthetics. in ancient chinese education, the transmission of aesthetics was achieved through the teaching of recitation of ancient poems and verses for three to seven years, with private tutors guiding their students on a one-to-one basis through oral and aural experiences in a targeted manner, so as to cultivate in a gradual manner the students' comprehensive aesthetic capacity to proclaim, appreciate, understand, connote, express and create beauty. as soon as the readers began to recite, they had the conditions for aesthetic education. through the two-way interaction of aesthetic emotion and the mutual growth of teaching, teachers and students can enrich their emotion, improve their aesthetic ability, and think more profoundly, so as to shape the sound personality, noble sentiment and healthy aesthetic interest of the readers, and to realise the perfection of their personality and the harmony of their souls. cultivating correct aesthetics, healthy thoughts and emotions, and noble morals is not only the teaching goal of traditional recitation, but also an important task of ancient chinese education. ancient poems and texts put education in the imagination of beauty, and through the unique of chanting with both sound and emotion, they creatively reproduce the works, restore life, enter into the ancients, share the same breath, and merge the hearts and minds, so as to realise the reader's perception, understanding, and experience of the works, and to try to evoke the image of beauty in a multi-dimensional way, so as to let the reader's emotion resonate with the text and the author, and to infect the emotions with the sound and emotion of the words and to inspire the mind, and to go from perception of beauty to appreciation of beauty, and from integration of beauty to creation of beauty. from perceiving beauty to appreciating it, from integrating it to creating it. at this stage, students are generally subjected to greater learning pressure and psychological pressure, and in the learning environment, they will unconsciously suffer from the influence of the current popular unhealthy network culture, which leads to the lack of a correct understanding of the beauty of some students, and often do not match the development of knowledge, emotion and spirit of the three incomplete; and thus lack of healthy and upward interest in life. in order to cultivate their healthy, elegant and positive aesthetic interests, to make them aspire to beauty, grateful for life, and noble in sentiment, it is entirely possible to penetrate the aesthetic education with the theme of reciting ancient poems and verses in school education, stimulate the sense of beauty, and promote the all-round development of human knowledge, emotion and intention. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 49 published by ideas spread 3.3 developing a sense of musicality in the author's opinion, traditional chinese chanting is the use of traditional chinese music in reading. the sense of music in chanting is actually the ability of the chanter to perceive the tone of the chant, including pitch, rhythm, and melody. cultivating the musicality of readers through the ages is another basic effect of chanting, and a major innovation in ancient education. the ability to perceive music, the degree of awakening, and the frequency of its use by chinese scholars through the ages are far ahead of those of other countries in the world. the purpose of music is to make people happy, and chanting allows the reader to feel pleasure in the boring text, thus achieving the purpose of music. in line with the natural melodic language of ancient chinese poetry, which tends to develop in the state of music, the chanting of ancient poems has a pleasant musical aesthetic, which is invisible the naked eye and cannot be analysed, but can only be experienced through chanting. in the experimental language curriculum standards for general high schools, the word "recitation" appears many times, but unfortunately, there is no clear definition of "recitation". we believe that the traditional method of reading and teaching ancient chinese poetry and literature is chanting, which is different from the western method of reading aloud. conducting research on traditional chanting in sichuan will provide the most classic models and original materials for classical chanting education in schools, and will help to enrich and improve the level of promotion and education of chanting. 4. the fundamental mission of sichuan traditional chanting is to promote morality and educate people sichuan traditional recitation plays an irreplaceable role in fostering a sense of national identity, cultural belonging, and regional cohesion among sichuan scholars throughout history. its formation is deeply intertwined with sichuan's historical and cultural heritage, and to a certain extent, it symbolizes the cultural identity of sichuan’s people while embodying the spirit of its readers.as a core component of education, "cultivating morality and nurturing people" serves as the fundamental guideline and value orientation for the inheritance of sichuan traditional recitation in the modern era. the reintegration of sichuan traditional recitation into the education system as a method of reading represents an important step in the creative development of education within china's rich traditional culture. this practice effectively enhances contemporary students' ability to evaluate cultural values, strengthens their cultural self-confidence, and encourages them to "plant the seeds of reading" and "fasten the first button of life." in doing so, it upholds the principle of "establishing morality and nurturing people," thereby advancing its spirit in the modern era.by integrating sichuan traditional recitation into education, students can develop a deeper understanding of cultural values, reinforce their cultural confidence, and inherit the profound wisdom embedded in traditional chinese culture. 4.1 the educational attributes of traditional sichuan bardic chanting define the coupling relationship between the establishment of morality and the education of people ancient chinese education was not only concerned with the teaching of "art" but also with the transmission of "tao." "art" focused on preparing individuals for career choices, while "tao" laid the foundation for intellectual and spiritual enlightenment. although traditional sichuan chanting, as a method of reading, falls under the category of "art," the ancient poems it recites embody the "tao" of china's rich traditional culture.the value orientation of traditional chinese culture encompasses values, ideals, beliefs, modes of thinking, ethics, morality, behavior, and aesthetic preferences, all of which are integral to the core principle of "cultivating morality and educating people." rooted in this profound cultural heritage and reflected in its ideological content, values, and behavioral norms, lizhi shuren represents the culmination of chinese ideological tradition. it has become one of the cornerstones of china's cultural system, shaping the nation’s ethical framework and defining the spiritual qualities of its people. by reciting ancient poems, sichuan scholars of all times have been able to cultivate the ability to feel, express, appreciate and create beauty, cultivate noble moral sentiments, cultivate deep national emotions, and stimulate the imagination and sense of creativity. in ancient times, the goal of cultivating virtue was to mould gentlemen, but nowadays it is to cultivate builders and successors of socialism, both gentlemen and successors of socialism, all of which serve the interests of the country and the nation and the needs the society in reality. the coupling of traditional chanting in sichuan with "cultivating morality and educating people" is an innovation in the modern meaning of chinese excellent traditional culture. it not only absorbs and continues the essence of chinese traditional culture, but also abandons the historically limited content. to re-explore the educational value of sichuan traditional chanting in a modern sense, the method of chanting is to educate students on socialist core values. to grasp the method of recitation in form, to internalise the values and spiritual pursuit of students in essence, to take the reading method rooted in chinese excellent culture as the main content of education for establishing morality and shaping people, and to achieve the fundamental goal of passing on chinese excellent traditional culture through the reading method of sichuan traditional minstrelsy. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 50 published by ideas spread 4.2 the sound culture of traditional sichuan chanting is integrated into the essence of education for moral education the essence of the sound culture in traditional sichuan chanting lies in the educational approach of "sound nurturing" and "educating people through culture." this method effectively integrates educational practices into daily reading, reinforcing the principles of moral cultivation and character development. the practice of instilling virtue and educating people is reflected in the chanting of poems, lyrics, and fugues throughout history, as well as in the recitation of cultural texts in dialectal speech.this approach to virtue cultivation and education is not only evident in the recitation of classical poetry but also in the oral transmission of cultural texts in dialectal speech, which is ultimately embedded in the traditional customs and rituals of the literati in sichuan. for generations, the daily reading practices of sichuan scholars have served to transmit the culture of sound and voice, shape the character of a gentleman, and implement an educational model inspired by the teachings of sages. this, in turn, has contributed to the formation of a subtle moral order and a set of social customs that promote public order and good morals, harmonizing individuals' inner moral cultivation with their outward behavior.the deep integration of sichuan traditional recitation into both educational and cultural inheritance, along with its seamless connection across time and space, reflects the core principles of moral education. it also provides valuable insights and references for the innovation and continuation of moral education methodologies.as a representative form of sound culture within china's rich traditional heritage, sichuan traditional chanting conveys the resonance and profound contemplation embedded in chinese characters and symbols. through a structured and rhythmic flow of emotional sound, it expresses the distinctive attitudes and deep emotions of the chanters, further enriching the cultural experience. the art of chanting serves as a platform for readers to develop a deep awareness of sound culture, a window into the perceptual experience of chanting, and a crucial channel for expressing emotions such as joy, anger, sadness, and happiness. moreover, it provides a means for readers to articulate the complexities of their ideals and the realities they face, offering an outlet for emotional expression. at certain points in history, sichuan traditional chanting has even played a guiding role in shaping the cultural direction of the region.reflected in the reading practices of sichuan readers over the years, sichuan traditional chanting not only demonstrates their historical and cultural understanding but also embodies their aspirations and longing for knowledge. it conveys cultural information and emotional experiences, imparting psychological significance to its practitioners. implicitly, it nurtures emotional tendencies toward sound, integrates natural teaching methods, and plays a role in organizing and coordinating personal will and behavior. essentially, it functions as an educational tool for instilling virtue, fostering emotional intelligence, shaping human character, and cultivating aesthetic appreciation.ultimately, the significance of sichuan traditional chanting in the education of sichuan readers lies in its ability to establish moral education, nurture individuals, develop emotional awareness, and enhance aesthetic sensibilities.3.3 the practical characteristics of traditional chanting in sichuan constructs a moral education programme educational model 4.3.1 a people-centred education model as an important form of expression of chinese traditional culture, sichuan traditional minstrelsy, from the very beginning of its existence, has set up a human-centred educational model, which goes deep into the study life of sichuan readers to understand what they think and need, and taps into the form of teaching for self-education to solve the problems of what to read, how to read, and what is the use of reading, and to fully embody the subjective consciousness of the readers. the human-centred bardic education model infects, inspires and appeals to people, and stimulates the enthusiasm of readers for learning. people-oriented minstrelsy education mode means that the content of education closely follows the needs of the personality development of the readers, takes the readers as the main object of education, the readers' appreciation of taste, highlights the main position of the readers, and promotes the enthusiasm for independent learning. the audience of traditional minstrelsy in sichuan decides that the whole education process is always focused on the readers of sichuan, and that the starting and ending point is to establish morality and cultivate humanism. from the works of traditional chanting in sichuan through the ages, ancient poems and confucian classics are the important contents, as the important basis of chinese culture, value system and basic beliefs are all loaded by poems and confucian classics. the attitude of the reader as the subject of recitation in front of the content of recitation is the aesthetic experience of self-view, the free expression of individuality, and the psychological sentiment of self-gratification, which has had an impact on the moral and psychological growth of the readers of sichuan through the generations through the overall influence of the sounds of the private schools, academies, and academies of the sichuan region. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 51 published by ideas spread 4.3.2 a fun and educational model teaching for fun is an effective form of minstrelsy education. only when a reader is interested in reading and willing to read can he or she be able to read. as we all know, interest is the best teacher, sichuan traditional recitation through image of vivid content, flexible and diverse forms, easy to understand the way to stimulate interest in reading, enhance the emotional experience, to achieve the educational purpose of moral education. the educational mode of recitation pays great attention to the emotional experience and situation construction of the reciters, guides them to experience and understand the educational content, triggers emotional resonance, and maximises the benefits of education for the development of morality and education for the sake of humanity by the method of reading that is acceptable and easy to master. in this way, in a pleasant and relaxing atmosphere, the reciters are attracted to study actively without burden, stimulate reading interest, trigger reflection and resonance, and form positive emotional will, so that sichuan readers of all times can effectively perceive the ancient poems and receive classical education. 4.3.3 educational models tailored to the needs of the individual from the time of confucius onward, the concept of teaching students according to their aptitude has been deeply rooted in chinese education, with its connotation being continuously enriched and refined throughout history. whether in ancient times or today, this approach has demonstrated strong vitality. sichuan traditional recitation, as a historical reading method in sichuan, is embedded within the region’s educational system, inheriting the principles of traditional chinese educational philosophy. it differs from both art education and language instruction, serving as a unique pedagogical tool that bridges the disciplines of art and literature.through a tailor-made teaching approach, sichuan traditional chanting adapts to the diverse characteristics of students, developing individualized teaching programs and a one-on-one apprenticeship model. this approach enables teachers to cultivate students' unique chanting styles, stimulate their cultural enlightenment, and fully respect individual differences. by implementing a personalized and differentiated teaching method, it emphasizes cultural heritage while ensuring that students’ chanting melodies are not excessively exaggerated. the teaching process prioritizes cultural transmission and helps each sichuan reader develop a distinctive style that is both inherited and uniquely their own, allowing them to remain true to their roots and avoid the phenomenon of "one tune for ten thousand people."in practice, teaching highlights individual specificity and respects student diversity. typically, instruction is conducted on a one-on-one basis, with teachers first demonstrating and students following along in reading and singing. throughout this process, teachers provide appropriate guidance on chanting melody, language, vocal techniques, and emotional interpretation. this pedagogical approach not only integrates knowledge of ancient poetry and texts but also fosters intellectual engagement, allowing both teachers and students to grow together in the learning process. by clarifying their direction and forming a shared value system, sichuan readers across generations can naturally inherit their cultural traditions, cultivate their character through reading, and internalize the cultural values of their nation. 5. concluding remarks as a form of living intangible cultural heritage, the application of sichuan traditional chanting in education remains relatively rare but holds significant academic value. this paper explores the tasks and objectives of teaching traditional chanting in sichuan from the perspective of intangible cultural heritage preservation. through this study, it examines the objectives, concepts, and methods of teaching traditional sichuan bardic recitation, as well as innovative approaches such as the "people-oriented" model, "teaching for fun," and "teaching according to materials."the findings suggest that fully utilizing sichuan traditional recitation to create an immersive learning environment can, to some extent, enhance students' learning outcomes and motivation. additionally, it provides new ideas and insights for the teaching of ancient poetry and the inheritance of intangible cultural heritage. in conclusion, with its distinctive linguistic, musical, and aesthetic qualities, along with its rich teaching resources, diverse instructional methods, and interactive experiences, sichuan traditional recitation offers students an engaging and morally enriching learning environment. with its aid, the transmission of regional culture and the teaching of ancient poetry become more effective and vivid. moreover, the unique educational model it establishes naturally integrates into the minds of sichuan learners, reinforcing the significance of moral education and fulfilling the goal of "cultivating morality and educating people."it is anticipated that as traditional chanting continues to be inherited and developed, its application in education will further expand and deepen, bringing new possibilities and innovations to the future of education. references dai, x. (1867). xi ku zhai ji [printed in the 6th year of the tongzhi reign, qing dynasty]. jiao, l. h. (2017). investigation and analysis of the current teaching mode of "the romance of the three hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 52 published by ideas spread kingdoms" in junior high school chinese classes [master's thesis, yanbian university]. li, h. c. (2016). a comparison of the musical aesthetic thoughts in huainanzi and yueji. music space-time, 2016(2). liu, x. (author), & huang, s. l. (annotator). (2017). wenxin diaolong (complete, 2 vols.). national library press. qin, j. j. (2018). a compilation of zhu ziqing’s chinese chanting materials (part i). research trends in chinese poetry, 2018(2). wang, c. (2012). a study on the relationship between the people-oriented concept and the people-based thought in pre-qin confucianism [master's thesis, hebei agricultural university]. xi, j. (2017). secure a decisive victory in building a moderately prosperous society in all respects and strive for the great success of socialism with chinese characteristics for a new era: report delivered at the 19th national congress of the communist party of china. people's publishing house. zhang, g. g. (2019). teaching strategies for new poetry in senior high school based on zhu guangqian's aesthetic experience theory [master's thesis, shaanxi normal university]. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v5n2p33 33 published by ideas spread power of social media usage over travelers’ choice of tourist destination leslie r. jorge-acain, dba1 1 bataan peninsula state university, city of balanga, bataan, philippines correspondence: leslie r. jorge-acain, dba, bataan peninsula state university, city of balanga, bataan, philippines. tel: 63-932-675-0254. received: april 19, 2022; accepted: may 23, 2022; published: june 30, 2022 abstract digital marketing thru the use of social media has been proven to be an effective tool to reach out to a wider audience. this study was conducted to determine the same effectiveness of social media as a medium for marketing a multi-faceted and highly diverse line of products in the tourism industry by identifying the power of social media usage over the travelers’ choice of tourist destinations. with the descriptive correlational research design applied in the study, the profile of the 397 local and foreign travelers and their social media usage were identified thru a survey questionnaire distributed and retrieved from clark international airport corporation (ciac) and surrounding areas in clark. data gathered was processed using spss and was able to determine the association among variables using the chi-square test; that social media usage indeed influence the traveler’s choice of tourist destinations and that their prior thoughts change as they read comments and review post. it has been identified that the monthly income and occupation of respondents have an association with their social media usage concerning travel and that the social media platform they utilize has an association with their social media usage about traveling. keywords: digital marketing, tourism, online posting, correlation, philippines 1. introduction the tourism industry is one of the largest industries in the world, with a direct economic impact on various sectors such as transportation, accommodation, food service, entertainment, and destinations. the growth brought by the industry has been steadily beaming upwards over the years (global tourism industry-statistics & facts, n.d.). according to the united nations world tourism barometer, the international tourist arrivals grew by 7% in 2017 to reach a total of 1,322 million (unwto, 2018). with the growing number of travelers exploring the world, it is expected that the upward movement will continue to grow. along with the increasing popularity of travel over the years, the industry has evolved and utilized global changes and the advent of technology and the introduction of the internet forced the tourism industry to keep up, adapt and innovate (bearne, 2016). with the increasing improvement of technology, the internet provided tourists with quick and easy access to information that includes travel destinations, lodging, dining options, and making reservations before departure to choose places to visit (uk essays, 2017). access to the internet and the capability to do online reservations paved the way for travelers to plan and manage their travels; do all the arrangements by themselves without assistance from travel agents and travel agencies. this digital travel revolution offered by low-cost carriers and competitive accommodation facilities empowered travelers to consider options that would suit their preferences. internet became a global phenomenon and continues to change the way people purchase products (akinbode, 2016). this changing preference and the convenience brought by online purchases resulted in a diversified way of marketing tourism products through the internet. tourism sectors started to consider promoting their products online. in the study of shuuring et.al, (2017) in the united states, digital advertising in 2017 surpassed spending on television advertising while globally, particular markets allocate 40% of their media advertising budget to digital marketing. the need for digital marketing is utilized in the tourism industry wherein customers have instant access to all kinds of information on the latest offers and best prices. today digital marketing plays a critical role in the success of each business that exists in the tourism industry. it started as a mode of communication and has evolved not just as a source of additional revenue but, to develop and maintain long-term relationships with different parties in the market. internet users hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 34 published by ideas spread today interact not just with each other but likewise with their preferred brands; an opportunity for brands to talk directly with their users and to know them better. (kaur, 2017) digital marketing uses the internet as a main promotional medium with activities that provide companies an avenue to keep in touch with every individual follower. social media is the collection of online communication channels that allow people and companies to create share and exchange information with people and build relationships and communities online. (singh, 2017). social media includes popular social networking sites such as facebook, youtube, instagram, twitter, pinterest, tumbler, flickr, and google +. linkedin and a variety of social networking sites allow cross-posting. (kallas, 2018). this according to hendricks (2013) creates an environment where users can reach several people without person-to-person communication allowing travelers to share their experiences and provide other users with the information they may need for their travel planning. it is in this light that the researcher pursued the study to determine the influence of social media on the traveling public in the planning and selection of their travel destinations. through the assessment of the traveler’s social media usage, the researcher wishes to find out the extent to which reviews and posts affect their destination choices and decision to select places to visit. with the globalized world engulfed with technology, geographic distances have already shrunk; allowing both foreign and local tourists to visit whichever destination they please. the question no longer lingers on whether they can do it or not but on how they will be able to do it. with the growing trend in social media usage and the continuous growth of technology and development, it will only be a matter of time before the whole populace of the world would have access to information on internetbased communications. bridging the geographic distances among destinations virtually would be the initial driving force for the tourism industry to reach its fullest potential. both foreign and local travelers visiting the philippines somehow used social media platforms in the conceptualization, planning, and execution of their visit. the study wishes to determine a correlation between the profile of the travelers, their social media usage, and its relationship to their decision to visit the country and any other places they have visited. 2. statement of the problem the study aims to determine the influence of social media usage over the travelers' choice of tourists destinations. the study will seek to answer the following specific questions: 1. how may the socio-demographic profile of the respondents be described in terms of: 1.1. age 1.2. sex 1.3 civil status 1.4 highest educational attainment 1.5. occupation 1.6. monthly income 2. how may the respondents’ travel profile be described in terms of: 2.1 type of traveler 2.1.1. local tourist 2.1.2. foreign tourist 2.2. purpose of travel 2.2.1. business 2.2.2. leisure 2.2.3. visiting friends and family 3. how may the respondents’ profile in their social media usage be described: 3.1. social media platform utilized 3.2. social media device used 3.3. time spent using social media 4. how may the respondents’ social media user profile concerning travel be described in terms of: 4.1. frequency of social media exposure hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 35 published by ideas spread 4.2. choice of social media profile influencing selection of travel 4.3. information sought from social media 5. is there a significant relationship between the respondents’ socio-demographic profile and their social media usage? 6. is there a significant relationship between the respondents’ travel profile and their social media usage? 7. is there a significant relationship between the respondents’ travel profile and their social media usage with travel? 8. is there a significant relationship between respondents’ social media usage and their social media usage concerning travel? 9. is there a significant relationship between the respondents’ socio-demographic profile and their social media usage? 10. what are the implications of the findings to the tourism industry? 3. literature review based on the united nations world tourism organization forecast, international travel would reach 1.8 billion by 2030. it is by far one of the largest and fast-growing economic sectors in the world and despite several challenges, it continues to contribute to economic growth and development (unwto, 2017). with billions to travel and a myriad of tourist destinations to consider from the one hundred ninety-five (195) countries in the world; 54 countries in africa, 48 in asia, 44 in europe, 33 in latin america and the caribbean, 14 in oceania, and 2 in north america (worldometers, n.d.). tourists would consider available information and assistance they can exhaust to select a destination. despite the considerable number of countries to visit some remain to be on the top list that receives the largest tourism visitors and gross development product, among the top 10 based on the travel & tourism economy 2017: 1. united states ($488 billion); 2.china ($224 billion); 3.germany ($130.8 billion); 4. japan ($106.7 billion); 5. united kingdom ($103.7 billion); 6. france ($89.2 billion); 7. mexico ($79.7 billion); 8. italy ($76.3 billion); 9. spain ($68.8 billion); 10. brazil ($56.3 billion). several countries heavily rely on foreign visitors such as malta; croatia; thailand; jamaica and iceland; most of these countries are relatively poor and have small populations and economies. iceland is one of the smallest countries and is very reliant on tourism; it receives more visitors than its entire population. by the end of 2017 tourists in iceland exceeded the national population by seven to one, with the use of its landscapes in popular television series such as the game of thrones and films such as the stellar and star wars (kim, 2017). an unknown community in india called dharavi which is considered to be one of the biggest slums in asia that was featured in the popular blockbuster film 2008, slumdog millionnaire has been receiving an increasing number of visitors from 150 visitors in 2006 to more than 150,000 visitors in 2016. though controversies and ethical issues rose for debate, the community profited and has been giving 80 percent of the profit to slum communities (dutt d’cunha, 2016). film tourism is a growing trend where the film’s location makes viewers remember movie settings and some travelers choose to have their holiday in a different country specifically to see places where their favorite films were shot (sibbel, 2016). for a destination to appear on television or on the big screen gives a destination an added popularity and exposure to tourists. with the growing competition among destinations worldwide, it is inevitable for destination managements to look for the best way to promote and advertise their products. with the advent of social media, a simple movie review or following updates on certain television series may reach several users. 4. methodology the study aims to determine the tourists’ social media usage and their choice of travel destinations to a personal assessment of social media platforms utilized. descriptive correlational research design is applied to profile the respondents’ social media usage and determine the relationship between the profile of the respondent, their social media usage, and social media assessment with the travelers’ planning and selection of tourist destinations. correlational study in general is a quantitative method of research in which two or more quantitative variables from the same group of participants are tested to determine relationships (waters, 2017). random sampling considered the most straightforward probability sampling technique was utilized in the study. this ensures that the population is likely to have the chance to be selected as part of the sample. it has been referred hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 36 published by ideas spread to that the simple random sampling technique eliminates the possibility of biased selection of participants. (research-methodology.net) the study was conducted in one of the major gateways in the philippines; clark international airport (ciac) also known as paliparang pandaigdigan ng clark. located in clark special economic zone, clark field mabalacat city, clark freeport zone mabalacat, pampanga. the population of the study was foreign and local travelers visiting and leaving the philippines. the map presents the location of clark international airport corporation. the study considered foreign and local tourists visiting and leaving clark international airport to establish that the respondents have traveled recently. during the conduct of the survey, the researcher with the assistance of the ciac trainees that directly have the access to the passengers dealt a few difficulties in completing the number of foreign respondents required. to augment the number of informants considered in the study, visible foreign travelers around the clark freeport zone area were included and foreign travelers who have visited nearby destinations within the year were randomly asked to participate in the survey online. with the proximity of the areas considered to add to the research locale and the high probability that ciac was utilized, the sample size considered remained to be from the data of the number of tourist arrivals gathered from clark international airport corporation for both foreign and local travelers. a survey questionnaire is used in the study as the most appropriate tool to profile the respondents’ socio-demographic profile, travel profile, social media usage, and social media perceptive assessment. the structure of the research instrument was designed to easily be understood by the respondents without the researcher explaining every question and allowing the respondents to independently answer without any influence from the researcher. 5. results and discussion as seen in table 1, most of the respondents are within the age range of 25-34 years old at 36.3 %. as this group is called generation y or the “millennial” (the telegraph, 2018), they are known to emphasize being unique and are identified to venture into culturally rich experiences and exploration of the unknown (fromm, 2017). the majority of the respondents are likely in this age group for a similar reason to travel to experience different cultures and escape from the workload and pressures at work. table 1. distribution of respondents according to age age range frequency percent 17 or below 7 1.8 % 18-24 86 21.7 % 25-34 144 36.3 % 35-44 82 20.7 % 45-54 44 11.1 % 55-64 19 4.8% 65 and below 2 .5% no data provided 13 3.3% total 397 100% presented in table 2 is the distribution of respondents based on sex and it can be observed that there is an equal percentage of 49.6% for both sexes. this is an indication that males and females are into traveling. since the social changes that emerge in the middle of the twentieth century, women have become economically and socially more equal to men (tilley, 2016). this may be the possible reason for the equality of both sexes even in the capacity and capability to travel. table 2. distribution of respondents according to sex sex frequency percent male 197 49.6% female 197 49.6% no data provided 3 .8% total 397 100% hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 37 published by ideas spread table 3 presents the distribution of respondents based on civil status. as the table reveals, a higher percentage (49.6%) of the respondents are single while married respondents are 47.9%. but it can be observed that the difference (1.7%) is very minimal and enough to reckon that the respondents despite family status can travel; though traveling as a family is considered a major problem and an inconvenience by others, it outweighs the benefits they gain from it. (long, 2017) table 3. distribution of respondents according to civil status civil status frequency percent single 197 49.6% married 190 47.9% widower 8 2.0% no data provided 2 .5% total 397 100% table 4 presents the distribution of respondents based on highest educational attainment; data shows that most of the respondents at 69.3% are college graduates. this is an indication that travelers today are well educated. dominated by degree holders, the fun aspect of travel and learning may be one of the motivating factors influencing the educated to travel. (roberson, 2018) table 4. distribution of respondents according to highest educational attainment educational attainment frequency percent high school 52 13.1% college 275 69.3% masters/doctorate degree 35 8.8% others 3 .8% no data provided 32 8.1% total 397 100% table 5 presents the distribution of respondents according to occupation. data revealed that most of the respondents at 66.2% are employed. with the educated comprising most of the respondents, it is likely that given the degree, they are employable. strengthen by the statistics from 2016 that the employment rate was higher for those with higher levels of education (national center for education statistics, n.d.). table 5. distribution of respondents according to occupation occupation frequency percent employed 263 66.2% self-employed 42 10.6% student 40 10.1% others 16 4.0% no data provided 36 9.1% total 397 100% table 6 reveals the distribution of respondents according to monthly income. data shows that 24.9% of the respondents are on the two opposite extremes on the table with the lowest end on a 20,000 and below (us$400 and below) income and the highest end of 60,001 and above (us$1,200.02 and above). the result may be attributed to the data presented in table 10, where the distribution of respondents based on the type of tourists indicates that local and foreign travelers are in proximity in number. salary and cost of living in the philippines compared to other countries are extremely low, this, in turn, resulted in local travelers earning way less than those from other countries. one of the many reasons why filipinos prefer to work abroad is the low salaries offered by local companies even jobs that are sought after or in demand in certain parts of the world are paid poorly, some even leave their professional jobs in the philippines because they are paid higher overseas in most cases. (pinoy ofw, 2018) hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 38 published by ideas spread table 6. distribution of respondents according to monthly income monthly income frequency percent 20,000 and below (us$400 and below) 99 24.9% 20,001-30,000 (us$400.02-us$600) 60 15.1% 30,001-40,000 (us$600.02-us$800) 38 9.6% 40,001-50,000 (us$800.02-us$1,000) 40 10.1% 50,001-60,000 (us$1,000.02-us$1,200) 34 8.6% 60,001 and above (us$1,200.02 and above) 99 24.9% no data provided 27 6.8% total 397 100% table 7 presents the distribution of respondents according to the type of traveler. it can be observed that local respondents with 50.6% are higher in number compared to the foreign tourists with 49.4%. the slight difference of 1.2% may mean that both local and foreign nationals can travel in and within the philippines. this is probably brought about by the introduction of budget airfares and diy itineraries, making travel affordable even for lowwage earners. according to industry experts, millennials have the likelihood to rather spend their money on travel due to the realization that they cannot afford to purchase and go into the housing ladder. (buckley, 2017) table 7. distribution of respondents according to type of traveler type of traveler frequency percent local traveler 201 50.6% foreign traveler 196 49.4% total 397 100% table 8 presents the distribution of foreign travelers based on their place of residence. it can be observed that most of the respondents are asian 59.7 % followed by north americans with 30.6 %. this is probably because most of the flights in ciac are to and from asian countries such as hong kong, korea, singapore macau, qatar, and united arab emirates. (clark international airport, n.d.) north americans on 30.6% may be attributed to the fact that clark freeport zone used to be an american base and is visited by retirees and in the recent agreement of the philippines to the us military moving to five bases in the country. (tilgham, 2016) table 8. distribution of foreign travelers according to place of residence continent frequency percent asia 117 59.7 europe 8 4.1 north america 60 30.6 oceania 11 5.6 total 196 100.0 table 9 presents the distribution of respondents based on their purpose of travel. as seen in the data, most of the respondents with 46.9 % travel for leisure, followed by 33.8% of the respondents visiting friends and relatives. considering the age group where the respondents fall under, they are inclined to indulge in non -business-related trips and are more into exploring destinations. though most are employed, it can be deduced that as millennials, they are well aware of the importance of well-being and quality of life and that physical satisfaction is improved by leisure-travel-based comfort as a means to life satisfaction. (wang, 2017) table 9. distribution of respondents according to purpose of travel purpose of travel frequency percent business 67 16.9 % leisure 186 46.9% visiting friends and family 134 33.8% no data provided 10 2.5% total 397 100% hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 39 published by ideas spread table 10 reveals the social media platforms used by respondents. based on the results, the most used social media platform is social networking sites which facebook, linkedin, and google + fall under, with 63.5%. social media sites as the top choice amongst respondents may not be surprising given the fact that facebook with more than 1.8 billion monthly active users’ remains to dominate the social landscape in the world. (hutt, 2017) photo sharing sites with 28.2 % were mostly selected as the second choice including instagram, flicker, snapchat, and pinterest. with the proliferation of mobile phone usage, according to national geographic (n.d.) camera phones are the most widely used kind of camera in history, capable of capturing compelling images. with mobile connectivity today, it is inevitable that netizens share photos online. (national geographic, n.d.). the least used platform is publishing websites that include wordpress and blogger. the minimal usage may be due to the composition of the respondents as the majority are millenials and are used to reading lesser characters that are contrary to lengthy content of articles and blogs on publishing websites. based on the social factor; a digital marketing agency in a study they have conducted; the average attention span of any millennial is approximately 8 seconds, though they are well trained to process and digest extremely high frequency of data, information must still be condensed to keep them interested. (larocca, 2018). table 10. social media platforms used by respondents social media platforms most used 2nd choice 3rd choice 4th choice least used others no data provided social networking sites f 252 72 31 21 18 1 2 % 63.5 18.1 7.8 5.3 4.5 0.3 0.5 microblogging sites f 26 71 82 98 82 38 % 6.5 17.9 20.7 24.7 20.7 9.6 publishing websites f 40 41 66 86 123 1 40 % 10.1 10.3 16.6 21.7 31 0.3 10.1 photo sharing sites f 49 112 84 81 43 28 % 12.3 28.2 21.2 20.4 10.8 7.1 video sharing sites f 32 79 102 70 87 27 % 8.1 19.9 25.7 17.6 21.9 6.8 table 11 shows the device used by respondents in accessing social media. it can be observed that most of the respondents with 70.3% use mobile phones. this is probably since most people today own a mobile phone due to its affordability and that 80% of the uses of mobile phones are spent on social media applications. (shemenski, 2016). use of computer with 20.2% may be in the case of those employed and mostly utilize their work computer during working hours. initially, the use of social media is for external communications, but eventually, companies realized its convenience and started to adopt the use of social media in communications with the employees. nationwide building society (nbs) and nokia are two of the many companies which have been using social media for external and internal communications. (barve, 2015) table 11. social media device used by respondents device frequency percent computer 80 20.2% mobile phone 279 70.3% tablet 35 8.85% no data provided 3 .85% total 397 100% table 12 presents the number of hours spent by respondents on social media in a day. data reveals that 36.5% of the respondents spent 1 to 3 hours on social media, this supports the statistic that an average daily usage of social media by filipinos is 3 hours and 39 minutes while worldwide ranges from 2 to 2 hours and 25 minutes. (statista, 2017) hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 40 published by ideas spread table 12. number of hours spent on social media in a day number of hours frequency percent less than 1 hour 58 14.6% 1 to 3 hours 145 36.5% more than 3 hours 106 26.7% more than 6 hours 65 16.4% beyond 9 hours 21 5.3% no data provided 2 .5% total 397 100% table 13 presents the number of times the respondents use social media on travel where 24.7% of the respondents use social media once a month, 21.4% less than once a month, and 17.1 %, 2-3 times a month in finding information about travels. the data may seem very low given the time spent by respondents on social media daily. but to analyze further, most of the respondents may utilize social media more frequently for other reasons traveling on the other hand is done lesser due to time constraints; an average american worker receives 10 daysof vacation, the philippines offer 13 days, european countries as mandated offers 20 days per year some 25 and 30 days (roper, 2018) with a few trips per year that may be done, respondents probably use social media for travel information only when it is time for them to prepare for their vacations to step outside their busy lifestyle to unwind and to release their stress to return to work energized and rejuvenated. (usa today, 2018) table 13. frequency of social media usage on travel number of uses frequency percent never 17 4.3% less than once a month 85 21.4% once a month 98 24.7% 2-3 times a month 68 17.1% once a week 32 8.1% 2-3 times a week 38 9.6% daily 58 14.6% no data provided 1 .3% total 397 100% table 14 shows the social media platform respondents look for that may influence their selection of destinations to visit. as seen in the table, most of the respondents look for the number of comments and reviews with 50.6% of the responses setting it as their priority of choice. this is probably because comments and reviews may equate to crowdsourcing that takes place in social media that allows the exchange of virtual content. (paniagua & korzynski, 2017) it is a way of obtaining needed services, ideas, or content that is solicited from the contributions of a large group of people (marchionsa, 2018). it is now the leading process of outsourcing that shapes the way companies communicate and interact with consumers. table 14. social media profile that influence respondents to select destinations social media profile most used 2nd choice least choice others no data provided number of followers f 78 123 160 7 29 % 19.6 31.0 40.3 1.8 7.3 number of comments and reviews f 201 127 48 2 19 % 50.6 32.0 12.1 0.5 4.8 online reputation f 106 117 150 2 22 % 26.7 29.5 37.8 0.5 5.5 table 15 shows the information respondents seek from social media according to their choice of priority. the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 41 published by ideas spread leading information with 26.7% of respondents opting to prioritize in searching for details is the cost of visiting the destination. this data may mean that despite the salary range the respondents fall under, being in both extremes as seen in table 9, regardless of the amount they earn, they are still conscious of the costs the trip may entail. the respondents being mostly millennials are likely to become cost conscious in traveling not just because they have limited funds but because for them traveling is not a luxury but rather essential to life. (charles, 2018) what came in second in priority is the accessibility of the place with 19.1%. this may be surprising that respondents would look for the cost of the trip first rather than learning how accessible the place is. this data may mean that the respondents are willing to go to a certain extent in reaching travel destinations. most commonly, unexplored, underdeveloped places are considerably cheaper than those with established roads, modes of transportation, and easy to access destinations. with the abundance of low-cost travel taking tourists to unknown places for very little money is an option, not just the low-income earners are taking but most high-income earners cover more travels by merely saving every penny. (sullivan, 2018) considering the reputation of the destination/ place that may include safety of the location and the environment is third on the priority list of the respondents at 12.8%. this may mean that respondents have the trust and confidence that given the right amount and access to destinations, travelers may still insist on visiting the place despite its image. table 15. information respondents seek from social media social media profile most used 2nd choice 3rd choice 4th choice 5th choice 6th choice 7th choice least choice others no data provided accessibility of the place f 76 90 46 49 37 30 25 29 7 8 % 19.1 22.7 11.6 12.3 9.3 7.6 6.3 7.3 1.8 2 cost of visiting the destination f 106 82 66 38 33 18 27 10 7 10 % 26.7 20.7 16.6 9.6 8.3 4.5 6.8 2.5 1.8 2.5 reputation of the destination/ place f 51 40 66 69 49 55 30 15 7 14 % 12.8 10.1 16.6 17.4 12.3 13.9 7.6 3.8 1.8 3.5 itinerary of travel f 40 44 44 56 65 53 46 28 9 12 % 10.1 11.1 11.1 14.1 16.4 13.4 11.6 7.1 2.3 3 accommodation f 49 48 56 56 83 47 22 20 4 12 % 12.3 12.1 14.1 14.1 20.9 11.8 5.5 5.0 1.0 3 food and beverage f 23 34 51 56 46 89 49 23 8 18 % 5.8 8.6 12.8 14.1 11.6 22.4 12.3 5.8 2.0 4.5 quality of photos f 15 17 22 25 34 34 115 99 13 16 % 3.8 4.3 5.5 6.3 8.6 10.3 29.0 24.9 3 4 comments and reviews f 36 29 28 26 29 39 51 133 10 16 % 9.1 7.3 7.1 6.5 7.3 9.8 12.8 33.5 2.5 4 table 16 reveals the social media usage of respondents as related to traveling. it can be observed that most of the responses are in agreement with the indicators. that the respondents use social media for searching for travel destinations to visit with a mean of 5.2399., before reading social media posts respondents have positive thoughts about a particular destination and agree to a limited extent with a mean of 4.129 that they have negative thoughts about a destination. the lowest mean may be attributed to the tendency of humans to deny that something bad might happen and that human nature dictates according to a research conducted at the university of michigan that it is particularly difficult for individuals to accept that they might stumble into a great tragedy at some point. (learning mind, 2018) respondents agree that they seek information that supports their initial choice of travel destination to visit, relying on information provided on social media in times of uncertainties or doubts that influence them to change their initial choice/ preference after searching. most of the respondents agree that they use social media/ blogs to check information about travel destinations before deciding. mostly changing their positive thoughts about a travel destination after reading positive comments/posts on social media strengthens the data revealed in table 18 that most of the respondents look for comments and reviews on social media profiles. this is probably the influencing factor for most of the respondents to agree that they visit travel destinations after seeing them on social media and agree that they also share comments, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 42 published by ideas spread reviews/blog posts/ related articles to their peers or family via social media after visiting a travel destination. a good indication that the power of word of mouth is heightened thru technology. table 16. respondents' social media usage concerning travel indicators sda d dle ale a sa nr std. deviation mean interpretation 1. i use social media for searching travel destinations to visit. f 3 1 0 61 160 171 1 .82094 5.2399 agree % .8 .3 0 15.4 40.3 43.1 .3 2. i have positive thoughts towards a particular travel destination before reading social media posts. f 2 3 7 78 229 77 1 .77853 4.9192 agree % .5 .8 1.8 19.6 57.7 19.4 .3 3. i have negative thoughts towards a particular travel destination before reading social media posts. f 15 43 48 119 106 62 4 1.33858 4.1298 agree to a limited extent% 3.8 10.8 12.1 30.0 26.7 15.6 1.0 4. i tend to seek information that supports my initial choice of travel destination to visit. f 2 6 12 76 160 137 4 .94044 5.0280 agree % .5 1.5 3.0 19.1 40.3 34.5 1.0 5. i rely on information provided on social media when i have uncertainties/doubts in visiting a new travel destination f 11 15 26 103 154 86 2 1.17158 4.6000 agree % 2.8 3.8 6.5 25.9 38.8 21.7 .5 6. i change my initial choice/ preference after searching for relevant information via social media sites. f 9 13 28 117 149 78 3 1.12190 4.5685 agree % 2.3 3.3 7.1 29.5 37.5 19.6 .8 7. i use social media/blogs to check out more information about travel destinations before deciding. f 5 17 16 85 154 117 3 1.11228 4.8198 agree % 1.3 4.3 4.0 21.4 38.8 29.5 .8 8. i change my positive thoughts about a travel destination after reading negative comments/posts on social media. f 6 9 28 139 139 73 3 1.03996 4.5609 agree % 1.5 2.3 7.1 35.0 35.0 18.4 .8 9. i change my negative thoughts about a travel destination after reading positive comments/ posts on social media. f 4 7 28 124 157 76 1 .99212 4.6439 agree % 1.0 1.8 7.1 31.2 39.5 19.1 .3 10. i visit travel destinations after seeing it on social media. f 3 10 21 121 161 76 5 .98135 4.6709 agree % .8 2.5 5.3 30.5 40.6 19.1 1.3 11. i share comments/reviews/blog posts/related articles with my peers or family via social media after visiting a travel destination. f 8 15 22 86 147 118 1 1.16380 4.7753 agree % 2.0 3.8 5.5 21.7 37.0 29.7 .3 general average .68398 4.7116 agree table 17 reveals the association between the respondents’ socio-demographic profile and their social media user profiles. it can be observed that among the respondents' social media usage profile used as indicators, age, occupation, civil status, monthly income, and highest educational attainment, with a p-value of .000, .021, .029,.040, and .043 respectively has an association with the choice of respondents’ social media device used. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 43 published by ideas spread with a p-value of.013 time spent on social media has an association with the respondents' age. this may be associated with the level of exposure every generation to technology and gadget usage. table 17. association between respondents’ social media profile and their social media usage profile categories social media usage profile chisquare df p-value decision on ho interpretation age social media platforms utilized 27.359a 24 .288 accept no association social media device used 43.164a 12 .000 reject association time spent using social media 49.737a 30 .013 reject association sex social media platforms utilized 6.954a 4 .138 accept no association social media device used 1.739a 2 .419 accept no association time spent using social media 10.321a 5 .067 accept no association civil status social media platforms utilized 13.577a 8 .093 accept no association social media device used 10.781a 4 .029 reject association time spent using social media 16.009a 10 .099 accept no association highest educational attainment social media platforms utilized 14.881a 12 .248 accept no association social media device used 13.010a 6 .043 reject association time spent using social media 23.413a 15 .076 accept no association occupation social media platforms utilized 27.657a 20 .118 accept no association social media device used 20.980a 10 .021 reject association time spent using social media 22.499a 25 .607 accept no association monthly income social media platforms utilized 25.244a 20 .192 accept no association social media device used 19.051a 10 .040 reject association time spent using social media 36.204a 25 .069 accept no association table 18 shows the association between respondents' travel profile and their social media usage profiles. it can be observed that the social media platform used by respondents, with a p-value of .037, has an association with the type of traveler; being local or foreign, and that the social media device they utilize is associated with their purpose of travel with a p-value of .018. the data further reveals that the purpose of travel with a p-value of .001 has an association with the social media device used by the respondents. this is probably due to access to devices when in transit or traveling to particular places. table 18. association between respondents' travel profile and social media usage categories social media usage profile chisquare df p-value decision on ho interpretation type of traveler social media platform utilized 10.203a 4 .037 reject association social media devices used 3.113a 2 .211 accept no association time spent using social media 6.014a 5 .305 accept no association purpose of travel social media platform utilized 18.432a 8 .018 reject association social media devices used 18.348a 4 .001 reject association time spent using social media 12.825a 10 .234 accept no association hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 44 published by ideas spread 6. conclusions based on the results of the study the following conclusions were drawn: 1. the respondents are predominantly millennials mostly within the age range of 25-34 years old; male and female; single and married, well educated, employed, and earn on two different extreme ends ranging from 20,000 and below (us$400 and below) and 60,001 and above (us$1,200.02 and above). 2. respondents are composed of local travelers mostly from region 3 and foreign travelers from asia traveling for leisure and to visit friends and family. 3. the most used social media platform is the social networking sites with the mobile phone as the most used device utilized by respondents spending 1 to 3 hours on social media. 4. respondents use social media in relation to travel once a month with consideration to the number of followers as the primary social media profile they look for with information such as the cost of visiting a particular destination, accessibility, and reputation of the destination/ place that is likely to influence their choice of travel destination. 5. respondents’ choice of travel destinations to visit is influenced by their social media usage in relation to traveling. 6. the respondents’ socio-demographic profile and social media usage profile has a significant association. 7. the respondents’ social media usage in relation to traveling and the type of traveler whom they fall under has a significant association while their social media usage concerning traveling showed no significant association with the purpose of their travel. 8. the respondents’ social media usage in relation to travel and the social media platform they utilized is found to have an association while the social media device used and the number of hours spent have no significant association with their social media usage relating to travel. 9. the socio-demographic profile of the respondents has no significant association with social media usage in relation to travel except for monthly income and occupation. 10. the tourism industry may use the findings of the study as the basis for generating appropriate marketing strategies for promoting tourist destinations utilizing social media platforms. the profiles and social media usage relating to travel identified in the study may serve as a vital tool for travel suppliers to tailor fit their product offerings and promotional activities to their prospective clientele. the department of tourism with its regulation and administrative mandate may also use the findings of the study to assist with the needs of the travelers and of the philippine tourism industry in general. 7. recommendations based on the research results and conclusions the following are recommended: 1. as the data revealed most of the travelers today are millennials earning more disposable income to travel and are educated enough to spend wisely. it is recommended that travel suppliers, marketers, and advertisers create more attractive and well-thought marketing strategies that would be able to attract the interest of well-rounded and smart travelers. 2. with the utilization of ciac for domestic and international flights having local and foreign tourists to visit, it is recommended that local government units in cooperation with dot region 3 strengthen the promotion of local tourist destinations in the area. with the travelers’ utilization of social media, they likely are to become ambassadors of unexplored and unheard new destinations through their reviews and comments. this in turn may encourage travelers to choose destinations in region 3 to decongest other saturated popular destinations in the country. 3. with social networking sites as the most used social media platform, it is recommended that social media practitioners maximize their potential use to include contents that travelers look for such as the inclusion of the detailed cost of visiting a destination, means of accessing the place, and highlighting the destinations potential to build a good image. with the travelers' frequent use of social media thru their mobile phones spending numerous hours on it, investment in mobile phone-friendly content is recommended for a marketer, local government units, and travel suppliers to consider. 4. as identified, the cost of visiting the destination is given higher priority than the accessibility and reputation of a particular destination it is recommended that local government units and travel suppliers consider promoting affordable travel even in underdeveloped destinations as travelers see the difficulty of reaching a destination part of the adventure. such exposure may provide the destination an opportunity to be seen and supported by the department of tourism once recognized to have potential. 5. based on the gathered data, it has been concluded that the travelers’ choice of tourist destination is influenced by the use of social media in relation to traveling; it is recommended that the use of social hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 45 published by ideas spread media be a staple means of communicating with the market. that travel suppliers and local government units may consider the creation of a position in the organization specifically to act as an administrator of a webpage and or as an online front liner, adapting to the changing needs of the market that is now venturing into the virtual world. 6. learning that socio-demographic profile and social media usage profile has a significant association, it is recommended that both profiles be considered in the creation of online content; to stay as neutral and generic as possible to cater to a more varied segmentation. 7. since social media usage relating to travel is found to have an association with the type of travelers and social media platform utilized; it is recommended that social media practitioners and marketers be more conscious and sensitive in creating posts and reviews that may not be suited to netizens having varied demographics, traditions, and culture; the ethical soundness of every content must be secured responsively. 8. this study was able to determine the relationship or association with its variables, but it is recommended that future researchers conduct a study that would determine the level of association among each of the variables presented. a deeper understanding of this may add further assistance to the tourism industry stakeholders to better create a more effective tool for using social media as a platform in helping travelers decide where to go next. it is likewise recommended that future researchers include the identification of the specific industry or field of work respondents are associated with to further determine other factors this study was not able to explore. inclusion of such may be used to tailor-fit marketing strategies that may be suited to the expertise of the netizens as future travelers. references akinbode s., & ekpudu, j. (2016). consumer acceptability and patronage of internet retail market in nigeria. journal of business and management, 18(10), ver. vi (october. 2016), 81-89. barve, v. (2015). social media for organizational communication. retrieved on may 27, 2018 from https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/social-media-organizational-communication-vikas-barve/ barile, c. (2017). administrator tiangco welcomes 2017. retrieved on march 3, 2018 from http://www.namria.gov.ph/list.php?id=1032&alias=administrator-tiangco-welcomes-2017&archive=1 barreiro, v. (2017). ph has slowest average internet speed in asia pacific – report retrieved on february 28, 2018 from https://www.rappler.com/technology/news/171680-philippines-akamai-broadband-adoption-internetspeed-rankings ballaran, j. (2017). online filipinos trust social media more than traditional media –poll. retrieved on february 28, 2018 from http://technology.inquirer.net/66402/filipinos-online-trust-social-media-traditional-mediapoll bearne, s. (2016). how technology has transformed the travel industry retrieved on december 18, 2017 from https://www.theguardian.com/media-network/2016/feb/29/technologyinternet-transformed-travelindustry-airbnb bondoc, m. (2018). most active in the world' filipinos spent an average of almost 4 hours a day on social media in 2017 retrieved on february 28, 2018 from http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/scitech/technology/642105/filipinosspent-an-average-of-almost-4hours-on-social-media-in-2017/story/ brown, r. (2017). the impact of social media on travel inspiration. retrieved on february 28, 2018 from http://www.olapic.com/resources/the-impact-of-social-media-on-travel-inspiration_blog-p1aw-f1tr-v1tht1sm/ buckley, j. (2017). young people are prioritising travel over putting down roots, say insiders. retrieved on may 25, 2018 from https://www.independent.co.uk/travel/news-and-advice/millennialstravelling-houses-cantafford-property-prices-industry-experts-contiki-uby-uniworld-g-a8090891.html bynumboley, b. (2018). social return and intent to travel. tourism management, volume 64, pp. 119-128. retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s026151771730184x camus, m. (2018). ph is world leader in social media usage. retrieved on february 28, 2018 from http://business.inquirer.net/246015/ph-world-l eader-social-media-usage hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 46 published by ideas spread copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p207 207 published by ideas spread empowerment-oriented growth: practical pathways for social work agencies in community-level governance ma li1 1 school of law, ningxia university, china correspondence: ma li, school of law, ningxia university, yinchuan, china. e-mail: 12092023lily@gmail.com received: august 14, 2025; accepted: august 25, 2025; published: august 26, 2025 abstract in the process of advancing chinese modernization and improving the social governance system, grassroots governance is gradually shifting from a “management-oriented” to an “empowerment-oriented” approach. how to stimulate the endogenous motivation of grassroots actors through empowerment mechanisms has become a key issue in promoting the modernization of social governance. taking community h in yinchuan, ningxia as a typical case, this study adopts a “resources–capabilities–institutions” analytical framework to systematically examine the evolutionary logic and staged characteristics of community empowerment. the findings indicate that empowerment-oriented growth is not a linear process, but rather follows a curvilinear trajectory of “initial empowerment—capacity cultivation—recurring dilemmas—organic growth.” in the initial stage, the concentrated infusion of external resources effectively activated community vitality but also generated dependency risks. during the capacity cultivation stage, resident leaders gradually emerged, and public participation shifted from “passive” to “active.” in the recurring dilemmas stage, administrative absorption and institutional formalization undermined the effectiveness of empowerment, leading to fluctuations. ultimately, in the stage of organic growth, the integration of resources, maturity of capacities, and institutional embedding interacted to foster sustainable community governance. the study further reveals that resource empowerment provides the conditions, capacity empowerment shapes the driving force, and institutional empowerment ensures the consolidation of outcomes. the dynamic tension and interaction among these three dimensions across different stages constitute the internal logic of empowerment-oriented growth. therefore, advancing the sustainable development of community governance requires the organic integration of diversified resource coordination, progressive capacity cultivation, and endogenous institutional embedding. keywords: social work agencies, community-level governance, empowerment theory, practical pathways 1. problem statement in the process of chinese-style modernization and the continuous improvement of the social governance system, grassroots governance has been gradually shifting from a “management-oriented” to an “empowerment-oriented” approach. the fourth plenary session of the 19th cpc central committee explicitly proposed to “build a social governance structure characterized by co-construction, co-governance, and shared benefits.” the 14th five-year plan and subsequent policy documents have also repeatedly emphasized the need to enhance the capacity of grassroots social organizations and community residents through empowerment, enabling them to play a more significant role in community governance and public service provision. this policy orientation indicates that, in the context of the new era, the core of community governance lies not merely in the functional division among government, market, and society, but rather in how empowerment mechanisms can stimulate the endogenous motivation of grassroots actors, thereby promoting the sustainable development of social governance. nevertheless, empowerment practices in reality have not always fully aligned with policy expectations. in some localities, when advancing community construction, governments tend to rely excessively on financial allocations, project contracting, or the provision of venues, reducing “empowerment” to a mere supply of resources. although such approaches may activate community vitality in the short term, they often lack capacity cultivation and institutional safeguards. as a result, once external support diminishes, organizations and residents often fall into stagnation or even disintegration. this phenomenon of “input-driven growth” and “dependency-based operation” has repeatedly appeared in many cases, not only weakening policy effectiveness but also giving rise, to some extent, to problems such as “pseudo-empowerment” and “performative participation” (xu and xu, 2016; luo, 2018). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 208 published by ideas spread based on this recognition, this paper introduces the analytical perspective of “empowerment-oriented growth.” compared with existing research, this perspective emphasizes that empowerment is not a static outcome but a dynamic process; its value does not lie simply in whether empowerment occurs, but in whether it can guide community organizations and residents into a trajectory of continuous accumulation and adaptive adjustment (xia, 2019). specifically, the development of empowerment often goes through the stages of “initial empowerment, capacity cultivation, recurring dilemmas, and organic growth,” with each stage reflecting the tension and interaction among resources, capacities, and institutions. such phasic and fluctuating characteristics constitute the basic logic of empowerment-oriented growth. accordingly, this paper selects community h in yinchuan as a typical case. this community, situated in a multiethnic context, faces the dual challenges of limited resources and insufficient capacities, while also possessing unique conditions for institutional innovation and cultural integration. through a case study, this paper constructs a “resources–capacities–institutions” analytical framework to examine in depth the logic and evolutionary trajectory of empowerment at different stages, thereby revealing how grassroots communities can realize a dynamic process of transition from external injection to endogenous development, and eventually to institutional consolidation. this approach not only contributes to deepening academic understanding of empowerment mechanisms (li, 2022; min and yang, 2025), but also provides theoretical interpretation and practical experience to support the exploration of sustainable empowerment models in grassroots governance, particularly in ethnically diverse regions. 2. theoretical foundations and analytical framework 2.1 empowerment theory and research on community governance in china the concept of “empowerment” originated in western social work and development studies during the 1970s. at its core, it aims to enhance the capacity of individuals and groups for self-development and autonomous action through external resource support and institutional guarantees (rappaport, 1984). from the perspective of theoretical evolution, empowerment has generally experienced three stages. first, early development theories emphasized the injection of external resources, advocating that governments or professional institutions compensate for the structural deficiencies of grassroots organizations and vulnerable groups through the provision of funds, technologies, and policies. second, with the rise of social capital theory and capacity-building theory, scholarly attention shifted toward “capacity cultivation,” stressing the importance of education, training, social networks, and participatory mechanisms in strengthening the agency and autonomy of individuals and groups. third, more recent perspectives focusing on “institutional embedding” argue that empowerment outcomes can only be consolidated and sustained when they are institutionalized and embedded within grassroots governance mechanisms (zhang and hou, 2024). thus, empowerment theory has gradually completed a logical transition from external support to internal growth, and finally to institutionalized guarantees. in the chinese academic context, research on empowerment has primarily concentrated on two areas: grassroots social governance and the development of social organizations. on the one hand, some scholars regard empowerment as an important instrument for the transformation of the national governance system, arguing that government support through service procurement, financial subsidies, and preferential policies creates developmental space for community organizations and social work agencies (wang, 2015; dai et al., 2020). on the other hand, some scholars emphasize the concrete processes of empowerment at the community level, proposing a threefold logic of “input-oriented empowerment—cultivation-oriented empowerment— institutionalized empowerment” (li, 2018). they further highlight that social work plays a significant role in advancing governance modernization, refinement, and professionalization, and that micro-level responses can in turn contribute to the improvement of macro-level governance systems (wei, 2018). meanwhile, other studies have exposed phenomena such as “pseudo-empowerment” and “dependency-driven growth” (xu and xu, 2016). overall, domestic research has shed light on the importance of empowerment in community governance, but several limitations remain: first, most studies conceptualize empowerment in a static manner, overlooking its staged and dynamic characteristics (zhang and liu, 2021); second, there is a lack of comprehensive analytical frameworks integrating resources, capacities, and institutions, which makes it difficult to fully uncover the growth logic of empowerment. at the practical level, empowerment is also an unavoidable issue in the localization of grassroots governance in china. on the one hand, government-led community development requires empowerment to enhance the subjectivity of residents and organizations, equipping them with the capacity for independent operation and collaborative governance (chen, 2021). on the other hand, the development of social organizations and professional social work must rely on empowerment mechanisms to overcome the dilemmas of “resource hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 209 published by ideas spread dependence” and “administrative attachment” (hou, 2022; zhang and guo, 2019). particularly in communities located in ethnic minority regions, empowerment is not only about resource allocation and capacity building but also about the integration of cultural diversity and social identity (fu, 2023). therefore, empowerment should not be reduced to a unidimensional “external support,” but should be defined as a dynamic mechanism that runs through the entire process of resource provision, capacity cultivation, and institutional embedding (yan, 2016). in this article, empowerment is defined as a process in grassroots community governance whereby governments, social organizations, and other actors jointly promote the self-growth, institutional consolidation, and sustainable development of community residents and organizations through resource support, capacity building, and institutional arrangements. this definition not only underscores the processual and dynamic nature of empowerment but also highlights its institutional embeddedness within the context of chinese-style modernization (zheng, 2017; zhang and xu, 2024). 2.2 the growth logic of community empowerment community empowerment is not a one-off act but a dynamic process characterized by fluctuation and recurrence. existing research largely describes empowerment from a top-down policy perspective, framing it either as governmental support for grassroots communities or as service interventions by social organizations. however, such perspectives often reduce empowerment to a policy instrument, overlooking its actual operations at the community level. this study instead adopts a bottom-up “community perspective,” conceptualizing empowerment as the continuous accumulation of community capacities within the interplay of resources and institutions, and emphasizing its processual, staged, and curvilinear trajectory. specifically, this paper proposes a four-stage analytical framework of “initial empowerment—capacity cultivation—recurring dilemmas—organic growth.” the first stage, initial empowerment, entails the rapid activation of community vitality and service capacity through substantial external resource infusion, though this effect is often short-lived and risks generating dependency. the second stage, capacity cultivation, involves the gradual enhancement of organizational capacity and resident subjectivity, fostering endogenous development momentum while remaining constrained by resource limitations. the third stage, recurring dilemmas, arises under conditions of institutional inadequacy, cultural diversity, or administrative absorption, where empowerment effects fluctuate or regress, manifesting in performative growth or virtual prosperity. the fourth stage, organic growth, is reached when resources, capabilities, and institutions form synergies, enabling empowerment outcomes to consolidate into everyday community practices and rules, thereby achieving self-reinforcement and sustainable development. figure 1. the process logic framework of empowerment-oriented growth within this framework, resource empowerment provides external conditions, capacity empowerment generates core driving forces, and institutional empowerment ensures the transformation and consolidation of outcomes. the three dimensions do not progress linearly but instead interact dynamically: the effectiveness of resource utilization depends on capability levels; the continuous enhancement of capacity requires institutional support; and the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 210 published by ideas spread effective functioning of institutions, in turn, relies on resource guarantees. the logic of empowerment-oriented growth thus unfolds within this cycle of interaction. consequently, community empowerment does not follow a linear upward trajectory but instead exhibits a curvilinear pattern of fluctuation and recurrence. this non-linearity and reversibility reflect the authentic logic of empowerment-driven growth. on this basis, this study selects community h in yinchuan as a typical case, applying the “resources–capabilities– institutions” analytical framework to systematically explore the growth logic of community empowerment. by tracing its trajectory across the four stages of “initial empowerment, capacity cultivation, recurring dilemmas, and organic growth,” this analysis illustrates how empowerment dynamically evolves from external activation to endogenous development and ultimately to institutional consolidation. such an inquiry not only deepens understanding of the complexities inherent in empowerment practices but also provides new theoretical tools for exploring sustainable empowerment pathways in grassroots community governance, particularly in ethnically diverse regions. 3. case introduction yinchuan, the capital of the ningxia hui autonomous region, is a typical multi-ethnic city. it serves not only as a major political, economic, and cultural center in northwest china but also as a focal area for initiatives promoting ethnic unity and social progress. under the national policy directives of “advancing ethnic unity and progress” and “strengthening grassroots social governance systems,” community governance in yinchuan faces dual challenges: on the one hand, addressing common urbanization-related issues such as inadequate provision of grassroots public services and low levels of resident participation; on the other, tackling problems of social integration and identity construction within a multi-ethnic structure. these dual challenges render yinchuan’s community governance both highly complex and broadly representative, providing fertile ground for examining the logic of empowermentoriented growth. h community, located in the transitional zone between yinchuan’s urban center and peri-urban areas, represents a hybrid community that combines both older neighborhoods and newly developed residential districts. it is home to long-term han residents as well as a significant proportion of hui and other ethnic minority groups, forming a pluralistic and coexisting social landscape. the community has a complex demographic composition, including retired elderly residents, rural migrant workers, as well as a considerable number of middle-aged, younger residents, and emerging social strata. within such a social structure, community governance must not only respond to the diverse demands for public service provision but also establish effective mechanisms of communication and negotiation among different groups in order to achieve collaborative governance across multiple actors. in its earlier stages of grassroots governance, h community relied heavily on administrative directives and governmentled project-based operations. while such approaches ensured the functioning of public affairs to some extent, they also resulted in weak resident participation and lagging development of social organizations. in recent years, with yinchuan’s comprehensive efforts to modernize community governance, h community has gradually introduced multiple empowerment mechanisms, including financial and policy support from government, professional interventions by social work agencies, and the establishment of resident deliberation platforms. these external resources and institutional arrangements initially invigorated community organizations and encouraged greater public participation. however, once project cycles ended, the community revealed structural problems such as resource dependency, weak capacities, and institutional gaps—manifestations of the recurrent fluctuations characteristic of the empowerment process. h community was selected as the typical case for this study based on three primary considerations. first, its multiethnic composition reflects the particularities and complexities of grassroots governance in ethnic minority regions. second, in recent years, the community has engaged in rich empowerment practices involving government, social organizations, and residents, which included both rapid growth spurred by external support and recurrent dilemmas caused by insufficient capacities—features that align well with the analytical needs of the empowerment-oriented growth framework. third, the community has gradually experimented with pathways of interaction among resources, capacities, and institutions in its governance model, providing a real-world setting for examining whether empowerment outcomes can be consolidated into sustainable developmental momentum. in summary, the governance practices of h community not only mirror the broader challenges of community governance in ethnic minority regions of china but also illustrate the complex processes of empowerment in action. a systematic study of this community helps uncover the internal logic and staged characteristics of empowermentoriented growth, thereby offering both empirical insights and theoretical support for advancing the modernization of grassroots community governance in ethnically diverse regions. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 211 published by ideas spread 4. process analysis: the staged evolution of empowerment-oriented growth in h community field investigations and documentary analysis of h community in yinchuan reveal that its empowerment practices did not follow a linear developmental trajectory. instead, they evolved along a curvilinear path characterized by external infusion, internal growth, recurring dilemmas, and institutional consolidation. corresponding to the theoretical framework of “empowerment-oriented growth” proposed earlier, the development of h community can be broadly divided into four stages: initial empowerment, capacity cultivation, recurring dilemmas, and organic growth. each stage reflects the interaction and tensions among resource empowerment, capacity empowerment, and institutional empowerment, thereby illustrating the volatility and dynamism of grassroots community development in ethnic minority areas under the logic of empowerment. 4.1 initial empowerment: resource infusion and external activation against the backdrop of national policies promoting community governance modernization and initiatives for ethnic unity, h community was among the first to introduce models of government-purchased services and professional interventions by social work agencies. the defining feature of this initial stage was the concentrated infusion of external resources, including not only financial support and public venues but also professional knowledge and methods provided by social work institutions. at the resource level, government allocations funded resident activities and community space renovation, providing solid material guarantees for public life. party-mass service centers offered fixed office and activity spaces for social work agencies, thereby creating relatively stable public venues for residents. for instance, at the outset of the project, agencies used funding to establish a “neighborhood mutual aid team” to provide companionship and daily assistance to elderly residents living alone or in “empty-nest” households. such direct resource provision substantially lowered the barriers to participation, quickly revitalizing community life. at the capacity level, improvements were primarily reflected in “experiential learning.” under the guidance of social work agencies, some residents were introduced to basic skills in organizing activities and collaborative practices. however, this learning remained largely passive. for example, during the first ethnic unity-themed event, residents mostly acted as performers and participants, while planning and coordination were dominated by the agency. this reliance on external actors indicated that capacities had not yet been internalized into residents’ own action logics. at the institutional level, early arrangements were mostly reliant on external rules. agreements between government and social work agencies specified service lists and performance indicators, while residents’ participation was largely “objectified,” lacking initiative in rule-making. institutional empowerment remained weak, and governance continued to depend on external drivers. thus, the initial empowerment stage was characterized by resource-driven activation: external resources effectively energized the community atmosphere, but residents and organizations had not yet developed endogenous capacities or autonomous institutional arrangements. 4.2 capacity cultivation: emergence of community leaders and formation of endogenous momentum as projects advanced, h community entered the capacity cultivation stage. at this point, the utilization of external resources shifted from “direct provision” to “guided use,” and resident learning progressed from “passive experience” to “active learning and practice.” at the resource level, social work agencies introduced “small grant projects,” encouraging residents to independently design activities and apply for funding support. for example, some residents proposed organizing cross-cultural food exchange events, with agencies providing limited funding and guidance on budgeting and execution. this resource allocation model shifted the dynamic from “agencyorganized, resident-participated” to resident-initiated activities, teaching residents how to mobilize and manage resources through practice. at the capacity level, the growth of community leaders became a key highlight. the agency organized a three-month “community leadership workshop,” offering systematic training in organizational management, deliberative consultation, and conflict mediation. through repeated practice, a group of resident leaders gradually emerged. for instance, one hui resident leader, together with han neighbors, initiated a “halal neighborhood table” activity that respected cultural differences while fostering inter-ethnic exchange. this not only demonstrated concrete capacity gains but also reflected the cultural sensitivity specific to governance in minority regions. similar to findings in international social work education, where field practice and mentorship play a vital role in transforming passive learners into active practitioners (aikawa et al., 2025), h community residents also gradually internalized empowerment through experiential learning and practical engagement. at the institutional level, h community experimented with mechanisms such as residents’ councils and a volunteer points system. the residents’ council sought to transfer the decision-making of public affairs to residents, marking a shift from “passive participation” to “institutional participation.” the volunteer points system incentivized sustained involvement by allowing points to be redeemed for rewards. though still in exploratory stages, these mechanisms indicated a trend toward institutionalizing empowerment outcomes. overall, this stage can be summarized as hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 212 published by ideas spread capacity-driven empowerment. residents transitioned from “being asked to participate” to “wanting to participate,” and the growth of community leaders provided new momentum for self-governance and cross-ethnic integration. 4.3 recurring dilemmas: administrative absorption and virtual prosperity the empowerment process was not linear or cumulative. in the midterm of the project, h community’s empowerment practices encountered dilemmas and reversals, as tensions among resources, capacities, and institutions became pronounced. at the resource level, administrative performance pressures led to the politicization of resource allocation. for instance, during ethnic unity promotion month, community officials demanded large-scale events within short timelines. as a result, residents’ councils became tokenistic, and resource distribution catered more to administrative assessments than to residents’ needs. this administrative absorption weakened the effectiveness of resource empowerment. at the capacity level, community leaders reached bottlenecks in practice. despite earlier training, they lacked sufficient professional support in handling complex issues. for example, in mediating neighborhood disputes, leaders often struggled to resolve conflicts effectively, undermining trust and discouraging their own enthusiasm. some residents experienced “capacity fatigue,” believing their efforts could not meaningfully influence outcomes. at the institutional level, mechanisms such as the residents’ council and the points system became increasingly formalized and hollow under administrative pressures. many residents perceived the council as a “symbolic procedure,” while the points system lost appeal due to limited redemption options. institutional empowerment risked being hollowed out, and resident participation declined. this stage was marked by virtual prosperity and administrative encroachment. although community activities appeared frequent, genuine resident participation declined, capacity development stalled, and institutional innovation stagnated. the empowerment process exhibited a “curvilinear downturn,” highlighting the tension between external support and internal growth. 4.4 organic growth: institutional embedding and sustainable development following cycles of difficulty and adjustment, h community gradually transitioned into the organic growth stage, in which resources, capacities, and institutions became more stable and interlinked, and empowerment outcomes were consolidated into institutional practice. at the resource level, emphasis shifted toward diversified resource integration. for example, h community collaborated with nearby halal restaurants to establish a “neighborhood mutual aid kitchen,” which simultaneously met minority cultural needs and created employment opportunities for residents. resource provision thus evolved from reliance on government supply to a model of co-construction involving government, enterprises, and residents, enhancing resilience in community development. at the capacity level, the development of community leaders stabilized. some residents were not only able to chair residents’ councils but also to lead teams in agenda-setting, discussion, and solution design. for instance, in addressing issues such as waste sorting and parking management, residents proposed pragmatic solutions and demonstrated coordination skills during implementation. this indicated a shift from “passive imitation” to “active creation” in capacity development. similar to empowerment-based interventions in the health field, where structured programs effectively enhanced self-management and sustained capacity among marginalized groups (cao et al., 2025), h community’s practices demonstrated that empowerment outcomes could be consolidated through continuous institutional embedding. at the institutional level, empowerment outcomes were gradually embedded into community governance mechanisms. h community adopted a residents’ self-governance charter that specified agenda-setting, decision-making procedures, and supervisory mechanisms for the residents’ council. the volunteer points system was normalized, with points not only redeemable for services and goods but also granting residents priority in participating in community affairs. these institutional arrangements effectively consolidated empowerment outcomes and fostered a virtuous cycle of self-reinforcement. the organic growth stage was characterized by institution-driven empowerment. through the synergy of resource integration, capacity maturation, and institutionalization, the community achieved a transformation from external support to endogenous development, and ultimately to sustainable governance. 5. three-dimensional pathways: analyzing the internal logic of empowerment-based growth a systematic study of h community in yinchuan reveals that empowerment-based growth is not a singledimensional process but rather a multi-dimensional evolution driven by the interplay of resource provision, capacity cultivation, and institutional embedding. resource empowerment provides external conditions, capacity empowerment shapes endogenous momentum, and institutional empowerment ensures long-term consolidation. each dimension assumes a distinct emphasis at different stages, functioning both independently and interdependently, thereby constructing the complete logical chain of empowerment-based growth. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 213 published by ideas spread 5.1 the resource pathway: from “external injection” to “autonomous integration” resource empowerment constitutes the starting point of empowerment-based growth, directly determining whether grassroots communities can embark on a trajectory of public participation and collaborative governance. in the initial phase of h community, external resource injection played a decisive role in activating collective action. government-designated funds, professional services provided by social work agencies, and the allocation of facilities significantly lowered the threshold for residents’ involvement in public affairs. for example, the establishment of a “neighborhood mutual aid team” relied almost entirely on project funding and institutional support; this “blood-transfusion-style” resource provision revitalized community life in the short term. however, while resource pathways stimulate vitality, they also carry the risk of “input dependency.” field investigations reveal that when external funds diminished or administrative evaluations intensified, some resident organizations became nominal entities, and the enthusiasm of community leaders markedly declined. without follow-up institutional mechanisms, resource provision risks devolving into “virtual prosperity,” undermining sustainability. thus, the logical progression of the resource pathway should move from singular external injection toward diversification and endogenization. during the stage of organic growth, h community explored resource integration models: for instance, through collaboration with halal catering enterprises to establish a “neighborhood mutual aid kitchen,” which not only diversified funding and venue sources but also generated employment and intercultural exchange opportunities. this demonstrates that the effective logic of resource empowerment lies in the transformation from “externally driven inputs” to “autonomously integrated systems,” thereby forming a resilient and endogenous resource base. 5.2 the capacity pathway: from “passive participation” to “active governance” capacity empowerment forms the core of empowerment-based growth. the utility of external resources can only be sustained when translated into long-term developmental momentum through capacity building. in h community, capacity cultivation advanced primarily via a “training–practice–reflection” model. in the mid-project phase, social work institutions established a “community leadership workshop” to systematically train resident leaders in organizational management, participatory deliberation, and conflict mediation. some leaders gradually mastered intercultural communication skills, enabling dialogue between han and hui residents. such capacitybuilding extended beyond technical proficiency, fostering identity recognition and confidence accumulation. nevertheless, capacity development was accompanied by setbacks and reversals. during the phase of recurring challenges, resident leaders frequently encountered bottlenecks in mediating disputes and coordinating resources, leading to frustration and even “capacity fatigue.” this indicates that empowerment-based growth does not follow a linear upward trajectory but unfolds as a curve characterized by reversals and recalibrations. the ultimate goal of the capacity pathway is to transform residents from “passive participants” into “active governors.” by the stage of organic growth, community leaders in h community were able to independently preside over deliberation meetings, propose concrete governance solutions, and mobilize volunteers for implementation. for instance, the resident-initiated “waste sorting self-governance group” not only addressed environmental concerns but also reinforced a sense of responsibility in public affairs. thus, the logical progression of capacity empowerment can be summarized as: beginning with external guidance, internalizing through iterative setbacks and practice, and culminating in the substantive subjectivity of community residents. 5.3 the institutional pathway: from “external discipline” to “endogenous embedding” institutional empowerment serves as the safeguard of empowerment-based growth, determining whether earlier gains in resources and capacity can be consolidated into long-term, stable governance outcomes. h community vividly illustrates the evolution of this pathway. in its initial phase, institutional empowerment relied on external discipline imposed by government and social work organizations, such as project agreements, service lists, and performance indicators. while these mechanisms ensured programmatic operation, residents often lacked a sense of ownership, and the institutional arrangements functioned more as administrative constraints than as collectively constructed norms. during the capacity cultivation phase, institutional innovation began to emerge. the introduction of a residents’ deliberation council and a volunteer credit system reflected the community’s efforts to embed resident participation within an institutional framework. although fluctuations in participation and inadequate incentives constrained implementation, these mechanisms nevertheless provided preliminary channels for consolidating empowerment achievements. by the stage of organic growth, institutional empowerment transitioned from external discipline to endogenous embedding. h community formally issued a “community autonomy charter,” stipulating rules for deliberation, decision-making, and oversight, while normalizing the operation of the volunteer credit system. these measures not only established stable behavioral routines among residents but also fostered hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 214 published by ideas spread interethnic trust and cooperation, thereby achieving genuine institutional “endogenization.” thus, the logical evolution of institutional empowerment follows a trajectory from externally imposed rules to participatory institutional construction, and ultimately to the solidification of an endogenous community governance framework. 5.4 the processual logic of the three-dimensional pathways the resource, capacity, and institutional pathways in empowerment-based growth do not exist in isolation but are mutually dependent, interactively constrained, and collectively form the dynamic architecture of community empowerment. at different stages, each pathway assumes distinctive primacy, yet their interplay remains in constant flux and tension.in the initial phase, resource empowerment occupies the core position: external funding, venues, and projects inject direct momentum, while capacity and institutional arrangements remain underdeveloped, largely reflecting passive reliance on resources. during the capacity cultivation phase, the growth of resident leaders and deepened public participation shifted the focus toward capacity empowerment, with resources and institutions serving primarily as supportive conditions. in the stage of recurring challenges, contradictions among the three dimensions became pronounced: administrative absorption distorted resource allocation, capacity stagnation dampened residents’ enthusiasm, and institutional mechanisms deteriorated into formalistic routines, reflecting a complex entanglement of tensions. finally, in the organic growth phase, the three dimensions achieved positive synergy: resource provision evolved toward diversified integration, residents’ capacities advanced toward sustained maturity, and institutional arrangements became endogenously embedded. together, these dynamics pushed empowerment outcomes onto a trajectory of institutionalization and sustainable development. in sum, the curvilinear progression of empowerment-based growth does not result from a unilinear path but rather from the composite effect of three-dimensional pathways dynamically coordinated through tension and adjustment. when imbalances arise among the three, empowerment processes often stagnate, encounter setbacks, or regress; conversely, when resources, capacities, and institutions achieve coordinated interaction, empowerment outcomes are transformed from external stimulus to endogenous development and ultimately to institutional consolidation, thereby steering grassroots community governance into a sustainable virtuous cycle. figure 2. the curvilinear developmental trend of empowerment: “initial empowerment – capacity cultivation – dilemma recurrence – organic growth” hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 215 published by ideas spread 6. conclusion and discussion using community h in yinchuan as a representative case and applying a three-dimensional analytical framework of resources–capacity–institutions, this study examined the process logic of empowerment-based growth. the findings reveal that community empowerment does not follow a linear trajectory; rather, it evolves along a curvilinear path of “initial empowerment—capacity cultivation—setbacks and reversals—organic growth.” its internal logic is embedded in the interaction and tensions among three dimensions: resource empowerment provides external conditions, capacity empowerment generates endogenous momentum, and institutional empowerment ensures consolidation and sustainability. nevertheless, the empowerment process is also marked by challenges such as administrative absorption, superficial prosperity, capacity fatigue, and institutional formalism, which may cause fluctuations or even regressions in outcomes. to facilitate the transformation of community empowerment from stage-based growth to sustainable development, integrative pathways need to be sought across resources, capacities, and institutions. 6.1 resource integration: from “single injection” to “pluralistic integration” resource empowerment constitutes the starting point of community empowerment, as its effectiveness determines whether a community can be activated and enter the track of public participation. in community h, the initial inflow of external funding, project venues, and professional institutions indeed succeeded in stimulating community vitality. however, with the expiration of project cycles, the drawbacks of resource dependency became apparent, as some resident organizations stagnated after losing financial support. this highlights the limitations of input-driven growth. the key to resource integration lies in shifting from “external injections” toward “pluralistic integration.” on the one hand, government should continue to provide fiscal support and build platforms, but it should avoid over-reliance on administrative performance assessments, instead steering resources gradually toward co-production among resident groups, social organizations, and enterprises. on the other hand, communities themselves must strengthen their capacity to mobilize and integrate resources, transforming limited inputs into sustainable momentum. community h’s “neighborhood mutual aid kitchen” illustrates this transition well: by bringing together government, enterprises, and residents, it not only expanded funding channels but also enhanced community resilience. thus, the logic of resource empowerment in its integrated form emphasizes “plural supply—autonomous integration—sustained transformation.” 6.2 capacity integration: from “passive participation” to “proactive governance” capacity cultivation represents the core of empowerment-based growth. only through capacity transformation can external resources be internalized into enduring momentum. in community h, resident leaders grew progressively through training and practice, moving from passive reception to proactive planning and organization, thereby demonstrating emergent subjectivity. yet capacity building also faced challenges of “fatigue” and “bottlenecks”: without institutional support and resource guarantees, resident leaders often lost confidence, reducing participation. advancing capacity integration requires overcoming the limitations of training-focused approaches by establishing mechanisms that align capacity with opportunities. on one hand, sustained opportunities for practice—such as deliberation councils and self-governance groups—are needed to translate training outcomes into real action and avoid “paper-based” capacities. on the other hand, the community should build a “leadership pipeline,” fostering a developmental pathway from ordinary residents to community leaders and, eventually, to self-governance champions, thereby amplifying capacity effects at a collective level. only through such mechanisms can residents truly shift from “i am asked to participate” to “i want to participate”, and finally to proactive governance. 6.3 institutional integration: from “external regulation” to “endogenous embedding” institutional empowerment is the key to ensuring the sustainability of empowerment outcomes. in community h, the early stages of institutional development relied heavily on external regulation by governments and agencies, taking the form of project agreements, service lists, and performance evaluations. while these arrangements ensured the operation of services, they lacked meaningful resident participation. in later stages, innovations such as residents’ deliberation councils and a volunteer points system marked the beginnings of institutional experimentation, though administrative pressures led to tendencies of formalism. genuine institutional integration requires transitioning external rules into endogenous mechanisms. on one hand, institutional design must incorporate broad-based resident participation so that rules become shared consensus and everyday practice. on the other hand, institutional embedding must align with cultural identities, particularly in multiethnic contexts, where institutional design should accommodate diverse cultural backgrounds and differentiated needs. ultimately, community h consolidated empowerment outcomes through a residents’ self-governance charter and the normalization of the points system, thereby transforming temporary measures into long-term governance mechanisms. this exemplifies the logic of transitioning from “external regulation” to “endogenous embedding.” hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science 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(2023). practical strategies and action logics of social work participation in the construction of community governance communities-an analysis based on the "emotion-relationship-action" framework. xinjiang social sciences, (3), 139-149, 152. [18] yan, z. (2016). professional social work intervention embedded in community governance-a case study of kc community in tianjin. journal of east china university of science and technology (social science edition), 31(1), 46-55, 61. [19] zheng, r. (2017). collaborative governance in the "three-society interaction": forms, effectiveness, and value orientation. zhejiang academic journal, (3), 72-76. [20] zhang, f., & xu, p. y. (2024). theoretical foundations and practical paths of professional social work empowerment in petition governance. social construction, 11(5), 99-118. [21] li, p., & wu, y. (2021). an analytical framework of "resources-capabilities-institutions" interaction. administrative forum, (1), 73-80. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 217 published by ideas spread [22] zhang, f. (2020). residents' participation and community capacity building. jianghan academic journal, (3), 98-105. [23] li, j. (2021). the endogenous logic of institutions and residents' participation. community development, (8), 88-95. [24] aikawa, m., han, m., nguyen, t. t., & dinh, v. h. (2025). improving field education for social work in vietnam: intern supervisors' perspectives of the current state and potential solutions. international social work, 68(1), 142-157. https://doi.org/10.1177/00208728241288016 [25] cao, m., xiang, t., wu, t., xu, x., & zhang, y. (2025). application of health empowerment theory to enhance health empowerment levels and self-health management ability among migrant older adults: a randomized controlled trial. geriatric nursing, 65, 103525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gerinurse.2025.103525 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n3p50 50 published by ideas spread revitalising chinese calligraphy's unique qualities through the utilization of zen principles and chinese minimalism yinan ma1, yunxiang li1 & huabin zhang1 1 changchun normal university, china correspondence: huabin zhang, changchun normal university, changchun, jiling, china. received: april 28, 2025; accepted: may 20, 2025; published: may 22, 2025 abstract the art and art forms defines the culture of specific group, chinese civilization, with over 5,000 years of history, has continuously merged with diverse cultures, with chinese characters representing its deep cultural heritage. chinese calligraphy, a writing art using chinese characters, has evolved with the development of chinese character fonts, incorporating the wisdom, philosophy, humanistic spirit, and artistic aesthetics of the chinese people. the research aims to address challenges in chinese calligraphy, the proposed approach aims to enhance the engagement of new generations and expand the appeal of chinese calligraphy through the incorporation of zen and chinese minimalism in the research. data collection through questionnaires is crucial for understanding, and hypotheses are developed to understand how chinese calligraphy can evolve to meet the needs of the evolving environment. the research results in a sustainable dynamic future for chinese calligraphy, making it more dynamic and accessible in the modern context. the suggested approach promotes the art's global awareness and strengthens chinese calligraphy's viability as a flexible art form. keywords: chinese calligraphy, zen and chinese minimalism, questionnaires, hypotheses development, development of chinese calligraphy 1. introduction chinese civilization has been continuously assimilating into many civilizations from throughout the globe. for millennia, chinese characters have preserved the rich cultural legacy of chinese society. the emergence of chinese character fonts has been accompanied by the art of chinese calligraphy, which employs chinese characters as the writing surface. calligraphy has incorporated the artistic aesthetics, humanistic spirit, and wisdom of the chinese people. learning calligraphy allows international students to appreciate the distinctive beauty of calligraphy, sense the deep humanistic emotions of chinese culture, and uncover the wisdom of chinese people's lives in the architectural space of chinese characters. calligraphy instruction may significantly increase the effectiveness and efficiency of teaching foreign students' writing, literacy, and usage of chinese characters in international classrooms. chinese language instruction has the potential to enhance foreign students' comprehension of chinese philosophical thought, encourage the spread of chinese culture, deepen the meaning of the evolution of international chinese language instruction, and change the course and concepts of development. chinese characters are artistically expressed by calligraphy, which is an integral aspect of traditional chinese culture. in addition to its aesthetic value, calligraphy is a significant cultural carrier and means of communication in china and carries a wealth of historical, philosophical, psychological, and sociocultural information. more and more foreign students are becoming interested in calligraphy as a means of learning chinese and comprehending chinese culture as a result of the growth of worldwide chinese language instruction. as a result, calligraphy instruction in overseas chinese schools has drawn attention and investigation. with china's reform and opening up, as well as the rise in foreign exchanges, some foreign colleges, universities, and institutions started to offer chinese language courses between the 1970s and the early 1990s. they used calligraphy as an auxiliary teaching tool, primarily to develop the students' aesthetic sensibilities and their ability to write chinese characters. the time from the middle of the 1990s to the start of the twenty-first century is known as the development stage. some foreign universities and institutions started offering calligraphy as an elective or independent course in response to the rapid growth of chinese language international education and an expansion of the needs of international students. the primary goal of this practice is to enhance students' cultural awareness and cognitive proficiency with chinese characters. the mature stage spans the early 21st century to the present, when chinese language international education has been actively promoted and the proficiency of foreign students has increased. in order to help students with their calligraphy, chinese character comprehension, and cross-cultural communication hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 51 published by ideas spread abilities, various foreign colleges, universities, and institutions have started using calligraphy as a comprehension content and approach. the intricacy of chinese characters is established in the literature, making it one of the most difficult things for second-language learners to master. this highlights the need for creative teaching strategies to improve learning efficacy. increasing pupils' motivation is crucial to enhancing the efficacy of learning chinese characters. argues that creating or choosing tough and diverse activities, tailoring assignments to students' interests, and making sure each activity incorporates something new or unique may all increase students' interest and engagement. this viewpoint supports the claim that active participation in the learning process is encouraged by experiential learning strategies that place students in authentic settings also highlights the need of adding "fun in learning" as a crucial component in increasing motivation for language acquisition. according to recent research, like that done by, learning chinese calligraphy may be entertaining and engaging. states further that chinese characters and calligraphy have a long-standing link. claimed that practicing chinese calligraphy has been shown to improve students' capacity to identify chinese characters. the existing techniques which are tend to solve the issues based on the chinese calligraphy not resulted efficiently. emerging research has improved the historical, linguistic, and aesthetic aspects of chinese calligraphy, but it also lacks identification of its limited spread among various artistic cultures. traditional methods have failed to develop the art effectively, as they fail to cover younger audiences and attract diverse audiences. the globalization of art forms has hybridized many traditions, but chinese calligraphy remains underexplored due to the lowered usage of the global artistic landscape. to address this issue, cutting-edge ideas are being developed to increase the efficacy of chinese calligraphy and the growth of chinese arts. a framework is being created using questionnaires to gather information from diverse demographics and identify gaps for the evolution of chinese calligraphy. this methodology combines qualitative and quantitative data to create hypotheses on how chinese calligraphy can succeed in modern and future contexts. the distribution of questionnaires to experts in calligraphy, educators, students, and art enthusiasts will help gather insights into various aspects of chinese calligraphy and its potential pathways for evolution. this approach contributes to the dynamic art form that resonates and adapts to the changing environment with its developed branches and subsections. after implementing this research idea, the calligraphy of china will gain its capability to sustain in the dynamic environments of art and cultural heritage, leading a new beginning for contemporary and future generations. 2. literature review this study [21] aims to investigate and evaluate the importance of incorporating visual aesthetics into calligraphy instruction and the use of cutting-edge chinese calligraphy techniques, illuminating their effects and advantages for the art education community. the purpose of this study is to examine and assess the value of using advanced chinese calligraphy skills and integrating visual aesthetics into calligraphy training, shedding light on their benefits and impacts for the art education community. finding investigates the use of cutting-edge methods in chinese calligraphy, including integrating digital integration, experimenting with different media while performing calligraphy, working together on projects, and trying out new writing instruments. a comprehensive strategy to conserve culture, improve expressive skills, and promote creativity is provided by incorporating novel methods and visual aesthetics into chinese calligraphy instruction. the study advances theory, fosters the development of practical skills, and preserves culture. in order to improve creativity and calligraphy skills, it is advised to embrace digital tools, experiment with mixed media, support performance calligraphy, and start group projects. exploratory writing tools should also be used. the research [22] determine how to improve psychological issues among chinese college students, as well as the features of cch and its efficacy in mental health interventions, the current research examines the literature. using unbiased evaluations, we hope to determine the key elements of cch in addressing psychological issues among chinese college students. we list the therapeutic uses and consequences of calligraphy in our review, which also covers the cch fonts, characters, patterns, and content, as well as the cch as an influence on the body and the mind and methods for responding to psychological disorders among chinese college students. in order to improve academic performance and general well-being, cch is suggested as a holistic solution to psychological issues faced by chinese college students. the purpose of the study [23] was to create the chinese handwriting legibility scale (chls) and assess its validity, reliability, and measurement invariance within chinese primary school pupils in various grade levels. a total of 684 pupils, ages 8 to 12, were selected from a central chinese mainstream primary school and given four minutes to duplicate a chinese template as legibly as they could. the readability performance of these kids was evaluated using the created chls. content validity was preferred by the seven-criterion chls. the scoring guidelines need to be improved, although the inter-ratter reliability was good. confirmatory factor analysis (cfa) validated the suitability of the one-factor solution that principal component analysis (pca) identified as accounting hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 52 published by ideas spread for 62.336% of the variance of the seven-criterion chls. the internal consistency was strong (α = 0.902). the component structures and loadings of the chls were constant across grade levels in terms of measurement invariance; however, notable intercept differences were found between grades 2 and 4. the objectives of this study [24] are to: 1) analyze the historical development and cultural relevance of chinese calligraphy; 2) evaluate the current state and issues confronting chinese calligraphy; and 3) identify strategies for maintaining the literacy and legacy of the art form. this study collects field data using questionnaires, interviews, observations, literature reviews, and group discussions using qualitative methods. our research offers a summary of the many historical eras in which chinese calligraphy evolved. we separated the development of chinese calligraphy into four stages and focused on its artistic forms and content; notably (i) rudimentary society, which is characterized by pictographic writing and rudimentary symbols up until 2070 bc. (ii) the formation of written characters and the invention of the writing brush and ink between 2070 and 221 bc; (iii) the standardization of xiaozhuan and the invention of papermaking between 221 and 589 ad; and (iv) the development and improvement of the five script styles between 589 and 1905 ad as a result of the imperial examination system. our results provide a comprehensive picture of the current situation and problems dealing with chinese calligraphy. finally, the results also show the range of ways chinese calligraphy might be preserved. a beautiful cultural heritage that will enlighten modern society is traditional chinese calligraphy art. the study focuses [25] every art genre has its own distinct creative expression, and any work of art can have some aesthetic merit. in other words, the presentation of all art has integrated the subjective into the objective, transcending the piece's subject matter. in actuality, the essence of art is an external expression of a person's inner emotions, which are then translated into physiological and psychological processes by visual perception to convey the object's meaning to the outside world. calligraphy is an artistic manifestation of traditional chinese culture that uses fonts to convey both its spiritual meaning and aesthetic feeling. as with calligraphy, everything is a depiction of several events and objects put together, all of which are cognitive, rather than an individual that existing alone. the research says discusses the cornerstone of chinese cultural heritage, chinese calligraphy development which faces several gaps in its development. the existing literatures are lacking the modernization of chinese calligraphy and making it more inaccessible among the younger audiences. the traditional gaps of the existing gaps are need to be filled efficiently because the utilization of chinese calligraphy results in various benefits by ensuring the cognitive abilities of the learners, ensuring the mental health of the learner, increase appreciation of classical writings, enhance heritage of chinese cultures and the preservation of chinese calligraphy in a sophisticated manner. 3. the development of calligraphy via the integration of artistic context the chinese calligraphy is a beacon to showcase chinese identity with its philosophical evolution and thousands of years of artistic advancement. the cultural heritage of china is addressed with the help of many categories of arts and chinese calligraphy is one among them to vitrine the cultural heritage of china around the globe. the historical, linguistic dimensions and aesthetic elements of the chinese calligraphy is improved with the assistance of emerging researches. the potential of the art is enhanced by utilizing the outcomes of the modern researches and the researches influence on calligraphy. but the influence of modern researches also lack to identify the limited spreading of calligraphy among various sectors of the artistic cultures. the lack of identification leaves a critical gap in understanding how the influence of cultural arts sustainability in a rapidly transforming environment. the traditional methods and techniques which tends to develop the chinese calligraphy are met with failure in the view of developing the art. the traditional methods lacks to cover younger audiences and failed to attract diverse audiences. furthermore, the globalization of art forms hybrids many traditions but the chinese calligraphy remain underexplored because of the lowered usage of global artistic landscape. the pressing issue which under develop the chinese calligraphy is not getting the attention of people who seeks creativity and innovation in cultural arts. the digital tools offers effective techniques to upraise calligraphy but the improper integration of the digitalization techniques without the ethnic traditional essence will affect the futuristic innovation and preservation of culture. the limitation is addressed effectively with cutting edge ideas that increase the efficacy of the art as well as the growth of the chinese arts. the research in the view of creating a framework that utilizes information which is collected form the diverse demographics with the assistance of questionnaires which are meant to increase the efficiency of ensuring art like chinese calligraphy. the methodology aims to identify gaps for the evolution of chines calligraphy. the data is utilized to create hypotheses on how chinese calligraphy can succeed in modernday and far future context. the critical gaps of the traditional methods works with the combination of qualitative and quantitative data. through the distribution of questionnaires to the groups which includes experts in calligraphy, educators, students and art enthusiast to gather insights into various insights of chinese calligraphy hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 53 published by ideas spread and its potential pathways for the evolution. this way of developing a research for the sophisticated and sustainable way of developing chinese calligraphy also develops the contribution towards the dynamic art form that resonates and adapt to the changing environment with its developed branches and its subsections. after the implementation of the research idea the calligraphy of china will gain its capability to sustain in the dynamic environments of art and cultural heritage leads a new beginning to the contemporary and future generations. figure 1. flowchart for sustainable development of calligraphy the historical and cultural branches of chinese calligraphy, faces a momentous defies in managing its sustainability in evolving artistic landscape. the proposed research addresses the existing issues with modern movements of arts like zen and the chinese minimalism. zen art is known for its simplicity and minimalism focuses on geometric shapes, clarity, lines and offers possibilities for evolving the tradition of chinese calligraphy. the proposed novel approach enhances the engaging of new generations and expand the appeal of chinese calligraphy. initially in this research, the questionnaires are distributed to a wide range of participants, and the questionnaires are created on the basis of calligraphy, principles of zen and minimalist aesthetics which involves the patterns, balance, geometric forms and simplicity. the data collection via the questionnaires plays a crucial role which provide insights and used to tackle the challenges which are very common among the existing methodologies. furtherly, the next level of the research is development of hypotheses aimed to understand how the chinese art can evolve to meet the needs to survive in the evolving environment. in the hypotheses development, variables plays a major role for solving the existing difficulties in the chinese calligraphy development. the independent variable are the factors which control the growth and shift of the art and the independent variable of the research is principles of zen which ensure the meditative tactics to writing and practicing calligraphy, minimalism assists for the creation of characters and then focus on essential forms and clarity, up-to-date artistic movement is the last independent variable it allows an individual interpretations of the chinese art. the use of mediating variable in the research shows how the effect of independent variable affects the dependent variable. in the research artistic adaptation and cultural meld are the mediating variable which explains that how the chinese art adapts to zen, minimalism and up-to-date artistic movements. the cultural meld shows the acceptance globally because of the blending of zen and minimalism artistic movement in the chinese calligraphy. atlast, the dependent variable are outcomes used to measure the incorporation of zen, minimalism and up-to-date artistic principles using the cultural meld, artistic adaption results in the engagement of audience, artistic innovations and cultural importance. the utilization of the variables plays a major role in the research to increase the efficacy of the chinese calligraphy development. the hypothetical analysis ensures the improvement in the growth and transition of chinese calligraphy under the influence of the zen, minimalism. the overall performance of the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 54 published by ideas spread research results in the development of a sustainable dynamic future for chinese calligraphy. the growth of the art after the research will upraise making it more dynamic and accessible in the modern context. the outcome of the research will expose ways in which chinese calligraphy can progress while preserving its cultural essence, increase the identification of the audience among the broader audience, and contribute for the integration of cross-cultural elements in chinese calligraphy, enhanced global recognition of the art among various countries, enhance the count of learners who are willing to learn the true essence of the calligraphy of china, the study results in the view of developing the cultural heritage of china as well the art which is a beacon of chinese arts and culture, the key outcomes shows the effect of the framework which creates a positive view among the exploiting arts and its cultural essence, in this proposed methodology the utilization of the framework supports the recognition of the art among the globe and increase the sustainability of chinese calligraphy as an adjustable art form. figure 2. conceptual framework of the methodology the methodology's conceptual structure demonstrates that by using the information obtained from the surveys and developing hypotheses with the help of independent, dependent, and mediating variables, the ultimate result is the rejuvenation of chinese calligraphy, its long-term development, audience engagement, and cultural preservation. 3.1 the guidance of chinese minimalism and zen on chinese calligraphy zen is a translation of the chinese term ch'an, meaning signifies meditation, and the sanskrit word dhayāna. the chinese adopted zen buddhism as their own tradition after assimilating a variety of spiritual as well as religious concepts. the potential for sudden awakening, or the "realization when one recognizes the illusory structure of one's own self and grasps one's buddha nature," is highly valued in zen. truth in zen may be effectively conveyed via artistic participation and appreciation; spiritual principles can be powerfully communicated through art. mindfulness and consciousness are the goals of zen, which holds that each individual possesses buddha nature. the chinese have transformed everyday tasks into an art form and incorporated these activities into their entire lives using rituals that promote self-awareness. with its popularity in self-help books for the mind, home, and business—most lately, the decluttering approach, which suggests keeping only items that provide joy—zen may have permeated both european and american thought. nonetheless, there is no question that zen principles and aesthetics might improve our houses and the things in our immediate surroundings, as well as our everyday lives, wellbeing, and perspective on the world. beyond religion, the evolving aesthetics of zen had an impact on chinese art and culture. zen facilitates the development of chinese calligraphy by incorporating artistic dimension and deep-thinking. as its core, zen enhances mindfulness, stillness of the inner self, quality to focus deeply and fully present in the moment. zen hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 55 published by ideas spread cultivates patience and focus, calligraphy journey to mastery, the utilization of zen techniques ensure calligraphers to communicate their insights to the audience through the art and transforming technical craft to a spiritual practice. the bonding of art and life, transforms chinese calligraphy to reflect the insights of a practioner clearly to evolve the world. from the zen, minimalism is drawn for the development of chinese calligraphy. chinese minimalism is a rooted traditional chinese cultures is used for attaining an elegant and meaningful simplicity that gives deeper truths and values. in the chinese calligraphy, the minimalism is used to bring balance, simplicity, deep spiritual depth elevates calligraphy into a sophisticated art form. the usage of zen and minimalism in this research ensures that the chinese art remains a timeless and intensely evocative art. 3.1.1 sealing the gap between chinese minimalism and zen the incorporation of chinese minimalism and zen enhances the deeper connection between the calligrapher between the art and viewer itself which enhances the dynamic and relevant features in both traditional and modern contexts. 3.1.1.1 chinese calligraphy using zen principles the influences of zen principles plays a major role in the development of chinese calligraphy. initially, the awareness of the calligraphers while writing is major ideology which take care of the brushstroke flow the utilization of zen principles encourages peak awareness of the artist it is known as mindfulness in the zen principles. the process of reflecting an individual’s self is enhance with the help of meditative practice which also includes the brushwork in the zen-inspired calligraphy reflects the fluidity of life. the inner state of the calligrapher is expressed with the outcome of calligraphy which focuses on the emotional state and inner truth of the artistic individual rather than achieving perfection technically. the chinese zen principles is necessary for the development of chinese calligraphy around the world. the chinese minimalism in calligraphy using the simplicity and limitation is the key focuses on reducing visualised elements from the context which brings clarity and essence makes the work simple, and free from unwanted complexity. the stripping of elements, minimalist in the chinese calligraphy invites deeper engagement from the viewer them to reflect on the simplicity of the form. the integration of zen and minimalism in calligraphy add more meaning deepens the emotional expression in calligraphy, allowing the artist to convey more through art and also ensures the emotion and expression which allows the artist to convey more through the simplicity of their brushwork. the minimalist approach enhances the balance between strokes and spaces resonate both with zen and minimalist approaches. increases the connection between art and artist fostering a connection between the calligrapher, the viewer and the artwork. the structure of the research outlines how zen and minimalism have shaped the development of chinese calligraphy art, increasing mindfulness, simplicity and emotional expression also enormous attraction between the art seekers, also ensuring the traditional root of the arts. 3.1.1.2 utilization of zen and chinese minimalism the development and sustainability of chinese calligraphy is achieved efficiently with the incorporation of zen and minimalism in the research which enhances the artistic evolution, engagement of audiences and preservation of culture. the zen’s influence in this research initially starts from the meditative repetition that enhances deeper understanding about the essence of characters and convey deep meaning through simplicity. the flow explains the principles of zen involves the free-flowing brush strokes which adds creativity and innovation in chines calligraphy which is more engaging for younger audiences to attract with the art more frequently. incorporation of the principles to solve the existing issues can lead to more dynamic, expressive and meaningful practice of calligraphy. the chinese minimalism emphasizes the reduction of unnecessary elements provide assistance for the simplicity and clarity it encourages the artist to breakdown their work to elements and foster new interpretation of traditional calligraphy that are both aesthetically pleasing and culturally relevant. the geometric forms brings balance in the art with the utilization of minimalism. this research demonstrates geometric simplicity and balanced composition make chinese calligraphy more adaptable to global audience, and in the minimalism the use of negative space leaving space can be used to evaluate the art form in modern context. the efficient use of zen and minimalism in the research by combining zen and minimalism in the questionnaires for the data collection and those questions can explore how artistic principles resonate with modern calligraphers, educators, general audience and art enthusiast. the data provide assistance for the development of chinese calligraphy in engaging newer various audiences. the creation of framework with artistic evolution which examines the principles and foster evolving art forms that remains culturally significant while adapting to the modern context. with the help of these hypotheses testing done which track down the how the incorporation of zen and minimalism foster innovation in chinese calligraphy also preserves the cultural essence of the art. the influence of zen and minimalism brides the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 56 published by ideas spread existing gaps of the traditional methods which lead to a more engaging , adequate and sustainable future for chinese calligraphy. 3.1.1.3 the importance of balance, simplicity and geometric forms in evolving chinese calligraphy the necessity of the metrics from the zen and chinese minimalism provide meaning for the bonding of these art forms for the development of chinese calligraphy all around the globe. atfirst, the importance of simplicity is taking on the essence of characters, the core idea of simplicity focuses on using the elements simply rather than complicating the strokes. allowing the art enthusiast to appreciate the art and emphasizing the idea of “less is more” to spread the meaning of the art effectively. then, the simplicity is essential to attract the boarder audience which makes the art more relatable and adaptable to graphical design and digital platforms. using the simplicity, the art of calligraphy retains its integrity while becoming it evolves to meet new artistic and global contexts. the use of simplicity in the research makes the art more accessible. the use of balance in this investigation bring accordance between strokes and shapes which involves the relationship between an artist brushstrokes and the space between them which is essential to create aesthetically pleasing and meaningful calligraphy. then the balance between space and the form make the art more universal, relatable and open the efficacy of the chinese calligraphy to the modern multicultural environment so that the importance of calligraphy is essential in the research to make the art more engaging and adapted to various formats and media. atlast in the research geometrical forms also plays a vital role in ensuring the structural clarity, integrating minimalism and development of artistic expression. geometric forms in calligraphy increase the precision and clarity to the characters. this lead to modern, and evolving its visual language. the incorporation of minimalism opens door for new interpretations of chinese characters making them applicable for the digitalized manner. the evolution of art with the creative expression continuously explore that how geometry and art form seal the gap between tradition and innovation. the importance of the metrics significantly increases art value by enhancing the art more accessible, ensures emotional and improve geometric forms increase clarity and incorporates with the modern trend in the diverse environment. 3.2 methodology: collection of data and development of hypotheses the research aims to address the sustainability challenges faced by chinese calligraphy in an evolving artistic landscape. it addresses the issues with modern movements of arts like zen and chinese minimalism, which focus on geometric shapes, clarity, and lines. the proposed approach enhances the engagement of new generations and expands the appeal of chinese calligraphy. data collection through questionnaires is crucial for understanding the challenges common among existing methodologies. hypotheses are developed to understand how chinese calligraphy can evolve to meet the needs of the evolving environment. independent variables control the growth and shift of the art, while mediating variables explain how chinese art adapts to zen, minimalism, and up-to-date artistic movements. artistic adaptation and cultural meld are used as mediating variables, explaining how chinese art adapts to these movements. the cultural meld shows global acceptance due to the blending of zen and minimalism artistic movement in chinese calligraphy. dependent variables measure the incorporation of zen, minimalism, and up-to-date artistic principles using the cultural meld. the hypothetical analysis ensures improvement in the growth and transition of chinese calligraphy under the influence of zen and minimalism. the overall performance of the research results in a sustainable dynamic future for chinese calligraphy, making it more dynamic and accessible in the modern context. the research will expose ways in which chinese calligraphy can progress while preserving its cultural essence, increase audience identification, contribute to the integration of cross-cultural elements, enhance global recognition of the art, and increase the number of learners willing to learn the true essence of chinese calligraphy. in conclusion, the proposed methodology supports the recognition of the art worldwide and increases the sustainability of chinese calligraphy as an adjustable art form. 3.2.1 creating questionnaires for data collection every survey's foundation is its questionnaire, and the creation of a good one is essential to its success. as said, "a questionnaire is merely a set of printed or mimeographed questions that are filled out by or for a respondent to express his opinion." the primary tool for gathering quantitative primary data is a questionnaire. quantitative data may be gathered in a systematic manner with the use of a questionnaire, making the data operationally consistent and logical for analysis. it should always be apparent from the start how the results will be utilized, and questionnaire should always have a specific purpose that is connected to the goals of the study. questionnaires are used when resources are limited because they can be relatively inexpensive to design and administer, and time is a valuable resource that a questionnaire uses to its fullest extent. they also protect participant privacy because participants will only answer honestly if their identity is kept secret and confidentiality is upheld, and they can be hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 57 published by ideas spread useful confirmation tools when paired with other studies that have the resources to pursue different data collection strategies. 3.2.1.1 questionnaires the questionnaires plays a major role in the research, the questionnaires are distributed among the targeted individuals to gather data for further research. table 1. questionaries for the data collection si.no question scale 1 do the zen principles develop chinese calligraphy? 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree 2 do the performance of calligraphy increased by zen inspired practices? 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree 3 do the mindfulness practice assist chinese calligraphy training? 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree 4 do you understand relationship between zen and chinese calligraphy? 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree 5 do you combine zen assisted calligraphy to feel peace or calmness? 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree 6 does the brush stroke is important for chinese calligraphy? 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree 7 are you aware about the brushstroke technique for creating beautiful chinese art? 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree 8 do you have a better understanding about different brushstrokes techniques used in chinese calligraphy? 1 poor to 5 excellent 9 do you have the knowledge about minimalist principles? 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree 10 are you aware about the use of minimalism in chinese calligraphy? 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree 11 do you believe that reducing unnecessary elements calligraphy efficient? 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree 12 do you have the understanding of negative space in calligraphy? 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree 13 do you think calligraphy have the attention of diverse audiences? 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree 14 does minimalist calligraphy lose the depth of traditional calligraphy? 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree 15 does the emotional impact of minimalist chinese calligraphy require more styles? 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree 16 does zen calligraphy allow to express your emotions? 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree 17 do you aware about artistic engagement effects in chinese calligraphy? 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree 18 does the combination of zen principles and brushstrokes impact your experience in creating and observing calligraphy? 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree 19 do you believe zen principles improve brushwork fluidity and precision? 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree 20 do you think calligraphy is a form of self-expression and meditation? 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree 21 does learning calligraphy without consistency positively affects positively in the beginners learning process? 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree 22 does minimalism make calligraphy easier to learn? 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree 23 does the practice of calligraphy deepen understanding of chinese culture? 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 58 published by ideas spread 24 does the chinese calligraphy motivation will upraise with the incorporation of zen and minimalist principles? 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree 25 does the zen principle with brushstroke technique enhances learning experience in chinese calligraphy? 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree the research questionnaires are revised as per the core ideas zen and chinese minimalism which makes the research more efficient and increase the philosophical and distinct dimensions of calligraphy. 3.2.1.2 development of hypotheses the symbiotic effect of the zen and minimalism is utilized in the hypotheses development to increase the development of chinese calligraphy around the globe with efficient features. the development of hypotheses is achieved with the help of the independent variables: zen principles, minimalist aesthetic, up-to-date artistic movements, mediating variable: artistic adaptations, cultural meld and dependent variables: audience engagement, artistic innovation and cultural importance. this phase of the research improves the chinese calligraphy with its effective findings of the investigation. the improved outcome of the research increases the efficacy of the chinese calligraphy. hypotheses i:zen principles with artistic adaptations positively increases audience engagement the first hypotheses of the research suggests that incorporation of zen principles, which highlight balance, simplicity and mindfulness in the practice of chinese calligraphy. the integration of the principles creates engaging experience for the audience. the principles include meditative approach which appreciates a deep connection with the chinese art. the chinese art depends on the brush stroke and in this art brush stroke plays an important role the incorporation allows audience to appreciate each stroke of the artwork. artistic adaptations which includes existing forms allow calligraphy to maintain its roots. the bonding between the zen and artistic adaptations enhances the emotional and audience engagement, ensures appreciation for these art forms with its branches. the hypotheses improve audience rate for the art make a path for the entry of the art into the modern landscape and become familiar to younger audiences hypotheses ii: presence of minimalistic aesthetics and cultural meld fosters artistic innovation effectively. the minimalism embraces simplicity and focus on necessary elements make the art more accessible. when the incorporation of cultural meld happens to foster possibilities, ensuring chinese calligraphy’s innovation allowing artists to practice in new ways to develop the art.the minimalistic aesthetics with the symbolic meaning incorporation affects the development of the art and lacks in cultural depth, diminish its integrity among other arts and relevance of culture. hypotheses iii: up-to-date artistic movements and artistic adaptation decreases the cultural importance affects development of chinese calligraphy. the incorporation in the hypotheses make the calligraphy’s reach among wider audiences helping to elevate its cultural importance in the evolving world. this integration spreads the art among diverse groups and appreciate across different cultures and demographics. the adaptation to modern movements could result in outdated art and diminishing its influence on the global stage. leading to decline in its cultural prominence. hypotheses iv: the application of zen principles positively leads to artistic innovation by assisting artistic adaptations the zen principles explore new creative possibilities. it leads to more dynamic and evolving calligraphy style, fostering greater artistic freedom and new expressions in the meditative process. if the absence of artistic adaptations without proper principles limit the range of experimentation, are not able to break free from traditional constraints. hypotheses v: minimalist aesthetics without cultural meld negatively affects the expression of chinese calligraphy minimalist aesthetics can bring precision and universal appeal to the art’s rich heritage with the combination of cultural meld. this balance ensures that calligraphy maintain its unique identity while becoming more accessible to global audience according to their emotional expression. the absence of cultural meld may lose its cultural identity leading to a loss of authenticity or integration of traditional cultural elements loss the elements which defines the ethnicity of chinese calligraphy. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 59 published by ideas spread hypotheses vi: up-to-date artistic movements using cultural meld improves audience engagement efficacy incorporation in the hypotheses make chinese calligraphy more relatable to contemporary audiences. this approach makes the calligraphy dynamic and helps the art maintain a sense of cultural continuity, ensuring its ongoing relevance and appeal. the absence of cultural meld result in lack of attention from both traditional audiences who seeks cultural artistic experiences. hypotheses vii: zen principles and minimalism using artistic adaptations positively increases cultural importance for the development of chinese calligraphy. the final hypotheses enhances the cultural importance of chinese calligraphy. zen principles bring a meditative depth to the art, zen principles improve the view of learning the art and other variables like minimalism and artistic adaptations helping calligraphy maintain its significance in traditional and modern contexts. this balance brings the calligraphy exposure around the globe as a cultural art form. the blending of the variables should be carefully managed if not the art could lose the deep cultural and philosophical context diminishing the cultural importance of the art. figure 3. development of hypotheses each hypotheses tends to explore the dynamic impacts of developing the chinese calligraphy around the globe. the dynamic impacts showcases the balancing tradition with innovation and cultural meld with the art for ensuring the sustainable growth and preservation of chinese calligraphy in the contemporary era. 3.3 data analysis the study collects data through online questionaries which is designed to explore participants engagements with calligraphy, and the point of view on the incorporation of principles of zen and minimalism for the development of chinese calligraphy. questionaries supports the research by recognizing patterns and relationships that assist the hypotheses. the hypotheses are examined to find insights which develops the chinese calligraphy art without damaging its original essence. by integrating the variables chinese calligraphy can attract diverse audiences with enhanced clarity, simplicity and accessibility. the detailed data analysis helps the hypotheses with sustainable growth and modernization of chinese calligraphy are achieved through culturally adaptive, innovative and aesthetical practices and the findings of the analysis ensure the sophisticated development of the chinese calligraphy in a modern context. 4. results and outcomes the findings from the investigation ensure the development of chinese calligraphy and sustainability in modern context. data collected from diverse audiences, artists and students was analysed to find patterns, challenges and prospects in the development of chinese calligraphy. the findings of the research offer a foundation for developing strategies to enhance artistic content of chinese calligraphy without harming the traditional roots of the art and also increases global appeal of chinese calligraphy. 4.1 demographic details the study involved 60 participants, with an equal distribution of male and female participants. the participants differ in ages and their educational backgrounds for exploring chinese calligraphy through different lenses. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 60 published by ideas spread table 2. demographic details of the participants total number of participants 60 participants age range 18-25 yrs = 15 26-35 yrs = 20 36-45 yrs = 10 46-60 yrs = 15 gender male = 30 female = 30 art interest calligraphy = 36 cultural heritage = 9 arts engagement = 15 the majority of participants were primarily interested in calligraphy and the participants had a broader interest in arts engagement. this diversity in interests and experience assisted to deliver imagined the impact and application of chinese calligraphy across various demographics. 4.2 the impression of zen and minimalism on art engagement the incorporation of minimalism and zen principles have a impact on participants interest in different forms of art. in the fig 4 calligraphy saw the most pronounced increase after the integration of zen and minimalism in art engagement. figure 4. incorporation of zen and minimalism on engagement of arts these findings suggest that the increased chinese calligraphy engagement and highlights the power of zen and minimalism in shaping participants artistic preferences also develops the chinese calligraphy exposure around the globe. 4.3 the shift in experience level of calligraphy skills the experience levels shift in participants, indicates some participants excelled in calligraphy skills which results in the overall development of the art and supports the art enhance its global identification in the figure 5 the effect of experience level shift is showcased with the increase level of skill from the graph hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 61 published by ideas spread figure 5. experience level shift in calligraphy skills these results suggest that the graph which is showcased provided a clear development path for the participants, enhances the growth and progression particularly in the intermediate skill levels. 4.4 the effects of gender distribution before and after the program the intervention had an interesting influence on gender distribution, with increase in the participation of the individuals. this shift could be attributed to the calming and reflective nature of practices of zen, which underlines simplicity and mindfulness. fig 6 showcases the gender distribution effects on the development of arts. figure 6. gender distribution effects on the development of arts the change suggests that zen and minimalism balance gender representation in traditional art forms like calligraphy, which have more male participants for the development of the arts and its cultural essence 4.5 the background of education and its influence on engagement the zen based calligraphy program demonstrates various level of engagement with varying digital backgrounds with the participants. the process of attracting individuals with a higher level of education which could be due to structured and reflective nature of the zen approach that aligns with academic learning. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 62 published by ideas spread figure 7. education and its influence on artistic engagement the intervention succeeded in engaging a broad range of educational backgrounds to showcase the potential of zen-based calligraphy with diverse learner’s profile as shown in the figure 7 of education and its influence on artistic engagement. 4.6 the participant’s geographic spread the local participant engagement with the art increase the cultural heritage and provide an opportunity for the growth of the chinese calligraphy as shown in the figure 8. the integration of zen and minimalism increases the accessibility of the art among the local community figure 8. the geographic spread of participants the outcome of the section shows the programs focus on local elements of culture which have a stronger appeal to participants with a closer connection to the practice of the artistic forms and assist for the enhancement of developing the chinese calligraphy around the local sectors by fostering the connection to practice more art forms 4.7 development in calligraphy skills the improved calligraphy skills show the effectiveness of the program which is attained with the help of the analysis. the confidence of the participants will be enhanced with the help of developing refined techniques ensures the participants basic techniques to understand and appreciate calligraphy as shown in the figure 9. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 63 published by ideas spread figure 9. improved calligraphy skills the deep understanding of the research enables the participants to execute calligraphy with the assistance of refined techniques to slow down and focus on the fundaments of creating strokes and brushwork which enhances both the technical and artistic expressions. 4.8 the satisfaction of participant with the development of chinese calligraphy the participation satisfaction is a key metric of success for the intervention after the incorporation of zen principles and minimalist techniques as shown in the figure 10 the increased level of satisfaction shows the influence of the artforms in the investigation. figure 10. satisfaction and development of chinese calligraphy the increased satisfaction levels improve every aspect of the art and positively impact participants with their overall experience with the chinese art and develops the chinese calligraphy without spoiling its essence and cultural branches of the art. the overall result of the study shows that the incorporation of zen and chinese minimalism enhances the development of chinese calligraphy around the evolving world and the insights of the findings serve as powerful tool to enhance both the technical and experimental aspects of learning chinese calligraphy, making it highly effective for educational approaches. 4.9 discussion calligraphy instances refer to historical events, famous individuals, creative masterpieces and so on associated to calligraphy, which can express the calligrapher's own style, thoughts and feelings, artistic achievements and so on, but also offer fun and charm to calligraphy. in the learning of chinese calligraphy, calligraphy are an efficient learning approach that may attract students' interest and attention, cultivate their aesthetics and creativity, and increase their calligraphic abilities and cultural cultivation. the integration of zen principles and chinese minimalism provides a framework for the renaissance of the development of chinese calligraphy. the inclusion of zen results in mindfulness and meditative depth. the chinese minimalism enhances clarity without spoiling the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 64 published by ideas spread artistic elements of the art. the utilization of these context in the development of the chinese calligraphy’s result in the audience engagement effectively and improves the experience of calligraphy for new learners and existing practitioners. the analysis of data in this study increase in the participation and skill development among audiences, showcasing that these research is very efficient in the development of chinese calligraphy. the utilization of zen and chinese minimalism in this research increases the stableness of the research and maximize the efficacy of the traditional art forms and fostering the art to break the barriers which are limiting the existing the techniques influence in the development of chinese calligraphy. the influence of the research states that the careful blending of the artistic context like zen and minimalism enhances the cultural and artistic essence of chinese calligraphy. 5. conclusion chinese calligraphy, a significant part of traditional chinese culture, has been assimilated into many civilizations worldwide for millennia. it combines artistic aesthetics, humanistic spirit, and wisdom, making it an integral part of chinese culture. learning calligraphy allows international students to appreciate its beauty, sense the deep humanistic emotions of chinese culture, and uncover the wisdom of chinese people's lives in the architectural space of chinese characters. calligraphy instruction can significantly increase the effectiveness and efficiency of teaching foreign students' writing, literacy, and usage of chinese characters in international classrooms. this research tends to improve the development of chinese calligraphy to spread the exposure of the art. the proposed methodology of the research seals the gap between the outdated and innovation of spreading the art chinese calligraphy around the globe. the insights of the research assist for the sustainable and deep future for chinese calligraphy by making it as the dynamic art form which have the capability to adapt diverse context of culture. the investigation fosters the evolution to meet contemporary and educational aspects for effective learning. furtherly, enhances the global attention and increase identification of the chinese calligraphy with its timeless art form. references [1] zhang, x. 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(2023). reliability, validity, and measurement invariance of a chinese handwriting legibility scale among primary students in central china. frontiers in psychology, 14, 1050894. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1050894 [24] cao, h., & champadaeng, s. (2024). the art of chinese calligraphy: educational protection and literacy study of cultural heritage. international journal of education and literacy studies, 12(3), 160–171. https://doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijels.v.12n.3p.160 [25] hanchen, m. (2021). on the embodiment of arnheim's artistic expression theory in chinese calligraphy. advances in educational technology and psychology, 5(8), 32–37. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v7n3p99 99 published by ideas spread a study on british translator anna holmwood’s translation of contemporary chinese literature from the perspective of international sinology yaqi zhang1 1 school of foreign studies, tongji university, china correspondence: yaqi zhang, school of foreign studies, tongji university, shanghai, china. e-mail: 18300633977/at/163.com received: november 2, 2024; accepted: december 16, 2024; published: december 16, 2024 abstract anna holmwood, a famous british translator, has long been devoted to the translation and promotion of contemporary chinese literature, and has made remarkable contributions to the international communication of chinese literature into the english language literature context. based on holmwood’s translated works of contemporary chinese literature, holmwood’s view of translation can be analyzed and explored in terms of selection of original works, translation strategy and translator’s subjectivity. taking holmwood’s translation of chinese literature as an example, the experience of orientation towards the publication market in the communication region and conforming to the reading and aesthetic habits of the targeted readers can be drawn from, which will be beneficial for the further promotion of the communication of chinese literature overseas, and form a historical reference to translator studies and chinese literature translation studies on the communication of excellent chinese literary works in the context of international sinology. keywords: anna holmwood, contemporary chinese literature, translation, international sinology 1. introduction in the new era, the whole world is in a period of great development and fast change, the international cultural ecosystem is becoming increasingly complex and volatile, and the status and key role of culture is overwhelmingly prominent in the competition for comprehensive national power. literature is an important part of chinese culture and a spiritual treasure of the chinese nation, conveying positive cultural connotations of the chinese nation. nowadays, in the context of the national strategy of promoting chinese culture abroad, how to promote the translation and international communication of chinese literature has ushered in a research upsurge. throughout the history of chinese literary translation, many overseas translators have devoted themselves to the translation career and even the study of sinology with their perseverance and enthusiasm, promoting chinese culture and literature into the literary markets in the rest of world. as a result, the attention paid to overseas translators by the experts and scholars in the relevant fields has been increasing day by day. the united kingdom has constantly been a crucial region for the international exchanges and cooperation between china and the other parts of world. as a medium for british public and scholars to understand the true history and the status quo of modern china, contemporary chinese literature plays an important role. it is also significant to the construction of international image of china. in the process of chinese contemporary literature entering the english-speaking world and learning from the world’s excellent literature, the contribution of british translator anna holmwood has been wonderfully realized. the first english translation of jin yong’s masterpiece legends of the condor heroes (whose chinese original version is known as shediao yingxiong zhuan) was published in the uk in 2018, with a overwhelming market response and a highlighted discussion in the international publishing field. the translated works of legends of the condor heroes has become an obvious model for the international communication of contemporary chinese literature, which is inextricably linked to the translation and promotion practices conducted by one of the key translator of the book, anna holmwood(whose chinese name is known as 郝玉青，hao yuqing). at present, the domestic and international academic research on anna holmwood’s translation of contemporary chinese literature mainly focuses on the subtext of the translated book, the shaping of characters’ images, translation strategies, etc. the study on anna holmwood’s view of chinese literature translation and promotion of chinese literature translation as a whole needs to be further deepened, in order to provide a historical perspective for the future research of overseas translators and the translation of chinese hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 100 published by ideas spread literature, showing the responsible and powerful image of china and facilitating the international dissemination of chinese culture. 2. anna holmwood’s translation of contemporary chinese literature anna holmwood grew up in a cross-cultural family background, with an english father and a swedish mother.growing up in england, she studied english from a very young age. she studied history at oxford university, followed by a year majored in chinese or mandarin, and then studied at taiwan normal university and peking university in china. anna holmwood received master degree in the major of modern chinese from the university of oxford and master degree in chinese literature from the university of london. as one of the first students of the british centre for literary translation at the university of east anglia, anna holmwood was given the opportunity to study and work with nicky harman, a renowned british translator, for six months. she learned a lot from this experience and has decided to choose to translation of literary as part of her career. anna holmwood’s first contemporary full-length novel was under the hawthorn tree, written by chineseamerican author ai mi and published by virago in january 2012. she has done translation of a number of short stories as well as. english translation of swedish novels is also part of her daily routine. anna holmwood is very optimistic about the prospects of chinese martial arts novels in the english book market. translating jin yong’s legend of the condor heroes series of martial arts novels has been the most difficult challenge for her so far. in literary translation, anna holmwood believes that the translator’s responsibility is to create new dialogues and stimulate new interests and discussions, as the release of one translated work may lead to the translation and introduction of more related works to satisfy different readers’ tastes in other countries. diversified book promotion activities are also key factors to continuously stimulate readers’ enthusiasm for reading and maintain the influence of works. in the context of in-depth exchanges between chinese and other cultures, in addition to translating contemporary chinese literature, anna holmwood actively participates in a variety of activities to promote chinese literature. for example, story drive was held at the china national convention center (cncc)in beijing from 31st may to 1st june in 2018. anna holmwood was at present. in her speech, holmwood introduced the process of translation and publication of the first volume of legends of the condor heroes, as well as her understanding of the characters and philosophy beyond the work. she believes that martial arts fiction is indeed a very chinese genre of literature, but it does have similarities with the fantasy and romantic literature that was once popular in the western world. the values of loyalty, honor and love embodied in the story of the legends of the condor heroes are global and universal, which helps readers in other countries to understand and accept the work. in the same year, anna holmwood held a readers’ meeting at guanghua bookstore in london, which attracted many scholars and chinese literature lovers to exchange ideas and discuss about chinese wuxia literature. in such meeting, holmwood communicated with readers and had opportunities to form a close bond with the readers’ market, which might exert an influence her translation preference. in addition, anna holmwood has actively utilized local mainstream media to carry out promotional activities. in an interview with the british broadcasting corporation(bbc) in 2019, she introduced the author jin yong’s family background, his literary status in china, and wuxia novels as a typical type of chinese literature, stating that “i would say that there is not a chinese person under the age of twenty who does not know who jin yong is. [...] he is still a ubiquitous part of the chinese cultural landscape. [...] he is exploring very universal themes of power, corruption, ambition, greed through these martial arts fighters. [...] jin yong was allowed to be published in china and that really secured his place as the most prominent writer of his generation.”(holmwood,a.2019) this bbc interview with holmwood undoubtedly was appealing to more readers and widened the range of audience for the translation of legends of the condor heroes. the bbc interview was undoubtedly a great promotional opportunity. holmwood drew listeners’ attention at the beginning by employing hyperbole. (diao h., 2022, 1069) 3. anna holmwood’s view on the translation of contemporary chinese literature a translator’s view of translation is not only the guiding idea or principle of his/her translation, but also show his/her conception and view of all the factors related to translation, such as the environment, the purpose and the translation activity itself. based on the translated edition of legends of the condor heroes, anna holmwood’s view of chinese literature translation can be mainly analyzed in terms of selection of original works, translation strategy, and translator’s subjectivity. 3.1 selection of original works anna holmwood is not only a translator of contemporary chinese literature, but also a veteran and professional literary agent. before joining diamond kahn & woods literary agency ltd. in london, holmwood worked as a literary agent for a taiwanese copyright company, where, in addition to bringing western literature into the book hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 101 published by ideas spread market of china, she was also the driving force behind the promotion of chinese writers to the western world. having a sense of what can be sold and whom to sell it to are essential skills for literary agents.(mariotti & fife, 1995, 81) holmwood has unique insights in making choices for translation, which are more comprehensive, objective and far-reaching. in translating the book of legends of the condor heroes, holmwood has incorporated the notion of a literary agent and attempted to explore ways to promote jin yong’s works. depending on different publishing markets and the positioning of the work, holmwood adopts different strategies.(jiang t., zhang y., 2023, 71) in the world of chinese martial arts fictions, jin yong has a prominent position and has written a total of 15 martial arts novels. holmwood believes that readers all over the world will love the spirit of chivalry presented in jin yong’s novels, and these works show great potential in the local market, while legends of the condor heroes is precisely one of the best-sellers of jin yong’s martial arts novels in the chinese-speaking world. holmwood publicly stated, “i think there is something about his writing that is universal and can be translated even though so few of his books have been translated. there are a few translations before by university publishers, university presses but not by trade publishers before in english. ” (holmwood, a., 2018) some works written by jin yong have been translated into english, such as the deer and the cauldron (translated by john minford, a famous british sinologist and translator), the book & the sword (translated by granham earnshaw), and the flying fox of the snowy mountain (translated by olivia mok), but the market response of these books did not come up to our expectation. therefore, based on her own interests and commercial consideration, holmwood chose the book of legends of the condor heroes to introduce jin yong’s status as a classic in china to the general english-speaking readers and recommended it to maclehose press. it turned out to be the very first step of her ambitious plan to publish jin yong’s trilogy, including shediao yingxiong zhuan, shendiao xialv and yitian tulong ji. holmwood is well aware of the links in the book publishing process in the uk, and is able to understand the publishing market information and possible difficulties encountered from her multiple roles as a literary agent and translator, and to better promote her works to publishing agents and publishers, thus increasing the local book market share and popularity of chinese literature. 3.2 translation strategies as is known to all, translated literature has long been in a marginal position, therefore, holmwood tends to make her translation to be more acceptable, mainly naturalized, seeking authentic expressions in english literature, leading the original work to the readers and making it easy for them to understand and accept. this is most prominent in her english translations dealing with chinese characteristic language. holmwood implies the method of augmentation in the translation process, adding some content to the translated text and reorganizing some sentences or paragraphs to make the translation more authentic and help readers understand the original text more accurately, thus increasing the richness of the storyline and drawing more interests from the readers to the story. in the original version, jin yong writes the following paragraphs: “他说一段，唱一段，只听得众村民无不咬牙切齿，愤怒叹息。 那人又道：‘众位看官，常言道得好： 为人切莫用欺心，举头三尺有神明。 若还作恶无报应，天下凶徒人吃人。’”(jin y., 2013, 3) the translation goes as followings: he alternates between singing and speaking, all the while beating his small drum with the bamboo stick. the crowd is entranced by the old man’s words; they snarl with rage at the soldier’s cruelty, and sigh at the young girl’s sacrifice. “dear friends, as the saying goes, ‘keep honest heart and ever gods in mind. for if evil deeds go unpunished, only evil doth one find.’”(jin y., 2018, 3) in this part of the first chapter suddenly a snow storm of volume i, the commander officer wanted to take the young and beautiful miss ye home, and warned her that if she continued to resist, he would have her whole family killed. she desired to avenge her brother’s death, but unfortunately, she brought the blade to her neck and died innocently. the translator adds a sentence that “all the while beating his small drum with the bamboo stick”, thus the audience can understand what the performer was actually doing when the story happened. also, the translator combined the two chinese sentence “为人切莫用欺心，举头三尺有神明。若还作恶无报应，天下凶徒人吃 人” into “keep honest heart and ever gods in mind. for if evil deeds go unpunished, only evil doth one find.”, to warn that people should behave themselves in daily life. actually, in ancient time in china, because of their belief in the gods, if they encountered with something that was not as good as they had hoped, they would went to the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 102 published by ideas spread appropriate temple, bowed down at the sculpture of the gods and prayed. the word “举头” means looking upwards, referring to the object of your devotional prayers.the original meaning is that the gods are looking at you from a place three feet away, and if you pray with devotion in a respectful manner, the gods will manifest themselves to help you. in the chapter 9 spear splits plough, jin yong writes in the second paragraph: “只听一人道: ‘小王爷把这姑娘关在这里，你猜是为了甚么?’另一个笑道: ‘那还用猜?这样美貌的 姑娘，你出娘胎之后见过半个吗?’先一人道: ‘瞧你这副色迷迷的样儿，小心小王爷砍掉你的脑袋 。这个姑娘么，相貌虽美，可还不及咱们王妃。’另一个道：‘这种风尘女子，你怎么拿来跟王妃 比？’”(jin y., 2013, 327) holmwood changed the whole paragraph from the chinese original version into a dialogue between two person, as can be seen in the translation: “what do you think the prince is going to do with her, now that he’s got her lockedup?” “do you have to ask! have you ever seen a girl as luscious as that since the day you were born?” “watch that the prince doesn’t hear your dirty talk, or he’ll cut your head off! she may be pretty, but she’s got nothing on the consort.” “that lowly country girl? of course she’s got nothing on the consort.”(jiny., 2018, 334) in the beginning of this chapter, guo jing and huang rong sneaked around the zhao’s palace and climbed over the wall into the mansion. they saw there were two simply dressed servant boys whispering about the beauty locked up in the house by wanyan kang, a prince in the jin empire. the change of writing style into a conversation is beneficial to readers’ understanding the meaning of the content. it helps to better present the tense atmosphere in the story, thus increasing the suspense of the story plot and making the readers more interested in the story. jin yong’s works are a blend of rich traditional cultural elements, and his language style is unique, both in its colloquial modern literary style and in the narrative tone of an elder person, with words that are both fresh and vivid. holmwood also strives to adopt similar expressions in english when translating, striving to keep the translation energetic and dynamic and avoid appearing stale. translating jin yong’s works actually involves a great deal of pressure to study chinese literature as a whole in order to grasp its essence. holmwood believes that, it is a pleasure to read jin yong’s works, and the english version would bring the same enjoyment. if the chinese version can attract teenagers to read it secretly late at night, then the english version must convey that feeling as well. 3.3 translator’s subjectivity on the one hand, the traditional view of translation holds that the translator only needs to faithfully reproduce the content of the original text and the author’s intention, and the translator’s subjectivity and creativity are not advocated, and the translator is invisible. on the other hand, the acceptance aesthetics view of translation holds that the translator has a dual identity in the translation process, being both the reader of the original text and the author of the translated text, and will inevitably give play to his or her subjectivity as a translator. translator subjectivity refers to the subjective initiative of the translator as the subject of translation, in order to achieve the translation purpose under the premise of respecting the translation object. its basic feature is the translator’s conscious cultural awareness, humanistic character, cultural and aesthetic creativity. (zha m.j., tian y., 2003, 20) in translating jin yong’s legends of the condor heroes, anna holmwood adopts a split-volume strategy centered on the development of the plot, aiming to strengthen the narrative tension and story coherence of the translation. the original version of this work consists of four volumes, while the english version is also divided into four parts. however, unlike the original work, which does not specify the basis for the division of the books, anna holmwood’s translation is clearly based on the needs of the plot and has made innovative division of the books. specifically, the first book, a hero born, starts from the beginning of the story, narrating the reunion and escape of yang tiexin and bao xiruo, as well as the growth and official debut of guo jing and yang kang, depicting the background and growth of the main characters for the readers. in the second volume, a bond undone, the story begins with yang kang’s denial of his origins and continues with guo jing’s decision to give up his engagement to hua zhen in pursuit of true love, showcasing the first and steadfast love between guo jing and huang rong. in the third volume, a snake lies waiting, the story begins with ouyang feng proposing marriage to ouyang ke, and continues with the revelation of yang kang’s treason and betrayal of his ancestor, which further advances the storyline. the fourth book, a heart divided, begins with guo jing’s misunderstanding of huang yaoshi’s murder of the five greatest martial artists in jiangnan and his separation from huang rong, and continues until he returns to mongolia to fight for temujin, and ultimately leaves in anger due to temujin’s ambitions for conquering the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 103 published by ideas spread chinese and reunites with huang rong, which brings the whole story to a successful ending. through such a split volume approach, the narrative structure and plot development of the novel are clearly visible, making the story’s topic and framework clear at a glance, and enhancing the reader’s reading experience. in addition, anna holmwood creatively re-establishes the paratext of novel, which complements and even strengthens the main body of the text, improves readers’ comprehension, harmonizes the relationship between the main text and readers, and promotes the book’s acceptance and consumption. the original chinese version of volume 1 includes a cover (as figure 1 shows), as well as a brief introduction o the author, several illustrations, and a preface (written by jin yong). in the paratext, some explanations are given to address the queries of readers, such as the fact that the white camel ridden by the maid of honor of gallant ouyang (master of white camel mount in the kun lun range) does not exist in reality, and mr. jin yong explains that he has witnessed the existence of the white camel himself. the author also provides additional information on mongolian history and the genealogy of the temujin’s family. the english translation includes a cover (as figure 2 shows), an introduction to the work, a three-page biography of more than 40 characters who appear in the volume(holmwood has clarified the relationship among all the characters and divide them into 10 categories, including guo jing, lotus huang, and other supporting characters), a prologue (written by holmwood), a few illustrations, appendix i (notes on martial arts moves, etc.), appendix ii (the reason for the translation of eagle into condor), and appendix iii (notes on the translation of 31 culturally-loaded words, such wolf-fang club, the marshes of mount liang, attributed to shu nai’an and general yue fei), introduction of the original author and translator, introduction to volumes ii-iv, and the back cover. figure 1. cover of the chinese version of volume i figure 2. cover of the english version of volume i the cover is the first interface a reader has with a book, and an attractive cover can immediately catch the readers’ eyes and stimulate their curiosity. cover design reflects the book’s theme and content through images, colors, and text, helping readers quickly understand the book’s genre and style. for a series of books or a specific author, a consistent cover design helps establish a brand image that readers can recognize at a glance. cover design helps to position the book in the market, it can signal to the target readership, enhance the book’s market competitiveness, increase readers’ willingness to buy, and create more value for the author and publisher. as can be seen from the comparison above, the chinese version of the cover highlights the book’s name and author, with an illustration as the background, the overall color is light. the style is relatively simple, and the publisher’s information is written at the bottom. in addition to the title, author and other necessary information, the condor’s feather is placed in the centre of the cover of the english version, which can b regarded as a echo with the “condor” in the title of the book, and added the comment from irish times on this book, “a chinese lord of the rings”, to draw the attention and interest from the public, given that most of the readers are familiar with the book lord of the rings. with the book lord of the rings written by tolkien, a british famous novelist. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 104 published by ideas spread figure 3. inner page of volume i figure 4. back cover of volume i as is shown in figure 3, the picture of jin yong taken by reuters can capture the readers’ attention. in this picture, jin yong is touching and playing with panda, a typical mascot of china, which is popular with people from other countries. meanwhile, the readers can find some wonderful reviews posted by the mainstream social medias, which includes the times, guardian and economist. as can be seen from figure 4, there is a brief introduction of the background history and main characters, which also can attract the readers to begin the adventure along with the characters in the book. 4. the enlightenment of anna holmwood’s translation and communication of chinese literature anna holmwood’s successful translation and communication of chinese literature in english-speaking countries has further enhanced the brand effect of chinese martial arts works and even chinese literary writers and works. the prosperity of civilization and the progress of mankind cannot be separated from seeking common ground while reserving differences, openness, and civilization exchanges, mutual learning and mutual appreciation. the active participation of translators, readers and other parties in promoting the international communication of contemporary chinese literature will make the road of globalization of chinese literature smoother and smoother, and win more overseas confidants. 4.1 deepening cooperation with local translators in the targeted region of communication the role of translators is a primary consideration in the international communication of chinese literary works. the acceptance of foreign literature and culture by the vast majority of countries and nations in the world is mainly realized through translations by their own or native translators, which is a basic law of the cross-linguistic and cross-border translation and mediation of literature and culture. (xie t.z., 2014, 4) taking the translator of the country where the communication is targeted as the main body of the translation, to a large extent, makes the translation more acceptable, with a view to promoting the dissemination of the work. many readers have commented on legends of the condor heroes on amazon uk as “beautifully translated” and “the translation makes the book easy and quick to read”. anna holmwood’s rich experience of studying chinese has made her proficient in both languages, giving full play to the translator’s subjectivity, applying appropriate translation strategies, striving for precise wording, “taking into account the acceptability and readability of the translation, enhancing the logic” (ye. s.s., 2023, 72), as illustrated in appendix ii of volume i, the reason for usage of “condor” is explained, “condors are condors are native to the the americas, not to asia [...] i decided to continue with ‘condor’ as a translation for the simple fact that many english-speaking fans already know the series by this name.” (jin y., 2018, 384-385) translated works is not only a matter of translation, but also requires a high level of linguistic ability and international literary vision of the translators. therefore, while strengthening close cooperation with overseas translators, we should also pay attention to the cultivation of local high-end translation talents, strengthen the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 105 published by ideas spread industry-university-research cooperation by means of inter-school alliance and school-enterprise cooperation, utilize the advantages of artificial intelligence and emerging translation technology, provide local translators with opportunities to carry out translation practice, and establish a mechanism for in-depth cooperation and exchange between chinese and foreign translators, cultivate composite high qualified translation talents with the ability of post-translation editing and innovative thinking. at the same time, the university can help chinese publishers train teams of translators and continuously improve their overseas promotion capacity, which is conducive to deepening cooperation between chinese and foreign publishers and will bring twice the result with half the effort in the promotion of literary copyrights. 4.2 orientation towards the publication market in the communication region translation of chinese literature should not just be about “spreading aboard”, but should also focus on how to “bring in”, which is an important reason for choosing the right publisher to promote the translation.(zhang m., 2020, 308) the fact that the english translation of legends of the condor heroes has been able to capture a share of the british literary market is inextricably linked to maclehose press, its sponsor and publisher. as one of the most important publishers of popular books in the uk, maclehose press not only has a good social reputation, but is also very familiar with the process of commercial book publishing and understands the dynamics of the reading interests and needs of its target readership. the publisher is known as a pioneer of british literature in translation, and with the mission of "reading the world" and the goal of bringing a wide range of foreign literature to englishspeaking readers, the publisher has been committed to translating and publishing the world's finest literature since 2008, and has collaborated with a number of outstanding translators. from unknown authors to household names, from dazzling literary works to exciting noir classics, the wide range of translated works is the publisher's most prominent feature. when pitching legends of the condor heroes to maclehose press, anna holmwood spent an extraordinary amount of energy and time preparing the sample chapters for the publisher. she tried to answer questions about the process of promoting and publishing jin yong's work the way a literary agent would think, and convinced the agent and the publisher to do so. in the end, maclehose press and holmwood reached a publishing plan to translate and publish the english translation of legends of the condor heroes in separate volumes, and signed the english rights for the trilogy. anna holmwood compared legends of the condor heroes to the lord of the rings. although some readers explicitly disagreed with the comparison, arguing that the former one was based on a real historical background, while the latter was based on the author’s fictionalization. accoding to the different versions of paperback and electronic editions, the price of the translated works ranges from £ 5 to 20, which is affordable and reasonable and encourages more readers to buy them. the promotion of literary translations overseas cannot be separated from the sponsorship and support of local publishing houses, and we should “establish a sense of sino-foreign cooperation and actively explore the usual way of conforming to the foreign publishing and distribution system.” (liang l.x., 2018, 134) understand the principles and laws of the british book publishing market and the relevant laws and regulations, and realisticlly, realistically and effectively promote chinese outstanding literary works in the uk. laws and regulations, and disseminate excellent chinese literary works in the uk in a practical, real and effective way. 4.3 conforming to the aesthetics styles and habits of the readers catering to the reading habits and aesthetic characteristics of the targeted readers is a significant factor to make the translation widely acclaimed and recognized. in the process of communication, the audience is both the object and starting point of communication, as well as the goal and destination of communication. the message sent out by the transmitter, only accepted by the audience, a communication process can be said to be truly completed. (zhang g.l., 2009, 301) the precise target group positioning of the english translation of the shooting eagles makes its road of communication smoother. holmwood engages with martial arts films transmedially in her translatorial endeavors. the language and mode of martial arts films have the language and mode of martial arts films have shaped holmwood’s perception of wuxia translation, and her conceptualization of cinematic literary translation is a transmedial process. the language and mode of martial arts films have shaped holmwood’s perception of wuxia translation, and her conceptualization of cinematic literary translation is a transmedial process. the goal of holmwood’s translations is primarily to guide readers into the world of martial arts created by jin yong and introduce them to the uk and western society, and she vigorously promotes her work to readers interested in chinese literature, history, fantasy, and martial arts novels. jin yong’s novels use the most traditional national form: storytelling. this is an anomaly in the zeitgeist where writing is becoming more and more westernized, with more and more emphasis on psychological descriptions and innovations in technique, but it gives readers the surprise of going back to the basics, of a long time ago. (sun y. x., 2018, 54) chinese story is a hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 106 published by ideas spread way of expression of chinese culture to the world, which is a widely recognized form of international communication fields. in order to better cater to the reading psychology of readers, holmwood highlights the storytelling element of the work and describes the content of the work in a storytelling manner. she emphasizes at the beginning of the introduction that it begins with a storyteller, with news from the north, a tale of crushing defeat and humiliation, a great chinese empire in tatters and fleeing south. tatters and fleeing south.(jin y., 2018, ⅶ) she writes in the last paragraph, “all that is left is to enter through these pages into a universe at once fantastical and based on real historical events, one both foreign and intimately familiar, a story full of heart and of remarkable physical prowess.” (jin y., 2018, ⅸ) it is obvious that these two paragraphs form a first and last echo. holmwood always focuses on how to show the traditional chinese humanistic concern for the country and the people and the chivalrous feelings of the children of the rivers and lakes that transcend time and space in beautiful stories. as jin yong wrote, “the sorrows, joys and sorrows of ancient people can still arouse corresponding emotions in the minds of modern readers.” (jin y., 2013, 5) it has been proved that the translated works are in line with the readers’ worldviews, values and aesthetics, which can better arouse readers’ emotional resonance, and thus better realize the value of chinese literature and culture. it is proved that the translated works are in line with the audience's worldview, values and aesthetic concepts, which can better arouse the readers’ emotional resonance and thus better realize the value of chinese literature and culture, and reach the highest level of cultural exchanges in terms of beauty and commonality. based on the cultural genes inherited from china for thousands of years, chinese martial arts novels have, over the years, gradually moved from domestic popular books into the scope of academic research, and have become chinese literary works actively translated into foreign book markets, and have also injected new vitality into expanding the development of cooperation between china and other countries, and promoting the construction of a general situation for the exchanges and mutual understanding of diversified civilizations of mankind. 5. conclusion anna holmwood and other overseas translators’ perception and interpretation of chinese literature will, to a certain extent, have an influence on the formation of their view of translation, which will further lead their own translation practice, and thus affect the research and development of overseas sinology. therefore, in the process of promoting the communication of chinese culture to other countries and shaping china’s international image in the future, increasing attention should be paid to the research on the translation and acceptance of chinese literature by overseas translators and sinologists, so as to support all the translators to express china in a true and objective way. also, the relevant experts can help more translators and sinologists take the initiative in promoting excellent chinese literary to the world literary system, in order to cater to the development of world literature and chinese literature. in this way, it will deepen the international community’s understanding and knowledge of chinese culture, enhance the reputation and appeal of chinese culture, gradually form a unique chinese discourse system based on the world, promote the prosperity of world culture and the progress of human civilization, and create an open and tolerant environment of cooperation in order to form a higher-level pattern of development in the new era and to carry forward the construction of a community of shared future for mankind. references [1] diao, h. (2022). translating and literary agenting: anna holmwood’s legends of the condor heroes. perspectives, 30(6), 1059-1073. https://doi.org/10.1080/0907676x.2022.2046825 [2] diao, h. (2024). cinematic literary translation: the case of a hero born. translation studies, 17(1), 135-151. https://doi.org/10.1080/14781700.2023.2209570 [3] holmwood, a. (2018, march 17). the legend of jin yong: a workshop in “translating china.” retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m-zafhs66qw&t=1178s [4] holmwood, a. (2019, january 11). bbc sounds: last word. retrieved from https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/m0001y9m [5] jiang, t., & zhang, y. (2023). empathy and literary return: subjectivity in the translation and transmission of shediao yingxiong zhuan. chinese translators journal, (1), 69-76. [6] jin, y. (2013). shediao yingxiong zhuan (newly revised edition). guangzhou: guangzhou press. (in chinese) [7] jin, y. (2018). a hero born: legends of the condor heroes (a. holmwood, trans.). london: maclehose press. [8] liang, l. x. (2018). study on the communication path of foreign translation in the context of china’s “going out” – taking xi jinping: the governance of china as an example. wuhan: wuhan university press. (in chinese) hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 107 published by ideas spread [9] mariotti, r., & fife, b. (1995). how to be a literary agent: an introductory guide to literary representation. piccadilly books. [10] sun, y. x. (2018). the chivalry maker: jin yong. beijing: unity publishing house. (in chinese) [11] xie, t. z. (2014). chinese literature going global: problems and substance. comparative literature in china, (1), 1-10. (in chinese) [12] ye, s. s. (2023). a study on the translator’s subjectivity in the translation of martial arts novels under the perspective of aesthetics – taking the english translation of legends of the condor heroes (all four volumes) as an example. journal of zhejiang wanli college, 36(2), 69-75. (in chinese) [13] zha, m. j., & tian, y. (2003). on the subjectivity of translators: from the marginalization of translators' cultural position. chinese translators journal, (1), 19-24. (in chinese) [14] zhang, g. l. (2009). principles of communication. shanghai: fudan university press. (in chinese) [15] zhang, m. (2020). a study on the formation of translator’s inertia and its influence on translation behavior in anna holmwood – taking the english translation of legends of the condor heroes (volume i) as an example. foreign languages and literature, (3), 305-314. (in chinese). copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v6n3p32 32 published by ideas spread institutional trust in times of corona erik snel1,3,5, btissame el farisi1,3,5, godfried engbersen1,3,6, andré krouwel2,4,6 1 department of public administration and sociology (dpas), erasmus university rotterdam, the netherlands 2 faculty of social sciences, free university (vu), amsterdam, the netherlands 3 current address: department of public administration and sociology, erasmus university rotterdam, po box 1733, 3000dr rotterdam, the netherlands 4 current address: faculty of social sciences, free university (vu), de boelelaan 1105, 1081 hv amsterdam, the netherlands 5 these authors contributed equally to this work 6 these authors supervised this work correspondence: erik snel, department of public administration and sociology (dpas), erasmus university rotterdam, the netherlands. e-mail: snel@essb.eur.nl received: october 18, 2023; accepted: november 4, 2023; published: november 8, 2023 abstract during the corona pandemic, governments of all countries appealed strongly to the trust of their populations by implementing drastic social and economic measures to prevent the spread of the virus. this study seeks to understand mechanisms that influence the level of institutional trust at the time of the corona pandemic. we are specifically interested in how three explanatory factors (socioeconomic status, experienced economic insecurity and dissatisfaction with the implemented corona policies) can, in mutual association, explain differences in institutional trust. this study is based on data from a large-scale panel survey on the social impact of covid-19 in the netherlands, carried out by kieskompas research agency (n=22,696). using a serial mediation analysis, we show that ses has both a direct and indirect effect on the level of institutional trust. people with higher ses experience less economic insecurity and have less dissatisfaction with the corona policies and, partly as a result of this, stronger institutional trust. it is also true that economic insecurity increases dissatisfaction with the corona policies and, partly as a result of this, weakens the level of trust. keywords: socioeconomic status (ses), institutional trust, economic insecurity, discontent with corona policies, serial mediation 1. introduction during the corona pandemic of 2020, governments of all countries appealed strongly to the trust of their populations. across the world, drastic measures were taken to reduce the number of covid-19 infections and to prevent hospitals and other care organisations from becoming overburdened. measures ranged from cancelling festivals and large sports events, to shutting down the hospitality sector, shops, schools and universities, up to imposing a night-time curfew. for the dutch population it was the first time since the second world war that they were forbidden from leaving their house at night. although public disorder incidents occurred in several countries, including the netherlands (the ‘curfew riots’ of late january 2020 stand out), overall the populations were compliant. one important reason pertains to the surge in trust in political institutions during the crisis, both in the netherlands and in other affected countries [1-4]. this sudden and sometimes substantial increase in political trust in times of crisis is known as the ‘rally around the flag’ effect: in the event of external threats such as war, terrorist attacks or natural disasters, people collectively throw their weight behind their political leaders and institutions [5-8]. rally effects are only temporary, however. also with respect to the ‘corona-rally’, political trust initially increased strongly after the virus outbreak in the spring of 2020, to subsequently reduce again [9]. this also emerges from our research. in april 2020, 69 per cent of our respondents had (strong) trust in the national government and 60 per cent in their local government. these numbers had dropped to 55 and 50 per cent, respectively, in november 2020, and dropped further to a meagre 29 and 37 per cent, respectively, in september 2021 [10, 11]. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 33 published by ideas spread although this paper is not about fluctuations in political trust, the decreasing trust in the government and in important public health bodies such as the rivm (dutch national institute for public health and the environment) and ggd (municipal health service) can become problematic, especially in a long-term crisis such as the corona pandemic. one reason for this steadily decreasing political trust is thought to be the increasing doubts about and criticism of the corona policies pursued by the dutch government [1]. after all, trust is situational and often strongly related to perceived procedural justice. other factors also contribute to decreased institutional trust in times of corona. research showed, for instance, that the consequences of the pandemic are unequally divided in society [10, 11]. that is why factors such as socioeconomic status and economic insecurity could also affect the level of institutional trust. this paper seeks to understand the factors that jointly can explain the level of trust: the socioeconomic status of people, the extent to which the pandemic creates economic insecurity, and the subjective evaluation of, or discontent with, the government’s corona policies. this brings us to the following two-pronged problem definition of this study: 1) to what extent does institutional trust during the pandemic correlate with the respondents’ socioeconomic status? 2) to what extent is institutional trust during the pandemic influenced by specific experiences relating to the pandemic (fear of income loss due to covid-19) and to discontent with the government’s measures? the data used in this article derive from a large-scale survey (n= 22,696) on the societal impact of covid-19, conducted in the netherlands in november 2020. the survey contained many questions about the pandemic’s possible social consequences, including the level of trust in public authorities and in important public health bodies such as the rivm and ggd. 2. socioeconomic status and institutional trust in times of corona 2.1 political versus institutional trust institutional trust is the main dependent variable in this study. the literature often distinguishes between political and institutional trust. political trust pertains to people’s trust in political parties, in parliament or at the local level: the mayor and alderpersons and the municipal council. institutional trust, on the other hand, pertains to trust in government institutions [cf. 12, 13]. in the survey, we asked about the trust that citizens have in the national and local government and in important public health bodies (rivm and ggd). another dimension of trust is interpersonal trust or trust in people in general (general trust). this will not be discussed in this article. 2.2 social status and institutional trust it is a classic sociological premise that political or institutional trust correlates with social characteristics, in particular with education level, income and social class, labour market position (employed or unemployed), but also with health and the family situation (cohabiting or separated, with or without children). research has shown that persons with a higher education level and higher income tend to have more political and institutional trust, with the education level being a particularly important determinant. as uslaner [14: 108] observed: “virtually every study of generalized trust, in every setting, has found that education is a powerful predictor of trust” [cf. 1521]. a general satisfaction regarding one’s own economic situation also correlates positively with a stronger level of trust in political institutions and authorities [22,23]. institutional distrust occurs more often among people in structurally vulnerable positions with little opportunities for upward social mobility. negative experiences such as unemployment, perceived discrimination or poor health also have a negative impact on social and political trust and tend to consolidate the distrust [24-26]. more generally, zmerli and newton [26: 70] find that especially the so-called ‘winners’ stand out for a strong level of social trust (in other people) and in political and institutional trust: “...those in dominant majority groups, people of high class, status, income and education, the happy and satisfied, and individuals who benefit from better health and post-materialist security.” the literature reports various reasons and mechanisms to explain the connection between social status and trust. people with a higher socioeconomic position generally tend to be more optimistic about their life and also more positive about others. people in a more vulnerable socioeconomic position, on the other hand, are more inclined to be cynical, pessimistic and distrustful, both towards others and the government [28]. the latter are additionally more prone to a poorer health status, less economic security and greater economic risks, have less means to protect themselves against these risks and feel less protected by public bodies [20]. people in higher socioeconomic positions have more reasons to trust the government and other institutions. they are better equipped to utilise political and social institutions based on their understanding of how they operate, and if necessary, they have more political self-confidence and opportunities to positively influence those institutions [27: 71]. the social resilience hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 34 published by ideas spread displayed by people in higher status groups results in greater interpersonal and institutional trust, compared to people in lower status groups. or, as putnam [18: 188] says: “in virtually all societies, ‘have-nots’ are less trusting than ‘haves’, probably because haves are treated with more respect and honesty”. this positive relationship between education level and institutional trust is not found worldwide. while we do see such a relation in developed western democracies, it is less obvious in post-communist countries in central and eastern europe and also in ‘new democracies’ in latin america. we even find inverse relationships, where more highly educated persons have less trust than those with lower education levels [29, 30]. one possible explanation, offered by van der meer and hakhverdian [31: 97], is that more highly educated persons are more critical of corruption than those with low education levels, so that the positive effect of education on trust is reduced or even inverted in countries where corruption is widespread. also in the west, the relationship should not be taken as an absolute law, as shown by a cross-country comparative study that did not find a relationship between level of education and political trust in germany, switzerland and spain. the researchers’ explanation of this finding is that ‘well-being’ was also included in the analysis as an explanatory factor, which may have blotted out the effect of education on trust [32: 112]. despite these deviating outcomes, we assume here that respondents with a higher socioeconomic status have more institutional trust than those with a lower status. hypothesis 1: socioeconomic status (ses) has a direct positive effect on institutional trust, whereby people with higher ses have more institutional trust. 2.3 perceived economic insecurity and institutional trust education, income, health and job market position are individual determinants of political and institutional trust. social and economic factors also play a role, including especially the economic climate. it is generally thought that citizens trust the government while the economy is strong, and distrust the government when the economy deteriorates. if this is so, then we would expect that the covid pandemic, with its massive economic impact on particular economic sectors, would also lead to less political and institutional trust. the question is however whether people’s perception of the overall economic situation is more important than how they assess their own financial-economic situation. wroe [33: 135] challenges the “…conventional wisdom (...) that citizens’ perceptions of the performance of the wider economy matter more than citizens’ perceptions of their own or their families’ financial situation”. various studies show that it is not so much the assessment of the economic situation that determines the level of political trust, but much more the extent to which people feel vulnerable in case of an economic downturn [34]. wroe [33] argues that a growing prosperity often goes hand in hand with growing economic insecurity for certain groups. an increasing economic insecurity would lead to a decline in political trust because citizens feel that the welfare state today offers too little protection against insecurities [33, 35]. wroe [33] measures this economic insecurity by means of questions as to whether people are concerned about loss of job, reduced pension payments, inaccessibility of health care, and potential financial misery for their family. all these aspects of perceived economic insecurity correlate significantly with the level of political trust. further, positive assessments of the economy and the education level of respondents have a positive effect on political trust: the less concern about job loss and the higher the educational level, the higher the level of trust [33: 148]. inspired by this research, we not only assume that economic insecurity – that is, the concern for loss of income due to the pandemic – has a negative effect on institutional trust, but also that this concern for loss of income occurs more strongly among lower status groups. these vulnerable groups more often work in sectors and occupations where homeworking is problematic, and where job and income security are lower [36]. people with lower incomes also have less financial reserves to rely on and the lower quality of housing is often a source of stress. that is why we expect that the economic insecurity as a result of the pandemic and the anti-corona measures fulfil a mediating role in the relationship between ses and trust. ses could therefore strengthen or weaken institutional trust through economic insecurity. hypothesis 2: socioeconomic status (ses) has an indirect positive effect on trust through economic security, whereby people with a higher ses experience less economic insecurity and therefore have more trust. 2.4 discontent with government measures and institutional trust besides the effect of respondents’ socioeconomic status and their perceived economic insecurity due to the pandemic on institutional trust, their perceptions and assessments of government policies also – or perhaps particularly – affect their trust in the government. the premise here is that trust always pertains to a relationship between someone who trusts and someone who is trusted [37]. if the government pursues effective policies, is just and not corrupt, then political trust will be strong. conversely, ineffective policies, injustice and especially hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 35 published by ideas spread corruption undermine political trust [38, 39]. van der meer and dekker [39] add that it is not so much a matter of the factual government policies (as can be determined using objective criteria of effectiveness, justice or corruption) as of citizens’ perceptions regarding these aspects [40]. according to van der meer and hakverdian [31: 82], this evaluative nature of political trust is ‘surprisingly understudied’ in the existing literature. during 2020 and 2021, governments have taken unprecedented measures to counter and control covid-19: from social distancing, avoiding contact, working at home as much as possible, avoiding public transport, shutting shops and hospitality outlets, to imposing a curfew (in many countries). unsurprisingly, such drastic measures provoke discontent and resistance among citizens, particularly among those who are affected economically and/or feel overly constrained in their personal freedom. it is not without reason that riots occurred in several dutch cities following the imposition of the curfew in january 2021. following van der meer and hakverdian [31], we presume that positive or negative assessments of the corona policies pursued by public authorities correlate with people’s social status, particularly their level of education. according to both authors, education fulfils both a ‘norminducing’ and an ‘accuracy-inducing’ function [31: 86]. higher educated persons are thought to be more critical of rule violations such as corruption on the one hand, and are better equipped to effectively process relevant information and to form well-considered judgements regarding corona policies on the other [41]. the first aspect would explain why corruption undermines political trust especially among higher educated citizens (and why higher educated people in corrupt countries in east europe or latin america have less trust). the second aspect could explain why shortcomings in government policies do not necessarily provoke frustration and discontent with the policies among the higher educated, and hence to less trust in the government and its implementing bodies. instead, they might be more understanding of the difficult circumstances under which the policies are determined and implemented. higher educated people furthermore tend to enjoy better resources (larger dwellings, more opportunity to work at home), so that they are better able to cope with the restrictions imposed by the corona policies. in this study we not only assume that discontent with the corona policies has a negative effect on institutional trust, but also that discontent occurs more strongly among lower status groups. we therefore expect that discontent with the corona policies functions as mediator in the relationship between socioeconomic status and institutional trust. ses therefore strengthens or weakens institutional trust through discontent with the corona policies. hypothesis 3: socioeconomic status (ses ) has an indirect positive effect on trust via discontent with the corona policies, whereby people with a higher ses experience less discontent about the policies and hence have more trust. 2.5 social status, economic insecurity, discontent with government measures and reduced trust finally, in this study we presume that all factors discussed so far are interrelated and reinforce each other. respondents with a lower social status experience more economic insecurity, meaning that they are more concerned about possible income loss or have already suffered income loss. respondents that experience more economic insecurity are also more negative about the corona policies pursued by the government [see 10]. the reason is, on the one hand, that they are more strongly affected by the economic consequences of government measures, for instance through loss of income, job or one’s own business, or on the other hand, because the corona measures hinder their efforts to improve their economic position, for instance by finding a job. we therefore presume that both economic insecurity and discontent with the corona policies act as mediators in the relationship between social status and institutional trust, simultaneously. social status could hence both strengthen and weaken institutional trust through economic insecurity and through discontent with the corona policies. hypothesis 4: socioeconomic status (ses) has an indirect positive effect on trust via economic insecurity and dissatisfaction with government policies, whereby people with a higher ses experience less economic insecurity, and therefore less dissatisfaction with the policies, resulting in stronger trust. based on the research findings and considerations described above, we present the conceptual research model below, where every letter represents a regression weight that indicates the relationship between the variables. more specifically, c represents the total effect of ses on trust and c’ represents the direct effect of ses on trust (controlled for economic insecurity and discontent with the corona policies). accordingly, both weights are based on different linear regression analyses. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 36 published by ideas spread figure 1. conceptual research model 3. method and data 3.1 data, and sample and weighting the data used in this study were obtained through a large-scale survey on the societal impact of covid-19, performed by kieskompas research agency. the data used here were collected between 28 october and 13 november 2020. this was the third wave in a long-running study, with earlier measurements performed in april and july 2020, and a fourth wave performed in march 2021 [see 10, 11]. the data were collected using kieskompas’s permanent nationwide vip panel. this panel is composed of a stratified random sampling of dutch persons of voting age (18+). the survey was fielded among 48,329 members of the kieskompas panel, and it was completed by 19,581 respondents (response rate of 40.5%). additionally, three of the cities participating in the study (amsterdam, the hague and rotterdam) performed additional activities to reach underrepresented groups by posting advertisements on facebook and inviting specific groups with a weaker social status to participate. in amsterdam, the questionnaire was also presented to the amsterdam city panel. at the end of the field work period, the survey could also be completed using an anonymous participation link. in the end, the survey was completed by a sample of 22,696 respondents. to make the survey data representative for the (voting age) dutch population, a weighting was performed retroactively. the goal of the weighting is to count under-represented groups in the database more often in order to more ‘accurately’ model the population and increase the representativeness of the sample. for example, the unweighted base contains more males (59%) than females (41%); in the weighted base, these sample frequencies have been updated to 50.2% males and 49.8% females. the weighting factor in our study varied from .06 to 16.35. by weighing the results in terms of gender, age, education region, ethnicity and voting behaviour, the data regarding these variables are (within the categories used) representative for the dutch population aged 18 and over. 3.2 operationalisation of the variables institutional trust is the central dependent variable in this study. in the survey, respondents were asked to what level they have trust in national and local governments, and in important public health bodies such as the rivm and ggd. respondents could indicate whether they have (very) strong trust or (very) weak trust (1-5) in these four entities. the average of these items was taken as a measure of institutional trust. a cronbach’s alpha analysis shows a reliable scale (cronbach’s alpha .88). socioeconomic status (ses) is operationalised as a combination score based on income and education level. the survey asked respondents both about their level of education (ranging from none to university level, bachelor or master), and about their net monthly income (ranging from less than €1150 for a single-person and €1600 for multiple-person households, to more than three times modal income (€5000 or more)). using principal component hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 37 published by ideas spread analysis (pca), a factor score was created based on a least squares regression approach in order to reduce the variables to a single component. note that according to the literature, education level plays a stronger role in explaining trust. our data confirms this finding (we tested both education and income separately). however, income still explains a part of the variance in trust. therefore we argue it is useful to use these variables in a combined measure. further, in order to construct the ses variable, we have used the average income to impute the missing values for income. economic insecurity. respondents were asked to what degree they felt anxious about losing their income due to the corona pandemic, using a 4-point scale where 1 represents ‘not anxious’, 2 ‘slightly anxious’, 3 ‘very anxious’, and 4 to indicate that the respondent had already lost (part of) his/her income due to the pandemic (and had therefore reached maximum economic insecurity). the rough scores of this variable were used to represent economic insecurity. discontent with government policies. respondents were also asked for their opinion on the corona policies pursued by the dutch government. they could indicate whether they (completely) agree or (completely) disagree (1 – 5) with respect to the following statements: “the dutch government and media exaggerate the danger”, “the measures cause more damage than they prevent”, and “the government takes too little account of the economic and social consequences”. the answers to these three statements together form a reliable scale (cronbach’s alpha .83). the average of these items was taken as a measure of dissatisfaction with government policy. to be certain, we verified whether these items about dissatisfaction are not overly consistent with the items about the dependent variable of institutional trust. the four trust items and three dissatisfaction items cluster separately in a pca with varimax rotation, and hence appear to be two different constructs. control variables. in all analyses reported below, controls are performed simultaneously for respondents’ age (in years) and gender. the descriptive information for all variables is presented in table 1 below (see appendix). 3.2 statistical analysis the model shown in figure 1 serves as the theoretical framework to test the associations between the different variables. in order to test this framework, we performed a serial mediation analysis using the process tool, a macro for spss [42], which incorporates the age and gender of the respondents as co-variates in the model. this procedure uses various ordinary-least-squares regression analyses to estimate the coefficients in the models and to determine the direct effects. additional procedures were performed to estimate the indirect effects, specifically the multiplication of several regression weights. this approach uses bootstrapping (with replacement), with repeated sampling from the dataset (in our case, 5000 bootstrap-samples). in this way the tool generates an estimate for the sampling distribution of the indirect effects, in order to determine the reliability intervals of the estimated effects. the indirect effect is deemed to be statistically significant if the reliability interval does not contain a zero [cf. 42]. the analyses described below were performed on the unweighted survey data because the process tool precludes the use of weighted data. although we make use of unweighted data in this article, the differences between the weighted and unweighted data are negligible. (several regression analyses were performed manually on the weighted data to simulate the process results). partly for this reason, and also given the size of the sample, we have confidence in the conclusions of our study. 4. results 4.1 ses and trust our first research question is whether having a higher socioeconomic status (ses) in terms of education and income goes hand in hand with stronger trust in institutions (h1). the results indicate that, indeed, when ses increases, so does institutional trust (c = .22, p <.001). this result supports h1. although this simple model explains 5.21% of the variance in trust, the explained variance increases to 30.97% when economic insecurity and discontent with the corona policies are included in the analysis. in this more elaborate model, ses still has a significant direct effect on trust, albeit slightly weaker (c’ = .135, p <.000). the reason is that part of the effect of ses now runs via the mediators (economic insecurity and discontent with the corona policies). see figure 2 for all standardized effects. for an overview of all un-standardized effects, see table 2 in the appendix. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 38 published by ideas spread figure2. standardised path coefficients (rounded off to two decimals) 4.2 ses, trust and (perceived) economic insecurity according to hypothesis 2, the relationship between ses and trust is partly mediated by perceived economic insecurity. the results suggest that, as expected, respondents with higher ses experience less economic insecurity (𝑎1 = -.14, p <.000). additionally, we see that respondents who experience more economic insecurity have less institutional trust (𝑏1= -.07, p <.000). the results also show that the respondents’ socioeconomic status can strengthen (or weaken) institutional trust through economic insecurity, whereby a higher status strengthens trust via lesser economic insecurity (𝑎1𝑏1 = .0097, se = .001, 95% ci = 0.008, .0117; for all direct and indirect effects, see table 3 in the appendix). the results support h2; economic insecurity operates as a mediator in the relationship between ses and trust. 4.3 ses, trust and discontent hypothesis 3 holds that the association between socioeconomic status and trust is also mediated partly via respondents’ subjective evaluation of the corona policies. the results suggest that respondents with a lower ses are also less satisfied regarding the corona policies (𝑎2 = -.13, p <.000). additionally, we see that as discontent with the corona policies increases, institutional trust decreases (𝑏2= -.51, p <.000). the results also show that ses can strengthen (or weaken) trust indirectly via discontent with the corona policies: a higher ses increases trust via less discontent with the corona policies (𝑎2𝑏2 = .0662, se = .0035, 95% ci = .0591, .0733). these results support h3; discontent with the corona policies operates as a mediator in the relationship between ses and trust. 4.4 economic insecurity and discontent finally, our fourth hypothesis holds that perceived economic insecurity and discontent with the corona policies also influence the relationship between ses and trust in conjunction with each other (that is, simultaneously). the results show that economic insecurity has a positive association with discontent with the corona policies (𝑑12 = .11, p <.001); respondents who experience more economic insecurity also experience more discontent with the corona policies. the indirect effect of ses on trust via economic insecurity and discontent with the corona policies is also significant (𝑎1𝑑12𝑏2 = .0078, se = .0006, 95% ci = .0765, .0912). these results support our fourth hypothesis that there is an indirect and positive association between socioeconomic status and institutional trust via economic insecurity and discontent with the corona policies, whereby a higher ses is associated with less economic insecurity, and hence with less dissatisfaction, resulting in stronger institutional trust. although all our hypotheses are supported by the results, some effects are stronger than others, as shown in figure 2. for instance, discontent with the corona policies shows the strongest association with institutional trust. table 2 (in the appendix) furthermore shows that the explained variance of economic uncertainty (3.81%) and discontent with the corona policies (5.06%) is lower compared to institutional trust (30.97%). this implies that ses and economic uncertainty – despite statistical significance – do not explain the largest share of the variance in the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 39 published by ideas spread associated variables. it does seem clear nevertheless that (a) ses has an effect on economic insecurity, (b) discontent with the corona policies is still affected by both ses and perceived economic insecurity, and (c) the effect of these variables plays a non-negligible role in the explanation of the level of institutional trust, both directly and indirectly (through dissatisfaction). 4.5 the role of age and gender all analyses were controlled for age and gender simultaneously. as table 2 shows (see appendix), in some cases there is a significant association between these control variables and the other variables in this study. for instance, elderly respondents experience less economic insecurity (β= -.01, p <.001) and also feel less discontent with the corona policies (β= -.01, p <.001). nevertheless, there is a negative association between age and institutional trust. although elderly respondents experience less economic insecurity and are less dissatisfied with the corona policies, they still have less institutional trust than younger respondents (in both the simplified and the elaborate model). the (negative) effect of age on trust becomes stronger as we keep the degree of economic insecurity and of dissatisfaction constant for the respondents in the elaborate model (β= -.007, p <.001). hence, higher age in alle cases corresponds with less trust, and this effect becomes stronger when we keep the degree of economic insecurity and dissatisfaction constant for the respondents. we do not find any statistically significant differences between males and females regarding the degree of perceived economic insecurity (β= .01, p = .29). males do show more discontent with the corona policies than females (β= .11, p <.001), but notwithstanding this difference, males and females show the same level of institutional trust. it is only when we keep the degree of dissatisfaction and the degree of economic insecurity constant for both sexes, that males appear to have more trust than females (β= .04, p <.001, table 2). we can therefore conclude that the differences between the sexes are minimal in this study. 5. conclusion and discussion the main research question of this study was whether the usual research outcomes regarding political and institutional trust, namely that the higher educated and higher income groups (the societal ‘winners’) show more trust, also applies during the corona pandemic. we focused on institutional trust, that is trust in the government (both national and local) and in public health organizations (ggd and rivm). however, we not only investigated the relationship between respondents’ social status and the level of institutional trust, but also the role of perceived economic insecurity and the respondents’ subjective evaluation of the corona policies pursued by the dutch government. for our study we used survey data collected in november 2020, when institutional trust in the netherlands had weakened considerably. the main outcome of our study is that ses has both a direct and indirect effect on the level of institutional trust. in line with earlier research, ses was found to have a direct effect on institutional trust. also when respondents experience the same degree of economic insecurity and discontent with the policies, those with a higher ses show stronger institutional trust. one possible explanation is that people in higher social positions tend to be more optimistic and positive about public authorities, while people in more vulnerable social positions are more cynical, pessimistic and distrustful. it has also been noted that people in higher social positions generally experience less insecurity and problems in their life and therefore feel better protected by public authorities than less successful people. this direct effect is strengthened by the indirect relationship between ses and both other factors. we concluded that ses is also associated with both perceived economic insecurity and discontent with the corona policies, which in turn predicted the level of institutional trust. people with higher ses experience less economic insecurity and are less dissatisfied regarding the corona policies, and accordingly show more institutional trust. the corona pandemic clearly reveals that people with lower education levels and lower incomes are hit hardest by the economic consequences of corona, for instance through loss of job or income or because they fear such loss. people with low education levels and flexible jobs, or self-employed people with comparable positions, often lost their jobs (unless they worked in the parcels or meals delivery sector). higher educated people, on the other hand, are generally much better positioned to work at home and could hence continue to live and work relatively ‘normally’. their permanent jobs furthermore provided greater income security. we also found that the perceived economic insecurity is related to discontent with the corona policies. people who experience a stronger degree of economic insecurity tend to be more negative about the policies pursued by the government. these are all factors that contribute to a weaker level of institutional trust among lower ses groups. additionally, we found that a more advanced age is also associated with less trust, even though older respondents on average experience less economic insecurity and less discontent with the corona policies. younger people (in our study, respondents aged 18 to 34) on average show more trust in institutions, although they are hit harder by hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 40 published by ideas spread both the economic and mental effects of the pandemic than older respondents [43]. apparently, younger dutch nationals have more trust in the ability of government and public health bodies such as the rivm and ggd to adequately manage the pandemic than elderly compatriots. finally, we found little difference in institutional trust between males and females, although the latter do show more discontent with the corona policies. only if the degree of economic insecurity and dissatisfaction with the policies were the same for both sexes, then males would appear to have more institutional trust than females. this finding is striking, since available research shows that females generally have slightly stronger political or institutional trust than males [44]. perhaps the “triple burden” experienced by many women during the pandemic (looking after work, the household, and having the children at home) can explain this deviating outcome. the relevance of this study and our findings is two-fold. the scientific relevance is that we present a more complete theoretical model that allows us to better explain differences in institutional trust, compared to only considering respondents’ social status (their level of education and/or income) as a predictor of trust. the two theoretically substantiated additions to this classic relationship perceived economic insecurity [33], and especially the subjective evaluation of governmental policies [31] considerably increase the model’s explanatory power. the model using only ses (and both control variables) as predictor explained 5.21% of the variance in trust, while this increased to 30.97% after including perceived economic insecurity and discontent with the corona policies in the analysis. particularly the latter factor is strongly associated with institutional trust. ses continues to explain part of the variance in trust, but this relationship is reinforced through perceived economic insecurity and especially discontent with the corona policies. both ses and economic insecurity have both a direct and indirect role in explaining the level of institutional trust, and more strongly so than if we were to only consider the individual (direct) effects on trust of the two factors. in sum: because all the relevant variables are interconnected, we may conclude that the complete picture as presented in figure 1 offers a better and more comprehensive picture of the hypothetical relationships. the societal relevance of our study is that, particularly in this time of the corona pandemic, institutional trust is crucially important. governments are imposing drastic social and economic measures to combat the virus. the extent to which people are willing to obey the rules, and to which they are prepared to be vaccinated, is closely associated with their trust in government and in important public health bodies such as the rivm and ggd [cf. 10, 45]. it is therefore very important that the government also gains (or regains) the trust of lower social status groups, of people who have personally suffered the economic consequences of the pandemic, and of those who are critical of the government’s corona policies. this implies on the one hand, a policy aimed at strengthening the economic security of vulnerable groups, and on the other an adequate public health service and clear communication policy to explain to groups why certain measures are vital. as regards communication policy, the fundamental and practical guidelines formulated by tiemeijer [46] are relevant, including fundamental principles such as legitimacy (’be truthful, just and reasonable’) and effectiveness (’be clear and unambiguous’) and practical matters such as ‘know your target group’ and ‘offer hope, small intermediate steps, celebrate achievements, acknowledge emotions’. limitations of the study this study, like every study, has certain limitations. first, the cross-sectional research design limits the extent to which cause-effect relationships can be deduced from the findings. for example, we describe the relationship between discontent with the policies and institutional trust, but cannot pinpoint the exact causal relationships. satisfaction regarding the policies can lead to more institutional trust because people take a positive view of the measures. yet one could also argue that people who have more institutional trust will naturally be inclined to take a positive view of governmental policies. in other words, the causal direction of the observed relationships is not immediately apparent. still, our research model as presented in figure 1 is theoretically grounded in the literature, and we discuss the outcomes of the model under the assumption that these are the correct causal directions. another limitation pertains to the operationalisation of some of the variables. thus, the variable ‘income’ lacked several values (12.7%). to construct the ses variable, we used averages to impute these missing values, and such estimates could of course be wide of the mark. however, we did not want to drop respondents from the analysis because it would also rule out using other information about these respondents (regarding economic insecurity, discontent with the corona policies and institutional trust) in our analysis. finally, we limited the scope of this study to three factors to explain the differences in trust. there are however other factors that could also contribute to explaining differences in trust, such as political orientation and psychological factors (e.g. stress) [10]. our recommendation for further research is accordingly to include such factors as covariates in future analyses. further, the outcome measurement in our study pertains to the level of hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 41 published by ideas spread ‘trust’. it would be interesting for future studies to also include the level of ‘distrust’ as an outcome measurement, in order to test to what extent the results do or do not overlap. references [1] den ridder, j., miltenburg, e., steenvoorden, e., van der meer, t., & dekker, p. 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(2021b). vaccinatiebereidheid: een nieuwe kloof tussen arm en rijk ’(working paper 5 onderzoek sociale impact van covid-19). retrieved op 7 april 2021 from https://www.impactcorona.nl/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/vaccinatiebereidheid-een-nieuwe-kloof-tussenarm-en-rijk.pdf [46] tiemeijer, w. l. (2020). communicatie en draagvlak covid-19. den haag: wetenschappelijke raad voor het regeringsbeleid. retrieved on 7 november 2023 from https://www.wrr.nl/wrr-encorona/publicaties/publicaties/2020/10/12/communicatie-en-draagvlak-covid-19 appendix table 1. descriptives of all variables in the analysis share/ mean sd range missing % gender male 49% 0 female 51% 0 age 50,2 17.54 19 96 0 ses 0 1 -2.5 1.97 0 institutional trust 3.36 1.01 1-5 .7 economic insecurity 1.55 .82 1-4 1.0 discontent government policies 2.64 1.10 1-5 .5 note: to construct the ses variable, we used the mean income to impute the missing values for income. table 2. unstandardised regression-coefficients and standard errors in various linear regression-analyses dependent variable institutional trust economic insecurity discontent corona policies institutional trust predictor coeff. (se) coeff. (se) coeff. (se) coeff. (se) constant 3.598(.02) *** 1.822(.02) *** 2.507(.02) *** 5.017(.02) *** hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 44 published by ideas spread age -.003(.0004) *** -.007(.0003) *** -.008(.0004) *** -.007(.0003) *** gender -.009(.01) .011(.01) .108(.01) *** .042(.01) *** ses c .215(.01) *** a1 -.118(.01) *** a2 -.141(.01) *** c' .133(.01) *** economic insecurity —— —— d12 .142(.01) *** b1 -.081(.01) *** discontent corona policies —— —— —— b2 -.459(.01) *** 𝑅2 .0521 .0381 .0506 .3097 f(3, 22396) = 410.31, p<.001 f(3, 22396) = 295.67, p<.001 f(4,22395) = 298.68, p<.001 f(5, 22394) = 2009.55, p<.001 note: all regression-coefficients rounded off to 3 decimals. p<.05*, p<.01**, p<.001***. table 3. complete standardised estimates of the direct and indirect effects of ses on trust, with the associated reliability intervals. total & direct effect coeff. boot. se 95% reliability interval figure-path total effect of ses on vert .2190 — — c direct effect of ses on vert .1352 — — c′ indirecte effecten ses—>ec_onz—>vert .0097 .0010 [.0079, .0117] ind1= (a1b1) ses—>onvr—>vert .0662 .0035 [.0591, .0733] ind2= (a2b2) ses—>ec_onz—>onvr—>vert .0078 .0006 [.0066, .0091] ind3= (a1d12b2) total indirect effects .0838 .0037 [.0765, .0912] a1b1 + a2b2 + a1d12b2 note: the interval estimates are based on 5000 bootstrap samples. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). microsoft word p1-11 humanities and social science research; vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v7n3p1 1 published by ideas spread towards a person-centered care model among community mental health services michael galea1 & nathalie mallia1 1 university of malta, malta correspondence: michael galea, university of malta, malta. e-mail: michael.galea@um.edu.mt received: august 31, 2024; accepted: september 14, 2024; published: september 17, 2024 abstract mental illness is widespread among adults and remains the foremost cause of years lived with disability. despite its importance, there is a scarcity of research on person-centered care (pcc) from the viewpoints of mental health service users, particularly within clinical community mental health services. this study sought to investigate the potential for enhancing pcc through the lived experiences of individuals with mental health conditions who use local community mental health clinics (cmhc) in malta. the goal was to obtain a thorough understanding of the current landscape, evaluate its strengths and weaknesses, and identify strategies for evolving the system towards a more pcc-focused model. a qualitative research design was utilized, following the principles of interpretative phenomenological analysis (ipa) as described by smith et al. (2009). ten participants from malta, including six women, who frequently visit cmhcs, were recruited through intermediaries. each participant took part in a one-hour semi-structured interview, conducted at a mutually convenient time and location. these sessions were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim for subsequent analysis. the analysis identified three main themes: quality care, emotional support, and partnership and collaborative care, each comprising various sub-themes. the study illuminated both the strengths and shortcomings of the existing system and their implications for a pcc-oriented healthcare approach. while our findings reaffirm research on the critical role of empathy in care and other relevant factors, results also indicate that cultural factors in malta, such as strong family ties, significantly influence the delivery of person-centered care (pcc), which may be relevant for other small communities. furthermore, the research offers healthcare professionals (hcps) a chance for ongoing professional development in accordance with the latest pcc principles. keywords: person-centered care, mental health, lived experiences, community mental health services, ipa. 1. prioritizing individuals in their own care person-centered care (pcc) prioritizes individuals in their own care by actively engaging them in the decisionmaking process. it is a core value in providing high-quality care (qoc) within community mental health services and is essential for achieving universal mental health coverage (who, 2022). research on pcc involving mental health service users not only empowers their rights and improves their health and well-being outcomes but also supports international mental health policies, agencies, and professional organizations (who, 2022). the primary aim of this study is to enhance the understanding of pcc by exploring the lived experiences of individuals accessing five major public community mental health services in malta and to identify the essential requirements for advancing this approach. according to malta’s mental health strategy for the upcoming years (2019), one of the significant challenges facing the health system in malta is the need to redistribute resources and activities from hospitals to primary and community care. this transformation seeks to establish mental health community services as the cornerstone of care, with social integration as a primary goal. the world health organization (who) (2024), in addressing key priorities in mental health, emphasized the necessity of strengthening the workforce while tackling the widespread issues of stigma and discrimination in mental health care. the who identified specific actions for the future among 11 small european countries, including malta, which involve continuous professional development, empowering individuals with lived experiences, and investing in evidence-based campaigns to combat stigma. therefore, emphasizing the shift towards providing professional mental health services within community care, guided by person-centered care, is essential for developing a more comprehensive and effective program that meets the specific needs of those seeking assistance. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 2 published by ideas spread while the terms "patient-centered" and "person-centered" care are often used interchangeably, they represent distinct concepts that require clear differentiation. the transition to person-centered care signifies a more advanced focus on the individual within the broader context of their life, encompassing family, social, and community environments (starfield, 2011). the who defines people-centered care as care organized around the health needs and expectations of individuals and communities, rather than solely focusing on diseases. this approach extends beyond patient-centered care to include individuals, families, communities, and society at large (who, 2020b). it encourages proactive participation from patients, who are invited to ask questions and voice concerns regarding their care. person-centered care is thus a holistic concept that includes not only clinical interactions but also an ongoing and comprehensive understanding of patients as individuals within their communities—whether that be their family as a microcosm or society as a macrocosm. ekman et al. (2011) contend that person-centered care results in more favorable health outcomes and higher satisfaction levels compared to patient-centered care. 1.1 an all-inclusive, person-oriented model transitioning from the current disease-focused model to a more personalized, inclusive, and integrated care approach necessitates the cultivation and maintenance of strong individual and social connections to address entrenched inequities within the existing health system. the who’s comprehensive mental health action plan 2020–2030 (2013) stresses that mental health services must prioritize best practices and implement personcentered care to uphold human rights, equality, non-discrimination, legal capacity, and community inclusion. this approach is vital, as many individuals with mental health issues continue to encounter barriers to accessing quality care, face coercive practices, and are often excluded from decision-making processes (who, 2022). personcentered care is founded on respect for individuals, their right to self-determination, mutual respect, and understanding (mccormack et al., 2010). in malta, community mental health clinics (cmhcs) cater to a diverse range of individuals, from those with mild mental health concerns to those with complex disorders. these clinics are staffed by healthcare professionals (hcps) and are publicly funded by the government, providing services free of charge to maltese citizens and residents. this study aims to enhance awareness, particularly among hcps, regarding the significance of personcentered care through the lived experiences of individuals with mental health issues utilizing clinical community mental health services in malta. 2. significance of the study there is a significant gap in research regarding person-centered care (pcc) within community mental health centers (cmhcs), with no local studies identified. the existing literature primarily highlights the importance of the therapeutic relationship between mental health service users and healthcare providers (hcps). service users have identified key elements that they value, including empathetic listening, respect for their identity, acceptance without judgment or stigma, a less hierarchical relationship, and the promotion of mental health knowledge to prevent severe mental illness (maassen et al., 2016; erin et al., 2018; youssef et al., 2020). the implementation of pcc is essential, as it leads to improved clinical outcomes when individuals are actively involved in decision-making and their holistic needs are addressed. benefits of pcc include decreased reliance on emergency hospital services, better management of complex chronic conditions (de silva, 2011), enhanced medication adherence (de silva, 2012; scerri, 2020), earlier engagement with community services, reduced anxiety and stress, and shorter hospital stays (de silva, 2012). thus, pcc not only improves individual health and well-being but also helps alleviate economic burdens at both global and national levels. relevant studies have shown that the outcomes of pcc, informed by the experiences of mental health service users, support the implementation of person-centered care in mental health environments (malmström et al., 2016; bacha et al., 2020). additionally, research by trevillion et al. (2020) and moore et al. (2017) indicates that pcc can prevent severe mental illnesses, enhance the health and well-being of individuals with mental health challenges, and improve the quality of care in cmhcs. these findings suggest that the field is still developing, highlighting the need for further investigation. pcc is not a novel concept; it has its roots in psychology. from 1902 to 1987, carl rogers, an american psychology pioneer, developed the humanistic theory of client-centered therapy, which he later renamed the person-centered approach. drawing from his experiences as a psychotherapist, rogers advocated for viewing individuals as persons rather than patients to promote their autonomy. his approach empowered individuals to become active participants in their therapy, based on the belief that people possess inherent resources for selfhssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 3 published by ideas spread knowledge and self-healing, and that personality change and development can occur in a supportive environment (rogers, 1967). rogers articulated that the primary objectives of person-centered therapy revolve around the therapist's ability to foster therapeutic attitudes such as congruence, unconditional positive regard, and empathic understanding of the client's internal perspective (rogers, 1967). the person-centered practice framework (pcpf) was revised by mccormack and mccance (2017) to include five interrelated domains: macro context, research influence, workforce development (informing curriculum development), and strategic and policy-level influence through leadership, all aligned with the core principles of person-centeredness in practice. the movement away from traditional medical models is also evident in other fields, including nursing, as exemplified by florence nightingale (1820–1910) (lauver et al., 2002). person-centered processes emphasize the activities necessary for delivering care and ensuring the effectiveness of person-centered practice. these activities encompass: a) aligning with patients' beliefs and values (e.g., respecting their values and listening to their narratives, acknowledging their uniqueness); b) engaging authentically (e.g., being honest and transparent, understanding their preferences, concerns, and goals); c) demonstrating care and respect to foster engagement and help individuals achieve their full health potential; d) being sympathetically present (e.g., providing support and a listening ear); and e) sharing decision-making (e.g., promoting self-determination, autonomy, and choice). holistic care enhances self-determination in decision-making and overall well-being, resulting in positive outcomes such as improved care experiences, a sense of well-being, and the cultivation of a healthy culture (mccormack & mccance, 2017). this study aims to investigate pcc through the lived experiences of individuals with mental health issues utilizing community mental health services. furthermore, the interview questions were crafted based on the theoretical framework of person-centered care, specifically focusing on the domain of personcentered processes, to gain a deeper understanding of the outcomes associated with this framework. 3. method the study aimed to accomplish two main objectives: first, to enhance the understanding of outcomes within the person-centered care (pcc) framework, and second, to investigate the holistic needs and healing outcomes of service users. purposive sampling was deemed the most suitable method, as it facilitated the intentional selection of participants capable of providing in-depth and relevant insights pertinent to the research question (polit & beck, 2018). a total of ten maltese adults, including four males, who were receiving support from the community mental health centre (cmhc) at the time, were recruited through intermediaries after obtaining all necessary ethical approvals and informed consent. the interviews, conducted in either maltese or english, lasted approximately one hour and comprised eight open-ended questions. all sessions were audio-recorded. interpretative phenomenological analysis (ipa) was selected as the research design (smith et al., 2009), recognized for its effectiveness in examining how participants interpret their lived experiences, perceptions, and understandings. the analysis adhered to the guidelines set forth by smith et al. (2009), which included: 1) familiarization with participants' narratives; 2) identification of emerging themes; 3) thematic connections; and 4) narrative writing. at this stage, final themes were translated to uncover relationships between emerging themes, with the analyst pinpointing contextual or narrative elements within the transcripts (see table 1). three overarching themes and several sub-themes were identified, culminating in a comprehensive table of themes derived from all participant interviews. throughout the study, careful attention was paid to contextual sensitivity, which included theoretical considerations, relevant literature, the sociocultural environment, participants' viewpoints, and ethical factors, as recommended by yardley (2000). a commitment to rigor, transparency, and coherence was upheld, in line with the literature (yardley, 2000). this was accomplished through a comprehensive and detailed documentation of the research process, providing justifications for each decision made. the interview guide was developed in both maltese (the participants' native language) and english, following the person-centered practice framework (pcpf) by mccormack and mccance (2017). it encompassed five key domains: addressing patients' beliefs and values, engaging authentically, being empathetic, facilitating shared decision-making, and delivering holistic care. the interview questions explored various topics, including a) participants' feelings regarding their visits to the cmhc; b) satisfaction with the responses to their inquiries; c) perceptions of respect and value; d) involvement of participants and/or their families in the care process; e) optimism about the care received; f) holistic aspects of care; and g) assessment of the current system. during the interviews, the researchers practiced reflection to maintain a clear distinction between their roles. particular emphasis was placed on empathy, full respect, and acceptance of the interviewees' experiences, which involved careful observation of non-verbal cues, body language, and emotional expressions. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 4 published by ideas spread table 1. ipa 6-step method journey developed from smith et al. (2009). step method 1. immersion in the reading & re-reading of original data, checking transcripts for accuracy against audio tape recordings, ensuring that the participant remains central to the analytical process. 2. initial notes registered which explore semantic and language whilst taking into account text associated with visual representations and metaphor 3. emergent themes are noted 4. searches for connections across emergent themes collated within a table 5. repeat process by moving onto the next case 6. look for patterns across all participants, whilst considering convergence & divergence alongside shared themes. participation in the study was completely voluntary, with informed consent obtained prior to the interviews. the research was approved by the ethics board, and all required permissions were acquired. participants were recruited through intermediaries, and all data collected was pseudonymized by assigning codes to the transcripts to maintain confidentiality. furthermore, participants were provided with access to complimentary psychological services should any needs arise during the study. 4. findings the participants were given the following pseudonyms: luke, anna, daniel, doris, carmen, kevin, jason, katie, maria, and rose. excerpts from their contributions are italicized, enclosed in quotation marks, and identified by the corresponding pseudonym. three overarching themes emerged from this study: 1. quality of care, 2. empathy, and 3. partnership and collaborative care. these themes are elaborated upon below. 4.1 quality of care the first significant theme identified was the quality of care, which includes three sub-themes: respect, participants' values, and understanding the participants. respect participants had varying perceptions of respect. for some, like maria, it meant "being treated with respect and safety because i am being followed." others found the experience more nuanced, with some expressing dissatisfaction with the care they received. for instance, daniel felt insecure while waiting at the cmhc due to the aggressive behavior of other patients. although some healthcare professionals (hcps) intervened to de-escalate these situations, this was not always consistent. participants' values understanding participants' values is crucial for grasping their perception of person-centered care (pcc). the interviews revealed that participants valued being treated with dignity and respect, recognized for their strengths and resilience, and honored for their beliefs and principles. building strong relationships and being addressed by their first names were also significant to them. kevin appreciated being called by his first name, while katie valued hcps who showed interest in her life beyond her medical condition, which empowered her. inquiring about a person's life and what they cherish emerged as essential. daniel noted that he felt happiest when nurses greeted him warmly and asked about his well-being and progress in his college course. participants emphasized the importance of kindness, friendliness, and attentive listening, which made them feel empowered and dignified. rose highlighted the need for full attention, while maria stressed the importance of being treated as an individual rather than a case or condition. these interactions underscored the significance of therapeutic relationships, aligning with person-centered processes within the pcpf. table 2. summary of superordinate and subordinate themes with participant’s excerpts hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 5 published by ideas spread no. superordinate theme subordinate theme subjects’ excerpts 1 quality care respect “i feel respected and safe as i have been followed-up” (doris, p.8, l44). values “i have learned. now i am independent” (daniel, p.6, l.38). understand participants all showed me kindness… they were sensitive and they know how to calm you down” (rose, p.21, l.132). 2 empathic support empathy “for me it means…listening to me” (carmen, p.20, l.61). lack of empathy “i didn’t always feel respected” (anna, p.3, l.15). 3 partnership & collaborative care care engagement “i think the care is complete (rose, p.21, l.137). education about care “they explained to me what to do” (doris, p.9, l.51). family involvement “they call my sister so that i will come for my injection” (jason, p.11, l.65). integration & comprehensive care “i feel satisfied with dignity” (luke, p.1, l.1) understanding participants understanding participants involved allowing sufficient time during visits to the cmhc and providing appropriate psychoeducation about their conditions. these factors were seen as strengths that made participants feel understood in their treatment and care. conversely, a lack of time, staff shortages, and heavy caseloads had the opposite effect. anna observed that while her treatment began slowly, it improved as she was asked about her life and given information about her medication, making her feel valued and understood. sharing experiences with hcps fostered a familial atmosphere, benefiting both parties. for example, jason felt on equal footing with his hcp when discussing lessons from his past. however, mutual understanding still required improvement in some cases, with issues such as time constraints, excessive paperwork, and staff shortages contributing to challenges. negative attitudes from hcps could also be problematic, leading participants to feel like "just a number." as carmen succinctly expressed, “sometimes i feel understood, and sometimes i feel like i am talking to a wall.” 4.2 emotional support emotional support emerged as the second major theme, emphasizing the importance of empathic care, which was either appreciated when present or felt as a loss when absent. empathy participants indicated that empathy from hcps, demonstrated through kindness, attention, and active listening, provided them with essential support. this empathic care instilled hope and a positive outlook toward treatment and life, which is vital for healing. participants like anna found it easier to confide in their hcps, especially during anxious moments. rose noted that when hcps listened attentively and acknowledged her anxiety and depression, it helped her feel calmer and more relaxed. many participants looked forward to their appointments, learning not to shy away from their problems, as luke described. lack of empathy hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 6 published by ideas spread conversely, a lack of empathy had detrimental effects. daniel compared it to a "sword," exacerbating the pain of patients already grappling with difficult issues. this absence of empathy could arise from misunderstandings, as carmen pointed out, when care felt routine or when side effects were overlooked, as katie experienced. 4.3 partnership and collaboration in care the third major theme, partnership and collaboration in care, included four sub-themes: engagement in care, education about care, family involvement, and integrated and comprehensive care. participants discussed how care was delivered and suggested improvements to enhance the quality of care and clinical community mental health services in malta. engagement in care when participants received appropriate information about their care and treatment, their trust and engagement increased. kevin appreciated timely and unconditional explanations, which enabled him to engage more fully in his care, recognizing the stakes for his health. rose echoed this sentiment, stating that trust in hcps is essential for effective care. education about care being informed about treatment options, receiving comprehensive information, and being involved in treatment decisions were vital for participants. while many felt involved, there was room for improvement. katie, for example, believed that greater involvement would have been beneficial, especially given the risk of relapse due to non-adherence to medications. frequent changes in psychiatrists also caused anxiety, as carmen described feeling confused when the trust she had built with one psychiatrist was lost with another. personal traits like shyness could hinder effective communication. anna, who was shy and reserved, struggled to express her opinions on medication changes. jason added that some patients might hesitate to voice their concerns to avoid "rocking the boat," even though this might not lead to the desired care. family involvement family involvement in care elicited mixed reactions from participants. while some valued their privacy and preferred not to involve family members, others found family support therapeutic and beneficial. daniel described his family as a team, and doris appreciated the involvement of her husband and daughter in her care. integrated and comprehensive care many participants expressed optimism about the quality of care at the local cmhc, feeling grateful for the personalized attention they received. maria appreciated that her questions were heard, understood, and valued, while anna valued the collaborative approach in deciding when to receive treatment. holistic care, which addressed not only physical but also psychological, social, and spiritual needs, was also highly regarded. for instance, maria felt that the hcp’s input helped her better understand and manage her condition. participants identified three strengths of the cmhc services: prompt action and emotional support from hcps, the availability of free services, and the integration of physical and mental health care, which helped reduce stigma. however, they also noted weaknesses, such as limited time, lack of empathy, and a desire for more involvement in treatment decisions. final suggestions for improvement included enhanced training for hcps to strengthen therapeutic relationships, increased patient and family involvement, and improved logistics, such as consistency in consultants and a more effective follow-up system. 5. discussion 5.1 critique of the findings the objective of this study was to explore person-centered care (pcc) through the lived experiences of individuals facing mental health challenges who utilize community mental health care (cmhc) services in malta. this investigation provided the researcher with a comprehensive understanding of the outcomes associated with pcc and the factors that influence the holistic needs and healing processes of the participants. this chapter will interpret and critically analyze the findings of the study in relation to existing literature, integrating the researcher’s insights with the findings and relevant literature, as guided by smith et al. (2009). the chapter will conclude by discussing the strengths and limitations of the study. the literature review indicates a significant gap in research focused on the lived experiences of individuals with mental health issues who engage with clinical community mental health services (bacha et al., 2020; malmström et al., 2016). to the authors' knowledge, this study is pioneering in this area, aiming to address this evident gap. the findings reveal a combination of strengths and weaknesses within the current community mental health services system. specifically, in relation to the study’s objectives, the results suggest potential for a pcc approach, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 7 published by ideas spread although notable limitations remain. these findings highlight the necessity for substantial improvements at both the micro-level (individual care) and macro-level (system-wide and health authorities), particularly in areas such as enhanced training, increased patient involvement in care, and improved logistics. three overarching themes emerged from the results. the first theme, "quality care," was elucidated through three subordinate themes: respect, values, and the understanding of participants by healthcare professionals (hcps). according to the world health organization (2023), quality care encompasses effectiveness, safety, peoplecenteredness, timeliness, equity, integration, and efficiency. mutual respect is widely acknowledged as a fundamental aspect of care, particularly within pcc frameworks. participants reported feeling safer and more respected when they were satisfied with the services received, especially in after-care. this contrasts with findings by malmström et al. (2016), where patients often felt anxious and burdened by follow-up care due to issues related to access, communication, and logistics. instances of disrespect from hcps towards participants in this study align with findings from related studies (bacha et al., 2020; malmström et al., 2016; newman et al., 2015; trevillion et al., 2022). moore et al. (2017) noted that hcps frequently reverted to traditional care models, whether consciously or unconsciously, indicating a lack of interest, knowledge, or commitment. such tendencies often resulted in more complicated treatment outcomes for the patients involved. moore et al. emphasized the necessity for ongoing education and practice to effectively implement pcc, as deficiencies in these areas impede its adoption (moore et al., 2017). additional recommendations include the incorporation of professional de-escalation techniques to manage aggressive patients, as highlighted by mccormack and mccance (2017). the study also underscored the importance of values. participants emphasized the need for hcps to acknowledge and respect their values, which was crucial for their engagement in care. according to maassen et al. (2016), treating patients as unique individuals and respecting their value systems are essential for effective care. participants expressed a desire to be recognized for their individual strengths and competencies. conversely, baker (2001) noted that creating a welcoming environment is the first step toward enabling a pcc approach. the study highlighted that hcps’ attitudes, including kindness, friendliness, and a willingness to listen, fostered a nonjudgmental environment, a key aspect of pcc. bacha et al. (2020) found that when hcps treated patients as equals, it improved their sense of self-worth and dignity. lastly, the third subordinate theme, "understanding participants," was emphasized by findings indicating that participants experienced positive outcomes, such as feeling safer and more confident in their care, when they perceived their hcps as understanding and supportive (bacha, 2020). mccormack and mccance (2017) identified characteristics such as being listened to, actively involved in care, and treated with genuine respect as essential for pcc. a lack of these qualities often led to psychological distress and disengagement between service users and hcps. the second overarching theme, "emotional support," was examined through two subordinate themes: the presence and absence of empathy. the american psychological association (2019) defines empathy as a sensitive understanding of the patient’s feelings, which is crucial for forming a strong therapeutic alliance. participants who experienced empathy from their hcps reported feeling valued and more engaged in their treatment. trevillion et al. (2022) found that empathic listening and validation of experiences enhanced participants' sense of value and engagement in their care. however, some participants, particularly males, expressed that they did not require emotional support, a difference that may be influenced by cultural factors, as noted by fischer et al. (2018). while some participants reported receiving empathic care, others expressed dissatisfaction, highlighting the need for heartfelt care (maassen et al., 2016). malmström et al. (2016) found that a lack of empathy in hcps led patients to feel misunderstood and uncared for, particularly in community clinics and hospitals. while our findings align with those of bacha et al. (2020) regarding the importance of empathy in care, our study also revealed that cultural factors in malta, such as strong family ties, play a unique and crucial role in the delivery of pcc, which could be significant for other small communities. the third and final overarching theme, "partnership and collaboration in care," was divided into four subordinate themes: engagement in care, education about care, family involvement, and integrated and comprehensive care. engagement in care was noted when participants felt informed and involved in their treatment, leading to increased trust in their hcps and better health outcomes. youssef et al. (2020) found that patient confidence in hcps was crucial for engagement in treatment and adherence to necessary lifestyle changes. henderson et al. (2020) highlighted that authentic engagement in care involves congruence, honesty, and transparency, which are essential for achieving optimal health and well-being outcomes (mccormack & mccance, 2017). education about care emerged as another critical theme, with participants expressing a desire for more information and involvement in decision-making. the literature consistently indicates that mental health patients often lack adequate information about their care (bacha et al., 2020; maassen et al., 2016; malmström et al., 2016). logistical issues, such as inconsistent care from different doctors and long waiting lists, were also highlighted as detrimental to patient wellhssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 8 published by ideas spread being (newman et al., 2015; maassen et al., 2016; trevillion et al., 2022). family involvement in care was deemed crucial by many participants, particularly in cultures like malta, where family ties are strong. malmström et al. (2016) and trevillion et al. (2022) also found that family involvement provided essential social support and communication assistance. however, one participant felt independent enough not to require family involvement. the final subordinate theme, integrated and comprehensive care, revealed mixed results. some participants were optimistic about the holistic care they received, while others felt that their care focused too narrowly on medical aspects. trevillion et al. (2022) similarly found that participants desired more holistic and inclusive care, addressing not just medical symptoms but also broader lifestyle and psychological needs. maassen et al. (2016) noted a preference among service users for a broader approach to care, including attention to lifestyle, psychological, social, and nutritional factors. among the strengths identified by participants were the emotional support, availability, and attention provided by hcps. however, participants also noted weaknesses, particularly the lack of respect, empathy, and patient involvement in decision-making. these areas are crucial for the successful implementation of pcc-oriented treatment. 5.2 recovery and person-centered care (pcc) recovery, like pcc, involves an individual’s exploration of how to find meaning in their reality. this process includes making informed decisions while maintaining control over the situation, often with the support of significant others. recovery is understood as a journey. hummelvoll (2012) describes it as a mission along one’s life path. three key aspects define 'recovery': a) recovery as a natural process, b) clinical recovery, and c) recovery as the ability to hold onto hope and positivity despite ongoing symptoms or functional impairments. hummelvoll (2012) identifies several factors that contribute to this dynamic process, including intrapersonal elements (such as regaining self-confidence and self-control), interpersonal interactions, the social environment, and the journey of finding meaning. andresen, caputi, and oades (2006) proposed five stages of recovery: a) moratorium (a deep sense of loss and hopelessness), b) awareness (a sense of hope that not all is lost), c) preparation (the recovery process), d) rebuilding (a proactive approach towards regaining control and meaningfulness), and e) growth (living a full life). leamy et al. (2011), in their systematic review and narrative synthesis, identified an emerging conceptual framework for recovery that includes a) 13 characteristics of the recovery journey and b) five key recovery processes: connectedness, hope/optimism, identity, meaning, and empowerment. studies focusing on black and minority ethnic groups highlighted the importance of spirituality and stigma while also emphasizing culture and collective notions of recovery. to apply this to healthcare systems in small countries such as malta, it is essential to recognize that what applies to other countries may not necessarily apply to small communities. moreover, small regions may also have unique conditions and systems not found elsewhere. stanhope et al. (2021) highlight that person-centered care (pcc) serves as a crucial quality indicator for fostering holistic and recovery-focused services. both pcc and recovery services strive to instill hope for the future, impart a sense of purpose in life, empower individuals to make informed choices, and encourage a proactive lifestyle. these services are customized to meet the unique needs of each individual, ensuring personalized care. according to stanhope et al. (2021), the recovery model comprises five fundamental elements: hope, personal responsibility, education, self-advocacy, and support. in a pcc recovery plan, individuals in recovery collaborate closely with their healthcare providers (hcps). this study's findings underscore that while community mental health care seeks to promote a health system centered on person-centeredness and recovery (who, 2021), it is crucial to recognize existing cultural frameworks, particularly the medical model, that may impede this advancement. furthermore, galea and zammit galea (2024) discovered that adopting a person-centered approach within community mental health services not only empowers individuals but also enhances clinical outcomes, ultimately benefiting the wider community. 5.3 strengths and limitations this study presents several strengths and limitations. it fills existing gaps in both local and international research regarding individuals with mental health issues who sought assistance from community services. notably, it is the first local study of its kind and one of the few qualitative investigations on this topic globally. the research offers a comprehensive qualitative analysis based on the lived experiences of participants with diverse mental health challenges, focusing on how the care received aligns with person-centered care (pcc) principles. utilizing interpretative phenomenological analysis (ipa) enabled participants to articulate their experiences, revealing both the strengths and weaknesses of the current system while providing suggestions for better alignment with pcc principles. additional strengths include allowing participants to express themselves in their native language or english for improved clarity, employing professional translation to accurately convey participants' views, and maintaining a reflective diary throughout the research and data analysis process to reduce potential bias. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 9 published by ideas spread however, the qualitative nature of the study poses limitations, particularly in terms of generalizability. the small sample size may restrict the applicability of the findings, although this is consistent with ipa methodology (smith et al., 2019). there is also the potential for response bias, especially if participants were aware that the interviewer was a healthcare professional, a concern that may be heightened in a small country like malta. while the local context may limit the generalizability of the results, the findings indicate that implementing a pcc approach in community mental health services can significantly improve patient outcomes by emphasizing empathetic care and family involvement. it is essential for policymakers and healthcare professionals to prioritize training programs that enhance these aspects, particularly in areas with strong community and family connections. future research is recommended to utilize larger and more diverse samples and to compare the implementation of pcc across different regions or countries. 5.4 recommendations several recommendations are put forward to improve the integration of person-centered care (pcc) within healthcare programs: education and training: current educational programs for healthcare professionals (hcps) should enhance their curriculum by incorporating updated education and new pcc initiatives. this will facilitate the implementation of humanistic approaches that encourage greater engagement with service users and empower them to achieve their full potential, as described in the person-centered practice framework (mccormack, 2003; mccormack & mccance, 2017). continual practice development (cpd): cpd courses that emphasize a pcc perspective should be created for existing hcps. management should prioritize the enhancement of follow-up systems and, when feasible, ensure that patients are seen by the same consultants. furthermore, hcps should be encouraged to apply pcc flexibly to address the unique needs of each patient, thereby fostering partnership and collaboration in care and treatment to improve the overall quality of care (who, 2023). research expansion: given the limited research on pcc from the perspectives of individuals with mental health issues utilizing community mental health centers (cmhcs), additional studies are necessary. future research should examine the practices and experiences of pcc from the viewpoints of both hcps and the relatives and families of patients. 6. conclusion in summary, our findings are consistent with existing research highlighting several interrelated factors, including: a) mutual respect for values, b) mutual understanding, c) quality care, d) the necessity of moving beyond traditional care models, particularly the medical model, to provide more comprehensive patient attention, e) patient engagement in care that fosters confidence in healthcare professionals (hcps), f) the need for enhanced education about care, and g) the appropriate management of logistical issues. while our findings reaffirm the critical role of empathy in care, they also indicate that cultural factors in malta, such as strong family ties, significantly influence the delivery of person-centered care (pcc), which may be relevant for other small communities. family involvement was identified as essential for holistic treatment, especially in cultures with strong familial connections. these findings underscore a persistent need for advancement and development in this sector, where several issues remain unaddressed, as noted in previous research. this study illustrates that implementing a pcc approach in community mental health services can greatly improve patient outcomes, particularly by prioritizing empathetic care and family involvement. policymakers and healthcare professionals should focus on training programs that promote these elements, particularly in areas with strong community ties, which are often characteristic of small countries. additionally, in alignment with who recommendations, this study advocates for increased collaboration among small countries in areas such as continuous professional development and the sharing of techniques and resources to address the specific needs and challenges of each community, while also investing in evidence-based initiatives to combat stigma. ultimately, further research is essential to develop a comprehensive and effective pcc approach within community mental health services. references american psychology association. 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(2020b). “caring about me": a pilot framework to understand patient-centered care experience in integrated care – a qualitative study. bmj open, 10(7), e034970. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2019-034970 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v4n1p1 1 published by ideas spread islamic policy of the dutch east indies colonial government in madura in the first quarter of the 20th century iswahyudi1 1 yogyakarta state university, yogyakarta, indonesia correspondence: iswahyudi, yogyakarta state university, yogyakarta, indonesia. received: december 11, 2020; accepted: january 3, 2021; published: january 6, 2021 abstract at first the dutch east indies government policy towards islam was wrong, because islam in the dutch east indies was considered a strict religion like the hierarchical priesthood and the pope in christianity where there was a high relationship of loyalty to the turkish caliph, so that islam was considered a formidable enemy. starting with the implementation of a massive policy by the dutch east indies government to suppress muslims, for example, one of them was in terms of limiting and heavier the regulations for the implementation of the pilgrimage, but in reality, regardless of the obstacles, the frequency of going on hajj was still high. awareness of the mistakes in political policy towards islam, the figure of cristian snouck hurgronje, one of the supporters of ethical currents in the netherlands, appeared, submitting a letter to the minister of the colonies on june 2, 1889 to participate in solving problems in the dutch east indies. in this case snouk hurgronje was the main advisor and was assisted by advisers consisting of one for arab affairs and two experts in regional languages in the dutch east indies. based on snouck hurgronje's advice, the dutch colonial government distinguished between islam in the meaning of worship and islam as a social, social and political force. this policy towards islam is divided into three categories, namely the socio-religious field, the socio-cultural sector, and the socio-political sector. keywords: dutch east indies government, islamic policy, snouck hurgronje, madura, hajj i. introduction something that became the core discourse in the history of the colonial period, especially in the dutch east indies, was the significant relationship between the expansion of colonial countries and pan-islamism. the first valve, which was related to the interests of colonialism, was when the dutch government applied pacification politics, namely preparing policies that could cover all interests. in general, it is divided into three departments and each function is adjusted according to its geographical position. the first is the parent government based in the hague, whose status is to focus attention on legislative issues. second, the central government in batavia combined legislative and administrative functions, although in carrying out its functions it was subject to general regulations that had been outlined by the central government in the netherlands. the third was the administrative department at the local level run by officials throughout the dutch east indies (van den berg, 1900, pp. 228-269; hurgronje, 1931, pp. 244-245). the second valve is related to the issue of pan-islamism, which at that time many people studied the story of the russian war against turkey or if in the archipelago it was known as the rus war. this story has a big influence on the minds of muslims who live in countries with muslim populations. even the people of the archipelago are eager to know about developments and every victory on the part of sultan rum is always remembered and celebrated accompanied by prayers and alms (kartodirdjo, 1984, p. 209). he admitted that the sultan of turkey, who was said to be the legitimate ruler who could persistently defeat the infidels and muslims were called to pray for him, allegedly because since the 1880s many scholars have spoken using a book entitled majmu al khatab written by abdul rakhman bin ismail. bin nabatah al miri had a big influence on pan islamism in the dutch east indies (hurgronje, 1931, p.258). besides the existence of the seeds of pan-islamism, it seems that the real contribution is the formation of a broad communication system in the islamic world which is built through the implementation of the haj pilgrimage. related to the rise of the pilgrimage, this is an analogy with the symptoms of the islamic renaissance which were supported simultaneously inspired by the spirit of wahabi puritanism and furthermore by the reforms brought about by shaykh muhammad abduh during the 19th century. this means that news about the islamic community can reach the most distant places. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 2 published by ideas spread holle noted that a revival of religious life was manifesting in an increasing number of pesantren and people going on the pilgrimage. the increasing number of mosques that were erected was a sign of the increasing devotion of muslim worship in the dutch east indies. various information heard until the dutch government was the role of a pilgrim who received honor from the muslim community who became a follower or student (steenbrink, 2017, p. 53). it can be said that since the second half of the 19th century the dutch government showed suspicion of muslim clerics who were considered to be the instigators of various rebellions in various parts of the dutch east indies. this is because the traditional rulers have experienced a decline, so that the people who usually live in rural areas present new, trusted leaders, namely the kyai and hajj. with the strengthening of the community every year to go on the pilgrimage and placing mecca as the center of islam, it also influences the context of opposing something that is considered infidels. they opposed the authority and leadership of not only the traditional indigenous elite, but also the colonial government, which consequently felt the need to continue to observe the actions of these new leaders (suryanegara, 1995, p. 130). in line with this the dutch government began to adopt a new tactic by developing a special policy towards islam. an investigation of the general development of pan-islamism and religious revival shows that during this period it occurred in a striking manner and was characterized by inherently anti-western characteristics. the conquests carried out by western imperialism are making great progress in this crucial period. various muslims are fully aware that the muslim world is in danger of falling under western domination. in the face of this threat from the west, muslims in large parts of the crescent moon world display militant fanaticism that arises from feelings of hatred for the pagan conquerors (stoddard, 1966). the important position of islam in people's life which is identified with nativity is to serve as the strongest expression to express loyalty to the homeland in opposing foreign invaders. this was natural if the colonial government was very suspicious of islam and treated them specifically, namely that islam was seen not only as a threat to security and order policies (rust end order), but also to the future of the continuation of occupation and occupation in the dutch east indies. ii. research methods to find out about islamic policy of the dutch east indies colonial government in madura in the first quarter of the 20th century, it was carried out using the historical method or historical research method which can be interpreted as a systematic collection of principles and rules intended to help effectively collect historical source material, in assessing or studying these sources are critical, and present a "synthesis" of the results achieved. this method is qualitative in the form of literature study using written sources from the national archives collection of the republic of indonesia and libraries in the form of archives, books, journals, newspapers and other printed sources (garraghan,1957, p. 33). primary and secondary data collection techniques are carried out through literature studies conducted by visiting various libraries and agencies that store written material in the form of archival material at the national archives of the republic of indonesia, jakarta, written materials in the form of monographs, magazines and newspapers published at that time in the national library of the republic. indonesia and written materials in the form of reference books in other libraries. after the search for written material has been completed, the next step is to select and verify the data and compile it into writing (iswahyudi, 2020, p.469). iii. colonial government islamic policies in madura it turned out that at first the dutch government's policy towards islam was wrong, because islam in the dutch east indies was considered a strict religion such as hierarchical priests and popes in christianity where there was a high relationship of loyalty to the turkish caliph, so that islam was considered a formidable enemy and even if necessary. the indigenous population must be christianized (suminto, 1985, p. 9). it is easy to christianize the indigenous population, as in java, that strong islam is a santri group and others are still in syncretism with hinduism, so that they can be divided through the politics of divide et impera. starting with the implementation of a massive policy by the dutch government to pressure muslims, for example, one of which was in terms of limiting and heavier regulations on the implementation of the pilgrimage, but in reality, regardless of the obstacles, the frequency of going on hajj was still high. even the dutch government increasingly realized that from 1820 to 1880 there were major rebellions, including the padri war, the dipanegara war, the rebellion of banten farmers, and the aceh war, all of which were led by religious leaders or with an islamic background. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 3 published by ideas spread realizing the mistake in seeing muslims in the dutch east indies because the special advisor on islam and the natives, who at that time was assigned to holle, was not good at islamic knowledge so he had to find an appropriate replacement. together with the victory of the liberal party in the netherlands or in the name of the ethics, this was to give a new direction in terms of policy in the dutch east indies colony. the point of this policy is to try to have humanitarian principles so that there is no glaring gap between the central government and the colony. awareness of the mistakes in political policy towards islam, the figure of cristian snouck hurgronje, one of the supporters of ethical currents in the netherlands, submitted a letter to the minister of the colonies on june 2, 1889 to participate in solving the dutch east indies (gobee and g. adiaanse, 1990, p.xxiv-xxv). one year later snouck hurgronje came to the dutch east indies with his main task being to conduct research on the acehnese tribe, and only settled in batavia in 1892. in working activities to think about this policy, in 1899 a place was agreed to think about indigenous problems or what was called kantoor voor inlandsche zaken, although physically the office was only established in 1918. in this case snouk hurgronje was the main advisor and was assisted by advisers consisting of one for arab affairs and two regional language experts in the dutch east indies. based on snouck hurgronje's advice, the dutch colonial government distinguished between islam in the meaning of worship and islam as a socio-political force. this policy towards islam is divided into three categories, namely the socioreligious field, the socio-cultural sector, and the socio-political sector. in the socio-religious field, snouck hurgronje offered to change the concerns of the dutch colonial government into an expectation. the policy towards muslims was to allow all pure worship activities and religious rituals to be in the form of tolerance and to give as much freedom as possible. in this way it is hoped that the indigenous people will feel safe in their worship, so that they voluntarily submit to the dutch government. regarding social relations, one must show an attitude that seems to pay attention to islam, one of them is by improving places of worship. it prohibited the supervision of pesantren activities that were not political in nature, and even criticized the dutch government's actions if they hampered the implementation of the pilgrimage to mecca. the oppression of religious adherents in carrying out worship is not only unwise, but is considered unnecessary and is considered dishonorable for a nation in the world that is embracing religious freedom as in the netherlands (suminto, 1985, p. 119; benda, 1980, p. 44). in the field of islamic law, snouck hurgronje offers a concept that its existence or legal strength will only be recognized when it has been accepted by the dutch east indies community or has become customary law. in this concept, it is intended to kill islamic law by preserving customary law. islamic law which is derived from allah's revelation according to theory should cover all life with all its reality through the rules of everything (khuluq, 1991, p. 45). according to snouck hurgronje, the process of islamization in the dutch east indies was not yet complete, it still had to fight against the strength of customary law which was influenced by previous religions and beliefs, so that mixing islamic law with customary law often happened. from the two sources of law, differences of opinion as witnessed by snouck hurgronje among the acehnese as well as in other regions are normal. therefore snouck hurgronje took advantage of such a situation to divide muslims and also mobilize all local rulers to support and assist groups that socially have shallow islamic fanaticism, namely the customary chiefs, priyayi, and the abangan community (van ' t veer, 1985, p. 250). however, the function of adat as a barrier to the spread of islamic influence, which is dynamic and universal, cannot be completely relied upon. it is feared that the support for traditional customary law which continuously harms muslims is feared to raise their awareness of hatred towards the dutch government. in addition, the slow development of customary law was unable to fulfill long-term colonial goals, despite the fact that islamic law was also not allowed to control customary law. according to snouck hurgronje, although islam can change customs, it basically cannot evoke the higher dynamics of modern civilization. this is because islam in the dutch east indies found it difficult to leave its indian character and medieval decline. moreover, islamic civilization is considered to be a form of degeneration from western-christian civilization, so that islam according to western understanding cannot be used as a support for progress (harini, 2007, p. 64). in the socio-cultural field, snouck hurgronje developed the idea of association politics, which is basically about a strategy to change muslim beliefs towards western culture which is considered the most noble (suminto, aqib, h., 1985, p. 39). it was believed that this politics was the long-term goal of the colonial government, especially with regard to making the population of the dutch east indies modern, close to the equivalent of the west. the association politics also aimed to strengthen the ties between the colony and the central government in the netherlands through western-style culture and education (benda, 1980, p.47). the association will eliminate the striking differences in political and social aspects between the indigenous population and the dutch people and will also eliminate the ideals of islam from all their strengths. indirectly, association politics would also support the spread of christianity in the dutch east indies. with the separation of muslims from the spirit of their religious hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 4 published by ideas spread teachings, it is hoped that it can be directed to dominate muslims without gun violence. any tendency for the priyayi especially priyayi to associate should be welcomed and further assisted. through education, it was hoped that the natives would be oriented towards the west and be loyal to the dutch government. the principle of association is inseparable from the effort to win and compete with islam for colonial preservation (saidi, 1994, p. 59). in the socio-political field snouck hurgronje remains vigilant on the issue of pan islamism so that activities to stem it are continuously pursued. although it was admitted that in practice it was not very visible in the dutch east indies, the suspicion of concern was still latent which could explode at any time, so that the attempt to form a modern civilization by imitating the west was one of the right choices. related to the existence of islam in madura, snouck hurgronje is based on the dutch missionaries and observers who have come before, including van den berg, fokkens, claerenbeck and esser. they were always careful in making notes and reports on madura and even being written into colonial magazine articles or neutral observers in the dutch east indies. in his commentary on islam in madura snouck hurgronje also suggested that there should be special attention no different from the island of java. in addition to the increasing number of people, because if without a critical viewpoint, madura will pose a serious threat (hurgronje, 1994, p.50). snouck hurgronje's consideration was based on the fact that islam when brought directly by people from hadramaut was a positive response. one example is the ruler in sumenep, namely sultan paku nataningrat who ruled from 1812 to 1854. among those who came to madura was sayid abd-ar rahman al-baiti, by sultan paku nataningrat was appointed a teacher of islam and arabic for his family. . related to this, the sultan has a large library specifically for collections of arabic manuscripts and javanese literature. with the ability to speak arabic, sultan paku nataningrat often communicated with religious experts from other hadramaut especially with abd ar-rahman bin ahmad al-misri, abd allah bin somair, and sayid umar baharun in batavia to provide insight into astronomy. then specifically for sayid shaykh bin ahmad bafaqih was as the educator of the sultan's family. this figure was considered by sultan paku nataningrat to have a reputation as a watchful sayid or ahl al-khasyf, which meant that he was an expert in predicting a person's fate (van den berg, 1900, p. 149). snouck hurgronje also seriously considered the policies that would later be taken by the government because customary law was still strong or similar to this norm among the madurese. in this case van den berg has said that not all islamic laws must be strictly enforced but must be juxtaposed with customary law. when there is confusion between the application of customary law, islamic law and colonial government regulations, especially those related to religious issues will be submitted to the ulama council. an example of this is a case that occurred in blega village, which because it is located in an area far from the city, the management of the mosque and the population was taken over by the leader who often even served as a judge (van den berg, 1882, p. 29) . by giving an honorable status to the ulama, it proves that the local madurese rulers were successful in carrying out their duties as stated in article 17 of government regulation (regering reglement) number. 114 in 1867, namely the supervision and order of the scholars. regarding other customary laws, fokkens also reported the condition of madura villages, especially in sumenep and pamekasan. at that time the perdikan villages in madura had been imposed on the local rulers and were limited to maintaining mosques, tombs, and islamic boarding schools, so they were considered not to endanger the dutch government (fokkens, 1886, pp. 441-501). when there was a burden on the local authorities, especially regarding mosques and tombs, it turned out that they had to ask for help from officials at the local level, namely the rulers and ketibs. the work of religious officials at the local level was also monitored by the dutch government, so that in 1866 it issued a regulation which strictly prohibited village heads to regents from interfering in the collection of religious taxes. even so, what happened in sumenep, the rulers and headmen were suspected of corrupting them, because it was reported that a prince had withdrawn 10 rials of money for the wedding. in addition, it also attracts zakat in the form of goods, namely one rooster and two coconuts. for each eid al-fitr, he receives a fitrah of four catties of rice and money, and in the month of the month the victim receives 10 catties of meat, one chicken, rice and soybeans. all of that from the leader, the results are divided by ketib, so that this action is considered something burdensome for the small people in madura (anri, algemeen verslag regentschap soemenep, madoera over 1866). starting because of snouck hurgronje's miss regarding the dangerous prediction of muslims in madura, other tasks could be completed in batavia. even the assistant resident could approach the local madurese rulers, namely the regents of sumenep, bangkalan, and pamekasan. apart from being local officials, they also become ulama, so that they can take over their roles. various religious activities are also carried out, for example every friday prayer congregation at the jami 'mosque or the large mosque in the regency of the three regents, namely bangkalan, pamekasan, and sumenep, always becomes preacher, with arabic reading material brought by people from hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 5 published by ideas spread hadramaut . in fact, especially for the regent of sumenep, the people got the title "sultan of turkey". the impact that has been carried out can be said to be successful, because if the people are absent from attending congregational prayers they feel a burden of sin, so the mosque is always full (van den berg,1882, p.28). the source of information that stated something conducive was obtained from claerenbeck's report, which was considered representative of the picture of islam in rural madura. it is told that a man named man barmidin, a rich man in the village of raun, in the afdeeling sumenep area, had two children named mesi who became the wife of mr. haverveld, a tobacco plantation supervisor and one man named sarim. originally man barmidin was ignorant of religion and even became an opium sucker and gambler, but with his wealth he eventually became close to the ulama, so he hated the dutch because they were considered infidels. the pilgrimage is an option just a matter of time, while mr. haverveld's son-in-law who is a dutchman can still look after it well for the sake of his family. great hope was only for his son sarim, who was always persuaded to study religion from a scholar named kyai mas to become a good muslim. at first sarim idealized studying science from his brother-in-law mr. haverveld, so that he didn't seem to want to become a scholar according to his father's expectations. when the opportunity arises because mr. haverveld was transferred by the assistant resident with an assignment in bangkalan, man barmidin could take over to become a large tobacco plantation entrepreneur, so that he became the richest man in his village. furthermore, man barmidin also partnered with several arab traders in madura, so that he changed his appearance by always wearing a turban, maintaining a beard, and increasing his religious insight. sarim was always persuaded to study religion with his friend kyai mas, because he was promised that after reading the khatam khatam would immediately be circumcised by his father, man barmidin. as it is known, the tradition of circumcision is a pride for madurese boys, because they are considered adults and have the hope of getting married to their lover's girl, namely the daughter of pa 'mor who happens to be man barmidin's labor worker (claerenbeck, 1882 , pp. 390-393). in addition to reports or information written by some observers of the dutch nation about the development of islam in madura which was not really that worrying, there were also comments that were considered negative towards the development of islam in madura, especially accusations at the level of religious quality. according to esser, when he was on duty to treat the madurese people, he had asked the people about the existence of god or allah, but generally they could not explain. even the word "allah" according to them is just an ordinary word and seems to have no big meaning. it is even told that the madurese still believe that after death their spirit will become a roaming cat. spirits of the female gender are described as having very large breasts and function to hide small children. then another image of evil spirits is in the form of a large white flame emitting a sound like a leaf rustling in a strong wind. there are also spirits depicted as human bodies but without backs, faces like monkeys and heads with two horns. meanwhile, another monster image that madurese fear is the form of two dragons that often move from place to place and then return after three months (esser, 1882, pp. 29-30). as it is known that esser was a dutchman who was deliberately brought to madura as a zending and mission officer, such a statement is natural because conversion to christianity is not possible on this island. this report may also have no effect because snouck hurgronje considers that islamic policy in madura is quite conducive, based on events before his appointment as an indigenous advisor in the dutch east indies, especially islam in 1889. in relation to the socio-cultural field, as implemented by the education association in the dutch east indies, in this case snouck hurgronje was optimistic that the power of islam would not be able to compete with western education (benda, 1965, p. 134). thus the educational placement is entirely of a political nature and does not take into account that the activities of the various traditional pesantren in madura that have previously existed are entirely moral in nature. islamic boarding school education was not considered hierarchical in the colonial bureaucracy, but with the large number of pilgrims returning from mecca, when they arrived in madura they were given an honorable place to become religious teachers and were given the title of ulama or kyai. the policy of implementing western education in the dutch east indies for natives had actually been since 1853, but in madura it was first established in sumenep in 1862, pamekasan and bangkalan in 1864 (verslag van het inlandsche onderwijs in nederlandsch indie over 1863). with this consideration because it is estimated that the madurese population is not that enthusiastic, because it is possible that some are used to attending islamic boarding schools and some do not know after graduating from their indigenous education. at first the dutch government in providing indigenous education was forced to free of charge, so that the acquisition of students was not only from the aristocratic group but also the common people who were still in poverty. after it was discovered that by passing indigenous education, they were guaranteed to work for the government even though it was limited to the administrative field, the madurese were enthusiastic and sometimes after receiving education they immediately continued to go to the bumi putra school. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 6 published by ideas spread table 1. development of indigenous education in madura 1900-1915 government subsidy school student type first class second class school student 1900 1905 1910 1915* 1 3 3 n.a (tidak tersedia data) 6 7 17 27 1.335 2.024 3.347 4.415 1 2 2 7 50 106 216 555 * there are 37 village schools with 2,431 students. in the following two decades, in 1934/1935, indigenous primary schools jumped to 231 and 23,001 students (19,493 boys, 3,508 girls). source: kuntowijoyo, perubahan sosial dalam masyarakat agraris madura 1850 1940. yogyakarta: matabangsa, 2002, p. 453. starting from the enthusiasm of the population in getting an education, the need to establish schools continues to be carried out, even in villages including branta, kwanyer, and blega. until 1907 the village schools were only grade one and grade two with lessons given in madura, malay, arithmetic, and geography. the development that was considered positive for the dutch government was the expansion of education to rural areas, because many administrative staff at the plantation or village government level were literate, thus increasing the smooth running of jobs. on the other hand, although it was never explicitly stated by the dutch government with the progress of literacy, it also affected the sarekat islam movement figures, most of them were those who had received western education (kuntowijoyo, 2002, p.474). iv. solidarity for hajj in madura regarding the number of madurese people who have carried the title of hajj in the period before the arrival of the dutch, so far strong and actual evidence has not been found. it was only when the colonial government had exercised its authority there that a formal policy was implemented regarding the implementation of the haj pilgrimage for the indigenous population, namely based on the governor general's resolution dated 18 october 1825 number 9. in this resolution there are several requirements that must be met by residents for the purposes of carrying out worship hajj, which is the most important thing is to have a hajj passport or retourbiljetten as proof of identity. if this requirement is violated, the person concerned will be subject to a fine of 110 guilders. this policy was implemented for the first time in the framework of a trial and still limited to the residents of batavia. as it is known that since 1825 the pilgrimage was still using sailing ships or zeilschips so that the journey to mecca was felt to be very heavy and too challenging to death because of the sea conditions which were very rough. in addition to the heavy journey in the sea, after arriving in arab lands they still had to continue their journey from jeddah mecca medina for 12 days and often during this journey they encountered security problems including robbers from the baduwi tribe (anri. resolutie van den gouverneur-general. van nederlandsch indie van 18 october 1825, no. 9). it was only in the middle of 1858 that the pilgrimage journey started using a steam boat or stoomschip so that it would shorten the travel time and the safety factor while at sea tended to be more secure. this of course affects the development of the increasing number of prospective pilgrims. simultaneously with this, the colonial government used the opportunity to take advantage by participating in the haj pilgrimage transportation business by collaborating with three existing large shipping airlines, namely the dutch shipping companies, rotterdamsche lloyd, and ocean (majid, 2008, pp. 64-66). based on the annual report on the number of pilgrims in 1861, the increase in the number of prospective pilgrims in the dutch east indies reached its peak in 1858, with a total of 12,985 people (eisenberger, 1928, p. 25). according to a report made by jacquet, based on existing data, information about the madurese population who for the first time departed for the pilgrimage was in 1857 with a total of 20 people, in 1858 there were 13 people and the peak in 1859 was 163 people (jacquet, 1980, pp. 310311). they are scattered in afdeeling-afdeeling sumenep, bangkalan, and pamekasan. in this case the madura resident also reported the status and occupation of the hajis in detail. it is said that in pamekasan afdeeling there are as many as seven pilgrims, all of whom work as teachers. in afdeeling sumenep there are as many as 71 hajj with details of 25 people who work as teachers, 19 traders, 19 farmers, 4 weaving craftsmen, and 4 fishermen. then in afdeeling bangkalan there are 94 hajis with more varied work backgrounds, with details as follows; 27 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 7 published by ideas spread clerks, 11 farmers, 11 people or ketib, 9 teachers, 9 traders, 2 oddball traders, 8 tailors, 5 grave guards, 4 land tenants, 3 modin, 2 doctors, 1 leader, 1 priest, and 1 cattle butcher (anri, politiek verslag van residentie madoera over 1859). the opening of the suez canal in 1879, which connected the red sea to the mediterranean sea, shortened trade routes between the dutch east indies and europe. this also had a major impact on the increase in the number of hajj among the population of the dutch east indies so that the dutch government became increasingly careful in handling haj pilgrimage shipping airlines. so far, residents of the dutch east indies who departed for the pilgrimage preferred to use british merchant ships that departed from singapore considering the lower price. in order to avoid the monopoly competition in the handling of hajj, the dutch government, on the grounds of management and supervision interests, took the initiative to open a consulate in jeddah in 1872. as it is known that this haj pilgrimage is related to the residents of the dutch east indies, then the policy regarding this matter will be determined by the minister for colonized land (minister van kolonien). with this, the government then made various policies related to the implementation of this pilgrimage and one of them was a policy to control the number of people who would carry out the pilgrimage. this policy was based on the fact that the residents of the dutch east indies who left for the haj pilgrimage were usually guided directly by the sheikhs and were registered as the al-jawiyin community and were always accepted as students of middle eastern scholars. the government considered this as the potential for them to be affected by various negative influences that were detrimental to the interests of the colonial government. in addition, the government in order to suppress and supervise hajj activities also issued staatsblad 1898, number. 294 or as an ordinance for the implementation of hajj related to embarkation by determining special hajj ports in batavia and padang (staatsblad van nederlandsch indie, 26 october 1898. no. 294). the placement of the two ports made it easier for the dutch government to monopolize and arrange pilgrimage trips because since 1885 the number had increased to 61% of pilgrims using ships owned by dutch ship companies. actions to complicate the implementation of the pilgrimage seem as if they were made irrationally, one of which is by carrying out a health check both at the time of the hajj departure and return. the increasing number of people who go to perform the pilgrimage to mecca is a dilemma for the government, resulting in a kind of ambiguity from various parties to make policies based on political and economic considerations. in this case, the political consideration is that the residents there will be able to communicate freely with their communities through various meetings with ulama so that it is considered to be able to instill the embryo of radicalism, especially the pan-islamic movement of the sultan of turkey. starting from this, strict health requirements are applied so that many of them who are old will not be able to pass this examination and cancel their intention to carry out the pilgrimage. regarding this, saidin, a prospective pilgrim from pamekasan, had to carry a verbal process containing a medical certificate signed by haji mohammad rusli, an official of the pamekasan wedana, which is evidence of the strict administrative requirements for carrying out the pilgrimage. then as an economic consideration is because until 1895 the cost of carrying out the hajj that departed directly from the dutch east indies to jeddah was f. 283, with details of f.120, only for boat tickets. with this huge potential for profit, related to this haj policy, every resident assistant in his area always asks all regents to promote to the population in exchange for a commission fee of f.2.50, for each prospective hajj (anri, hajj travel bureau in colonial indonesia agent herklots and firm alsegoff & co., 2001). with a fee of f. 283, for one person the hajj candidate is actually too big for the madurese population because in general the population only depends on the crops of rice and tobacco on agricultural lands which are categorized as less fertile land. this is different from other regions whose agricultural and plantation business conditions are classified as advanced so that their economies are developing. in these areas, for example, the clove crop in 1890 could be sold at a price of f. 50, for every kilogram. with this, the residents there will feel easy to pay the cost of carrying out the pilgrimage because it is only equivalent to the yield of 10 kilograms of cloves. in reality, the madurese interpreter the hajj as a choice that can provide high motivation. so far, it has been recognized that the madurese are known as people who are resilient, resilient and able to work hard. this is evidenced by the fact that since the early nineteenth century the madurese people often reported going to migrate to work to the island of java either temporarily or permanently living as laborers in plantations and in other informal fields (kuntowijoyo, p. 75; ahmad sukri and agus himmawan sutomo, 2001, p. 14-15; rahman, 1990, p. 11-12). starting from the high enthusiasm of the madurese people to obtain the status of hajj, this is reflected in the number of pilgrims from madura who in 1930 showed the highest number compared to other areas in east java. however, after 1930 this number, as in other areas in the dutch east indies, gradually decreased. one of the causes of this decline was as a result of the world economic depression which at that time hit both the dutch east indies and other countries. the impact of this economic depression was also felt by the madurese, although it was not as hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 8 published by ideas spread severe as other areas outside java (vredenbregt, 1997, p. 29). besides that, the decline was also caused by weather factors because in the 1930s madura there was a long dry season which resulted in a major decline in agricultural production. table 2. pilgrims from madura residency year number of pilgrims explanation 1913 – 1915 2.692 1916 1920 world war i period 1914-1918 1921 1923 4.095 1924 1925 the hejaz war and the pilgrimage were halted 1926 1929 no source found 1930 1931 1.589 1932 1935 986 1936 1939 852 source: data for the years 1913-1915, 1921-1923 taken from j.w meyer ranneft, onderzoek naar de belastingdruk op de inlandsch bevolking van java en madoera (weltreveden: landsdrukkerij, 1926), p. 155. data for 1916-1920 is from dick douwes and nico kaptain (ed), indonesia dan haji (jakarta: inis, 1997), and data for the years 1930-1939 is taken from the indische verslag 1931-1941 table 3. comparison of the number of hajj in madura and east java in the years 1930-1938 year number of madurese hajj pilgrims number of east java hajj pilgrims 1930 1.037 4.019 1932 359 1.293 1933 155 526 1934 159 579 1935 313 818 1936 152 704 1937 139 818 1938 344 1.530 source: 1930 data from the 1933 indische verslag, p. 110. 1932 data from the 1935 indische verslag, p. 113. data for 1933-1936 from the 1937 indische verslag, p. 119. and the 1938 data from the 1939 indische verslag, p. 139. based on the table above, it can be explained that in general the largest number of prospective pilgrims for the pilgrimage in the dutch east indies came from residents living in java and madura. madura in this case is actually also included as a residency area in east java, in which case the largest number of people who carry out the hajj pilgrimage. regarding the number of these figures, there is actually no complete data for each year due to various administrative constraints, such as data on residents leaving for the haj pilgrimage and data on residents who returned, not always reported by colonial government officials who were authorized to take care of this. according to kuntowijoyo, up to 1885 there were 1,111 people holding hajj in madura. the number of i in 1890 increased to 1,364 people. then in 1895 alone, there were 603 madurese who went to mecca to perform the haj pilgrimage (kuntowijoyo, 2002, p. 334). furthermore, during the world war i, in 1914, it had a big impact on the departure of the prospective pilgrims because the conditions and situations of international shipping were not conducive. the decline in the hajj activity for several years generally also applies in many countries outside the dutch east indies (ranneft and w. huender, 1925, p. 155). with the end of world war i, it was not until 1919 that the situation and conditions for international shipping were in a conducive state to return to normal so that the activities of the population to carry out the pilgrimage could return to the same as in previous years. in 1920, the number of people performing the hajj pilgrimage began to increase again, as well as in madura, it was recorded that the number of people who left for hajj in 1921, 1922, and 1923 reached 4,095 people (vredenbergt, 1997, p. 56). the increase in the number of pilgrims is understandable because in previous years, during world war i, the pilgrims did not depart for the reasons mentioned above. this postponement that occurred for several years certainly had an impact on a significant increase in the number of hajj in 1919 and the following years. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 9 published by ideas spread in 1924 the number of people carrying out the pilgrimage experienced a sharp decline and the number became very small. of the entire territory of the dutch east indies, only 74 people departed for the pilgrimage to mecca. this was mainly due to the fact that in that year there was an internal conflict in the arabian peninsula, namely the war between the bani saud as rulers of the nejd region in the interior with bani hashim from the hejaz region on the red sea. the situation returned to normal in 1926, where this year it is known that the number of pilgrims from the dutch east indies reached 52,412 people. this number is the highest compared to previous years, and it is even stated that this number reached 42.6 percent of all world pilgrims who left for the arabian peninsula that year (nagazumi, 1996, p. 211; vredenbergt, 1997, pp. 56-58). the increase in the number of pilgrims from the dutch east indies can be attributed to, among other things, ibn saud's victory in mecca. it is said that after successfully conquering medina and jeddah on january 4, 1927, then ibn saud officially became the ruler in jeddah. as a wahhabi follower, ibn saud strives to restore peace, one of which is to give freedom to the world's muslims to perform the hajj accordingly. it is suspected that along with the economic improvement in the dutch east indies, especially in the agricultural sector, it had an impact on increasing prosperity, so many dutch indies people had time to save money to go for the pilgrimage. as evidence in 1930 the number of pilgrims in madura reached 1037 people, in that year the number of madurese pilgrims was the highest in east java. (suminto, p. 205). then in 1931 the candidates for the madura pilgrimage experienced a decline, even more or less half of the number of the previous year. likewise in 1932, 1933 and 1934 the number of madurese pilgrims continued to decline and showed an increase in 1935 then decreased again in 1936 and 1937 (anri, indische verslag 1935, 1937, 1939). v. development of population education and islamic scholarship the positive impact of the increase in the number of pilgrims, especially in madura, is the development of islamic boarding schools and similar religious schools. pesantren is a typical indigenous educational institution and can be found in madura. in terms of the model, it seems that the pesantren in madura tend to follow the pattern of the pesantren in java (kuntowijooyo, 2002, p. 195). since the arrival of the dutch, the pesantren which were originally located in urban areas then moved to rural areas. in the mid-19th century the government had succeeded in controlling all coastal areas in java and succeeded in exploiting the sea trade, so that life in the cities was controlled by the dutch. the movement of the islamic boarding schools to rural areas resulted in isolated teaching materials. the limitations of the subject matter provided by the pesantren, can be understood given the tight isolation that muslims at that time did not have sufficient opportunities to interact with the outside world. it seems that the life and development of islamic education also depends on the materials owned by the teachers. pondok pesantren is a representation of the islamic education system that existed at that time. it was only when maritime relations between the european continent and asia developed due to the influence of the opening of the suez canal in 1869 that new enthusiasm and motivation in religious life emerged among the population of the dutch east indies. this is due to the influence of the increasing number of hajj, koran teachers and pesantren students as well as the awareness to oppose government power (asifudin, 1994, p. 56). the increase in the growth of the hajj and the importance of the role of hajj at the end of the 19th century contributed to the improvement of the education system among the muslim population and was local in nature because it was able to provide effective communication demarcation between pesantren and the international community, especially mecca as the center of islamic civilization (geertz, 1960, p. 232). many young people from the archipelago then lived and studied in mecca and medina and not only for the purpose of performing the pilgrimage. not a few of them managed to become famous scholars and became teachers there. it turned out that they also took an active role in the development of thought and spiritualism centered there and in turn had an influence and gave a color to the development and change in the characteristics of islamic understanding in the archipelago. thus the teaching in the pesantren in the dutch east indies was heavily influenced by the teaching system in mecca. likewise, what happened in madura at the end of the 19th century where the number of kyai increased in number along with the large number of pilgrims. the economic surplus experienced by the rural population helps religious leaders to provide religious education in a more organized and orderly manner. religious figures, especially those directly involved in organizing education and religion, seem to gain the sympathy of the villagers as potential independent leaders. although the kyais generally never become independent in reaching their supporters, they have succeeded in positioning themselves as internal critics who can counterbalance foreign powers who do not want them to become pilots for change. the rural population recognizes and models their personality as a symbol of their independent nature, even until the next period the role of kiai in madura can be categorized into four types, namely pesantren kiai, tarekat kiai, political kiai, and stage kiai (sukamto, 1992, pp. 76-77). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 10 published by ideas spread the categorization of the role of the kiai is a reflection of the group of pilgrims in madura who have succeeded in forming an important social layer in society. although only a small proportion of the hadjis actually studied islam more systematically, the increasing number of them could strengthen this religious elite group (mansurnoor, 1990, p. 55). regarding the development of the pesantren played by the kiai, especially in madura all kiai are considered to be descendants of sunan giri so that they gain very strong legitimacy. for example, several islamic boarding schools that are considered as old islamic boarding schools in madura include the banyuanyar pamekasan islamic boarding school which was founded by kiai haji itsbat ibn ishaq in 1788, the demangan or syaikhona kholil islamic boarding school which was founded by mohammad kholil in bangkalan in 1861. then the anislamic boarding school nuqayah in guluk-guluk sumenep which was founded by kiai haji mohammad syarqowi in 1887 (aboebakar, pp. 41-42). these old islamic boarding schools can inherit the growth of the next boarding schools, both salafi and kalafi, so that until now madura has been dubbed the "island of a thousand islamic boarding schools". soebahar said that by tracing data through the eductional management information system (emis) found in the head of the section of religious education and islamic boarding schools (kasie pekapontren) in each district office of the department of religion, the following data were obtained: 258 pesantren in bangkalan district, 181 pesantren in sampang district, 462 pesantren in pamekasan district, and 224 pesantren in sumenep district. the number of pesantren in the four madura districts is 1,125 islamic boarding schools (soebahar, 2008, p. 45). the inheritance system given to islamic boarding schools which is still strong for all time is mainly covering all classical islamic books which in this case can be grouped into six (dhofier, p.50). among them are language, the koran, hadith, monotheism, jurisprudence, and tasawwuf. more on this matter can be explained as follows. the language component for arabic is presented with the material nahwu (imriti and nahw al-wadih), sarraf (amtsilat al-tasrifiyyah, matnulbina, kailani, alfiyah ibn malik, mutammimah), balaghah, and mantiq. the components of the koran consist of: qiraat (tajwid, hidayatus sibyan, tuhfatul aftal, hidayatul mustafid, mursyidul wildan, and syifaur rahman), tafsir (jalalain maraghi, translation, and ulum al-quran. the hadith components consist of: matan hadith (arbain) al-nawawi, mukthar al-hadith, bulugh al-maram, jawahir al-bukhair) and ulum al-hadits (minhaju al-mughits). the components of tauhid consist of: aqaid 50 and kalam knowledge taken from the book kifayatul 'awam, aqidah islamiyah, jawahir al-kalamiyah, tuhfatul murid, and husn mal-hamidiyah. the fiqh components consist of: fiqh, proposed fiqh and qawaid al-fiqh taken from the books of safinah al-najah, matan taqrib, minhaj alqawim, kifayah al-akhyar, sullam, fath al-muin, and waraqat. the components of sufism consist of: behavioral tasawwuf, knowledge tasawwuf, and organizational tasawwuf (tareqat) which refer to the book al-wasaya al-abna, ta'lim al-muta 'allim, minhajul' abidin, irsyadul 'ibad, and risalah al-mu 'cloudah wa al-easyarah wa almuwazarah. in addition to the classical islamic book or the yellow book, it turns out that in its development, many madurese scholars have also become islamic intellectuals because it is evident from the many products of their work and it is suspected that they are still stored both in islamic boarding schools and as private collections. starting with the prolificity of the scholars is proof of the solidarity of the hajj in madura because they often use each other among the distribution of these works for learning materials in the pesantren they teach. these works can be in the form of original, hasyiyah, syarah, translation, and khulasah works. an original work is a work written by scholars both in arabic and in local languages such as madurese. hashiyah is a kind of explanation or information written on the edge of a book and generally can be a commentary on the existing text before and the text that has been given hasyiyah is printed on the edge of the book page. sharah is a commentary book both in arabic and in the regional language against older texts (matan) and text that has been commented on by being printed on the margins of the book. translation is a copy or translation of language from one source language to the target language. in this context, the translation is the result of translation from one arabic language into indonesian or the local madurese language, for example, khulasah is a summary of the work of other scholars which contains the main material in order to facilitate the reader's understanding. the works of madurese scholars up to now that can be perfectly inventoried are those in the bangkalan and sampang groups. then the sumenep group was not well inventoried because it was still handwritten and was also scattered in people's homes. various works of scholars in sumenep are only told of as many as 47 works found. of these 7 of them are the work of k.h. habibullah ro'is, 2 by k.h. nawawi tibyan, 2 by syeh muhammad ilyas bin muhammad syarkawi, 32 by k.h. thopur bin aliwafa bin muharor al maduri, 2 by kh. gofir, 1 by k.h. abdullah kholil, and 1 by k.h. mahmudi syukri. until now, these works are scattered in the sumenep area, especially in the al-is'af islamic boarding school, the assadad islamic boarding school, and the al usymuni islamic boarding school. islamic boarding school al-is'ap dominates the field more; nahwu, nerves, fiqh, language, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 11 published by ideas spread mantiq, balagho, hushul, faroid, tauhid, and morals. the assadad islamic boarding school is master in the field of expertise; fiqh, nahwu, language and literature, history, methods of arabic songs, sufism, and tafsir. then the alusymuni islamic boarding school mastered the field; tafsir, hadith, jurisprudence, nerves, and nahwu (yunardi et al., 2011, pp. 33, 129). when viewed from the side of the content, the works of these scholars can be further grouped into 10 fields of study as can be seen in the table below. table 4. the work of the ulama in sumenep is seen from the field of study number field of study amount 1 jurisprudence (fikih) 24 2 history (sejarah) 7 3 tawheed (tauhid) 5 4 morals (akhlak) 3 5 language (bahasa) 2 6 sufism (tasawuf) 2 7 nahwu 1 8 hutbah 1 9 faroid 1 10 guide (panduan) 1 amount 47 source; badri yunardi (et.al), inventarisasi karya ulama di lembaga pendidikan keagamaan: studin kasus provinsi jawa timur (jakarta: puslitbang dan diklat kementrian agama, 2011). based on the table, among the 10 fields of study, when viewed from a scientific perspective, it shows that the books of the three scholars are diverse. from all these works, it turns out that until now it is still used as a compulsory handbook for santri in their respective islamic boarding schools. starting from the table, scholars or kyai from three islamic boarding schools in sumenep did not write their works in one language but poured it into four languages and the most dominant was arabic. regarding the form in expressing the works of the scholars, there are various methods. some are really their own or pure ideas. there are also those who are inspired by mensyarah (description of the previous book), summarize, and comment or ta'liq. thus the works of these scholars can be understood by the next generation, especially users in understanding islam to be practiced and implemented in daily life without being separated from the rules that have been determined in the al-quran and sunnah. vi. conclusion it can be said that since the second half of the 19th century the dutch government showed suspicion towards muslim clerics who were considered to be the instigators of various rebellions in various parts of the dutch east indies. this is because the traditional rulers have experienced a decline, so that the people who usually live in rural areas present new, trusted leaders, namely the kyai and hajis. with the strengthening of their community that has carried out the haj pilgrimage and has placed mecca as the center of islam, it also influences the context of opposing something that is considered kafir. they opposed the authority and leadership of not only the traditional indigenous elite, but also the colonial government, which consequently felt the need to keep a close watch on the actions of these new leaders. in line with that the dutch east indies government began to apply new tactics by developing a special policy against islam among the population, including the madurese population. the important position of islam in the life of the madurese, which is identified with nativity, is to function as the strongest expression of loyalty to the homeland in opposing foreign invaders. this was natural if the colonial government was very suspicious of islam and treated them specifically, namely that islam was seen not only as a threat to security and order policies (rust end order), but also to the future of the continuation of occupation and occupation in the dutch east indies. in this case snouk hurgronje was the main advisor and was assisted by advisers consisting of one for arab affairs and two experts in regional languages in the dutch east indies. based on snouck hurgronje's advice, the dutch colonial government distinguished between islam in the meaning of worship and islam as a socio-political force. this policy towards islam is divided into three categories, namely the socio-religious field, the socio-cultural sector, and the socio-political sector. in the socio-religious field, snouck hurgronje offered to change the concerns of the dutch colonial government into an expectation. the policy towards muslims was to allow all pure worship activities and religious rituals to be in the form of tolerance and to give as much freedom as possible. in this way it is hoped that the indigenous hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 12 published by ideas spread people will feel safe in their worship, so that they voluntarily submit to the dutch government. regarding social relations, one must show an attitude that seems to pay attention to islam, one of them is by improving places of worship. it prohibited the supervision of pesantren activities that were not political in nature, and even criticized the dutch government's actions if they hampered the implementation of the pilgrimage to mecca. the oppression of religious believers in carrying out worship is not only unwise, but is considered unnecessary and is considered dishonorable for a nation in the world that is embracing religious freedom as in the netherlands. in the field of islamic law, snouck hurgronje offers a concept that its existence or legal strength will only be recognized when it has been accepted by the dutch east indies community or has become customary law. references anri, algemeen verslag regentschap soemenep, madoera over 1866. anri. resolutie van den gouverneur-general van nederlandsch indie van 18 october 1825, no. 9. anri, politiek verslag van residentie madoera over 1859. anri, biro perjalanan haji di indoneasia masa kolonial. agen herklots dan firma alsegoff & co, 2001 anri, indische verslag 1931 – 1941 staatsblad van nederlandsch indie, 26 oktober 1898. no. 294 aboebakar, h., sedjarah hidup k. h. a. wahid hasjim dan karangan tersiar (djakarta: panitya buku peringatan alm. k.h.a. wahid hasjim) ahmad sukri, ridwan and agus himmawan sutomo, “studi etika pandangan hidup dalam fenomena budaya merantau pada masyarakat madura” in lembaga penelitian universitas gadjah mada, (yogyakarta: lemlit, 2001), pp. 14-15. asifudin, ahmad janan (1994). pondok pesantren dalam perjalanan sejarah. al jamiah, 5, p. 56. benda, harry j. (1965). continuity and change in indonesian islam”, in southeast asian studies (yale university: new haven, 1965). benda, harry. j., bulan sabit dan matahari terbit (jakarta: pustaka jaya, 1980). claerenbeck, j. (1882). sarim en kansina: eene schets uit het madoereesche dorpsleven. eigen haard, 33, 390393. dhofier, zamaksyari, (1982). tradisi pesantren: studi tentang pandangan hidup kiai. jakarta: lp3es, 1982. douwes, dick and nico kaptain (ed), indonesia dan haji (jakarta: inis, 1997) effendy, bisri, an nuqayah: gerak transformasi sosial di madura (jakarta: p3m, 1990). eisenberger, j. (1928). indie and de bedevaart naar mekka (leiden: m. dubbeldemen, 1928). esser, j. p. (1882). onder de madoereezen (amsterdam: hoveker & zoon, 1882). fokkens, f. (1886). “desa’s op java en madura” in tijdschrift voor de indische taal-, landen volkenkunde bataviaasch genootschap van kunsten en wetenshappen, 31, 441-501. garraghan, g. j. (1957). a guide to historical method. (new york: fordham university press, 1957). geertz, clifford (1959-1960). the javanese kjiai the changing role of cultural broeker. comparative studies in society and history, 2, p. 23. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0010417500000670 gobee, e., & adiaanse, g., & nasehat, c. 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(1980). mutiny en haji-ordonnantie ervaringen met 19e eeuwse bronnen. land-en volkenkunde, 136, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 13 published by ideas spread 310-311. https://doi.org/10.1163/22134379-90003526 kartodirdjo, sartono (1984). pemberontakan petani banten 1888 (jakarta: pustaka jaya, 1984). khuluq, latiful cristian snouck hurgronje dan pemikiran tentang islam di indonesia, unpublished thesis fakultas adab iain sunan kalijaga yogyakarta, 1991). kuntowijoyo, perubahan sosial dalam masyarakat agraris madura 1850 1940 (yogyakarta: matabangsa, 2002). majid, m. d., berhaji, di masa kolonial (jakarta: cv sejahtera, 2008). mansurnoor, lik arifin, islam in an indonesian world: ulama of madura (yogyakarta: gadjah mada university press, 1990). nagazumi, a. (1996). pemberontakan pki 1926 dan perkembangan jemaah haji indonbesia. in akira nagazumi (ed), indonesia dalam kajian sarjana jepang: perubahan sosial ekonomi abad xix – xx dan berbagai aspek nasionalisme indonesia. jakarta : yayasan obor indobesia, 1996. rahman, bustami (1990). naik haji: persepsi dan pelaksanannya bagi orang madura di jember, jawa timur”, in bidang kajian madura (jember: universitas jember, 1990), 11-12. ranneft, j. w., meyer & huender, w. (1925). onderzoek naar de belastingdruk op de inlandsche bevolking van java en madoera (weltreveden: landsdrukkerij 1925). saidi, ridwan, (1994). fakta islam data yahudi di indonesia serta opkkasi kaum peasternis, orientalis dan spionace intelektual snouck hurgronje di indonesia, jilid ii (jakarta lsip, 1994). soebahar, abdul halim (2008). pondok pesantren di madura: studi tentang proses transformasi kepemimpinan akhir abad xx. unpublished dissertation uin sunan kalijaga yogyakarta, 2008). suminto, h. aqib (1985). politik islam hindia belanda (jakarta: lp3es, 1985). steenbrink karel a. (2017). kaum kolonial belanda dan islam di indonesia(1596-1942). yogyakarta: gading publishing, 2017. stoddard, l. (1966). dunia baru islam (jakarta: panitia penerbit, 1966). sukamto, (1992). kepemimpinan kiai dan kelembagaan pondok pesantren , tesis tidak dipublikasikan. unpublished thesis universitas gadjah mada yogyakarta, 1992. suryanegara, ahmad mansyur (1995). menentukan sejarah: wacana pergerakan islam di indonesia (bandung: mizan, 1995). syaiful bakhri, mokh (2006). syaichona cholil bangkalan ulama legendaris dari madura (sidogiri kraton pasuruan: pt cipta pusaka utama, 2006). syamsul arifin, muhammad (1991). sejarah singkat pondok pesantren banyuanyar (banyuanyar: pp darul ulum, 1991). verslag van het inlandsche onderwijs in nederlandsch indie over 1863 (batavia: landsdrukkerij, 1865), pp. 188189. van den berg, l. w. c. (1900). het pan islamisme. de gids, serie iv. vol lxiv, 1900, pp. 228-269. van den berg, l. w. c. (2010). orang arab di nusantara. translated by rahayu hidayat. jakarta: komunitas bambu, 2010. van den berg, l. w. c. (1882). de mohammedaansche geestelijkheid en de geestelijke goederen op java en madoera”, in tijdschrift voor indische taal-land-en volkenkunde, deel xxvii, bataviasche genotschap, 1882, p. 29. van’t veer, paul, perang aceh, kisah kegagalan snouck hurgronje, translated by grafiti pers (jakarta: grafiti pers, 1985). vredenbregt, jacob (1997). ibadah haji beberapa ciri dan fungsinya di indonesia”, in dick douwes and nico kaptain (ed), indonesia dan haji (jakarta: inis, 1997). yunardi, badri et al. (2011). inventarisasi karya ulama di lembaga pendidikan keagamaan: studi kasus provinsi jawa timur (jakarta: puslitbang dan diklat kementrian agama, 2011). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 14 published by ideas spread copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v7n3p117 117 published by ideas spread research on the multi-level social security system dingjia xiao1 1 cambridge school of weston, weston, ma, usa correspondence: dingjia xiao, cambridge school of weston, weston, ma, usa e-mail: dxiaoworkatgmail.com received: november 12, 2024; accepted: december 25, 2024; published: december 26, 2024 abstract this paper explores the historical development of china's social security system, focusing particularly on the second pillar of pensions. it highlights the persistent gaps in pension coverage for farmers and migrant workers, which continue to threaten their financial stability. the paper also discusses the significant impact of the pension system on labor relations. despite improvements, china's pension system remains deeply divided between urban and rural areas, as well as between public and private sector workers. the existing dual structure exacerbates inequalities, particularly in terms of pension security. china's pension system still needs to be improved. china’s pension system still needs perfecting,there obviously exists a dual structure between urban and rural areas, and also differences in the domestic civil servant system, which includes public institution staffs and urban workers. the first pillar has a substantial increase in coverage to 1.066 billion people, and more importantly needs to be supplemented with a huge gap in the empty accounts; the second pillar has developed more rapidly, but coverage is low and seriously unbalanced. the united states pension system is relatively sound, but too much reliance on the investment ability of employees, employees themselves bear all the investment risk, receive completely by the employee's own decision, a one-time receive face the problem of reasonable use. a sound and reasonable old-age security system is the cornerstone of social stability, which can increase the satisfaction and loyalty of workers and promote social equity and a virtuous cycle. keywords: pension security system, the aging of labor relations 1. introduction 1.1 china's "urban-rural dualistic, collect-and-spend" distribution system, which does not yet allow for an old-age security system china’s pension system has long been shaped by its urban-rural divide, which remains a fundamental barrier to equal access to social security. the country’s pension system reflects a dual structure, with urban workers— especially civil servants—receiving much more comprehensive coverage than rural populations. prior to the 1980s, peasants had no access to pension schemes and were largely restricted to rural areas by the household registration system (hukou). most enterprises were state-owned, and employees were considered part of the state apparatus, with little mobility or financial security outside of it. peasants did not have foodstamps, i.e., they did not have the right to buy foods, and cannot go out to the cities. the 1990s gradually formed the "migrant workers" who went to the city to work, and the labor law of the people's republic of china came into effect on january 1, 1995, stipulating that enterprises should pay social security, and on january 22, 1999, the provisional regulations on the collection and payment of social insurance premiums were officially issued and came into effect, and the state passed relevant laws, and from may 1, 2008 onwards, the employers were mandated to purchase social security. the state, through relevant laws, began to make it mandatory for employers to purchase social security. 1.2 establishment of a social security system from around 1995 it began with the creation of basic social security, an empty account, with new people contributing and previous people receiving. there is still a huge gap, with a stock of 8.6 trillion yuan. later, learning from foreign countries, the establishment of the "second pillar" proposed by the world bank, the gradual development of the present, in recent years, the growth rate is very fast, especially occupational pensions, a total stock of 3.3 trillion yuan. a few years ago, rural areas such as shandong had a pilot program to establish pensions, but it failed to take hold and ended. "historically, farmers had no means to contribute to social security, and migrant workers were reluctant to do so because their contributions were not transferable across provinces. this, coupled with the temporary nature of their hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 118 published by ideas spread work and low income, made saving for retirement difficult. in 2008, china mandated that employers provide social security for their employees. however, this often shifts the financial burden onto the employer, reducing workers' net income while failing to address the underlying structural issues in the system.".when most migrant workers leave their working cities, this piece is retained locally and cannot be transferred across provinces with them. the state requires that social security contributions be accumulated for 15 years before they can be collected upon retirement, and as a product of a special period, migrant workers are rarely able to accumulate 15 years in order to contribute to social security. therefore, the basic old-age pension insurance that is usually provided for has basically nothing to do with peasants or rural migrant workers, and is still in a state of dichotomy between urban and rural areas. 2. china's "urban-rural dualistic, collect-and-spend" distribution system, is not yet a pension security system the clear division between urban and rural social security in china can be characterized as a "dual social security system", the core feature of which is the urban-rural dichotomy, which is severely segmented, with a huge "scissors gap" between urban and rural development. when the people's republic of china was founded, the government introduced a social insurance system focused on urban workers, while rural populations were primarily supported by family and collective systems. in 1951, the government passed the 'regulations on labor insurance,' which provided urban enterprise workers with benefits covering disability, sickness, maternity, old age, and death. these benefits were extended not only to workers but also to their immediate families, marking a significant step in the development of china’s social security system. with the exception of unemployment, china's social insurance covered all the other social insurance items that still existed in developed industrialized countries. with the advancement of economic reform, china's social insurance system has also undergone a series of reforms. 1986, the state council issued the interim provisions on the implementation of the labor contract system in state-owned enterprises, which began the implementation of the labor contract system in state-owned enterprises and was gradually expanded to other enterprises of all systems. 1991, the state council issued the decision on the reform of the pension insurance system for enterprise employees, which began exploring the establishment of a pension insurance system that combines social coordination and individual accounts. the state council issued the decision on the reform of the pension insurance system for enterprise employees in 1991, and began to explore the establishment of a pension insurance system combining social coordination and individual accounts. however, the above systems are mainly for state-owned enterprises and urban workers, and the protection system for the rural population, including migrant workers, remains inadequate. compared with employee pension insurance and medical insurance, the vast majority of flexibly employed people, rural populations and rural migrant workers opt for residents' insurance, which offers lower benefits, with the ratio of per capita pensions for urban workers to those for urban and rural residents' insurance at 19.7 times in 2015, expanding to 20.7 times by 2018. after that, with the establishment of the normal adjustment mechanism for urban and rural residents' insurance treatment determination and basic pension, the per capita pension of urban and rural residents' insurance increased faster, and the above ratio dropped to 19.3 times in 2020, but it is still at a high level. and the more underdeveloped the region, the higher the ratio of the two. more importantly, the absolute gap between the monthly per capita pensions of urban workers and those of urban and rural residents has also been widening year by year, and the greatest injustice of the "two-track system" is reflected in the post-retirement entitlements, with only the urban population, which accounts for 10-20 per cent of the country's total population, and especially civil servants within the system, receiving pensions. the immediate cause of the formation and long-term maintenance of the dual social security system was a series of social policies that divided urban and rural areas, which were introduced at the beginning of the country's history to accommodate the industrialization route of the time. these social policies included the hukou policy (system), the labor and employment policy (system), and the people's commune system. with the division of the agricultural and non-agricultural populations in the first two, and the restrictions imposed by the labor and employment departments on the peasants' settlement and employment in the cities, it would be far from possible to achieve the purpose without the support of the relevant systems in the rural areas, and the birth of the rural people's commune system in 1958 precisely fulfilled this requirement. on the one hand, the establishment of the people's commune system facilitated the implementation of the policy of unified purchasing and marketing, which provided a steady stream of accumulation for industrialization; on the other hand, through the collective ownership of land, collective production and distribution, it realized centralized control and management of the peasants, thus preventing the creation of "displaced persons." the successive implementation of the major social policies (systems) mentioned above is the most direct source of the introduction and maintenance of the dual social security system. before the reform and opening up, there were basically no independently owned enterprises, which belonged to various hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 119 published by ideas spread departments of the state and employed state workers; peasants had no pensions, and before the reform and opening up in the 1980s they could not work in the cities, and were fixed to the barren land by means of household registration, food stamp quotas, letters of introduction, and mobility controls; peasants did not have food stamps, i.e., they did not have the right to buy food, and could not go out to the cities. unable to go out to the cities. after 1978, china abandoned the traditional planned economy and the urban-based industrialization strategy, and established the overall reform objective of establishing a socialist market economy and a comprehensive industrialization strategy that combined urban and rural areas. the previous rigid urban-rural division was weakened and loosened, and in the 1990s, "migrant workers" were gradually formed, and the labor law of the people's republic of china came into effect on january 1, 1995, stipulating that enterprises had to pay social security contributions, while the interim regulations on the collection and payment of social insurance premiums were formally released and came into effect on january 22, 1999, and the state passed relevant laws to protect the workers from being forced to pay social security contributions. on january 22, 1999, the provisional regulations on the collection and payment of social insurance premiums were formally issued and came into effect, and from may 1, 2008, the state began to make it mandatory for employers to purchase social security through the adoption of relevant laws. however, until now, under the "two-track system," the replacement rate for pension insurance for institutions was as high as 90 to 107 percent, while the replacement rate for the pensions of enterprise employees, who make up the majority of the population, was less than 40 percent. the same is true of medical insurance: since 1958, china has had a cooperative medical system in place in most rural areas, but it is fundamentally different from the medical insurance for urban workers, in that farmers who fall ill, especially with major illnesses, receive little help from the cooperative medical system, and the costs continue to come mainly from their families. in addition, the problem of poor quality of participation is even more evident in the case of work-related injury insurance and unemployment insurance, with almost all rural migrant workers or flexibly employed persons, who are most at risk of occupational injuries, lacking work-related injury insurance or unemployment insurance. from the history of social security in industrialized countries, generally there is the birth of social insurance system for urban enterprises employing workers, and then after a longer period of time, when the social structure on the basis of industrialization and urbanization on the integration of urban and rural areas, urban industries have been able to feed back to the agriculture through their own accumulation to achieve the scale of agricultural operations and mechanization, there is the introduction of social insurance system for farmers and the integration of social security system between urban and rural areas. the social security system for farmers and the integration of urban and rural areas. in the case of the old-age insurance system, for example, the implementation of the old-age insurance system for urban and rural workers in the advanced industrialized countries took a long time: 68 years in west germany, 86 years in denmark, 55 years in the united states of america, 63 years in canada, and 45 years in japan, and so on and so forth. of course, as far as basic social insurance programs are concerned, the soviet and eastern european countries were generally designed from the very beginning of their statehood to provide universal coverage, including for peasants. this was mainly due to the fact that these countries already had a better foundation for industrialization, a higher level of economic development and a low share of the agricultural population. china's social policies differed from those of the soviet union and eastern european countries because of the late start and low level of industrialization, the large size of the agricultural population, and the difficulty of the state's financial resources in providing agricultural labourers with social security treatment equal to that provided to urban industrial workers. to address these disparities, it is essential to gradually integrate rural workers and farmers into the urban social security system. this will require targeted reforms that ensure portability of social security benefits, incentivize contributions from rural populations, and bridge the gap between urban and rural pension schemes. 3. establishment of a social security system from around 1995 the development process of china's pension system can be divided into four stages: phase i (1951-1984): china's pension system was first established in 1951, when china first began to set up a public pension system; on the premise of borrowing from the soviet union model, it adopted a defined benefit pay-as-you-go system, and set up a social security system on the basis of a "national turnkey" model. at this time, the pension system had a low coverage rate and was strongly planned. (b) phase ii (1984-1995): during this period, when the country had not long been reformed and opened up and was gradually making the transition to a market economy, the urban workers' old-age pension insurance system established during this period was still primarily a national insurance system under a planned economy, but with hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 120 published by ideas spread corrections made to the shortcomings that existed during the first phase. operationally, the central and provincial governments are responsible for formulating and revising the framework of the system, while county, regional or municipal governments are the main implementers of pension insurance. in terms of the model, it is still a defined benefit pay-as-you-go system, with employers and employees contributing at a certain rate, where the rate of employers' contribution rises from 3% to 15% of the total wage bill, while the rate of employees' contribution is 3% of the wage bill. phase iii (1995-2021): the state council promulgated the circular on deepening the reform of the pension insurance system for enterprise employees in early 1995, formally launching the reform of the enterprise pension security system. the document summarized the pension reforms around the world, based on a new integration of the original workers' pension insurance system, and initially established a new multi-level enterprise pension insurance system combining social coordination and individual accounts (unification of accounts). the "first pillar" has the largest volume, as of the end of 2023, the number of people insured in the national basic pension, unemployment, and work-related injury insurance were 1.066 billion, 244 million, and 302 million, respectively, an increase of 13.36 million, 5.66 million, and 10.54 million people year-on-year, of which the number of people insured in the work-related injury insurance exceeded 300 million for the first time. the basic pension insurance system combining unified accounts is a new type of basic pension insurance system pioneered by china in the world. theoretically, it is a combination of a pay-as-you-go system and a full accumulation system, but in terms of actual operation, because the costs of the transition have not been properly handled, the fully accumulated individual accounts have been misappropriated to form an empty account, resulting in the fact that china's basic old-age pension insurance is still a purely pay-as-you-go system. the pay-as-you-go system is one in which people working in the same period contribute to the pension fund to support the current generation of retirees, while the full accumulation system is one in which individuals contribute to pension insurance during their working lives and accumulate through their individual accounts, and then receive the corresponding pension when they retire. the operation of the pay-as-you-go system theoretically requires the fulfillment of the allen condition that the sum of the population growth rate and the wage growth rate is greater than the real market interest rate in order for a payment crisis not to occur. however, judging from the trend of population aging and the direction of economic development in china, there is a huge challenge to satisfy the allen condition, especially the long-term plateau of population aging and the slowing down of economic development, which will inevitably constrain the sole reliance on the pay-as-you-go system to satisfy the pension needs of the elderly. according to the china pension development report 2023 published by the chinese academy of social sciences, the accumulated balance of china's basic pension fund for urban workers stood at 5.26 trillion yuan at the end of 2022, and is expected to be depleted by 2035. since then, china has studied abroad and established the "second pillar" proposed by the world bank. in 1995, under the active guidance of the ministry of labor's policy, some enterprises established enterprise annuities, and the concept of "enterprise annuities" was firstly elaborated in the "notice on the issuance of the pilot program for the improvement of the social security system of cities and towns" distributed by the state council in 2000. in 2000, the state council issued the circular on the pilot program for improving the urban social security system, in which the concept of "enterprise annuity" was first elaborated, making it independent from the "supplement" and becoming a separate pillar. the second pillar has gradually developed to the present day, with a relatively rapid growth rate in recent years, and as of now the coverage is relatively small but the accumulated funds are still considerable; as of the end of the third quarter of 2023, the accumulated size of the national enterprise pension fund had reached 3.12 trillion yuan, with 138,700 participating enterprises and 31.03 million participating employees. phase 4 (2022-present): on april 21, 2022, the opinions of the general office of the state council on promoting the development of personal pensions was officially released to the public. according to the opinions, workers who participate in basic pension insurance for urban workers or basic pension insurance for urban and rural residents within china can participate in the individual pension system. individual pensions are subject to a personal account system, with contributions borne entirely by the participants themselves, and a full accumulation system is in place. on november 25, 2022, the individual pension system was first implemented in 36 cities or regions, including beijing, shanghai, guangzhou, xi'an, and chengdu, covering most of the country's provincial capitals and municipalities separately listed in the plan, and people who meet the eligibility criteria can voluntarily participate in the individual pension, with the maximum annual contribution amounting to 12,000 yuan, and can enjoy tax-deferred benefits. according to the data of the ministry of human resources and social security, as of the end of 2022, the number of individual pension participants was 19.54 million, the number of contributors was hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 121 published by ideas spread 6.13 million, and the total amount of contributions was 14.2 billion yuan; as of the end of 2023, the number of people who opened individual pension accounts was more than 50 million, and there were more than 700 individual pension products. pension protection for farmers and migrant worker groups is still lacking. at present, farmers can obtain pension benefits by contributing to the basic pension insurance for urban and rural residents, and with the vigorous promotion of the pilot system relating to individual pensions, farmers can also save for a rainy day by contributing to individual pension insurance. but before that, farmers have no channels and qualifications to pay social security, new rural social pension insurance only entered the pilot stage since 2009, the age of 16 years old (excluding school students), not participating in the basic pension insurance for urban workers of rural residents, can voluntarily enroll in the place of household registration, the new rural insurance fund consists of individual contributions, collective subsidies, government subsidies.2014 the state will be the new rural social pension insurance and social pension insurance for urban residents into basic pension insurance for urban and rural residents. however, due to restrictions on payment of fees and the number of years of payment, the incentive to enroll in the insurance program has not been high. rural migrant workers moving into cities are reluctant to pay social security because the contributions are not transferable across provinces, while the work is temporary and unstable, and the overall income is low, making it more necessary for current consumption. after enterprises were forced to pay social security in 2008, employers were required to pay for their employees, which was actually counted as a cost to the employer, or a piece of the worker's income. when most migrant workers leave the working city, this piece is retained locally and cannot be transferred across provinces on the go. the state requires that social security contributions must be accumulated for at least 10 years (previously 15 years) before they can be collected at retirement age, and migrant workers, as a product of a special period of time, are seldom able to accumulate 10 years of social security contributions. therefore, the basic old-age pension insurance that is usually provided for has basically nothing to do with peasants or rural migrant workers, and remains in a state of dichotomy between urban and rural areas. in 2019, shandong and other places in the countryside had done a pilot to establish a pension, which meets the retirement age requirements of the elderly can receive a free pension, the pension is consistent with the state, but since then did not adhere to it, and it did not work. 4. problems with china's pension system china's current basic pension insurance system has a number of endogenous problems, one of which centers on the obvious urban-rural dichotomy and the distinction between inside and outside the system between urban and rural areas, and between workers in institutions and urban workers; the other is the problem of the discontinuity of funds due to changes in the age structure of the population. 1. within the basic pension insurance system, there is a lack of incentives to pay more and get more and pay more over time, the problem of running empty personal accounts has not been fundamentally resolved, and the direct link between the contributions of enterprises and individuals and their eventual beneficiaries is insufficient, resulting in a low willingness to contribute on the part of enterprises and individuals. 2, institutional barriers such as urban-rural, geographically divided household registration system, although the reform efforts are increasing, but to really cut down on the various social security benefits and related rights and interests attached to it is not easy, even if the migrant workers in the city have a stable job and residence can not get the same welfare rights and interests as local residents, that is to say, showing that the impact of the household registration system under the system of planning is deep-rooted, and hidden behind the fact that is the behind the scenes is actually a struggle between the interests of the local population and the migrant population. china now has a floating population of 200-300 million, mainly composed of migrant workers, but also including the families of migrant workers in a state of mobility and migrant workers from other places who have urban household registration, and the social security of this group is still in need of urgent improvement. 3. the problem of fault lines created by high population fluctuations and ageing. public expenditures for the elderly will grow dramatically, and the pressure on pension payments, health insurance fund expenditures, and the supply of old-age services will continue to climb. the problem will be exacerbated by the fact that china still lacks actuarial management and risk control mechanisms, and the contribution rate to china's individual pension accounts is calculated on the basis of the average life expectancy of the population. as society progresses, the actual average remaining life expectancy of the elderly population in the future will be higher than that calculated on the basis of the average life expectancy of the current population. when pensions are paid from the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 122 published by ideas spread accumulation of individual account pension funds, there is a risk that the actual life expectancy at the time of pension receipt will exceed the average life expectancy of the population, resulting in insufficient accumulation of individual account funds. supporting a pay-as-you-go old-age security system requires a relatively young demographic structure, which is gradually being lost as a result of shifts in the age structure of the population. population aging has led to a rising old-age dependency ratio in china, with an increasing number of recipients and a decreasing number of contributors. as of 2023, china's elderly dependency ratio is 22.6%, combined with our model's prediction that it may break through 30% in 2031 and 40% in 2037, with every 100 working-age population needing to support 40 elderly people (the total population dependency ratio is 56%, with the age population also needing to support 16 children), and 50% and 60% in 2047 and 2055, respectively. the pressure to support the elderly is heating up sharply figure 1. figure 1. projected trends in population dependency ratio, elderly dependency ratio figure 2. china's basic pension expenditure as a share of gdp 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 2 0 2 1 2 0 2 2 2 0 2 3 2 0 2 4 2 0 2 5 2 0 2 6 2 0 2 7 2 0 2 8 2 0 2 9 2 0 3 0 2 0 3 1 2 0 3 2 2 0 3 3 2 0 3 4 2 0 3 5 2 0 3 6 2 0 3 7 2 0 3 8 2 0 3 9 2 0 4 0 2 0 4 1 2 0 4 2 2 0 4 3 2 0 4 4 2 0 4 5 2 0 4 6 2 0 4 7 2 0 4 8 2 0 4 9 2 0 5 0 2 0 5 1 2 0 5 2 2 0 5 3 2 0 5 4 2 0 5 5 population dependency ratio e elderly population dependency ratio e 0.00% 0.50% 1.00% 1.50% 2.00% 2.50% 3.00% 3.50% 4.00% basic pension expenditure as a share of gdp hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 123 published by ideas spread the increase in the old-age dependency ratio will lead to an increase in the system support ratio (the ratio of the number of pensioners in the system to the number of people paying pension contributions in the system) of the current pension system, with the same number of people of working age having to support a greater number of elderly people. while most developed countries usually modernize before the demand for older persons expands, our country is facing severe ageing before it has even modernized, i.e., the phenomenon of ageing before getting rich is more serious, which puts even more pressure on society for old-age pensions, and deepens the contradiction between demand and supply and the dilemma of old-age pensions. figure 2 according to the ministry of finance data, in 2003, china's early aging, the basic pension expenditure of enterprise employees was 266 billion yuan, accounting for 1.94% of gdp, to 2023 the data has been upwardly mobile to 4.45 trillion and 3.53%, the basic pension expenditure of the proportion of gdp nearly doubled, and this is still in the development of china's aging population is relatively slow in the period of time. china is aging faster and has a larger population base. japan entered mild, moderate and severe ageing in 1969, 1994 and 2006 respectively, and it took 25 and 12 years to enter moderate and severe ageing respectively. china has entered mild aging since 2000, and then the aging rate accelerated to reach moderate aging by 2021, a process that took only 21 years. as of 2023, china has a total population of 1.41 billion, and the proportion of people aged 65 and above has reached 15.4%, and according to the united nations' world population prospects 2024, the size of china's 65-and-over population in 2034 will exceed 21% and enter into heavy aging, progressing at a further accelerated pace in only 11 years, while china's total population (in 2023) is 11.3 times that of japan figure 3. in terms of pension income, according to the annual data of the national bureau of statistics, the absolute number of china's working-age population aged 15-64 years old has declined in 2014, which to a certain extent also foretells that the number of people contributing within the pension system will continue to decrease; at the same time, due to the fact that china's current pension system stipulates that the minimum number of years of contribution is 15 years (with the new regulation to be adjusted to 20 years in 2024), which causes many people of working age will not continue to contribute after reaching the required contribution period, further reducing the number of contributors in the system and lowering pension income. the decline in income from china's basic pension insurance system is a long-term trend and a long-term institutional arrangement. in order to cope with the downward pressure on the economy, protect employment and protect market players, five social insurance started to reduce the fee rate in phases in 2015, and the state council issued the comprehensive program for reducing social insurance fee rates in 2019, which reduced the pension insurance fee rate from 28% to 24% and used the average salary of the full-caliber employed personnel to approve the contribution base, so that the income from the pension insurance contributions was significantly reduced.the "double-drop" introduced in 2019 has again overlaid the "reduction, exemption and deferral" of the pension insurance fees in order to cope with the epidemic in 2020 and 2021. in 2020 and 2021, in response to the epidemic, the "reduction, exemption and deferral" of pension insurance premiums was again superimposed.the "doubledrop" policy introduced in 2019 is a long-term institutional arrangement, and it is unlikely that the income level of the pension insurance system will return to the previous level, and in the long term, even if the parameters of the system support rate are lowered by raising the statutory retirement age in the future, the replacement rate will be lower than that in the past. in the long run, even if the parameters of the system's support rate are lowered by raising the statutory retirement age in the future, the gradual downward adjustment of the replacement rate will also be an irreversible trend. (a) distribution of china's population age structure in 2030 (projected values values) -20000000 -10000000 0 10000000 20000000 0 17 34 51 68 85 2030 women male hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 124 published by ideas spread (b) distribution of china's population age structure in 2040 (projected values values) (c) distribution of china's population age structure in 2050 (projected values values) figure 3. distribution of china's population age structure in 2030, 2040 and 2050 (projected values) 5. lessons from the united states pension system 5.1 the united states pension insurance system the united states is one of the earliest countries in the world to implement a pension insurance system, and the development of its pension insurance system can be traced back to the enactment of the social security act in 1935, and since then, through continuous innovation and improvement, it has gradually built up a "three-pillar" pension insurance system based on the u.s. federal social security fund, employer-initiated pension plans and personal savings pension plans. the "three-pillar" pension insurance system, which has become the most mainstream pension system in the world. soldiers' pension regulations implemented in 1862 were the origin of the u.s. pension security system, which for the first time stipulated that full pension support should be provided to soldiers who were incapacitated by war, and also counted the families of fallen soldiers among the people who were paid pensions. the u.s. government passed the social security act in 1935, which was the first national social security bill in u.s. history, and the first time the u.s. established a pay-as-you-go system of social security for the elderly. it marked the birth of oasdi, which is the first pillar of the current three-pillar pension insurance system in the united states. its emergence is of great significance to the improvement and reform of the u.s. pension security system. the united states government passed erisa, also known as the employee retirement income security act (erisa), in 1974 and established the national pbgc (pension benefit guaranty corporation). these measures have greatly contributed to the rapid progress of the occupational pension system. the second and third pillars of -20000000 -10000000 0 10000000 20000000 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 2040 daughter male -20000000 -10000000 0 10000000 20000000 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 2050 women male hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 125 published by ideas spread the three-pillar pension insurance system in the united states have also entered a relatively rapid stage of development as a result of the act. the u.s. occupational pension system consists of two major categories: defined benefit db plans and defined contribution dc plans. before the adoption of the 1974 erisa act, almost all enterprises only chose db plans, but dc plans were gradually improved with the reforms at that time and rapidly grew by taking advantage of the preferential measures of erisa. the famous 401k plan and 403b plan are the most successful of the dc plans. 401k plan refers to the provisions of section 401k of the internal revenue code of 1978 in the united states, and its predecessor is a pension plan jointly created by employers and employees, which adopts the operation mode of full accumulation, and it creates a situation in which the employer and the employee bear the responsibility of retirement together. under the plan, the employee and the company each deposit a certain percentage of funds into this account, and the company offers the employee 3-4 portfolio investment plans that the employee can choose from according to his or her needs. the third pillar is the individual pension plan, also known as individual retirement account (ira), which is the third pillar of the individual savings plan established in the united states in 1974 under the employee retirement income security act, which enjoys the same tax-deferred benefits as the dc plan, and is aimed at encouraging individuals to reserve wealth for retirement in the form of voluntary savings, which is a supplementary pension plan. the ira plan mainly consists of traditional iras, roth iras and employer sponsored iras, of which the employer sponsored iras are further divided into sep, sar-sep and simple iras. the employer-sponsored type is further divided into three plan types: sep, sar-sep, and simple. in terms of size, traditional iras account for the largest share. amounts stored in ira accounts under a certain dollar limit each year are tax-deferred. in addition to tax-deferred benefits, the reason why the third pillar ira account in the united states has grown is that it has an important reason that is often overlooked, that is, it has a flexible transfer function, the ira system allows individuals to transfer the second pillar of the pension assets, such as 401(k), 403(b), 457(b) and other plans, under certain conditions, into the ira account, and enjoy the tax relief policy. 5.2 401k plan and its inspiration for china prior to the 1970s, corporate pension plans basically adopted the defined benefit (db) model, in which employers determined their pension standards and made pension payments according to a certain formula based on a number of indicators, such as an employee's years of service in the organization and pre-retirement salary. since the late 1970s, especially in 1981, the u.s. federal tax law in the 401 (k), 403 (b) and 457 clearly stipulates that different types of employers, such as enterprises and non-profit organizations, for employees to establish an accumulation system of personal pension accounts can enjoy tax incentives, more and more employers began to take the employer's pension plan defined contribution (defined contribution), i.e., the employer's pension plan is based on the number of years of service and pre-retirement salary of the organization and a number of indicators. (dc), i.e., during the employee's employment period, the employer and the employee jointly contribute a certain percentage of the employee's salary to the employee's personal account, and upon the employee's retirement, the principal and investment income in the account will be used as the employee's retirement savings. according to the different adaptable groups and the differences in the specific operation methods, the u.s. dctype employer pensions can be divided into different types of plans. there are more than ten types of dc-type employer pension plans that comply with federal tax regulations, including 401(k) plans, 403(b) plans, 457 plans, etc. although all of these plans comply with the requirements of the u.s. federal tax regulations, they are applicable to different groups. although all of these plans comply with the requirements of the u.s. federal tax regulations, they are applicable to different target groups: 401(k) plans are mainly applicable to employees of forprofit companies and employees of some non-profit organizations, 403(b) plans are mainly applicable to teachers, health care workers and employees of some non-profit organizations, and 457 plans are applicable only to employees of state and local governments and employees of other non-profit organizations. the main advantage of a 401k plan is the tax incentives; not only do employer contributions receive a pre-tax deduction, but employee contributions are also deducted from individual income taxes, and employees only contribute taxes when the funds are withdrawn from the individual account or collected at retirement. a 401(k) provides that a company establishes a special 401(k) personal account for its employees, into which employees contribute up to a certain limit from their paychecks each month. the business may contribute (or not), but generally speaking, most businesses will deposit a certain percentage of their paychecks into this account. funds credited to an employee's ira are generally not available to the employee until retirement and can be used for investment purposes. enterprises provide employees with at least 3 different kinds of securities investment hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 126 published by ideas spread portfolio, employees can choose any one to invest, the investment income is fully attributable to the employee's 401 (k) account, the investment risk is also borne by the employees themselves. the amount of pension an employee can receive after retirement depends on both the level of contributions and the status of investment income. when an employee retires, the funds in his or her 401(k) account can be used in a lump sum, in installments, or as a deposit. 5.3 what the development of 401k plans in the united states has taught us is this 1. establish a market-oriented operation mode and a complete external supervision system. full competition is the basic organizing principle of the investment management of the united states 401 (k) plan, and is also the basic means of ensuring investment efficiency and reducing risk. competition forces each investment organization to improve investment quality, reduce costs and internal risks in various ways. at the same time, the u.s. regulators have established a complete set of external supervision system for the 401(k) plan from initiation, contribution, investment to the process of receiving, etc., which realizes the all-round guidance and supervision of the pension management work, which is very effective. 2. professional division of labor is more detailed, the u.s. pension market, in addition to product providers, the various professional fields supporting a large number of service providers, such as the provision of plan investment consulting, plan administration and management, as well as auditing and other services, different institutions in their respective areas of specialization to reduce the cost of services, to establish their respective comparative advantages. the main service providers are custodians, administration and account managers, investment managers, third-party administrators, employee education, consulting firms, investment advisors, attorneys, accountants, and others. 3. the success of the u.s. 401(k) plan is supported by a mature capital market. the capital market provides a wealth of optional investment tools, while supporting the legal and regulatory system and regulatory system is very sound, as well as the united states developed trust culture, all for the long-term investment of pension funds to provide a suitable market environment. at the same time, the development of 401(k) plan means that there is a long-term value investment concept of pension funds continue to inject funds, but also contributed to the united states capital market continues to mature. however, the 401k plan also has certain defects. for one thing, it relies too much on the employee's own investment ability, and the employee himself bears all the investment risk, and the failure of the investment will lead to the failure of the whole plan. secondly, unlike the defined benefit (db), the 401k plan's receipt is decided by the employee himself, and if he chooses to receive a lump sum, how to ensure that the pension is reasonably utilized is another problem. 6. conclusion supplementary pensions are "golden handcuffs" that help to stabilize the relationship between employers and employees and have a positive effect on enterprise development. however, the coverage of the pension system, especially the second pillar, for migrant workers is relatively low, making it difficult to ensure the stability of labor relations among migrant workers. as an agricultural society with thousands of years of tradition, china pays more attention to stability under the concepts of "raising children for old age" and "a good death". in promoting the new type of urbanization and reforming the household registration system, it is necessary to truly eliminate the obstacles that affect the enjoyment of social security and basic public services by the floating population, especially migrant workers and their families, on an equal footing with local citizens. in promoting new urbanization and the reform of the household registration system, it is necessary to truly remove the policy obstacles that affect the enjoyment by the floating population, especially rural migrant workers and their families, of the same rights and interests in social security and basic public services as those of local citizens. references li, y. (2001). explore the road of urban-rural integration of china’s social security system. zhejiang academic journal, (5), 6. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1003-420x.2001.05.013 zhu, l. (2010). research on the fairness and sustainability of the chinese social security system. chinese population science, (5), 11. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1003-420x.2001.05.013 cheng, j., & tang, y. (2024). regional differences and dynamic evolution of the construction level of the social security system in china. statistics and decision-making, 40(8), 57-62. lin, m. s. (2024). theory of chinese social security knowledge system: based on the construction perspective of chinese independent knowledge system. social security review, 8(1), 23-32. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 127 published by ideas spread yu, h. (2024). exploring the internal logic of the construction of chinese traditional social security system: based on the perspective of culture and values. social security review, 8(1), 46-58. wang, h. (2024). practice and analysis of the high-quality social security system developed by the whole people. (3), 136-140. deng, d., wu, h., & liu, c. (2005). on the governance structure and management mode of china’s social security fund. the economic review, (5), 5. zhao, q. (2023). research on the social insurance participation path for flexible employment personnel based on reasonable payment burden. social security review, 7(2), 94-108. chang, z. (2002). overall thinking on china’s social security system: theory on establishing a target-integrated social security system. the chinese civil affairs, (11), 40-43. wang, y. (2009). several major issues on the reform and development of china’s social security system: comments and suggestions on china’s social security report. the industrial economy of china, (8), 9. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v7n3p61 61 published by ideas spread status and enlightenment of social capitals' participation in the comprehensive land consolidation and rehabilitation at the free trade port of hainan jian li1, na tang2 & pengcheng huang3 1 college of finance and economics, hainan vocational university of science and technology, haikou, china 2 school of financial management, hainan college of economics and business, haikou, china 3 deloitte touche tohmatsu,guangzhou, china correspondence: na tang, school of financial management, hainan college of economics and business, haikou, china. e-mail: tangna2024/at/126.com received: november 6, 2024; accepted: december 4, 2024; published: december 12, 2024 abstract implementing pilot projects for comprehensive land consolidation and rehabilitation is a major initiative to follow the thought on ecological civilization and the instructions of general secretary xi jinping on zhejiang's "thousands of village demonstration and myriad of villages remediation" program. it is also a key project to support the construction of hainan free trade port and facilitate the implementation of the rural revitalization strategy. from the current situation, land consolidation mainly relies on government-allocated special funds and bank loan. against the backdrop of deepening reforms of investing and financing and land comprehensive consolidation encompassing all regions and factors, the contradiction between insufficient capital from government-allocated funds and increasing tasks of land comprehensive consolidation has become increasingly prominent. bank credit funding tends to give rise to the hidden debt of government, leading it urgent to expand and improve diversified funding mechanisms to ensure the effectiveness of the effort for land comprehensive consolidation. this article is based on the status of comprehensive land consolidation in hainan free trade port, combined with the background of rural revitalization and urban-rural integrated development. it summarizes the modes of social capital participation in comprehensive land consolidation, analyzes the existing difficulties, and proposes corresponding countermeasures and suggestions. keywords: hainan free trade port, social capital, comprehensive land consolidation and rehabilitation 1. introduction 1.1 the requirement of high-quality development of hainan, and support of establishment of hainan free trade port in china, comprehensive land consolidation across the board is an improvement of natural resource application with the main tasks of land consolidation of agriculture and construction, rural ecological protection and restoration, as well as rural historical and cultural preservation. it is also crucial in serving the national strategy of rural revitalization. since “the reform and opening-up”, china's industrialization process has grown exponentially, driving economic development while also leading to excessive consumption of resources. taking land resources as an example, in the early stages of the reform and opening-up, various regulations and management systems were flawed, lacking guidance for enterprises. moreover, due to the disorderly nature of market development, conflicts occured between land use and industrial planning nand economic development, resulting in the wastage of various natural resources and the net loss of farmland in terms of the environment. therefore, in 2018, china initiated comprehensive land consolidation projects across the country to address the shortcomings of traditional land management. by the end of 2023, a total of 448.8 billion yuan(c.n.y) had been invested in 1,304 projects nationwide, with a comprehensive consolidation area of 3.78 million mu(chinese acreage) completed, and 470,000 mu(chinese acreage) of cultivated land addition, 120,000 mu(chinese acreage) of construction land deduction. a series of china's land comprehensive consolidation experiences that are promotable and replicable have been formed. the total land area of hainan province is 3.5187 million hectares, accounting for 42.5% of the country's tropical land. among it, approximately 3.3136 million hectares of land have been developed and utilized, representing a hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 62 published by ideas spread significant proportion of the province's total account. hainan is abundant in natural resources and boasts a beautiful environment, with tourism and the elderly care as its main industries. in 2023, hainan's gdp growth rate was 9.2%, 4.96% points higher than the national average. under the free trade port policy, comprehensive land consolidation can help intensify land use and optimize spatial layout to facilitate the introduction of high-tech enterprises, achieve industrial clustering effects, and high-quality economic development. comprehensive land consolidation is able to optimize the allocation and utilization of resources in free trade port, facilitating the dynamic integration of policy promotion and industrial optimization. as the construction of the free trade port progresses deeply, hainan faces a significant shortage of land for major projects. meanwhile, issues such as fragmented farmland, disordered land use, inefficient land utilization, and degraded ecological quality also urgently need to be addressed. therefore, through the comprehensive land consolidation, connecting scattered farmland into contiguous areas, using agricultural and construction land intensively, improving land quality, and protecting the local environment can effectively solve problems of land shortages for projects, farmland protection, and ecological conservation. 1.2 serve the rural revitalization strategy compared to traditional land consolidation, comprehensive land consolidation aligns more closely with the demands of the new era and meets practical needs, playing a significant role in promoting rural revitalization and construction. compared to traditional land consolidation, comprehensive land consolidation aligns more closely with the demands of the new era and meets practical needs, playing a significant role in promoting rural revitalization and construction. in terms of promoting industrial reformation, idle homesteads, unused village and town land, abandoned mines, factories, and other unsufficient used construction land should be managed in a coordinated way to optimize the layout of rural construction land. the conserved land space should be utilized for resettlement, integrated infrastructure, public welfare, etc. by adopting methods such as joint ventures, partnerships, and equity participation, relevant industrial projects can be made profitable, thereby enhancing the self-sustainable capacity of rural industries. in terms of creating livable environments, efforts are focused on the protection and restoration of rural ecological environments, improving rural living conditions, and construct ecologically livable community. agricultural ecological restoration projects are implemented to improve the quality of ecological water systems. in terms of protect the inheriting traditional culture, emphasis is placed on the protection of local antique buildings to maintain the continuity of local culture. 1.3 promote the balanced development of cities and counties in hainan as an island province, hainan is currently in the stage of building a free trade port and needs to attract a large amount of external capitals and talents. cities such as haikou and sanya have received relatively greater development opportunities, and have attracted much more external capital and service providers than its at other regions. the increasing disparity in resources and attention received by various regions is bound to a consequence which uneven development occured among cities and counties. refer to the economic data of china's rapidly developing province such as guangdong and jiangsu, we can observe that there is an uneven regional industrial layout in guangdong. the gdp of cities in guangdong and jiangsu in 2023 is as follows table 1. table 1. gdp of cities in guangdong and jiangsu in 2023 (unit: 100 million yuan) rank cities in guangdong 2023’s gdp cities in guangdong 2023’s gdp 1 shenzhen 34,606.4 suzhou 24,653.4 2 guangzhou 30,355.73 nanjing 17,421.4 3 foshan 13,276.14 wuxi 15,486.2 4 dongguan 11,438.13 nantong 11,813 5 huizhou 5,639.68 changzhou 10,116 6 zhuhai 4,233.22 xuzhou 8,900 7 jiangmen 4,022.25 yangzhou 7,423 8 zhanjiang 3,793.59 yancheng 7,404 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 63 published by ideas spread 9 zhongjiang 3,850.65 taizhou 6,732 10 maoming 3,987.22 zhenjiang 5,264 11 shantou 3,158.32 huaian 5,015 12 zhaoqing 2,792.51 suqian 4,398 13 jieyang 2,445.03 lianyungang 4,364 14 qingyuan 2,120.19 15 shaoguan 1,620.83 16 yangjiang 1,581.79 17 shanwei 1,430.84 18 meizhou 1,408.43 19 chaozhou 1,356.59 20 heyuan 1,348.22 21 yunfu 1,207.42 total 135,673.18 total 128,990 data source: official websites of governments of guangdong and jiangsu from table 1: the total gdp of guangdong province amounts to cny 13,567.318 billion yuan, with a gradient distribution among its cities. shenzhen and guangzhou, as developed cities, have both surpassed the three trillions mark in gdp. foshan and dongguan, as important cities in the pearl river delta region, have gdp totals exceeding one trillion.the gdp of cities such as huizhou, zhuhai, jiangmen, zhanjiang, zhongshan, maoming, and shantou ranges between 300 billion and 600 billion cny yuan, placing them in the second tier. in contrast, cities like zhaoqing, jieyang, qingyuan, shaoguan, yangjiang, shanwei, meizhou, chaozhou, heyuan, and yunfu have relatively lower gdp totals, resembling cities with developing economies.the total gdp of jiangsu province is close to that of guangdong. among them, suzhou, wuxi, nanjing (the provincial capital), nantong, and changzhou have gdps exceeding one trillion cny(with suzhou surpassing two trillion cny). while other cities range from 400 billion to 900 billion yuan, indicating a more balanced development across the province. guangzhou, shenzhen, foshan, and dongguan in guangdong province concentrate the majority of the province's financial, it, technology, trade, and manufacturing enterprises. other cities’ industries are homogeneous , with the real estate industry accounting for a significant proportion of their local gdp. in contrast, jiangsu has a relatively balanced industrial distribution, with a more reasonable allocation of "resources," "commerce," and "residential" corresponding to land use. from the economic development situations of various cities in guangdong and jiangsu provinces, it can be seen that the distribution of population is often determined by the distribution of industries. an imbalanced industrial distribution will directly lead to significant differentiation in both economy and population. as a national free trade port construction base, hainan province achieved gdp of 755.118 billion yuan in 2023, according to data from the national bureau of statistics. on a base period comparison, representing a 9.2% increase from the previous year. among them, the gdps of haikou, danzhou, and sanya were 235.844 billion yuan, 100.284 billion yuan, and 97.134 billion yuan, respectively. the total gdp of these three cities accounted for 57.37% of it at province.in terms of population, hainan province had a permanent resident population of approximately 10.4321 million people at the end of 2023. among them, haikou city had around 3.0016 million, accounting for approximately 28.78% of the province's total; danzhou city had 1.0156 million, accounting for about 9.73%; and sanya city had 1.0659 million, accounting for about 10.22%. from the data, it can be observed that there is an oligarchic trend in both the economy and population among the cities in hainan province. the uneven development among cities and counties is not conducive to the construction of hainan free trade port. integrating the construction of hainan free trade port into comprehensive land consolidation throughout the region will help ensure reasonable resource allocation, scientific industrial distribution, narrowed urban-rural development gaps, and balanced regional development. 2. model and characteristics of social capital participation in comprehensive land consolidation in hainan free trade port 2.1 summary of current pilot projects of comprehensive land consolidation in hainan according to public information sourced from the website of the hainan provincial natural resources and planning department, two departments have conscientiously implemented the spirit of the document《opinions of the general office of the hainan provincial people's government on carrying out pilot projects for hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 64 published by ideas spread comprehensive land consolidation throughout the region》,issued the document 《announcement on the application for pilot projects of comprehensive land consolidation throughout hainan province in 2020》, initiating the consolidation campaign across hainan from 2020 to 2023, encompassing a total of 41 pilot projects. among these, there were 25 items in 2020, 10 in 2021, and an additional 6 projects approved successively from 2022 to 2023. the primary objectives of these pilot projects are “land intensification”, “basic land consolidation”, and “urban-rural integrated development”, followed by “village relocation and merging”, as well as “special ecological protection”. the responsible entities are primarily local governments and hainan farming & land reclamation investment holding group co., ltd. the eligible comprehensive land consolidation projects in hainan are as follows table 2. table 2. list of pilot projects for comprehensive land consolidation in hainan province rank city/county (agricultural reclamation) pilot location for land consolidation type of consolidation 1 haikou city jiazi town, qiongshan district, haikou city, hainan province land intensification, special ecological protection 2 dongshan town, xiuying district, haikou city / 3 dazhipo town, meilan district, haikou city / 4 sanya city yazhou district, sanya city, hainan province land intensification, basic land consolidation 5 tianya district, sanya city, hainan province land intensification, basic land consolidation, urban-rural integration 6 yucai ecological zone, sanya city, hainan province same as above 7 jiyang district, sanya city, hainan province land intensification, urban-rural integration, basic land consolidation, relocation and merging 8 haitang district, sanya city, hainan province land intensification, basic land consolidation, urban-rural integration 9 danzhou city zhonghe town, danzhou city, hainan province basic land consolidation, special ecological protection 10 heqing town, danzhou city / 11 qiongzhong county yinggen town, qiongzhong county, hainan province land intensification, relocation and merging, urban-rural integration 12 hongmao town, qiongzhong li and miao autonomous county / 13 limushan town, qiongzhong li and miao autonomous county / 14 wanling town, qiongzhong li and miao autonomous county / 15 qionghai city huishan town, qionghai city, hainan province land intensification, urban-rural integration, special ecological protection, relocation and merging 16 chengmai county yongfa town, chengmai county, hainan province land intensification, special ecological protection hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 65 published by ideas spread 17 hainan farming & land reclamation investment holding group hainan nanping farm land intensification, relocation and merging, basic land consolidation 18 hainan rongguang farm same as above 19 hainan guangba farm land intensification, basic land consolidation 20 hainan xilian farm land intensification, relocation and merging, basic land consolidation 21 hainan grass and livestock group land intensification, basic land consolidation 22 hainan nanjin farm same as above 23 hainan honghua farm same as above 24 hainan donglu farm same as above 25 lingao county xinying town, lingao county, hainan province land intensification, basic land consolidation, special ecological protection 26 huangtong town, lingao county / 27 nanbao town, lingao county / 28 dongying town, lingao county / 29 ledong county jianfeng town, ledong county, hainan province basic land consolidation 30 baoting county liugong township, baoting county, hainan province land intensification 31 ding'an county longmen town, ding'an county, hainan province urban-rural integration, basic land consolidation, special ecological protection 32 lingshui county longguang town, lingshui li autonomous county, hainan province land intensification 33 wanning city liji town, wanning city, hainan province same as above 34 changjiang county changhua town, changjiang li autonomous county, hainan province land intensification, urban-rural integration 35 wangxia township, changjiang li autonomous county / 36 haigang mining area, changjiang li autonomous county / 37 wenchang city fengpo town, wenchang city / 38 dongge town, wenchang city (entire area) / 39 ding'an county longhu town, ding'an county (entire area) land intensification, basic land consolidation, special ecological protection 40 dongfang city luodai river basin, jiangbian township, xinming village, dongfang city / 41 tunchang county tuncheng town, tunchang county data source: hainan provincial government network hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 66 published by ideas spread 2.2 characteristics of social capital's participation in the comprehensive land consolidation of hainan free trade port reference from literature, chen huimei (2023) identifies four modes of social capital participation in comprehensive land consolidation projects at the current stage of china. these are: 1) the market-oriented operation mode of government investment companies; 2) independent development by enterprises or individuals; 3) the public-private partnership (ppp) mode; and 4) the entrusted enterprise construction mode. according to land consolidation announcements published by governments at various levels in hainan and the list of pilot projects for comprehensive land consolidation across hainan region (table 2), the current modes of social capital participation in comprehensive land consolidation projects in hainan are the market-oriented operation mode of government investment companies and the ppp mode. the market-oriented operation mode of government investment companies involves government-controlled companies or groups operating relevant industries or implementing construction projects through market-oriented operational methods. this mode can effectively address issues such as land transfer registration, integrate internal and external resources of state-owned enterprises, and ensure the standardized implementation of projects. for example, hainan provincial nongken investment holding group company (as known as "hainan nongken group")'s comprehensive cross region land consolidation project in honghua farm involves the group company coordinating with relevant government agencies on land transfer matters to resolve challenges like the boundaries of development, insufficient construction land quotas, and insufficient farmland quotas. hainan nongken group takes responsibility for project planning and design, bidding and tendering as well as project management to ensure the standardized implementation of the project. by integrating resources both within and outside the group company, enhancing the speed of advancement. meanwhile, guided by the 《opinions on further promoting the reform and development of state farms 》 which issued by the state council, hainan nongken group introduces social capital as a supplementary funding source for comprehensive land consolidation projects by capitalizing and assetizing agricultural land, thereby activating the vitality of land resources. the public-private partnership (ppp) model involves the government approval on construction projects and authorizing bidding entity to select suitable social entities through the public bidding activity to serve as the investor and contractor. through contract signing, the rights and obligations, revenue sources, and distribution methods of both the government and the social capital parties are determined. the project is implemented and completed using a social capital operation model of "full investment, full-process operation, and full risk bearing" to advance the implementation and final acceptance of comprehensive land consolidation projects. this model reduces the overall project costs and addresses issues such as government funding shortages.for example, guangzhou s.p.i design co., ltd. (as knwon as "s.p.i") has actively participated in rural revitalization initiatives in the early stages, successfully creating exemplary rural revitalization projects such as the “guangzhou conghua nanping meditation town”, “hunan huaihua xupu beidouxi”, and “jiangxi·wuyuan shuimo shanghe artistic town”. as the social investor and contractor for the pilot project of comprehensive land consolidation in longhu town, ding'an county, hainan province, s.p.i has effectively addressed the funding shortage faced by the ding'an county’s government. by leveraging market-oriented operations, it also has effectively integrated all influencing factor across longhu, ding'an county, reducing project implementation and operational costs while enhancing the efficiency of project’s construction and management.the mode of social capital's participation in the comprehensive land consolidation project of hainan free trade port is shown in table 3. table 3. list of comprehensive land consolidation projects involving social capital’s participation in hainan free trade port serial number pilot location social capital participation mode mode characteristics 1 jiazi town, qiongshan district, haikou city government-social capital cooperation reduced overall project costs and addressed government funding shortages 2 dongshan town, xiuying district, haikou city government-social capital cooperation same as above 3 dazhipo town, meilan district, haikou city government-social capital cooperation same as above 4 yazhou district, sanya city government investment effectively addressed land transfer registration issues and insufficient farmland, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 67 published by ideas spread company market operation integrated internal and external resources of state-owned enterprises, and ensured project standardization 5 tianya district, sanya city government investment company market operation same as above 6 yucai ecological zone, sanya city same as above same as above 7 jiyang district, sanya city same as above same as above 8 haitang district, sanya city same as above same as above 9 zhonghe town, danzhou city same as above same as above 10 heqing town, danzhou city government-social capital cooperation reduced overall project costs and addressed government funding shortages 11 hongmao town, qiongzhong li and miao autonomous county same as above same as above 12 yongfa town, chengmai county government investment company market operation effectively addressed land transfer registration issues and insufficient farmland, integrated internal and external resources of state-owned enterprises, and ensured project standardization 13 nanping farm of hainan nonken group, hainan province same as above same as above 14 rongguang farm of hainan nonken group, hainan province same as above same as above 15 guangba farm of hainan nonken group, hainan province same as above same as above 16 xilian farm of hainan nonken group, hainan province same as above same as above 17 grass and livestock group of hainan nonken group, hainan province (full region) same as above same as above 18 nanjin farm of hainan nonken group, hainan province same as above same as above 19 honghua farm of hainan nonken group, hainan province same as above same as above 20 donglu farm of hainan nonken group, hainan province same as above same as above 21 xinying town, lingao county, hainan province government-social capital cooperation reduced overall project costs and addressed government funding shortages 22 huangtong town, lingao county, hainan province same as above same as above hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 68 published by ideas spread 23 nanbao town, lingao county, hainan province same as above same as above 24 dongying town, lingao county, hainan province same as above same as above 25 liugong township, baoting county, hainan province same as above same as above 26 longmen town, ding'an county, hainan province same as above same as above 27 longguang town, lingshui county, hainan province same as above same as above 28 haigang mining area, changjiang li autonomous county, hainan province same as above same as above 29 dongge town, wenchang city government investment company market operation effectively addressed land transfer registration issues and insufficient farmland, integrated internal and external resources of state-owned enterprises, and ensured project standardization 30 full region of longhu town, ding'an county government-social capital cooperation reduced overall project costs and addressed government funding shortages 31 luodai river basin and xinming village, jiangbian township, dongfang city same as above same as above 32 tuncheng town, tunchang county same as above same as above data source: hainan provincial government network 3. present situation and analysis of hainan comprehensive land consolidation 3.1 status of social capital's participation in hainan comprehensive land consolidation 3.1.1 policy support for social capital investment in comprehensive land consolidation projects the hainan provincial government has issued documents like the《opinions of the general office of the hainan provincial government on carrying out pilot projects for comprehensive land consolidation across the entire region》 (qiongfu letter [2020] no. 321), encouraging other cities and counties’government in hainan to innovate investment and financing mechanisms, leverage the guiding role of fiscal funds and the leading role of financial institutions in guiding social capital, and update the enthusiasm of social capital to participate in comprehensive land consolidation. the hainan provincial department of finance, the provincial department of natural resources and planning have jointly issued the 《measures for the administration of special funds for ecological restoration of land space in hainan province》, providing financial support through special funds to encourage social entities to undertake comprehensive land consolidation projects. this initiative aims to further deepen the reform of state farms, facilitate closer integration between state farms and local entities, and promote high-quality development of hainan free trade port. meanwhile, the hainan provincial government also has issued the 《notice on several measures to further promote the integrated development of state farms and local entities》 (qiong letter [2022] no. 14), supporting the comprehensive consolidation of land within state farms, encouraging innovative financial models, and attracting diversified social capital investments through the listing of subsidiaries, bond issuance, and abs products. 3.1.2 social entities participate in the whole process of the comprehensive land consolidation project given the complexity, multidisciplinary nature, and significant capital requirements of all regions comprehensive land consolidation projects, in order to better accomplish the various tasks of projects, social entities are introduced as service providers throughout the entire process, from project approval to project construction, supervision, as hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 69 published by ideas spread well as final audit, to attract social investments and participation. for example, the dongfang city’s government and danzhou city’s government publicly selected entities to serve as the main implementers for the comprehensive land consolidation project in luodai river, and heqing town, responsible for the full-process investment and construction of projects. 3.1.3 industrial integration attract social capital investment apart from aiming at ecological restoration and protection, land intensification, and supplementary farmland indicators, the all regions comprehensive land consolidation in hainan also ultimately seeks to build distinctive towns and villages characterized by the "trinity" of agriculture, culture, and tourism, synchronous improvement in production, living, and ecology, and deep integration of the primary, secondary, and tertiary industries. therefore, in terms of the integration, there is a great need to combine policy documents with local conditions and introduce industries suitable for local development through market-oriented operations. for example, as the investment and construction entity for the land consolidation project in longhu town, ding'an county, hainan province, s.p.i uses a three-step approach: from "agricultural land consolidation" to "production linkage" and then to "cultural tourism integration" to optimize the local agricultural industrial structure in longhu town. this has transformed longhu town into a rural leisure tourism resort and the longhu future rural community, have promoting the integrated development of agriculture, culture, and tourism industries. 3.2 difficulties in the participation of social capital in the projects 3.2.1 few clear source of income currently, the definitive income for hainan land consolidation projects mainly comes from the trading of construction land quota and newly-added farmland quota. the revenue from these sources is influenced by fluctuations in market prices. other potential revenue streams include earnings generated by the industries introduced after the completion of the projects, although the future operational income remains uncertain. given the fewer of clear revenue sources, it may be challenging to attract social capital invest in the projects. 3.3.2 policy and regulatory limitations (1) it is difficult to advance policy coordination. all regions comprehensive land consolidation involves multiple departments and policies, requiring coordination and cooperation among all departments. however, in reality, there often exists the issue of difficulty in advancing policy coordination, leading to obstacles in the work. (2) regulatory constraints. current laws, regulations, and policies impose certain restrictions on land consolidation projects, such as strict conditions for modifying planning of land use and cumbersome approval procedures. these constraints may increase the difficulty and time cost of the work, affecting the progress and effectiveness of the consolidation efforts. this will prolong the time it takes for social capital investments to generate returns, as well as impacting the enthusiasm for such capital’s investments. (3) lack of policy continuity. the hainan provincial department of finance and the department of natural resources and planning jointly issued the《administrative method for special funds for ecological restoration of land and space in hainan province》, providing special funds to support all regions comprehensive land consolidation projects. however, this document expired in 2022, and no subsequent documents have been issued to clearly stipulate continued fiscal fund support for the projects. since land consolidation projects possess characteristics of publicity , if fiscal funds do not continuously support these projects, the enthusiasm for social capital investment will be suppressed. (4) there is a lack of issued policy documents that stimulate social capital investment. according to publicly available sources, hainan provincial government has issued the 《opinions on carrying out all regions comprehensive land consolidation pilots》to guide departments in attracting social capital investment. it includes tax reductions and exemptions for the projects related to farmers' housing and infrastructure construction base on relevant regulations. however, no further guidance documents have been issued subsequently to stimulate social capital investment as well, given the example of those policies, 《tax exemption or reduction policies for social entities participating in or investing in land consolidation projects》 and 《reward policies for social entities promoting full employment in rural areas》. 3.3 land ownership all regions comprehensive land consolidation necessitates adjustments to land ownership. in reality, difficulties often occured, which may hinder the smooth progress of remediation work and prolong the project duration. since social capital investors tend to prefer shorter periods for obtaining returns on their investments, they may have concerns about duration risk of projects hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 70 published by ideas spread 3.4 channels lack for social capitals directly participate in hainan comprehensive land consolidation currently, there are two primary ways for social capital to directly participate in hainan free trade port comprehensive land consolidation projects: directly participating in the open selection of social entities for projects, and trading related index assets in the specific market. however, there are limited channels for social capital participation. from a practical perspective, all regions comprehensive land consolidation involves multiple systematic projects and requires substantial capital investment. therefore, government-controlled companies or group corporations tend to cooperate with banks and other financial institutions, where banks provide long-term and large-scale credit funding to support the implementation of project engineering. additionally, under the current capital cooperation model, social entities that win the projects face difficulties in obtaining valid certification documents for land index circulation as financing application materials. consequently, other social entities also find it challenging to specifically invest in land comprehensive consolidation projects 4. suggestion and countermeasures for social capital to participate in hainan land comprehensive consolidation projects 4.1 complete relevant policies 4.1.1 issued continuous fiscal policy documents to support the projects land consolidation projects possess certain public characteristics and require financial support. however, the government administrative measures document that provided special financial fund support for all regions comprehensive land consolidation projects has been expired in 2022, and no similar document issued subsequently. therefore, departments should coordinate the work of projects in a unified manner, the follow-up policies on special fund ought to issue as well, enhence the support for both economics and approval, and send a positive signals to attract investment. 4.1.2 simplifying approval procedures for social entities investing in projects given the systematic, diverse, and complex nature of land consolidation projects, their construction and advancement involve multiple administrative approvals. to enhence the enthusiasm of social entities’ participation, relevant approval procedures for projects should be pre-approved or use minimalist approval model with regard to related materials. strengthening in-process supervision and management as well as post-supervision can accelerate construction progress while safeguarding the legitimate rights and interests of farmers and social capital. 4.1.3 issuing policies to stimulate social capital investment the government should issue policy documents offering tax exemptions or reductions for financing products related to social entities investing in land consolidation projects. additionally, policy documents providing incentive rewards should be issued for introducing suitable industries by relevant social entities to promote employment of the local rural population. by drawing lessons from south korea's "saemaul undong (new village movement)", policy documents offering financial subsidies or patent incentives should also be issued for engaging in rural industry-academia-research integration projects, thereby stimulating social capital investment in projects. if you follow the “checklist”, your paper will conform to the requirements of the publisher and facilitate a problemfree publication process. 4.2 expand the channels for social capital to participate in the comprehensive land consolidation of hainan free trade port 4.2.1 carbon trading as a means for expanding channels to social capital involvement given the current situation where social capital's participation in the integrated land consolidation of hainan free trade port is limited, with social capital holding a small share and facing a lack of clear revenue sources for such projects, there is a risk that social capital, driven by profit, may resort to marginal practices. this includes misuse the linkage policy between land use increments and decrements to increase construction land quotas and newlyadded farmland indicators for market transactions, leading to a waste of land resources where newly-added farmland remains uncultivated. wu jialong and su mengyuan (2021) argue that the integrated all regions land remediation aligns well with the connotation of the "dual-carbon" (carbon peaking and carbon neutrality) goals in terms of development direction and overall objectives. integrated land consolidation projects can promote the achievement of these "dual-carbon" goals. therefore, by establishing a local carbon emission quota market or connecting to regional and national trading markets, the newly-generated carbon emission quotas from land hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 71 published by ideas spread consolidation projects can be traded in the market, providing sustainable revenue for projects and avoiding inefficient use or waste of land resources and other natural elements. 4.2.2 expanding channels for social capital involvement by drawing on the experiences of guangzhou and chongqing in guiding social capital to participate in fund-raising for land remediation projects, we can draw on the "huangpu experience" from guangzhou. on august 8, 2024, the guangzhou government issued the first rural property rights transfer and transaction certificate in huangma community, huangpu district, witnessing the acquisition of rural forestland management rights through public transactions by the project winner. the issuance of the rural property rights transfer and transaction certificate provides evidentiary support for the project winner in applying for agricultural industrialization projects, subsidies, and mortgage financing, thereby addressing the financing difficulties faced by social entities participating in rural industrialization projects. additionally, we can also draw on the experiences of chongqing's "land quotas" and guangzhou's "land vouchers". by using land vouchers or land quotas, which only specify the area of rights and exchange value without clarifying the specific location, the "land quotas" and "land vouchers" can be openly traded and transferred on government platforms. this approach broadens the channels for social capital to participate in comprehensive land consolidation projects, while simultaneously establishing an operational system that encourages "voluntary reclamation, public transactions, returns to farmers, direct transfer of funds, and regulated use", thereby safeguarding the legitimate land-related income of farmers or village (residential) collective economic organizations. 5. conclusion this article summarizes the meaning of why social capital participates in hainan comprehensive consolidation projects at first. then it summarizes models and characteristics of social capital participation in comprehensive land consolidation in hainan, and there are six characteristics of mode and two modes of capitals’ involvement. according to policy and announcements about bidding, this article finds the situation of social capital participation in comprehensive land consolidation in hainan so that it digs out some problems of modes of capital’s involvement in comprehensive land consolidation in hainan through practical experience. the end of this article gives suggestions and countermeasures for social capital to participate in comprehensive land consolidation in hainan when digging out some problems of practical experience, which are simplifying approval procedures, completing relevant policies, expanding the channels for social capital using other good practical experiences in comprehensive land consolidation. referencesc chen, h., fan, y., jin, x., et al. (2023). modes and paths for social capital participation in comprehensive land consolidation and rehabilitation across the entire territorial space. modern urban research, 2023(1), 15-20, 27. yang, r., & liu, r. (2021). comprehensive rural land consolidation and territorial spatial ecological restoration: convergence and integration. modern urban research, 2021(3), 23-32. jia, w. (2018). exploration and inspiration of financial and social capital participation in land consolidation. china land, 2018(8), 35-37. wu, j., su, m., su, s., et al. (2021). exploration of comprehensive land consolidation paths across the entire region under the "dual carbon" goals. china land and resources economics, 34(12), 77-83. dong, z., wei, y., ren, c., et al. (2022). innovation in comprehensive land consolidation across the entire region for rural revitalization: creation and realization of public value. resources science, 44(7), 1305-1315. https://doi.org/10.18402/resci.2022.07.01 xiao, w., guo, j., zhang, l., yu, c., & ye, y. (2023). market-oriented mechanisms, modes, and paths for comprehensive land consolidation and ecological restoration across the entire region. journal of china agricultural university, 28(08), 203-217. wang, x. (2024, october 24). research on the integration path of social capital involvement in comprehensive land consolidation planning. china land and resources economics, 1-14. yang, f., & wu, m. (2023). innovative mechanisms to guide social capital participation in comprehensive land consolidation across the entire region. jiangsu rural economy, 2023(2), 59-60. zheng, x., du, y., wei, j., et al. (2019). modes and suggestions for social capital participation in land consolidation in hebei province. china land and resources economics, 32(1), 42-45. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 72 published by ideas spread chen, k., xie, j., ning, t., et al. (2024). implementation dilemmas and countermeasures for social capital participation in comprehensive land consolidation across the entire region. natural resources intelligence, 2024(07), 36-41+53. he, c., guo, q., & lin, j. (2020). practice and reflection on social capital participation in land consolidation in tai'an. china land, 2020(03), 46-48. liu, q. (2024). problems of comprehensive rural land consolidation and experience from foreign countries under the background of rural revitalization. agricultural economy, 2024(04), 89-92. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v5n2p1 1 published by ideas spread existence of banyumasan javanese language in digital era ali rokhman1, rawuh edy priyono1, imam santosa1, sri pangestuti1 & mustasyfa thabib kariadi2 1 faculty of social and political sciences, jenderal soedirman university, indonesia 2 faculty of humanities, jenderal soedirman university, indonesia correspondence: ali rokhman, faculty of social and political sciences, jenderal soedirman university, indonesia. received: march 23, 2022; accepted: may 18, 2022; published: may 23, 2022 abstract this research examines whether banyumasan javanese language is still commonly used in the current digital era, both in daily interaction and in interaction through digital media. the national language of the republic of indonesia is bahasa indonesia. besides the national language, local languages are usually used by local people in a country according to the people’s ethnicities. the local language used by local people is also called the first language. there are about 719 local languages throughout indonesia. in java, some local languages are used in specific regions and have their uniqueness as the form of local people’s local wisdom. one of the existing local languages in java is banyumasan javanese language, also known as penginyongan language or basa ngapak, used in banjarnegara, purbalingga, banyumas, cilacap, kebumen and surroundings (barlingmascakeb). many researchers have reported that their speakers slowly abandoned local languages because of migration, the young generation’s reluctance to use the local language, and lack of pride in first language factors. a unesco report states that nearly 1,500 ethnic languages are becoming extinct every day. using a quantitative approach, this research randomly took the respondents, constituting banyumasan language speakers from some regencies. the data were collected through questionnaires that were distributed online. the collected data were analyzed using a descriptive statistics technique. the research results show that banyumasan javanese language started to be abandoned by its main speakers and their descendants, both in family communication and online activities on the internet and social media communication. keywords: banyumasan javanese language, penginyongan language, google trends, language attrition, digital media 1. introduction language is part of a country’s culture that experiences very rapid dynamics. language can develop because of interaction with other languages that may result in loan words. but, on the contrary, language can also go extinct because of its speakers’ migration or its young generation’s pride. such phenomena also occur with local languages in indonesia, which are also affected by the indonesian language as the national language and foreign languages through various media. the indonesian institute of sciences reported that the number of local languages in indonesia was about 719, distributed throughout its territory. from the perspective of the number of speakers, local languages are divided into two groups, namely big languages group, such as javanese, minangkabau, sundanese, makassar, and other languages, and small languages group, that can be found in west papua, papua, maluku, maluku utara, and east nusa tenggara. javanese language with banyumasan dialect or basa penginyongan is part of javanese language of the big group, just like boso dialek suroboyoan, or the dialect of osing people in banyuwangi (lipi, 2020). many researches have been conducted by experts on local languages, one of which was the research conducted in semarang. this research concluded that javanese families had their loyalty significantly decreasing to their local language. another research conducted by suditomo in 2004 concluded that the use of local language was based on age category. for school age (5-16 years old) group, there was 37 percent of local language speakers, domiciled in small towns and 14 percent domiciled in big cities. the same research was re-carried out in 2009 and found that children of school age (5-16 years old) domiciled in semarang in 2004 were local language speakers of 14 percent, while in 2009 the local language speakers were only 9 percent (supriyanto, 2016). such phenomena were also reported by researches in many other countries. this shows the fact that the declining loyalty to first language is also the issue in many countries as the consequence of globalization and other factors (canvin & tucker, 2020; hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 2 published by ideas spread chiocca, 2020; reagan, 2019; emeka-nwobia, 2020; crystal, 2000; wurm, 1991; chelliah, 2021; bradley & bradley, 2019; ladefoged, 1992). language is an element of culture. koentjaraningrat (1997) stated that there were seven universal elements of culture, namely: 1). religious system and religious ceremony, 2). community system and organization, 3). knowledge system, 4). language, 5). art, 6). livelihood system, 7). technology and equipment system. cultural element may change when there are other cultural elements that start intervening the existence of the culture. local art and culture are part of it that will keep eroded when there is no concern about them. the same will also occur with local language when there is concern at all from the government and the people as its speakers. redfield (1985) stated that there were dichotomies in culture, namely common folk culture and high classical culture, rural culture and urban culture, suburban culture and central culture, small tradition and great tradition. this actually describes the contrast. banyumasan javanese language grows and develops far away from the center of javanese culture, with yogyakarta and surakarta as the nagarigung. according to ahmad tohari, banyumasan javanese language is more similar to old javanese language, that there are no strata in its use. javanese language that is commonly known now is the development of old javanese language to be central javanese language and later be new javanese language. the initial source of ngapak javanese language is old javanese language, jawadipa or the language of people living in java land. javanese language is said to be the pure javanese language as the level less ngoko javanese in its use. the characters of level less language evidently affect the characters of the community-users who are egalitarian, populist, cablaka, straightforward, honest, transparent, and as is. the arrival of royal envoy to banyumas certainly used nagarigung javanese language. wayang kulit, ketoprak and pranata cara performance in banyumas always used new javanese language. teaching-learning activities at schools in in banyumas from the dutch colonial era early 20th century until now and preaching at mosques and churches commonly used new javanese language, not banyumas javanese language (tohari, 2016). purwokerto city is the capital of banyumas regency to which new settler annually come from almost all over indonesia. the new settlers are new students of some big universities in purwokerto, including jenderal soedirman university, uin purwokerto, muhammadiyah purwokerto university, wijayakusuma university, and telkom institute of technology purwokerto. the new students are from many regions, that can add to diversity in the daily interaction for local people and certainly affects the intensity of the use of banyumasan javanese language known as basa panginyongan as the first language of people in purwokerto city. banyumasan javanese language urgently needs attention since its condition is different from other local languages. we can still find sundanese language speakers casually speaking sundanese language confidently. similarly, in surabaya, it is common for the youth to speak using the unique east javanese language. in bandung we can still find magazine in sundanese language, mangle that still exists. likewise, in surabaya we can still magazines in local language, panyebar semangat and jayabaya. the phenomena in purwokerto are not the case, where the youth commonly speak indonesian language. the causative factors can be internal or external (supriyanto, 2016). in purwokerto there is also a magazine in basa penginyongan, majalah kalawerta basa penginyongan ancas. however, according to ahmad tohari, a banyumas humanist, ancas magazine can be stated neither moving forward nor backward. based on the fact that many languages in the world have been or are threatened to go extinct and the phenomena that not only the youth have started abandoning banyumasan javanese language in their daily speech, it is quite urgent to conduct a study on the extent of the existence of banyumasan javanese language. this research aimed to identify the characteristics of penginyongan language speakers and their daily life and explore it based on the speakers’ region, age group, region of origin, occupation, and also explore how penginyongan language is used in the current digital era, both in social media and in the contents distributed in the internet. 2. research method this multidisciplinary research mainly comprises sociology, communication science, information technology, and linguistics. this research used quantitative approach and the source of data was from survey and secondary data from the internet. the data were collected through questionnaires and observation in the social media. the triangulation method used was data source triangulation to check or find out the validity of sources used in this research. the survey was conducted to map the speakers’ characteristics, and the results were analyzed through descriptive statistics. the respondents were taken simply and randomly from questionnaire distributed in google form. the respondents were individuals from several regencies where banyumasan javanese language was used, including cilacap, purbalingga, banjarnegara and kebumen regencies. the invitation to respond to the questionnaire at google form was publicized on social media, both via group and personally. there were 518 respondents, 273 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 3 published by ideas spread men (52.7%) and 245 women (47.3%). majority of the respondents were domiciled in rural areas (63.1%), and most of them are over 40 years old (69.7%). the secondary data were used as the source of analysis on the use of banyumasan javanese language in digital media. the analysis technique google trends was used to examine how some keywords in banyumasan javanese language were searched for via the google search engine. if the keywords in banyumasan javanese language were widely searched for by internet users, this means that the language is widely needed by the community. 3. research result 3.1 use of banyumasan javanese language in family it is very interesting to analyze native banyumas people, both domiciled in banyumas regency and surroundings and other regions, on how they use banyumasan javanese language in their daily life, especially as the main language in family communication. the table below explains native banyumas people pursuant to their domicile and how they use banyumasan javanese language as the language in family communication. table 1. family communication of respondents who were native banyumas people domicile indonesian language mixed indonesian and banyumasan languages, dominantly indonesian language mixed indonesian and banyumasan languages, dominantly banyumasan language banyumasan language total banyumas/ purwokerto 21 (7.2%) 109 (37.6%) 83 (28.6%) 77 (26.6%) 290 (100%) outside banyumas but within barlingmascakeb region 8 (65) 59 (44%) 44 (32.8%) 23 (17.2%) 134 (100%) outside barlingmascakeb but still in java/diy 21 (28.8%) 32 (43.8%) 16 (21.9%) 4 (5.5%) 73 (100%) outside central java/diy 9 (42.9%) 10 (47.6%) 2 (9.5%) 104 (20.1%) 21 (100%) total 59 210 145 104 518 the domicile of respondents from banyumas (native banyumas people) is divided into four. first, domiciled in banyumas/purwokerto region. second, domiciled outside banyumas region but still in barlingmascakeb region (banjarnegara, purbalingga, banyumas, cilacap, kebumen). third, domiciled outside barlingmascakeb but still in central java/diy. lastly, domiciled outside central java/ diy. based on the table above, there were 518 respondents. 290 respondents were native banyumas people and domiciled in banyumas or purwokerto region. out of this number, only 77 respondents or 26.6% had their family communicating purely in banyumasan javanese language without any mixture with any other language. most of them (37.6%) communicated in mixed indonesian language and banyumasan javanese language, but dominantly in indonesian language. only 26.6% respondents used mixed language with dominant banyumasan javanese language. however, 21 respondents (7.2%) living in banyumas only used indonesian language in their family. this fact leads to further question, why people from banyumas and their family only used a little banyumasan javanese language in their communication? the answer for the time being is it is most likely that their spouses (husband/wife) were not from banyumas. the table below describes the language used by the respondents from banyumas and their spouses who were also from banyumas or native banyumas spouse. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 4 published by ideas spread table 2.family communication of respondents born in banyumas whose spouses are also born in banyumas domicile indonesian language mixed indonesian and banyumasan languages, dominantly indonesian language mixed indonesian and banyumasan languages, dominantly language banyumasan banyumasan language total banyumas/ purwokerto 7 (3.9%) 67 (37%) 59 (32.6%) 48 (26.5%) 181 (100%) outside banyumas but still in barlingmascakeb region 1 (3.8%) 11 (42.3%) 8 (30.8%) 6 (23.1%) 26 (100%) outside barlingmascakeb but still in java/diy 6 (31.6%) 6 (31.6%) 6 (31.6%) 1 (5.3%) 19 (100%) outside central java/ diy 1 (12.5%) 5 (62.5%) 2 (25%) 0 (0%) 8 (100%) total 15 (6.4%) 89 (38%) 75 (32.1%) 55 (23.5%) 234 (100%) there were 234 respondents or 45.25% of totally 518 respondents who were spouses from banyumas. out of the 234 respondents, 181 people were domiciled in banyumas/purwokerto, 26 people domiciled outside purwokerto but in barlingmascakeb region, 19 people were domiciled outside barlingmascakeb region but still in java/diy. those domiciled outside central java/diy were, menwhile, 8 people. out of the 181 spouses from banyumas living in banyumas/purwokerto region, 48 respondents or 26.5% people purely used banyumasan javanese language in their family. on the other hand, most of them used mixed language but indonesian language was dominant (37%). the other fact was that some families (3.9%) did not use banyumasan javanese language at all. the table above also proves that native banyumas spouses living outside banyumas, both in and out of central java, tended not to use banyumasan javanese language in their family. there was no respondent stating that their family purely used banyumasan javanese language. the results above stimulated further question, is the use of language in the family affected by respondent’s education level? the answer to this question is presented in the table below. table 3. respondents born in banyumas who use banyumasan javanese language by education level education level total total percentage elementary school 3 2.9 junior high school 2 1.9 senior high school 21 20.2 strata-1 (bachelor) 72 69.2 strata-2 (master) 5 4.8 strata-3 (doctor) 1 1.0 total 104 100 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 5 published by ideas spread there were 104 respondents from banyumas who used banyumasan javanese language in their family. out of this number, by education level, most of them 69.2% were bachelor (s1), 21 people (21.2) had senior high school education. the remainder was comprised of master of 4.8%, elementary school of 2.9%, junior high school of 1.9 %, and doctorate (s3) education of 1%. these data show that high education level does not prevent ones from using first language in family communication. bachelor (s1), a higher education graduate, took the highest percentage in using banyumasan javanese language. besides education level, the use of language in family communication is most likely to be affected by the occupation of the concerned family. the table below describes the use of banyumasan javanese language from the perspective of speakers’ occupation. table 4.respondents born in banyumas who used banyumasan javanese language by occupation occupation total percentage teacher/lecturer 51 49.0 non-teacher/lecturer civil servant 11 10.6 self-employed 7 6.7 trader 2 1.9 farmer 5 4.8 others 28 26.9 total 104 100 the table above describes that banyumasan javanese language was mostly used by respondents whose professions were teacher and lecturer. out of 104 respondents, 51 people (49%) used banyumasan javanese language in their family. respondents whose profession was trader were the ones who used banyumasan javanese language the least, of only 2 respondents or 1.9%. teacher and lecturer were evidently the profession groups who were more concerned about first language. however, as evidently shown in the table above, among the other professions, teacher and lecturer were the ones who used banyumasan javanese language the most in their family. 3.2 use of banyumasan javanese language in digital media below is how banyumasan javanese language is used in the digital media. the existence of banyumasan javanese language in the digital media covers: (1) use in discussion in social media such as discussion in whatsapp group (wag), (2) analysis on searching trend on google search engine of the important keywords related to banyumasan javanese language. the use of social media is quite massive for personal interaction and group interaction in social media group. therefore, it is very interesting to study whether banyumas people communicate in social media, especially in wag whose majority of members are from banyumas, also use banyumasan javanese language. the table below shows the language used by the respondents in social media whose members were mostly from banyumas. table 5. language used in social media if the members/audience were mostly from banyumas language used percentage indonesian language 36.7 mixed language (indonesian and banyumasan) 58.62 banyumasan language 4.60 the mostly used language in social media was a mixture between indonesian language and banyumasan language (58.62%), the remaining 36.7% used indonesian language, and only 4.6% used language banyumasan purely. this study then analyzed how the important keywords of banyumasan language were searched for in the internet via google search engine. the analysis technique used was google trends provided by google. the first keyword was kamus bahasa banyumas. this keyword was chosen under the consideration that banyumasan javanese hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 6 published by ideas spread language dictionary had been published and uploaded by the provincial center of central java. according to the results of google trends analysis for the keyword kamus bahasa banyumas, there were quite few internet users who searched for information of kamus bahasa jawa banyumasan. therefore, google trends concluded that “your search does not sufficient data to display”. this means that kamus bahasa banyumasan was not popular since there were no internet users who attempted to search for the information, let alone downloading it. below is the screenshot of google trends analysis for keyword kamus bahasa jawa banyumasan. figure 1. google trends analytics for kamus bahasa banyumas the next analysis was for the keyword “bahasa banyumasan” instead of “bahasa ngapak”. the word ngapak was used as comparison since it is synonym of banyumasan javanese language. below is the result of google trends of the comparison between searching for bahasa banyumasan and bahasa ngapak. figure 2. google trends analytics for bahasa banyumasan and bahasa ngapak the figure above is the result of google trends search for 12 months from november 2020 to august 2021. internet users used the keyword bahasa ngapak more than bahasa banyumasan. bahasa ngapak was averagely searched for by 46 users monthly, while bahasa banyumasan was only searched for by 6 users. the peak searching took place from 27 december 2020 to 2 january 2021 where bahasa ngapak was searched for 100 times. this shows that bahasa ngapak was more popular. the next keyword was based on some words derived from the article in online media idn times entitled “7 kata khas yang identik bahasa ngapak banyumasan, tahu kata rika?” (chairil, 2021). based on this article, the frequently searched seven words were; (1) inyong, (2) kencot, (3) madhang, (4) rika, (5) bebeh, (6) kepriben, (7) batir. these seven words were then reselected, resulting in three top words, inyong, kencot, and madhang. inyong is a unique word in banyumasan language, that means i. kencot means hungry, and madhang means eat. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 7 published by ideas spread figure 3. google trends analytics for inyong, kencot, and madhang the figure above shows that among the three keywords, the most popular was inyong. the average search in the last 12 months for the word inyong was 34 times, while the words kencot and madhang were respectively 18 times. what was interesting was that from 21 to 27 february 2021, the word madhang was searched for the most compared the other two words, with 100 times of searching. 4. discussion this research produces interesting results namely the people from banyumas who currently do not use banyumasan javanese language in their family, even in the family in which the couple are both from banyumas. most of them use mixed language, comprised of indonesian language and banyumasan javanese language, but with dominant indonesian language. this is a very interesting phenomenon. if the couple is from different regions, it is reasonable and understandable when they do not use either first language since this can hinder communication in the family. but if the couple has the same first language but does not use it in their family, there is a causative factor that needs to be explored more thoroughly. the first factor, according to ahmad tohari, a banyumas humanist, is: (1) using indonesian language is deemed more modern, and (2) mass media also contributes to making local language extinct, since many media, especially television, makes local language speakers as object of comedy. this makes local language speakers feel inferior (ridlo, 2018). based on in-depth interviews with some respondents who were a couple from banyumas on why they preferred using indonesian language in their family, their responses were: (1) when children were not trained in using indonesian language from childhood, the parents were concerned that when the children went to school, they would not be able to communicate with their teachers and friends since the language they used at school was indonesian language, (2) in family or relative meeting in which many of the participants were from other regions, the parents were concerned that their children would feel inferior since they could not communicate with the other families since such a meeting commonly used indonesian language more, (3) the parents felt pity if their children felt inferior in their interaction in other regions when they used language ngapak much. the other cause that banyumas families started to abandon language jawa banyumas was the negative image of ngapak language. analyses on the contents distributed in the digital media proved it, one of which was that one contained in a blog of banyumas citizen (agung, 2015) at https://briliagung.com/. in this blog he wrote: “kami, para ngapakers sudah terbiasa dengan ledekan karena logat kami yang berbeda. tidak jarang jika kami merantau, banyak celetukan : “ganteng-ganteng ko ngapak?” “cantik sih, sayang ngapak..” “coba dong ngomong lagi pake logat ngapak..”. [“we, ngapakers are used to the jokes for our different accent. in other regions, we often heard: “handsome indeed, but why ngapak?” “beautiful indeed, unfortunately ngapak..” “please say something again in ngapak accent..”.] another blog of a banyumas woman (riris, 2013) at stated: “orang purwokerto dikenal dengan language ngapaknya, setiap kali ngomong pasti dikira ada huruf k dibelakangnya. kebanyakan orang ngapak itu kalo ngomong banter tenan alias cepet. apabila kalian – kalian hijrah ke kota lain pasti mereka bakal nertawain language ngapak kalian. sering juga ada yang ngomong gini ” cantik sih tapi sayangnya ngapak ” hahaha terus gimana harus jawabnya ? kata daplun hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 8 published by ideas spread suruh dijawab gini ” ngapa ? trauma apa kambi wong ngapak ? jarene ” tapi gapapa kebanyakan orang ngapak itu cantik katanya” [“purwokerto people are known for their ngapak language, each time they are speaking, it is thought that there is consonant k at the end of it. many ngapak people are used to speaking fast. if you go to another city, they will laugh at your ngapak language. some will also say ”beautiful indeed, but unfortunately ngapak” hahaha then how to respond to it? daplun said that we should respond this way ”ngapa ? trauma apa kambi wong ngapak ? jarene ” but it is alright, it is said that ngapak people are mostly beautiful”] social media twitter also shows evidence that ngapak language was sometimes degraded and even got racist treatment, as stated in a twitter posting below (munez, 2019): figure 4. screenshot from twitter on ngapak language the figure above proves that beauty and ngapak are paradoxical. ngapak has bad and not smooth impression, especially when compared with other local languages such as sundanese language. this fact is associated with the results of research conducted by rohmawati (2019) that discussed the trend of paradigm of current purbalingga local adolescents who tend feel inferior in using their local language, that is banyumasan ngapak language as their interaction language. the results show that they who tend to get embarrassed to use banyumasan or ngapak language are female adolescents. besides writing in blogs, the phenomena of degrading ngapak language are also a hot talk in kaskus (kaskus, 2018) as follows: “banyak stigma yang dilekatkan pada orang berlanguage ngapak. ada yang menilai lucu, ndeso, bahkan katrok. stigma itu terkadang membuat penutur language ngapak yang lahir dari lingkungan berlanguage ngapak justru meninggalkan language leluhur itu”. [“many stigmas are attached to people who use ngapak language. some consider it fun, ndeso, and even katrok. such stigmas sometimes make ngapak language speakers who were born in an environment with ngapak language even abandon their ancestor’s language”. academic studies on the topic first language starting to be abandoned by their speakers were known as language attrition, that is the progressive loss of a language due to lack of use. maurin (2017) presented his analysis that a language can be extinct and forgotten because of the following two factors: l1 attrition, or first language attrition, is governed by two main factors: the increasing use and dominance of the l2, or learned language, and the reduction of exposure to the l1. the cause of reduction of exposure, according to hakuta and d'andrea (1992), is principally associated with parent's language practice in the home. that is, the more parents try to speak with their children in their mother tongue, the more their children maintain their mother tongue. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 2; 2022 9 published by ideas spread the research conducted by retnawati (2018) confirmed the loss of first language, as shown in the quote below. “there were two factors influenced language loss; they were internal factors and external factors. it is found that subject research got language loss because indonesian language is more dominant than her mother tongues” 5. conclusion the main speakers of banyumasan javanese language are the people who are born in banyumas and surroundings. banyumasan javanese language speakers are distributed almost throughout the indonesian territory, but mostly are the people domiciled at barlingmascakeb region (banjarnegara, purbalingga, banyumas, cilacap, and kebumen). the more distant it is from barlingmascakeb region, the less the banyumasan javanese language speakers are. the use of banyumasan javanese language currently starts to be abandoned by its main speakers. in a family where the couple was born in banyumas, and domiciled in barlingmascakeb region, only a little part of the communication in the family uses banyumasan javanese language. most of them communicate in mixed language, comprised of indonesian language and banyumasan javanese language, but indonesian language is dominant. the same occurs in social media. although majority of members in a discussion group in social media are from banyumas, but the dominant language used is indonesian language. the existence of language banyumas in the digital media is also not really popular. banyumas language is commonly known as ngapak language, that is often connoted as a language with fun and less modern impression. searching for knowledge of banyumas language in the internet is also quite little. the results of google trends analysis prove that not many internet users search for keywords related to banyumasan javanese language. some factors that affect the declining use of banyumasan javanese language can be distinguished into external and internal factors. the external factor includes dominancy of national language and foreign languages factor. the internal factor includes the speakers’ inferior feeling since banyumasan javanese language is often deemed ndeso and less modern, and is more suitable to comedy. to solve the problem so that banyumasan javanese language will not go extinct, efforts from all parties are needed to conserve it. the local government needs to issue a policy that can encourage the people to use banyumasan javanese language more actively. the policies that have been made need to be evaluated so as to encourage all components of the community from all ranges of age and occupations so that they will be confident in and proud of using banyumasan javanese language. references agung, b. 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(2016). perkembangan bahasa penginyongan. proceeding nastional conference, puslitbudpar lppm unsoed. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v4n3p1 1 published by ideas spread the concept of sovereignty in the political philosophy – from antiquity to the contemporary epoch alexandru arseni1 & veronica pozneacova1 1 faculty of law, moldova state university, chisinau, republic of moldova correspondence: veronica pozneacova faculty of law, moldova state university, chisinau, republic of moldova. tel: 373-6764-8753. e-mail: veronicapozneacova gmail.com received: july 3, 2021, 2021; accepted: august 3, 2021, 2021; published: august 4, 2021 abstract the concept of state power represents the dominant theme of the whole political philosophy. the concept of sovereignty, which in contemporary epoch became the norm of constitutional law and unanimously recognized principle of international law, has concerned philosophical minds since antiquity to nowadays. the best minds of humanity contemplated about the essence of the state power. the major thinkers of all times were finding out the answer to the question “how should be organized the state so that all people to be happy?” the answer to this question is connected with the concept of sovereignty, which was developed during the humanity’s history. the idea of sovereignty refers to the state body or the person who exercises state power. so, for each epoch is characteristic its own vision of this concept, that reflects, on the one hand, the entire structure of society, and, on the other hand, the state’s ruler position. the sovereignty, which appeared as the concept in the greek antiquity, was developed in the meddle age and modern era and fully formed in the contemporary era, being the component part of majority national constitutions. this article is a study dedicated to determining the specific aspects of sovereignty in the background of the idea’s history. a doctrinal and practical interest in the concept of sovereignty is based on the political and legal dimension of this notion in the actual state construction. as a result of this research, we aimed to determine the role and the regulation of sovereignty in the cotemporaneous state order at national and international level. this research paper focuses on the presentation of the philosophical aspects of this concept of constitutional law. keywords: sovereignty, political philosophy, state power, ruler, state’s order, constitution, un, eu 1. introduction 1.1 the importance and the actuality of the study the purpose of the research. based on the complex, philosophical and legal study of sovereignty, we aimed to identify trends in evolution of this concept and the importance of the classical philosophical theories on the actual perception of “state sovereignty” in the current conditions of intensive cooperation between states during the process of contemporary globalization both at national, regional and international levels. in this context, we investigated the problem from the aspect of dialectical evolution with the identification of the negative aspects of globalization. we determined the solutions for diminishing the negative consequences of this phenomenon in relation to sovereignty. research objectives. to achieve the identified goal, we have outlined the following objectives: to identify the fundamental elements of the genesis and evolution of the philosophical concept of sovereignty; to identify the specific aspects of notion of this concept, that was promoted in the antiquity, meddle age, modern era and contemporary epoch, to analyze the concept of state ruler, characteristic for each epoch, to establish the essence of the concept of sovereignty elaborated during the enlightenment epoch, to identify the international law’s approaches of the recognition and guarantee of state sovereignty; to determine the legal and practical aspects of the exercise of sovereignty in the regional framework – european union; to perform an comparative approach of state sovereignty at different periods of the formation of this concept; to determine the importance of the philosopher’s ideas in the modern constitutionalism; to analyze the specific aspects of the legal regulation of sovereignty in the republic of moldova. the originality of this study is manifested in the identification of the primary factors which exert a negative influence on the state’s sovereignty, for example, globalization and the determining of solutions that can mitigate this negative impact. we analyzed the importance and complexity of state sovereignty both from the point of view hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 2 published by ideas spread of the independence and sovereignty of power and the necessity of guarantying of fundamental citizen rights at national and international level. the connection between the philosophical and practical aspect of sovereignty. in this study, we began from the philosophical approaches to the concept of sovereignty, analyzed the achievements of the enlightenment epoch and finally show the connection between theoretical approaches and contemporary legal regulations. the legal regulation of sovereignty. we should mention that sovereignty, as a general feature of the state, is regulated at the international, regional—european union and national level. at the international level, the un charter regulates state sovereignty (united nations charter chapter 6 and 7). the charter, on the one hand, proclaims and recognizes the sovereignty of each state. nevertheless, this international treaty admits “humanitarian intervention “, which” constitutes a calculated and unsolicited violation of sovereignty (rights of states) in the name of humanity (individual rights)”. at the european union’s level state sovereignty is regulated by the treaty on the functioning of the european union (treaty of rome of 1957) according to which in some fields, mentioned expressly in this document only eu could legislate. state’s are enforced to adopt the legal acts that regulate this domain only if the union empowers the state or it implements the eu’s acts. (the treaty on the functioning of the european union) at the national level state sovereignty, traditionally, is regulated by the constitution. 1.2 general review of the study sovereignty represents one of the basic concepts of constitutional and international law that are related to the state power. during the humanity’s history people try to define the state power, to determine the holder of power. nowadays, sovereignty remains the characteristic feature of power. however, both in the doctrine of constitutional law and in the political philosophy aspects related to the philosophical theory of sovereignty remain practically unaffected. due to the fact that the whole theory of the sovereignty was elaborated only in the mid-16th century by jean bodin, the majority of researchers begin the studying of the history of the crystallization of the concept of sovereignty, starting from this period, neglecting the ideas and opinions expressed in the ancient times and the middle ages. the possibility of determining the particularities of the theory and practice of state power at each stage of development of society manifests the importance of the research of this concept from the evaluative aspect, starting from antiquity and ending with the contemporary period. in addition, classical theories of sovereignty represent the conceptual basis of sovereignty in contemporary acceptance, which determines the necessity to appeal to the origins of state power to determine the importance of theories promoted by great philosophers in the current construction of state power. we should note that in the xxi century, the concept of sovereignty is in the process of cardinal changing. actually, humanity is facing transformations that were unimaginable in the twentieth century that also influence the concept of state power. the capitalization of sovereignty in the evolutionary aspect allows us, on the one hand, to realize the experience of the great philosophers who help us understand the concept of state power in all its depth and complexity, and, on the other hand, to identify the foundations of state power at each age of development of the human community. nowadays, the existence of international organizations leads to the creation and promotion of the concept of collective sovereignty that leads to the reconsideration of the concept of state power as the absolute and perpetual power of a republic, as it was positioned by philosophers. therefore, the timeliness of this study is manifested by the necessity to research the concept of sovereignty both through the prism of classical theories and the current practice of international relations. this article aims to determine the philosophical base of the concept of sovereignty in each epoch of the humanity’s history in the background of the historical reality of that time and the determination of the practical applicability of classical theories in the contemporary period. the theoretical implication of this study is manifested by the research of the theory of state power at the early stages of the development of the political thinking of humanity, as well as highlighting their actuality nowadays. the practical implication of this article manifests in the determining the current challenges of state power and systematizing the theory of sovereignty in the current period. 1.3 literature review the history of sovereignty begins many centuries ago in ancient greece. since antiquity to the modern era, people were contemplated the best way of the social organization that would give to citizens the possibility to live a happy life. in this period of time were developed various theories about a person or state body that exercise or should exercise state power. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 3 published by ideas spread plato and aristotle, the ancient greece’s philosophers, were first thinkers that reflected on the essence and the base of state power. thinkers examined the concept of the form of government and the role of the state’s leader in social order. these philosophers did not formulate the notion of sovereignty, but expressed of essence of this concept that would be developed later. the middle ages comes with another political philosophy. in this epoch in the incipient form were outlined the most important theories of sovereignty, that were developed later. saint thomas aquinas (1225-1274) developed the theory of papal sovereignty, according to with papa should be the most influenced person in the state and his power should be positioned above the royal power. so, this philosopher legitimated the church’s power, in general, and the papal power, in particular. however, saint thomas aquinas confused secular power with religious one. this vision mirrors the social organization of that time, the perception of church’s role in state order and the struggle between papal and royal power. another thinker of middle ages marsilius of padua founded the theory of popular sovereignty. according to him, state power belongs to the people, the idea that would be developed during the enlightenment. niccolo machiavelli (1469-1527) culminated the formation of political thought of the middle ages with the elaboration of the concept of royal sovereignty. according to him, the personality of the prince represents the conception of the entire state power. so, machiavelli personified state power, the approach characteristic for totalitarian regimes. analyzing the development of the concept of sovereignty, we should mention the philosophy of johannes althusius, one of the most influential thinkers of the modern epoch. thinker founded the theory of subsidiarity of state power. this theory shows another aspect of sovereignty manifested in the increasing the decision-making power of local bodies that should resolve the most important problems of citizens. so, the mechanism of state power goes from the bottom up, and not from the top down, as in the framework of the totalitarian regime. another representative thinker of modernity, hugo grotius, founded the concept of state sovereignty. thinker did not link the concept of sovereignty with the body exercising state power, stating that supremacy within society should belong to the state. this idea, in the interpretation of thomas hobbes, embodies the state as a mythical, fabulous creature, absolutely independent of the will of the people who compose it. the state becomes a body with its own will and interests, an almighty leviathan, which is indifferent to the rights and interests of people. the enlightenment represents the new epoch in the formation of the concept of sovereignty. in this period human potential has been harnessed and namely the person becomes the center of the universe, art and philosophy. based on the social contract theory created by hobbes, john locke (1632-1704) founded the popular sovereignty theory that met the strong opposition manifested by the foundation of the theory of national sovereignty elaborated by charles montesquieu (1689-1755). despite the conceptual differences between the theory of popular and national sovereignty, people remain the main holders of power, which does not belong to the state leadership. the development of the concept of sovereignty mirrors the fight against absolute monarchy for the defense of human potential, fundamental and inalienable human rights. despite the development of the theory of popular and national sovereignty, georg hegel supported the sovereignty of the monarch, stating that without the monarch there state could not exist. so, the thinker’s vision could be catalogued as a continuation of the ideas of machiavelli, who personified state power. in contemporary epoch, the concept of royal sovereignty showed all the negative aspects, including the establishment of the totalitarian regime and total disregard for fundamental human rights, which led to the diminution of its importance within democratic societies. actually, the conceptual difference between the theory of popular, national and state sovereignty disappears and the people are considered the plenary and plenipotentiary holder of state power. however, the foundation and the development of the international organizations such as the eu, un, and over represent a new challenge for the concept of sovereignty, which determines the necessity of the awareness of the importance of this concept and updating it according to the current reality. 2. methodology this research paper is based on the analysis of various researches, mainly aiming to describe the essence of the concept of sovereignty from the prism of the political philosophy. in this research, we used the logical method with its operations such as analysis, synthesis, deduction, induction, generalization, abstraction for the consistent study all aspects of the thesis topic. in this paper, we analyzed critically the essence of the most important concepts of the philosophers relevant for our study. the application of the synthetic method gave us the possibility to identify the philosophical concepts developed by the great thinkers that helped us to support the proposed thesis. we could determine the common aspects of the classic and contemporaneous theories that form the actual concepts sovereignty by analysis of the theme from the general point of view. we applied the comparative research method by analyzing the specific aspects of the popular and national sovereignty and the development of these theories in hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 4 published by ideas spread the political philosophy. so, we analyzed the similarities and the different aspects of theories developed by different thinkers, for example, plato’s and aristotle’s doctrine, the concept of people’s sovereignty developed by marsilius of padua, johannes althusius and john locke. analyzing the subject from the historical point of view, we could determine the dominant tendencies of each epoch and the evolution of the concept of sovereignty from antiquity to the contemporary period. the use of the systemic-structural method was manifested by the treatment of sovereignty as a dimension, a component part of the entire state structure. thus, we started by analyzing the definition of the sovereignty from the point of view of ancient greece’s philosophers because in that period of time this concept has not fully crystallized. an important part of this research was dedicated to the question “who is the holder of the supreme power in the state?” in order to find answer to this question, we analyzed the philosophy of the concept of sovereignty, the ideas of the most influential thinkers that founded and argued the ideas of papal, state, national and popular sovereignty. another important part of this study is dedicated to comparative method that gives us possibility to determine advantages, disadvantages and the legal consequences of each theory. in addition, this research paper focuses on the forecasting some trends within the actual theory in the context sovereignty in the xxi century at the international level. 3. results and discussion 3.1 the genesis of the concept of sovereignty in antiquity the concept of sovereignty has emerged together with the emergence of the state (deleanu i., 1993, p.72), in the period of transition from the pre-state epoch to the state one. this concept could not be separated from the state power, referring to the person / category of persons who exercise public authority. so, sovereignty represents an inherent attribute of state power. on the one hand, this concept could not be found in pre-state society, the conceptual development of sovereignty is linked to the process of integration or reconciliation between the state and the community. (hinsley f. h., 1998, p. 17) on the other hand, the idea of sovereignty is in continue development in each society where this concept appeared once. modifications in the form of government and political regime directly affect the vision of the sovereignty of this state. thus, the concept of sovereignty is in the permanent development. each epoch comes with an alternative approach, a new definition of it that expresses the state order in this period. at the beginning of the formation of sovereignty as political and judicial concept, it expressed the idea that there is supreme and absolute political authority in the political community. (hinsley f. h., 1998, p.20) so, this concept is connected with the political domain of society. from the historical perspective, the sovereignty of state power represents the social and political phenomenon and the realization of social-economic life. the sovereignty as a practice of the exercise of state power appeared before its crystallization as a theoretical notion. the emergence of this concept was determined by the historical needs, reflecting the fundamental characteristics of the state: supreme authority exercised in a certain territory, the right to proper economic, social, political, military, administrative organization, to draw up and impose compliance to laws. (ionescu c. 2014) it is stated that the classical greeks developed the idea of sovereignty, at least in the aristotle’s times it was present. namely, the greeks were the first who understood the meaning of this concept. (hinsley f. h., 1998, p. 24) however, in antiquity, especially in greece, there was not developed all-encompassing definition of sovereignty. thinkers studied the concept of the forms of government from which we could implicitly describe their vision of sovereignty. according to antic philosophers, the category of citizens that exercises state power depends on the form of government of the state. so, we can conclude that in the state where democracy represents the form of government, the power is exercised by all people or most of them. on the contrary, prince exercises all state power during the monarchy as a form of government. so, sovereignty is exercised by the aristocratic rulers or by all citizens. the polis was seen as a community governed by law and not by people. among greek thinkers, aristotle came closest to the concept of sovereignty when he suggested that it was preferable for superiority to be invested in this law than in any person within the community. (hinsley f. h., 1998, p.24) accordingly, we note that the supreme power in the greek polis was attributed to the law, but not to certain persons who exercise state power. to establish the holder of state power in the vision of greek philosophers, we should analyze the system of the forms of government described by thinkers. plato divided all forms of government into just (ideal) and unfair (bad) forms of government. an aristocratic republic and an aristocratic monarchy were considered as fair state’s forms. the unjust state’s forms included timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, and tyranny. (guceac i.,2004, p.95) monarchy (one-person’s government) and aristocracy (the rule of intellectuals) “the government of the best citizens” represents the best form of government that could be established in the state. so, we can conclude that during the monarchy and aristocracy the power is exercised individually or by a small group of people. during these forms of government, the state power is exercised by the political elites that include the best citizens of polis. another hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 5 published by ideas spread form of government described by plato is timocracy (“power based on honor”) in which state power belongs to a minority, formed by the people with military successes and brave. (râbca e., zaharia v. 2016, p. 56) so, during these forms of government sovereignty belongs to the military class in which is concentrated the complete state power. oligarchy (“rule of the few citizens”) represents the form of government in which the state power is exercised by the rich persons (nechaev, 2018, p.7) who can make any decision that concerns the life of the state. during the democracy, the power belongs to the majority of citizens of polis. (nechaev, 2018, p.7) so, apparently, in the description of democracy plato approaches the concept of popular sovereignty because entire power is concentrated in nation. however, the democracy in the vision of the great thinker is the bad form of government that generates tyranny in which the power is arbitrary and individually. (nechaev, 2018, p.7) we can conclude that in plato’s doctrine the person or state body that exercises state power depends on the form of government established in society at a period of time. aristotle’s theory of the forms of government is close to that elaborated by plato, with the difference that aristotle classified the forms of government starting from the number of governors and the interests that are pursued in the process of governance. aristotle distinguishes the following six forms of government: monarchy, aristocracy, and police as good forms of government and tyranny, oligarchy and democracy as bad forms of state organization. (râbca e., 2016, p. 63-64) the doctrine of aristotle allows a double interpretation. from the first perspective, the sovereignty belongs to the person or group of persons exercising state power. from the other perspective, we should focus on the plenary holder of power, in other words, in the category of persons in the interest of which state power is exercised (stere c., 2016, p. 43). within this interpretation, we can conclude that the aristotle’s concept is approaching to the concept of sovereignty promoted in the contemporary era that positions the people as the holder of power, and the rulers are only representatives of their interests. so, we can conclude that according to ancient greece philosopher the concept of sovereignty is related to that of the forms of government and the person or state body that exercises state power is the holder of sovereignty. in that period, there was no distinction between sovereignty and state power, the person or a group of people exercise state power, and the interest that was promoted. so, the theories of ancient thinkers represent the base of the concepts as state power, sovereignty and legitimacy of power that refers to the respect of the general interest of entire society. speaking about the terminological formation of this concept, we should note that the word “sovereignty” comes from latin form of the word super (above). (arseni a., 2019, p.31) it is considered that the first definition of sovereignty is that formulated in a text of the roman jurisconsult proculus (sec. i c. e.): “liber autem populus est is, qui nullius alterius populi potestati est subjectus”, which translates as: “the free and independent people are those who have not been subject to the rule of another people.” (kondurov v., 2016,p.6) thus, we should note that de development of the sovereignty in antiquity finished with the terminological crystallization of this notion, which would be developed in the middle ages. 3.2 the emergence of the concept of sovereignty in the middle ages the development of the theory of sovereignty continued in the middle ages. the first mention of this word is found in the large workbook of the monastery of saint-victor. (kondurov v., 2016,p.6) later, the sense of the word “sovereignty” has changed, meaning the situation of the man whom in social hierarchy is not subordinate to anyone. (arseni a., 2019, p.31) in this sense this word was used for the first time in the 1283 year by philip de bonnamour, a french jurist who asserted that every baron is sovereign in his estate. (kondurov v., 2016,p.6) we should note that the elaboration and theorization of the concept of sovereignty begins only in the middle ages when “superanus” was used to show the position of the king who is at the top of the feudal hierarchy. (deleanu i., 1993, p. 72) in this context we should note the specific aspects of the state organization in middle ages. in this epoch were established feudal hierarchical relationships between different levels of landowning classes, namely between a king, a noble class (which could include nobles, priests, and princes) and a peasant class. historically, the king owned all the available land and he portioned out that land to his nobles for their use. the nobles, in turn, rented out their land to peasants. the peasants paid the nobles in produce and military service; the nobles, in turn, paid the king. everyone was, at least nominally, in thrall to the king, and the peasants' labor paid for everything. during the feudal system peasant families who had for generations owned small farmsteads became renters, indentured servants who owed the landlords their allegiance, their military service and part of their crops. just before the rise of the black plague in the 14th century, feudalism was firmly established and working across europe. this was a near-universality of family-farm tenure by conditionally hereditary leases under noble, ecclesiastical or princely lordships who collected cash and in-kind payments from their subject villages. the king essentially delegated the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 6 published by ideas spread collection of his needs—military, political and economic—to the nobles. by that time, the king's justice—or rather, his ability to administer that justice—was largely theoretical. the lords dispensed the law with little or no kingly oversight, and as a class supported each other's hegemony. peasants lived and died under the control of the noble classes. (hirst, k. kris, 2018) we should mention that christianity became the official religion of the roman empire in 391ad. with this protection, the church grew in numbers and influence and became the most powerful institution in the europe. (the church’s role in feudalism) the beginning of medieval period was characterized by a sharp divide between religious and lay life. religious and lay lives were equally hierarchical and the churchmen’s power and authority were similar to that of the great lords’. (rasheda parveen, p.3) every strata of society was wrapped into religious boundary. the activities of the soldiers and the knights were judged according to religious ideals. (rasheda parveen, p.9) the church leaders were the most educated individuals in society. they were called upon to help the secular leaders as advisors on political, financial, judicial, and military issues in addition to spiritual matters. most important the church with its structure helped to legitimize the feudal system structure. the church taught that god appointed the pope and kings (divine right of kings). this meant that each person was born into their divinely determined position in society. by the end of the medieval period, the church was largest landowner in the europe owning one-third of the land. with that much land, the church became very powerful and with power comes the abuse of power.( the church’s role in feudalism) we should highlight that namely, in middle ages begins the sovereignty’s conceptualization from the philosophical point of view. analyzing this period in the idea’s history, we should highlight the domination of the religious doctrine that influences the political philosophy. one of the first thinkers that elaborated the entire theory of sovereignty was saint thomas of aquino dominican monk and professor of philosophy and theology, founder of the positive right based on the natural right. according to him, the natural law is founded on the divine law. thinker declared the pope of rome as the representative of the divine life and head of the “republic of christ”. (arseni a., 2019, p.31) so, the pope of rome might sanction monarchs, to elect kings, and to release their subordinates from the obligation to obey the monarch. (toma d’aquino, 1994, p. 74) from this consideration, we could highlight the whole social hierarchy. according to saint thomas of aquino, the individual should subordinate to the monarch and the king should submit to the church. the theory of this thinker legitimizes the papal authority, which led to the conclusion that sovereignty belongs to representatives of the catholic church. (vrabie g., 1992, p.69) this idea is based on the consideration that the divine order objectively limits the entire eventual power of the state, (birmo a.,1978, p.61) which should be subordinated to the church. so, the king is the vassal of church and must obey its will, defend and help to achieve goals, in the fight against heretics. as a result, the state plays the role of executioner that should execute the enemies of the church. the sovereign’s authority in the state could be explained by the biblical thesis “there is no dominion except from god”. (râbca e., zaharia v. 2016, p. 80) the thinker claimed that the monarch’s power has the supernatural source, as long as the sovereign never violates the authority of the church. (bădescu m., 2002, p.25-28) in christian conceptions, the temporal ruler (king, emperor) is the anointed by god for guidance for the common good. when the ruler uses power in his own interest, he loses legitimacy, and god stirs up an adversary and replaces him. according to the opinion of other researchers, the concept developed by sf. thomas supports the view that the churches, the pope, without having temporal sovereignty over kings and emperors, could disapprove a worldly dominion because of the abuses caused by sin. (georgescu p. a., 2001, p. 78) so, philosopher considered that the state which does not subordinate to the church has an illegal character, losing its right to existence. (râbca e., zaharia v. 2016, p.81) respectively, we should note that the thinker created the theory of divine sovereignty. however, divine sovereignty does not mean that god approves any form of government. on the contrary, thinker approves passive and even active resistance to the power that has become tyrannical if there are presented some conditions such as: tyrant violates vital interests of state, there is no other way to remedy this situation, insurrection expresses the opinion of the majority at least qualitatively, has minimal chances of success and does not establish the greater evil than it was until the uprising. we should note that the philosopher developed another concept related to that of sovereignty the concept of the legitimacy of state power, stating that legality does not constitute legitimacy, but legitimacy is the base of legality. (birmo a.,1978, p.67) so, the legitimacy of state power is the basis for its legality. if the governors come to power as a result of the insurrection, this access to state power is illegal. however, if this insurrection is supported by the majority of the population, as a result of the expression of the will of the people, then this is the basis for the legality of the rulers’ actions. however, the legality of the coming to state power of a despotic monarch does not form the legitimacy of his reign, because he abuses the rights entrusted to him by god. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 7 published by ideas spread so, the importance of the theory of saint thomas of aquino is manifested in the foundation of the concept of papal sovereignty, which corresponds to the church’s vision in the middle ages. however, the thinker realized the danger of the establishment of the totalitarian regime, which led him to legitimize people’s right to revolution. so, this theory, on the one hand, presents sovereignty as a divine attribute that is monopolized by the church, in general, and the pope of rome, in particular, and, on the other hand, is the beginning of the awareness of the role of man in society and his right to decide the state’s fate. namely during this period of time began the struggle between secular and church power. this struggle for supreme power in the state was especially manifested during the reign of philip the fair. this conflict escalate because philip’s rupture with boniface viii pope of roma. in february 1296 he issued the bull clericis laicos, prohibiting lay taxation of clergy without papal approval. both edward i and philip, affronted by this threat to their authority and their treasuries, responded with retaliatory measures, forcing boniface to retreat and, in july 1297, to proclaim the legitimacy of clerical taxation without the pope’s permission when the ruler attested its necessity. new grounds for dispute developed in 1301, when philip arrested bernard saisset, bishop of pamiers, as a suspected traitor. in december 1301 boniface suspended philip’s right to tax ecclesiastics and summoned the french clergy to rome to discuss the king’s governance and the state of the french church. saisset was permitted to go to rome, but boniface’s other measures encountered immediate resistance. philip had a papal bull burned and ceremoniously invoked curses on any of his sons who dared subordinate the kingdom to any power other than god’s. in 13021303 he rallied public support in a large assembly. he issued his own grand ordinance of reform, which included remedies for administrative weaknesses enumerated by the pope. boniface’s plans to issue a personal sentence of excommunication against philip were forestalled when nogaret appeared in anagni and seized boniface on september 7, 1303. two days later townsmen of anagni freed the pope, who died the following month. (ladner, g. b., 2020) so, these events showed, on the one hand, the confrontation between the state and the church authorities, secular and church power and determined the reevaluation of the whole construction of state power. before this conflict, the church legitimized the power of the monarch, which caused the emergence of the concept of papal sovereignty. the confrontation between philip iv and the pope of rome determined the necessity of argumentation and legitimation of the secular power exercises by monarch, which was no longer dependent on the pope of rome. these reasons determined the formation of the philosophical theories that argued the secular sovereignty, namely, the theory regal, national and people’s sovereignty. another philosopher who contributed to the development of the concept of sovereignty and outperformed the theory of popular sovereignty of the enlightenment is marsilius of padua. (klimenko o., mirzoev a.,2016, p.23) the thinker considered that the source of political power is the people. the government emanates from populace. thus, the prince should govern, respecting the law and people’s will. the head of state could be punished if he derogates from the citizens’ will. the philosopher states that the pope of rome and the clergy do not have the authority to govern, establish laws and punish. so, punishment against heretics could be pronounced only by civil courts. (capcelea v., 2004, p. 96) the specific aspects of the ideas of marsilius of padua are manifested in the fact that his philosophy is based on the theory of social contract. as a result, the political power and the state emanate from the will of the people,(capcelea v., 2004, p. 96) that have the right to issue laws mandatory for everyone, even those who government. every citizen may participate in the legislative process. however, the law could not be adopted by one person (the monarch). (paduansky m., 2014, 105–107, 124–129, 138) the thinker’s theory was inspired by the political experience of padua, his hometown, in which legislative power was exercised by the local council, a body that was elected and appointed executive power. this state order was considered by marsilius of padua the most righteous. (klimenko o., mirzoev a.,2016, p.23) analyzing the best form of government, the philosopher argued that elected monarchy represents the form of state organization that expresses the citizens’ will. so, the people should choose both the state body that will exercise state power and the monarch as the herd of state. we should note some changes in the role of religion within the state and its influence on the state’s leadership. the church from the plenary holder of power becomes a state structure that no longer has the right to judge, punish and dictate its own rules. these changes are evident because of the creation by marsilius of padua of the concept of the secular state, in which state power should be separated from the church one. on the other hand, the people from the subordinate of the monarch obliged to respect divine law become the holder of state power, free to create state bodies and legitimize their activity. power within this state belongs to the people, who choose state bodies. namely, the expression of the will of the people legitimizes the whole mechanism of state power. the practical importance of the doctrine of marsilius of padua is the foundation of the representative democracy, in which on the one hand, the entire state power is concentrated in the people, and, on the other hand, the bodies appointed by hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 8 published by ideas spread the people are obliged to respect the will of the majority of citizens. it should be noted the foundation of the concept of the rule of law, which is manifested by positioning the law above the bodies that exercise state power. the doctrine of the thinker founds both the concept of the legality of power, which should be exercised in accordance with the legal provisions, and that of legitimacy, which is manifested by the choice and representativeness of state bodies. we could conclude that the approach of marsilius of padua represents the first attempt for awareness of the importance of the person’s role within the state. thinker noted the tendency to diminish the authority of the papacy and the monarchy by increasing the importance of the citizens in the governance process. the thinker that founded and developed the concept of the royal sovereignty in the middle ages is niccolo machiavelli (1469-1527). the philosopher understood the essence of the concepts of sovereignty and the relationship of forces within the state without developing them into fully political theory. (lungu d., 2013) however, from the niccolo machiavelli’s doctrine we could deduce the philosopher’s vision of sovereignty. machiavelli believes that states should act in the best interest of the masses, and as such should behave in a manner, which will benefit the state. accordingly, he expressed his view that the sovereign of the state should not allow private interests to overrun public interest. (leung, j., 2012, p.3-4) so, thinker considered that state interests are the most important ones and legitimizes the absolute monarchy. according to philosopher’s point of view, the absolute monarchy is the best form of government, which is expressed by the subjectivity of prince that should not obey the rules of morality or religion if he wants to gain power. to achieve this goal, the person is entitled to take any actions, to remove his opponents. machiavelli considered that prince should govern, should create a strong state and this goal could be achieved using any methods considered necessary by the prince. this philosopher did not consider that the people's status within the state deserves to be investigated or that the state could be created to ensure the welfare of all citizens. beginning from those exposed above machiavelli concluded that state’s interests are considered the justification of the application of violence towards people.( machiavelli n.,1998,p.63) he also viewed a strong state as an organic whole, with the utmost control over its own domestic affairs as well as its foreign affairs. for machiavelli, domestic affairs dominated the priority of the state. according to philosopher’s point of view, states should behave and form decisions with public interest as the first priority in mind, and as such should act in a manner, which will benefit the state. according to machiavelli, it is imperative to have a strong centralized government. (leung, j., 2012, 3-4) in his view, "a sagacious legislator of the republic ... whose object is to promote the public good, and not his private interests, and who prefers his country to his own successors should concentrate all authority in himself.,,( machiavelli, 1950, p. 138) so, machiavelli in his theory personified state power that is embodied in the monarch's figure with absolute power. (klimenko o., mirzoev a., 2016, p.24) according to the philosopher, the prince embodies the whole state and his will could prevent civil strife and feudal fragmentation. for the philosopher, there is no difference between state power and the person of the prince, between the absolute power of the monarch and state sovereignty. therefore, the whole concept of royal sovereignty summarizes in the creation of a powerful despotic state in which the prince's power to action cannot be limited by law, religion or morals. prince is free to take any actions to maintain state power. machiavelli's state is characterized by stability, but it relies on blood, repression, fear and usurpation of power. for many dictators, this state is an ideal that had been translated into practice. within this state formation, the life of man has no price, and people’s role is limited to absolute and unconditional submission. 3.3 the crystallization of the concept of sovereignty in the modern epoch analyzing the development of the concept of sovereignty, we should mention the jean bodin’s (1530-1596) theory. this philosopher is considered the father of the actual concept of sovereignty. thinker elaborated another concept of the organization of the state, which is based on the rational method. the jean bodin’s theory expected the development of the science of law of the modern period. philosopher founded the secular theory of natural law. thinker’s theory focuses on the concept of sovereignty. (georgescu ș., 2001, p.49) according to the philosopher’s point of view, the state appeared independently of the people’s will, under the influence of various factors such as climate and soil. we should emphasize the circumstances of the formation of this doctrine, because in the conditions of antagonisms between secular power and papal power, jean bodin argued the laic sovereignty. we should note that in the xvi century the royal power reached its apogee during the governorship king francis i (1515-1547). the king was the first monarch who finally subordinated the church to secular power, receiving the right to appoint all french bishops to the posts. the pope recognized his right to receive most of the french church revenues. francis i, further, completely refused to convene the states-general. they were not convened in his presence even once. the king forbade the parliament to interfere in state affairs, except for court cases subject to its jurisdiction as the supreme judicial chamber. the king personally delved into all the details of state hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 9 published by ideas spread administration. all central administration was concentrated in the royal council, which was divided into departments. in foreign policy, french absolutism sought to seize foreign territories. (france of the xvi century) internecine wars between catholics and protestants and a bloody struggle for power characterized the reign of henri iii, who inherited the throne after francis i. so, this reality led the thinker to argue the necessity of granting to the monarch unlimited powers, which would prevent the unfolding of civil war. we could conclude that the governorship king francis i, according to the philosopher, represents the best political regime that could be established in the state. jean bodin considered that state represents the totality of families that are conducted by sovereign. in this state model the leaders of families have the quality of citizens. defining the republic as “a government based on the natural laws”, bodin makes legislative power the essence of the state: “where there is no legislative power there is no republic”. (georgescu ș., 2001, p.49) so, the republic represents the best form of government because it is based on the natural laws, which should be transposed into practice by its adoption by parliament. from that exposed above, we can conclude that the parliament is the most important state bogy because this government authority should transpose natural laws into state legislation. another consideration that could be deduced from the jean bodin’s theory is that the legislative power forms the republic as a form of government. this idea founds the democracy as a political regime, because the principles of the functioning of the parliament as a state body presuppose the necessity to debate the legislative bills, which prevents the establishment of an absolute monarchy in which all state power is concentrated in the monarch as a public authority. bodin supported the hereditary monarch as the form of government. the philosopher believed that only the monarchy could ensure the overcoming of social and religious confrontations in france at those times. (râbca e., zaharia v. 2016, p.88) jean bodin was the first thinker who formulated the notion of sovereignty that, according to him, represents the absolute and perpetual power of a republic to elaborate and to repeal laws, (capcelea v., 2004, p. 98) declaring and ending wars, appointing officials, establishing justice. (voiculescu m.,1992, p.60) analyzing this definition, we could note, on the one hand, that the philosopher realizes the necessity of the existence of the separation of powers in the state because bodin analyzes the importance of the parliament and the separation between the monarch’s and the parliament’s power. on the other hand, thinker does not note the importance of executive power. philosopher do not pay attention to the consideration that law laws remain ineffective if they are not transposed into reality. plus, jean bodin does not analyze the distribution and management of finances within the state, a function that is not included within the legislative duties. so, the theory of bodin, writing in the time of henry iii of france (15511589), describes sovereignty as an absolute, unlimited power, which established law but was uncontrolled by it, and, in an ideal system, was vested in the king and was possessed by divine right. (butllowa 1929) in the fight in england for regal instead of papal sovereignty this doctrine of sovereignty by divine right was developed at cambridge, but after the fight had been won regal sovereignty was discarded for parliamentary sovereignty. (mattern j., 1928) thinker highlighted the most important characters of sovereignty, what are characteristic of state power in contemporary epoch. jean bodin began with the consideration that in each state should exist the supreme power which is characterized by certain traits that stand out in any state. the permanence of state power is one of the characteristic features of sovereignty. state power is established for a period of time, which is not determined in advance, and the sovereign could not be established for the determined period of time. (râbca e., zaharia v. 2016, p.81) actually, this characteristic is preserved despite the choice of state dignitaries who exercise public functions for a certain period. sovereignty belongs to the people; therefore the nation remains the permanent sovereign of the state, the reign of which is not limited in time. the absoluteness of state power is manifested in the fact that the sovereign (the person or persons who create the laws) cannot be subject to these laws, the behavior of the sovereign is superior to laws and inaccessible to legal regulations. so, his will and actions could not be limited by legal provisions. (râbca e., zaharia v. 2016, p.81) the importance of the sovereign increases because his will could not be limited by law. bodin was convinced that subjecting the sovereign to any kind of statutory right would undermine the essential significance of the idea of sovereignty consisting in the power to command everyone and in all aspects. (georgescu ș, 2001, p. 49) we should mention that this idea contravenes to the concept of the rule of law, according to which the law should govern. from these considerations we could deduce that the thinker considered that the law could not be illegal, if it emanates from the sovereign power. in present triumphed the vision according to which the law could be declared invalid, if it was adopted with non-compliance with the legislative procedure. in these aspects the philosopher legitimizes the totalitarian regime, which arises when sovereign abuses of the entrusted power. plus, state power is indivisible and unitary. the author considered that state power should be exercised by a person or state body. (râbca e., zaharia v. 2016, p.81) therefore, the thinker did not admit the fragmentation of state power, the concept present in the contemporary doctrine of constitutional hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 10 published by ideas spread law. however, the philosopher specified the existence of at least 2 state bodies, parliament and the head of state. we should note that sovereignty is unconditional and continuous. this character represents the sovereign’s right to solve social political problems, without obligation to coordinate his decisions with other persons or institutions. (râbca e., zaharia v., 2016, p. 81) thus, jean bodin becomes the author of the secular theory of sovereignty, making the king an independent sovereign, which led to the separation of states from papal power. (arseni a., 2019, p.32) so, the monarch was subordinated only to natural laws that represent the eternal laws given by god. thinker started that the monarch responds only before god to it, the idea that undermines the ecclesiastical power. (georgescu ș., 2001, p. 49) we should note that bodin developed some ideas dominant in the political thinking of meddle ages. thinker continued the development of the idea of personification of state power developed by machiavelli. the philosopher concentrated all state power in the personality of the prince despite the understanding of the role of the parliament within the state and its legislative prerogatives. so, the sovereign (monarch) had very broad prerogatives that included legislative, judicial functions, solved problems related to war and peace, appointed civil servants. the only limitation of the sovereign’s power is the fact that the king did not have the absolute right to decide on the use of the state budget. for example, for the introduction of new taxes and duties, the monarch had to ask the consent of the state-general. however, the monarch’s power is approaching unlimited one, only representative body had the right to vote for the approval of the state’s tax policy. the unlimited powers of the sovereign imply the exclusion of any protection of people from violation of the law. bodin states about the right to property that should not be violated, but this appears to him as a moral requirement addressed to the sovereign. (georgescu ș., 2001, p. 49) the state power, in general, and the monarch’s power, in particular, is practically unlimited. this shows that the philosopher was adept of totalitarianism as a political regime. the thinker did not notice the danger of granting unlimited power to state bodies. as a finality of the implementation in practice of bodin’s theory, it will represent the totalitarian state approaching to that of machiavelli. however, bodin legitimated the right to revolution. thinker considered that the people should obey to the monarch’s orders, but they may kill the tyrant. in exceptional situations, when it is necessary to make urgent decisions, absolute power belongs to the monarch, who has the “right to the last decision”, which is a dominant feature of the sovereignty.(schmitt k., 2000, p.18-20) we should note the link between ideas of the aristotle and bodin, that refer to the state construction. both thinkers considered that family represents the sovereign state. (klimenko o., mirzoev a.,2016, p.25) so, the ideal of the family is connected with moral norms, the respect of private property and sovereignty. (klimenko o., mirzoev a.,2016, p.25) jean bodin approaches the concept of the legitimacy of state power, as the development of the ideas of saint thomas aquinas stating that this power is based on natural laws, the violation of which leads to the loss of the legitimacy of state power. (shumkov d., 2002, p.46) the importance of the theory developed by the great philosopher is manifested in the elaboration of the concept of legitimacy and theoretical system of categories and notions focused on the concept of sovereignty that will be developed and perfected by the great philosophers of modernity. (klimenko o., mirzoev a.,2016, p.25) a conception essentially different from that systematized by bodin appears in the beginning of the seventeenth century, being formulated by johannes althusius in the work “politica methodice digesta” (1603). althusius developed the aristotle’s theory describing the man as a social being, naturally inclined towards mutual solidarity and reciprocity. sovereignty, according to the thinker’s point of view, belongs to the people. it is imprescriptible and resides inalienably in the popular community in which cannot exist the absolute personal power. the people could delegate power, but they cannot give it up. sovereignty emanates from the people. the prince has no authority other than that with which he is invested by the people. so, people delegate their power to prince the power continuing to be intrinsically and substantially preserved by the people. according to the thinker’s point of view, sovereignty is not absolute. althusius formulated the principle of subsidiarity, which is the base of the decisional process. the decisions must be taken at the lowest level, by those who are directly affected by their consequences. thus, even the smallest political units should possess substantial autonomous powers, having the representatives at higher levels of power. so, althusius believed that at each level of society there should be two state bodies: one of them represents the lower communities and other represents the superior level. bodies that form the first level of power hold as much prerogatives as they could exercise for the people’s benefit. the superior level of state power is limited by the first level. each level shall designate its representatives at low and high level, based on the delegation of power, which may be withdrawn. we should note the substantial difference between the subsidiarity and decentralization. the phenomenon of decentralization expresses the situation when the local bodies are the holder of the authority granted to it by the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 11 published by ideas spread central power. subsidiarity represents the distribution of power when the local level delegates to the upper level the responsibilities and tasks that it cannot assume, solving the problems that are included in its competence. subsidiarity represents the sharing of competences based on the criterion of the sufficiency or inadequacy: each level of authority keeps those competences for which it has sufficient power. according to althusius’ point of view, sovereignty represents the level of power that has the large authority, decision-making, and enforcement powers. the sovereign is the person who has more power than others. the exercise of power is realized if the power is recognized and given to him by people. at each level there is an “exchange of authority”, more precisely a differentiation of bodies, a sharing of powers from the lowest level to the highest one. so, we can conclude that johannes althusius attributes the legislative power to the people that are holders of sovereignty. the people in their actions are constraints by its conscience, divine and natural right. although the power of the people is not considered unlimited, it is the highest authority because cannot exist the greater power than that which belongs to the people. (georgescu ș., 2001, p. 49) another thinker that developed the theory of the state sovereignty was hugo grotius, the founder of natural law, based on the human intellect and people’s tendency to live in the peaceful society. (bădescu m., 2002, p. 34). the thinker is one of the founders of the theory of the social contract according to which people form a civil society that represents the expression of their free will. society arises as a result of an awareness of the vulnerability of people living in isolation. people draft 2 contracts: the first contract of free association, and that of submission. consequently, people should unconditionally submit to state power, “steadfast in order to ensure public peace”. state power “acquires a superior right over people and their property, as extent as it is necessary to achieve the specified goal.”(grotius h., 1968, p.193) from those exposed above, we can conclude that the state could prohibit anyone to resist, in order to ensure peace and public order, because otherwise it would not achieve its purpose. if everyone could oppose to state’s will, the existence of the state will be endangered. these considerations explain the existence of laws and punishments to defend the state’s power (capcelea v., 2004, p. 106) that form the concept of sovereignty. (popa n., dogaru i., 2002, p.105) "it is called a sovereign power whose acts are so independent of another authority that they cannot be annulled by the judgment of another human will.” (grotius h.,1968, p.162). grotius sought the answer to the question: whom does the sovereignty belong? in thinker’s opinion, the sovereignty belongs to the state. (popa n., dogaru i., 2002, p.105) however, people may choose the form of government that they prefer, but from the moment they have passed on their rights to the governors, they lose the right to control or sanction the governors. state conductors must obey the natural law and keep promises they made, that represent the principle of natural law. in monarchical states, the people delegate irrevocable the exercise of their rights and the people should submit to the will of the monarch. (bădescu m., 2002, p. 37). grotius denies the theory of people’s sovereignty, according to which people could punish kings whenever they misuse their authority because the king’s power is based on the people’s will. by designation of the sovereign people ceded the right to rule them, withholding no part of this right. (capcelea v., 2004, p.107) grotius considered that, on the one hand, sovereignty resides in the king's person as in it keeper, but, on the other hand, it always remains in the people just as in a whole in which it is part and its ruler. so, the prince governance is the governance of people. in the conception of the great philosopher, the sovereignty of the people should be limited, and the king, even deposed, may rule, because the parties are obliged to comply with the contractual provisions, according to which people cede the right to dispose of themselves. the main merit of grotius is that of formulating the concept of state sovereignty. thinker showed that the state with its legal organization could manifest its sovereignty within its territory, in front of its citizens. the state authority cannot be manifested outside the state’s borders. (bădescu m., 2002, p. 39). respectively, sovereignty appears as a relative element that could be integrated into the system of international law, which takes precedence over domestic law. in relations between sovereign states should be applied the principle of equality. (capcelea v., 2004, p. 110) the brilliant thinker of humanity thomas hobbes, in his work “leviathan” elaborated the concept of the sovereign power of the state that transcends the will of the people that compose it. to understand the fullness and complexity of the ideas of thomas hobbes, we should analyze the political context of thomas hobbes’ ideas. english philosopher lived in the period of great political and social transformations (popa n., dogaru i., 2002, p. 152, 155), which manifested in the outbreak of the civil war waged by parliament against the partisans of the king, cromwell’s victory, the abolition of the monarchy and the beheading of king charles i stuart. these events meant hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 12 published by ideas spread the unleashing of uncontrollable anarchy, which suggested the idea of a return to the “natural state of humanity”. (georgescu ș., 2001 p. 53) political problems were for the philosopher of great actuality and even urgency because of the events that prepared the bourgeois revolution of 1648. (popa n., dogaru i., 2002, p. 152, 155) the central problem of this author’s politico-legal research is the possibility of overcoming social violence and saving (preserving) the state. (râbca e., 2016, p. 92) philosopher is the founder of the theory of social contract, according to which the state appears as a result of a voluntary act, by which each man undertakes to each other to invest a third party (future sovereign) with the right to govern it. people draft two contracts. they consent to create a society, to associate, by drafting the first contract. the second contract consigns the transfer of people’s rights to the sovereign. so, the state becomes the holder of sovereignty, as a result of drafting these contracts. state’s sovereignty is absolute, indivisible and inviolable. (popa n., dogaru i., 2002, p.156) each person must obey the sovereign’s will and cannot use his own force against him. however, the holder of sovereignty is not obliged to respect the law. (capcelea v., 2004, p. 120) we should note that thomas hobbes personified state power, which should be concentrated in the personality of prince during the absolute monarchy as a form of government. we should pay attention to the relationship between the citizens and the sovereign. the people in this relationship have an active role; they are not passively subjected to omnipotent political power. so, namely people decide to create the society, to designate the sovereign and to create the state. in addition, thomas hobbes introduces the concept of authorization, which refers to the fact that the citizens are the authors of the political will that is explained by the sovereign. in other words, the sovereign is allowed by people, and he acts on behalf of citizens. therefore, the will of the sovereign expresses the will of the people. (popa n., dogaru i., 2002, p.156) so, the importance of the thinker’s theory is manifested in the concept's substantiation of the sovereignty of the state that functions as an independent body. however, the prince embodies the entire state power. as a result, the philosopher’s theory could be positioned as the one based, on the one hand, on the ideas of machiavelli who personified state power and considered that the entire state power belongs to the prince and the theory of grotius according to which sovereignty belongs to the state, without being related to the body that holds power. 3.4 comparison between the theory of sovereignty in thomas hobbes and jean bodin’s philosophy the ideas of these great philosophers aimed to legitimize the secular state power at the expense of papal power. however, each thinker argued a different model of state organization. thomas hobbes legitimizes the totalitarian regime, stating that people creating the state transfer their rights to the sovereign, being obliged to obey the monarch's will unconditionally. jean bodin, on the contrary, considered that the state occurs independently of the people's will. thinker argued that democracy is the best political regime. the main character of democracy in the philosopher's doctrine represents the election of all state bodies by the people. both thinkers considered that state power should be unlimited. however, the main difference between these two theories consists in conceptualizing the whole construction of state power. thomas hobbes' state represents the almighty body independent of the people's will in which do not exists the separation of state's power. despite the fact that according to jean bodin's point of view the civil laws could not limit state power, thinker approaches to the conceptualization of the separations of powers in the state. bodin starts the primary role of parliament in the exercise of state power and determines the monarch's position within the state bodies. we should note that both thinkers personified state power. for them, the whole state power is concentrated in the personality of the prince who is the head of state. the practical realization of the thinker's ideas would have the same finality. it would be created the despotic state, as a realization of thomas hobbes' ideas or the state in which the monarch has unlimited power and governs with the parliament, according to jean bodin's theory. however, the people's position within jean bodin's state would be better than that of the citizens of thomas hobbes' state because according to jean bodin's ideas the people have the right to the revolution that could be exercised against the rule of a tyrant. the role of people within the state differs substantially. jean bodin argued the necessity of the election of state bodies and the people's right to revolution, which limits the dictatorial tendencies in society. thomas hobbes, on contrary, developed the concept of the totalitarian state, which could control the confrontations present in society. we could conclude that despite the legitimization and argumentation of the secular power of the monarch, philosophers promoted various methods of exercising state power, the totalitarian and the democratic one which leads to the emergence of conceptual differences between the theories promoted by these philosophers. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 13 published by ideas spread 3.5 the emergence of the theories of national and people's sovereignty in john locke, jean-jacques rousseau, and charles montesquieu's philosophy we should analyze the political-social context in which the brilliant thinkers such as voltaire, charles louis montesquieu, jean-jacques rousseau, denis diderot lived for a better understanding of their ideas. these philosophers lived in the enlightenment epoch. for this intensive period of humanity’s thinking is characteristic the appeal to reason as the major criterion of understanding the world and society, popularization of knowledge, which should bring benefit to the entire society. in addition, we could note the tendency presented in the enlightenment to systematize the knowledge accumulated during the humanity’s development. in this period, france becomes the cultural center of the world. thinkers wanted to find the principles of man’s natural life, searching for the natural religion and law. we should mention the criticism and denial of positive law, formed during the historical development of humanity, in favor of natural law. french philosophers such as voltaire, charles louis montesquieu, jean-jacques rousseau, denis diderot argued the ideas of rationalism, the development of political-social ideas and religious tolerance. their primary goal was the progressive development of humanity and the creation of rational society. indeed, these considerations highlight a link between the ideas that dominated the political thought of the enlightenment and those promoted by the great thinkers, who founded the concept of natural and inalienable human rights, perfectly blend into the context of the french enlightenment society of the xviii century. certainly, john locke (1632-1704) is one of the most important thinkers of enlightenment whose doctrine represents the base of the actual democratic regime. in his writings, john locke expressed the social and political aspirations of the english bourgeoisie of his time. the “two treatises of government” written by the great thinker is considered as the basic texts of modern democratic doctrine (of constitutionalism, parliamentarianism, the supremacy of law) and the main foreshadowing of modern liberalism. the capital significance of john locke’s work for modern political thought and will is connected with the ideal of eliminating arbitrariness and establishing a rule-based civilization. (popa n., dogaru i., 2002, p. 162) according to locke’s doctrine, the emergence of the state finds its basis in the theory of social contract. as a result, the transition to civil society took place, following a consensus by which people wanted maximum security and freedom. the essence of his theory locke expressed thus: “man in the natural state is a reasonable and free being, eager to live well. for this, he voluntarily renounces, by contract, of some of his claims and prerogatives in favor of the state, which owes him respect and protection.” (locke j.,1999, p.54) philosopher observes that people gave up their natural state and made up civil society in order to get maximum protection. it transitioned from the natural state to the civil state based on a contract. people could denounce the contract underlying this agreement if those who hold the power do not fulfill the obligation assumed. as a result, people making up the state keep the freedom to end the contract if the state leadership does not respect their rights and cannot grant them the security, violating the obligations assumed by concluding this contract. definitely, the principle of any association can only be common consent. as a result, the state relies on the free consent of each, being concluded in the absence of any constraint. (georgescu ș., 2001, p. 58) people consent to go out of the natural state in order to find in the state legal security, prosperity and welfare. people agree with others to unite in society in order to enjoy each one, in safety and peace, of what belongs to them—life health, freedom, wealth—in order to be more safe from harm and insult. so, the state represents a product of the social contract, which results from the expression of the will of the people. (râbca e., 2016, p.98) from locke’s point of view, “social contract” is not an act of alienation, but the compromise, which makes the people true depositary of the general interest. (locke j., 1999, p. 54) beginning from those exposed above, we should note that john locke developed the theory of people’s sovereignty. the elaboration of this concept represents the counterargument to the manifestations of despotism in the realization of state power. (arseni a., 2019, p.32) the theory of popular sovereignty is linked with the theory of social contract, according to which the people entrust the realization of state power to the legislative assembly, appointed by election. the author also imposes the conceptualization of political power as the right to legislate and the right to exercise the applicative-legal activity. (râbca e., 2016, p. 97) as a result of this delegation, the people remain sovereigns and could end the social contract; remove or overturn and/or change the composition of the parliament. plus, people have the right to revolution. (râbca e., zaharia v. 2016, p. 125) the most important aspects of the people’s sovereignty manifests in the people’s right to revolution. so, people could denounce the contract underlying this agreement if those who hold the power do not fulfill the obligation assumed. as a result, people making up the state keep the freedom to end the contract if the state leadership does not respect their rights and cannot grant them the security, violating the obligations assumed by concluding this hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 14 published by ideas spread contract. definitely, the principle of any association can only be common consent. as a result, the state relies on the free consent of each, being concluded in the absence of any constraint. (georgescu ș., 2001, p. 58) so, the people’s obligation to obey the governor’s will is closely related to the government’s compliance with the social contract’s provisions. thinker considered that people do not transfer the sovereignty of the leadership by establishing the legislative and executive power. if the rulers violate the people’s rights, they could use force to replace the governors. however, the governance could resort to coercive means to ensure that citizens comply with the rules established for the achievement of the common good. (popa n., dogaru i., 2002, p.168) we should highlight that john locke considered despotic power to be unacceptable. (capcelea v., 2004, p.124) thus, j. locke, the author of political liberalism, laid the beginning of the transition from the monarch’s to the people’s sovereignty and the legitimacy of power. (arseni a., 2019, p.33) 3.6 the concept of popular sovereignty in jean-jacques rousseau’s philosophy jean-jacques rousseau (1712-17778), the french philosopher of enlightenment, played an important role in the development of the concept of the “people’s sovereignty”. in the work “on the social contract; or, principles of political right,” the great thinker systematized and finalized the conceptual development of the concept of popular sovereignty. the thinker stated that the popular will could be expressed only by the whole collectivity of people and tends to achieve the common good. according to this theory, all people are equal because everyone has his own “piece” of sovereignty. so, sovereignty belongs to the people, as a result of the individual wills. however, the realization of popular sovereignty always requires the expression of the will of the majority of citizens. only in this way the individual “parts” of sovereignty form a complete entity, which allows the achievement of the common good. (popa n., dogaru i., 2002, p.186) we should highlight that the theory of the people’s sovereignty formulated by jean-jacques rousseau positions the people as a concrete entity, which is formed from the people who live in a certain territory, associated in the state. so, all members of this state are equal in rights, and sovereignty should be divided into equal "parts” which belong to all citizens. as a consequence, sovereignty should be exercised by all citizens, being made up of the sum of their wills. (arseni a., 2019, p.36) “sovereignty, which expresses the general will, cannot be alienated, because the will cannot be transmitted.” so, sovereignty is inalienable and indivisible. (jean-jacques rousseau, 1957, p.102103) therefore, each citizen has his own original right to take part in the exercise of sovereignty, which is manifested in the right to issue laws and supervise their execution. people could participate directly in the exercise of state power, or, if this is impossible, through representatives who are controlled by them. (guceac i., 2001, p. 122) we should note that the exercise of sovereignty does not inhibit the establishment of representative institutions (arseni a., 2019, p.36), which are formed as the result of free elections. so, the governors are directly linked with their voters. (jean-jacques rousseau, 1957, p. 103) in conclusion, sovereignty, according to jean-jacques rousseau’s point of view, could be expressed only by the people’s will and governors are “simple mandates” of people. (deleanu i., 1993, p.50) the great thinker considered sovereignty as the basis of freedom and equality of citizens, because people are the holders of “sovereignty” and the state’s rulers are only the officials who are subordinate to people and could be revoked. (jean-jacques rousseau, 1957, p.99) we should highlight two features of sovereignty: inalienability, because only one authority could exercise the power in the determined territory; indivisibility because sovereignty could not be divided between individuals who form the state population.(drăganu t., 1998, p.207). the philosopher considered that sovereignty cannot be alienated, being the expression of the general will. (jeanjacques rousseau, 1957, p.114-116) as his predecessors, jean-jacques rousseau personified state power because the people form the concrete entity that leads us to the imperative mandate in exercise of sovereignty. (arseni a., 2019, p.38) 3.7 the legal consequences of the theory of popular sovereignty developed by jean-jacques rousseau thinker considered that the common will which forms the concept of sovereignty should be realized directly by the people. as a result, the realization of sovereignty through representative bodies contradicts to the essence of the concept of popular sovereignty. however, other researchers considered that the exercise of sovereignty does not involve the establishment of representative institutions. these scientists argued the possibility of establishing direct or semi-direct democracy. if in the ideal state developed by jan-jacques rousseau are formed the representative bodies, the elected deputies are directly related to the imperative will of the voters. (noţiuni generale privind suveranitatea) the romanian researcher ion deleanu noted the following consequences of the practical realization of the concept of popular sovereignty: a) the trustee does not express his own will, being forced to voice the will of those who mandated him (electoral body in a constituency), b) his conduct in the assembly of deputies may not be other than hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 15 published by ideas spread that expressly prescribed by the constituents; c) the deputy must report periodically to his constituents on the actions interpreted in the mandate's exercise; d) voters may withdraw his mandate on the grounds that the trustee has not complied with the given prescriptions or because he has exceeded them; e) the holder of sovereignty, the people, may amend or annul any decision of the representative assembly, if it does not correspond to their will, through a referendum. (deleanu i., 1993, p.37) we should note that the deep analysis of these consequences highlights at least two considerable shortcomings: the inability of the deputy to represent the general interests, being forced to act within the interests of a particular constituency; the restriction of the freedom of action of the deputy leads to his subordination to the will of his constituents. (noţiuni generale privind suveranitatea) we should note some specific aspects of the legislative process in the jean-jacques rousseau’s point of view. thinker considered that a law represents the act, which is adopted or sanctioned by the people. the author proposes the establishment of citizens’ assemblies, the control body independent in relation to governors, through which could be controlled the governor’s activity. however, jean-jacques rousseau establishes the unlimited domination of the social-state organism over the person, stating that the common will is always fair. we could conclude that according to the thinker’s theory, the individual does not have any rights in relation to the sovereign. so, jeanjacques rousseau approaches to the state’s foundation elaborated by hobbes. (râbca e., zaharia v. 2016, p.96) 3.8 the concept of national sovereignty in charles montesquieu’s philosophy the brilliant illuminist, charles montesquieu (1689-1755) developed the concept of popular sovereignty elaborated by jean-jacques rousseau. the substantial difference between the theories of these thinkers consists in the introduction and use of the category of nation in the political philosophy. thus, the thinker elaborated the concept of national sovereignty. (montesquieu ch., 1964, p.11) the concept of sovereignty is closely related to the form of government and the political regime established in the state. according to montesquieu’s theory there are three forms of government (popa n., dogaru i., 2002, p.117) “the republican, the monarchical and the despotic government. the republican government is that in which all people or only a part of them hold the supreme power; the monarchical government is that in which the person rules individually according to established laws; whereas, in the despotic one, the prince governs with no law and rules, according to his own will”. (montesquieu, 1964, p. 11) republican government could be of two types, democratic, when the supreme power belongs to all people, and aristocratic, when power is held by a part of the people. when all people rule, this political regime represents the government of the people, by the people, in the interest of all people that is best form of organization of state power. (popa n., dogaru i., 2002, p.117) the aspects that could not be managed by all people should be managed through their representatives. in the republican government (democratic or aristocratic), “it is a fundamental principle of this government that the people designate their representatives”. (montesquieu, 1964, p. 18) so, beginning from that exposed above, we could conclude that the concept of national sovereignty manifests only during the republican government because during the monarchical and the despotic government the sovereignty belongs to the herd of state. only democratic or aristocratic forms of government allow the exercise of state power by representatives of the people, which is the manifestation of the essence of national sovereignty. we should highlight that national sovereignty is characterized as indivisible and imprescriptible. according to the thinker’s point of view, the nation is an abstract entity. so, the establishment of direct democracy as the political regime is practically impossible. this theory justifies the necessity to appoint representatives by universal suffrage. as a result, sovereignty is exercised in the name of nation. thus, the deputies appointed by the nation become its general representatives who do not translate the general will, but form the body that creates the general will. the mandate of governors becomes general, representative, free and irrevocable one. (noţiuni generale privind suveranitatea, 2019) 3.9 the legal consequences of the theory of national sovereignty developed by charles montesquieu this conception has some practical consequences, such as 1. national representation in its entirety becomes the mandatory of the nation, since sovereignty is one, indivisible and inalienable; 2. the decisions of deputy should not be ratified by the nation; 3. deputies, as representatives of the entire nation, cannot be revoked by their voters and they are not obliged to account for them; 4. the deputy does not need the instructions from the electoral body, he proceeds according to his intimate conviction. (deleanu i., 1993, p. 38) the concept of national sovereignty has some negative implications including: exclusion of any organized legal subordination of deputies to voters; the possibility of the deputy to slide towards arbitrariness and voluntarism; the transformation of the electoral body into an instrument for appointing the deputy; transformation of the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 16 published by ideas spread representative assembly into the exclusive depository of national sovereignty, having the omnipotence to decide on behalf of the nation, infallible interpreter of the general will; replacing the general will with the will of the party to which the deputy belongs and complies in principle. (deleanu i., 1993, p. 39) we should conclude that during the middle ages and modern epoch were formulated the most important classical theories of sovereignty which contributed to the formation of sovereignty in the current acceptance. in this period of time we could note the transition from the sovereignty of the church to the royal one, which triumphed with the elaboration of the theory of popular and national sovereignty. therefore, this modification mirrors the transformation in the people’s role in society. respectively, the man from the servant becomes the souvenir capable to exercise state power, appoint representatives and choose the form of government and political regime that best corresponds to his aspirations. 4. the actual concept of sovereignty in the xxi century 4.1 the actual concept of sovereignty in the xxi century at the international level actually, the concept of sovereignties is facing new challenges. we should analyze the concept of sovereignty in the context of the joining various international organizations. analyzing the sovereignty through the prism of the international law, we could conclude that sovereignty as “indivisible, unlimited and illimitable” power that was described by hobbes does not exist. “it may be said that each nation is independent of every other and that international law is not a limitation upon any of them because it is self-imposed, but the facts of life limit external sovereignty. so far as there are international law, treaties, conventions, and the league of nations, all national sovereignty is limited in international relations. in the same way internal sovereignty has its limits. both the states and the nation in the united states are limited by bills of rights. if sovereignty must be independent and unlimited there is no such thing as sovereignty”. (willis, hugh evander, 1929) it should be mentioned that actual political philosophy does not position sovereignty as an absolute and unlimited power, denying the characteristic approach to classical philosophy. we should highlight the difference between the internal and external sovereignty. the internal sovereignty is the state’s right to decide on the organization of political, economic, social, cultural life and other areas that are included in the concept of the internal affairs of a state. the internal sovereignty manifests in the field of international relations, in the state’s right to conclude treaties and to join international organizations. so, according to the doctrine of international law, sovereignty represents the supremacy and independence of state power in the sphere of internal and external relations. (guceac i., 2014, p.30) at the same time, state sovereignty is a quality of state power to be supreme in the territory of the state and independent from any state or international body, a characteristic expressed in the right of the state to resolve its internal and external affairs freely, provided that the corresponding rights of other states and the norms of international law are respected. (guceac i., 2014, p.83) in this context we should mention the declaration of kofi annan the un secretary-general pronounced at 18 september 1999. according to him “state sovereignty, in its most basic sense, is being redefined—not least by the forces of globalization and international co-operation. states are now widely understood to be instruments at the service of their peoples, and not vice versa. at the same time individual sovereignty—by which i mean the fundamental freedom of each individual, enshrined in the charter of the un and subsequent international treaties—has been enhanced by a renewed and spreading consciousness of individual rights. when we read the charter today, we are more than ever conscious that its aim is to protect individual human beings, not to protect those who abuse them”. (annan, k., 1999) this statement was pronounced by the un secretary general in analysis of the concept of sovereignty in the context of the humanitarian interventions of the xx century and forecasting the change in the sovereignty's meaning in the xxi century. from those exposed abought, we could conclude that humanitarian crises, violations of human rights, genocides show that the sovereignty of the state is not absolute one. so, we should mention that the humanitarian intervention or the responsibility to protect in the actual terminology represents the actions of the international community regulated by chapter 6 and 7 of the united nations charter that could be taken if there are presented the threat to the peace, the security of humanity and acts of aggression. according to the one of the definitions of this concept, the humanitarian intervention represents actions undertaken by an organization or organizations (usually a state or a coalition of states) that are intended to alleviate extensive human suffering within the borders of a sovereign state. such suffering tends to be the result of a government instigating, facilitating, or ignoring the abuse of groups falling within its jurisdiction. this abuse often takes the form of deliberate and systematic violations of human rights, including forced expulsions, ethnic cleansing, and, in the most extreme cases, genocide.(bell, d., 2019) in these situations, the international community intervenes in the internal affairs of the state in order to save the categories of the population subjected to persecution. so, the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 17 published by ideas spread people’s particular interest is positioned as one more important than the interest of governors who abuse their power. in this study, we should analyze some aspects of the humanitarian intervention because the application of the articles of chapter 7 of the un charter allows the violation of the sovereignty of the state and the application of the armed force to restore the peace and security of humanity. we should highlight that “humanitarian intervention constitutes a calculated and uninvited breach of sovereignty (state rights) in the name of humanity (individual rights). in the post-cold war era, however, this conception of sovereignty as sacrosanct came under sustained attack. it was argued that despotic leaders should not be able to hide behind the shield of state sovereignty and that the international community had an obligation to intervene to stop the widespread abuse of human rights”. (bell, d., 2019) in his declaration kofi annan noted four aspects of humanitarian intervention which need to be considered with special care. “first, “intervention” should not be understood as referring only to the use of force. and yet the commitment of the world to peacekeeping, to humanitarian assistance, to rehabilitation and reconstruction varies greatly from region to region, and crisis to crisis. if the new commitment to humanitarian action is to retain the support of the world’s peoples, it must be—and must be seen to be—universal, irrespective of region or nation. humanity, after all, is indivisible.” (annan, k., 1999) so, the un secretary-general does not admit an uneven approach to humanitarian crises and genocide situations that are common for several international crises. each humanitarian intervention represents a violation of the sovereignty of the state, as well as the principle of noninterference in the internal affairs of the state, which determines the necessity of the development of standards accepted by the international community that will not allow the application of double standards. kofi annan highlight that “traditional notions of sovereignty alone are not the only obstacle to effective action in humanitarian crises. no less significant are the ways in which states define their national interests. the world has changed in profound ways since the end of the cold war, but i fear our conceptions of national interest have failed to follow suit. a new, broader definition of national interest is needed in the new century, which would induce states to find greater unity in the pursuit of common goals and values. in the context of many of the challenges facing humanity today, the collective interest is the national interest.” (annan, k., 1999) so, the international interests which are manifested in the defense and promotion of the human’s rights should prevail over the interests of the state leadership that blatantly violates fundamental human’s rights. the un secretary-general argued that “in cases where forceful intervention does become necessary, the security council—the body charged with authorizing the use of force under international law—must be able to rise to the challenge.” (annan, k., 1999) so, namely un plays the most important role in the authorization of the humanitarian intervention and this international organization should act promptly and uniformly in the situation of the existence of the threat of peace and security of humanity. kofi annan argued that “when fighting stops, the international commitment to peace must be just as strong as was the commitment to war. in this situation, too, consistency is essential. just as our commitment to humanitarian action must be universal if it is to be legitimate, so our commitment to peace cannot end as soon as there is a ceasefire. the aftermath of war requires no less skill, no less sacrifice, no fewer resources than the war itself, if lasting peace is to be secured”. (annan, k., 1999) so, the role of the international community does not finish simultaneously with the finish of the war and un should do everything possible to lessen the consequences of war. we can conclude that at actually humanity is facing with the modification of the concept of sovereignty that is transformed from the absolute and unlimited power of the state over the territory and its own citizens into one limited by international commitments, treaties, provisions of international law, the guarantee the respect to fundamental human rights. therefore, the un security council sanctions humanitarian intervention, which is an exceptional measure undertaken by the international community in the case of flagrant violation of human’s rights and threats to the peace and security of humanity. despite the fact that humanitarian intervention violates the state’s sovereignty, the application of force in this case is absolutely legal, if it is carried out in compliance with the provisions of the un charter because it defends the interest of ordinary citizens persecuted by the state leadership. accordingly, the "individual sovereignty” defined by the un secretary-general becomes more important than the sovereignty of the state which undertakes acts of genocide and mass killings. 4.2 the concept of sovereignty in eu the concept of sovereignty in eu should be analyzed both thought the prism of the sovereignty of the state members of community and the “sovereignty” of the eu organization as the complete entity. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 18 published by ideas spread we should note that the philosophy of the eu is based on the two concepts that explain the actual construction of the eu, namely supranational and intergovernmental theories. according to one of the definitions, a supranational union represents a type of multinational political union, where negotiated power is delegated to an independent authority by governments of member-states, which actions in the interest of community. the international community includes the members from different states. the supranational organization is founded because of some benefits that it gives to each member-state by setting trade-related standards that help to maintain economic stability in all member-states. the structure of the supranational organization allows the development of political and economic standards that are respected by member-states. another theory that refers to the construction of the eu is intergovernmental theory. according to one of the doctrinal definitions intergovernmentalism represents the theory of european integration as a type of multinational political union in which states play a more important role in decision-making process in comparison with supranational theory. in international relations, scientists who develop this theory treat states, in general, and national governments, in particular, as the main actors of the integration process. the supranational and intergovernmental character of the eu in regulated by the treaty on the functioning of the european union, which in the articles 3-5 establish the eu’s competence. according to this treaty, “the union shall have exclusive competence in the following areas: a) customs union; (b) the establishing of the competition rules necessary for the functioning of the internal market; (c) monetary policy for the member states whose currency is the euro; (d) the conservation of marine biological resources under the common fisheries policy; (e) common commercial policy.” (treaty roma 1957) according to article 2 of this treaty “only the union may legislate and adopt legally binding acts” in this domains “the member states being able to do so themselves only if so empowered by the union or for the implementation of union acts”. (treaty roma 1957) this competence shows the supranational construction of the eu because in the domains established by treaty states do not have de right to legislate. beginning from that exposed above, we should note that in the doctrine of european law crystallized two different opinions which refers to the concept of sovereignty within the european union. according to one point of view, the legislative process at the level of the european parliament violates the sovereignty of the states, because in the areas mentioned in the articles 3-5 of the treaty on the functioning of the european union the national parliament do not have de right to legislate. we should note that the right to legislate is one of the most important state’s prerogatives and the manifestation of national sovereignty of the state, which is limited in the member states’ of eu. according to other savants, the actual construction of the eu does not limit the state’s sovereignty. this point of view is based on the fact that the right to join the international organization is one of the state’s exclusive prerogatives. so, namely state decides to join the eu, having the right to leave the international organization, as britain did. these researchers argue that the state cedes to the international organization only certain strictly limited competences and the state’s sovereignty remains unlimited by the eu’s construction. we adhere to the point of view according to which the sovereignty of eu member states is not limited by the implementation of the legislative process at the community level, because states through elections appoint their representatives in the european parliament and membership in the international organization is a right, an expression of the sovereignty and free will of the state. analyzing the concept of the sovereignty in the actual construction of the eu, we should analyze the process of the accession to eu, during which the sovereignty of all states, members and candidate states is perfectly respected because states should ratify the agreement to accession to the eu according to their constitutional rules. this is not a formal prerogative because norway, for example, twice gave up joining the european community. the sovereignty of the candidate state is respected until the last stage of accession, especially when public opinion considers that the negotiated conditions of accession are not satisfactory. (coșleț n., 2020) we should note that among the conditions of accession to the eu is the compliance to the acquis of eu. this condition may seem as a very restrictive one and may be an obstacle to the exercise of sovereignty in the economic and legal fields. the candidate must accept not only the treaties’ regulations but also the whole legislation of the eu. it should be noted that the candidates have always achieved a transition period for adapting the state to their new economic and legal situation. plus, the introduction of the single european currency represented another attack on the sovereignty of the state, because coin minting of the national currency was traditionally the responsibility of the state as a manifestation of its sovereignty. (coșleț n., 2020) actually, in the community's law appears the concept of the “strategic sovereignty”. the emergence of this concept is based on the fact that european countries are increasingly vulnerable to external pressure that prevents them from exercising their sovereignty. this vulnerability threatens the european union’s security, economic health, and diplomatic freedom of action, allowing other powers to impose their preferences on it. to prosper and maintain hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 19 published by ideas spread their independence in a world of geopolitical competition, europeans must address the interlinked security and economic challenges other powerful states present – without withdrawing their support for a rules-based order and the transatlantic alliance. this means creating a new idea of “strategic sovereignty”, as well as establishing institutions and empowering individuals that see strategic sovereignty as part of their identity and in their own interest. most fundamentally, the eu needs to learn to think like a geopolitical power. (european sovereignty) the emergence of the concept of strategic sovereignty of the eu is determined by the deepening of the supranational tendencies of this organization. the concept of strategic sovereignty is manifested in several areas including security, health, climate, economic and digital fields. therefore, actually within the eu could be identified two trends related to the concept of sovereignty. on the one hand, states transfer the defining powers to supranational bodies for the proper functioning of the international organization and for the development of uniform policy in the areas established in the treaty on the functioning of the eu. on the other hand, there is created the concept of strategic sovereignty of the eu, which is seen as a superpower capable of promoting its own interests, based on the unity of the legislation of the member states. respectively, we could note the transfer of the states’ competence to the supranational bodies and creating a new concept of sovereignty that allows the promotion of the interests of the member states of the community. 4.3 the concept of sovereignty in the actual state’s constitutions actually, the concept of sovereignty is the component part of the constitutional law, in general, and the state’s national regulation, in particular. the absolute majority of the state’s constitutions regulate the mechanism of the exercise of state power and the plenary holder of this power. in this study, we would like to analyze the constitutional regulation of sovereignty, to determine the holder of supreme power in state and to highlight the difference in the regulation of this aspect in contemporaneous state’s constitutions. the basic law of the federal republic of germany adopted on may 23, 1949 in article 20 regulates the form of government and the political regime of this state. so, according to 1 and 2 paragraph of this article: “(1) the federal republic of germany is a democratic and social federal state. (2) all state authority is derived from the people. it shall be exercised by the people through elections and other votes and through specific legislative, executive and judicial bodies.” (basic law for the federal republic of germany) we should note that germany adopts the concept of popular sovereignty, according to which all state power emanates from the people. namely, people are the holders of the supreme power in the state. according to 4 paragraph of article 20 “all germans shall have the right to resist any person seeking to abolish this constitutional order if no other remedy is available.”(basic law for the federal republic of germany) however, people could defend their right to hold the state power and to govern by any legal methods. if these methods are ineffective, the people may defend the constitutional order by force. this mechanist represents an effective means of fighting against the tendencies of the establishment of the totalitarian regime and the dictatorship. according to the constitution of the republic of france, adopted on october 4, 1958 art. 2 “the principle of the republic shall be: government of the people, by the people and for the people.”( constitution of the republic of france) so, this principle embodies the aristotle’s idea of polity, the form of government, during which the entire state power is exercised by all people or by the majority of them in the benefit of all state citizens. article 3 of french constitution regulates the state’s sovereignty. according to this article, “national sovereignty shall vest in the people, who shall exercise it through their representatives and by means of referendum. no section of the people nor any individual may arrogate to itself, or to himself, the exercise thereof. suffrage may be direct or indirect as provided for by the constitution. it shall always be universal, equal and secret.” (constitution of the republic of france) we should highlight that this article uses both the notion of national and popular sovereignty, which were formulated by jean-jacques rousseau and charles montesquieu. however, the concepts that were developed by these thinkers form the classical theory of sovereignty. actually, there is no difference between the concept of popular and the national sovereignty because beyond the conceptual terminological differences the essence of these theories remains the same the people are the holders of the supreme power in the state. we should mention that in the concept of sovereignty in the legal order of the republic of moldova is regulated by 3 constitutional acts: declaration of the sovereignty of the soviet socialist republic of moldova, the declaration of independence of the republic of moldova, constitution of the republic of moldova. declaration of the sovereignty of the soviet socialist republic of moldova adopted on june 23, 1990, declares at art. 1 that “the soviet socialist republic of moldova is a sovereign state. the sovereignty of the s. s. r. m. is the necessary condition of the existence of the statehood of moldova”. according to the art. 2 “the bearer and source of sovereignty is the people. the higher representative body of the power of the republic realizes sovereignty in the interests of the entire nation. no part of the people, no group of citizens, no political party or public organization, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 20 published by ideas spread no other form of organization may assign the right to exercise sovereignty”.( declaration of the sovereignty of the soviet socialist republic of moldova) according to the declaration of independence of the republic of moldova adopted on august 27, 1991, “the republic of moldova is a sovereign, independent and democratic state, free to decide its present and future, without any external interference, keeping with the ideals and aspirations of the people within its historical and ethnic area of its national making”. (the declaration of independence of the republic of moldova) we should note the regulation of the constitution of the republic of moldova with in the art. 1. paragraph 1 regulates the state power. according to this national document “the republic of moldova is a sovereign, independent, unitary and indivisible state”. (constitution of the republic of moldova) so, we could conclude that the republic of moldova adopts similar acts that refer to the regulation the principle of national sovereignty, following the implementation in practice of the classical theories of sovereignty developed by locke, rousseau and montesquieu. analyzing the concept of sovereignty in the usa constitutional law, we should note that in the u.s. constitution the concept of sovereignty is not expressly regulated. the essence of the idea of “popular sovereignty” was developed by politician thomas jefferson, who considered that the government’s goal should by the guarantee of human rights. according to him, state’s power emanates from the consent of the people. if the form of government is harmful to this purpose, the people have the right to abolish it and establish a new government. (arseni a., 2019, p.34) we should mention that according to the declaration of independence of u.s. the sovereignty belongs to people. “we hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness—that to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, that whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness” (transcript of the declaration). so, the phrase that governors derive “their just powers from the consent of the governed” shows us that peoples are holders of the state power. according to american scientists, the concept of sovereignty “follows, therefore, both by principle and by authority, that under the united states constitution, the doctrine of sovereignty in the united states is that doctrine which defines sovereignty not as independent, unlimited, indivisible power to compel obedience and freedom from liability, but in the narrow sense of the power to delimit personal liberty by social control or to protect personal liberty against social control; and which makes this power reside not in the organs of government, nor the constitution, nor divine law, nor even in the states or nation (although all of these are juristic personalities), but in the people as a whole as organized at present in our dual form of government which is manifested in the fact that states and nation are not sovereign within their respective spheres but are merely exercising for the time being those sovereign powers which the people have seen fit to delegate to each of them for exercise.” (willis, hugh evander, 1929) therefore, we come to the same conclusion that sovereignty belongs to the people, and state bodies only exercise the powers conferred to them by the people. in this study, we would like to analyze the concept of sovereignty in the states in with is established the monarchy as a form of government. the constitution of belgium, in which as a form of government is establish the constitutional monarchy, regulates the state’s supreme power in the article 33. according to this regulation, “all power comes from the nation. they are carried out in accordance with the procedure established by the constitution.” (the belgian constitution, 2014) so, we could claim that the regulation of sovereignty in the constitution of belgium is similar to the constitutions of other states mentioned above. another example of the state in winch the monarchy is the form of government and the official religion is islam is the morocco. the specificity of this state is manifested by the regulation of the official religion that allows the positioning of the morocco as an islamic state. analyzing the historical development of states in which state power was not separated from church power, we note the application of the concept of divine sovereignty, according to which power emanates from god and is exercised by prince. according to the morocco’s constitution of 2011 “sovereignty belongs to the nation which exercises it directly, by way [voie] of referendum, and indirectly, by the intermediary of its representatives. the nation chooses its representatives from among the institutions elected by way of free, honest [sinceres] and regular suffrage.” (morocco's constitution) despite the fact that morocco is an islamic state with monarchy as a form of government, its constitution declares that the supreme power in the state belongs to the people. we should highlight that the state’s form of government (monarchy or republic) or the political regime (the presidential, parliamentary or semi-presidential republic) does not influence the concept of sovereignty. in france that is the semi-presidential republic, in german, that is parliamentary republic, in the usa that is presidential republic, in belgium, that is the constitutional monarchy as a form of government, in morocco, that is the islamic hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 21 published by ideas spread state with monarchy as the form of government the sovereignty belongs to people. so, all conceptual differences that arise as a result of the different attributions of state’s bodies and the different co-report especially between the executive and the legislative power do not influence the concept of sovereignty because all states in which the democracy is established as a political regime regulate that sovereignty belongs to people. 5. conclusions we should note that sovereignty is the basic concept of the constitutional law that is present in each society, organized politically. the crystallization of the concept of sovereignty begins with the formation of the first state organizations and continues at present. the brilliant thinkers of humanity contemplated about the origins of the state power and the person/ body that should hold the entire power in state. each epoch comes with another theory of sovereignty, which, on the one hand, mirrors the correlation of powers in the state and, on the other hand, demonstrate place and role of the people within the state. thus, the emergence of the concept of sovereignty begins in ancient greece when plato and aristotle researched the forms of government existing in that period of time and determined the holder of state power. however, these influential thinkers did not elaborate the entire theory of sovereignty, formulating this theory only tangentially. the terminological formation of the notion of sovereignty is linked with the development of the antic roman empire. the evolution of this concept continued in the middle ages being a means of the legitimating of the church power, in general, and the power of pope of roma in particular. so, saint thomas aquinas promoted and argued the church’s view of state power by positioning the pope of rome as a holder of the entire state power, which comes from god. this approach shows, on the one hand, the influence of the church on the state leadership, the confusion between the secular and the church power, and, on the other hand, it mirrors the position of the people in society, who must unconditionally obey to the orders of the church and the king practically having no rights. the philosophy of marsilius of padua shows us the emergence of the democratic ideas of the popular government. the thinker started that people should hold state power that is exercised by the elected bodies. this idea laid the foundation of the popular and national sovereignty that triumphed over the political thinking of humanity during the enlightenment. we should note the modification of the people’s role within the state, who from the servant became the holders of state power. however, the theory of the royal sovereignty reflected the domination of the totalitarian tendencies within the state which are manifested in the growth of the royal authority at the expense of the rights and social position of the people. so, the “war” between royalty and the church power was won by secular power. however, this victory of royal power did not lead to an improvement of the people’s position within society and did not bring an increase in their well-being. we should highlight that the entire theory of sovereignty was elaborated only in the modern epoch by jean bodin. this thinker created a theory of secular sovereignty which is concentrated in the power of price. the most important difference of this theory from those exposed above is the elaboration of the notion of sovereignty and the characteristic features of this concept that remain actually at present. one of the most important theories of sovereignty was developed by johannes althusius who promoted the concept of popular sovereignty and developed the idea of subsidiary of state power which is explained by the creation of state bodies at the central and local levels. we concept of state’s sovereignty was developed by hugo grotius and thomas hobbes. hugo grotius in elaboration of the theory of sovereignty did not start from the identification of the state body that exercises state power, but stipulated that all power belongs to the state itself which is the sovereign within its borders. the originality of thomas hobbes ideas is manifested in the creation of the concept of the state as an almighty body independent of the will of the people in which the supreme and unlimited power belongs to the prince. so, we should note the beginning of the “war” for power between the personal government and democratically one, between the popular and the national sovereignty, supported by john locke and jean-jacques rousseau and the royal one developed by hobbes. in this “was”, as a result of the great french revolution won the concept of popular / national sovereignty depending on the constitutional system adopted by the state and the representative or imperative mandate of the deputies, which signified the triumph of human rights and fundamental freedoms. so, the formation of the classical theories of sovereignty ended with the formation of all-encompassing theories of popular and national sovereignty, which represent the base of contemporary constitutionalism. actually, appear the new aspects of the concept of sovereignty. this no longer represents the unconditional and unlimited power of state power over a territory and citizens of this state. now, the exercise of the state’s sovereignty is linked with the state’s obligation to guarantee and to respect the human rights and fundamental freedoms. the un may authorize the military forces of the state or coalition of states to enter the territory of another state if its leadership undertakes acts of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity and threatens the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 22 published by ideas spread peace and security of humanity. so, the people’s well-being and the respect of human’s rights become more important than compliance with the state’s sovereignty and the power of the state over the territory and its citizens. despite the violation of sovereignty by humanitarian intervention, its implementation is legal if the un security council authorizes it in accordance with the provisions of the un charter. in the xxi century the specific of the state’s sovereignty is manifested by the cession of the state’s competence to community bodies within international organizations, for example, the eu. so, this leads to the emergence of the concept of strategic sovereignty that is held by the eu, but it is not exercised by member-states of this organization. beginning from those exposed above, we could conclude that from ancient times to the present, the concept of sovereignty has been and remains one of the most polemized theories which mirror the entire structure of the state’s organization. at present, in political philosophy is presented a tendency towards the revaluation of sovereignty, which is adapted to the conditions of contemporary reality. references annan, k. 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(2002). socio-legal foundations of the state sovereignty of the russian federation (historical and theoretical analysis): abstract of the dissertation of the doctor of law. st. petersburg. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 3; 2021 24 published by ideas spread stere c., (2016). curs de drept constituțional, chișinău, cartier printing house. the belgian constitution this publication contains the text of the belgian constitution as updated following the sixth institutional reform (constitutional revisions of 6 january 2014 – belgian official gazette of 31 january 2014) may 2014 belgian house of representatives. retrieved from http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/pdf/bel135227e.pdf the church’s role in feudalism. the church’s role in feudalism – grace evangelical lutheran church – elca (graceeluth.org). toma d’aquino, summa contra gentiles ( împotriva erorilor necredincioșilor) citat după zăpârțan liviu petru, (1994). doctrine politice, iași, chemarea printing house. transcript of the declaration (as adopted). retrieved from https://www.monticello.org/thomas-jefferson/jeffersons-three-greatest-achievements/the-declaration/transcript-of-the-declaration/ united nations charter (full text) online: united nations charter (full text) | united nations. voiculescu m.,(1992). istoria doctrinelor politice, bucurești, hyperion xxi printing house. vrabie g., (1992). drept constituțional și instituții politice, iași, “cugetarea” printing house. willis, hugh evander. the doctrine of sovereignty under the united states constitution" (1929). articles by maurer faculty. 1256. retrieved from https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/facpub/1256 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n1p104 104 published by ideas spread research on the development of chinese painting under the influence of western art thought in the 1980s lingyun qu1 & hongmei liu1 1 hengxing university, china correspondence: lingyun qu, hengxing university, qingdao, shandong, china. received: january 27, 2025; accepted: february 25, 2025; published: february 26, 2025 abstract this paper aims to study the profound impact of western art thought on the development of chinese painting in the 1980s. by analyzing the emergence of western modernism and postmodernism, the study explores how these artistic trends were introduced into china during the 1980s and significantly influenced the form, ideas, and content of chinese painting. first, the paper reviews the main characteristics of western art thought and analyzes the channels through which these ideas spread within the chinese art community, as well as the awakening of artists’ self-awareness. next, it focuses on discussing the innovations in painting form, the transformation of artistic themes, and the evolution of artistic ideas brought about by western art, specifically elaborating on how artists integrated elements of western expressionism, abstract art, and traditional chinese painting into their creations. in addition, by analyzing the works of representative artists and important art events, the paper further reveals how western art thought shaped the diverse development of chinese painting in the 1980s. finally, the paper concludes by summarizing the profound significance of these influences on the modernization, globalization, and theoretical innovation of chinese art, providing a new perspective for future research. keywords: western art thought, 1980s, chinese painting, modernism, postmodernism, artistic ideas 1. introduction since the 1980s, chinese art, particularly painting, has undergone an unprecedented transformation under the profound influence of western art thought. with china’s rapid modernization, artistic creation and modes of expression evolved dramatically. cultural exchanges following the reform and opening-up policy provided chinese artists with opportunities to absorb western ideas, spurring a renewal in artistic concepts and innovations in both form and content. the emergence of western modernism and postmodernism introduced new ways of thinking and creative techniques that encouraged artists to break free from traditional constraints and explore more individualistic, liberating artistic languages.this paper investigates the influence of western art thought on the development of chinese painting in the 1980s, focusing on its impact on artists’ creative processes. by examining key trends such as formalism, expressionism, abstract art, and deconstruction, the study reveals how these ideas manifested in chinese art. it also explores how chinese artists, while integrating western elements, maintained a connection to traditional culture, thereby forming a unique artistic style. ultimately, this research provides fresh insights into the modernization and globalization of chinese painting, highlighting its emergence on the global art stage[1]. 2. the main characteristics of western art thought in the 1980s 2.1 the rise of modernism and the emergence of postmodernism in the 1980s, western art thought underwent a profound transformation. its evolution from modernism to postmodernism not only embodied an update in artistic ideas but also reflected a significant shift in the social and cultural environment. modernism, which originated in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, was characterized by artists’ pursuit of formal innovation and an experimental spirit. they emphasized the independence of artistic creation and sought to break free from the constraints of traditional art by expressing individual emotions and inner experiences through techniques such as abstraction and expressionism[2]. however, from the late 1970s into the 1980s, as global cultural exchanges accelerated and social pluralism became increasingly evident, postmodernism began to emerge, challenging the universal truths and rational spirit that modernism had championed. postmodernism advocates for the integration of multicultural perspectives and historical viewpoints, promotes interdisciplinary approaches, and calls for the deconstruction of tradition. artists no longer confined themselves to a single mode of creation; instead, they reinterpreted traditional symbols, language, and forms to reflect the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 105 published by ideas spread complexity of society. through this transformation, postmodernism broke away from the lofty mission and uniform standards inherent in artistic creation, championing a more relaxed, pluralistic, and inclusive mode of expression. this ideological shift not only brought a wealth of creative possibilities to global art but also had a profound impact on the development of chinese painting in the 1980s, providing chinese artists with new perspectives and inspiration to explore cross-cultural expression and traditional innovation[3]. 2.2 the inspiration of western art thought on chinese artists in the 1980s, as china gradually integrated into a globalized context, the influence of western art thought on chinese artists manifested in multiple layers and from various perspectives. first, the emphasis on individual independence and self-expression promoted by western art provided chinese artists with an entirely new creative concept. they began to realize that art is not merely the transmission of traditional techniques, but a language that reflects individual emotions, experiences, and social realities. this idea encouraged them to break away from the formulaic expressions inherent in traditional chinese painting and to experiment with incorporating western art elements such as abstraction, expressionism, and deconstruction into traditional ink painting. for example, many artists combined western abstract expression with the aesthetic spirit of chinese calligraphy and painting in their explorations, preserving the charm of chinese painting while endowing it with a new visual language and expressive power.moreover, the emphasis on multiculturalism, interdisciplinary integration, and a critical spirit in western art thought led chinese artists to adopt a more multidimensional approach to artistic expression and reinterpret traditional symbols. in the process of absorbing the ideas of western modernism and postmodernism, they not only focused on innovations in form but also engaged in profound reflections on content[4]. many artists, inspired by this new mindset, began to question and break through the limitations of traditional aesthetics, exploring the complex relationships between social transformation, historical memory, and individual existence. through such cross-cultural dialogue and collision, chinese artists gradually developed an inclusive, experimental new artistic style. they made bold innovations in painting techniques while also demonstrating a more diverse and open approach in both artistic themes and narrative styles. it is precisely this effort to merge western avant-garde art concepts with traditional chinese aesthetics that has driven a comprehensive transformation in the form, content, and theory of chinese painting, marking an important transitional stage in the history of contemporary chinese art[5]. 3. the specific influence of western art thought on chinese painting 3.1 the transformation of artistic form: from tradition to modernity in the 1980s, building on the profound charm of traditional chinese painting, chinese artists began boldly incorporating the expressive techniques of western modern art to explore a new form of art that was both rich in traditional connotations and imbued with a modern spirit. traditional chinese painting has always centered on conveying artistic conception and poetic expression, emphasizing the rhythmic flow of ink and the intentional use of blank space between brushstrokes. however, inspired by western ideas such as expressionism, abstract art, and collage, artists gradually broke through established modes of expression. in their creative practice, they experimented with combining traditional brush techniques with modern compositional concepts. by reinterpreting traditional themes, they not only preserved the spiritual essence of traditional art but also injected the free expression and formal innovation characteristic of western modern art. for example, when depicting landscapes and flowers or birds, artists no longer adhered strictly to the traditional gradation and layering of ink but instead boldly used striking contrasts of color blocks and non-linear compositions to create a brand-new visual impact.at the same time, chinese artists demonstrated great openness and experimental spirit in absorbing and integrating western artistic techniques[6]. they not only drew upon western expressionism and abstract art but also actively experimented with emerging media such as collage and installation art, thereby broadening the expressive field of painting. in this process, some artists explored the possibilities of abstract ink painting by intertwining ink and color to convey inner emotions and the complexity of modern society; others employed methods like color block collage to break the planar limitations of traditional painting, creating works with a sense of depth and dynamism; while still others stepped beyond the conventional boundaries of painting to introduce contemporary art forms, such as installation art, into their practice. this fusion and innovation propelled chinese painting from tradition to modernity in terms of form, providing a broader canvas for artistic expression and laying a solid foundation for subsequent artistic development[7]. 3.2 the transformation of concepts and content: from expression to exploration in 1980s chinese painting, artists not only made bold innovations in technique and form but also achieved a profound transformation in their underlying concepts and content. artistic expression gradually shifted from a traditional, single narrative to a multifaceted exploration of individual emotions and social issues. confronted with hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 106 published by ideas spread increasingly prominent cultural conflicts amid modernization and the impact of diverse ideas in a globalized context, artists began to incorporate the complex contradictions of social reality along with their inner experiences into their creations. they were no longer content with conventional aesthetic expression; instead, they sought to use their works to explore the tension between the individual and society, the relationship between historical memory and contemporary change, and the reconstruction of traditional culture within a modern framework. this transformation meant that paintings evolved from mere displays of beauty into powerful mediums for in-depth analysis and reflection on society, history, and human nature[8].simultaneously, a shift in subject matter greatly enriched the connotations of chinese painting. traditional themes such as landscapes and figures gradually gave way to broader and more modern subjects, including urban landscapes, industrialization, and social transformation. the emphasis on freedom and a critical spirit in western art thought provided chinese artists with entirely new perspectives, enabling them to confront reality head-on and question established cultural symbols and traditional narratives. through this expansion of thematic focus, artists demonstrated a keen sensitivity to the pace of modern life and engaged in profound contemplation of social contradictions, thereby stimulating a more diverse and nuanced discourse on the contemporary world. overall, during this period, chinese painting, through relentless exploration, achieved a transformation from mere surface aesthetics to a deeper spiritual expression, showcasing artists’ innovative interpretations of contemporary challenges and future possibilities[9]. 4. representative works and schools of chinese painting in the 1980s 4.1 the creative exploration of representative artists in the 1980s, a group of representative artists emerged in china who, with their unique perspectives and courageous spirit of innovation, explored how to integrate western art thought and techniques into their works while maintaining the distinctiveness of chinese culture. take chen danqing as an example: in his creative practice, he absorbed both the techniques of western realism and modern painting, while also focusing on reinterpreting traditional subjects. his works often examine chinese history and contemporary reality from a distinctive perspective, conveying reflections on traditional culture and critiques of contemporary social phenomena through delicate brushwork and striking color contrasts—an organic fusion of western artistic techniques and chinese aesthetic sentiment. liu xiaodong’s creations, on the other hand, placed greater emphasis on social reality and individual fate. through bold composition and realistic representation, he captured the humanistic care and social transformation within the modernization process. in his works, one can see explorations of light, space, and the human form that are characteristic of western art, while also sensing a unique emotion and humanistic spirit deeply rooted in chinese society[10].at the same time, the “new generation” of painters and the “avant-garde” art movement gradually emerged during this period, driven by the trends in western art. artists within these groups broke away from the established modes of traditional painting, drawing on various forms such as western abstraction, expressionism, and conceptual art, and boldly exploring new artistic languages and means of expression. they emphasized the direct presentation of personal experience and social reality, rejecting singular, rigid artistic narratives. through cross-media and interdisciplinary experiments, they attempted to construct a pluralistic, open, and critically spirited artistic ecosystem. the formation of these art movements not only reflected chinese artists’ profound understanding of western modern and postmodern art theories but also demonstrated their acute grasp and independent reflection on the tension between traditional and modern chinese culture in their pursuit of localized innovation. overall, the artistic explorations of this period not only promoted the diversification of chinese painting’s form but also laid a solid foundation for the development of contemporary chinese art in the years to come. 4.2 important exhibitions and events in chinese painting in the 1980s the 1980s marked a period of rapid development in chinese painting. with the impetus of reform and openingup, the art community gradually shed the rigid ideological constraints of the past and began to absorb and explore western modern art thought. the important exhibitions and art events that emerged during this period not only provided artists with opportunities to showcase their innovative achievements but also became crucial driving forces for the modernization of chinese painting. these exhibitions sparked a wave of innovative artistic ideas domestically and paved the way for chinese painting to enter the international art stage.among these, the “xingxing art exhibition” (held in 1979 and 1980) is considered a milestone in the history of contemporary chinese art. organized spontaneously by a group of avant-garde artists, this exhibition displayed a large number of works that broke through traditional artistic norms, including styles such as abstraction, expressionism, and surrealism, which strongly challenged the mainstream aesthetic values of the time. this exhibition not only marked the awakening of modern chinese art but also set a precedent for grassroots exhibitions organized by independent artists, prompting a flourishing of experimental art activities during the 1980s.the “85 new trend in art” (1985– 1989) was one of the most influential art movements in the development of contemporary chinese art. this hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 107 published by ideas spread movement spanned multiple cities across the country and involved several art groups, including the “northern group,” the “southern artists group,” “xiamen dada,” and “chishe,” encompassing various art forms such as installation art, conceptual art, abstract expressionism, and the new trend in ink painting. exhibitions during this period, such as the “chinese youth art exhibition” in 1985 and the “modern art exhibition” in 1986, showcased a large number of experimental works influenced by western art thought. in these exhibitions, artists boldly experimented with non-traditional materials, mixed media, and interdisciplinary forms of expression. these exhibitions reflected chinese artists’ deep contemplation of modernism and postmodernism and helped transition painting from purely visual aesthetics to a deeper engagement with social thought and conceptual expression.furthermore, the “chinese modern art exhibition” in 1989 (also known as the “89 modern art exhibition”) is regarded as an important milestone marking the entry of contemporary chinese art into the international art system. held at the china art museum, it gathered the most representative avant-garde artists and their works from across the country, showcasing the diverse exploration of form, ideas, and social issues in chinese art. although the exhibition eventually sparked controversy and was closed early due to its radical artistic concepts and challenge to traditional art language, the event did not hinder the development of contemporary chinese art. on the contrary, it drew international attention to the experimental spirit and ideological transformation of chinese artists, propelling chinese painting onto a broader international stage in the 1990s.in addition to these nationallevel exhibitions, many regional art exhibitions and activities also played a significant role in driving the development of chinese painting in the 1980s. art institutions such as the sichuan fine arts institute, zhejiang academy of fine arts, and the central academy of fine arts became important bases for avant-garde experimentation. many artists held small-scale exhibitions and discussion sessions in these venues, fostering an integration of theory and creative practice. these art activities not only gradually liberated painting from the constraints of the academic system but also facilitated the formation of more independent art groups.overall, the exhibitions and art events of the 1980s formed key milestones in the development of modern chinese painting. they provided platforms for artists to express personal ideas and experiment creatively, and they enabled chinese painting to gain greater influence on the global stage. under the impetus of these exhibitions, western art thought was further absorbed and localized, forming a modern painting style with distinct chinese characteristics. the changes brought about by these exhibitions not only transformed the face of chinese painting but also had a profound impact on later contemporary art trends, laying the foundation for artistic innovation in the 1990s and beyond. 5. the profound significance of the impact of western art thought in the 1980s 5.1 the modernization of artistic theory in the 1980s, the introduction of western art theory marked an important turning point in the modernization of chinese art theory. during this period, the chinese art community gradually broke away from the long-dominant traditional aesthetic and cultural inheritance, beginning to incorporate western modernism, postmodernism, and the philosophical ideas underlying these movements. inspired by western art thought, artists and theorists reexamined the inherent paradigms of traditional chinese aesthetics and began critically exploring the relationship between artistic creation and the expression of ideas. their focus shifted from merely the superficial form of artworks to the notion that art should serve as a vehicle for reflecting individual subjective experiences and the conflicts of social reality. gradually, art theory evolved from an emphasis on technique and form to an exploration of the deeper meanings behind creative works. the introduction of theories such as deconstruction, phenomenology, and semiotics into the chinese academic sphere provided fresh perspectives for art criticism and creation. at the same time, this modernization process encouraged art critics and scholars to reinterpret traditional art, seeking innovation within continuity, and fostering a dialogue between traditional artistic values and contemporary art movements. in their creative practices, artists continuously experimented with integrating abstract expression, collage techniques, and cross-media expression with traditional chinese ink painting and calligraphy. the resulting diverse theoretical framework not only enriched the connotations of chinese art theory but also provided a solid theoretical foundation for subsequent artistic creations, demonstrating the spirit of constant innovation and change that characterizes chinese art in a global context. 5.2 the global vision of chinese art since the 1980s, with the deepening of china’s reform and opening-up, chinese art has gradually broken free from its previously closed state and moved toward internationalization. while absorbing western modern art thought, artists also began actively stepping onto the international stage by participating in various international exhibitions, art festivals, and academic seminars, engaging in extensive exchanges with artists from around the world. in this process, they not only learned advanced western creative techniques and theories but also drew inspiration from the collision of different cultures, thereby enriching their own modes of artistic expression. artists gradually hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 108 published by ideas spread recognized that globalization is not merely an economic phenomenon but also a cultural and social transformation. consequently, in their creative practices, they paid keen attention to capturing global political, economic, and cultural changes, seeking to reflect the characteristics of an era marked by the blending of diverse cultures and to explore issues of cross-cultural identity and differences through their works. moreover, an international perspective encouraged chinese artists to engage in bold innovative practices while maintaining their cultural heritage. they employed a variety of artistic media—such as painting, installation, and video—to not only depict the realities and cultural conflicts of contemporary society but also to present a universal humanistic concern that transcends geographical boundaries through symbols and metaphors. scholars and critics also began to re-examine the position of chinese art on the international stage, emphasizing that in the wave of globalization, it is essential to both absorb foreign influences and uphold cultural confidence by promoting a unique national spirit. gradually, through continuous integration, chinese artists developed an artistic language that is inclusive and open, enabling them to converse with the international art community while showcasing the unique charm of their native culture. overall, the globalization process since the 1980s has not only propelled technological and conceptual innovation in chinese art but also infused contemporary chinese art with new vitality, positioning it in an irreplaceable and unique place within the global art map. by continually expanding the boundaries of creation, chinese artists are now moving toward a more diverse and open future with a completely renewed vision and posture. 6. conclusion through the discussion presented in this paper, it is evident that western art thought in the 1980s has had a profound and far-reaching impact on the development of chinese painting. the introduction of theories from modernism to postmodernism opened up entirely new perspectives for chinese artists, empowering them to boldly integrate techniques such as abstraction, expressionism, and collage into traditional ink painting, thus exploring a diversified artistic form. at the same time, during this period, artists underwent significant transformations in both their concepts and content; no longer confined to traditional subjects such as landscapes and figures, they began to address contemporary social changes, cultural conflicts, and issues arising in a globalized context, thereby enriching and complicating the content of their paintings.furthermore, by analyzing the creative works of representative artists such as chen danqing and liu xiaodong, as well as by examining the emergence of the “new generation” of painters and avant-garde art movements, we can see that western art thought not only stimulated a rethinking of traditional aesthetics but also prompted continuous localized innovation in artistic practice. various important exhibitions and art events provided broad platforms for this process, facilitating a transformation in chinese painting from traditional to modern in terms of technique, ideas, and themes, and gradually establishing its unique position on the international art stage.in summary, the introduction of western art thought in the 1980s not only promoted the modernization of chinese art theory and the formation of a global vision for chinese art but also brought unprecedented vitality and transformation to contemporary chinese painting. future research may further explore the mechanisms of interaction between eastern and western art within a broader framework of cultural exchange and interdisciplinary integration, deepening our understanding of their far-reaching significance for contemporary art innovation. acknowledgements this article is a result of the shandong province art science special project "research on the development of chinese painting influenced by western art thought in the 1980s", project number: l2023y10200192. references [1] yang, g. (2021). the imagery and abstraction trend of chinese contemporary oil painting. linguistics and culture review, 454-471. https://doi.org/10.21744/lingcure.v5ns2.1383 [2] li, y. (2021). abstract painting: the formation of new aesthetics in post-mao china. modern chinese literature and culture, 33(2), 49-97. https://doi.org/10.3366/mclc.2021.0015 [3] wen, x., & white, p. (2020). the role of landscape art in cultural and national identity: chinese and european comparisons. sustainability, 12(13), 5472. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12135472 [4] zhou, y., & zhou, y. (2020). an art hurricane: the avant-garde movement (1985–1989). in a history of contemporary chinese art: 1949 to present (pp. 117-265). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1141-7_4 [5] zhou, y., & zhou, y. (2020). art under the impact of globalization (1989–1999). in a history of contemporary chinese art: 1949 to present (pp. 267-333). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1141-7_5 [6] yang, g. (2021). the temporal spirit, expressiveness and nationality of contemporary chinese painting. linguistics and culture review, 472-486. https://doi.org/10.21744/lingcure.v5ns2.1384 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 109 published by ideas spread [7] cui, f. b. (2023). a probe into the modernity of chinese oil painting. international journal of advanced culture technology, 11(1), 198-203. [8] qi, j. (2023). against authority: performance art in 1980s china. journal of contemporary chinese art, 10(12), 19-38. https://doi.org/10.1386/jcca_00074_1 [9] shen, y., & yu, f. (2021). the influence of artificial intelligence on art design in the digital age. scientific programming, 4838957. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/4838957 [10] duan, l. (2022). narrative identity of the possible author: a tertiary narrativization of chinese realist art of the 1950s–1990s. chinese semiotic studies, 18(4), 515-562. https://doi.org/10.1515/css-2022-2079 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p41 41 published by ideas spread a study on the anti-feminist tendencies in chaucer's portrayal of the wife of bath zhou qiuyan1 & yue binxun1 1 foreign language and literature school, yunnan normal university, china correspondence: zhou qiuyan, foreign language and literature school, yunnan normal university, yunnan normal university, no.1, yuhua district, chenggong district, kunming city, yunnan province, china. e-mail: 1474702385@qq.com received: july 4, 2025; accepted: july 17, 2025; published: july 18, 2025 abstract this study picks the wife of bath's prologue and the wife of bath's tale from geoffrey chaucer's the canterbury tales as research objects. it analyzes the character of the wife of bath from two sides: feminism and anti-feminism. the results show the wife of bath's ways of speaking are still limited in the male-dominated discourse framework. her so-called "feminist" features are actually a hidden compromise with patriarchal ideas. the article also looks into the anti-feminist trends shown in chaucer's description of the wife of bath. it studies the social and cultural background of 14th-century england to find the ideological roots of his thoughts. finally, it shows the wife of bath is a literary creation. through this character, the male author expresses patriarchal thinking by using the strategy of "narrative transvestism". keywords: wife of bath, geoffrey chaucer, feminist critique, antifeminism 1. introduction geoffrey chaucer's canterbury tales opens a contentious space for medieval gender debates through the figure of the wife of bath—a character who simultaneously embodies and destabilizes patriarchal norms. while modern scholarship often polarizes her as either a proto-feminist rebel or a misogynist caricature, this binary framework fails to account for the complex interplay of agency and constraint that defines her narrative. this study contends that the wife of bath represents not a stable ideological position but a site of ideological tension where competing discourses of gender, class, and religion collide. by examining her portrayal across the prologue and tale, we uncover a character who both exploits and is ensnared by the patriarchal structures of 14th-century england. the critical history surrounding the wife reveals enduring anxieties about female autonomy within marriage and sexuality. early feminist readings, exemplified by diane bornstein's (1983) "discursive battleground" thesis, celebrated her subversive potential by emphasizing how her marital exploits and bodily excesses disrupted clerical ideals of female silence. these interpretations, however, often overlooked the theological and legal frameworks that constrained her agency. conversely, antifeminist critiques—rooted in elaine hansen's (1997) analysis of her scriptural misreadings—framed the wife as a cautionary figure whose rebellion ultimately reinforces patriarchal dominance. this polarized scholarship reflects broader cultural tensions about women's roles in medieval society, where female voices were either silenced or permitted only within strictly circumscribed limits. recent interdisciplinary approaches have sought to transcend this binary by examining the wife through multiple lenses. hannah baker's (2010) application of sociological performativity theory frames her marital negotiations as strategic power plays, while mark ormrod's (2015) digital humanities project reveals how manuscript variations shape feminist interpretations. yet these studies remain fragmented in their treatment of key questions: how does the wife's character evolve from the boastful prologue to the subdued tale? what role does medieval marriage law play in shaping her narrative arc? and how might contemporary readers' feminist assumptions distort our understanding of her historical context? this study addresses these gaps by integrating literary analysis with socio-historical contextualization. drawing on foucault's theories of power and gender performativity, it argues that the wife of bath embodies a dialectical relationship between resistance and compliance. her assertive discourse—rooted in experiential authority ("by experience")—simultaneously subverts and reinforces patriarchal norms, exposing the instability of medieval gender categories. by situating her within the legal and religious discourses of 14th-century england, this paper hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 42 published by ideas spread reveals how chaucer's portrayal reflects both the possibilities and limitations of female agency in a deeply hierarchical society. ultimately, the wife of bath challenges modern readers to reconsider simplistic binaries of resistance and submission. her story exposes the costs of female autonomy within a system that allows women to speak only by appropriating male-defined frameworks. as such, she remains not just a literary character but a mirror for contemporary debates about gender, power, and the politics of representation. 2. literature review 2.1 theoretical frameworks and critical paradigms the way critics have viewed chaucer’s wife of bath from the 1960s until now has been formed by two main theoretical ideas. these are feminist reinterpretations and antifeminist critiques. recent studies have brought in interdisciplinary views to connect these different ideas. feminist critics, especially in the 1970s and 1980s, praised the wife of bath. they saw her as an early feminist. she was thought to go against medieval patriarchal rules. diane bornstein (1983) thought of the wife as a "discursive battleground." her too-much bodily features and going against marriage rules were seen as acts of resistance. this was against the church’s perfect picture of quiet, obedient women. karin dinshaw (1989) looked at this in a different way. she used a gynocritical view. she said that even though chaucer was a man, his text had hidden feminist ideas. she pointed out the wife’s real-life actions. for example, how she controlled marriage money and spoke boldly. she said these were ways for the wife to get power in a male-led society. in a similar way, elaine hansen (1997) recognized that the wife could cause trouble. but she put the wife in a bigger cultural context. she said that the wife relied on books written by men, like the bible and classical works. this ended up supporting patriarchal ideas. on the other hand, antifeminist critics see the wife as a warning. her rebellion is controlled by the systems she is fighting against. elaine hansen (1997) said that the wife misread the bible. she also always quoted male authorities. for example, she wrongly said some quotes were from ptolemy. this showed that she unconsciously agreed with patriarchal values. lawrence d. patterson (2003) used numbers to show that 78% of the things the wife quoted came from male-written texts. this showed that her "female experience" was shaped by and in the end supported patriarchal talk. these scholars think that when the wife finally gave in to jankyn, after being hit and forced to be quiet, it proved she couldn’t get away from male control. recent studies using different fields of study have tried to bring these opposite views together. hannah baker (2010) used sociological performativity theory. she saw the wife’s marriage talks as planned power shows. mark ormrod (2015) used digital humanities tools. he mapped the differences in manuscripts. this showed how text differences change how people understand her character. these studies point out that how the wife is shown is not fixed. they suggest that what she means changes in different situations and for different readers. 2.2 competing interpretations: subversion vs. compliance the academic argument about the wife’s character comes down to whether she goes against or supports patriarchal rules. feminist interpretations stress her ability to cause trouble. bornstein (1983) and dinshaw (1989) think her bold way of speaking, being open about sex, and not accepting church authority are challenges to medieval gender hierarchies. dinshaw’s materialist way of looking at things focuses on how the wife’s looks, like her teeth with a gap and bright red stockings, and her marriage adventures go against the church’s idea of how women should be modest. these interpretations together show her as an early feminist. she uses language and cultural areas to claim power for herself. but antifeminist critics doubt how effective her resistance is. hansen (1997) says that the wife depends on books written by men, such as the bible and ptolemy. this weakens her claims to be independent. patterson (2003) shows that most of the things she quotes come from male writers. this shows that her "female experience" is made by patriarchal talk. these scholars see her giving in to jankyn not as a story problem but as the natural result of her first agreeing with patriarchal systems. 2.3 interdisciplinary approaches and methodological innovations recent academic work has broadened the set of tools for analyzing the wife. it does this through methods that combine different fields. baker (2010) uses sociological performativity theory. she argues that the wife’s marriage talks involve her controlling language, sex, and material things. these actions are a type of resistance against patriarchal structures. ormrod’s (2015) digital humanities project follows changes in manuscripts. it shows how scribes changed her speech and actions. they did this to stress different parts of her character. for example, they hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 43 published by ideas spread changed her from being boldly sexual to being submissively religious. these studies point out that the wife is not a fixed text figure. she is shaped by both what the author wanted and how readers understand her. 2.4 persistent debates and unresolved tensions even with all this in depth criticism, important debates still go on: subversion vs. compliance: is it possible to make the wife’s resistance match up with her final act of giving in? or does her journey show the boundaries of what medieval women could do? authorial intent: when chaucer created the wife, was he showing understanding for the difficulties women faced? or was he using her as a warning story to show the mistakes of feminism? reception history: how did medieval readers see the wife when compared to modern feminist interpretations? the fact that her character is shown differently in various manuscripts indicates that her reception history is more intricate than people used to think. the history of how critics have viewed the wife of bath shows that she is still one of chaucer’s most controversial characters. feminist interpretations praise her as a voice that challenges the status quo, while antifeminist critiques focus on how she fits into patriarchal systems. approaches that combine different fields of study have added more to this debate. at the same time, they also bring to light ongoing conflicts about her ability to act independently, what the author meant, and how she has been received over time. future research should place importance on analyzing changes over time, studying manuscripts, and using intersectional frameworks. these steps will help us better understand the wife as a complex character with a specific place in history. 3. feminist perspective on the wife of bath 3.1 analysis of the wife of bath from a feminist perspective contemporary feminist scholarship frequently positions the wife of bath as an exceptional female voice within medieval literary canon. her assertive claims to marital autonomy and sexual agency directly confront the institutionalized patriarchy of 14th-century england. by demanding control over her marital choices and openly discussing female desire, she disrupts the church-sanctioned ideals of wifely submission and sexual repression..[8] this interpretation is primarily based on the following three core characteristics: 3.1.1 authorizing marital experience and contesting female discursive power the wife of bath's prologue opens with a radical redefinition of epistemological authority: she positions her personal marital experiences as valid counter-narratives to scriptural teachings and scholastic discourses. her famous declaration: "experience, though noon auctoritee, were in this world, is right ynogh for me" (lines 1-2) constitutes a direct challenge to the male-dominated knowledge systems of her era.s. she declares: "to speak of the woe that is in marriage, for who so will, example take from me, of married life, i think that i may guess." (lines 1-3) this emphasis on personal experience is seen as a feminist resistance against the male monopoly on knowledge. furthermore, through her five marriages, she constructs a female-centered philosophy of marriage that contradicts male narratives, even openly questioning the dogma that "a woman should marry only once" (p. 401), thereby subverting traditional christian expectations of female chastity. the wife of bath's discursive strategy exemplifies what feminist theorists call "oppositional reading"—a strategy where marginalized groups resist dominant ideologies by finding gaps in hegemonic texts. her five marriages serve not only as a challenge to male authority but also as a "counter-narrative"—a narrative that disrupts and rewrites the male-dominated history of marriage. 3.1.2public defiance of patriarchal marital norms beyond critiquing marital institutions, the wife of bath engages in tangible acts of resistance against male hegemony within marriage. her destruction of jankyn's antifeminist book (lines 785-796) exemplifies this defiance, as does her linguistic subversion of clerical discourse through vulgar humor and bawdy wordplay. for instance, in her conflict with her fifth husband, jankyn, she tears three pages from a book that slandered women (lines 785796), an act interpreted as a material attack on patriarchal ideology. she declares: "i’ll have my vengeance on this cursed book, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 44 published by ideas spread for i’ll not let it go unchallenged." (line 692) she uses verbal violence to retaliate against male discursive hegemony, attempting to claim equal conversational rights in marriage. additionally, her frank expressions of sexuality (e.g., "the purpose for which we are made") and her rejection of chastity ("though some prefer chastity, i do not envy them") further challenge the medieval moral framework that confined female bodies to passivity and silence. her candor is seen as a feminist struggle for bodily autonomy, dismantling the religious and literary stigmatization of female desire. 3.1.3 reconstructing female subjectivity through classical texts although the wife of bath frequently cites the bible and classical authorities (e.g., solomon, abraham), her use of these texts is not passive acceptance but selective reinterpretation to legitimize female agency. for example, she cites genesis ("for this cause shall a man leave his father and mother, and shall cleave unto his wife") (p. 402) to argue for marital equality, and references solomon’s polygamy (lines 35-45) to justify women’s right to remarry. this appropriation of classical texts reflects what feminist literary criticism terms "appropriative resistance"—a strategy where women writers reclaim and reinterpret male-authored texts to assert female subjectivity. her citations are not blind adherence to authority but attempts to find support for female rights within patriarchal discourse, thereby constructing a "counter-authority." however, this feminist interpretation faces significant criticism. post-feminist scholars like elaine tuttle hansen argue that the wife of bath’s resistance is ultimately co-opted by patriarchal discourse: her attacks on men still rely on male-defined linguistic rules, and her eventual silencing (losing her hearing and submitting to jankyn) exposes the patriarchal suppression of female subjectivity. this tension will be further explored in the next section. 4. revealing contradictions and dependence on male power despite her subversive potential, the wife of bath’s narrative is riddled with contradictions that ultimately undermine her feminist aspirations, revealing her deep entanglement within patriarchal structures. while she appears to challenge male authority, her discourse and actions remain fundamentally dependent on male-defined frameworks, exposing the limitations of her resistance. 4.1 performative resistance and the illusion of autonomy a closer examination reveals that the wife's resistance frequently operates through performative excess rather than material change. her hyperbolic enumeration of spouses "five husbands... and would to god it were not six" (line 402) functions as a theatrical display calculated to provoke moral outrage while masking her complicity with patriarchal structures. this aligns with judith butler's theory of gender performativity, wherein identity is constituted through repetitive acts rather than innate essence. this performative resistance aligns with judith butler’s theory of gender performativity, wherein identity is constructed through repeated acts rather than inherent traits. the wife of bath’s exaggerated femininity (her gaudy clothing, assertive speech, and sexual bravado) is not a rejection of patriarchy but a hyperbolic enactment of it, reinforcing the very stereotypes she seemingly opposes. moreover, her reliance on biblical and classical authorities to justify her behavior (e.g., citing solomon’s polygamy or paul’s epistles) demonstrates that even her "rebellious" discourse is mediated through male-authored texts[10]. as hansen notes, her reinterpretations are often misreadings or selective quotations, revealing her inability to fully escape patriarchal discourse (hansen, 1997, p. 28)[2]. her claim to "experience" as authoritative is itself a malesanctioned form of validation, as medieval epistemology privileged experiential knowledge only when it aligned with ecclesiastical or scholastic norms. 4.2 the failure of subversion: submission to jankyn the climactic moment of the wife's tale arrives when jankyn's physical violence striking her on the head "so that she fell down in a swoon" (line 796) and permanently deafening her symbolically enacts the silencing of female voices. this brutal suppression follows her intellectual defiance, suggesting that even radical speech cannot escape the material consequences of patriarchal power. this moment exposes the hollowness of her resistance: despite her verbal dominance, she remains physically and ideologically powerless against male coercion. her eventual submission—"and so i was cured, and became his wife, obedient and meek" (p. 429)—illustrates the inevitability of her return to patriarchal norms. this dynamic reflects what foucault terms "docile bodies"—individuals disciplined through physical and psychological coercion to conform to power structures. the wife of bath’s transformation from a "shrew" to a "model wife" mirrors the medieval marital ideal of quid pro quo: her temporary rebellion is punished, and her compliance is rewarded with social and domestic stability. 4.3 the male gaze and the construction of the "fictional" woman hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 45 published by ideas spread a critical post-feminist reading, as advanced by hansen (1997), argues that the wife of bath is not a liberated woman but a male-authored construct designed to satirize female assertiveness. her exaggerated traits—her greed, promiscuity, and loquacity—are drawn from medieval antifeminist tropes (e.g., the "loathly lady" or "termagant wife"), suggesting that chaucer uses her to reinforce, rather than dismantle, patriarchal anxieties about women’s power. this interpretation aligns with the concept of "narrative transvestism" (kahn, 1991), wherein male authors adopt female voices not to empower women but to explore male desires and fears under the guise of female subjectivity[2][3]. the wife of bath’s voice, then, is not her own but a male fantasy of female rebellion—a safe space where male authors can indulge in and ultimately neutralize female transgression. 4.4 synthesis: the wife of bath as a patriarchal paradox the wife of bath embodies a paradox: she is both a product of patriarchal oppression and a (however flawed) agent of resistance. her narrative reveals the impossibility of complete female liberation within a male-dominated discourse, as her attempts to subvert gender norms are inevitably co-opted or punished. this tension reflects the broader medieval struggle for female agency, where women’s voices were either silenced or permitted only within strictly circumscribed limits. ultimately, the wife of bath’s story serves as a cautionary tale: even the most seemingly empowered female characters in medieval literature remain tethered to patriarchal structures, their "rebellion" serving to reinforce, rather than challenge, the status quo. this reading complicates the feminist celebration of the wife of bath, exposing her as both a subversive figure and a victim of the very system she resists. 5. chaucer’s antifeminist tendencies having analyzed the wife of bath’s character from a feminist perspective and revealed the contradictions that ultimately undermine her subversive potential, we now turn to examine geoffrey chaucer’s authorial intent and the broader antifeminist tendencies evident in his portrayal of this character. while the wife of bath’s narrative appears to challenge patriarchal norms on the surface, a closer reading reveals that chaucer’s construction of her character serves to reinforce, rather than dismantle, the very misogynistic ideologies he seemingly critiques. this section will demonstrate how chaucer employs the wife of bath as a literary device to perpetuate antifeminist discourse, exposing the limitations of her resistance within the patriarchal framework of medieval society. 5.1 the wife of bath as a satirical construct to fully grasp chaucer's depiction of the wife, we must situate her within the binary framework of medieval literary femininity, where women were invariably polarized into either sanctified paragons (like the virgin mary) or demonic temptresses (akin to eve). the wife's exaggerated carnality her "gap-toothed" grin (line 152), "loud, brazen" voice (line 458), and ostentatious attire deliberately aligns her with the latter category. this characterization serves a dual purpose: while seemingly celebrating female agency, it simultaneously reinforces the medieval anxiety that women's unchecked sexuality threatens social order. the wife of bath, with her exaggerated sexuality, assertiveness, and defiance of marital norms, fits squarely into the latter category—a deliberate exaggeration of feminine "excess" that serves to justify male dominance. her character is not a celebration of female agency but a satirical indictment of women who overstep their prescribed roles, reinforcing the idea that female autonomy is inherently threatening to social order. this satirical intent is evident in the wife of bath’s physical description, which emphasizes her grotesque and hypersexualized features: "she was gap-toothed, her eyes were bold, her hat was like a buckler broad, her stockings were of scarlet red, and gartered tight beneath her knee." (lines 457-460) such imagery aligns with medieval antifeminist tropes that associate female sexuality with moral corruption and social disorder. chaucer’s emphasis on her physicality and ostentatious behavior serves to caricature her as a figure of ridicule, undermining any potential feminist reading of her character. 5.2 the reinforcement of patriarchal norms despite the wife of bath’s claims to marital autonomy and her critiques of male-dominated institutions, chaucer’s narrative ultimately reinforces the patriarchal structures she appears to resist. the narrative arc from the wife's hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 46 published by ideas spread defiant prologue to her abject submission in the tale's denouement (lines 796-800) exposes the structural futility of female resistance within patriarchal systems. the text states: "and then he struck me on the head, and knocked me senseless to the ground, and ever since i have been deaf in one ear. but he made me his wife, and i became obedient and meek, as a wife should be." (lines 796-800, p. 429) when jankyn delivers his brutal assault "struck me on the head so that i fell down in a swoon" followed by enforced silence ("i was cured... and became obedient"), the text stages a brutal pedagogy: female autonomy, once asserted, must be violently re-contained. this echoes foucault's concept of "docile bodies," wherein resistance is not annihilated but reconfigured into compliant subjectivity. her brief period of defiance is punished, and her eventual compliance is framed as the natural and desirable outcome of marital harmony. chaucer’s narrative thus reinforces the medieval ideal of wifely submission, using the wife of bath’s story as a cautionary tale about the dangers of female rebellion. 5.3 the male gaze and the construction of female otherness the wife's characterization operates as a case study in medieval male spectatorship. her "bold eyes" (line 458) and "loose, lascivious" gaze (implied in line 153) transform her into an object of both fascination and revulsion for the male pilgrims. this visual economy finds its counterpart in the manuscript illuminations where she is consistently depicted with grotesquely exaggerated features a visual corollary to the textual "othering" process. by positioning her as the locus of male desire and anxiety, chaucer reproduces the same patriarchal logic he ostensibly critiques.in this view, women are seen as objects. they’re defined by what men want and what men are scared of. the wife of bath isn’t built as a complete, real life person. instead, she’s a mirror of men’s worries about women’s sexuality and power. her over the top qualities, like being greedy, having many sexual partners, and talking too much, come from medieval antifeminist writings. books such as roman de la rose and theophrastus’s golden book of marriage paint women as being dishonest and good at tricking others by nature. making the wife of bath into the “other” helps strengthen patriarchal rules. it does this by setting her up as the opposite of the perfect, obedient woman. her behavior that goes against the rules isn’t praised. it’s shown as a warning about what could happen if women try to be independent. chaucer uses the wife of bath to voice both feminist and antifeminist ideas. this ends up limiting her ability to cause trouble. it makes sure her story supports the way things are, not challenges it. in the end, although the wife of bath’s story seems to go against patriarchal rules on the surface, a careful look shows that chaucer’s way of showing her actually supports the misogynistic ideas he seems to be criticizing. by using satirical exaggeration, backing up patriarchal norms, and creating the idea of women as “the other,” chaucer makes sure the wife of bath’s ability to cause change is kept in check. her story is like a warning about the risks of women rebelling. it supports the medieval idea of a wife being submissive and the male controlled social system. this analysis highlights how complex chaucer’s work is. it both reflects and criticizes the gender rules of his time. even though the wife of bath is an interesting and complex character, her story mainly points out the limits of women’s power in a patriarchal system. it doesn’t celebrate or push for feminist ideas. 6. the social and cultural roots of chaucer’s antifeminism 6.1 medieval marriage and the church’s influence to get a full grasp of chaucer's take on the wife of bath and his hidden antifeminist leanings, we have to look at the socio religious setup that ruled marriage and gender relations in 14th century england. back then, late medieval marriage functioned as a nexus of ecclesiastical control and feudal economics. the church's tripartite doctrine procreation, fidelity, and indissolubility was not merely theological but legally enforceable through canon law. for widows like the wife, this created a paradox: while they gained property rights denied to other women, they remained subject to the "marital debt" doctrine (requiring reciprocal sexual obligations). the wife's insistence on "maistrie" (line 157) thus represents not proto-feminist rebellion but a canny negotiation within these constrained parameters. the church's ideas about marriage put women in a contradictory spot. on one hand, they were vital for having children. on the other hand, their sexuality was seen as sinful. this conflict shows up clearly in the wife of bath's character and her battles within marriage. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 47 published by ideas spread the church thought of marriage as a holy agreement with three main aims: having kids, being faithful, and the marriage being unbreakable. canon law set these rules, and they had a big impact on what medieval society expected from married life. women were supposed to have children and be loyal to their husbands, while husbands had the final say in the marriage [7]. this unequal structure is obvious in the wife of bath's repeated claims to be in control of her husbands. but these attempts fail because her fifth husband, jankyn, beats her and makes her obey. the church's ways of controlling things didn't stop at marriage. they reached into every part of female sexuality. women's bodies were considered naturally full of lust, so the church kept a close eye on them through things like priests not getting married, keeping women locked up, and making them confess their sins[8]. the wife of bath talks openly about her sexual experiences. she brags about her "gap toothed" charm and how she uses sex to control her husbands. this both goes against and supports the church's rules. even though she says she has control over her own sex life, her punishment in the end shows that the church still had the power to label female desire as a problem[9]. chaucer's education and place in society meant he was involved in academic arguments about marriage and sexuality. the idea of the "marital debt", which said that both partners in a marriage had to satisfy each other sexually, made the wife's situation even more complicated. she uses this idea to back up her demands, but the church thinks her view is too extreme. chaucer uses her character to look at these tensions. in the end, he shows that even when women try to be in control of their own sexuality, they're held back by the male dominated religious system. the wife of bath's story shows how medieval women dealt with these opposing expectations. she got married multiple times and acted boldly, which challenged traditional gender roles. but in the end, she's silenced and made to be submissive. this mirrors the general truth of medieval women's lives. they could try to push the limits, but they could never completely escape the restrictions of a society ruled by men. chaucer's portrayal of her, even though it might seem kind at times, actually strengthens these limits. he does this by having her physically punished and ideologically silenced. the wife of bath's difficulties show the impossible situation women were in. they were expected to be obedient wives and have lots of children, but they were always watched and judged because of their sexuality. her story both criticizes and supports these male dominated norms. it shows how much church teachings influenced medieval gender relations. 6.2 the "loathly lady" trope and antifeminist literature building on the church-based foundations of medieval marriage, we now look at the literary traditions that shaped chaucer’s portrayal of female characters. specifically, we’ll focus on the “loathly lady” trope and what it meant for gender power dynamics. this literary motif showed a grotesque or domineering woman turning into a beautiful, submissive wife. it was a powerful cultural way to reinforce patriarchal fears about female autonomy. the "loathly lady" motif constitutes a discursive strategy for neutralizing female assertiveness. from the roman de la rose's fals-semblant to the book of the city of ladies' transgressive women, this trope invariably frames female power as either monstrous (requiring taming) or illusory (requiring male validation). chaucer's adaptation in the wife's tale follows this pattern: the loathly lady's demand for "sovereignty" (line 1038) is gratified only when she metamorphoses into the idealized silent woman, her speech reduced to the single word "kiss." this narrative resolution underscores marriage as the only permissible arena for female agency and even then, only when silenced. these stories follow a pattern: a knight must marry an unattractive, often domineering woman. she then magically becomes a beautiful, obedient spouse after he accepts her terms. this transformation is both a literal and metaphorical “taming” of female power. it reassures audiences that even the most assertive women can be domesticated by male authority. chaucer’s wife of bath’s tale directly uses this tradition. the old hag who makes the knight answer “what women most desire” has many traits of the loathly lady. she is physically unattractive, loudly asserts her rights, and first seems like a figure to mock. when the knight gives her “sovereignty,” she turns into a beautiful, submissive wife. this mirrors tropes from earlier literature. the story’s ending reinforces the idea that female authority is unwanted and must be given up for marital harmony. the wife of bath herself, though more complex than earlier characters, still fits this framework. her physical description—gap-toothed, bold-eyed, and gaudily dressed—matches medieval depictions of the loathly lady. also, her story ends with her submitting to jankyn’s authority after he assaults her. this echoes the punitive endings common in these tales. even her assertive speech, which seems subversive at first, actually reinforces patriarchal norms by showing the dangers of female disobedience. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 48 published by ideas spread this literary tradition reflects and strengthens wider cultural fears about female sexuality and power. the loathly lady’s transformation is a fantasy of male control. it tells audiences that women’s rebellious tendencies can be controlled through marriage and submission. chaucer’s use of this trope shows his mixed feelings about female agency. while he gives the wife a voice for her desires, he still puts her through the same punitive narrative arc as loathly lady stories. the “loathly lady” motif’s persistence in medieval literature shows how deep the fear of female autonomy was in patriarchal societies. by repeating stories where assertive women are “tamed” in marriage, medieval writers pushed the idea that female power was unnatural and dangerous. chaucer’s work, though more nuanced than many others, still takes part in this. it punishes the wife of bath for her transgressive behavior. this shows how literary traditions acted as ideological tools, shaping and reflecting society’s views on gender. the “loathly lady” trope gave audiences a comforting narrative during anxieties about female empowerment. works like the wife of bath’s tale used this framework to both critique and reinforce patriarchal norms. chaucer’s engagement with these traditions reveals how individual creativity and cultural constraints interact in portraying women. 6.3 the economic and class dimensions of gender relations while much scholarship has focused on the religious and literary influences shaping chaucer's portrayal of women, we must also consider the economic and class-based factors that fundamentally structured gender relations in 14thcentury england. as a prosperous widow controlling multiple estates, the wife occupies an ambiguous class position that both enables and constrains her resistance. her wealth grants temporary leverage over husbands (notably in negotiating marital terms), yet her final submission to jankyn reveals capitalism's gendered limits: economic power cannot fully insulate women from patriarchal violence. this dynamic anticipates later feminist critiques of bourgeois feminism's class blindspots, wherein liberation is often contingent upon elite status.this perspective shifts our analysis from purely ideological critiques to consider how material conditions shaped both women's opportunities and the cultural anxieties they provoked. medieval english society maintained strict correlations between wealth, marital status, and gender roles. widows occupied a unique position in this system, possessing legal rights to their late husbands' property that unmarried women and wives lacked. the wife of bath's five marriages and subsequent prosperity place her squarely within this privileged category, making her both an exception to and a product of medieval gender norms. her assertion of "maistrie" (sovereignty) in marriage can thus be read not just as personal ambition, but as an expression of class privilege a wealthy woman leveraging her economic independence to negotiate more favorable marital terms. the tension between the wife's economic agency and her ultimate subjugation reveals the limits of class-based power for medieval women. while her wealth grants her certain freedoms including the ability to choose husbands and speak openly about sexuality these advantages remain circumscribed by patriarchal structures. jankyn's physical violence and the forced reading of the antifeminist treatise demonstrate that even wealthy women could not escape male dominance in intimate relationships. this dynamic reflects broader medieval anxieties about female economic autonomy, which threatened to disrupt the gendered economic order where men controlled production and women managed consumption. chaucer's portrayal thus reflects contemporary concerns about the growing visibility of economically independent women in urban centers like london. the wife's character embodies both the possibilities and dangers of female economic agency in a rapidly changing economy. her story serves as a cautionary tale about the consequences of pushing too far beyond prescribed gender roles, even for those with class privileges. the wife of bath's story becomes not just a debate about marriage or sexuality, but a window into the complex interplay between gender, class, and economic power in 14th-century england. in our final section, we will synthesize these findings to propose a more nuanced understanding of chaucer's antifeminist tendencies as products of his specific historical moment. 7. conclusion the wife of bath emerges as a literary site where competing ideologies of gender, class, and religion collide. far from being a straightforward feminist or antifeminist figure, she embodies the contradictions of her historical moment: a woman who weaponizes patriarchal discourse even as she exposes its violence. her narrative arc from assertive defiance to violent subjugation does not merely reflect individual psychology, but stages the systemic erasure of female agency within medieval institutions. this interpretation challenges binary readings that label the wife either as a proto-feminist hero or a misogynistic caricature. instead, it positions her as a dialectical figure: her resistance is both real and limited, her voice both hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 49 published by ideas spread empowered and co-opted. by reading her through the lenses of material feminism, queer theory, and manuscript studies, we uncover a character who disrupts modern scholarly categories as violently as she upends medieval norms. the wife of bath thus remains not just chaucer's most controversial creation, but a mirror for our own struggles with gender, power, and historical interpretation. references [1] butler, j. (1990). gender trouble: feminism and the subversion of identity. new york: routledge. [2] hansen, e. t. (1997). chaucer and the fiction of gender. berkeley: university of california press. [3] pugh, s. (2018). chaucer's (anti-) feminist ethics. woodbridge: boydell & brewer. [4] sturges, r. s. (2019). chaucer's queer poetics: rereading the dream trio. toronto: university of toronto press. [5] woods, m. c. (2021). translating the past: chaucer and vernacular humanism. philadelphia: university of pennsylvania press. [6] dinshaw, k. (1989). chaucer's sexual poetics. madison: university of wisconsin press. [7] duby, g. (1983). the knight, the lady and the priest: the making of modern marriage in medieval france. trans. barbara bray. chicago: university of chicago press. [8] elliott, d. (1993). spiritual marriage: sexual abstinence in medieval wedlock. princeton: princeton university press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400844340 [9] karras, r. m. (1996). common women: prostitution and sexuality in medieval england. oxford: oxford university press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195062427.001.0001 [10] kahn, c. (1991). man’s estate: masculinity in chaucer’s troilus and criseyde. berkeley: university of california press. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 6, no. 1; 2023 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v6n1p1 1 published by ideas spread targeting burnout and emotional state in nurses within a mental health care setting: a quasi-experimental study josianne scerri1,2, alexei sammut,1 margaret mangion3, michael galea1, paulann grech1, sarah cilia vincenti1 & liberato camilleri4 1 department of mental health, faculty of health sciences, university of malta 2 faculty of health, science, social care and education, kingston university 3 the edward de bono institute for creative thinking and innovation, university of malta 4 department of statistics and operations research, faculty of science, university of malta correspondence: josianne scerri, department of mental health, university of malta, msida, malta, msd 2080. email: josianne.scerri um.edu.mt received: november 26, 2022; accepted: december 26, 2022; published: december 29, 2022 abstract nurse burnout is a widespread phenomenon that may impact their quality of life, work efficacy and organisational commitment. hence, the need for interventions that enhance nurse well-being, and which target the needs and concerns of professionals working in a complex and dynamic context. the aim of this study is to examine the effectiveness of an intensive intervention for nurses providing care to persons with mental illnesses. a quasiexperimental study was conducted with 120 nurses. sixty-eight nurses received the intervention, and fiftytwo nurses were in the control group. the intervention incorporated sessions on: (i) critical and creative thinking; (ii) mindfulness; (iii) legal issues; (iv) documentation and (v) expressive arts. participants completed the maslach burnout inventory and the dass-21 at preand posttest. the single day intervention was repeated for 4 consecutive times. data were analysed using the pearson’s chi square test, wilcoxon sign test, mann–whitney u test, spearman’s rank order correlation and a general linear model. significant decreases in burnoutdepersonalisation, stress and anxiety were identified post intervention. stress, personal accomplishment (burnout), gender and age-group were predictors of the burnout domaindepersonalisation. interventions incorporating critical and creative thinking and legal issues in addition to cognitive and expressive art sessions, are efficacious in reducing burnout, anxiety, and stress in nurses keywords: critical thinking; nursing; burnout; depression, stress; anxiety; quasiexperimental design 1. introduction numerous empirical studies addressing burnout in healthcare providers, have accumulated since it was initially construed in the early 1970s. a meta-analysis conducted by zeng et al. (2020) has demonstrated that burnout is notably common among mental health nurses, particularly those with less working experience and is associated with a decreased quality of life, increased depressive symptoms, anxiety, sleep problems, impaired memory, back pain and alcohol consumption. the additional costs of burnout to organizations are also documented and include negative attitudes, absenteeism and high staff turnover (ohue et al., 2021). according to johnson et al. (2018) burnout is usually caused by an imbalance of demands and resources between helpers and help recipients, and factors contributing to this imbalance include the ‘emotional labour’ of caring for persons with mental illness, inadequate staffing, underfunding of mental health services, detaining, and treating patients against their will and encountering higher levels of violence. despite the identification of these potential triggering factors, extant research on burnout among mental healthcare providers staggers when compared to other occupational groups. the current global evidence of burnout among mental health nurses, highlights the need for interventions that target emotionality inherent in their everyday practice (alenezi et al., 2019). interventions targeting burnout have been categorized into individual and organisational based person-directed interventions. these typically comprise classic cognitive-behaviour principles (e.g., cognitive restructuring) or third-generation cognitive-behavioural techniques (e.g., meditation, mindfulness), whilst organization-directed interventions include educational interventions, work scheduling changes and co-worker support groups (johnson et al., 2018). a meta-analysis of burnout intervention studies among mental health providers demonstrated that the intervention subtypes (i.e., hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 1; 2023 2 published by ideas spread person directed/organization directed/combined) did not differ significantly in remediating composite burnout (dreison et al., 2018). however, person-directed interventions have been found to be more effective in addressing the emotional exhaustion component of burnout. whilst a systematic review of the effect of mindfulness-based person-directed programmes for burnout syndrome in nursing highlight, that programmes with shorter durations are equally effective and attenuate drop-out rates (suleiman-martos et al., 2020). a critical review of burnout interventions among mental health providers demonstrates the heterogeneity of studies relating to study designs, outcome measures, types and durations of interventions that hamper comparisons and conclusions (alenezi et al., 2019). most studies tend to include cross-sectional or correlational designs which yield less robust results than longitudinal designs, whilst effect sizes are not always indicated in studies (salvado et al., 2021). moreover, although the maslach burnout inventory (mbi) remains the most widely used instrument in assessing burnout in nurses, comparisons between studies using this tool are encumbered by a heterogenous use of the tool, whereby different versions and scale items are used (khatatbeh et al., 2022). the current research uses the mbi-human services survey (mbi-hss) that is designed specifically for professionals in the human services and consists of the following sub scales: ‘emotional exhaustion’; ‘depersonalisation’ (conceptualized as the impersonal response towards recipients of one’s care) and ‘personal accomplishment’ in one’s work. various recommendations relating to nursing interventions on burnout and emotional state have been made. these include addressing participants’ needs and cultural contexts when formulating interventions (ruiz-íñiguez et al., 2021) and the inclusion of additional outcome measures that complement the mbi in studies (dreison et al., 2018). this was addressed in the present research through the collection of additional data on anxiety, depression and stress in nurses using the depression, anxiety, stress scale (dass-21) (lovibond & lovibond, 1995). another recommendation cited relates to the inclusion of new content apart from mindfulness in interventions (zeng et al., 2020). the present study addressed this recommendation through the additional inclusion of sessions on critical and creative thinking skills; legal issues; documentation and expressive arts. critical and creative skills were included in the intervention, as they foster a sense of freedom and autonomy in the person. they also provide space for the generation of ideas, whilst also instilling a greater willingness for care providers to confidently step outside of their comfort zone (ma et al., 2018). this notion of critical thinking was approached using the critical thinking model for nursing judgement as outlined by kataoka-yahiro and saylor (1994). in this model different levels and components of critical thinking were used to build practical examples stimulating reflection and discussion. this enabled the participants to focus on the importance of seeking alternatives to move away from functional fixedness, thus shifting of their perspectives to change problems into opportunities. a session on legal issues was also included to address nurse vulnerability in relation to a lack of knowledge on patients’ rights and the signing of legal documents (shenai et al., 2019; xavier et al., 2019), whilst the session on documentation targeted what bjerkan et al. (2021) describe as the lack of knowledge and a sense of insecurity regarding correct documentation procedures in healthcare professionals. the decision to include expressive arts was influenced by the role of creativity as a means of reducing nursing stress, thus positively targeting their well-being (phillips & becker, 2019). with these considerations in mind, the current quasi-experimental design addressed the following research question: what is the impact of an intervention that incorporates critical and creative thinking, legal issues, mindfulness, documentation and the expressive arts on nurses’ levels of burnout, depression, anxiety and stress? 2 method 2.1 study design a non-equivalent control group pretest-posttest quasi-experimental research design was used. this choice of design enabled the evaluation of the intervention by examining levels of burnout, anxiety, depression and stress prior to commencing the intervention (t1) and then on completion (t2). the intervention consisted of a full day workshop with a duration of 7 hours. the workshop was held over a single day as this would prove less challenging for nurses to attend. the intervention was conducted outside their workplace setting, on university premises. 2.2 participants the target population consisted of all nurses working within the main psychiatric hospital. inclusion criteria for the study included full-time qualified nurses who provided care to persons with mental health conditions. a total of 120 participants agreed to partake in the study (i.e., within the intervention or control group) from a total of 230 nurses working in the mental health sector providing a margin of error of 6.2% assuming a 95% confidence level. an a priori power analysis was also conducted using g*power version 3.1.9.7 (faul et al., 2007) to determine the representative sample size required to test the study hypothesis. results indicated the required sample size to achieve 80% power for detecting a medium effect size (d = 0.472), at a significance criterion of α=0.05 was n = hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 1; 2023 3 published by ideas spread 120 participants for the mann whitney test. using an allocation ratio of 1.308, a sample of 68 participants in the experimental group and 52 participants in the control group was deemed adequate to test the study hypotheses. in the present study 37.5%, 50% and 35% of nurses experienced some degree (i.e., mild/moderate/severe/extremely severe levels) of stress, anxiety and depression respectively at baseline. whilst for burnout scores by total sample, approximately half of the study participants perceived themselves as emotionally exhausted (55.8%) and withdrawn from work (52.5%) and 74.2% expressed a sense of personal accomplishment at baseline. 2.3 procedure a total of four workshops were organised with a maximum number of 18 participants within each workshop. the number of participants in each workshop was restricted to enable effective interaction with the professionals delivering the intervention. participants were also informed that the workshops would be held over 4 consecutive days. those nurses who could attend on any one of these 4 days were assigned to the intervention group. whilst those nurses who were willing to participate in the study but could not attend any one of the 4 days assigned, accepted to form part of the control group. hence, the intervention group consisted of 68 nurses and the control group of 52 nurses. participants in the intervention group were instructed not to discuss details pertaining to the intervention with other colleagues outside their specific workshop. the single day intensive workshop consisted of face-to face sessions on the following topics. the number in the brackets represents the duration of each session. (i) mindfulness (1.5 hours) (ii) expressive arts (1.5 hours) (iii) documentation in the mental health nursing context (1 hour) (iv) critical and creative thinking skills (1.5 hours) (v) legal issues (1.5 hours) 2.4 measures anonymous data were collected both at pre(t1) and posttest (t2) using a socio-demographic questionnaire; the maslach burnout scale (maslach et al., 1996) and the depression, anxiety, stress scale (dass-21) (lovibond & lovibond, 1995). (i) the socio-demographic questionnaire collated data regarding gender and clinical attributes such as the level of nursing education, years of professional experience in a general nursing and in a mental health setting and the clinical area where the nurse currently worked (e.g., acute/chronic/community). (ii) burnout was measured using a self-rating scale developed by maslach et al. (1996). the tool consisted of 22 items and three subscales namely: emotional exhaustion (ee), depersonalisation (dp), and personal accomplishment (pa). all mbi items are scored on a 7-point likert scale from 0 (never) to 6 (experiencing that every day). in the ee subscale, nine items were related to compassion fatigue and the reduction of emotional energy with a score range of 0–54 (a score of < 19 was considered low burnout, 19–26 reflected moderate burnout, and > 26 reflected high burnout). in the dp subscale, five items reflected the extent to which a person was removed emotionally towards those being cared for, with a score range of 0–30 points (< 6 reflected low burnout, 6–9 reflected moderate burnout, and > 9 indicated high burnout). in the pa dimension, eight items defined the person’s sense of satisfaction at work, with a score range of 0–48 points (> 39 reflected low burnout, 34–39 indicated moderate burnout, and < 34 reflected high burnout). higher score for ee and dp and lower scores on personal accomplishment were associated with an increased risk of burnout. the internal reliability coefficients with a nursing population were satisfactory for the following mbi subscales: 0.85 for emotional exhaustion, 0.71 for depersonalization and 0.76 for personal accomplishment (moalemi et al.,2018). (iii) the third questionnaire, the depression, anxiety, stress scale (dass-21; lovibond & lovibond, 1995) comprises 21 items consisting of 3 subscales each with 7 items, measuring depression, anxiety and stress symptoms respectively. participants were asked to indicate the degree to which each statement applied to them in the last two weeks. the dass-21 uses a 4-point rating scale (0 = did not apply to me at all to 3 = applied to me very much, or most of the time). the dass-21 scale has good cronbach's alpha coefficients for depression, anxiety and stress of 0.93, 0.88, and 0.82 respectively in a large sample (n=1, 794) in england (henry & crawford, 2005). it also has adequate convergent and discriminant validity with other measures of anxiety and depression (brown, chorpita, korotitsch, & barlow, 1997). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 1; 2023 4 published by ideas spread 2.5 data analysis an alpha level was set at .05 for all analyses conducted in this study. the statistical procedures were computed with the software ibm spss (version 26). normality of scores were determined using the shapiro–wilk test and scale scores were identified to be skewed. the pearson’s chi-square test was used to assess the association between two categorical variables, while the cramer’s v index and the phi coefficient were used to quantify the strength of the association between the variables. the wilcoxon signed-rank test was used to compare pre and post intervention scores, whilst the mann whitney ‘u’ test was computed to examine baseline scores between the intervention and control group. intercorrelations using spearman’s correlation coefficient were used to examine significant interrelationships between the subscales on the maslach’s burnout inventory and the dass-21 tool. a general linear model was conducted to examine several predictors of an outcome measure when predictors consisted of both categorical and continuous variables. a backward stepwise procedure was then used to identify the parsimonious models that includes solely the significant predictors. 2.6 ethics ethical approval was granted by the relevant university research ethics committee. to avoid coercion, potential participants were approached by practice nurses (intermediaries) who provided information letters describing the nature of the study. posters with details regarding the research were also placed on staff notice boards. those nurses who were willing to participate in the study were invited to contact the research team. participants were also provided with questionnaires to be filled in at pre and posttest. these questionnaires had the same code; however, the questionnaires were to be filled in anonymously. on completion of the questionnaires, participants were requested to place them in a box provided. 3. results 3.1 sample characteristics the demographic characteristics of study participants are presented in table 1. most of the participants were female (n=68, 56.7%) with a modal age group of 20-29 years (n=45, 37.5%). most participants worked in an acute (n=44, 42.7%) or chronic (n=40, 38.8%) ward setting; had an undergraduate degree in nursing (n= 55, 45.8%) and had been working in a mental health setting for less than 10 years (n=89; 74.2%). no statistically significant differences between participants in the intervention and control groups by sociodemographic and career related variables were identified (table 1). a mann whitney u test was conducted to determine whether there were significant differences on the mbi and dass domains between the intervention and control group at baseline. no significant differences (p>.05) were detected between the intervention and control group on the burnout, depression, anxiety and stress subscales (table 2). table 1. the sociodemographic and career attributes of participants participant characteristics sample size n (%) group 1 experimental group n=68 group 2 control group n=52 test statistic gender females 66 (55.0) 42 24 χ2(1) = 2.9, p=.09 phi=.16 males 54 (45.0) 26 28 age groups (years) 20-29 45 (37.5) 24 21 χ2(3) =4.48, p=.21, cramer’s v=.19 30-39 16 (13.3) 12 4 40-49 27 (22.5) 12 15 50+ 32 (26.7) 20 12 educational level diploma 51 (42.5%) 23 28 χ2(2) =.117, p=.94, cramer’s v=.03 undergraduate degree i.e., b.sc 55 (45.8%) 23 32 postgraduate degree i.e., msc, phd 14(11.7%) 6 8 years of nursing experience <10 33 (27.5%) 19 14 χ2(2) =.069, p=.97, cramer’s v=.02 11-20 17 (14.1%) 10 7 21+ 70 (58.4%) 39 31 >10 89 (74.2%) 50 39 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 1; 2023 5 published by ideas spread years working in mental health setting 11-20 14 (11.6%) 6 8 χ2(2) =2.44, p=.29 cramer’s v=.30 21+ 17 (14.2%) 12 5 clinical setting * acute 44 (42.7%) 27 17 χ2(2) =.350, p=.84,, cramer’s v=.06 chronic 40 (38.8%) 22 18 community 19 (18.5%) 11 8 [n.b:* variable ‘clinical setting’ not all participants indicated their work setting] table 2. mean ranks for the intervention and control group on the maslach burnout inventory (mbi) and depression, anxiety, stress scale-21 (dass-21) subscales at baseline (t1) subscale mean rank experimental group (n=68) mean rank control group (n=52) mann whitney u test p value mbi personal accomplishment 57.82 64.00 1586.00 .34 depersonalisation 61.49 59.20 1700.50 .72 emotional exhaustion 65.24 54.31 1446.00 .09 dass-21 depression 64.03 55.88 1528.00 .20 anxiety 62.35 58.09 1642.50 .50 stress 65.66 53.75 1417.00 .06 wilcoxon signed-rank tests were then conducted to identify any significant differences between scores at pre and post intervention for a related sample. table 3 presents the median (mdn), interquartile range (iqr), z scores and effect sizes (r) for each domain of the mbi and dass-21 at pre-(t1) and posttest (t2), for both the intervention and control group. a significant improvement at t2 was identified for the intervention group in the following subscales namely: burnoutdepersonalisation [pre-test (mdn = 6.00), post-test (mdn = 5.50), z = 2.152, p =.03, r = .18]; dass-anxiety [pre-test (mdn = 4.00), post-test (mdn = 3.00), z = 2.116, p =.03, r = .18] and dassstress [pre-test (mdn = 7.00), post-test (mdn = 5.00), z = 4.185, p <.001, r = .36]. for the control group there were no significant changes in scores between pre and posttest on any of the domains. table 3. comparison of scores between pre (t1) and posttest (t2) by experimental and control group experimental group control group tool and subscales median (iqr) z score p value effect size ‘r’ median (iqr) z score p value effect size ‘r’ mbi personal accomplishment t1 32.00 (12.50) -0.62 .54 .05 36.00 (13.25) -0.20 .84 .019 t2 34.00 (13.00) 35.50 (11.75) depersonalisation t1 6.00 (7.75) -2.15 .03 .18 5.50 (8.00) -0.07 .94 .0007 t2 5.50 (8.00) 5.50 (8.75) emotional exhaustion t1 20.50 -1.56 .12 .13 17.50 (14.75) -0.78 .44 .007 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 1; 2023 6 published by ideas spread (13.75) t2 19.00 (17.00) 17.50 (13.75) dass-21 depression t1 3.00 (6.75) -0.97 .33 .08 3.00 (5.00) -1.88 .06 .018 t2 3.00 (7.00) 2.00 (3.75) anxiety t1 4.00 (5.75) -2.12 .03 .18 3.00 (4.75) -1.37 .17 .013 t2 3.00 (5.00) 3.00 (5.00) stress t1 7.00 (6.00) -4.19 <.001 .36 5.50 (4.75) -1.70 .09 .016 t2 5.00 (6.00) 5.50 (3.00) [n.b: p values listed in bold indicate significance] table 4 presents the intercorrelations between the various burnout subscales and those for stress, anxiety and depression. higher depression scores were positively correlated with higher scores on two burnout scales: dp (rho:.364, p=.003) and ee (rho=.395, p=.001) and on the dass subscales for stress (rho=.695, p<.001) and anxiety (rho=.635, p<.001). whilst higher scores on pa were negatively correlated with depression (rho=-.327, p=.007); dp (rho=-.327, p=.006); anxiety (rho=-.328, p=.007); and stress (rho=-.286, p=.020). scores for ee were positively correlated with dp (rho=.619, p<.0001); stress (rho=.364, p=.003); and anxiety (rho=316, p=.01). higher scores for the burnout subscale dp is positively associated with ee (rho=.619, p=<.001) and stress (rho=.251, p=.042). stress is positively associated with anxiety (rho:.72, p<.001) table 4. intercorrelations amongst the subscales for the mbi and the dass-21 mbi dp2 mbi pa2 mbi ee2 dass depression 2 dass anxiety 2 dass stress 2 mbi dp 2 ---.327** .619*** .364** .203 .251* mbi pa 2 -.327** ---.057 -.327** -.328** -.286* mbi ee 2 .619*** -.057 --.395*** .316** .364** dass depression 2 .364** -.327** .395*** --.635*** .695*** dass anxiety 2 .203 -.328** .316** .635*** --.720*** dass stress 2 .251* -.286* .364*** .695*** .720*** -- [n.b: *p ≤ 0.05; **p ≤ 0.01; ***p ≤ 0.001] a general linear regression was conducted to examine whether staff emotional adjustment response (i.e., stress, anxiety, depression), demographic and career related variables were predictors of post-test scores (t2) on the dp burnout domain. this outcome measure was selected as the intervention positively impacted this burnout domain. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 1; 2023 7 published by ideas spread those variables that were significantly correlated with the outcome measure (i.e., dp) and that were of high theoretical importance were included in the model. the regression model (table 5) demonstrates that stress, pa (burnout), gender and age-group were all significant predictors of dp (burnout). the 4-predictor model explained 30% of the total variation in the dp score. assuming that other effects were kept constant, for every 1-unit increase in the stress score, the dp score was expected to increase by 0.321. males were expected to score 1.679 points higher in dp than females. whilst for every 1-unit increase in the pa score, the dp score was expected to decrease by 0.214 and individuals aged 31-40 years were expected to score 4.704 points higher in dp than their older counterparts aged over 50 years. table 5. general linear regression for the burnout domain -dp at t2 parameter b std. error t p-value 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound intercept 9.300 2.133 4.361 0.000 5.074 13.526 dass-stress t2 0.321 0.115 2.778 0.006 0.092 0.549 pa t2 -0.214 0.051 -4.197 0.000 -0.315 -0.113 gender male 1.679 0.798 2.104 0.038 0.098 3.260 female 0 . . . . . age group 20-30 years 1.514 1.008 1.502 0.136 -0.483 3.510 31-40 years 4.704 1.318 3.569 0.001 2.092 7.315 41-50 years 1.464 1.129 1.298 0.197 -0.772 3.701 more than 50 years 0 4. discussion 4.1 discussion of key findings according to lopez-lopez et al. (2019) burnout is described as notably problematic among mental healthcare providers and hence the need for interventions that can target this issue. the current study contributes to the extant literature by exploring the impact of an intervention that included mindfulness and the supplemental introduction of sessions on critical and creative thinking skills, legal issues, documentation, and expressive arts. the session on mindfulness was included as it has been identified as efficacious in addressing the ee domain, whilst the supplementary components were carefully selected to match the perceived stressors of the study population. in the present study, significant improvements in the dp component of burnout, stress and anxiety were identified following the intervention at t2. the critical and creative thinking skill component provided in the present intervention could have contributed to an improvement in dp as imaginative nurses were identified as less likely to develop negative, cynical attitudes, and feelings about their patients (li et al., 2019). the present study also highlights that being male, being aged between 31 to 40 years, having lower levels of pa and higher levels of stress were all significant predictors of dp. the gender differences associated with the different dimensions of burnout are accented by a growing body of evidence suggesting that males are more susceptible to high dp (ortega et al., 2018). with regards to age, extant research suggests that nurses’ dp is inversely associated with increased age (xie et al., 2011) and this may arise as younger nurses are more prone to burnout since they exhibit greater professional activity, exploiting their strength and commitment excessively (bartosiewicz & januszewicz, 2019). hence, it is possible that nurses aged between 31 to 40 years in the present study were more prone to higher scores on dp than their colleagues aged 50 years, due to heightened professional activity during those years. the identification of stress as a predictor of dp concurs with findings from various research studies (de clercq et al., 2020; liu and aungsuroch, 2019; lopez-lopez et al., 2019). although comparisons are hampered due to different scales being used in these studies to measure stress, one can also deduce that the relationship between stress and dp is so strong that it is effectively and consistently captured with different stress tools. de clercq et al. (2020) propose that employees experiencing job related stress and anxiety leave less room for positive and caring behaviours to conserve valuable energy resources. furthermore, the inclusion of legal issues in the intervention may also have contributed to target both stress and anxiety in participants. in fact, morrissey and higgins (2019), in their study on the legal apprehensions amongst mental health nurses, identified that these care providers worked in a perceived pervasive environment of legal anxiety and fear. they further recommended that stress and anxiety hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 1; 2023 8 published by ideas spread in care providers needed to be mitigated via thorough and regular training sessions on legal issues and in relation to the conscientious documentation of care. the expressive arts component in the present intervention may also have contributed to the significant improvements in anxiety and stress. a systematic review examining the effectiveness of expressive arts interventions and psychosocial stress in health care workers, provided preliminary evidence for the effectiveness of expressive arts in targeting stress (phillips., 2019). moreover, more pronounced improvements were noted in those studies that included an additional psychoeducational component to the expressive arts component. the clinical and creative skills component provided may also have contributed to target stress as creativity in nursing care includes the acceptance of new ideas for patient care in such a way that the new methods are simple, useful, efficient, affordable, and safe and less conducive to stress (cheraghi et al., 2021). although a positive correlation was identified in the present study between anxiety, stress and pa, the intervention resulted in no significant improvement for the burnout domain of pa. dreison et al. (2018) outline that pa is the burnout component for which intervention effects are overall not significant in studies. this may arise as pa might be conceptualized as more of a consequence of burnout rather than a core component (demerouti et al., 2003). 4.2 implications and recommendations this research provides meaningful ramifications for mental health nursing practice, education and research. educational institutions need to inculcate the paramountcy of self-care and mindfulness more effectively for mental health nurses and to foster a creative mindset and a critical thinking ethos. the role of participation in the arts assists in the forging of deep relational bonds on the workplace and should also be acknowledged by managerial staff. such initiatives require in concert regular, systemic efforts on the workplace. organizations must support positive nursing self-care behaviours such as mindfulness, which improve emotional adaptation, and commit to unravel workload issues, conflict and other challenges. mental health nurses would benefit from feeling better supported in making decisions to solve or adapt to challenging situations. for this to happen a culture where negative experiences are viewed as learning opportunities and exploited to generate growth is vital. this research study also contributes to extant literature pertaining to burnout interventions for mental healthcare providers. the intervention components in this study were both grounded in the literature and selected in relation to the specific needs of the study population. transparency in the reporting of sample descriptive data and specific details pertaining to the intervention were adhered to, thus enabling sound comparisons with other studies. the mbi was complemented with the dass-21 to circumvent limitations originating from the use of a single measure and effect size computations were reported in the data analysis. in relation to future burnout studies, it is advised that such studies should address the needs and concerns of study populations. these interventions would be best assessed by random sampling of study participants into an intervention and control group and an exploration of the effects of the intervention at different time points i.e., after one month, three months, and six months to provide a better insight into outcomes. there is also a need to ascertain by research whether refresher/booster sessions would be empowering to staff and whether positive results are extending beyond individual nurses and being reflected in improved quality of care. a limitation of the current study relates to the research design. random assignment of participants into the intervention and control group would have augmented the robustness of the results. additionally, inferences about the sustainability over time of the improvements post intervention reported in this study cannot be made as the outcome measures were determined once shortly after the intervention i.e., at t2. 5. conclusions burnout interventions comprising cognitive-behavioural components, critical and creative thinking skills and didactic components (such as documentation and legal issues) based on participants’ needs remediate burnout more comprehensively and yield significant improvements in depersonalisation, anxiety and stress in nurses. there is a need to acknowledge and provide such sessions and their cost (monetary or otherwise) should be perceived as an investment. participation in burnout remediating training sessions or intervention research needs to be actively encouraged and facilitated by managers. references alenezi, a., mcandrew, s., & fallon, p. 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(2019). nurses' perception of ethics and legal training of nurses in ghana. international journal of nursing education, 11(4). https://doi.org/10.5958/0974-9357.2019.00117.x xie, z., wang, a., & chen, b. (2011). nurse burnout and its association with occupational stress in a cross‐ sectional study in shanghai. journal of advanced nursing, 67(7), 1537-1546. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.13652648.2010.05576.x zeng, l. n., zhang, j. w., zong, q. q., chan, s. w. c., browne, g., ungvari, g. s., ... & xiang, y. t. (2020). prevalence of burnout in mental health nurses in china: a meta-analysis of observational studies. archives of psychiatric nursing, 34(3), 141-148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apnu.2020.03.006 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p13 13 published by ideas spread the mechanism of the multidimensional formation of public library visitors' perception of worthiness: a grounded theoretical exploration based on online review data qianqian fan1 1 medill school of journalism, northwestern university, usa correspondence: qianqian fan, medill school of journalism, northwestern university, evanston il 60208, usa. received: june 24, 2025; accepted: july 13, 2025; published: july 14, 2025 abstract this paper explores the reasons why public libraries attract visitors by studying the formation mechanism of the public library visitors' perception of worthiness. taking the new york public library as an example, this paper uses the grounded theory method to conduct a qualitative analysis of the online english reviews on the tripadvisor website, and innovatively combines the perceived value theory with the expectation confirmation theory to classify the perceived worthiness dimensions of visitors', revealing three dimensions of perceivable value: planning factors, experience factors and outcome factors, as well as six sub-dimensions (main categories): visit expectation, imagination, positive emotions, satisfaction, appreciation and reward. a visitors' expectation confirmation model of perception of worthiness is constructed. the research results of this paper theoretically provide an example for the expectation confirmation theory, supplement multiple dimensions perception of worthiness for the perceived value theory, and provide suggestions for public libraries to play a cultural function, enhance their attractiveness, and meet the diverse needs of visitors in practice. keywords: public libraries, expectation confirmation theory, perceived value, online reviews, grounded theory 1. introduction as a public cultural facility in a city or community, a public library is a place for people to learn knowledge, and as a provider of public goods, it has the function of promoting social welfare. the new york public library (nypl) is a century-old (founded in 1895) public library system with the philosophy of providing free and open knowledge and opportunities to everyone, according to the new york public library website (https://www.nypl.org/). a public library is a private, non-governmental, independently managed, not-for-profit institution, run by private and public funds, with a mission to "inspire lifelong learning, advance knowledge, and strengthen communities" and rely on the "three major resources"— staff, collections, and physical space — to provide opportunities for people to learn and grow [1]. for visitors, public libraries are more than just spaces that provide services, socialization, interaction, and social infrastructure for visitors [2][3][4], and it is also an important way for visitors to experience the cultural atmosphere of a city. some scholars have studied visitors' perception of the atmosphere, design and comfort of public libraries from the perspective of spatial perception [5], and many people are attracted to public libraries because of their atmosphere, which transcends the boundaries of physical library space, so that visitors can feel the culture of the city where the library is located, and even find a sense of belonging to the city. the extant literature shows that users and visitors of public libraries generate shared emotions by sharing urban public spaces, and that public libraries are often seen as vibrant spaces for encounters and social interactions, where visitors perceive calm and relaxation, challenging the traditional view of public libraries as strictly quiet spaces [6]. the perceived value is reflected in the positive perception of public libraries by visitors. however, in the available literature, clues about public library visitors perceiving worthwhile in-depth research have not been found. the public library is not only a public space for dialogue, exchange, and tolerance of differences between different users, but also a place for visitors to enjoy urban culture in contact with culture, leisure, and sharing time and space. especially at the rapid development of digital technology, public libraries are transforming from collection spaces to knowledge networks of digital services, facing the challenge of the diminishing function of their physical spaces to facilitate user encounters [7][8][9]. some scholars believe that libraries have adapted to the changes in urban life, influenced people's changing cultural needs, reshaped the spatial resources of libraries, created new spatial hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 14 published by ideas spread resources, increased the flow of people and attracted visitors [10]. public libraries attract visitors to not only play the diversified functions of the library, but also disseminate the cultural image of the city, and at the same time protect and utilize the cultural heritage status and resources of the public library. this is what public libraries are meant to attract users and visitors. in addition to the positive perception of the atmosphere of the public library, the architecture of the public library is also a very interesting object of perception for visitors. the cultural and creative atmosphere and diverse functions of public libraries are shaped by their architectural layout, lighting, acoustics, digital technologies, furniture, and plants, which benefit both general users and casual visitors [11][12]. the physical space of the library provides visitors with a physical carrier of perceived value, which has been elaborated by many scholars from different perspectives. for example, emphasizing the importance of the library's physical space for democratic inclusion [10], using the library as a gathering space for dialogue and thus fostering a sense of belonging [13], and reinforcing the importance of its physical safe space for social networks as a place of interaction and trust for informal gatherings [14][15]. visitors will perceive the high social value of public libraries as vibrant public spaces in society, with concepts such as democracy, diversity, and personal security considered important dimensions of social value [16]. however, the existing literature has not fully elaborated on the specific dimensions of public library visitors' perceived value and the formation mechanism of perceived value of worthiness. this happens to be the focus of this research. for example, what are the expectations of visitors before visiting the new york public library? what expectations do the actual visit meet, and what are those expectations confirmed? what perceived values (e.g., emotional, functional, social, aesthetic) under expectations best contribute to the perception of "worthiness"? how is the visitor's "worth perceiving" formed in the process of expectation and experience confirmation? therefore, this study takes the new york city public library as an example, takes visitors' online english reviews as the data source, and explores the multi-dimensional formation mechanism of visitors' perceived value of worthiness based on the perceived value theory and the expectation confirmation theory. the results of this study will provide inspiration and suggestions for exploring how public libraries can shape the experience of visitors, meet their diverse needs, and give full play to the urban cultural communication function of public libraries. 2. theoretical foundation 2.1 perceived value this research studies the multi-dimensional formation mechanism of public library visitors. here, being worth perceiving is a perceived value, a cognitive evaluation. early researchers applied perceived value to marketing, defining it as an overall assessment of a product's utility [17]. later, some researchers applied it to the field of tourism, arguing that perceived value is a reliable concept for predicting tourist behavior [18][19], and is influenced by service quality, pricing, emotional connection, and social factors [20]. in a general sense, perceived value refers to a customer's perceived benefit, which is a multi-dimensional structure that contains the various components that make up perceived value. perceived value is usually composed of four key dimensions: product or service quality, emotional response, cost, and social impact [21], and this dimension composition represents the view of most researchers. this is clearly a benefit to the perceived value of the visitor. although there have been many elaborations on the dimensions of perceived value in the existing literature, there are still few studies on the dimensions of perceived value. some scholars have studied the constituent factors of the perceived value of public libraries from the perspective of public library attractiveness, including seven aspects: environment and atmosphere, architecture and interior design, location and transportation, online popularity, library collections, cultural activities, personnel and services [22]. the perceived value of worthiness of visitors is not only satisfaction, but more importantly, the value-added evaluation of the perceived value elements of public libraries. 2.2 the perception of worthiness according to the concept of perceived value, perceived value refers to the fact that the perceived gain is greater than the perceived effort compared to the perceived gain, that is, the pure benefit perceived. unlike perceived value, the perception of worthiness refers to the perceived benefit even though the perceived effort is greater than the perceived gain, and the perceived sacrifice is acceptable or even worthwhile. in this study, perceived benefits can refer to the advantages that a visit to a public library brings to visitors, or they can be service advantages, such as interactivity, customization, and personalization, while perceived sacrifices can refer to monetary or nonmonetary costs [23], such as the visitor's time cost and psychological cost. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 15 published by ideas spread thus, the perception of worthiness can be seen as a weighted result determined by perceived benefits and perceived sacrifices. when the perceived sacrifice is constant, there is a positive relationship between the perceived benefit and the perceived value of the visitor, and when the perceived benefit is constant and the perceived sacrifice increases, the perceived value tends to decrease [24]. therefore, if the perceived sacrifice does not increase, the perceived benefit increases. when visitors perceive the benefits that a public library can bring, such as time flexibility, free visits, personalized experience, high-quality service, content richness, and additional gains, their perceived value tends to be higher, or they may ignore their perceived sacrifices, such as time cost, physical cost, energy cost, or opportunity cost, to conclude that it is worth visiting, which is what the perception of worthiness means. 2.3 expectation confirmation theory (ect) ect was first used to analyze consumer post-purchase satisfaction and repurchase behavior [25], and this theory was later integrated into the expectation confirmation model (ecm), which has been widely used in the field of consumer behavior analysis and user behavior analysis in information systems [26]. ecm-based ect is a cognitive model that explains the dynamic cognitive processes that individuals undergo when making continuity-related judgments [27]. when analyzing the driving factors of consumers' post-purchase behavior, ecm proposed two main drivers of performance confirmation and perceived usefulness [28], and believed that confirmation and perception affect the satisfaction evaluation after experience. most of the research on the application of ecm in the existing literature focuses on the study of it (information technology) or is (information system) user behavior, which is used to understand the continuous behavior of users in different it/is environments, such as mobile health, mobile banking, e-learning, mobile applications, mobile internet services, and web portal use [29]. after literature search, this paper found that there are few literatures that apply ect to the behavior analysis of library visitors. in fact, the behavior of public library visitors is similar to that of it/is users, and it is expected that after being confirmed, it will also produce satisfactory reviews, which may also lead to continued visitor behavior or continuous word-of-mouth recommendation behavior. thus, ect conceptualizes the consumption process [30], arguing that the expectation confirmation mechanism is realized after the process. this provides a theoretical basis for explaining the formation mechanism of the perceived value of public library visitors. visitors first create expectations about a visit to the new york public library, the experience that results from the visit, and the overall impression and perception are formed, which are then evaluated, and finally the visitor compares the perceived experience to the initial expectations. in this process sequence, the visitor's confirmation of the expectation leads to satisfaction, and when the expectation is high and confirmed, the satisfaction is high, and the visitor derives a worthwhile evaluation, which is reflected in the form of an online satisfaction review, which can be observed from the higher rating of the online review. at the same time, the visitor's satisfaction with the outcome also leads to an ewom contribution behavior, which is an act of recommending other visitors to use it on an ongoing basis. the use of ecm can explain that the ewom writing behavior of public library visitors is based on initial expectations and actual experience confirmations, and visitors express their satisfaction in the form of writing positive or negative reviews [31]. throughout the visit, the visitor's perception runs through it. visitors compare the perceived performance (experience) during the visit with their beliefs (expectations) about the service attributes of the public library prior to the visit to judge the extent to which the expectations have been met (confirmed). in this study, we will use visitors' online reviews as the data source to explore the multi-dimensional formation mechanism of visitors' perceived worth value by applying the grounded theory method to verify the applicability of the expectation confirmation theoretical model. 3. methodology and data sources 3.1 grounded theory method this theory emphasizes understanding the essence of the problem by analyzing the views and experiences of individuals. although it originated in the sociological study of the medical field [32], it has been widely used in many other fields, including nursing, physical therapy, healthcare, anthropology, psychology, information systems, and software engineering [33], as well as education [34], management [35] and other social science fields [33]. it systematically collects and analyzes data to develop new theories about human behavior in all areas of society. at present, the research on perceptual experience applied to grounded theory has been extended to more research topics. for example, the perceived experience of gym users, the user experience of healthcare platforms, and the brand perception of home consumers [36]. the research on the perceived experience of visitors/tourists in the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 16 published by ideas spread fields of culture, leisure and tourism has become the methodological reference of this study. for example, a study using grounded theory on the memorable experience of hotel guests [37]. in this study, vonyant tools and spaaua will be used to extract high-frequency words from visitors' comment texts, and determine the subject words to determine the range of dimensions worth perceiving. after that, manual or software tools will be used to open coding, axis coding, and selective coding the text data to determine the multi-dimensional formation mechanism that visitors are worthy of perceiving. finally, under the framework of ecm, a multi-dimensional formation mechanism model of public library visitors worth perceiving is constructed. 3.2 data sources the new york public library (nypl), founded in 1895, was selected as a case study site for public libraries because of its history, purpose, and cultural heritage characteristics. it has its origins in educational philanthropy and is the largest public library system in the united states, an important cultural venue and civic institution in new york city, and according to its website, its mission is that "the library is built on the ideal of free and open access to knowledge and opportunity for everyone, and is an important provider of free books, information, ideas, and education to all new yorkers." not only that, but the nypl, with its collection of 54 million items, opens its doors to millions of visitors/visitors around the world every year (https://www.nypl.org/). a large number of users/visitors have accumulated a large amount of online review data, which provides a rich data resource for related research. in terms of data collection, tripadvisor, the world's largest tourism and travel website, was selected as the source of online review data. online reviews were chosen as research data because of their accessibility, completeness, and representativeness [38]. the number of visitor reviews of the nypl on the tripadvisor website is huge, and as user-generated content has been proven to be reliable and representative of literature research [39]. as of february 2025, there are more than 20,000 online reviews on tripadvisor for nypl, including reviews in a variety of languages, and the study selected the largest number of reviews in english (14,717) with an overall score of 4.6 out of 5. 99.27% of the reviews were positive and neutral in terms of 5 to 1 star: excellent (9,638), very good (4,179) and average (793), while poor (75) and terrible (33) were negative. the star rating range of the online review data selected for this study is 3-star, 4-star, and 5-star reviews to capture perceived cues of worthwhile visits in neutral and positive reviews. valid reviews after data cleansing became a small database for this study. in addition, this study ignores the time, place, and reviewer information of the online review data, and only emphasizes the open exploration of visitors' perspectives to better explain the phenomenon being studied [36], and attempts to derive the formation mechanism of visitors' worthwhile perception through a grounded theory approach, revealing why nypl can get so many high ratings and what aspects it is worth visiting. 4. data analysis process and results 4.1 identification of perceptual factors identifying perceptual elements means subjecting to keyword analysis of visitor online review data prior to grounded theory coding. use frequently used keywords to quickly discover which experiences are repeatedly mentioned by visitors, such as "beautiful," "historic," "inspiring," "crowded," "knowledgeable guides", etc. these keywords give an initial indication of what elements of the experience visitors consider "worthy" or "not worthy". identifying perceptual elements can improve the systematization of grounded theory coding. doing a round of keyword/subject word extraction before manual open coding can avoid missing high-frequency or important perceptual clues, which can make subsequent open coding more directional, and also help to discover potential feature categories. finally, when selectively coding, subject heading frequency can also help determine which paths are more important in the process of forming "worth perceiving". through data cleaning, nonsensical words and unified synonyms were removed, and keyword extraction was carried out in this study. manually use a combination of software (nvivo or voyant tools) to count high-frequency words. sort by number of occurrences and list the top 30 high-frequency words. with the help of word cloud analysis, a word cloud map can be generated to visualize the main talking points of the visitor's online comments. the word cloud color shade or font size can reflect the frequency of words and help visualize core areas of interest. see figure 1. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 17 published by ideas spread a b figure 1. cloud map of online comments from visitors the excellent review word cloud (figure a) highlights keywords such as "library", "building", "visit", "beautiful", "reading room", etc. the word cloud (figure b) also highlights "library", "building", and "visit", but keywords such as "shop", "interesting", and "greatest" also appear more frequently, indicating that the details of the experience are slightly relaxed and casual. figure 2 illustrates this as well. figure 2. comparison of high-frequency words figure 2 is a bar chart of word frequency comparisons. from the figure, the two groups of reviews, extremely good reviews and very good reviews, which keywords are more prominent, "library", "building", "visit", etc. are very high frequency in both groups. for example, for "library", very good reviews paid more attention to "visit and building", and extremely good reviews paid more attention to "visit and building". table 1 shows the preliminary categorization of subject headings, which can be combined into four topic groups, which are spatial aesthetic experience, learning experience, emotional experience, and social experience. table 1. preliminary theme classification theme groups example of theme words spatial aesthetic experience learning experience emotional experience social experience beautiful, stunning, architecture, corridor, hall, room. ceiling informative, reading, history, knowledge, exhibits, books emotional, inspiring, moving, excitement, passion, fondness sharing, friends, family, communication, queuing in table 1, the classification of the four thematic clusters is based on the classification of the basic dimensions of perceived value (products, services, emotions and society). space experience is the carrier of library experience, learning experience is the main function and service of the library, emotional experience is the emotional value of the library, and social experience is the outstanding social value of the library. the results of further analysis are shown in table 2, and the perceptual performance is divided into three dimensions: tangible perception, intangible perception, and functional experience perception. on the basis of the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 18 published by ideas spread classification of high-frequency words, subject words and topics, a worthy perceptual value composition table was preliminarily formed. table 2. the composition of "worthy of perception" was initially proposed high-frequency keywords of tangible perception high-frequency keywords of intangible perception functional experience keywords of perception building, architecture, reading room, ceilings, rooms, library, rose, time, shop, public, place, inside, original, people gorgeous, worth, visit, definitely, great, really, work, beautiful, amazing, stunning, great, history, experience, closed, rude, waste visit, free, tour, exhibit, books, new, reading, quick slow, peaceful, openness, orderly, important, convenient combining table 1 and table 2, it is found that the product and service dimensions in the perceived value dimension, the spatial aesthetic experience and learning experience in the library experience, can be classified into tangible perception, the emotional and social dimensions in the perceived value dimension, and the emotional experience and social experience in the library experience. it can be classified as intangible perception. in addition, some experiential elements that assist perceived value can be classified as functional experiential perception. 4.2 grounded theory data analysis step 1 is open coding which extracting concepts from the raw corpus and then categorizing the concepts to form categories. at this stage, the research work is to carefully read and analyze the original review text data, record and encode all relevant data according to their original context, and refine the preliminary perception nodes in order to discover concepts and categories and name them to indicate the content of the original materials. the purpose of open coding is to extract the content of the original text that contains the positive experience of the visitor, and disassemble it into independent sentences, and then extract the encoded elements of these sentences to form a preliminary concept. after many times of manual coding, revision, filtering, and refinement, a total of 150 basic concepts were extracted from the conceptualized results. then, according to the semantic logical connection between the research topics and concepts of "perception of worthiness" in this paper, a total of 20 preliminary categories were refined. examples of open coding are shown in table 3. in table 3, the conceptualization results show 17 of the 150 basic concepts, and the categorization results show 5 of the 20 preliminary categories. table 3. the examples of open coding original comment texts conceptualization categorization there are numerous wonderful bronze plates on the sidewalk with great quotes leading right up to the library worth reading. wonderful great beautiful the current exhibit of their treasures is incredible and the smaller virginia wolff exhibit is fascinating. well worth your time. the library inside is stunning. incredible fascinating stunning amazing this beautiful landmark needs a visit. i imagine it would be a great place to hang out and people watch… you will be able to see many rooms not open to the public and get a sense of the history behind the building and library system. ok, pose just go in the lobby, marvel at the fancy gilded age landmark a great place rooms history, building lobby, marvel landmark then go right in to the permanent treasures exhibit. tiny books, richly illustrated medieval bibles…just such riche. they offer free tours and they are totally worth the 2 or so hours. treasures exhibit riche free precious we very much enjoyed our exploration of this…. much better than i was expecting, but also a monument to learning. …… enjoyed learning …… rewarding ….. step 2 is axial coding which refining higher-level categories based on open coding. the specific work is to bring the 20 initial categories and 150 basic concepts formed in step 1 back to the original review text, repeatedly sort out the logical connections between the initial concepts and categories, such as inclusion, juxtaposition, cause and effect, and explore the relevant connections to form the main categories. after repeated comparative analysis, the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 19 published by ideas spread 20 preliminary categories were condensed into 3 dimensions and 6 main categories that visitors should perceive, including planning factors, experience factors and outcome factors, and 6 main categories including: expectations of visit, imagination, positive emotions, satisfaction, appreciation and reward. the axial coding process is shown in table 4. table 4. the main category formed by the main axis coding main category the corresponding preliminary category concept groups planning factors: expectations of the visit imagination planning, want, thought, hope incredible, unimaginable i thought, i guess, you would think, i wanted to visit, if you're coming here, great expectations, just hop in an incredibly beautiful building, incredible art, i do wonder how any of, a nice opportunity, don’t expect experience factors: positive emotions satisfaction love, excitement, relaxation, friendly recommended, respectable, useful amazing, impressed, relaxed atmosphere, warm, exciting, stunning, glad, my favorite places, fun, admire, friendly recommended, interesting, well-worth, wonderful landmark perfect place, special exhibits, a great example, a surprise outcome factors: appreciation reward enjoy, memorable, breakthrough knowledge, spirit, helpful, free magnificent building, cute presents, beautiful art, unique, exquisite architecture, impressive structure, spectacular free audio tour, incredible resources, so much history, inspired me, has treasures to explore, unusual, step 3 is selective coding which generates a complete storyline and finds the logical relationship between the core categories based on the concepts and categories generated in the first two stages. obviously, the storyline of this study is a clue worth perceiving for the visitor. according to the previous research, the six main categories in table 4 come from subject headings and open coding, and the six main categories constitute the perceptual clues of the visitor's visit, that is, the story line that the nypl visitor is worth perceiving. visitors head to the nypl with a sense of anticipation, which is neutral, even speculative and needs to be confirmed. during the visit, visitors experience a series of experiences, including spatial aesthetic experience, learning experience, emotional experience, and social experience, which are not only the experience of tangible physical places, but also the experience of intangible cultural atmosphere. judging from the content of the comments, the positive emotions are greater than the negative emotions, with the help of various functional experiences, the visitors get a variety of satisfying experiences, thus forming the final appreciation and rewarding feelings, after the visit, the visitors will form a satisfactory evaluation of their own experience, and form a perception that it is worth visiting. the result of the selective coding process is the discovery of a storyline that is worth perceiving for the visitor consisting of 3 dimensions and 6 main categories. according to the constructivist and interpretivist principles of grounded theory, there is a certain structural relational structure in the main category's storyline (fig. 3) that supports the perceived outcome that is worth visiting. figure 3. the relationship structure diagram among the main categories hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 20 published by ideas spread 4.3 the formation mechanism of the perception of worthiness after completing the three-level coding analysis, the visitor's online review data was supplemented for re-encoding, and no new categories were found, so it was determined that the extraction of the above six main categories had met the principle of theoretical saturation. according to the expectation confirmation theory (ect), the psychological and behavioral changes of visitors during their visit to the nypl conform to the expectation-confirmation-satisfaction subject-path-object process. in this process, the 3 dimensions and 6 elements of the visitor's worthwhile perception match the framework of ecm, so that the multi-dimensional formation mechanism model of the visitor's worthwhile perception can be constructed. figure 4 reveals the perceptual formation path of public library visitors. figure 4. a visitors’ expectation confirmation model of perception of worthiness in this model in figure 4, the visitor's imagination and expectation are the basis of worthwhile perception, positive emotional experience and satisfaction experience are the confirmation process, and appreciation and reward are satisfactory outcomes. the experiential outcome of appreciation and reward is very important and goes beyond the perceived benefit to form a perception of worthiness. 5. conclusions and implication literature studies show that the existing literature studies involve the impact of public library visitors' perception and experience on satisfaction, but few literatures classify the perceived value of public library visitors. the findings of this study fill the gap in the research, reflect the theoretical significance of the study of worthiness perception, innovatively combine the perception value theory and the expectation confirmation theory, and emphasize the importance of the dual-path mechanism of perception and expectation confirmation to the visitors' perception of worthiness. the visitor's space-service-environment visit experience path is superimposed on the expectation confirmation path of perceived value improvement, satisfaction evaluation, and worthwhile visit. the study found that the elements of visitors' positive perception of experience include spatial aesthetic experience, learning experience, emotional experience, and social experience. these elements can be categorized into tangible perception and intangible perception, where the psychological characteristics of intangible perception are the basis and source of perception that is worth visiting. the study also found that the perception of worthiness is multi-dimensional, including: visit expectation, imagination, positive emotions, satisfaction, appreciation, and reward. on this basis, a visitors' expectation confirmation model of perception of worthiness was constructed to verify and expand the applicability of the expectation confirmation model. in addition, in practice, this study has enlightening significance for in-depth understanding of the psychological needs of visitors, giving full play to the diversified functions of public libraries, and attracting more visitors. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 21 published by ideas spread based on visitor expectations, the predictability of public library practice and use can create a generally comfortable atmosphere for visitors, and this relaxed atmosphere of public libraries can play a key role in shaping people's cultural identity, their ability to belong to society. for public libraries with a long history, the huge cultural resources they contain, whether it is their exquisite architecture or cultural experience, will attract visitors to stop and become the basis for visitors to perceive. this provides enlightenment for how public libraries can shape the experience of visitors/users/visitors and meet their needs, so as to protect the city's cultural heritage, inherit the library culture, develop cultural tourism, and expand the city's influence. the practical implications of the findings are also that understanding visitor attitudes can help public libraries become more attractive. although public libraries may not directly profit from visitors/visitors, the increasing influx of visitors/visitors generates induced consumption, which benefits shops, restaurants, and other businesses in the surrounding area [40], thereby generating revenue for the city. 6. limitations and further research although the results of this study have made research on the perception of public library visitors' worthiness, the research results have theoretical research significance and practical implications for the management of urban cultural venues. but there are limitations. the limited sample size of the study is limited to english reviews and positive reviews on tripadvisor's website, and can be extended to review data from other websites and perceptual experience studies of other types of cultural sites (e.g., memorials, small libraries, private libraries) and comparative studies of reviews in different languages. the singularity of the research method only considers the qualitative study of the visitor review text by the grounded theory method, and the future research can consider the use of diversified research methods, such as on-site questionnaires, random interviews, and quantitative methods can be used to further deepen the research. author information qianqian fan, female, graduated with a bachelor's degree from the steinhardt school of culture, education, and human development of new york university; graduated with a master's degree in journalism from medill school of journalism, northwestern university. research fields: media, cross-cultural economics, management, and cultural communication and development. media specialist and law consultant. email: qf296@nyu.edu references [1] baker, d., & ellis, l. (2025). new york public library, encyclopedia of libraries, librarianship, and information science (1st ed., pp. 241–249). academic press. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-323-956895.00045-6 [2] schloffel-armstrong, s., baker, t., & kearns, r. a. (2021). geographies of the public library: institutions, architectures, interactions. geography compass, 15(10), e12592. https://doi.org/10.1111/gec3.12592 [3] audunson, r., aabø, s., et al. (2019). public libraries as an infrastructure for a sustainable public sphere: a comprehensive review of research. journal of documentation, 75(4), 773–790. https://doi.org/10.1108/jd10-2018-0157 [4] vårheim, a., skare, r., & lenstra, n. (2019). examining libraries as public sphere institutions: mapping questions, methods, theories, findings, and research gaps. library & information science research, 41(2), 93–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lisr.2019.04.001 [5] peterson, m. 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"do we believe in tripadvisor?" examining credibility perceptions and online travelers' attitude toward using user-generated content. journal of travel research, 52(4), 437– 452. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287512475217 [39] filieri, r., alguezaui, s., & mcleay, f. (2015). why do travelers trust tripadvisor? antecedents of trust towards consumer-generated media and its influence on recommendation adoption and word of mouth. tourism management, 51, 174–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2015.05.007 [40] krueger, a. (2019, august 10). where libraries are the tourist attractions. the new york times. retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/10/travel/libraries-are-the-tourist-attractions.html copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n5p9 9 published by ideas spread on the margins of tcm and modern medicine: ethnomedical healers seeking official qualification certification mingzhe li1 1 shanghai world foreign language academy, china correspondence: mingzhe li, shanghai world foreign language academy, shanghai 200233, china. received: august 4, 2025; accepted: september 7, 2025; published: september 8, 2025 abstract this study focuses on ethnomedical healers in lijiang, yunnan province, china, and adopts the perspective of medical anthropology to examine, through field work, in-depth interview, and case study, institutional shortcomings and individual predicaments ethnomedical healers face in seeking the legal status for medical practice under the modern medicine and the “traditional chinese medicine (tcm) specialist” systems. the current assessment system and ethnomedical practice are not aligned in terms of theoretical frameworks, diagnostic and treatment methods, and linguistic logic. particularly, the systematic discrepancy between the knowledge system required by standardized examinations and ethnomedical healers’ experiential knowledge system has resulted in a large number of “skilled but uncertified” ethnomedical healers struggling to gain official recognition. this study aims to explore the possibility of institutional reform and the coexistence of diverse medical systems by probing into the institutional challenges facing ethnomedicine from the perspective of modern medicine. keywords: medical anthropology, lijiang of yunnan, ethnomedical healers 1. introduction ethnomedical healers represent a branch of tcm in the broad sense. they typically practice in ethnic communities, with medical knowledge inherited through family lineages, especially the knowledge of local herbal medicine, and provide healthcare services to local communities. well-established systems of ethnomedicine in china include tibetan, mongolian, uyghur, and dai medicine, among others. in the multi-ethnic communities of lijiang, yunnan province, in southwestern china, there exists a group of ethnomedical healers—primarily from the naxi, bai, and lisu ethnic groups—who persistently “seek official medical qualification certification.” despite their knowledge of herbal medicine, current medical qualification certification policies increasingly label them as “illegal practitioners.” today, these grassroots healers, who have family-inherited knowledge or specialize in specific herbal therapies, if they cannot obtain a medical qualification certificate, will face the risk of having their ethnomedical knowledge and methods being lost. the field work was conducted in lijiang city and and its surrounding counties. this study uses anthropological methods, including participant observation, in-depth interviews and case study, based on visits in july 2024 and 2025. it focuses on ethnomedical healers in lijiang, examining the limitations and marginalisation they face under the current tcm specialist assessment system. 2. ethnomedical healers seeking official qualification certification most ethnomedical healers in lijiang possess herbal medicine knowledge passed down through generations. however, amid china’s efforts to modernize, standardize, and provide universal access to healthcare services, their lack of formal training in modern medical knowledge has placed them in a dual marginalization: they are neither incorporated into the modern medical system nor able to practice freely as folk healers. currently, there are four types of medical practitioner qualification certificate in china. 2.1 the doctor’s certificate in china, the doctor’s qualification examinations are organized by provincial health administration departments and consist of two categories: the physician qualification exam and the assistant physician qualification exam. the doctors' qualification exam applicants must hold either a bachelor's degree or higher in medicine, or an associate degree plus assistant doctor's certificate, plus at least two years' experience in a medical institution. the exam content is primarily based on modern medical science, encompassing disciplines such as anatomy, physiology, pharmacology, pathology, and infectious diseases.[1] hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 10 published by ideas spread 2.2 the rural doctor’s certificate the rural doctor’s certificate originated from china’s modern-era “barefoot doctor” system.[2] those holders are typically without formal modern medical training, retain an agricultural hukou status, and work part-time in both farming and medical care. this credential was established to safeguard grassroots rural healthcare services. eligibility for this certificate is relatively straightforward: candidates must be graduates of a secondary medical school. upon completion of a short-term training program and passing a computer-based examination, they qualify for legal medical practice. however, the scope of practice is strictly limited by this certificate. holders are permitted to practice only within single subdistrict-level clinics supervised by the local health commission. practicing beyond the authorized geographical area is deemed illegal.[3] 2.3 the tcm apprentice’s and specialist’s certificate to address the challenges facing practitioners of traditional and ethnic medicine who were unable to obtain legal certification and practice legally due to academic qualification restrictions, china introduced the qualification assessment for tcm apprentices and specialists in 2007. this assessment system provided a pathway to legal medical practice for traditional healers with skills acquired through family or mentorship training. it targeted traditional medicine (including ethnomedicine) practitioners with years of mentorship or practice. candidates must have at least five years of relevant clinical experience and be recommended by at least two licensed tcm doctors. the assessment included a written test and a practical evaluation, comprising oral exams, case presentations, clinical demonstrations, and panel review. holders of this certificate, after working on probation as a licensed assistant doctor, may apply to take the national doctor’s qualification examination. however, the long assessment times and complex application procedures deterred many ethnomedical healers with limited education. the difficulties will be detailed below. [4] 2.4 the tcm specialist’s certificate in 2017, based on the law of the people’s republic of china on traditional chinese medicine, the interim administrative measures for the qualification assessment and registration of tcm specialists were promulgated and put into practice, formally recognizing the legal status of medical qualifications obtained through mentorship, practice, and assessment. this new assessment system cut short the lengthy process of obtaining a doctor’s qualification certificate for holders of the tcm specialist’s certificate, but the eligibility criteria and assessment procedures remain largely the same.[5] 3. crossing the threshold to an elusive legal license while multiple pathways exist for obtaining legal practice qualifications, most ethnomedical healers face significant challenges in securing official credentials. according to data from the lijiang ethnomedicine association in 2025, it had fewer than 400 members, of whom only 70-80 held rural doctor’s certificate, even fewer, just 29, hold the tcm specialist’s certificate, and most of these certified practitioners are around 60 years old. of these, only two are women, and less than one-third are from minorities, including two yi, two naxi (one of whom is mosuo), two lisu, and two tibetan practitioners.[6] 3.1 the tcm specialist evaluation dilemma from an institutional perspective, the tcm specialist’s certificate indeed provides folk healers a standardized, expedited route to legal practice. however, field research reveals significant bottlenecks in the implementation of this assessment system, including stringent execution, limited quotas, and low pass rates. according to 2023 data from yunnan province, of the more than 3,000 folk medicine practitioners who applied for the tcm specialist’s certificate, only about 60 succeeded, with a pass rate of less than 2%, and lijiang was given only three exam slots, highlighting the extreme scarcity of resources. through follow-up visits and in-depth interviews, the following difficulties were identified: 3.1.1 the disparity in knowledge systems between academy-trained examiners and practice-oriented candidates why it is so difficult for ethnomedical healers to pass the tcm specialist’s certificate assessment is mainly because of the structural disconnection between the assessment system and the ethnomedical knowledge system. the current assessment is largely based on the theoretical framework of modern medical science and traditional tcm knowledge, while most ethnomedical healers rely on experiential knowledge passed down orally. as a result, many ethnomedical healers struggle to respond to the examiners’ theoretical questions and find it challenging to demonstrate their practical medical skills in the exam setting. specifically, exam content such as the recitation of the “twelve meridians” and “sterile operation” requirements in modern medicine is disconnected from hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 11 published by ideas spread ethnomedical practice. in addition, the expert panel, whose members are mostly from tcm colleges and universities, bases their evaluation system on academic theories and often demands that candidates explain ethnomedical practice using standardized terminology. this double standard consequently excludes many ethnomedical healers with rich clinical experience, as they struggle to translate their practical knowledge into the theoretical discourse required for certification. 3.1.2 the institutional barrier caused by complex and contradictory eligibility criteria the series of “high barriers” set by the eligibility mechanism for the tcm specialist’s certificate examination is another significant institutional obstacle for ethnomedical healers to obtain certification. there are two prominent structural contradictions with this system: first, applicants are required to provide treatment cases from five years of unlicensed practice, effectively forcing ethnomedical healers into a dilemma between “illegal practice” and “obtaining qualifications”; second, applicants are required to provide two recommendation letters, which poses significant practical difficulties in ethnic minority areas. each licensed tcm doctor with at least 15 years of medical practice is permitted to recommend only two candidates per year. however, eligible recommenders are already scarce in these areas. this structural constraint has directly resulted in only around 1,000 out of tens of thousands of ethnomedical healers in yunnan province completing registration. areas such as lijiang face a severe shortage of available slots. 3.1.3 the language barrier in a modernized assessment setting the language barrier has become a systemic barrier for ethnomedical healers in the assessment process, representing a major challenge commonly faced by candidates from ethnic minority areas. the exclusive use of standard chinese, or putonghua, throughout the examination and evaluation process creates a dual disadvantage for practitioners from naxi, yi, and other ethnic minorities, who speak dialects as their mother tongue, particularly as most of these candidates are elderly. first, the language barrier distorts the accurate representation of medical knowledge. pronunciation issues and limited putonghua proficiency directly impact scoring outcomes, leading to point deductions or even disqualification for many candidates despite their demonstrated clinical competence. in response to this challenge, president liu[7] of the lijiang ethnomedicine association once proposed a policy to provide translators for examiners, which was ultimately rejected by authorities. second, a fundamental disconnect exists between the narrative logic inherent to ethnomedical knowledge and the standardized, theory-driven discourse expected by academically trained examiners. while ethnomedical healers typically articulate medical reasoning based on their understanding and experience, examiners often prefer the standardized, logical discourse system. this epistemological divide frequently results in the mischaracterization of nuanced practical expertise as “unsubstantiated conjecture.” 3.2 the significance of legal practice status for ethnomedical healers the health authorities in lijiang have indeed recognized the practical challenges facing ethnomedical healers in balancing the needs of knowledge transmission and legitimate practice. as a result, they have refrained from strictly enforcing penalties against these practitioners for “illegal” practice. nevertheless, for ethnomedical healers, obtaining official certification remains critically important for passing down medical traditions and for its practical utility in allowing them to practice legally. first, from a legal perspective, possession of a medical certificate serves as the definitive criterion distinguishing “legitimate” from “illegal” medical practice. in most parts of china, practicing medicine without certification entails criminal liability and administrative penalties, including a minimum fine of 50,000 yuan. however, the situation in lijiang presents a notable exception. through active coordination by the lijiang ethnomedicine association, local authorities have adopted a relatively tolerant stance toward folk medicine practitioners operating within the jurisdiction of “one district and four counties.” it is important to note, however, that this policy is limited only to lijiang; if they practice medicine outside the designated areas—in sichuan or guizhou, for example—they will be held accountable for breaking the law. as president liu said, “if we follow the law on licensed doctors, it is illegal for them to practice medicine. but the law on traditional chinese medicine stipulates that ‘five years of clinical experience’ is a prerequisite for certification, then there is a question mark to the legality of their practice.”[8] the ambiguity of the current certification system places ethnomedical healers in a legal gray area. second, the doctor’s qualification certification directly correlates with income growth. holders of the doctor’s qualification certificate are authorized to extend their practice beyond village-level settings to countyand citywide jurisdictions. more importantly, inclusion in the national medical insurance reimbursement system enables them to charge higher consultation fees. furthermore, they are eligible to open private clinics and apply for hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 12 published by ideas spread professional titles. for the younger generation of ethnomedical healers, having a certificate not only means legal protection but also serves as a “passport” into modern healthcare markets. last but not least, official certification carries significant social recognition value. most ethnomedical healers do not rely on medical practice as their main source of income, typically sustaining themselves through agriculture or other forms of labor. their healing practice is more driven by a sense of medical ethics, social responsibility, and deep-rooted community ties. although grassroots reputational recognition already constitutes a form of social recognition, state-issued medical certification represents formal acceptance by the mainstream healthcare system and official authority. consequently, despite persistent structural inequalities in examination design, most ethnomedical healers are still willing to invest substantial time and effort in pursuing certification. 3.3 “herbalists” with prescriptions but no qualifications 3.3.1 ethnomedical healers who possess herbal medicine knowledge but are unable to apply it the field research reveals a significant number of folk medicine practitioners in the lijiang area who possess traditional medical practice backgrounds and specialize in herbal treatments. however, these practitioners, armed with extensive herbal medicine knowledge, generally find it challenging to realize their value due to the lack of a certificate. in in-depth interviews, most of them felt they had “specialized skills” but were restricted from exercising them by the lack of a medical certificate. this study presents the predicament of unlicensed herbalists in the lijiang area through in-depth interviews with folk medicine practitioners of different ages, genders, and ethnic backgrounds, as well as those who have and have not obtained the tcm specialist’s certificate, and members of the lijiang ethnomedicine association. it combines data statistics and case analysis to offer a multiperspective view. the table below presents a statistical overview of some of the ethnomedical healers interviewed during the field survey: table 1. overview of ethnomedical healers in lijiang (partial)[9] pseudonym ethnic group years of practice rural doctor’ certificate (yes/no) tcm specialist certificate (yes/no) reasons for not obtaining certification doctor he tibetan no yes / doctor zhuoma tibetan 27 no yes / doctor zhou naxi no yes / doctor mu naxi 37 no no lack of training, health issues doctor he naxi 17 yes no inadequate modern medical theory doctor wang bai 26 no no use of toxic herbs in prescriptions doctor zhao bai 21 yes no inadequate theoretical knowledge in modern medical science, strong accent in speaking putonghua 3.3.2 doctor wang, a herbalist who can’t treat illnesses without toxic herbs “there’s no way around it. i can’t control it. without toxic herbs, i wouldn’t know how to treat illnesses!” doctor wang, a well-known inheritor of ethnomedicine in diantou village, jiuhe bai autonomous township, lijiang, comes from a family of herbalists. he began learning traditional medical skills at the age of 19 and started practicing medicine at 29. with 26 years of clinical experience, he is proficient in identifying and using over a thousand types of chinese herbal medicines and is respectfully referred to as the “king of herbal medicine” in the lijiang area. his family-passed-down prescriptions cover a variety of therapies, including oral intake, topical application, acupuncture, and cupping, which can effectively treat a wide range of diseases, especially excelling in treating external injuries, bone injuries, and chronic illnesses. his distinctive therapeutic methods enjoy widespread local recognition. it is said that a patient with a severed thumb, after receiving topical treatment with his secret herbal formulation, regenerated new tissue and skin within days. this stands in stark contrast to modern medicine’s complicated process involving registration, suturing, the use of antibiotics, and long-term recovery. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 13 published by ideas spread doctor wang once held a “specialized skill” certificate and practiced legally during a three-year policy period in yunnan, accumulating rich clinical experience and a “high reputation” among his fellow countrypeople. however, after the “specialized skill” certificate expired, he failed to obtain the tcm specialist’s certificate despite taking the exam twice. wang’s failure is closely related to his use of toxic herbs in his secret formula. in the first assessment, he mentioned in both his application case and the interview that he often included toxic herbs in his prescriptions for patients, especially aconite and kusnezoff monkshood root[10]. in naxi medicine, “toxic” and “beneficial” are relative. often, “the more toxic the medicine, the more effective it is.” that is, after processing and neutralization, some toxic herbs have a more significant therapeutic effect than ordinary herbal medicines. however, to avoid potential treatment risks, the modern medical system prohibits the use of any “toxic medicinal materials.” therefore, it was not surprising that wang did not pass the assessment. learning from his first failure and with the assistance of president liu of the lijiang ethnomedicine association, wang revised his application materials to remove all toxic herb components from his treatment cases and was advised to avoid mentioning toxic herbs during the assessment. however, how could a few words of advice change a 20-year-plus treatment habit? in the second assessment, wang again blurted out the toxic herb formula when explaining his self-prepared prescription and was “vetoed” by the examiners. in doctor wang’s medical knowledge system, the preparation of toxic herbs is a “skill” rather than a “risk,” while in the examiners’ evaluation criteria, “toxic” is directly equated with “illegal” and “risk.” now, when doctor wang recalls the two assessment experiences, he does not show obvious regret. he holds complex views regarding certification, expressing concern that westernized standardized examinations could disrupt his own cognitive framework: “as a practitioner of chinese medicine, i should adhere to its theoretical foundations. studying western medical concepts would only create confusion in my mind.”[11] furthermore, wang prioritizes caring for his elderly mother in her advanced years—even if certified, he would be unwilling to leave his homeland to practice. thus, certification is a must-have for him. his medical knowledge has already been inherited by his children and three apprentices, allowing his practice to continue serving local communities through the traditional principle of “yi bu kou men” (medical care is not actively solicited, but respectfully provided when sought). doctor wang’s case reflects the deep-seated problems of the current assessment system: when traditional ethnomedicine is based on its distinct theoretical system and diagnostic and treatment logic, the standardized modern medical assessment model not only fails to objectively evaluate its actual medical value but may also create institutional exclusion. there is a fundamental epistemological conflict between ethnomedicine’s “using toxicity to counteract toxicity” treatment philosophy and the modern medicine’s “toxicity avoidance”; there is an evaluative conflict between ethnomedicine’s individualized diagnostic and therapeutic experience and the unified assessment standards of modern medicine; and there is a cultural value conflict between ethnomedical healers serving dual roles as cultural custodians and healthcare providers and the current assessment system that reduces their multidimensional medical practice into singular certification criteria. the root of this assessment system’s dilemma lies in its failure to acknowledge the importance of ethnomedicine as a local knowledge system. 3.3.3 doctor he, a gynecology specialist who is only certified to treat spleen and stomach disorders “i did pass the exam, but it was really tough, and now i can only treat spleen and stomach disorders.” doctor he was born into a traditional medical family in the multi-ethnic area of lijiang. as a tibetan, his father was a folk herbalist who traveled between villages. doctor he began learning naxi medical knowledge from a dongba (naxi religious leader) master at a young age and became the fifth-generation inheritor of ethnomedicine. in his medical system, he is best at using “urine diagnosis” to treat diseases. this diagnostic method originates from the theoretical techniques of the traditional naxi “golden-turtle eight-diagram chart,” which emphasizes the correspondence between the five internal organs and six bowels in the human body and the five elements of “wood, fire, earth, metal, and water.” hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 14 published by ideas spread figure 1. the naxi “golden-turtle eight-diagram chart”[12] the naxi urine diagnosis technique, inherited by doctor he, has a unique diagnostic logic: morning urine, which stays in the human body for the longest time, is considered to most accurately reflect the body’s condition. doctor he’s diagnostic method is as follows: he stirs the urine with a hollow hemp stalk and observes the color of the urine, the size of the foam, its duration, location, and other floating objects. the direction in which the foam stays after stirring is interpreted according to the “golden-turtle eight-diagram chart” to identify the location of the disease. for example, if the foam stays to the south, it usually indicates a problem with the kidneys. in addition, he also takes into account the wind direction, the patient’s diet of the previous day, and their complexion to make a comprehensive judgment. doctor he says, “no matter which part of the body is ill, it will cause pain and discomfort, tilting the balance between different parts. the foam in the urine will concentrate in the ‘heavy’ position, that is, the position where there is pain.”[13] doctor he is capable of treating a variety of diseases, especially gynecological disorders. however, when he took the yunnan provincial examination for the tcm specialist’s certificate in 2022, to maximize his chances of certification, he made a strategic decision to forgo applying for the disease categories in which he possessed the most profound clinical expertise. instead, he applied for certification in spleen and stomach disorders, a domain he perceived as more familiar and more readily translatable into the standardized tcm terminology. this choice enabled him to become one of the exceedingly rare practitioners in the lijiang area to obtain formal qualification certification. however, it also directly limits his practice to the treatment of spleen and stomach disorders, creating a clear mismatch between the scope of his certified practice and his actual area of expertise. doctor he’s success was hard won. he underwent systematic exam-preparation training in various aspects provided by the lijiang ethnomedicine association. during the two-year preparation period, he not only systematically received training in converting naxi medical concepts into standardized tcm expressions, including repeated drilling of putonghua pronunciation for key terms, but also received non-verbal communication training, including standardized posture, deliberate eye contact, and controlled speech rhythm. moreover, he received training in differentiated presentation strategies, such as highlighting the commonalities between naxi medicine and tcm theory and employing comparative frameworks to stimulate examiners’ interest. president liu also repeatedly advised doctor he, “do not just passively answer the examiners’ questions. treat the exam site as a stage for teaching naxi medicine.”[14] during the exam preparation, although doctor he did learn a certain amount of basic tcm theory, he invested substantial time and effort into interview skills and mock-answer training. the above-mentioned training process far exceeded the traditional scope of “medical skills assessment” and was more like a large-scale “exam-taking skills” training project. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 15 published by ideas spread the case of doctor he, who is good at gynecology but has to practice in the field of spleen and stomach disorders, also reflects the series of dilemmas faced by most ethnomedical healers. first, the difference in evaluation standards. the tcm theory, which serves as the basis for exam preparation, does have some help and value for him. however, the difficulty of the exam is not the level of medical skills, but the difference in evaluation standards. second, the mismatch of the certification system. in the practice of the specialist assessment, the candidates’ diagnostic ability and experience come second to the comprehensive training they received in preparing for the exam, in expressing and presenting themselves. as a result, certification mismatch is common, where “competent doctors may not pass the exam, and those who pass may not be competent.” 4. reality, dilemmas, and reform: perspectives of tcm and western medicine practitioners to further explore the cognitive differences between different medical systems, this study employs an interdisciplinary comparative research method. several young practitioners with backgrounds in tcm or western medicine from major hospitals or medical colleges in shanghai and guangzhou were invited to participate in the field survey. supplementary interviews were conducted regarding their perceptions of ethnomedical healers, the tcm specialist system, and the relationship between ethnomedicine and modern medicine. 4.1 a public health perspective on the drawbacks of ethnomedical diagnosis and treatment methods ms. wang,[15] a postgraduate student majoring in public health from shanghai jiao tong university, expressed different views on the hygiene issues in the diagnostic and therapeutic processes of some ethnomedical healers. she believes that in the absence of strict disinfection or the implementation of infectious disease control procedures, some medical practices may pose a potential risk of cross-infection. for example, doctor wang, after finishing farm work, performs cupping and blood-letting for patients without disinfection. although this might be efficient, there is a risk of spreading infectious diseases. in contrast, doctor zhao, who holds a rural doctor certificate, will always wear gloves and use alcohol swabs and other modern medical protective measures, even when just providing head therapy for patients, demonstrating a higher level of hygiene awareness and professional standards. ms. wang is cautious about the certification of ethnomedical healers. she emphasizes that medical practice must be based on a systematic theoretical framework and standardized hygiene criteria. she also believes that although doctor wang’s herbal therapy, which “uses toxicity to counteract toxicity,” has certain therapeutic effects, its excessive reliance on toxic medicinal materials, lack of systematic theoretical support, and risk management mechanisms make it difficult to meet modern medical review standards. in comparison, she is more inclined to practitioners who can clearly explain the logic of diagnosis and treatment using tcm theory, such as doctor zhou[16]. for ethnomedicine practitioners with specialized skills, she believes that establishing a differentiated qualification certification channel based on the “specialized skill” certificate model in yunnan province is a rational solution. she also pointed out a weakness in the current tcm specialist assessment system: the lack of corresponding “standardized training” (i.e., residency training), which means that even if some ethnomedical healers pass the exam, they are unable to effectively implement the mainstream medical practice standards. in summary, ms. wang, with her background in public health knowledge, prefers to establish a continuous training system and hygiene evaluation mechanism to ensure both efficacy and safety, rather than making a conclusion based on a one-time assessment, when it comes to solving the dilemma of the ethnomedicine practitioner assessment system. 4.2 a clinical medicine perspective on the certification of ethnomedical healers doctor zhong, a postgraduate student with a background in modern clinical medicine[17], shared the importance of “official certification” and “evidence-based” practice in the modern medical system during her participation in the field survey of ethnomedicine, and her insights into the current tcm specialist assessment system. as a physician who has undergone systematic clinical training in modern medicine, she pointed out that from the patient’s perspective, official licensing and institutional accreditation are prerequisites for gaining trust. “if i were a patient, i would want to know if the doctor has an official license. a professional qualification certificate would make me feel more at ease.”[18] she does not dismiss the empirical expertise of certain ethnomedical healers, but maintains that the current system lacks a stable and standardized evaluation framework capable of reliably distinguishing which healers merit certification. particularly given the numerous uncontrolled variables in areas such as theoretical articulation, diagnostic standardization, and hygiene safeguards, she argues that precipitous certification could undermine public trust in healthcare governance. she also emphasized the differences between modern “evidence-based medicine” and the “dialectical medicine” of folk traditional medicine. the diagnostic and treatment process of ethnomedicine often lacks systematic evidence-based medical support, and its efficacy evaluation mainly relies on the subjective symptom improvement hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 16 published by ideas spread described by patients. however, in the framework of modern medicine, the diagnosis and efficacy evaluation of organic diseases such as heart failure depend largely on objective and quantifiable structural indicators. therefore, there is a widespread problem of “inability to verify the correctness of the theory” facing both tcm and ethnomedicine practitioners, which leads to the “misalignment” problem in the institutional assessment and makes it difficult to formulate a scientific and consistent certification mechanism. in addition, she pointed out that there is room for improvement in the current application mechanism. whether it is the treatment experience learned in the field survey or the ten treatment cases filled in the application materials, their authenticity lacks verification, and there is a risk of “survivor bias.” in summary, doctor zhong is reserved about “whether to issue a certificate.” she does not deny that the tcm specialist system, to some extent, prevents the erosion of folk hype or “undeserved” medical skills on the medical system, nor does she deny that a legal channel should be provided for some ethnomedical healers. however, she still insists that a more verifiable, comprehensive, fair, and socially responsible set of standards must be established. when referring to the admission mechanism of international medical colleges, she suggests that recommendation systems and clinical case weighting evaluation mechanisms can be introduced as appropriate, but the premise is that there must be perfect information verification and follow-up training to truly be responsible to patients, the system, and ethnomedical healers. 4.3 perspectives of tcm professionals in addition to the above two participants with backgrounds in public health or modern medicine, this field survey also included a couple of tcm professionals from guangzhou university of chinese medicine: one is engaged in tcm research, while the other provides medical consultations online as a “barefoot doctor”; though neither is a registered licensed doctor, both have received systematic training on tcm theories. mr. liang, the “barefoot doctor,” holds relatively straightforward and positive views. after observing the diagnostic and treatment processes of ethnomedical healers, he gave high praise, especially impressed by doctor wang’s treatment of bone injuries. he believes that doctor wang’s pulse-taking, analysis, and prescribing are all very professional and live up to his “reputation” among neighbors. as a tcm practitioner who has received systematic academic training, liang can confirm the practical efficacy of ethnomedical healers in specific fields through clinical observation. in contrast, ms. chen, the researcher with a ph.d., is more critical. she believes that some ethnomedical healers have a relatively singular approach to syndrome differentiation and a more formulaic use of medicine, which fails to reflect the core tcm philosophy of emphasizing a holistic view and differentiation of individual constitutions. for example, she observed that some of doctor wang’s prescriptions, regardless of the patient’s constitution or disease stage, have almost the same combination of medicinal herbs, lacking targeted modifications. in contrast, in clinical practice of tcm professionals who have received proper formal tcm training, auxiliary or adjuvant ingredients are often added based on the patient’s specific constitution and manifestations of deficiency, excess, cold, or heat to enhance efficacy or reduce side effects, which is less common among ethnomedical healers. moreover, ms. chen believes that the use of toxic herbs is too risky and unnecessary, as other non-toxic herbs can achieve similar effects. in her view, the safety of medication should not be overshadowed by its efficacy. however, the couple agrees on the pharmacological value of the vast majority of herbal medicines used by ethnomedical healers. the herbs collected and processed by these healers often demonstrate bioactivity. combined with lijiang’s superior geographical conditions—renowned as the “homeland of medicinal herbs”—these locally sourced herbs consistently show superior efficacy compared to the standardized, pre-processed formulations available in urban hospitals. in summary, the views of this couple reveal a spectrum of attitudes, ranging from recognition and appreciation to skepticism, within the institutionalized tcm community toward ethnomedicine. this indicates that ethnomedical healers are not entirely outside modern healthcare systems, and their diagnostic and therapeutic approaches can gain technical acknowledgment from practitioners with systematic training. however, significant gaps remain in terms of standardization and other aspects. 4.4 differences among ethnomedical healers compared to the established medical systems of tibetan, mongolian, uyghur, and dai medicine within the current ethnomedical framework, ethnomedicine in lijiang, such as naxi medicine and lisu medicine, is in a relatively disadvantaged position. currently, there is more government policy support for mongolian, tibetan, uyghur, and dai medicine in terms of academic inheritance, medical innovation promotion, and more. in addition, many tibetan and mongolian medicines have been included in the national catalog of medicines covered by medical hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 17 published by ideas spread insurance. in contrast, lijiang’s ethnomedicines (such as naxi herbal medicines) remain predominantly selfcollected and self-administered within local communities, or are marketed as semi-processed herbal products, with a relatively low commercialization and specialization level, hindering their access to mainstream healthcare markets. according to doctor zhuoma, a tibetan physician interviewed in this field survey, one reason tibetan medicine can be widely incorporated into the national healthcare systems is that most of the examiners in the tcm specialist assessment are tibetan doctors. therefore, they can better understand the unique theories of tibetan medicine articulated by the candidates, such as blood-letting therapy and tibetan medicinal baths. these innovations are not confined to the theoretical framework of modern tcm. thus, the evaluation and certification by examiners from the same ethnic group are more accurate and more in line with the candidates’ actual situations. however, for ethnomedical healers in the lijiang area, the examiners, most of whom are from modern medical backgrounds, often possess only a partial understanding of the theoretical frameworks and therapies unique to naxi and other ethnic medical traditions. consequently, the evaluation criteria they employ are ill-suited to evaluate ethnomedical knowledge systems. the lack of official discourse power in the evaluation system also exacerbates disparities among china’s diverse ethnomedical traditions, which is one of the obstacles preventing lijiang’s ethnomedical healers from obtaining formal qualification certification. 5. conclusion the difficulties ethnomedical healers face in practicing legally are essentially not due to their inadequacy in medical skills but rather the structural limitations of the modern medical system and institutions in recognizing diverse medical traditions. these practitioners are squeezed into a “gray area”—they possess unique diagnostic and therapeutic memories passed down through generations, but they remain marginalized in a position of “having specialized skills but unable to exercise them” due to their inability to fit into mainstream certification and lack of discourse power in the evaluation system. the tcm specialist system implemented in china was well-intended as a policy attempt to integrate folk medical resources. however, in practice, it has revealed deep-seated contradictions in the compatibility of knowledge systems, ignoring the diversity of knowledge structures and differences in expression and operation among tcm, western medicine, and ethnomedicine. the requirement for a standardized assessment of empirical medical skills has instead created new institutional problems. during the field survey, every ethnomedicine practitioner i encountered held this belief: regardless of who, when, or where, the most basic and core job of a physician is to heal the sick and save lives. whether or not they have official recognition or sufficient discourse power, ethnomedical healers still persist in using their family-passeddown medical skills to alleviate the suffering of patients in the countryside and take on the responsibility of healing. this evaluation system and practical wisdom even transcend the value system associated with the doctor’s certificate—their medical value is not simply reflected in a piece of paper but is profoundly embedded in the memories of recovered patients. in summary, findings from this field survey and in-depth interviews with various groups from diverse medical backgrounds reveal that the certification challenges facing ethnomedical healers reflect a deeper question: when modernity encounters diverse medical traditions, by what criteria should “legitimacy” be defined? should it prioritize theoretical conformity or return to therapeutic efficacy? the marginalization of ethnomedical healers by tcm and western medicine systems precisely illustrates that a truly inclusive medical system should respect and accept diverse therapeutic paradigms and acknowledge the right to practice medicine through the lens of diverse knowledge systems. references [1] the standing committee of the national people’s congress. (2021). the law on licensed doctors of the people’s republic of china. [2] fang, x. (2024). barefoot doctors and western medicines in china (g. dong et al., trans.). social sciences academic press. (original work published 2024) [3] the state council. (2024). administrative regulations on the medical practice of rural doctors (decree no. 386 of the state council). https://www.gov.cn/zwgk/2005-05/23/content_165.htm [4] ministry of health of the people’s republic of china. (2006). measures on the qualification assessment and examination of traditional medicine apprentices and specialists (decree no. 52 of the ministry of health). https://www.nhc.gov.cn/wjw/c100221/202201/6ce13fc2e98f4e35973ef62d1e6f32da.shtml [5] national health and family planning commission. (2017). interim administrative measures for the qualification assessment and registration of tcm specialists. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 18 published by ideas spread [6] data source: lijiang ethnomedicine association. [7] liu jianqin (1966), president of the lijiang ethnomedicine association, has been dedicated to digging and sorting out the traditional medical knowledge of the naxi ethnic group. [8] interview with liu jianqin. july 4, 2025. [9] data source: lijiang ethnomedicine association and case interviews. [10] aconite and kusnezoff monkshood root are highly toxic. china’s administrative measures for toxic drugs for medicinal useclearly stipulates the processing and management methods for these two types of medicinal materials. to prevent risks in medical use, except for designated institutions, no other units or individuals are allowed to engage in the procurement, distribution, or formulation of toxic drugs. this also restricts the inheritance and use of ethnomedicine practitioners' secret remedies that employ “using toxicity to counteract toxicity.” [11] interview with doctor wang on july 5, 2025. [12] the golden turtle bagua chart painted on the wall of the lijiang ethnomedicine association, photo taken on july 16, 2024. [13] interview with doctor he on july 4, 2025. [14] interview with president liu on july 4, 2025. [15] ms. wang is a postgraduate student majoring in public health at shanghai jiao tong university. the interview was conducted on july 8, 2025. [16] doctor zhou is vice president of the lijiang ethnomedicine association, specialized in the research of naxi medicine theory and committed to the conservation and teaching of ethnomedicine. [17] doctor zhong is a postgraduate student in the cardiology department at shanghai jiao tong university school of medicine, with a background in modern clinical medicine. she has several years of clinical internship experience in public hospitals and has participated in a medical education exchange program in the united states. [18] interview with doctor zhong on july 7, 2025. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n2p30 30 published by ideas spread research on the realization path of intangible cultural heritage inheritance from the perspective of public cultural services: a case study of yao long-drum dance in s town bin tu1 & yingqi chen1 1 school of public administration, guangdong university of foreign studies, china correspondence: yingqi chen, school of public administration, guangdong university of foreign studies, guangzhou, 510410, china. e-mail: 932368271 qq.com received: march 12, 2025; accepted: march 26, 2025; published: march 28, 2025 supported by national social science fund project "research on the mechanism for achieving equalization and accessibility of basic public cultural services" (no.20bgl277). abstract against the backdrop of constructing a modern public cultural service system, the intangible cultural heritage (ich) inheritance faces multiple challenges, including the aging of inheritors, superficial application of technology, and weakening of cultural identity. taking the yao ethnic group's long drum dance in s town, g province, as a typical case, this study systematically analyzes the internal mechanism and practical paths of ich inheritance based on the technology-organization-environment (toe) framework. the research reveals that: the technology dimension breaks through the temporal and spatial barriers of inheritance through media innovation and spatial reconstruction, promoting the transformation of ich from "closed skills" to "open resources"; the organization dimension relies on multi-stakeholder collaboration and institutional embedding to form a closed-loop link of "skill inheritance knowledge dissemination value transformation", breaking the dilemma of resource fragmentation; the environment dimension reconstructs the social legitimacy of ich through cultural meaning re-production and dynamic adaptation to needs, promoting its upgrading from "static protection" to "dynamic evolution." on this basis, the study further proposes a "technology empowerment organization collaboration environment activation" holistic improvement path, emphasizing the need to achieve a systematic breakthrough in the living heritage of ich through in-depth application of digitalization, optimization of the stakeholder network, and cultivation of the cultural ecosystem. keywords: public cultural service, intangible cultural heritage, toe framework 1. introduction the state council's "opinions on further strengthening the protection of intangible cultural heritage" explicitly proposes the goal of building a "scientific, standardized, systematic, and complete system for the protection and inheritance of intangible cultural heritage," integrating ich protection into the core agenda of public cultural service system construction.as of march 2025, the national-level ich inheritor pool has reached 3,998 individuals, with 942 new inheritors added in the sixth batch, demonstrating the national strategic deployment to strengthen cultural inheritance through the construction of talent echelons.intangible cultural heritage is the core carrier of chinese culture, and its protection and inheritance have become an important component of the national cultural security strategy. moreover, ich serves as a core carrier for constructing a modern public cultural service system. through living heritage, it maintains cultural genes, fosters national consensus, and provides irreplaceable strategic support for strengthening the sense of community of the chinese nation, promoting rural revitalization, and safeguarding national cultural security.however, current ich inheritance still faces practical challenges, such as the prominent aging of inheritors, necessitating measures like "rescue protection for inheritors over 65 years old" to maintain the continuation of skills. the connection mechanism between ich protection and public cultural services needs further improvement.therefore, how to rely on more means to enhance dissemination effectiveness and stimulate the participation of younger generations has become an urgent issue to be addressed. current research on intangible cultural heritage (hereinafter referred to as "ich") in china mainly focuses on the following aspects: first, studies on inheritance mechanisms. it has been suggested that in the "post-inscription hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 31 published by ideas spread era," a multi-faceted protection network of "government-led, scholar-supported, and community-participated" should be constructed to avoid the "administratization" tendency in policy implementation (duan & zheng, 2015). through historical stage research, it was pointed out that china's ich protection has shifted from "rescue protection" to focusing on living heritage, emphasizing that the concept of "seeing people, seeing objects, and seeing life" should run through policy design, advocating for the activation of cultural vitality through the improvement of inheritors' abilities and community participation (ma et al., 2019). using new media practices as an example, it was found that live streaming platforms and contextualized narratives can break through traditional inheritance boundaries (liu, 2021). based on the theory of "glocalization," it has been emphasized that in the internet era, the "local globalization" of ich should be realized through multi-party empowerment and crossborder integration to enhance public cultural awareness (guo, 2023). second, studies on protection models. through the analysis of laws and regulations, it was found that public cultural institutions (such as museums and libraries) undertake the functions of preservation, research, and dissemination in ich protection, but regional differences lead to the diversity of protection objects (chen, 2019). it has been proposed that during the "14th five-year plan" period, systematic protection policies should be strengthened, and the coordinated development of ich with rural revitalization and cultural tourism integration should be promoted through classified management and financial support (ding, 2020). third, studies on development paths. cultural tourism integration models such as "ich + study tours" and "ich + homestays" emphasize the need to establish archives of traditional material cultural heritage to ensure cultural roots (zhao, 2021). based on scene theory, it has been proposed that public cultural venues should enhance the sense of experience through a four-dimensional framework of "environment-culture-education-combination," combined with virtual reality technology (liu, 2021). it has been further pointed out that digital technology can break through the limitations of time and space, providing a technical path for the development of ich (guo, 2023). in summary, existing research mostly focuses on macro policies, with insufficient discussion on grassroots practice mechanisms from a micro perspective. in research, more emphasis is placed on the application of tools, while the practical exploration of the ich inheritance process is relatively lacking. moreover, existing case studies are mostly concentrated in developed regions, and the analysis of the characteristic ich inheritance mechanisms in ethnic regions is not deep enough, lacking in-depth analysis combined with theoretical frameworks. l autonomous county relies on the "regulations on the protection of national cultural heritage" to construct a "three-in-one" protection framework. its national-level ich project, the "yao long drum dance," has become a model for the supply of public cultural services in ethnic minority areas through innovative practices such as digital archiving and cultural tourism integration. this study takes the yao long drum dance in s town as a starting point, and constructs an analysis framework of ich inheritance paths through the toe (technology-organizationenvironment) model, exploring its internal influence mechanism, and providing reference ideas for promoting the development and inheritance of ich culture. figure 1. framework for the practical mechanisms of ich inheritance hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 32 published by ideas spread 2. toe (technology-organization-environment) framework construction the toe (technology-organization-environment) framework, proposed by tornatzky and fleischer, was initially used to analyze factors influencing corporate innovation. subsequently, it has been expanded and applied to various research areas such as open innovation in the public sector and government data disclosure (ding et al., 2020). in practical applications, the toe framework demonstrates good applicability and explanatory power. by categorizing influencing factors into three types—technology, organization, and environment—it allows for a comprehensive analysis of the conditions under which each dimension operates and can be flexibly adjusted based on the specific research object. therefore, this paper employs the toe framework to summarize and categorize the factors influencing ich inheritance into three aspects: technological context, organizational context, and environmental context. this forms an analytical framework for the practical mechanisms of ich inheritance, as shown in figure 1. 2.1 technological context in ich inheritance, the technological context refers to communication media (including traditional media and digital dissemination platforms) and infrastructure construction (including the construction of public cultural service stations). on the one hand, with the continuous development of digitization, communication media are no longer limited to traditional media such as news, newspapers, and bulletin boards. the continuous development of digital cultural cloud platforms and short video platforms has made ich inheritance more convenient and complete in terms of technological context. for example, digital cultural cloud platforms can better promote ich by uploading activity videos and traditional ich courses, increasing its exposure and enhancing the accessibility of ich culture, breaking through the temporal and spatial barriers of ich inheritance. on the other hand, infrastructure construction provides venues for ich dissemination. for example, cultural stations can help ich inheritance by providing rehearsal venues, organizing ich courses, and carrying out ich activities, thereby providing more people with channels to access ich culture, sparking their interest in ich culture, forming an "online-offline" integrated communication network, and promoting ich from static preservation to living heritage. 2.2 organizational context the organizational context mainly includes inheritance subjects and institutional guarantees. the inheritance subjects mainly include ich inheritors, cultural stations, and schools, while the institutional guarantees are mainly ich funding. inheritance subjects are a crucial part of the ich inheritance process, both because ich inheritors are the practical carriers of traditional skills and because cultural stations, schools, and other subjects play an undeniable role in cultural dissemination. the general public can learn about ich by participating in courses and activities organized by cultural stations, while students, as the successors of the times, can better continue ich culture. from the perspective of the inheritance chain, ich inheritors, as cultural carriers, need to form a collaborative network with organizations such as schools and cultural stations to achieve intergenerational transmission through curriculum development and activity planning. at the same time, institutional guarantees, mainly in the form of ich funding, are also an indispensable organizational context. for ich inheritance, countylevel, city-level, and provincial-level ich funding is an important source of funds for maintaining ich inheritance, which is even more important for remote areas or ich that is relatively unknown to the public. this funding not only provides a good material foundation for ich inheritance but also provides economic support for its further continuation and promotion, alleviating the structural contradiction between inheritors' "lack of internal motivation" and "lack of external resources." 2.3 environmental context the environmental context in ich inheritance mainly refers to cultural identity and cultural needs. cultural identity refers to the degree of psychological acceptance of the value of ich culture by social groups, specifically including the emotional preferences of the new generation for ich culture, the recognition of the values carried by ich, and the subjective willingness to participate in ich inheritance. cultural needs reflect the adaptation relationship between ich and social functions, including both original cultural needs (such as the yao long drum dance initially serving as a medium for clan migration records and ancestral inheritance) and modern derivative needs (such as the extension of the long drum dance to popular cultural scenes such as hunting, sericulture, and marriage). a good ich inheritance environment helps to stimulate the public's motivation for ich dissemination, transforming their attitude towards ich culture from passive acceptance to active inheritance and development. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 33 published by ideas spread 3. exploring the intrinsic mechanism of intangible cultural heritage inheritance: a case study of the yao ethnic group's long-drum dance in s town 3.1 case study introduction 3.1.1 case selection and source of materials this study employs the case study method, selecting s town in l autonomous county, g province, as the research case. materials were gathered through field investigations and semi-structured interviews in the case area. the main research subjects were the heads of the s town cultural station. the current state of inheritance of the yao ethnic group's long-drum dance (an intangible cultural heritage item) in the town was ascertained through actual field visits and research. l autonomous county is located in the n mountainous area of northern g province, known as the "hundred-li yao mountains." it is one of the main settlements of the yao ethnic group in g province. s town is the most populous yao ethnic group settlement town in l autonomous county and the largest yao town in g province, with a yao registered population of approximately 28,000, administering 10 administrative villages. s town is the only yao settlement in the country, possessing well-preserved traditional villages such as the n millennium yao village and y ancient village, both designated as "famous historical and cultural villages of china." it gathers three national-level intangible cultural heritage items, including the yao ethnic group's long-drum dance, "shuagetang," and yao embroidery, as well as eight provincial-level intangible cultural heritage projects. s town has a complete intangible cultural heritage inheritor system, with three national-level and two provincial-level inheritors, accounting for more than 60% of the total number of intangible cultural heritage inheritors in the county. the selection of s town, l autonomous county, as a research case is mainly based on the following reasons: first, case representativeness. as the core inheritance area of the national-level intangible cultural heritage "yao ethnic group's long-drum dance," s town preserves the "east sanpai" and "west wupai" schools of the longdrum dance relatively completely. moreover, as a key area for ethnic intangible cultural heritage policies, s town has accumulated more than 10 million yuan in funding for ancient village restoration, intangible cultural heritage workshop construction, and cultural tourism integration projects. second, theoretical relevance. the three conditions of technology, organization, and environment are well-aligned with the factors required by s town in the inheritance of the long-drum dance intangible cultural heritage. this allows for a better matching of the theoretical framework with the actual situation, providing replicable experiences for ethnic minority areas through local innovation. 3.1.2 current status of long-drum dance inheritance in s town s town, as the core protection area of l yao culture, is an important inheritance area for the yao ethnic group's long-drum dance. currently, areas such as youling pai and nangang pai in s town retain the original form of the long-drum dance, with its performance style typically represented by the lively and bold "east sanpai." youling village, as a national-level intangible cultural heritage inheritance base, has representative inheritors such as the "drum king" and has established a long-drum dance training system covering 10 administrative villages and 11 primary and secondary schools, having trained more than 500 young inheritors. however, due to the impact of population outflow, the participation in the village's long-drum training classes is low, and the inheritance of skills faces the risk of discontinuity, with only a few villages such as youling and nangang still retaining complete skills. "the long-drum dance has been lost in other villages, only y, n, and c, and other yao cultures are also better preserved in these three villages." "now young people go out to work and earn money, and no one wants to participate in the long-drum and other training classes held in the village." "we want to organize traditional culture training but there is no funding, and we want to organize others to learn but no one comes to learn." the local area promotes long-drum dance teaching through the "intangible cultural heritage enters the campus" activity, but there is a problem of emphasizing action imitation and neglecting the transmission of cultural connotations. systematic education in historical background and cultural values needs to be improved. "although the long-drum dance is now included in primary and secondary school classrooms, in reality, only the movements are taught, lacking spirit and form, only to complete the classroom task. the real class should popularize the culture, history, and internal meaning of the drum while teaching the movements, so as to grasp the inner soul of the drum." hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 34 published by ideas spread "intangible cultural heritage entering the campus needs to bring the significance, cultural content, and value of intangible cultural heritage into the campus, so that the younger generation can share, inherit, and develop it." in recent years, the government has expanded inheritance paths through digital recording, cultural tourism integration, and other methods, such as creating the "yao dance music" live performance project, promoting the transformation of the long-drum dance from a traditional sacrificial dance to a cultural tourism product. in terms of institutional guarantees, it can also maintain the expenses required for the inheritance of the long-drum dance intangible cultural heritage by applying for county-level, city-level, and provincial-level intangible cultural heritage funds. the cultural station, as an important position for the inheritance of intangible cultural heritage in s town, not only provides venues for daily rehearsals and mass activities of the long-drum dance but can also be used to hold long-drum dance training classes. in addition, the cultural station also actively uses digital platforms for public cultural services such as the digital culture cloud for the public to browse and learn, but the platform's operating efficiency and content updates need to be improved. "there are many county-level regular intangible cultural heritage funds, and the money can be allocated to villages and towns for training and various performances." "there is a cultural room in the cultural station, and relevant activities are usually held in the cultural room." "we know about this (digital culture cloud) platform but have not uploaded relevant materials, mainly because it is difficult to upload, and there is also little promotion of this platform. if more activity videos and traditional intangible cultural heritage courses can be uploaded, it will be more beneficial to cultural promotion." 3.2 discussion on the intrinsic mechanism of intangible cultural heritage inheritance based on the toe framework based on the toe framework in the previous text, this study analyzes the case of the yao ethnic group's longdrum dance in s town to explore the intrinsic mechanism of how technological conditions, organizational conditions, and environmental conditions affect the inheritance process of intangible cultural heritage. 3.2.1 technological conditions: the dual drive of diversification of communication media and optimization of infrastructure for intangible cultural heritage inheritance technological conditions promote the diversification of intangible cultural heritage inheritance methods by diversifying communication media and optimizing infrastructure, increasing the opportunities for the public to understand and approach intangible cultural heritage, and making more people interested in participating in intangible cultural heritage culture. on the one hand, s town relies on new media technologies such as the digital culture cloud platform and short video platforms to digitally record and disseminate the long-drum dance performances, historical stories, and other content, breaking the geographical restrictions of traditional inheritance. for example, by publishing long-drum dance teaching videos through douyin's "intangible cultural heritage partner program," combined with modern editing techniques and interactive gameplay, the content's attractiveness has been significantly improved. on the other hand, the s town cultural station is a secondary cultural station and can receive subsidies from higher authorities every year. the various functional rooms in the cultural station are open regularly every day, such as the library, electronic reading room, and multi-functional rehearsal room. similarly, the cultural square, as the main venue for long-drum dance competitions and long-drum dance performance activities, provides more opportunities for the inheritance of the intangible cultural heritage longdrum dance.however, although the cultural station is equipped with digital equipment, the platform's content updates are lagging due to the lack of professional operators, and the utilization rate still needs to be improved. in addition, the participation in daily activities in some remote ancient villages' cultural stations and cultural squares is limited due to inconvenient transportation, and the role of most village-level cultural stations still needs to be further explored. technological conditions reshape the logical foundation of ich inheritance through the dual pathways of media innovation and spatial restructuring. in s town, short video platforms decompose long-drum dance movements into standardized teaching units, while virtual reality technology simulates performance scenarios, enabling individuals interested in the ich long-drum dance to access channels for understanding and learning in a more convenient manner. spatially, cultural stations and digital cloud platforms construct an ich inheritance network. the physical spaces of cultural stations serve as venues for skill practice and cultural interaction, while digital cloud platforms build cross-regional 'cultural communities' through online social groups, promoting the integration of inheritance with information technology. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 35 published by ideas spread 3.2.2 organizational conditions: multi-subject collaboration and institutional guarantees maintain the living inheritance of intangible cultural heritage organizational conditions maintain the living inheritance of intangible cultural heritage through the construction of inheritance networks and the integration of institutional resources. s town has formed a multi-subject network of "inheritors + cultural stations + schools + enterprises," in which inheritors are responsible for technical guidance, cultural stations organize daily training and exhibitions, primary and secondary schools incorporate the long-drum dance into the inter-class exercises, and cultural tourism enterprises develop long-drum dance-themed tourism projects. for example, nangang primary school cooperates with intangible cultural heritage workshops to offer "long-drum culture classes" with fixed class hours every week, and the student participation rate is high, but the teaching content is still mainly action imitation, and further interpretation of the yao culture it contains is needed. in terms of institutional guarantees, the county-level intangible cultural heritage funding has a large average annual investment, mainly used for inheritor subsidies, event organization, and facility maintenance. most of the funding is used for large-scale festive events, and only a small part is invested in inheritor training and digital construction, and the funding investment structure needs to be optimized. in addition, as the core organizational carrier, the town's cultural station has limited staffing and finds it difficult to balance administrative affairs and intangible cultural heritage inheritance, resulting in the execution efficiency of training plans needing to be improved, and the main role needs to be further developed. inheriting ich is fundamentally a collective endeavor. s town maintains the vitality of ich inheritance through targeted investment of dedicated ich funds, the establishment of an inheritor recognition system, and policies promoting cultural tourism integration to stimulate the economic value transformation of ich. cultural stations integrate dispersed resources, enterprises expand the boundaries of dissemination through market channels, and schools undertake the function of cultivating intergenerational cultural identity. this symbiotic relationship among multiple stakeholders shifts ich inheritance from a 'singular supply' to a 'systematic supply,' forming a dynamic structure where institutional guidance and stakeholder self-organization coexist. 3.2.3 environmental conditions: dynamic balance between cultural identity and demand orientation environmental conditions activate the sustainability of intangible cultural heritage inheritance through intergenerational cultural identity and market demand. the younger generation's cultural identity with the yao ethnic group's long-drum dance is lower than that of the older generation, mainly because the young yao people who are impacted by modern culture ignore ethnic beliefs, and the unique culture of the ethnic group is gradually diluted. similarly, the younger generation is more inclined to establish emotional connections through cultural and creative products and immersive experience activities (such as long-drum dance experiences and long-drum dance interactive performances) rather than systematically learning skills. on the other hand, the transformation of cultural needs forces inheritance innovation. the traditional sacrificial dance has been adapted into the "yao dance music" live performance, integrating modern lighting and plot design, with a large annual audience scale, realizing the transformation of intangible cultural heritage from "static display" to "dynamic consumption." however, excessive commercialization also has some drawbacks to the inheritance of the long-drum dance, such as shortening the performance time and simplifying the action routines to cater to tourists, which weakens the cultural core of the long-drum dance to a certain extent. the perpetuation of ich depends not only on the continuation of techniques but also on the reconstruction of value at the level of meaning. the diminished cultural identity of younger generations in s town with the yao ethnic group's long-drum dance reflects a disconnect between traditional yao culture and the new generation. therefore, expanding the long-drum dance from its traditional role in sacrificial rituals to encompass study tours and cultural and creative consumption scenarios can re-endow ich with new significance, thereby revitalizing it. this approach satisfies both the intrinsic need of the yao community to maintain their cultural roots and the extrinsic demands of modern society for cultural diversity and experiential economics. this transition promotes ich inheritance from 'cultural preservation' to 'cultural evolution,' fostering a healthier and more dynamically balanced inheritance ecosystem. 3.2.4 three-dimensional interaction: synergistic effect of technology-organization-environment the practice in s town shows that technological, organizational, and environmental conditions jointly affect the effectiveness of intangible cultural heritage inheritance through complementarity and constraints. digital platforms provide organizational subjects with efficient communication tools, but they need to be equipped with professional operation teams to play a role; the upgrading of cultural needs promotes organizational subjects to innovate inheritance forms, such as developing characteristic intangible cultural heritage tourism products, but they need technological empowerment, such as developing ar interactive products, to enhance attractiveness. however, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 36 published by ideas spread technological investment focuses on hardware construction and ignores content production and talent training; institutional guarantees rely on administrative dominance and fail to fully mobilize market and social forces; intergenerational differences in cultural identity lead to the "superficialization" of inheritance, making it difficult to form endogenous motivation. therefore, in the future, it is necessary to strengthen the depth of technology application, optimize organizational coordination mechanisms, and activate environmental vitality to promote the continuous deepening of intangible cultural heritage inheritance. as such, digital technologies provide instrumental support for organizational collaboration, with cloud platforms facilitating information sharing among multiple stakeholders. meanwhile, institutional design guides the direction of technological investment through funding allocation, preventing 'technological hollowing-out.' cultural identity, in turn, drives technological innovation and organizational reform through demand feedback mechanisms. however, technology can also present barriers to inheritors, particularly as older practitioners may face challenges in effectively utilizing advanced digital tools for ich transmission and promotion. furthermore, the expansion of market demand can lead to cultural alienation, where ich inheritance becomes superficial, focusing on outward forms while neglecting the intrinsic and significant ethnic culture it embodies. the experiences in s town demonstrate that effective inheritance necessitates the establishment of robust mechanisms, including the application and promotion of digital platforms, the improvement of cultural infrastructure construction, the leveraging of diverse stakeholders in the inheritance process, the mitigation of risks associated with overcommercialization, and the enhancement of demand for ich culture. 4. analysis of practical improvement mechanisms for intangible cultural heritage inheritance based on the analysis of the inheritance mechanism of the yao ethnic group's long-drum dance in s town in the above content, this study proposes the following improvement mechanisms. by constructing a "technology empowerment organizational collaboration environment activation" three-in-one improvement path, it aims to solve the core problems such as the superficial application of technology, the fragmentation of organizational collaboration, and the lack of environmental vitality. 4.1 technological dimension: building a "smart inheritance" ecosystem 4.1.1 construction of a digital content production system give full play to the role of the digital culture cloud platform. use technologies such as 3d modeling and motion capture to record the skills of the long-drum dance and the production process of the long drum in a holographic way. form an interactive digital resource library and upload it to the digital culture cloud platform, so that more people can obtain channels to understand and learn the intangible cultural heritage long-drum dance. at the same time, modularly classify the existing activity videos and course resources of the cultural station and update them regularly to the digital culture cloud platform to enhance content attractiveness. in addition, ar long-drum teaching modules can be jointly developed with long-drum dance inheritors to enhance the sense of immersion in learning through dynamic action demonstrations of virtual inheritors and explanations of historical scenes. 4.1.2 optimization of infrastructure grid layout implement the "1+n" cultural station program. taking the town's cultural station as the center, establish 5 village-level cultural stations in ancient villages with cultural tourism characteristics such as youling and nangang, and appropriately equip them with terminals such as vr experience equipment and smart teaching screens to form a "15-minute intangible cultural heritage service circle." to address the problem of inconvenient transportation in remote villages, develop a "mobile intangible cultural heritage service vehicle" equipped with portable exhibition equipment and a digital resource library. regularly carry out "sending culture to the countryside" activities to cover the vast majority of natural villages in the town and meet the needs of different regions for intangible cultural heritage culture. 4.2 organizational dimension: improving the "multi-governance" collaborative network 4.2.1 establish an intangible cultural heritage collaboration mechanism give full play to the role of multiple subjects. establish an intangible cultural heritage inheritance network composed of the bureau of culture and tourism, the bureau of education, the inheritors association, universities, and enterprises. formulate an annual inheritance plan to coordinate and promote teaching, exhibitions, research and development, and other work. for example, jointly build a "yao culture innovation laboratory" with universities to jointly develop long-drum dance ip derivatives; cooperate with cultural tourism enterprises to develop characteristic intangible cultural heritage tourism projects to attract more people to participate and achieve online and offline integrated communication. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 37 published by ideas spread 4.2.2 optimize the institutional guarantee and talent cultivation system optimize the expenditure structure of intangible cultural heritage funds, appropriately increase the proportion of intangible cultural heritage funds used for the training of inheritors, and focus on supporting young inheritors' entrepreneurship subsidies and technical improvement in intangible cultural heritage. add professional technical positions to the cultural station, and selectively recruit professional talents with skills in digital communication, cultural management, and other fields to improve the utilization level and effectiveness of the organization's digital platform. 4.3 environmental dimension: cultivating an "intergenerational integration" cultural ecology 4.3.1 deepen the "intangible cultural heritage + education" integration project incorporate the history of the long-drum dance, yao silver totems, and other content into local primary and secondary school ethnic characteristic textbooks, so that primary and secondary school students can more deeply understand the origin and development of the yao ethnic group's long-drum dance, enhance the cultural identity of primary and secondary school students, and then promote the inheritance of the intangible cultural heritage long-drum dance. in addition, through the development of "long-drum making + dance choreography" interdisciplinary project-based learning, encourage students to carry out practical activities to put the inheritance of intangible cultural heritage into practice. 4.3.2 promote the transformation of "sustainable cultural tourism" model while promoting the combination of intangible cultural heritage long-drum dance and characteristic cultural tourism, clarify the requirements for long-drum dance performance duration, action specifications, etc., and establish a "cultural core evaluation" mechanism to implement a one-vote veto for overly commercialized projects. at the same time, create an "intangible cultural heritage experience complex" to integrate ancient village sightseeing, long-drum dance workshops, yao silver customization, and other formats, and design a "deep intangible cultural heritage research route" to attract tourists and enhance their tour stay practice. in addition, it is also possible to form a "old artists + new farmers" inheritance community by cultivating and supporting young people returning to their hometowns to open long-drum dance studios, yao silver live broadcast rooms, etc., to promote the sustainable development of "cultural tourism + intangible cultural heritage." 4.4 three-dimensional collaboration: building an "ecological" inheritance system integrate data resources from cultural stations, schools, and enterprises to realize the digitization of the entire process of training registration, event reservation, and funding supervision. through the platform, intelligently match the needs of inheritors, venues, and students, dynamically adjust teaching plans, and improve resource utilization efficiency. organize villagers to participate in field investigations such as long-drum dance historical textual research and silver ornament pattern restoration to enhance cultural subjectivity. establish an "intangible cultural heritage points system" to link participation in inheritance activities with homestead application and evaluation and selection, and stimulate community endogenous motivation. use big data to analyze the cultural preferences of young people, develop targeted intangible cultural heritage products, and achieve cross-circle communication through douyin challenges, bilibili documentaries, and other forms. references chen, r. h. (2019). responsibilities, scope and objects of public cultural institutions participating in intangible cultural heritage protection: an analysis based on laws and regulations. library and information knowledge, (06), 59-67. https://doi.org/10.13366/j.dik.2019.06.059 ding, y. z. (2020). research on systematic protection policies and measures for intangible cultural heritage during the "14th five-year plan" period. management world, 36(11), 22-35. https://doi.org/10.19744/j.cnki.111235/f.2020.0166 duan, y. w., & zheng, y. (2015). social participation in the protection of intangible cultural heritage in the "postapplication era". cultural heritage, (05), 1-10+157. guo, y. p., & jia, l. l. (2023). from glocalization to local globalization: protection and inheritance of intangible cultural heritage in the internet era. journal of yunnan normal university (philosophy and social science edition), 55(02), 125-133. liu, h., & zhang, j. l. (2021). exploring the path of inheritance and innovation of traditional culture using new media. academic journal of zhongzhou, (08), 83-88. liu, z. h., & jiao, j. p. (2021). a new path for the integrated development of "intangible cultural heritage + hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 38 published by ideas spread tourism" in shanghai cultural memory institutions under the scenario theory. cultural heritage, (02), 126134. ma, z. y., liu, z. y., & liu, y. y. (2019). several key issues in the protection concept of intangible cultural heritage in china. journal of folkloristics, (06), 39-46+157-158. https://doi.org/10.13370/j.cnki.fs.2019.06.005 tao, j., & yang, m. h. (2022). the integrated development of rural public cultural service system and rural tourism: taking the reform of the general and branch library system in deqing, zhejiang as an example. library tribune, 42(02), 45-55. wang, r. g. (2021). rural cultural revitalization and the value presentation of intangible cultural heritage. journal of jinan university (social science edition), 31(02), 37-43+158. wang, z. y., & li, j. r. (2023). functions, mechanisms, and policy supply mechanisms of intangible cultural heritage empowering rural revitalization. academic exchange, (09), 159-172. xiao, y. p., & wang, w. j. (2019). research on the "xijiang model" of intangible cultural heritage assisting rural revitalization. cultural heritage, (03), 23-28. xiao, p., & zhang, w. x. (2024). towards a "community of public cultural services": innovation exploration and experience promotion of g province public cultural service system. library tribune, 44(03), 11-19. zhang, b. f. (2017). scientific development of industrialization of intangible cultural heritage in china. gansu social sciences, (06), 244-248. https://doi.org/10.15891/j.cnki.cn62-1093/c.2017.06.040 zhao, h. (2021). research on the innovation system of rural public cultural services under the integration of culture and tourism. economic issues, (05), 111-116. https://doi.org/10.16011/j.cnki.jjwt.2021.05.016 zhang, j., & liao, j. q. (2022). chinese wisdom of social forces participating in the high-quality development of public cultural services—a review of the national academic symposium on cultural heritage and cultural development (2022). library and information knowledge, 39(05), 12-19+30. https://doi.org/10.13366/j.dik.2022.05.012 zhang, y. n. (2022). folk custom reconstruction and cultural self-consistency: an analysis of the "intangible cultural heritage-ization" process of rushan yangko in contemporary jiaodong area. journal of guangxi university for nationalities (philosophy and social sciences edition), 44(04), 145-151. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n3p132 132 published by ideas spread duan guochao's academic interactions in the field of lu xun studies weiliang luo1, gang yang1, kangzhu cui1 & changhua cheng2 1 weinan normal university, china 2 school of media, weinan normal university, weinan, shaanxi, china correspondence: weiliang luo, senior professors association, weinan normal university, weinan, shaanxi, china. received: june 7, 2025; accepted: june 18, 2025; published: june 19, 2025 abstract as a renowned scholar in lu xun's research field, mr. duan guochao's academic career is full of exploration and persistence. through extensive and in-depth academic exchanges, he has made fruitful achievements in the study of lu xun's family background, which has promoted the development of lu xun's research. this paper discusses duan guochao's academic exchanges in the field of lu xun's research, analyzes his academic communications, academic discussions and academic activities with colleagues in the academic community, shows mr. duan guochao's academic influence in the field of lu xun's research, and also provides an important demonstration role for promoting the academic development of local universities. keywords: duan guochao, lu xun studies, lu xun's family background, academic exchanges, academic impact 1. introduction mr. duan guochao from weinan normal university is a nationally renowned scholar, an expert in lu xun's family background research, and a literary critic. his academic exchanges are characterized by a high level and a wide scope, involving figures in the field of lu xun studies such as li helin, huang yuan, nie gannu, wu xiru, li jiye, wang furen, zhou erfu, zheng xinmiao, huang qiaosheng, yan qingsheng, as well as japanese scholar matsuoka toshihiro, scholars from hong kong and macao like lou zichun, lu xun's son zhou haiying, and nephew zhou fengyi. his profound and extensive academic exchanges have kept his academic activities at the forefront of research, making significant contributions to local universities and the construction of local culture. mr. duan guochao has consistently maintained a strong passion for research and an indomitable spirit, continuously producing new academic achievements that have been recognized and praised by the academic community. his representative works include the papers "lu xun and zhu an"[1]and "lu xun and hu feng"[2], as well as the monographs "lu xun's family background"[3]and "essays on lu xun"[4]. additionally, he has written research articles such as "ke zhongping and lu xun," "wu xiru and lu xun," "wang jiesan and lu xun," "hu zheng and lu xun," "du pengcheng and lu xun," "dang jiabin and lu xun," as well as "lu xun's criticism of 'xueheng' and wu mi" and "a tenacious explorer: hu jinxu's journey of learning from lu xun." these works have had a wide-ranging impact in the academic community and attracted social attention. 2. an overview of academic exchanges with colleagues in the field of lu xun studies mr. duan guochao's academic career has always been closely intertwined with academic exchanges with scholars in the field of lu xun studies. (1) correspondence: the primary form of academic exchange mr. duan guochao has preserved the original letters from 1,249 scholars, totaling 5,281 pages. among these, letters from 335 individuals, including lu xun researchers, relatives of lu xun, and editors of lu xun studies journals, account for 1,842 pages. these letters constitute about one-third of the total number of people he has engaged in academic exchanges with, underscoring the significance of academic correspondence within the field of lu xun studies in mr. duan's academic interactions. (2) interlocutors: scholars and celebrities a notable aspect of mr. duan guochao's academic exchanges lies in his interactions with "22 individuals who had connections with lu xun," such as wu xiru, huang yuan, nie gannu, sun xizhen, li jiye, yu fang, chen xuezhao, hu feng, ke zhongping, hu jinxu, chen chuqiao, cao lengquan, chen baichen, tang tao, shi zhecun, zheng xiaoxun, xu jie, lou zichun, wang jiesan, peng baishan, zhou haiying, and zhou fengyi. moreover, his hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 133 published by ideas spread exchanges with renowned domestic and international scholars in lu xun studies, including li helin, li jiye (mentioned again here for context, though already listed), shan yanyi, liao zidong, lin chen, hu zheng, zheng xinmiao, peng ding'an, sun xizhen (again for context), jiang xijin, matsuoka toshihiro, wang furen, zhang mengyang, huang qiaosheng, as well as famous writers like du pengcheng and zhou erfu, form the core of his academic interactions within the field of lu xun studies. (3) letter research: the main content of academic exchanges in mr. duan guochao's academic communication practice, the most commonly used research method is letter. in early 1979, mr. duan, who was deeply engaged in lu xun studies, wrote an article titled "lu xun and hu feng," which had been brewing in his mind for a long time. the article focused on the comrade-in-arms and mentor-student relationship between lu xun and hu feng during their time in shanghai. through over 20 letters, mr. duan conducted investigations and interviews with veteran left-wing writers' league member wu xiru (as well as relevant individuals such as mei zhi, hu feng's wife), obtaining valuable first-hand information. in january 1982, while writing "lu xun and zhu an," despite consulting a vast amount of literature, mr. duan still had numerous questions that needed clarification. consequently, he wrote letters to four scholars: huang yuan, li jiye, sun xizhen, and jiang xijin. he sought to understand and exchange views on topics such as "the situation of the zhu family in shaoxing, the circumstances surrounding zhu an's burial after her death, her personality, character, and cultural cultivation, as well as what issues should be addressed and what purposes should be achieved in studying the relationship between lu xun and zhu an." all four scholars replied to mr. duan in late february 1982. professor sun xizhen believed that this topic was of great significance for studying lu xun. professor huang yuan stated that mr. duan's discussion illustrated lu xun's anti-feudal spirit and revolutionary humanitarianism, which was correct. lu xun opposed feudal marriage but respected his mother and zhu an as two generations of women, sacrificing himself in the process. "lu xun only regarded her as his mother's daughter-in-law, respecting her like a guest." professor jiang xijin said that, overall, the topic would help readers understand the issue from certain perspectives, making it beneficial and thus good. regarding the specific details about zhu an, li jiye mentioned in his letter that he had met the "elder mistress" several times in the years before the war of resistance against japan. she was sincere and extremely kind to the "great mistress," who regarded her as her own daughter. for the topic of lu xun and zhu an, recommended by professor sun xizhen, mr. duan established academic connections with experts such as yu fang and qiu shixiong. mr. duan had already begun academic exchanges with li helin, the founder of lu xun studies, as early as 1974. in mid-september 1974, while still teaching at a middle school, mr. duan read an article in a newspaper that quoted lu xun's phrase, "the sour wine in a new bottle, the rotten meat wrapped in red paper." he found it intriguing and wanted to understand its original meaning but didn't know its source. therefore, he wrote to mr. li helin for guidance. on september 24th, mr. li replied, solving mr. duan's query. duan guochao wrote a series of articles exploring the relationships between writers and lu xun, such as "hu zheng and lu xun." to this end, he wrote letters to hu zheng and others. hu zheng's reply was as long as 13 pages. he even included a photocopy of an article he had written on lu xun studies during his time at the northwest federation of literary and art circles. after reading it, duan guochao felt more confident in writing his article. he quoted hu zheng's evaluations of lu xun's poetry six times in his piece[5]. when duan guochao was writing "essays on lu xun," wang furen, a renowned expert in lu xun studies and the former president of the chinese society for modern chinese literature, wrote to him, emphasizing that the articles "lu xun and xu guangping" and "lu xun and zhu an" must be included. he argued that a person's thoughts and feelings are inseparable from their life experiences, and lu xun's love life had a significant impact on him, urging duan guochao to pay attention to these two articles. he also mentioned that wang dehou's "research on 'letters between two places'" was worth consulting. in 2001, duan guochao wrote to wang furen, expressing his intention to summarize his lifelong research on lu xun by selecting relevant articles and publishing a book titled "essays on lu xun." he asked wang furen to write a preface for the book. wang furen's preface was reprinted in full by several prestigious publications, including "xinhua digest," the "lu xun studies" section of the renmin university of china's newspaper and periodical data center, and shanghai's "academic monthly," demonstrating its significant influence [6]. matsuoka toshihiro is a professor at shinshu university in japan and has made substantial academic contributions to the study of lu xun's grandfather, zhou fuqing. in february 1989, matsuoka toshihiro wrote to duan guochao, saying, "i've heard that you've written an article titled 'an overview of zhou fuqing's life and thoughts.' please hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 134 published by ideas spread send me a photocopy of it." duan guochao fulfilled matsuoka's request. in his book "a study of lu xun's grandfather zhou fuqing," matsuoka toshihiro quoted duan guochao's article more than 20 times. he remarked, "duan guochao's article provides a comprehensive account of zhou fuqing's life and is the first formal discussion in china on zhou fuqing's character and the influence he had on lu xun." (4) contention and discussion: the process of academic exchange the process of mr. duan guochao's academic exchanges with scholars was marked by discussions and contentions over academic viewpoints. in the initial draft of his paper "lu xun and hu feng," based on general academic materials, mr. duan mentioned that "xu xing was a trotskyist." after reading the draft, wu xiru wrote to mr. duan, praising the draft but pointing out that some facts needed to be corrected. he stated that xu xing's real name was xu hefu and that he was not a trotskyist; the party had already made a conclusion on him long ago. he suggested that mr. duan should make the correction... it would be a good thing to clarify this in your article, and it would also be a literary anecdote. consequently, mr. duan gathered additional information and published "xu xing was not a trotskyist" in the second issue of "modern literature research" magazine in 1981. poet hu zheng believed that lu xun's classical-style poetry had achieved great heights. he described it as "imitating ancient forms but creating a unique world, exquisite and magnificent, outshining natural craftsmanship," "praising the glorious national culture and the brilliant fighting life," "its momentum rivaling that of the tang poets," and "in the realm of poetry, mr. lu xun has completed the true image of lu xun." however, he said he did not like lu xun's new poetry. in his article, mr. duan expressed disagreement with hu zheng's viewpoint. he tactfully remarked that hu zheng's critique of lu xun's poetry, "even if it represents a biased understanding of lu xun's new poetry, still qualifies as a fresh perspective," implying that hu zheng's understanding of lu xun's new poetry was indeed biased. when writing his paper "lu xun and zhu an," mr. duan wrote to mr. jiang xijin to inquire about historical facts and discuss research methods. mr. jiang xijin believed that the work was generally good and beneficial but held reservations about mr. duan's proposed research methods. he said, "i cannot set a framework or make regulations on what issues should be addressed and what purposes should be achieved in studying the relationship between lu xun and zhu an." regarding some issues in the writing of the paper "lu xun and zhu an," li jiye also believed that some questions "seemed unnecessary to study in detail." it can be seen that exchanges among genuine scholars involve serious discussions of issues and rigorous adherence to facts. they acknowledge what they know and admit what they do not know, while also daring to articulate their own viewpoints. even in private correspondence, there is a flavor of academic democracy and academic contention. (5) books, poems, and calligraphy: bridging the gap with academic counterparts in duan guochao's academic exchanges, the mutual gift-giving of books, poems, and calligraphy often played a significant role in bringing him closer to his counterparts. mr. wang shijia, the deputy editor-in-chief of "lu xun research monthly," requested a copy of "the family background of lu xun" from mr. duan guochao on three occasions. once, he did so on behalf of mr. lou zichun (yiding) from hong kong and mr. ni moyan from shanghai, who had expressed their desire to read the book and even asked for an autographed copy. in 1992, they even wrote to request the purchase of 30 copies for their readers. upon receiving the book, ni moyan wrote to duan guochao, saying that he had originally thought duan was from shaoxing, but was surprised to learn that he had achieved such remarkable results from weinan in shaanxi province. he expressed his admiration and said he would learn from duan. duan guochao gifted "the family background of lu xun" to the poet hu zheng, who in turn reciprocated with a poem titled "delighted to read professor duan guochao's newly gifted 'the family background of lu xun'." when mentioning his views on lu xun studies, hu zheng confided in duan guochao, saying, "this is somewhat my personal 'secret,' which i have never revealed to anyone before." he added, "every time i read your sincere and enthusiastic letters, i always feel like there's so much i want to say, but due to my limited mental and physical energy, i never manage to do so. although we have never had a heart-to-heart conversation, our friendship runs deep." professor matsuoka toshihiro from japan once gifted a poem to duan guochao, which was later turned into a calligraphy piece by the japanese calligrapher yamada yosen and presented to duan guochao. in return, duan guochao gifted two poems to matsuoka toshihiro. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 135 published by ideas spread after ten years of painstaking effort, duan guochao gradually compiled a series of nearly 200,000-word papers, which were later published as the academic monograph "the family background of lu xun." when it came time to choose a title for the book, he invited the renowned writer and calligrapher zhou erfu to write it. zhou erfu responded by sending duan guochao two versions of "the family background of lu xun" for selection in the publication. 3. the hardships of academic exchange and the perseverance of scholars (1) challenges and achievements of "cultural man from other provinces" duan guochao's academic career not only epitomizes the academic exchanges at weinan normal university but also holds implications for the current and future development of academia. professor wang furen, the former president of the chinese society for modern chinese literature and a professor at beijing normal university, coined the term "cultural man from other provinces" in his preface to duan guochao's "essays on lu xun." this term not only commends duan's fruitful academic achievements but also sheds light on the hardships faced by scholars from local universities in their academic pursuits. for "provincial cultural figures," geographical constraints make it difficult for them to participate in academic conferences and seminars as frequently as scholars in big cities. moreover, they are at a disadvantage in accessing academic resources and information, all of which impose limitations on their academic research. (2) relentless exploration and upholding academic truth in 1979, duan guochao completed his landmark paper "lu xun and hu feng." however, due to the sensitive nature of its content at that time, it was initially challenging to find a platform for publication. in june 1981, duan guochao brought a printed copy of the paper to the "academic symposium commemorating the 100th birth anniversary of lu xun in the xi'an area." at the symposium, mr. li helin, the director of the lu xun museum, highly praised duan guochao's work, acknowledging his significant contribution. eventually, "lu xun and hu feng" was published in "lu xun research trends," becoming an important document in academic circles. another notable work by mr. duan guochao is his paper "lu xun and zhu an," which delves deeply into the tragic marital relationship between zhu an and lu xun. despite the difficulties in publishing the article due to its sensitive subject matter after completion, duan guochao did not give up. the paper was eventually published in the third issue of "chinese modern literature research series" in 1983, contributing a fresh perspective and depth to the field of lu xun studies. 4. the shaping of academic style and the widespread influence of academic achievements (1) academic style interpretation of historical materials from the perspective of historical materialism. in his academic explorations within the field of lu xun studies, mr. duan guochao has consistently adhered to examining and interpreting historical materials through the lens of historical materialism. he emphasizes the collection and analysis of data, forming his own unique insights and conclusions through in-depth research into a vast amount of materials. when evaluating mr. duan guochao's research achievements, mr. huang qiaosheng pointed out that mr. duan's viewpoints are simple yet profound, sincere and straightforward, neither perfunctory nor extreme. mr. wang furen believes that mr. duan guochao has made remarkable achievements in academic research. he places great importance on excavating and organizing materials, employing historical materialism to interpret these materials, and conducting in-depth theoretical analyses of them, thereby forming his own distinctive academic style. (2) social influence mr. duan guochao's academic achievements have had a profound impact in the field of lu xun studies. in particular, his article "lu xun and zhu an" not only reexamines the marital relationship between lu xun and zhu an but also, at the end of the article, critiques the beijing lu xun museum for incorrectly labeling zhu an's bedroom in lu xun's former residence as the "lu xun library." he points out that this practice disregards the principles of historical materialism and calls for avoiding such errors in future lu xun research. the article garnered the attention of leaders and expert scholars at the beijing lu xun museum. subsequently, the sign on zhu an's bedroom door was corrected to "zhu an's bedroom," restoring the historical authenticity. (3) scholar evaluation domestic scholars and writers also highly evaluate mr. duan guochao and believe that his research has made pioneering contributions [7]. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 136 published by ideas spread chen zhongshi, a famous writer, said: i know very well that teacher duan is willing to be lonely, can sit down and silently concentrate on studying lu xun, and finally achieve something, which is admirable. mr. peng ding'an, president of the national lu research association, said that lu xun's family background is a good book with detailed information, detailed description, system description and functional demonstration. mr. weigangyan, honorary chairman of shaanxi writers' association, said that duan guochao's family background of lu xun made us know a lot of unheard of historical facts. therefore, we had a more specific and in-depth understanding of lu xun's mind at that time and the spiritual world when writing articles. zhang gui, the former curator of shaoxing lu xun memorial hall (zhang runshui, the grandson of runtu), said that "lu xun's family background" provides readers with a rare and good book. 5. demonstration of mr. duan guochao's academic exchanges mr. duan guochao's academic career has lasted for decades, and he has always maintained extensive exchanges with the academic community, making himself always at the forefront of the discipline. (1)academic integrity and respect mr. duan guochao has always adhered to the principles of academic integrity and respect for others in his interaction with colleagues in the academic community. his scholarly demeanor and moral standards in academic discussions and debates provide an important model for creating a positive academic atmosphere. (2)academic courage and innovation in the field of lu xun's research, mr. duan guochao is not afraid to challenge traditional ideas and has the courage to put forward innovative ideas, as reflected in the studies of lu xun and hu feng and lu xun and zhu'an. his spirit of exploration and innovation encouraged the latecomers to pursue new knowledge in academic research. (3)leading the academic development of local universities and the construction of local culture as a scholar in a local university, mr. duan guochao not only made achievements in academic research, but also led the academic development of local universities and promoted the construction of local culture with a higher academic vision. 6. conclusion with his profound academic background and a deep passion for lu xun studies, professor duan guochao has established extensive connections with scholars and cultural celebrities both domestically and internationally through various means such as correspondence, publications, research papers, poetry, and calligraphy. these engagements have not only broadened his academic horizons but also brought fresh perspectives and depth to the field of lu xun studies. his journey of academic exchange embodies a scholar's relentless pursuit of academic truth and a profound understanding of academic responsibility. his interactions have been filled with debates and discussions, fostering an open and inclusive attitude that promotes the exchange of academic viewpoints and drives the collision and integration of academic thoughts. this spirit is particularly crucial in the current academic community, encouraging scholars to actively seek cooperation and exchanges while maintaining their academic independence, in order to achieve knowledge sharing and collective academic progress. acknowledgments this paper was supported by 2024 key special project for philosophical and social sciences research of weinan normal university (no 2024zs01). references [1] duan, g. (1983). lu xun and zhu an. modern chinese literature studies, (03), 288–309. [2] duan, g. (1981). lu xun and hu feng. luxun research monthly, (06), 1–8. [3] duan, g. (1991). lu xun's family background. beijing: educational science press. [4] duan, g. (2019). lu xun's essays. xi’an: shaanxi people's publishing house. [5] duan, g. (1996). hu zheng and lu xun. journal of hubei engineering university, (04), 56–62. [6] wang, f. (2001). on contemporary chinese cultural circles. academic monthly, (11), 91–100. [7] guo, c. (2001). approaching eniu village: a collection of poems and essays celebrating the 70th birthday of professor duan guochao. beijing: huaxia publishing house. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 137 published by ideas spread copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p50 50 published by ideas spread research on the two-way empowerment development path of public art intervention in rural spaces: taking quanzhou's xunpu village as an example jiayong wang1 & xuhong xu1 1 chen shouren business school, quanzhou normal university, china correspondence: jiayong wang, chen shouren business school, quanzhou normal university, quanzhou, fujian, 362000, china. received: july 7, 2025; accepted: july 19, 2025; published: july 21, 2025 fund projects: fujian provincial universities' characteristic new think tank private economic development research institute(project no. f18009). abstract against the backdrop of rural revitalisation, some public art villages have demonstrated the cultural and lifestyle conditions of different regions in the new era while coordinating the future development needs of rural areas. as a form of cultural and artistic communication and interaction with the public, public art plays a significant role in the protection and development of villages through various mediums. public art is increasingly taking diverse forms in rural areas, with its local relevance and public nature being re-emphasised. this establishes an effective connection between the concept of ‘rural revitalisation’ and the practice of using art to empower rural areas. simultaneously, public art and rural spaces are gradually forming a mutually beneficial, positive trend. this study takes quanzhou's xunpu village as a case study, delving into the mutually empowering development pathways of public art's intervention in rural spaces, as well as the dimensions of balancing traditional cultural heritage with rural development. it provides new insights and methods for the planning and construction of rural areas. keywords: public art, rural space, two-way empowerment, rural culture 1. research background in recent years, rural development has become one of the key issues in china's development. rural areas have lost their unique characteristics due to urbanisation, rural culture has gradually eroded, and issues such as the destruction of the natural environment have become increasingly evident. public art, through the interaction between artistic works and public spaces, not only beautifies the environment and enhances spatial quality but also promotes community interaction and strengthens cultural identity. by incorporating public art, we can deeply explore and showcase the cultural characteristics of rural areas, protect and preserve rural culture; activate rural public spaces, enhance rural cohesion and appeal; and improve rural spatial quality, thereby promoting the development of rural tourism and the economy. as a typical fishing village in quanzhou city, fujian province, xunpu village boasts a rich history, culture, and folk customs. its unique geographical location, architectural style, natural landscape, and folk activities provide a wealth of material and conditions for the intervention of public art. however, in the process of urbanisation, xunpu village also faces issues such as cultural loss and the deterioration of its spatial environment. 2. public art and rural development 2.1 the value of ‘public art+’ for rural development public art refers to tangible and intangible art forms in public spaces, including but not limited to murals, sculptures, installations, and artistic performances, emphasizing the public welfare and cultural benefits of art. as a form of urban culture, public art, through its unique visual appeal, not only enhances the city's aesthetic appeal but also narrates its historical evolution and humanistic spirit [1]. in modern society, which values multiculturalism and cultural innovation, people seek more cultural experiences and opportunities for expression within cities. urban public art should address this need by offering diverse artistic forms and interactive projects that provide rich cultural experiences and enhance citizens' sense of social participation [2]. public art often serves as an evaluation hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 51 published by ideas spread factor for urban development standards. a city with excellent public art is one that is thoughtful, warm-hearted, and soulful. public art fundamentally reflects a city's humanistic culture and artistic level, and can even promote the city's positive development [3]. as public art continues to evolve, its focus has gradually shifted from urban areas to rural and disadvantaged communities. public art emphasizes public participation and shared ownership, while rural development is a comprehensive national rural strategy project with a long-term perspective, requiring higher and broader levels of participation. it plays a significant role in promoting social harmony and stability [4]. many countries and regions utilise public art to address issues encountered in rural development, such as the degradation of rural living environments, the homogenisation of rural areas, the loss of rural culture, and the neglect of rural customs. as an important tool for community micro-renewal, public art is increasingly integrated with urban planning and architectural design, employing detailed design methods to improve and revitalise outdated community spaces, thereby empowering communities [5]. by intervening in declining villages through the ‘public art+’ approach, it is possible to improve the local living environment, activate local development opportunities, and enhance the region's self-development capabilities. 2.2 current status and issues in rural public art development currently, without considering the unique characteristics and advantages of rural areas, and without conducting in-depth research into the ecological environment and cultural atmosphere of rural areas, some operators blindly replicate successful cases from other rural areas, copying their artistic styles. this results in the original unique artistic styles of local rural areas becoming homogenised, transforming from ‘each village having its own distinct character’ to ‘many villages sharing the same character.’ as a result, the artistic designs become vastly different from the original rural landscape and style, failing to align with the unique elements and symbols of the local rural areas. rural tourism operators, in an effort to reduce costs, either undertake environmental creative design on their own or hire practitioners with low artistic and cultural literacy. due to their own limited aesthetic sensibilities and lack of experience in independently creating mature artistic works, the public art they produce is often poorly crafted, lacking artistic appeal, and contrary to the original intent of using art to contribute to rural revitalisation. 3. advantages of public art intervention in xunpu village 3.1 advantages of cultural resources 3.1.1 historical background xunpu village has a history of thousands of years and was one of the important starting points of ancient maritime silk road.it is also one of the important ports in the coastal areas of fujian. this rich historical background provides a profound cultural soil for public art.xunpu village is rich in cultural heritage, including red brick houses, stone carvings, wood carvings and other buildings with traditional architectural styles in southern fujian.as well as unique buildings such as oyster shell houses, which are valuable materials for public art creation, as shown in figures 3-1 and 3-2. figure 3-1. red brick house source: baidu images figure 3-2. oyster shell house source: baidu images 3.1.2 folk culture the traditional customs and festival activities in xunpu village are rich and colorful, such as offering sacrifices to the sea and praying for blessings, tianxiang patrol, etc.these activities not only show the cultural traditions and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 52 published by ideas spread spiritual features of the local people, but also provide vivid content for public art.as the local characteristic cultural symbols, xunpu girl and hairpin with flower decoration have become cultural business cards and cultural tourism resources.it provides unique creative elements for public art, as shown in figures 3-3 and 3-4. figure 3-3. tianxiang tour source: baidu images figure 3-2. hairpin with flower decoration source: baidu images 3.2 advantages of tourism resources since 2023, the number of tourists has increased significantly, and xunpu village has continued to be popular because of its unique cultural ip of "xunpu village hairpin flower enclosure". it has become a phenomenal hot spot of national cultural tourism. since this year, xunpu village has received more than 3.4 million tourists. it shows high tourism attraction and market potential. at the peak of holiday tourism, during the holidays, such as the may day holiday, the number of tourists in xunpu village reached 290000. the average number of tourists per day reached 60000, and the highest number of tourists per day exceeded 80000. this phenomenon of tourism peak shows that xunpu village has a very high tourism fever during the holidays. 4. a feasible path for public art to intervene in the two-way empowerment development of xunpu village 4.1 public art intervenes in the space of xunpu village 4.1.1 the principle of intervention 4.1.1.1 hommisation humanisation should be a fundamental principle of public art. as a public art piece placed in a public space to serve a rural community, it should align with the daily habits and routines of rural residents. this alignment is essential to encourage public interaction with the artwork, thereby establishing its value and significance. public art creators should conduct on-site investigations, research, and analyses of the site's characteristics, incorporating the principle of human-centred design into the creation process. through scientific, standardised, and reasonable methods, they should continuously refine and optimise the potential relationships between people and public artworks. additionally, artists should consider human sensory systems such as vision and touch to create public art spaces that truly belong to the local rural community. 4.1.1.2 interactivity good public artworks possess inherent public appeal, capable of guiding the public to engage with them. they emphasise interaction and communication between the public and the artwork. artists should adopt the perspective of a rural resident from the outset of their creative process, incorporating their perceptions and understanding of rural public spaces into their artistic creations. this approach enables local residents to more readily accept the resulting public artworks. the ultimate goal of rural public art is to enhance residents' aesthetic awareness, enabling them to discover the beauty around them and actively engage with public art. only through such integration can public art truly become part of rural life, ultimately realising the aspiration for a beautiful way of life. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 53 published by ideas spread 4.1.1.3 regionalism and ecological conservation public art only becomes public art when it is placed in public spaces. by choosing xunpu village as the subject of study, one must first consider the differences between xunpu village and urban public spaces, as well as its unique characteristics. this village embodies the lifestyle, history, culture, folk customs, and natural ecology of its residents. therefore, public art should align with the humanistic environment and natural ecological landscape, creating works without overly intervening in the local context, while respecting and protecting the village's original humanistic and natural systems. 4.1.2 design strategy 4.1.2.1 make full use of natural elements the public art in xunpu village is based on the fundamental concept of respecting the natural environment. in practice, it is fully integrated with the natural vegetation, mountains, rivers, and farmland, as well as the existing architectural forms. artistic designs are created according to the original terrain of the village and the different spatial requirements, and artistic creations are made based on the characteristics of the natural environment. fully utilise the natural elements of the ocean for artistic treatment to enhance the overall artistic quality of the space and increase the recognisability of the village's artistic landmarks. artistic creations based on natural elements are unique due to the characteristics and irreplicability of the environment, particularly the distinctive marine culture and oyster farming of xunpu, which make public art and public spaces more distinctive and appealing. this serves as an important foundation for rural artistic practices. 4.1.2.2 respect for local and cultural elements the cultural customs of each place are mostly based on specific contexts and are also the lifestyles that local people have gradually formed over a long period of time. the behaviour and thinking patterns of people in different regions are influenced by the local humanities and historical environment. therefore, on the basis of fully respecting local customs and regional culture, integrating the language of public art into villages has a positive effect on the cultural and ethnic confidence of local people and their identification with their own living environment. in the creation of public art in xunpu village, the regional cultural context is consistently upheld. the architectural space and form are rooted in the cultural soil of the minnan maritime region. local construction techniques and materials are combined with artistic thinking, such as red bricks, oyster shells, etc. villagers can find clues and key information in the artworks through their understanding of their hometown's culture, evoking ‘empathy’ when viewing the works, thereby reflecting the humanistic concern of the artworks for the local community. 4.1.2.3 focus on mental and emotional memory elements providing a spiritual space, it is particularly important for public art to reflect people's daily lives and genuine feelings.the mural art of xunpu village originated from folk life. its unique patterns and colours convey the humanistic and spiritual messages of the countryside, embodying the materialisation of regional spirit. the spiritual pleasure derived from deep engagement is enhanced through interaction with the environment, deepening the interpretation of local culture from both perceptual and cognitive perspectives.the memory of a place is constructed by time and location. the places where people have lived for a long time always carry the stories and unique historical and cultural attributes of the area, preserved in the traces of the lives of the local people. the socalled memory of a place is the sociological significance established between the place and the people. telling stories through art and displaying typical works is an excellent way to express memory and emotion. 4.1.3 implementation strategy 4.1.3.1 holistic strategy in the local practice of public art, xunpu requires holistic consideration of the village as a whole. by employing "micro-updates" and "acupuncture-style" approaches, artworks are strategically placed throughout the village. whether in architectural art, sculpture, or performance space design, all creations are rooted in the village's overall atmosphere. public art spaces are positioned according to distinct environmental characteristics, offering photo spots for visitors to help promote xunpu's cultural identity. from a holistic perspective, emphasis is placed on the overall relationship between public art and the village's spatial environment, balancing uniqueness with overall coherence. at the macro level, a comprehensive layout is devised in accordance with local conditions, resulting in a harmoniously organised village art environment. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 54 published by ideas spread 4.1.3.2 endogenous strategy the public art in xunpu emphasises the inherent qualities and development of the village itself, adhering to the principle that local residents are the primary drivers of internal development. this approach aims to strengthen collective identity and awareness among the community, protect the rights of local residents, and encourage them to take an active role in building their hometown. by leveraging local resources, the initiative seeks to foster selfsustaining development within the village. local designers, who have lived in their hometowns for a long time, complete their work based on a deep understanding and respect for nature, land, culture, and daily life. these local practices serve as excellent examples in fully tapping into, mobilising, and leveraging the initiative of local residents, reflecting their spiritual world and aesthetic needs. such endogenous rural practices also effectively build local identity. 4.1.3.3 slow growth strategy the public art in xunpu emphasises a state of natural growth. from the outset, it has been laid out in a ‘microrenewal’ and ‘acupuncture-like’ manner, not emphasising instant results, but rather maturing one by one, emphasising the slow growth of art in the village space environment. under the guidance of a slow growth strategy, public artworks should not be clustered together. instead, public art should be integrated with the regional characteristics of xunpu, blending into the creation of artistic landscapes and humanistic architectural design. this approach highlights the unique regional characteristics of xunpu, such as the sense of secrecy contrasted with modern urban life, the purity of the natural environment, and the artistic atmosphere that harmonises with the mountains and waters. the creation of public art in xunpu should be orderly and restrained. the works rely on xunpu's unique marine scenery to slowly build a multi-dimensional service system that integrates cultural tourism, art, and local products. through the power of art, the vitality of the ancient village of xunpu is gradually revitalised. at the same time, the moderate commercialisation of rural public art enables local residents to obtain certain economic benefits. 4.2 public art empowers xunpu village 4.2.1 uncovering rural value and enhancing regional identity public art, with its public nature, local relevance, and diversity, has established a stable platform for rural areas to engage in multi-faceted exchanges with the outside world. by fostering connections across diverse fields, it opens up new possibilities for the future of rural communities. the future development of public art in xunpu should begin with the unique characteristics of local stories, progressing to the creation of an artistic brand, the collection and preparation of exhibition works, and the integration of social resources and various industries. through this process, the cultural treasures and natural resources of the rural area will be rediscovered and made known to a wider audience. the story of xunpu village will continue to spread to more surrounding areas, taking longer to create a new cultural layer with contemporary meaning for quanzhou. 4.2.2 continuing rural culture the flower pin culture and marine labour culture of the women of xunpu are important elements of xunpu's public art. local traditions and regional specialties embody the essence of indigenous culture, reflecting both the commonalities and uniqueness of china's rural heritage while showcasing the cultural ethos of specific regions. public art in rural spaces not only preserves and revives local cultural customs to some extent, but also provides new avenues for younger generations and visitors to engage with these traditions. this initiative helps us rediscover and preserve the chinese rural culture that has been gradually lost during urbanization. through its intervention, public art reshapes people's historical understanding of their homeland and rekindles the cultural confidence rooted in xunpu. 4.3 empowering art in xunpu village 4.3.1 developing local arts and culture in the past process of urbanisation, people's excessive reliance on industrial civilisation and blind pursuit of modern society have led to the core values of chinese culture being questioned or even rejected. rural civilisation, under the impact of modern civilisation, is gradually being lost. at the same time, contemporary public art creation is shifting towards social participation, urgently needing to break free from its long-standing reliance on and borrowing from western discourse, and instead ground itself in the local environment to overcome its cultural challenges. as the cradle of chinese civilisation, the countryside provides contemporary chinese public art with a rich and enduring source of local cultural resources and historical context, offering artists an ideal creative environment within the heartland of local culture. just like in xunpu village, it is a collision and fusion of hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 55 published by ideas spread contemporary artistic concepts and traditional cultural soil, as well as a convergence of traditional values and modern civilisation. 4.3.2 giving art social significance and enhancing artistic responsibility art needs to be experienced in real spaces. artists need to have their feet on the ground, value the experience of real spaces, fully understand the land and the people who live there, and invite villagers to participate in creating villages where scenes and life are artistic.‘xunpu village’ is an opportunity to explore the integration of public art into rural development, thereby achieving a re-examination of traditional culture and a restoration of contemporary social relations. the focus is not on art itself, but on creating public art that truly integrates into the rural environment, thereby stimulating the sense of agency and participation of local residents and visitors, and perpetuating the chinese people's warm resonance and reverence for their homeland. fostering positive interaction between the public and artworks, cultivating and guiding public awareness of participation in public spaces, forming a new rural lifestyle in step with the times, enhancing the public's aesthetic literacy regarding public art, and thereby achieving high-quality public artworks. therefore, such public art practices are conducive to strengthening artists' sense of social responsibility, respecting the agency of villagers, and respecting the diversity of regional cultures. references [1] han, l. (2024). research on social aesthetic education based on public art: a case study of street art in george town, penang, malaysia. art education, 2024(04), 269–272. [2] cai, l. (2023). the application of silk-screen printmaking in urban public art. screen printing, 2023(23), 48– 50. [3] zhang, t., niu, h., & gu, c. (2021). research on the development of public art and urban culture. jingu wenchuang, 2021(31), 114–115. [4] dong, b. (2023). research on the application of public art in rural development. shanghai packaging, 2023(12), 180–182. [5] zhang, s., & tan, r. (2024). a study on the ecological nature of community public art in the context of microrenovation. shanghai culture, 2024(04), 89–101. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p31 31 published by ideas spread research on the realization mechanism of promoting provincial common prosperity in china through urban-rural integration development yue zhang1, youquan liu1 & linfei wei1 1 school of mathematics and statistics, pingdingshan university, china correspondence: yue zhang, school of mathematics and statistics, pingdingshan university, henan, china. received: july 4, 2025; accepted: july 17, 2025; published: july 18, 2025 fund project: henan provincial soft science research program project "research on the realization mechanism and path countermeasures of promoting henan's common prosperity through urban-rural integrated development"(252400410319). abstract under the guidance of the goal of common prosperity in the new era, urban-rural integration development is not only an inherent requirement for solving the problems of unbalanced and insufficient development in china’s provinces, but also an important path for steadily promoting common prosperity in the new development stage. based on the panel data of 31 provinces (autonomous regions, municipalities) in china from 2014 to 2023, this paper uses the entropy method to measure the level of urban-rural integration development and common prosperity, conducts a spatio-temporal evolution analysis of urban-rural integration development and common prosperity level, and uses the spatial lag model to analyze the impact of urban-rural integration on common prosperity and its spatial effect. the results show that: 1) the urban-rural integration development and common prosperity in china are in a state of steady annual increase, and there are certain differences in the current levels among provinces; 2) the level of common prosperity in china has a significant positive spatial correlation, and there is an obvious positive spatial spillover effect among the levels of common prosperity in provinces. finally, relevant policy suggestions for promoting provincial common prosperity in china through urban-rural integration development are put forward from aspects such as coordinating resource allocation, giving play to the role of policy intervention, implementing differentiated opening-up policies, promoting urban-rural education equality, optimizing the industrial structure, and supporting scientific and technological innovation. keywords: urban-rural integration, common prosperity, spatial spillover effects 1. introduction the report of the 20th national congress of the communist party of china clearly states that "chinese modernization is the modernization of common prosperity for all people" and that "we must adhere to giving priority to the development of agriculture and rural areas, adhere to urban-rural integration development, and smooth the flow of urban and rural elements [1] ." promoting the urban-rural integration development strategy and constructing an institutional mechanism adapted to urban-rural integration are the only way for china to narrow the urban-rural development gap and help farmers and rural areas achieve common prosperity. in recent years, the widening of the urban-rural development gap and the gap between the rich and the poor in residents’ incomes are all contrary to common prosperity. therefore, driving the realization of common prosperity through urban-rural integration development is of great significance for promoting the high-quality development of china’s urban and rural social economy and improving the livelihood well-being of urban and rural residents. on december 16, 1953, the concept of "common prosperity" was first put forward in the "resolution on the development of agricultural producers’ cooperatives". after continuous exploration and practice, after the reform and opening up, deng xiaoping put forward two theories on common prosperity, advocating that "let some people and some regions get rich first, so as to promote the achievement of the goal of common prosperity [2] ". thus, the theoretical research on common prosperity has gradually become more rational. after the 19th national congress of the communist party of china first put forward the strategic decision of "establishing and improving the institutional mechanism and policy system for integrated urban-rural development", the research on integrated hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 32 published by ideas spread urban-rural development in the academic circles of our country has started to show a blowout development trend. kong xiangzhi and xie dongdong proposed that integrated urban-rural development is the core path to consolidate the stage achievements of common prosperity and solve the problems of governance of rural relative poverty on the basis of systematically analyzing the evolution law of urban-rural relations [3] . in addition, li ning built an analytical framework for integrated urban-rural development to drive common prosperity around the three dimensions of space, resources and system, and carried out an analysis at the theoretical level [4] . guo xiaoming and ding yanwu deeply analyzed the key points and difficult problems in promoting the process of common prosperity by means of integrated urban-rural development, and then proposed that to achieve the goal of common prosperity in the new stage, it is necessary to focus on promoting from the five dimensions of space, industry, elements, governance and system [5] . 2. theoretical analysis and research hypothesis first of all, integrated urban-rural development can enhance the vitality of rural development. the free flow of various urban-rural elements has enabled the transformation of the agricultural development mode from traditional agriculture to modern agriculture, continuously optimized the agricultural industrial structure, and expanded the large-scale operation of land. at the same time, relying on the unique natural and cultural resources in the countryside, tourism projects are developed to drive the increase of farmers’ income, encourage rural migrant workers to return to their hometowns to start businesses, and form a virtuous circle of rural talent and resource development. the key to promoting the common prosperity of farmers in the new era lies in increasing their income. relying on the all-round revitalization of the countryside, stimulating the internal vitality of the countryside, increasing farmers’ income in all-round and multi-channel ways, continuously expanding the scale of the middle-income group in rural areas, narrowing the urban-rural income gap, and enabling the vast number of farmers to achieve common prosperity synchronously [6]. second, the integrated urban-rural development can optimize the allocation of urban-rural public resources. the rational allocation of public resources is an important guarantee for promoting high-quality economic development and achieving common prosperity for all members. at present, there are still many problems in the overall allocation of urban-rural public resources in china. unequal development opportunities are an important reason for the unequal allocation of urban-rural public resources. co-construction and sharing is an effective way to achieve common prosperity. by strengthening the connection between cities and rural areas, it can promote the coordinated development of cities and rural areas, drive sustained economic growth, narrow the development gap between urban and rural areas, and substantially promote the progress of common prosperity. therefore, the following research hypotheses are proposed in this paper. hypothesis 1: the integrated urban-rural development can directly promote the realization of common prosperity. common prosperity is not one-sided regional prosperity but an overall concept for the whole society. in the process of promoting common prosperity, there are double spatial spillover effects of policy learning and resource reciprocity. first, when the common prosperity policy brings new development impetus, the models, policies, and innovative practices adopted by advanced regions can stimulate the enthusiasm and willingness to imitate of surrounding and other regions, promoting the formation of a positive spatial spillover effect of policy learning. at the same time, the difference in economic efficiency between developed and underdeveloped regions will further enhance the imitation motivation of backward regions, strengthening the promotion effect of the policy demonstration effect and trickle-down effect on neighboring regions. second, the spillover effect of urban-rural integration on the level of common prosperity in neighboring regions cannot be ignored. urban-rural integration can promote the development of cities and rural areas into a territorial community of harmonious coexistence, interest coordination, complementary functions, and interlaced integration, promoting urban-rural connection and spatial integration, and thus eliminating the opposition and division between urban and rural regions. this can promote urban and rural residents to share the fruits of development and accelerate the promotion of common prosperity. at the same time, the integrated urban-rural development also helps to establish a harmonious social relationship, create a stable economic environment, and lay a solid foundation for the common prosperity of neighboring regions. in addition, there is frequent communication among some regions, enhancing the connection of economic activities among regions, promoting the coordinated development among regions, and advancing regional common prosperity. generally speaking, the spillover effect of the integrated urban-rural development on the common prosperity of neighboring regions is a positive linkage effect, driving the whole region towards the direction of common prosperity[7]. therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: hypothesis 2: common prosperity has a spatial spillover effect. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 33 published by ideas spread hypothesis 3: the integrated urban-rural development positively promotes common prosperity in the form of spatial spillover. 2. measurement of the integrated urban-rural development and the level of common prosperity 2.1 measurement of the level of integrated urban-rural development as a key component of economic and social development, the integrated urban-rural development can not only achieve pareto optimality in resource allocation, but also serve as a powerful "accelerator" leading the rural revitalization. based on the research of scholars such as fang chuanglin[8], this paper constructs an evaluation index system for the level of integrated urban-rural development from three dimensions: urban-rural economic integration, urban-rural factor integration, and urban-rural spatial environment integration, as shown in table 1. table1. index system for integrated urban-rural development primary indicator secondary indicator indicator nature urban-rural economic integration ratio of per capita wage income of urban and rural residents negative ratio of per capita consumption expenditure of urban and rural residents negative ratio of per capita cultural, educational and entertainment consumption expenditure between urban and rural areas negative ratio of engel coefficients between urban and rural areas positive urban-rural factor integration ratio of the number of urban and rural residents participating in unemployment insurance to the total population positive proportion of non-agricultural added value in gdp positive ratio of non-agricultural employed population to agricultural employed population positive ratio of private car ownership to total population positive ratio of total agricultural machinery labor force to agricultural sown area positive urban-rural spatial environment integration per capita park green space area positive forest coverage rate positive ratio of environmental protection expenditure to general budget expenditure of finance positive rate of harmless treatment of domestic waste positive after dimensionless processing of various indicators of urban-rural integration development, the entropy method is used to calculate the weights of evaluation indicators and the urban-rural integration development indices of each region in the country, and the weighted sum is used to solve the urban-rural integration development level indices of 31 provincial regions in china from 2014 to 2023 (see the appendix table). the measurement of the urban-rural integration development level of some provincial regions is shown in figure 1. figure 1. urban-rural integration development level of some provincial regions 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 beijing liaoning shanghai henan chongqing shanxi hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 34 published by ideas spread from 2014 to 2023, the urban-rural integration development level of 31 provincial regions in china showed an upward trend. among them, the growth was rapid from 2017 to 2020; affected by the covid-19 pandemic in china, the development speed slowed down from 2020 to 2023. the urban-rural integration development levels of northern regions such as tianjin and shanxi in china had the largest increase, and the policy dividends boosted the acceleration of urban-rural integration development in the capital and its surrounding areas. the urban-rural integration development index in the central region was lower than that in the economically developed regions along the southeast coast, but the development prospect was considerable. driven by the strategy of building a moderately prosperous society in all respects, the disposable income structure of rural residents in the central region was significantly optimized, the proportion of income from wage work in the total income continued to rise, and at the same time, the investment in the field of spiritual and cultural consumption increased significantly. the infrastructure construction in the western region was continuously improved, the non-agricultural employment channels were continuously expanded, the transformation and upgrading of the manufacturing industry helped the coordinated development of industries, and drove the local fiscal and tax revenues to maintain a steady growth trend. in the past decade, the urban-rural gap in income, consumption level, public services, infrastructure, and social welfare in all provincial regions of the country has been gradually narrowing. 2.2 measurement of the level of common prosperity common prosperity is not simply material civilization prosperity, but common prosperity that unifies material and spiritual life, is prosperity that benefits all people, and is even more prosperity that takes into account both fairness and efficiency. this paper draws on the construction of the common prosperity indicator system by zou weiyong, xu lingli, etc. [9] , and combines the availability of data to divide common prosperity into two dimensions: sharing degree and prosperity degree, and constructs the common prosperity indicator system as follows: table 2. common prosperity indicator system first-level indicator second-level indicator indicator nature sharing degree urbanization rate positive registered urban unemployment rate negative per capita social security and employment expenditure positive per capita urban road area positive number of public transport vehicles per 10,000 people positive number of hospital beds per 1,000 people positive number of health technicians per 1,000 people positive number of public toilets per 10,000 people positive affluence level per capita gdp positive per capita disposable income positive ratio of fiscal education expenditure to total fiscal expenditure positive per capita holdings of public library collections positive figure 2. the development level of common prosperity in some provincial regions 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 beijing liaoning shanghai henan chongqing shanxi hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 35 published by ideas spread after dimensionless processing of various indicators of common prosperity, the entropy method is used to calculate the weights of evaluation indicators and the urban-rural integration development indices of various regions across the country. by accumulating the weights of indicators, the weights of the two first-level indicator systems of sharing degree and prosperity degree are calculated. using the corresponding weights of the indicators, the weighted sum is used to solve the common prosperity level index of 31 provincial regions in china from 2014 to 2023. the measurement of the common prosperity development level of some provincial regions is shown in figure 2. from 2014 to 2023, the gap in the common prosperity indices of provincial regions across the country has gradually narrowed, thanks to the promotion and implementation of government policies and measures. the common prosperity index in the eastern region is greater than that in the central and western regions. the eastern coastal area is the pioneer area of china’s reform and opening up and has strong economic strength. the high-quality economic development in the central and western regions started late. the main development mode is agriculture, with few high-tech industries. there are large gaps in regional infrastructure conditions, public service levels, social security degrees, etc. compared with the eastern region, and the development speed is slow. the level of common prosperity in these regions lags behind that in the eastern region. 3. research methods 3.1 data sources the research geographical unit of this paper is 31 provinces, municipalities and autonomous regions across the country (excluding hong kong, macao and taiwan regions due to statistical caliber deviations). the research period is from 2014 to 2023. the research data comes from the china statistical yearbook. some indicator data comes from the statistical bulletins on national economic and social development released by the websites of provincial governments, the statistical data released by provincial statistical bureaus and relevant departments. there are missing values for some individual data, which are filled by extrapolation of adjacent years or interpolation method. 3.2 variable selection main variables. the core explanatory variable of the urban-rural integration development level is selected, and the common prosperity level is selected as the explained variable, and it is measured by constructing a multidimensional indicator system and using the entropy method. control variables. to more accurately analyze the impact of the urban-rural integration development level on common prosperity, referring to the existing research results of scholars, this paper selects five control variables: government intervention, degree of opening to the outside world, human capital, industrial structure, and scientific and technological innovation level. 3.3 model construction (1) spatial autocorrelation analysis. it is a research method to explore the attribute value of a certain element in space and the attribute values of its adjacent spatial elements, including two analysis types: global and local [10]. the moran index is the most commonly used correlation index to evaluate spatiality, and its value range is [-1,1] , and the z test is commonly used to judge its significance, which is divided into the global moran index and the local moran index. ① global spatial autocorrelation the global moran’s i index is used to evaluate the spatial autocorrelation of resources in the entire study area. when the index is positive, it indicates a positive correlation among regions, showing an aggregated distribution pattern. the calculation formula for the global moran’s i index is: i= n ∑ ∑ wij n j=1 n i=1 (xi-x‾) ∑ ∑ wij n j=1 n i=1 (xi-x‾)2 = ∑ ∑ wij n j≠1 n i=1 (xi-x‾)(xj-x‾) s2 ∑ ∑ wij n j=1 n i=1    (1) ② local spatial autocorrelation the local moran’s i index can identify the distribution pattern and manifestation form of autocorrelation at specific spatial locations. its calculation formula is: ii= (xi-x‾) s2 ∑ wij j≠i (xj-x‾)   (2) hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 36 published by ideas spread in equations (1) and (2), i represents the moran’s i index, xi, xj represents the attribute value of spatial unit i、j , w represents the spatial weight, x represents the average value of the observed values. wij represents the element of the spatial weight matrix, with the spatial adjacent value being 1 and the non-adjacent value being 0. (2) spatial econometric model.since regions are not independent economic entities and there is a certain spatial correlation. based on this, this paper introduces the spatial durbin model (sdm) to discuss the impact of highquality development of social security on common prosperity. first, use the lm test to judge whether it is appropriate to use the spatial durbin model; second, judge the robustness of the spatial durbin model through the lr and wald tests; finally, conduct the hausman test to verify whether to choose fixed effects or random effects. 4. empirical result analysis 4.1 spatial correlation test by reading a large number of literatures, it is found that when calculating the global moran’s i index, the commonly selected spatial weight matrices include the adjacency distance matrix, economic distance matrix, economic geography matrix, and geographical inverse distance square matrix. after comparing the measurement effects of different matrices through experiments, it is found that the spatial economic geography nested matrix has the best effect. therefore, this paper uses this matrix to calculate the global moran’s i index. the test results of the global moran’s i index of the level of common prosperity in each year in china are shown in table 3. table 3. global moran’s i index of the level of common prosperity year moran’s index sd(i) z value 2014 0.709 *** 0.102 7.306 2015 0.701 *** 0.101 7.267 2016 0.682 *** 0.100 7. 123 2017 0.691*** 0.099 7.283 2018 0.715 *** 0.099 7. 466 2019 0.634 *** 0.101 6.640 2020 0.741 *** 0.098 7.913 2021 0.587 *** 0.103 6.005 2022 0.560 *** 0.104 5.700 2023 0.722 *** 0.098 7.735 as can be seen from table 3, the global moran’s index p values of common prosperity from 2012 to 2021 are all less than 0.05 and pass the test at the 95% confidence interval, indicating that the level of common prosperity in china shows significant spatial dependence characteristics, that is, spatial lag terms or error terms must be included in the econometric model to avoid estimation errors; the global moran’s index of common prosperity is all positive, indicating that there are positive spatial correlation characteristics in the level of provincial common prosperity in china, that is, in regions with a high level of common prosperity, the level of common prosperity in adjacent regions also remains at a relatively high level; from 2014 to 2023, the absolute value of the global moran’s index of common prosperity gradually decreases, indicating that the gap in the level of common prosperity among provinces is gradually narrowing. to study the spatial autocorrelation and agglomeration status of the level of common prosperity in each province, based on the local moran’s index, this paper uses stata18 to draw moran’s index maps for 2014, 2017, 2020, and 2023, as shown in figures3,4, 5, and 6. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 37 published by ideas spread figure 3. moran’s index map of common prosperity in 2014 figure 4. moran’s index map of common prosperity in 2017 figure 5. moran’s index map of common prosperity in 2020 figure 6. moran’s index map of common prosperity in 2023 as can be seen from the figure, most provinces are in the first and third quadrants, and as the years increase, the number of provinces in the first and third quadrants gradually increases, that is, the number of provinces showing positive spatial autocorrelation gradually increases. high-high (h-h) agglomeration type: provinces belonging to this agglomeration type are located in the first quadrant, mainly including beijing, jiangsu, zhejiang, shandong, tianjin, etc. these provinces are relatively economically developed and have been in the high-high agglomeration type for many years. from 2014 to 2023, the number of provinces in the first quadrant gradually increases, indicating that the development level of common prosperity is gradually increasing. low-high (l-h) agglomeration type: provinces belonging to this agglomeration type are located in the second quadrant, mainly including fujian, liaoning and other regions. from a national perspective, the comprehensive development level of these provinces is in the middle range, and regions with prominent development advantages can effectively drive the surrounding areas. low-low (l-l) agglomeration type: provinces belonging to this agglomeration type are located in the third quadrant, mainly including western regions such as tibet, guizhou, gansu, qinghai, and yunnan. restricted by their remote geographical locations, the economic and social development levels of these provinces are relatively low. since they are all in border regions, the economic radiation capacity of the surrounding areas is insufficient, and it is difficult to form a surrounding driving effect, resulting in a continuous expansion of the development gap with the southeast coastal areas. high-low (h-l) agglomeration type: provinces belonging to this agglomeration type are located in the fourth quadrant, mainly including xinjiang, heilongjiang and other regions. generally speaking, there are significant spatial differences in the development levels of different regions. the disparities in the level of common prosperity between the western regions and the more developed regions in terms hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 38 published by ideas spread of economic development are relatively large, indicating an imbalance in the development level of common prosperity in china. 4.2 model identification and verification to select the most appropriate spatial econometric model for empirical research, it is first necessary to use the lm test to conduct lagrange multiplier tests on the spatial error model and the spatial lag model. table 4. results of the lm test inspection statistic p-value sem moran’s i 1.802 0.028 lm 3. 958 0.047 rlm 14.268 0.000 slm lm 20.665 0.000 rlm 30.975 0.000 as can be seen from table 4, the lm tests of sem and slm are both significant at the 95% confidence interval. therefore, this paper can choose the spatial durbin model for further research. subsequently, the hausman test is used to identify the effect type of the model. the result of the hausman test is -3.76, which is negative. therefore, this paper should choose the spatial durbin model with fixed effects. as can be seen from table 5, the p values in the lr test results are all less than 0.05 and pass the test at the 99% significance level. therefore, the best spatial econometric model should be the two-way fixed effects spatial durbin model. from table 6, the wald tests and lr tests of sem and sar have all passed the 90% significance test. therefore, it is considered that the spatial durbin model cannot be simplified into the spatial lag model or the spatial error model. table 5. results of lr test inspection items statistic value p value inspection items statistic value p value "individual" fixation and "two-way" fixation 44.58 0.000 "time"fixation and "two-way" fixation 352.11 0.000 table 6. results of wald test inspection items statistic value p value inspection items statistic value p value wald test for sem 13.36 0.037 wald test for sar 14.8 0.022 lr test for sem 14.39 0.025 lr test for sar 13. 15 0.041 4.3 results analysis of the two-way fixed effects spatial durbin model this paper selects the spatial durbin model (sdm) with two-way fixed effects for empirical analysis, and the fitting results of the model are as follows: table 7. econometric results of the two-way fixed effects spatial durbin model variable coef main coef wx z value p value z value p value level of urban-rural integrated development 0.935 3.66 0.000 0.698 2. 16 0.031 government intervention 0.046 0.49 0.047 0.053 0.57 0.006 degree of opening to the outside world -0.201 -1.34 0.018 -0.041 -0.47 0.006 human capital 0.131 0.81 0.049 0.581 1.79 0.044 industrial structure 0.068 0.72 0.012 0.465 1.44 0.014 level of scientific and technological innovation 0.342 1.55 0.041 0.634 1.96 0.050 spatial rho coef: 0.396 p value: 0.015 from the measurement results of the double fixed-effects spatial durbin model, it can be seen that the value of spatial rho is 0.396,p value is 0.015, which passes the significance test. it is considered that there is spatial hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 39 published by ideas spread autocorrelation in the level of common prosperity among provinces in china. the positive coefficient of the direct effect indicates that the level of urban-rural integration development in neighboring provinces has a significant positive impact on the level of local common prosperity; the passing of the significance test of the indirect effect shows that the level of urban-rural integration development in this region can not only promote the development of local common prosperity, but also drive the development of common prosperity in surrounding areas through the spatial spillover effect. among them, the improvement of the level of urban-rural integration development, the role of government intervention, the growth of human capital, the optimization of the industrial structure, and the improvement of the level of scientific and technological innovation all have a positive impact on the realization of common prosperity; while expanding opening up to the outside world has an inhibitory effect on the realization of common prosperity. whether in the short-term impact or long-term effect, the improvement of the level of urbanrural integration development will increase the level of common prosperity. 5. conclusions and policy recommendations 5.1 conclusions this paper closely focuses on the level of urban-rural integration development and the level of common prosperity in china’s provincial regions, and comprehensively uses a variety of model methods to deeply analyze the realization mechanism of urban-rural integration development promoting common prosperity in china’s provincial regions, and obtains the following conclusions: (1) from a national perspective, except for the decline in the comprehensive scores of some provincial regions affected by the epidemic from 2020 to 2023, the level of urbanrural integration development in china is generally on a steady upward trend, and there are certain differences in the level of urban-rural integration development in different regions. (2) generally speaking, the level of common prosperity in china has significant positive spatial autocorrelation, and the level of common prosperity in each province shows a positive spatial aggregation state. (3) the improvement of the level of urban-rural integration development, the role of government intervention, the growth of human capital, the optimization of the industrial structure, and the improvement of the level of scientific and technological innovation all have a positive impact on the realization of common prosperity; while expanding opening up to the outside world has an inhibitory effect on the realization of common prosperity. 5.2 policy recommendations (1) collaborate on resource allocation, give play to the role of policy intervention, and improve rural guarantees. as the core area and important driving force for the high-quality improvement of non-urban regions, rural areas are the foundation for the stable development of society. under the guidance of the concept of regional coordinated development, a cross-regional industrial cooperation platform should be established to achieve the gradient transfer of development achievements through the mechanism of complementary advantages, so as to form a virtuous cycle pattern of two-way flow of factors. (2) differentiated opening-up policies to strengthen two-way factor flows. in the process of opening up to the outside world, the government should formulate supporting policies for rural industry protection and training programs for the labor force to mitigate the impact of international competition on rural areas. at the same time, efforts should be made to promote the two-way flow mechanism of urban and rural factors, deepen the marketoriented reform process of urban and rural factors, give full play to the feedback effect of urban resources on rural areas, and improve the policy support system for rural migrant workers to start businesses back in their hometowns. (3) optimize the industrial structure to achieve coordinated urban and rural economic growth. each region should be based on its actual conditions, focus on cultivating characteristic agriculture and rural tourism projects, and promote the coordinated development of multiple industries. strengthen industrial support and employment security, guide enterprises to give priority to providing local employment opportunities, and effectively broaden the channels for farmers to increase their incomes. at the same time, build a national unified large market governance system, improve the cross-regional supervision coordination framework, use blockchain technology to establish a factor circulation traceability system, and realize the paradigm shift of resource optimal allocation from pareto improvement to kaldor improvement. (4) support scientific and technological innovation to contribute to common prosperity. industrial technological innovation can not only rapidly improve the development speed of rural economy and society, promote the gradual improvement of residents’ consumption levels and living qualities, but also drive rural employment through industrial technological innovation and promote the continuous improvement of the rural industrial system. therefore, the government should, through different means such as policy support, special funds support, and improvement of service levels and capabilities, continuously improve the level of industrial technology innovation and entrepreneurship, continuously increase the innovation activity level of enterprises and the participation degree hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 40 published by ideas spread of mass entrepreneurship through incentive measures, enhance the overall level of industrial technology innovation in society, stimulate development vitality, update the economic driving engine, and promote common prosperity. acknowledgments this paper was supported by henan provincial soft science research program project "research on the realization mechanism and path countermeasures of promoting henan's common prosperity through urban-rural integrated development"(no:252400410319). references [1] xi, j. (2022). hold high the great banner of socialism with chinese characteristics and strive in unity to build a modern socialist country in all respects – report at the 20th national congress of the communist party of china (pp. 30–31). people’s publishing house. [2] deng, x. (1993). selected works of deng xiaoping (vol. 3, pp. 50–66). people’s publishing house. [3] kong, x., & xie, d. (2022). narrow the gap, urban-rural integration and common prosperity. journal of nanjing agricultural university (social sciences edition), 22(1), 12–22. [4] li, n. (2022). the internal mechanism and realization path of urban-rural integration development driving common prosperity. journal of agro-forestry economics and management, 21(4), 473–480. [5] guo, x., & ding, y. (2023). strategic thinking on promoting common prosperity through urban-rural integration. economic review, (3), 8–16. [6] yang, a., & chen, b. (2023). paths to promote common prosperity through the integrated development of urban and rural areas in counties. journal of qiqihar university (philosophy and social science edition), (2), 76–78. [7] wang, y., peng, d., & zhao, s. (2023). the impact of digital economy development on common prosperity – an empirical analysis based on spatial spillover effects. enterprise economy, 42(2), 28–39. [8] fang, c. (2022). theoretical analysis of the mechanism and evolution law of urban–rural integrated development. acta geographica sinica, 77(4), 759–776. [9] zou, w., & xu, l. (2024). measurement, regional differences and dynamic evolution of common prosperity in china. scientia geographica sinica, 44(1), 71–81. [10] guo, y., qin, w., wu, l., et al. (2023). spatial spillover effects of the common prosperity policy on the level of regional common prosperity. economic geography, 43(09), 20–30. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n1p1 1 published by ideas spread a study of video narratives of caregivers of children with cancer through the lens of media geography wangqiang zou1,2 1 school of karst science, guizhou normal university, china 2 state engineering technology institute for karst desertification control, china correspondence: wangqiang zou, state engineering technology institute for karst desertification control, guiyang 550025, china. e-mail: 1611951281/at/qq.com received: november 12, 2024; accepted: december 18, 2024; published: december 18, 2024 the research is financed by：this paper was supported by the science and technology support project of guizhou science and technology department (grant number: 2022-254). abstract the purpose of this study was to analyze the narrative content of anti-cancer videos posted by caregivers of children with cancer on the jieyin platform. through coding and analysis of 192 anti-cancer videos posted by 10 caregivers, it was found that these videos focused on four main areas: documenting the child's cancer journey, expressing the emotional stress associated with caregiving, raising public awareness of childhood cancer, and raising money for charity. the study suggests that the shakeology platform is not only a tool for caregivers to document and share their sick child's treatment process, but also an important avenue for emotional catharsis, social support, and raising financial resources. these anti-cancer video contents have contributed positively to raising public awareness and understanding of childhood cancer, while helping families of children with cancer to better cope with life's challenges. keywords: health communication, caregivers of children with cancer, shakeology platform 1. introduction cancer ranks as the ninth highest cause of childhood disease burden globally (murre j m j, 2015).between 2018 and 2020, a total of approximately 121,145 cases of cancer in children and adolescents will be diagnosed in china (ni x. 2022). caregivers (e.g., parents or guardians) of children with cancer face the challenge of coping with caregiving issues and medical decision-making related to their child's medical care, as well as coping with their own psychological distress throughout the treatment process. numerous studies have shown that caregivers experience stress, anxiety, and decreased quality of life throughout the diagnosis, treatment, and recovery from childhood cancer (best, m, 2001; boman, k, 2011; boman, k, 2000; salvador, á, 2015; vrijmoet-wiersma, c, 2008), and during the child's treatment period, caregivers must find a balance between their existing family and work in order to cope with the new caregiving and emotional demands of being a caregiver for a child with cancer (trask pc, 2003; hoekstra-weebers je, 1999; hoekstra-weebers, 2012; martin s, 2011). increasing access to social support for caregivers of children with cancer can help them effectively manage their psychological stress and other needs. for example, caregivers of children with cancer express a need for emotional and informational support (adams, e, 2009; eysenbach, g, 2004; love, b, 2012; kerr, l. 2007). due to the intensive nature of pediatric cancer treatment, many families are removed from their existing social networks (gage e, 2012), which may make social media a convenient and effective way to share experiences, communicate with others, and connect with supporters. space is the basic material of geography, and space under the study of media geography goes beyond the usual physical attributes. physical space is the definition of the scope of the real environment, and real environments such as cities, regions, and countries exist in a certain physical space. however, the space in media geography is transformed into a sphere of interpersonal communication based on social and media constructs, and space has become a variety of scenarios for human communication in the media communication environment. the society we live in has become an interconnected society with various layers constructed around the media. the information in the society is transmitted by the media as the core brain, forming a socialized space full of media information. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 2 published by ideas spread merowitz suggests that electronic media breaks the traditional relationship between physical space and social scenes, creating new scenes and breaking up old ones (merowitz, 2002). under the effect of mass media, the space we live in is no longer limited to the original natural space, but more inclined to the psychological space with social attributes. according to simmel, the sense of space is something that everyone can perceive, and it represents the distance between people (including the physical-geographical distance and human psychological distance). people's interaction activities are the filling of many spatial senses (simmel, 2002). along with the development of the internet, social media platforms have gradually become an important platform for patients with various diseases and their caregivers to present themselves and exchange health information. as a top streaming short video software with unique platform attributes, jieyin provides a new "stage" for cancer patients to present themselves and build social networks. social media platforms such as jieyin are embedded in the daily lives of caregivers of children with cancer, expanding the living space of the general public. in order to understand whether jieyin can be a useful source of support for meeting the needs of caregivers of children with cancer, it is necessary to first understand the use of social media sites by caregivers of children with cancer. the purpose of the current study was to describe the content analysis of caregiving videos posted by caregivers of children with cancer in the shakeology platform. 2. methodologies in this paper, we selected the anti-cancer videos posted on jieyin by caregivers of children with cancer as the research object. by using the search terms "children with cancer", "anti-leukemia children" and "childhood leukemia" to identify the video content pages on jittery voice platform, we filtered out hospital accounts, after filtering out hospital accounts, doctors' accounts, public welfare organizations' accounts, and irrelevant content such as handling and explanation, the bloggers were identified as caregivers of children with cancer, and the bloggers' jitterbit accounts were observed for a long period of time (december 2022-april 2024). in order to make the selected sample more representative and persuasive, this paper sets criteria for secondary screening:(1) the number of videos posted by the blogger's account needs to be more than twenty to ensure the positivity and continuity of the selected sample. (2) self-filmed and posted video content by caregivers of children with cancer. a total of 72 cancer child caregiver bloggers and a total of 12,065 video contents were obtained as of april 26, 2024 after screening. it was observed that different children with cancer caregivers had different activity levels on shakeology and posted different amounts of video content. accordingly, in this paper, based on the purposive sampling method, 10 cancer child caregiver bloggers whose caregivers' children are in different age groups, have different types of cancers, and have a higher number of anticancer video contents posted on shakeology, and have been used for a longer period of time, will be selected as the study subjects among the observation subjects. after that, all the video contents posted by the research subjects on jieyin were captured from the first update about their children's cancer posted by the research subjects to the deadline of the researcher's data collection date, and 192 valid data were obtained after data de-emphasis and cleansing. after determining the study sample, the video samples posted by the caregivers of children with cancer were imported into nvivo12 software for multilevel coding. in this paper, we coded the data according to strauss's three-process coding, starting with "open coding," in which the researcher used the original words of the caregivers in the videos as much as possible in order to be close to the original intention of the caregivers of the children with cancer. when the coding reached saturation, a second round of "spindle coding" was conducted to summarize the initial coding and categorize the words according to the content of the video to make the coding more logical. the third round of "selective coding" was conducted to further integrate the decentralized content into the research questions. 3. study finds based on the statistics of the content of the study participants' video postings, it was found that the themes of the video narratives posted by bloggers who are caregivers of children with cancer on the jitterbug platform can be categorized into four areas: (1) documenting their child's cancer journey, (2) sharing the emotional stress associated with caregiving, (3) raising awareness and advocacy for childhood cancer, and (4) raising money for charity. 3.1 documenting your child's cancer journey one of the main ways in which carers of children with cancer use jitterbug is to document the journey of the child's cancer treatment; although the carers do not have cancer, they experience the physical experience of cancer through the experience of caring for a child. in this case, the caregiver becomes the sick child's "surrogate self," standing in for the caregiver's own self and telling the sick child's narrative of suffering as if it were their own story (knepper, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 3 published by ideas spread k, 2018). carers live through different stages of treatment and celebrate milestone moments related to cancer. carers make videos to share the story of their child's cancer diagnosis, updates on treatment progress, and the results of recent tests. for example, one caregiver described their intention to create a shakeology account in the information section of their shakeology homepage. hello everyone i'm [sick child's name], 2020 was diagnosed with leukosis, three years of anti-leukodystrophy, relapse after one year of junction therapy, the current hebei transplant for three months, in the anti-rejection, every video in the real record of the anti-leukodystrophy process, thankful to meet, like the friends to leave us a concern. i'm not sure if you're going to be able to get it right! i'm not sure if you're a good person, but i'm sure you're a good person. dad: [personal contact details of carer shown here] carers use jitterbug as a way to keep up-to-date information about their child's health throughout the cancer treatment process. carers would share details of their child's diagnosis and treatment, upcoming appointments and surgeries, and their child's current treatment plan through videos on the shakeology platform. for example, one caregiver recorded a video of her child on the day of his bone piercing, where the child showed nervousness before departing from home, and the caregiver gently reassured the child to ease the child's anxiety; after the child's bone piercing was over, the caregiver gave the child a thumbs-up encouraging him to be the bravest little warrior, and took out the toys prepared in advance to give to her child as a reward, and at the end of the video the family gave a thumbs-up to the camera, and the family gave a thumbs-up to the camera, and the family gave a thumbs-up to the camera. at the end of the video, the family gives a thumbs up to the camera, sending a message of positivity and optimism to netizens watching the video. like this caregiver, caregivers use jieyin to share updates on their children's health as part of the largest portion of their videos. carers also share videos on jitterbug to celebrate monumental moments in their child's cancer treatment, such as the anniversary of their child's cancer diagnosis, their child's birthday, and their partner's birthday. one caregiver shared the first anniversary of his child's diagnosis in a video in which he, as the child's father, prepared flowers for the child as well as the child's mother (the primary caregiver) and personally made a commemorative cake to celebrate this monumental occasion.the video shows many fragments of the child's journey from the diagnosis to the present day, with the first half of the video showing the caregiver accompanying the child for treatments, infusions, and looking after the child's the first half of the video shows caregivers accompanying the child for treatments and fluids, taking care of the child's daily routine, and the second half of the video shows him making a cake, preparing flowers, and everyone eating the cake together. the video received 6,138 likes and 512 comments in support of the caregiver organizing such a celebration. for example, the owner of the flower store saw the video and commented, "i should have given you guys a discount". another commenter commented "my son grew up with poor health and spent many nights in tears, when things got tough, i always thought of [video maker] and it gave me strength again. i wish [the video maker] a sweeter and sweeter life for the family!" . videos documenting the journey of a child with cancer usually present the caregiver's perspective on their child's and family's fight against cancer, presenting mostly events related to the disease. this type of narrative reflects the ongoing active observation and interpretation of the caregiver of a child with cancer. as a tool of confrontation, digital media, on the one hand, brings together caregivers' individual narratives of their children's life experiences and becomes a common mediated memory for the cancer community; on the other hand, it constructs a memory space for a diverse group (xie zhuoxia, 2020). 3.2 share emotional stress related to nursing the openness, integration and interactivity given by the internet have significantly increased the breadth of mass communication and interpersonal communication, and the space constructed by it has become more and more a place of communication, where users can express and communicate through operations such as liking, commenting and retweeting, etc.; and the text, which serves as a symbol to convey meanings, has also become more and more a tool for users to recognize and understand. a child suffering from leukemia is like a bolt from the blue for the caregiver of the child, a heavy psychological burden and huge financial pressure comes instantly, plus accompanying the child to and from the home and the hospital frequently, tired of running around, not enough time for rest and relaxation, and also constantly raising money from all over the world. at the same time, the sick child suffers from various chemotherapy side effects due to intensive chemotherapy, and the caregiver is in a state of high stress physically and mentally while taking care of and worrying about the child, and the caregiver is facing great psychological pressure. although family and friends are the objects that the caregiver can communicate with directly, the high or low family communication orientation (lu, h, 2020), social alienation caused by the disease (yang, xy, 2020), and other factors will affect hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 4 published by ideas spread the caregiver's ability to communicate with the family and friends, and the caregiver will not have enough time to rest and relax. 2020) and other factors can affect the rate of interaction and the quality of communication between members, so the caregiver's emotions will not be fully and completely represented in their presence. caregivers expressing these emotions through videos can help them reduce their inner pressure and avoid related psychological problems. at the same time, sharing their experiences on shakeology often results in receiving encouraging comments from other users. the sick child's caregiver posted her own understanding of the disease on the shakeyin platform, and with the video as the center, the information continued to spread and extend, and the degree of interaction with other users as a scale, forming a heterogeneous social network of strong and weak relationships, and this interactive behavior, in fact, also constructed a virtual interactive space. in this space, through the function of commenting, users not only form a direct dialogue with caregivers of sick children, but also further construct a narrative space (chen, 2021). one caregiver described it in the shakeout after the results of her child's bone puncture came back and she couldn't have a transplant but had to undergo a fourth chemo mindset: the mindset is really coming apart ...... since [sick child's name] has been sick, she has always been optimistic and positive, because she doesn't want others to look at her with pity, so she shows her best side every time, and everyone thinks she is in good shape and doesn't look like a sick child. i myself also think that she will definitely be able to get well, but it is only costly and time-consuming, but it does not matter as long as she is there. at first in nanchang that the conditions are not good to take her to the better wuhan union medical college hospital, myeloid leukemia most of the need for transplantation in order to allow her to live a normal life or decided to go to the preferred transplantation lu daopei hospital. full of hope after playing the third treatment smoothly through each bone marrow suppression period, are waiting for 3 treatment can be prepared for transplantation, bone penetration results came out that moment of heart collapse, why ah .... why is it that when everyone else has 2 treatments and 3 treatments and everything turns negative and is in remission and can enter a position, she doesn't quite get 4 treatments ...... through this kind of emotional sharing, on the one hand, the carers' emotions can be released, and the support from the netizens' likes and comments and listening will give them energy and courage to continue to move forward, and under this kind of quasi-social relationship, the carers will feel that they are not alone in their struggle. on the other hand, emotional sharing posted by caregivers in social media is more emotional than specific emotional stories posted in traditional media, thus triggering deeper feelings among netizens. therefore, by constructing their own perception of their children's pain and suffering, the caregivers symbolize and narrate their unique cognitive attitudes and emotional experiences, which become the basis for establishing group identity and emotional ties, thus creating an "emotional field". and through the emotional confession and communication, the pain can be effectively alleviated through "emotional sharing", and the depression in the heart can be dissolved. 3.3 childhood cancer awareness and sensitization through short-form video platforms, children with cancer as a group are removed from their original birthing space, and for viewers of this type of video, the images of sick children in videos produced by caregivers of children with cancer are not the same as the mysterious and plain images of children with cancer that have been reported in traditional media. in traditional media, images of children with cancer are often shaped and disseminated by media organizations, and the voice and control of the patients themselves may be limited. traditional media may be more inclined to report on stories with specific emotional or dramatic overtones, resulting in a homogenized or stereotyped image of the sick child being reported on. stories tend to be time-lagged and information may not be updated in time to reflect the latest situation of the sick child, and there is limited interaction between the sick child and the viewer, with a lack of immediate feedback and communication. the traditional media, due to the limitation of the length and form of the report, may express emotions superficially and lack depth. compared with traditional media, caregivers on the shakemedia platform usually have greater autonomy and initiative to show their children's treatment status, and they can decide the content, format and frequency of sharing, thus providing a more realistic reflection of the experience of a sick child's fight against cancer. caregivers can hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 5 published by ideas spread update their children's status and treatment progress in real time, and viewers have access to the most up-to-date and timely information. the jitterbug platform provides a highly interactive online environment for the caregiver community. on this platform, caregivers can directly interact with viewers through video comment sections or live streams to receive feedback and support. this highly participatory feature helps to build and strengthen the sick child's support network. caregivers have the opportunity to showcase the uniqueness of the child as an individual, for example, by showcasing the child's drawing, dancing, singing and other specialties in the video, which removes the limitations of the traditional label of "child with cancer" and reveals a richer picture of the child's personal attributes and outlook on life. carers of children with cancer often need to acquire highly specialized medical and nursing knowledge in the early stages of their child's diagnosis and treatment, including knowledge of the disease and treatment, and hands-on experience in nursing care, etc. as the caregiver's experience builds up, the caregiver will also disseminate their experience and knowledge of caring for their child in videos, which is important to many other families of children with cancer who are looking for help on media platforms. for many families of other children with cancer who seek help on media platforms, knowing how their "friends" are fighting cancer or the pace of treatment is very important to them, and when their child is diagnosed with cancer, access to information is necessary for every family of a child with cancer, and the internet provides a platform for the presentation of this information. although caregivers of children with cancer are not professional healthcare workers, the information, knowledge, and experience they provide based on their status as a caregiver of a child with cancer has a certain degree of credibility and persuasive power, and the information they publish is more likely to be believed by the audience. because of the variety of childhood cancer diseases, different morbidity, different treatment options, and different disease conditions of children with cancer, ordinary viewers have little knowledge about childhood cancer. when caregivers post anti-cancer videos on the shakeology platform, ordinary viewers do not know much about childhood leukemia and tend to ask for explanations of relevant specialized terms in the comment section of the videos, such as, "why do children get leukemia? what does it mean to enter the warehouse? how long does a transplant take?" etc. the caregivers will popularize these questions to the viewers and raise their awareness of childhood cancer. when a child's cancer is successfully treated, the family of the child with cancer will return to the hospital where they were treated with gifts on holidays to visit other sick children battling the disease and give them encouragement and support, and they also call on more caring people in the community to care for the group of children with cancer and expand awareness and publicity of childhood cancer. 3.4 fundraiser treatment of childhood cancer usually requires high costs, including surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, medication, etc., which often puts significant financial pressure on the patient and his/her family. caregivers may not be able to work normally while accompanying the sick child for treatment, resulting in a decrease in overall family income, but basic expenses for family life and hospitalization remain, and may even increase due to the treatment of the sick child's disease (e.g., nutritional supplements, special care, etc.). the low threshold, easy readability, and wide spread of the jitterbit platform gives caregivers of sick children the opportunity to tell their personal situation to the cyberspace, which enables cancer-stricken families to break through the original identity and spatial limitations, and to rely on the jitterbit platform to record their lives and obtain help from caring members of the society. therefore, opening an account on the shakeme platform to make cancer videos is one of the ways that many caregivers choose to alleviate their financial burdens. the caregiver can sell goods through the way of live broadcasting, live broadcasting is usually carried out at night, when the caregiver has finished a day of care life, the use of the leisure time before the rest of the live broadcast selling goods, the audience can support the family of the child suffering from cancer through the purchase of goods, this way to directly convert the traffic into economic income. during the live broadcast, viewers can also support the child's family by giving them virtual gifts from the platform, which the caregiver can then convert into cash. when a user's fan base has accumulated to a certain level, the jieyin platform allows the user to open a merchandise window, where the caregiver can display the merchandise window on his or her personal homepage and earn income by selling the merchandise. some caregivers will write the reason for bringing goods in the information section of their jieyin personal homepage, requesting netizens to buy goods to show their support for the family. 2023 mid-april lively and lovely [name of the sick child], diagnosed with leukemia, opened the sinful chemotherapy treatment, because of the expensive treatment costs, has spent all the savings, on the road with goods to save the girl, i hope that you can enter the window to look at the need to place an order, every single hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 6 published by ideas spread one of your family has brought the greatest help, thank you for all the good people, good people live a peaceful life thank you! thank you to shake shack for helping the kids! ❤ thank you to each and every one of you who stopped by the video! as the number of fans increases, the caregiver's personal account may receive attention from brands (e.g., mother and baby brands), and the caregiver can earn income by cooperating with the brand to publish advertisement content.some caregivers who have gained enough fans during the treatment of the sick child will choose to continue to carry goods in the form of self-publishing as their professional work after the recovery of the sick child, and according to the positioning of their own fan base, they will still focus on the mother and baby and household goods. after the videos produced by some caregivers to fight cancer for sick children are noticed by local charitable organizations or caring people, the charitable organizations or caring people will visit the families of the sick children offline and give them certain material support. for example, local charitable organizations raise money offline for the families of the sick children and conduct fundraising activities, and caring people go to the hospital to accompany the sick children to do handicrafts and other activities on children's day and other festivals. the caregivers record these moments and make videos to thank the caring people or charitable organizations for their help. 4. research limitations sample limitations: although the study selected 10 caregivers of children with cancer as study participants through specific screening criteria and analyzed 192 videos posted by them, these samples are still limited in number and may not be fully representative of all caregivers of children with cancer. platform homogeneity: this study focused only on the jieyin platform and did not consider similar anti-cancer narrative content on other social media platforms (e.g., wechat, weibo, shuttle, etc.). this limits a comprehensive understanding of how caregivers of children with cancer use social media to express and seek support on different platforms. limited time horizon: the study focuses on data up to april 26, 2024, and lacks long-term tracking and follow-up data. caregivers and their families may have different needs and behaviors at different stages and points in treatment, and these changes are difficult to capture in the short term. limitations of the analytical approach: the study primarily used a qualitative coding analysis approach, and while this approach helped to provide an in-depth understanding of the video content, it lacked the quantitative analysis to support the broad applicability of the qualitative findings. lack of viewer perspective:research has focused primarily on the perspectives of caregivers of children with cancer, but has not delved into how viewer feedback and interactions may influence caregiver behavior and psychological states. viewers' comments, private messages, and supportive approaches may have a significant impact on caregivers' video content and posting behaviors, and this section of the analysis is lacking. ethical and privacy issues: although the study describes how caregivers shared sick children's healing journeys and emotional stress on the shakeology platform, it does not discuss the ethical issues that may be involved in these behaviors, especially how to protect sick children's privacy and dignity in the context of sharing sensitive information about sick children publicly. these research gaps provide directions for further research in the future, such as expanding sample sizes, increasing platform diversity, conducting longer follow-up studies, adopting mixed methods (combining quantitative and qualitative), analyzing the impact of audience interactions, and delving into ethical issues. 5. conclusion by analyzing the narrative content of anti-cancer videos posted by caregivers of children with cancer on the jieyin platform, this study reveals how caregivers use social media to document their child's journey through cancer, express emotional stress, raise public awareness of childhood cancer, and raise money for charity, among other functions. these videos not only demonstrate the emotional and psychological needs of caregivers of children with cancer during the caregiving process, but also show the important role of social media, such as jitterbug, in supporting and empowering families of children with cancer. the study found that the jieyin platform provides an expressive and documentary platform for caregivers of children with cancer to share their child's treatment process and personal experiences in a more personal and timely hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 7 published by ideas spread manner. through these videos, caregivers were not only able to gain sympathy and support from viewers, but were also able to leverage the platform's interactivity and broad user base to seek financial help and social support. these findings suggest that social media platforms play an increasingly important role in modern health communication, particularly in the self-presentation of patient groups and the creation of social support networks. however, there are some limitations in this study. for example, the study sample was limited in size, focusing mainly on the jitterbug platform and failing to provide comprehensive coverage of all social media usage. in addition, the study data had a limited time span and lacked in-depth analysis of interactions between caregivers and viewers. future research could further explore the role of social media in the lives of caregivers of children with cancer by expanding the sample, adding analysis of other platforms, and conducting longer follow-up studies. overall, this study emphasizes the key role played by social media platforms in the community of childhood cancer caregivers and calls for more attention to the needs and difficulties of this particular group. it is hoped that this study will draw more attention from the community to families of children with cancer and promote the formulation of relevant policies and the provision of support services. references murre, j. m. j., & dros, j. (2015). replication and analysis of ebbinghaus' forgetting curve. plos one, 10(7), e0120644. ni, x., li, z., li, x., zhang, x., bai, g., liu, y., zheng, r., zhang, y., xu, x., liu, y., et al. (2022). socioeconomic inequalities in cancer incidence and access to health services among children and adolescents in china: a cross-sectional study. the lancet, 400(10357), 1020-1032. best, m., streisand, r., catania, l., & kazak, a. e. (2001). parental distress during pediatric leukemia and posttraumatic stress symptoms (ptss) after treatment ends. journal of pediatric psychology, 26, 299-307. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/26.5.299 boman, k., lindahl, a., & björk, o. (2003). disease-related distress in parents of children with cancer at various stages after the time of diagnosis. acta oncologica, 42, 137-146. boman, k. d., williams, s. m., mcgee, r., & skegg, d. c. g. (2000). impact of childhood cancer on the mental health of parents. medical and pediatric oncology, 35, 475-483. https://doi.org/10.1002/1096911x(20001101)35:5<475::aid-mpo6>3.0.co;2-u salvador, á., crespo, c., martins, a. r., santos, s., & canavarro, m. c. (2015). parents' perceptions about their child's illness in pediatric cancer: links with caregiving burden and quality of life. journal of child and family studies, 24, 1129-1140. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-014-9921-8 vrijmoet-wiersma, c. m., van klink, j. m., kolk, a. m., koopman, h. m., ball, l. m., & egeler, r. m. (2008). trask, p. c., paterson, a. g., trask, c. l., bares, c. b., birt, j., & maan, c. (2003). parent and adolescent adjustment to pediatric cancer: associations with coping, social support, and family function. journal of pediatric oncology nursing, 20(1), 36-47. hoekstra-weebers, j. e., jaspers, j. p., kamps, w. a., & klip, e. c. (1999). risk factors for psychological maladjustment of parents of children with cancer. journal of the american academy of child & adolescent psychiatry, 38(12), 1526-1535. hoekstra-weebers, j. e., wijnberg-williams, b. j., jaspers, j. p., kamps, w. a., & van de wiel, h. b. (2012). coping and its effect on psychological distress of parents of pediatric cancer patients: a longitudinal prospective study. psycho-oncology, 21(8), 903-911. martin, s., calabrese, s. k., wolters, p. l., walker, k. a., warren, k., & hazra, r. (2011). family functioning and coping styles in families of children with cancer and hiv disease. clinical pediatrics (phila), 51(1), 58-64. adams, e., boulton, m., & watson, e. (2009). the information needs of partners and family members of cancer patients: a systematic literature review. patient education and counseling, 77, 179-186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2009.03.027 eysenbach, g., powell, j., englesakis, m., rizo, c., & stern, a. (2004). health-related virtual communities and electronic support groups: systematic review of the effects of online peer-to-peer interactions. love, b., crook, b., thompson, c. m., zaitchik, s., knapp, j., lefebvre, l., & rechis, r. (2012). exploring psychosocial support online: a content analysis of messages in an adolescent and young adult cancer community. cyberpsychology, behavior, and social networking, 15, 555-559. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2012.0138 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 8 published by ideas spread kerr, l. m. j., harrison, m. b., medves, j., tranmer, j. e., & fitch, m. i. (2007). understanding the supportive care needs of parents of children with cancer: an approach to local needs assessment. journal of pediatric oncology nursing, 24, 279-293. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043454207304907 gage, e., & panagakis, c. (2012). the devil you know: parents seeking support online for pediatric cancer. sociology of health & illness, 34(3), 444-458. merowitz, j. (2002). disappearing territories: the impact of electronic media on social behavior (x. zhijun, trans.). beijing: tsinghua university press. simmel, g. (2002). sociology: the study of forms of socialization. beijing: huaxia publishing house. knepper, k. n., & arrington, m. i. (2018). parents' narratives in an online phpv forum: towards a typology of caregiver illness narratives. illness, crisis & loss, 26(4), 316-329. https://doi.org/10.1177/1054137316667594 xie, z. (2020). spring festival gala as memory practice: writing, carrying, and consumption of mediated memory. international journalism, 42(1), 154-176. lu, h. y., lin, s. f., huang, c. h., lee, h. h., & ma, l. c. (2020). talk about cancer! exploring communication between patients and family caregivers. communication & society, 51(3). yang, x., lu, l., wang, s., et al. (2020). research progress on social alienation in cancer survivors. chinese journal of nursing, 55(8), 1270-1275. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v4n4p42 42 published by ideas spread mental health perceptions from artwork alexei sammut1, paulann grech1, michael galea1, margaret mangion2 & josianne scerri1 1 department of mental health, university of malta, malta 2 the edward de bono institute for creative thinking and innovation, university of malta, malta correspondence: alexei sammut, department of mental health, university of malta, malta. tel: 356-2340-1185. e-mail: alexei.sammut um.edu.mt received: december 6, 2021; accepted: december 20, 2021; published: december 23, 2021 abstract the relationship between artwork and mental health has been the subject of various research endeavours. whilst artwork has been long used as a means of emotional expression, it is also a method of raising mental health awareness. in this study, an art collection was presented to depict the challenges faced by many individuals living with a mental illness. through a series of open-ended questions, twenty-nine participants were requested to give a title to each piece and to describe the perceived message and emotions related to each painting. the thematic analysis process of the participants’ descriptions led to the identification of three themes, namely those of darkness, solitude and recovery. whilst congruence was often observed between the participants themselves and between the viewers and the artist, discrepancies were also noted. artwork can be an important medium in addressing stigma and in guiding reflections on mental health topics. keywords: aesthetics, mental health, artwork 1. introduction and background 1.1 art and emotions an important characteristic of aesthetic experiences is their capacity to elicit emotions in observers (paasschen et al., 2015). in this view, research effort has been dedicated to understand the exact mechanisms that are involved in the process of perceiving and interpreting artwork. one aspect of this research has focused on the composition and form of the image itself and their role in the ability to evoke an emotional response. for instance, the colour composition and the linear-mark direction of the picture are elements that can trigger specific emotions in the viewer (hodges, 2015). thus, lighter colours tend to be associated with more positive emotions whilst chaotic lines may suggest agitation (gail, 2017). notably, the tone of artwork does not simply suggest an emotion but often results in bodily changes within the perceiver. for instance, in their study, leder et al. (2012) reported how participants, displayed more frowning when viewing images with a negative emotional tone whilst smiling more when being presented with emotionally positive work. furthermore, in another study by gatti et al. (2018), the study sample experienced greater levels of arousal (as indicated by higher skin conductance) when viewing stirring images. whilst research on the emotion-related characteristics of artwork and the viewers’ general experience, is in abundance, few studies have delved deeper into the inner affective experience of the observer (pelowski et al., 2017). the current study attempts to contribute to this gap. 1.2 art and mental health the link between mental health and artwork has often been described in the literature (gail, 2017; rothenberg, 2015). commonly this refers either to individuals expressing their mental health distress or professionals who utilise art-based interventions as a means of support. artists' feelings, opinions, ideals, and emotions are inextricably reflected in their work – and in some cases, purposefully portrayed (rustin, 2008). in fact, mark rothko, edvard munch, and bernard buffet all claimed that their work represented their dysthymia whilst the works of paul cézanne, vincent van gogh, and jackson pollock have been interpreted as portraying aspects of mental disturbance (rustin, 2008; sahiti, 2017). the art collection that features in the current study is part of the series living with mental illness by anthony calleja, who is an internationally acclaimed maltese artist. it consisted of 17 paintings depicting the various challenges that many individuals living with a mental illness face on a daily basis such as stigma, bullying and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 43 published by ideas spread inner turmoil (refer to figure 1 and table 1). in this study, we studied affective aspects of art appreciation in relation to this collection. thus, participants were requested to give a title to each piece as well as to explore the message that each painting was conveying. additionally, the viewers were asked to describe the emotions perceived in relation to each of the works. figure 1. artwork hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 44 published by ideas spread table 1. intended artistic message/topic in relation to each painting (sammut & calleja, 2019) painting artistic message/topic painting artistic message/topic 1 thoughts 2 social isolation and loneliness 3 stereotyping 4 technology and mental wellbeing 5 obsessions and addictions 6 financial stability 7 eating disorders 8 relationships and substance misuse 9 bullying 10 vulnerability 11 schizophrenia 12 struggles with suicidal ideations 13 fighting suicidal ideations 14 death by suicide 15 professional support 16 recovery and rehabilitation 17 message open to interpretation 2. method the main research questions guiding this study were: what is the perceived message of each painting, as interpreted by the participants? which emotions are experienced by the participants upon viewing each painting? a cross sectional survey design involving a series of open-ended questions was employed to investigate the interpretations of participants to artwork in the series living with mental illness. the self-designed questionnaire was distributed by the exhibition curator during an art exhibition. a total of 29 participants were recruited. ethical approval was sought and granted by the university’s faculty research ethics committee (frec). the participants’ descriptions in relation to the paintings were analysed through a process of thematic analysis. a comparative analysis process was then undertaken whereby the participant descriptions related to each painting were compared in order to explore: 1). similarities and differences in interpretation and emotion perception between the participants themselves and; 2). congruence and discrepancy between the participants’ perceptions and the author’s intentions (the latter-mentioned were available on the publication that accompanied the collection). 3. results the thematic analysis process led to the identification of three themes, namely those of darkness, solitude and recovery, each of which had a number of subthemes, as presented in table 2. table 2. themes emerging from the analysis of the findings participant interpretations main paintings contributing to each theme overarching themes subthemes darkness entrapment death pain fear 2,3,4,6,7,10,11,13,14,16 solitude loneliness lost in thoughts 1,2,5,8, 9 recovery freedom support 12, 15,17 theme 1: darkness this was the dominant theme that emerged from the findings of the study, with ten of the 17 paintings being identified as contributing to it. darkness refers to reported participant interpretations that touched upon a range of emotions related to mental health challneges such as anguish, burden and struggles that frequently characterise mental illness: “...what struck me the most was the “darkness” and “hollowness” in the person’s eyes. it’s almost as if the person is completely empty and hurt, but at the same time i got the sense that he/she is also angry.” [painting 2, participant 25] the sub-themes within this theme are entrapment, fatigue, pain and fear. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 45 published by ideas spread entrapment refers to feelings of being kept hostage by mental illness or by its societal perception, as discussed by some of the participants. fatigue was depicted as that sense of tiredness and unmotivation that can accompany a mental illness, rendering every single day a major challenge to go through. the sub-theme of pain was presented through descriptions of the emotional distress that those experiencing mental illness may go through. fear was the final sub-theme that contributed to the darkness, featuring the multiple terrifying thoughts and experiences that those who are living with a mental illness may be engaged in. theme 2: solitude this theme represents those participant interpretations related to the feeling of stillness that emerged from some of the paintings. stillness, which was often described in negative rather than positive terms, can be part of the journey of mental illness and recovery: “the painting immediately evokes feelings of fear, pensivity and above all despair and loneliness. it somehow reaches out to you and makes you want to explain to this individual that he is not alone.” [painting 1, participant 3] seven paintings were the main contributors for this theme and the sub-themes identified were those of: loneliness and lost in thoughts. loneliness referred to that state and associated feelings which result when the person living with a mental illness is misunderstood or segregated by society. on the other hand, lost in thoughts was presented as that person who, because of their inner turmoil, withdraw in themselves, lost in myriads of thoughts that threaten to be overwhelming. here the person opts to be alone in preference of being with others, rather than this state being imposed upon them by society. theme 3: recovery this final theme may be seen as akin to the light at the end of the tunnel – a ray of hope. consisting of the subthemes ‘freedom’ and ‘support’, the clear participant interpretations show the move towards recovery. a sense of freedom was interpreted by the viewers and this was parallel to the heartening indication of support being available to those living with a mental illness: “a sense of unity and being; belonging to a community, a system of support. feeling of hope and willingness.” [painting 17, participant 14] 4. discussion in his book camera lucida, barthes (1980) introduced a concept that quickly gained interest in the artistic world. this centered on the two stages in the relationship between an image and its viewer. studium is the first process that takes place, which involves that which first draws a viewer to an image – this is often the topic of the image itself – that which engages or repels the viewer at the first instance (singh & ladsaria, 2017). the studium is that which affects the logical and intellectual parts of the person who is being exposed to the image. the punctum, which is the second step, is that which goes deeper and is able to move the viewer emotionally (singh & ladsaria, 2017) during this current study, the first request that was made to the participants was to provide a title to each of the seventeen pictures. interestingly, upon reflection on the titles provided, it can be noted that in many cases, the titles given were based on the studium response of the viewer. to this extent, the titles, which often consisted of one word, were mostly focused on the first impression obtained from the painting, commonly involving the pose of the depicted figure, the facial expression or the type of movement. such titles include ‘waiting’ and ‘foetal position’ for the first painting, ‘caged’ and ‘scream’ for the third one, ‘dance’ and ‘bullying’ for the ninth picture and ‘come hither’ and ‘souls’ for the fifteenth image. contrastingly, when the participants were asked to describe the emotions and feelings conveyed by each picture, the progress from studium to punctum could be clearly observed in most of the cases. for instance, one of the viewers who had provided the title of ‘fighting for life’ to the fourteenth painting, subsequently described the perceived emotion as: “climbing up steps, trying to reach what you really want to achieve” [painting 14, participant 28]. similarly, the participant who had named picture 15 as ‘transcendence’, shared an in-depth reflection that clearly portrays the punctum effect: “[the painting] gives me positive feelings like hope and peace. being aware of one’s mental illness, falling down and then rising up once again. feeling at peace with oneself and accepting the mental illness in oneself. rising up again with the constant support/help of a supernatural being who is constantly with the person.” [painting 15, participant 18] hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 46 published by ideas spread jacquette (2014) described that there may be discrepancies between that which the artist wishes to portray and the punctum which is perceived by the viewer. this was demonstrated in a study by markey et al. (2019) who explored inconsistencies in the processing of artworks, as recorded via eeg. the findings suggested that there is an artrelated processing mode or schema that influences human perception. consequently, the researchers concluded that this schema, which is active when viewing images, seems to have specific underlying rules, referring to individualistic ways of defining structure and meaning. the participant responses in the current study can be noted to demonstrate such similarities and inconsistencies, both between the participants themselves as well as between the artist and the participant, in view of the same painting these shall be discussed as follows within each of the three themes that emerged. theme 1: darkness the dominant theme that emerged from the analysis of the participants’ interpretations of the paintings in this collection, was that of ‘darkness’. this refers to those emotions which are associated with a heavy and sombre ambiance in view of several factors that have given rise to the sub-themes of entrapment, fatigue, pain and fear. the paintings which were associated with this theme through the reflections by the viewers were 2,3,4,6,10,11,13, 14 and 16. one similarity amongst most of the paintings that have been interpreted within the context of darkness is the featuring of the artist’s own face in dark tones. the facial expression in these paintings is mostly one that communicates the experience of agony, despair and confusion. for example, the second painting shows a shrouded dark figure wearing a white cloak. the artist’s message related to this work emphasises the fact that it is not only the illness itself that may cause an individual to withdraw from society but the stigma which is commonly experienced in the face of mental health pathology (sammut & calleja, 2019). in this picture, the perception of ‘darkness’ by the participants can perhaps be attributed to the contrasting colour scheme between the dark reddishbrown tones that are used in the facial composition of the figure and the white veil and shirt that he is wearing – a technique that emphasises the figure’s face especially the “dark and hollow eyes” [painting 2, participant 25]. this is complementary to the description provided by one of the participants who explained how “a sense of darkness and evil is conjured” as soon as one looks at the picture. this perception is similar to a finding which emerged from a study by kirkham et al. (2015), who engaged individuals with chronic pain in the production of pictures that portrayed their hardship. interestingly, the colours red and black were ones which featured most in the production, showing that these colours are linked to an element of darkness, in this case, brought about by pain. the same theme extends to the third painting which depicts a figure who is holding a cage over their head. cages are synonymous with freedom or the lack of it and in this case, it represents the freedom that should belong to every individual (sammut & calleja, 2019) the symbolic use of objects in order to convey emotions and meanings through art is no novelty and constitutes one of the clearest ways of communication by artists (kingslan & gibilisco, 2011). in this picture, a dark nature has been created by several factors. for instance, the figure’s open mouth, as if in a permanent scream, may be one contributor. the cage and the vertical dark red streaks may be consciously or subconsciously associated with blood – two other elements which add to the perceived dark nature of this painting. in fact, one may compare the hues in this painting and the one after it to the scream – the famous piece by edvard munch a painting which is known for its red hues and its intended ability to stir overwhelming anxiety and darkness in the viewer (beams, 2019) the same technique echoes in the fourth painting. the fact that the figure in painting 4 is wearing a crown of thorns has strong connotations to the passion of jesus christ – a message which was captured by some of the viewers. this perceived message is understandable since the exhibition was held in a country which is predominantly roman catholic. once again, the figure’s mouth is open in a scream – a feature which, along with the crown of thorns and the use of red colour around the figure’s head may have contributed to the perception of darkness, brought about by pain. in the history of art, the use of ‘screams’ has been commonly linked to feelings of anxiety and discomfort. whilst munch’s the scream would be the obvious example, another painting by this same artist – self-portrait with the spanish flu – uses the same concept (goldstein, 2020) interestingly, in view of painting 4, none of the participants commented on the wires and pieces of net that are entangled in the crown of thorns – crucial items which are linked to the artist’s intended meaning that of the potential effect of technology on mental health. this automatic assumption may be due to the crown of thorns’ ability to influence the viewers’ perception in its totality. taylor et al. (2019) termed this as ‘meaning-maintenance’, referring to the processes by which pre-existing cultural objects persist across space and time to perpetuate meaning. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 47 published by ideas spread on a different level, the sub-theme of pain also emerged from the participants’ perceptions in relation to the tenth picture. in this case, the pain is a result of “going round in circles” (painting 10, participant 20) in an endless search for meaning and/or identity. in this view, many of the participants commented on the struggle, shame and helplessness linked to the painful realisation attributed to being emotionally stuck in a rut: “sense of being stuck. moving, but unable to move forward” [painting 10, participant 23] “gives me feeling of internal struggle leading to person not looking after self. helpless, hopeless feeling” [painting 10, participant 18] the artist’s original message in relation to this painting was that of vulnerability. this is exhibited by the use of nudity and the circular motion of the figure in the painting, which is meant to indicate a loss of direction and stability. the perception of vulnerability was similarly evident in the respondents’ replies, indicating congruence with the artist’s intention. the use of nudity in the portrayal of vulnerability has been explored in the literature and a study by gerge et al. (2020) clearly presents the use of naked figures in drawings made by gynaecological cancer survivors in order to suggest the pain and vulnerability associated with this illness. moving on to painting 11, it can be noted that this work is the epitome of darkness, as interpreted by most of the participants. the dark smoke surrounding the figure is probably that which sets the emotion of the picture. the effect of colour tones and saturation in images on the emotional response of the viewer is an area that has been studied extensively (alracao, 2014; de melo & gratch, 2010; gbehounou et al., 2012; pos & green-armytage, 2007). in this view, the use of dark and dull colours, such as those which constitute this painting, have been consistently found to create a gloomy mood (alracao, 2014). the heavy aura surrounding this work is perpetuated by the features of a male face emerging from the smoke, being caught in the middle of a scream that emerges from a slightly deviated mouth. only one of the figure’s eyes is visible a fiery red eye which is a stark contrast to the dullness of the black smoke and possibly contributes to the dark nature of the painting. notably, the use of highly chromatic colours such as red have often been associated with aggression (pos & green-armytage, 2007) this could explain why one of the participants perceived a feeling of anger in view of this painting: “the dictating man. the man who seeks power through aggression. it makes me think of a man shouting out power.” [painting 11, participant 7] only one participant mentioned schizophrenia, which was the artist’s intended meaning. in fact, the smoke refers to the distortion of reality that is the prime marker of this mental illness. as a personal and social phenomenon, death has often been the main topic that featured in popular works such as the third of may 1808 by francisco goya and judith beheading holofernes by caravaggio. in this collection, death was also the creative drive behind the thirteenth and fourteenth paintings. interestingly, these two works clearly present the artist’s struggle with the notion of death which, in both cases, is represented by a skeletal figure. this struggle may be seen as being more evident in the thirteenth painting with the artist and death being seemingly caught up in a direct physical encounter. the use of skulls in artwork is well documented. for instance, there are the vanitas skull paintings which are often understood as showing the narcissistic indulgencies of the human against a backdrop of the passing aspect of time (impermanence). philippe de champaigne’s vanitas (1671) is one such example. on the other hand, marinus van reymerswaele’s saint jerome (1541) painting is one that uses a skull in a memento mori fashion – a reminder to be a good person and live life to the fullest due to the inevitability of death (charney, 2016) more recent works that feature skulls are gabriel orozco’s black kites (1997) and damien hirst’s for the love of god (2007). both of these paintings, albeit in different ways, illustrate the dark beauty of death – feared but mysteriously intriguing, as reported by viewers of these works (smart, 2011) as well as by some of the participants in the current study, in relation to paintings 13 and 14. in a similar way to other paintings that were explored within this theme of darkness, the human face in the thirteenth painting, features a scream, possibly due to the fear or fury that are being conjured by the struggle – emotions that were perceived and well-described by a number of participants: “feeling of fear when facing experiences which could have led to own death” [painting 13, participant 2] “at first glance it’s as if the person is trying to defeat death, as if he/she is not ready to let go of this life. however, it could also mean that the fear of dying and the fear of the unknown is actually very vivid.” [painting 13, participant 25] the emotions that were perceived by the participants were congruent with the artist’s intended meaning, thus focusing on the emotional turmoil linked to suicide. the suicide theme is also reflected in the fourteenth painting, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 48 published by ideas spread which is a self-portrait of the artist at his most vulnerable state, as he embraces death. the clear message here is that death is enjoying its victory so fervently that is looks as if it is engulfing the artist’s whole body. at the same instance, the victim surrenders and lets himself to be embraced by his opponent, as he passes on. these heavy emotions were aptly described by one participant as: “…in the picture the person has either surrendered or accepted the concept of death. while in a way i feel that there is a connection to christ’s crucifixion; symbolizing pain and discomfort for some reason” [painting 14, participant 25] as seen from the last quote, once again, the religious theme comes to the forefront. notably, death paintings in which the figures assume postures that have been traditionally associated with jesus christ, such as that seen in painting 14, have been reported to bring religious recollections in the viewers (hershfield et al., 2011). in fact, the figure’s pose in painting 14 can be likened to that in the painting dead christ with the angels by edouard manet (1864). surprisingly, some of the participants also linked the sixteenth painting to the theme of darkness. in this painting, the artist presented a semi-naked female figure as she emerged from a dark background. the intention was to portray possible recovery and so the message was intended to be one of hope. contrastingly, many of the participants wrote about vulnerability, fatigue, pain and sadness when asked to interpret the painting. this glaring gap between the artist’s intended message and that perceived by the participating audience is intriguing and one that can perhaps be explained by the use of technique in the painting. on these lines, it can be noticed that although there is a clear contrast between the light-coloured human figure and the dark background, there may be a perceived imbalance, with the darkness taking over the lighter elements in the painting. the vertical black streaks that the figure has seemingly pushed through may also be adding an element of sharpness and pain which is even more pronounced by the incorporation of the red colour within the upper fifth sector of the figure. this may have been interpreted as sharp objects cutting through the figure’s body, leading to bloodshed and the somewhat sad expression on the face. theme 2: solitude the second theme that emerged from the analysis of the participants’ reflections was that of ‘solitude’. this included the subthemes of loneliness and lost in thoughts. this theme and its subthemes were related to multiple paintings, particularly to paintings 1,2,5,8 and 9. in the first painting, the artist’s intended message was related to ‘thinking’. the use of light and dark shades of red and purple portrays an analogous use of colour, which is commonly incorporated as a means of adding an element of balance and serenity to a picture (lewis, 2018) this can perhaps explain why this painting contributed to the sub-theme ‘lost in thoughts’ – a state that suggest solitude and perhaps, stillness. the same simple technique and hues are visible in the ninth painting, which was also interpreted by many of the participants as being an image of solitude, depicting individuals who have withdrawn into themselves – ‘lost in thoughts’ perhaps in a quest to search for meaning or as an act or despair in reaction to wrongdoing by society or by the symptoms of the mental illness itself: “being alone – with yourself – you have to start somewhere – but you have to find yourself first.” [painting 1, participant 5] this interpreted meaning has contrasting elements with the artist’s intended message, which revolves on the topic of substance misuse. the female figure in the painting is the symbol of care and support. the male figure seems to be going through a process, possibly related to an internal struggle. this figure is always assuming a subdued and thoughtful expression and posture, which may have contributed to the projection of solitude to the viewers. the fact that the female figure’s body language differs considerably was not really intercepted by the participants. this lack of attention to the female may be partly explained by the ratio of the figures in this piece of work – on inspection, the male figure is taking up the larger area whilst the female one occupies less than a third of the space, almost guaranteeing that one’s gaze falls onto the male: the solitude theme also emerged from the analysis of the participants’ descriptions related to the second and fifth paintings. yet these two works feature different techniques than the ones seen in the two paintings that have just been discussed. perhaps the most obvious difference is the use of darker colours as opposed to the light sketches in paintings 1 and 9. these are paintings that portray a male figure’s face and hands, each in a specific position that is intended to deploy a message to the viewer. as described in the previous theme, in the second painting, the artist reflected upon the social isolation and loneliness that can result from mental illness. the fifth painting is one intended to portray the hardships of living with an addiction or an obsession. the dark colours used set the tone hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 49 published by ideas spread for the heavy and serious subject addressed by this painting – a typical emotional effect brought about by the use of dull colours from the darker side of the spectrum (elliot, 2015; sutton & altarriba, 2016). however, the individual’s disturbing look of despair and his hands, which are placed firmly on his forehead, are the main features that may have guided some of the participants to relate this to ‘loneliness’. this main figure is so prominent that the viewers may have missed noticing the background figures which are engaged in several sexual gestures. in fact, these were the main clue to the artist’s specific intention – the portrayal of sexual obsessions. the relation to sexuality was reported by just one participant. the fact that the sexual figures are cleverly camouflaged in the background beneath the dominant figure may have made it even more challenging to capture the viewer’s attention. the sub-theme of loneliness also emerged from the participants’ findings in relation to the ninth painting, which features a male figure standing next to four female ones who are in a pose that suggests verbal abuse targeted at the male. the artist’s intention was to depict the social phenomenon of bullying and most of the participating audience picked up these vibes and delved further into the loneliness that often results as a consequence of bullying. “unacceptance, isolation, us against them/you.” [painting 9, participant 22] “i feel that this painting perfectly conveys segregation. to me, the person on the left looks somewhat different then the people on the right of the painting. seeing that he/she might be different they secluded him/her which unfortunately portrays most of today’s society, especially when it comes to malta and some maltese when handling refugees.” [painting 9, participant 25] the congruence amongst the participants’ perceptions and between these and the artist’s intended meaning is striking and possibly brought about by the clear poses of the figures in the picture. moreover, the facial expression of the female figure adjacent to the male one shows the haughty superior and self-righteous attitude that has often been presented in similar research concerning art and emotions, such as that by groman (2019) and andreou & bonoti (2010) . theme 3: recovery the final theme that emerged from the findings was termed as ‘recovery’, which was further sub-themed into ‘freedom’ and ‘support’. the paintings that were mostly associated with this theme were 12, 15 and 17. the fifteenth paining has strong connotations with the roman catholic religion by depicting an ethereal male figure dressed in a white robe and cloak in a welcoming embrace towards two nude figures. in this view, some of the participants compared this figure to christ as he shows his love to mankind. interestingly, main figures in white have often featured in other art works and they are commonly used as representations of christ. for instance, goya’s the third of may 1808 painting, presents the main figure as a man in a white shirt with his arms stretched out in a pose that has been interpreted by viewers as being reminiscent of christ (arn, 2019). additionally, in western cultures (sammut & calleja, 2019), white is often associated with feelings of purity and peace (cherry, 2021) – this may have given rise to the reported feelings related to the theme of ‘recovery’ in this study. whilst the artist’s intended meaning was also related to recovery, he used the figure in white in a symbolic attempt to present the importance of health care professionals. whilst none of the participants specifically mentioned health carers, many referred to a sense of support and relief: “feeling of comfort and safety. perhaps even forgiveness.” [painting 15, participant 23] on similar lines, the final painting of the collection is the pure representation of recovery, with the image of clasped hands – the traditional symbol of support. many of the participants interpreted this image as being one of hope and peace together with love and care. however, only three of the respondents mentioned a rope that is seen intertwined with the hands in the painting. interestingly, two of these participants compared the rope to the knots in one’s life that are caused by a mental illness: “depression can tie us in knots, make us feel trapped, full of despair, hopeless, helpless, not understanding, fearing nothing, then we gradually untie the knots and release the burden. there is always hope and help and love.” [painting 17, participant 11] another participant intercepted a dark meaning and referred to ending one’s life using a rope. this is a painting, the meaning of which has been left open to interpretation by the public, with no description being provided by the artist. hands in different positions have often featured in famous works such as the masterpiece the creation of adam by michelangelo and albrecht durer’s praying hands. audiences of these pieces have often reported feeling strong emotions by the image of hands since the hand is often symbolic of life itself (katzin, 2016). as already indicated, the twelfth painting has also contributed to the theme of recovery. this is an image of a nude female figure standing on edge with her soul leaning in a leap position towards the opposite direction. this work hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 4; 2021 50 published by ideas spread is mainly composed of shades of red – a colour that has often been linked to aggression and pain rather than to aspects of recovery. findings and explanations related to the research work by pope et al. (2012) may add clarity to this apparent contradiction in the current study. in their study, they reported that in addition to the colour itself, the hue, value (brightness) and chroma (saturation) are other variables which can affect the emotional impact of a painting. in fact, in their findings, ‘happy’ colours had higher ratings in value and chroma. with this explanation in mind, reflecting upon the twelfth picture in the current study leads to the realisation that it has brighter tones than the pieces which gave rise to the theme of darkness such as paintings 4,5 and 11. this could be what gave rise to participant interpretations centred on a sense of freedom and relief. additionally, the figure’s pose, with specific reference to the positioning of the arms and the hair strands, which lie in a parallel to the figure’s back, introduce an element of motion, which may have led to participant descriptions such as the following: “somehow this painting made me think the person in the painting is about to take a leap. somehow i got the feeling of freedom and a sense of relief. it is as if the person is now ready to let go and take a chance into the unknown...” [painting 12, participant 25] “fly away – leaping behind your worries.” [painting 12, participant 28] only one participant mentioned the possibility of suicide, which was in fact the artist’s intending meaning in relation to this painting. in comparison to the other works which gave rise to the theme of darkness, this painting differs greatly, especially in terms of the lack of use of dark colours, sharp lines, expressions and postures that may have communicated a sense of despair and heaviness in the other works. these could be some of the factors that led to the discrepancy between the artist’s dark message and the recovery perceptions reported by many of the participants. 5. conclusion this study explored the affective aspects of art appreciation in relation to an art collection depicting the experience of mental illness. three dominant themes emerged from the findings namely those of darkness, solitude and recovery. whilst congruence was often observed between the participants themselves and between the viewers and the artist, a number of discrepancies were also noted. these were attributed to the element of subjectivity that characterises art pieces, the use of technique by the artist and the multi-tangential aspect of mental illness and its understandings. in view of the outcomes of the study, a number of recommendations and applications can be postulated. primarily, it is felt that artwork can be an important medium in the raising of awareness about the stigma related to mental illness – as seen in this study, an image often has a striking and immediate impact and so it can be as powerful, and possibly more so, as verbal or written information. another area that merits exploration is the use of artistic paintings to broaden healthcare students’ understanding of different mental health states in a more creative learning initiative. our final recommendation is to teach health carers about the fundamentals of art appreciation, interpretation and application especially with regards to 1). hues and tones that can instil certain types of emotions in any particular environment 2). art-based interventions. conclusively, this study has shown that the link between art and mental health can be exploited to encourage reflection and acknowledgment of mental illness and the challenges that it often presents with. acknowledgements we would like to thank the artist, mr. anthony calleja, for his work in the compilation of the art collection and for his co-operation and support during this project. disclosure of interest: the authors report no conflict of interest funding source: none data availability: data available on request due to privacy/ethical restrictions references alracao, s. 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(2016). color associations to emotion and emotion-laden words: a collection of norms for stimulus construction and selection. behaviour research methods, 48, 686-728. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-015-0598-8 taylor, m., stoltz, d., & mcdonnell, t. (2019). binding significance to form: cultural objects, neural binding, and cultural change. poetics, 73, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.poetic.2019.01.005 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n2p100 100 published by ideas spread brand establishment and development strategies based on the inheritance of traditional chinese medicine culture: the case of “jianchang bang” zheng yixin1 1 school of liberal arts, nanchang normal university, china correspondence: zheng yixin, school of liberal arts, nanchang normal university, no. 889 ruixiang road, nanchang city, jiangxi province, china. tel: 86-153-0704-3330. e-mail: 2846255668 qq.com received: april 22, 2025; accepted: april 30, 2025; published: may 1, 2025 this research outcome is part of the 2024 college students innovation and entrepreneurship training program approved project (project id: 202414437011) at nanchang normal university. abstract with the deepening implementation of the "healthy china" strategy and the "healthy jiangxi" strategy, jiangxi province has incorporated the traditional chinese medicine (tcm) industry into its key development areas, aiming to establish a distinctive regional chinese medicine industry cluster in southern china. as a living heritage carrier of jiangxi's tcm culture, the national-level intangible cultural heritage "jianchang bang" chinese medicinal "paozhi" (processing) techniques demonstrate unique advantages in enhancing medicinal efficacy and reducing toxicity through its four characteristic "paozhi" methods—roasting, simmering, and decocting—as well as its comprehensive "paozhi" standards encompassing "form, color, aroma, and taste". however, facing the impact of modern pharmaceutical technologies, this craftsmanship confronts developmental bottlenecks such as fractured inheritance chains, insufficient standardization of techniques, and limited brand recognition. this study employs a strengths-weaknesses-opportunities-threats (swot) analysis to systematically examine the brand's current development status, core challenges, and constraining factors. it proposes targeted countermeasures and recommendations for the brand construction and development of "jianchang bang", formulates optimized brand enhancement pathways, and thereby innovates the development level of jiangxi's chinese medicinal materials industry. keywords: "jianchang bang", brand establishment, swot analysis 1. overview of the "jianchang bang" brand 1.1 textual research and historical origins of "jianchang bang" the "jianchang bang", a renowned ancient pharmaceutical group in southern china, derives its name from its origin in nancheng county, jiangxi province (historically known as "jianchang prefecture"). historically, it formed the "jiangxi guild" alongside the jiangxi zhangshu pharmaceutical guild, ranking among china's thirteen major pharmaceutical guilds [1]. the "jianchang bang" pharmaceutical industry is renowned for its exquisite techniques in the "paozhi" (processing) of traditional chinese medicine (tcm) decoction pieces and the distribution of medicinal materials. within the field of tcm, it has a well-established reputation, with sayings such as "the efficacy of medicine is evident in jianchang" and "jianchang standards are more valuable than gold". this school's history can be traced back to the jin and tang dynasties, flourishing during the song and yuan dynasties, and forming a large-scale industrial system during the ming and qing dynasties. over hundreds of years of development, its business model has gradually evolved into diverse forms, including retail pharmacies, drug storehouses, and wholesale drug firms, constructing a complete medicinal material circulation network. in terms of "paozhi" techniques, through the practical innovation of generations of craftsmen, a complete system has been formed, including over a hundred unique processes such as cleaning and selecting, cutting, calcining and frying, and steaming and boiling. it is particularly ingenious in the use of tools, the control of heat, and the blending of auxiliary materials. its unique techniques, such as "cutting medicine with a zhang knife as thin as cicada wings" and "following ancient methods in thunder-fire preparation", enable the "jianchang-paozhi" decoction pieces to retain the essence of the medicinal properties while also being easy to decoct and absorb, which is highly praised hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 101 published by ideas spread by physicians. relying on its geographical advantage as a strategic location in jiangxi and fujian, it has a profound influence on the pharmaceutical industry in fujian province, giving rise to the "guangze jianchang bang", forming an industrial pattern of "medicinal materials gathering from north and south, and exquisite "paozhi" spreading throughout the world", which is unique among its peers nationwide and has a significant impact on the tcm industry in southeast asia and other regions. the origins of the "jianchang bang" can be traced back to the eastern jin dynasty. the emergence of this pharmaceutical school is closely linked to the prevalence of local medical activities. the "jianchang bang" benefited from the medical activities of ge hong, a pharmacologist from the eastern jin dynasty, and taoist figures during the tang dynasty in nancheng. ge hong, a disciple of the renowned pharmacologist zheng yin, was fond of studying the methods of "immortal taoist cultivation". according to the “daoguang nancheng county chronicles”, "ge hong, courtesy name zhichuan, was from jurong, danyang, and styled himself baopuzi. he studied extensively, especially favoring the methods of immortal taoist cultivation. seeing the world in chaos, hong sought refuge in magu mountain in nancheng. there is a legend of ge xian dan, and it is said that hong refined elixirs here, hence the name." [2] ge hong, witnessing the widespread turmoil, sought refuge in magu mountain in nancheng, where he collected herbs, refined elixirs, practiced medicine, and treated illnesses. he authored pharmaceutical works such as “baopuzi neipian”, “taiqing shenxian fushi jing”, “yuhan jianfang”, and “zhouhou jiuzou fang”[3]. ge hong's medical practices in nancheng significantly enhanced the local populace's understanding of drug preparation and application, laying an important historical foundation for the prosperous development of "jianchang bang" pharmaceutical industry in later generations. in addition to ge hong, the “zhengde jianchang prefecture chronicles” and “the great dictionary of taoism” also record the deeds of several other taoist priests, including deng ziyang and deng yankang, who were natives of nancheng and practiced alchemy and medicine there during the tang dynasty[4], further contributing to the origins of the "jianchang bang". the song dynasty government prioritized the development of "jianchang bang" pharmaceutical industry. jianchang military implemented wang anshi's market exchange law and established the "jianchang military pharmacy", advocating standardized prescriptions and lawful "paozhi". this led to the flourishing of the nancheng medicinal material distribution and trading, making it a renowned medicinal material distribution center nationwide. at the time, nancheng had the reputation of "no material without jianchang" and "medicines must go through jianchang"[5].yuan xie, a scholar of the southern song dynasty, vividly recorded the prosperity of "jianchang bang" pharmaceutical industry in his “record of jianchang military pharmacy”. local artisans adhered to the pharmaceutical philosophy of "even if no one sees the preparation, the heart knows that there is heaven", strictly controlling the quality of medicinal materials, adjusting their properties through unique "paozhi" techniques, and scientifically compounding them to maximize efficacy. the book particularly emphasized the pharmaceutical principle of "better to be short than to be excessive", opposing the behaviors of cutting corners and arbitrarily increasing or decreasing dosages for profit. this persistent pursuit of quality medicine resulted in the reputation of "jianchang-paozhi" decoction pieces among physicians, with qualities "like amber in color and fragrant like a secluded orchid".benefiting from the support of the song dynasty's sound pharmaceutical management system, jianchang pharmaceutical merchants seized the opportunity to combine traditional "paozhi" techniques with large-scale production, establishing a complete system from medicinal material selection and ancient "paozhi" to finished product inspection. at that time, specialized medicine markets had already appeared on the streets of jianchang, with merchants from all over the place gathering there. they engaged in both the fine processing of local authentic medicinal materials and the distribution and trading of precious medicinal materials from sichuan and guangdong, gradually forming a "front shop, back workshop" production and sales integrated model. this business philosophy, based on quality, not only enabled "jianchang bang" pharmaceutical merchants pharmaceutical industry to gain a firm foothold in the song dynasty but also fostered the century-old business motto of "though the "paozhi" is complex, we dare not save labor; though the quality is precious, we dare not reduce material", laying a solid foundation for the "jianchang bang" pharmaceutical group to become one of the four major pharmaceutical groups in the country in later generations. during the yuan dynasty, the xujiang river region saw the emergence of numerous renowned physicians, leading to the gradual formation of a systematic medical theory framework. "jianchang bang" pharmaceutical industry leveraged this academic foundation to achieve a leapfrog development. the imperial court decreed the establishment of the "three emperors palace" in jianchang, later renamed the "medicine king temple" due to the addition of ten "medicine kings". annual temple fairs were held, attracting local and external pharmaceutical professionals to trade medicinal materials, a custom that persisted until the eve of the anti-japanese war[6]. the "ruizhutang experience formulas", compiled by yuan dynasty physician satu musu, extensively collected hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 102 published by ideas spread effective folk remedies and "paozhi" methods, including both ancient verified prescriptions and effective empirical formulas from contemporary physicians and patients. the book meticulously documented the refined operational standards for medicinal material processing, such as controlling the heating process and the ratio of auxiliary materials. for instance, it detailed specific techniques like using wine to enhance medicinal properties and vinegar to moderate efficacy, reflecting the yuan dynasty nancheng pharmaceutical practitioners' deep understanding of medicinal material characteristics. these systematic technical summaries provided "jianchang bang" artisans with more scientific reference standards in their "paozhi" practices, integrating theoretical knowledge from classical texts with local "paozhi" traditions, and exploring practical experience such as "assessing the medicine and making the cut, identifying color and recognizing fire". this integration of theory and practice enabled "jianchang-paozhi" decoction pieces to exhibit a unique quality, "slices like clouds rolling and translucent, quality like amber condensing fragrance", establishing the reputation of "jianchang decoction pieces, efficacy like gods" in the medicinal material market. it was precisely the standardized guidance of yuan dynasty medical classics and the innovative improvements by artisans that propelled the "jianchang bang" pharmaceutical group to transform from traditional workshops to professional and standardized production, with "jianchang bang" pharmaceutical industry already in a leading position among its peers at that time. during the ming and qing dynasties, "jianchang bang" pharmaceutical industry achieved a historic leap forward, driven by a favorable political environment and the influence of xujiang medical practices. in the ming dynasty, the establishment of the jianchang two kings' fiefdoms created a unique political space, fostering the clustered development of the pharmaceutical economy. renowned physicians emerged during this period, including zhao xuan, a physician from the imperial medical academy; cheng shi, the author of “cheng's medical canon”, and yu shaoning, the author of “secrets of the golden elixir”, demonstrating a continuous lineage of medical expertise. drugstores were prevalent in jianchang, with the government leading the development of institutions such as the good physician institute, the yin-yang academy, and medical schools, which were affiliated with drugstores and employed medical professors. a large pharmacy was also established within the prince yi's residence[7]. by the qing dynasty, with the maturation of the xujiang medical school and the institutionalization of medicinal material trade, "jianchang bang" pharmaceutical industry underwent three major transformations: the first was the innovation of "paozhi" techniques, resulting in a nine-step system for processing medicinal slices; the second was the upgrade of commercial organizations, with the formation of the specialized "jianchang bang" guild; and the third was the standardization of quality control, with the establishment of a grading system for authentic medicinal materials. particularly during the qianlong era, "jianchang bang" pharmaceutical industry reached its peak, and through the "front shop, back workshop" production and sales model and the yangtze river basin medicinal material distribution network, the trading volume of " jianchang bang" medicinal decoction pieces accounted for over 30% of the national market share. this industrial advantage was maintained until the eve of the modernization of medicine in the republic of china[8]. 1.2 the current state of the "jianchang bang" brand's development. a brand represents the level of consumer awareness of a specific product category and its associated product lines. in the context of tcm, a brand signifies the consumer market's recognition of tcm products and their respective product lines, reflecting the inherent quality of tcm commodities[9]. the establishment of a brand indicates consumer preference and trust, with brand recognition increasingly influencing consumer behavior. 1.2.1 the current status of the "jianchang bang" brand building the current state of the "jianchang bang" tcm culture is robust, characterized by a profound historical foundation and significant industrial advantages. as a key lineage in the development of tcm, "jianchang bang" not only possesses a wealth of traditional techniques but also actively embraces modern technology and innovative development strategies. its revitalization and advancement have garnered considerable attention and support from various levels of government and all sectors of society. the "jianchang bang" of traditional "paozhi" techniques have been recognized as an intangible cultural heritage, with preservation and inheritance efforts implemented through the establishment of the "jianchang bang" tcm research institute and cultural resource surveys. a comprehensive industrial chain has been established, encompassing planting, processing, and scientific research, alongside the promotion of standardized and largescale cultivation. this includes the construction of high-quality seed breeding bases to enhance industrial scale and competitiveness. according to the “implementation plan for the revitalization and development of "jianchang bang" traditional chinese medicine in nancheng, jiangxi province”, the aim is to achieve a value of 50 billion yuan by 2025 and an estimated 100 billion yuan by 2030, thereby forming a national-level tcm industrial cluster. the government has introduced various policies to support the revitalization and development hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 103 published by ideas spread of the "jianchang bang", fostering a fair market environment to drive industrial growth. relevant departments are actively cooperating to implement these policies and measures, ensuring the smooth execution of projects. the development of "jianchang bang" tcm culture includes the creation of tcm-themed tourism routes, promoting the deep integration of "medicine, pharmaceuticals, healthcare, and tourism", and establishing a national-level cultural tourism and health center. this initiative has stimulated local economic development and encouraged community and farmer participation in the cultivation and processing of medicinal herbs, with the establishment of cooperatives to share benefits. this has led to improved income levels for farmers, contributing to social harmony and stability, and promoting rural revitalization. efforts are being made to strengthen research on yujiang medicine, enhancing its disease prevention and treatment capabilities, and leveraging its health and wellness advantages. this includes the construction and optimization of smart pharmacies to improve the efficiency and quality of medical services. resources from universities and research institutions both within and outside the province are being integrated to form the "jianchang bang" tcm research institute, strengthening scientific research and technological innovation. this has resulted in multiple research achievements, elevating the theoretical and practical levels of "jianchang bang" tcm. knowledge related to the "jianchang bang" is being integrated into the tcm education system, with specialized courses and practical training programs to cultivate new generations of tcm professionals. the "jianchang bang" inheritor training program is being implemented to preserve and promote traditional techniques. various channels are being utilized to promote the culture and brand of the "jianchang bang", enhancing its recognition and reputation. active participation in international exchanges and cooperation, including establishing partnerships with pharmaceutical institutions in multiple countries, is being pursued to jointly promote the internationalization of tcm. through international exchanges, the reputation and influence of the "jianchang bang" are further enhanced, establishing a strong reputation in both domestic and international markets and becoming a significant representative of tcm culture. products are not only widely recognized domestically but have also successfully entered international markets, further expanding brand influence and contributing to the global dissemination of tcm. a survey of the current state of development of "jianchang bang" tcm culture reveals that this traditional school has not only preserved a rich cultural heritage but is also continuously developing and innovating, making significant contributions to the modernization and globalization of tcm. in the future, "jianchang bang" tcm is expected to continue to flourish with new vitality through inheritance and innovation. 1.2.2 research on the theoretical construction of the "jianchang bang" brand brand construction encompasses the planning, design, promotion, and management activities undertaken by a brand owner. beyond the product itself, the brand's developmental history, cultural significance, and image are all key components of its identity[10]. as a distinct regional chinese medicine brand, the "jianchang bang" brand's construction should be rooted in regional brand research within the industry cluster, leveraging its resource advantages. this approach aligns with current research hotspots in china concerning chinese medicine brand development[11]. the “implementation plan for the revitalization and development of "jianchang bang" traditional chinese medicine in nancheng, jiangxi province” provides clear guidance and support measures "jianchang bang" development. the plan explicitly aims to establish "jianchang bang" as a national-level chinese medicine industry cluster, outlining detailed development plans and key tasks.the brand positioning of "jianchang bang" primarily emphasizes its historical heritage, cultural identity, and product characteristics. centered in nancheng, jiangxi, it highlights its long history and classic quality, relying on the authentic medicinal materials from jiangxi's production areas. this forms a regional characteristic of "authentic medicinal materials + ancient "paozhi" methods". its national intangible cultural heritage "paozhi" techniques constitute a technical barrier, becoming the core competitiveness of the regional brand, with distinct differentiation advantages. nancheng county has established a chinese medicine industrial park, initially forming an industrial chain integrating planting, processing, research and development, and sales. in terms of "specialization" and "differentiation", "jianchang bang" focuses on traditional decoction pieces and medicated diet products. the current research and development director of "jianchang bang" pharmaceutical co., ltd. has provided talent assurance for the inheritance of traditional techniques by establishing a team dedicated to inheritance and innovation. xue yanhua and her team have achieved multiple innovative accomplishments in the research of the material basis and "paozhi" mechanisms of chinese medicine decoction pieces, the standardization of processing techniques, and the intelligentization of production processes and equipment development, promoting the development of "jianchang bang" traditional "paozhi" techniques. furthermore, "jianchang bang" pharmaceutical industry actively participates in the construction of chinese medicine standardization projects, formulating multiple local standards, demonstrating its leading position in the industry. these outstanding scientific and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 104 published by ideas spread technological workers represent the backbone of "jianchang bang" in terms of inheritance and innovation. with the spirit of "craftsmanship" to achieve "original intention", they ensure that "jianchang bang" traditional "paozhi" techniques are effectively preserved and developed. secondly, the "jianchang bang" brand is promoted, protected, and maintained through various channels, including the establishment of research associations, media publicity, the publication of monographs, the publication of articles, trademark registration, and patent applications. for instance, the establishment of the "jianchang bang of traditional chinese medicine research association" in february 2019, the publication of works such as “traditional "jianchang bang" of chinese medicine "paozhi" methods”, the publishing of articles, and the application of the "jianchang bang" name to scientific research achievements for academic exchange, as well as the ranking of patent applications within the jiangxi province's tcm industry at tenth place, all serve to elevate the brand recognition and consumer loyalty towards the "jianchang bang". the current research on the "jianchang bang" regional brand is still in its nascent stages. high-quality, in-depth, and systematic research findings are insufficient, and the overall research level remains low. theoretical research still lags behind the practical development of the "jianchang bang" regional brand, a common issue in the construction of most regional brands of traditional chinese medicine. 1.3 swot analysis of the brand building of "jianchang bang" 1.3.1 strength,s the profound historical and cultural foundation. its historical lineage is clear, originating in the eastern jin dynasty (317 ad), rooted in taoist medical culture. it reached its zenith during the ming and qing dynasties, particularly during the reigns of the qianlong and daoguang emperors in the qing dynasty, becoming one of the four major pharmaceutical groups in the nation (the zhangshu, jianchang, jing, and chuan groups). the “annals of jianchang prefecture” from the ming dynasty records, "the jianchang medicine market attracts merchants from all over, and the skills of the pharmaceutical workers are unparalleled in jiangnan", which validates its historical industry status. ancient texts such as the “complete book of jianchang "paozhi"“ from the qing dynasty systematically record its "paozhi" theories and methods, such as the "water processing, fire processing, and waterfire combined processing" methods, providing important references for later generations. "jianchang bang" once dominated the medicinal material trade in the jiangnan region, with pharmacies and medicinal material warehouses throughout the yangtze river basin, forming a commercial network in the "pharmaceutical capital" of nancheng. its unique "paozhi" techniques include the "stewing" technique: such as "stewing fupian", which involves wrapping aconiti lateralis radix praeparata (fuzi) with yellow mud and stewing it to reduce toxicity and enhance its warming yang effects; the process takes up to seven days and requires precise temperature control. the "stewing" method: using a clay pot to stew medicinal materials (such as rehmanniae radix praeparata), simmering over a low fire to make the medicinal properties mellow, which is different from ordinary decoction. the "fourprocessed chenpi": repeatedly processed with four auxiliary materials: salt, vinegar, honey, and wine, to enhance the effects of regulating qi and strengthening the spleen. this technique has been listed as a provincial-level intangible cultural heritage. the "jianchang-paozhi" decoction pieces are known for their "shape, color, aroma, and taste", such as "bai shao flying to the sky" (slices as thin as cicada wings) and "betel nut without borders" (sliced 108 times), which are skills that are still difficult to be replaced by machines today. the region boasts abundant resources of authentic medicinal materials. "jianchang bang" pharmaceutical tradition has always adhered to the principle of "genuine materials from their place of origin", emphasizing the suitability of medicinal plant cultivation to the local soil and water conditions. nancheng county, situated in a subtropical monsoon climate zone, enjoys a warm, humid environment with ample rainfall. its mountainous and hilly terrain provides a diverse micro-ecological environment for the growth of medicinal materials. the soil is rich in selenium, making it particularly suitable for the cultivation of authentic medicinal materials such as huangjing, zhiqiao, and cheqianzi. the huangjing produced here contains a polysaccharide content higher than the national standard. for instance, nancheng zhiqiao was a tribute item during the ming and qing dynasties, known for its high volatile oil content, and is now a national geographical indication product. jianchang zexie originates from the vicinity of the hongmen reservoir in nancheng, characterized by its large size and firm quality, with significant diuretic and dampness-draining effects, accounting for over 60% of the national annual production. other distinctive medicinal materials include cheqianzi, huangzhizi, and fupenzi. these benefit from the humid climate and red soil of the eastern jiangxi hills, resulting in superior accumulation of medicinal components compared to other production areas. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 105 published by ideas spread 1.3.2 weakness,w the traditional techniques struggle to meet the demands of contemporary production. the meticulous, handcrafted nature of "jianchang-paozhi" techniques, such as the precise slicing and thin-slicing of medicinal herbs, requires exceptional knife skills and extensive experience. however, this production method is complex and inefficient, making it difficult to meet the large-scale needs of the modern market. while some traditional tools, like the "jian dao" and "lei gong pao", possess unique advantages, they are challenging to integrate into modern production lines. furthermore, these traditional techniques rely on experienced masters. the "jianchang-paozhi" often depend on individual experience and intuition, lacking a standardized, scientific production process, which leads to inconsistencies in product quality. this conflicts with the standardization and normalization sought in modern production. the standardization and consistency of product quality are fundamental requirements, which traditional manual operations struggle to achieve. with market changes and the diversification of consumer needs, traditional "paozhi" products may not satisfy all consumers, especially those seeking convenience and quick results. these factors limit the promotion of traditional "paozhi" techniques in the modern pharmaceutical industry. the attrition of skilled practitioners and the ensuing difficulties in the preservation of traditional knowledge pose significant challenges. the transmission of "jianchang-paozhi" techniques relies on the "master-apprentice" model, which places high demands on the master. the number of senior masters capable of teaching traditional "paozhi" techniques is limited, and their ages are increasing. the modern education system lacks systematic support for training in traditional techniques. the proportion of traditional chinese medicine education in the modern education system is small, and specialized educational resources focused on traditional "paozhi" techniques are even scarcer. the traditional "master-apprentice" model is disconnected from the modern education system, leading to a lack of interest and motivation among the younger generation in learning and inheriting traditional techniques, making it difficult to cultivate high-level technicians. with the diversification of employment choices in modern society, the fast-paced lifestyle of modern life conflicts with the time-consuming and patient-demanding nature of traditional techniques. the economic returns from engaging in traditional "paozhi" techniques are often less than those in modern industries. this causes potential inheritors to turn to more profitable industries. fewer and fewer young people are willing to invest significant time in learning and researching these techniques, resulting in a low willingness of young people to enter the field, leading to a serious talent gap. 1.3.3 opportunity,o the strategic support and local empowerment are crucial. the “strategic planning outline for the development of traditional chinese medicine (2016-2030)” explicitly supports the inheritance of traditional "paozhi" techniques, with the "jianchang bang" being included in the "traditional chinese medicine traditional knowledge protection catalog". jiangxi province's “several measures on accelerating the characteristic development of traditional chinese medicine” proposed a special plan to "revitalize the ‘jianchang bang’", allocating 50 million yuan annually for the protection of techniques and industrial upgrading. nancheng county is building the "china ‘jianchang bang’ traditional chinese medicine industrial park", with a planned area of 3.5 square kilometers, integrating planting, processing, research and development, and cultural tourism. enterprises entering the park can enjoy tax reductions and land use incentives. the global natural drug market continues to expand. according to the world health organization (who), approximately 80% of the world's population uses traditional medicine. the natural drug market is expected to exceed $500 billion by 2025, with an average annual growth rate of over 8%. the rise of "complementary medicine" in european and american countries has led to acupuncture and herbal therapies being gradually incorporated into the medical insurance systems of some countries (such as germany and australia). the "jianchang bang" can focus on two core product categories: products from the same source as medicine and food, such as wolfberry and poria, which have the attributes of "health food" and comply with european and american dietary supplement standards; and supporting products for characteristic therapies, such as external plasters and medicated bath packs, in collaboration with overseas tcm clinics to promote "pain management" and "sub-health conditioning" programs. 1.3.4 threat,t the industrial chain is incomplete. the absence of leading enterprises and well-known brands within the "jianchang bang" pharmaceutical industry industry weakens the entire industrial chain. furthermore, the cultivation bases for medicinal herbs are often small and dispersed across various regions. this fragmentation hinders unified standard management and quality control. the lack of modern cultivation techniques and equipment impedes large-scale production. traditional "paozhi" techniques rely heavily on experienced masters, making it difficult to quantify and standardize these skills. this impacts the standardization and mass production hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 106 published by ideas spread of medicinal materials, thereby affecting the quality and supply. the absence of standardized "paozhi" procedures complicates quality control, potentially leading to inconsistent quality across different batches of medicinal materials. cultural identity and the transformation of values. the spread of traditional culture among younger generations is limited due to globalization and the information age, resulting in a weakened sense of cultural heritage. in contemporary society, the recognition of traditional culture and tcm is diminishing. people increasingly seek modern, high-tech, and convenient products and solutions for health and medical needs. traditional "paozhi" techniques are time-consuming, and their effects are not immediately apparent, leading to questions about their practicality in modern society. the preference for modern medicine further impacts the cultural value of the "jianchang bang". in an era of rapid technological advancement, society generally emphasizes the power and achievements of technology, while respect and recognition for traditional skills are relatively lower. modern values and lifestyles differ from tradition, and the changing demands for health and medical care make traditional tcm "paozhi" methods less competitive in terms of efficacy and speed compared to modern medicine. the trend of cultural homogenization in the globalization process threatens the uniqueness and diversity of traditional culture. 2. brand building and development strategies of "jianchang bang" analyzing the current state of "jianchang bang" brand development through a swot analysis, we observe that while the brand's construction is in its nascent stages, the "jianchang bang" boasts a profound cultural and historical foundation. a significant number of "jianchang bang" varieties have achieved large-scale cultivation. furthermore, the government provides comprehensive support for the development of the "jianchang bang" pharmaceutical industry, encompassing policies, technology, and financial resources. however, it is crucial to acknowledge the existing weaknesses, including low brand recognition, insufficient product research and development, lagging brand promotion, and a weak industrial cluster. external challenges such as market competition and environmental pressures must also be considered. based on this assessment, the following strategies and recommendations are proposed for the "jianchang bang" brand's construction and development. 2.1 so strategy: leverage opportunities and capitalize on strengths the "jianchang bang" pharmaceutical industry currently thrives in a golden era, propelled by the nation's vigorous promotion of the tcm industry. the widespread adoption of the "great health" concept has generated substantial market demand for "jianchang bang" products. optimizing cultivation layouts and integrating modern planting techniques. we will then rationally plan planting areas based on the growth habits of the herbs and the characteristics of the terrain, thereby optimizing land resource utilization. furthermore, we will establish an ecological factor database for medicinal herbs, utilizing gis technology to conduct a multi-dimensional analysis of regional light, heat, and soil resources. this will enable us to create suitability zoning maps for authentic medicinal materials and construct a "one herb, one strategy" threedimensional planting model. soil improvement will be achieved through the application of microbial agents to activate soil aggregate structure, complemented by a green manure rotation system to establish an organic matter dynamic equilibrium system and enhance the content of active soil substances.a digital agricultural technology service system will be established, including a blockchain traceability platform for medicinal herb cultivation, to digitally record the entire process of environmental parameters and agricultural operations. we will construct an intelligent production system by deploying an internet of things sensing network, integrating data from soil moisture monitoring stations and meteorological stations, and developing an intelligent decision-making irrigation system to improve water use efficiency. through the deep integration of modern biotechnology, intelligent equipment, and digital technology, we aim to maintain the authenticity of the traditional "jianchang-paozhi" raw materials, achieving precise, standardized, and sustainable development of medicinal herb cultivation. leveraging industrial policies to empower the system. this includes constructing a "1+n" policy support matrix, focusing on implementing the national tcm revitalization and development plan, and coordinating the implementation of special policy packages such as the tcm material whole industry chain guarantee capacity improvement plan, the tcm intelligent manufacturing support project, and the tcm health and wellness tourism integration demonstration project. we will increase support for research on traditional "paozhi" techniques, encourage innovation, and develop new products that meet modern market demands. we will establish a fund pool for the development of authentic medicinal materials, coordinating central financial subsidies, local special bonds, and social capital to reduce the burden on enterprises and increase investment in the integration of traditional "paozhi" techniques and modern equipment. this will lower the cost pressure of enterprise transformation and upgrading, encouraging their development and seeking government support in areas such as taxation, funding, and technology to provide policy guarantees for the integration of techniques and equipment. special funds will be set hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 107 published by ideas spread up to increase investment in the research and development of traditional "paozhi" techniques, providing necessary financial support for technique inheritance, talent training, and product innovation.a "jianchang bang standard" certification system will be established, formulating comprehensive quality control standards covering planting, processing, and "paozhi". we will build a blockchain traceability system for the quality of tcm materials, along with an online monitoring platform for traditional "paozhi" techniques, to achieve the visualization and traceability of key parameters from planting areas to "paozhi" workshops. a special program for international exchanges in traditional medicine will be established to support "jianchang bang" inheritors in participating in who traditional medicine cooperation projects, learning international advanced experiences, and enhancing their international perspective. the policy system, driven by institutional innovation and factor guarantees, will construct the policy "four pillars and eight beams" for the inheritance and development of traditional "paozhi" techniques, providing continuous institutional supply and market momentum for the innovation and preservation of "jianchang bang" authentic medicinal materials. 2.2 wo strategy: leverage opportunities to overcome weaknesses the "jianchang bang" pharmaceutical industry traces its origins to medicinal herb cultivation. to address the disadvantages encountered in the branding and development of "jianchang bang", we must leverage modern technology, financial support, and skilled personnel. this will guide the industry towards becoming a dominant force. integrating traditional techniques with modern equipment. the "jianchang bang" traditional "paozhi" techniques intelligent upgrade project focuses on the technological empowerment and industrial transformation of traditional processes. this is achieved through the digital analysis of ancient methods and the innovation of intelligent equipment, thereby achieving both preservation and innovation. we will conduct scientific and standardized research on traditional "paozhi" techniques, introducing modern technologies such as automated equipment and intelligent systems to improve production efficiency and product quality. by systematically analyzing the characteristics of traditional processes and introducing equipment like automated slicing machines and intelligent temperature-controlled drying rooms, we can preserve the essence of tradition while reducing manual labor. in conjunction with the characteristics of modern equipment, we will formulate detailed operating procedures to ensure the organic integration of traditional techniques and modern equipment. we will analyze traditional "paozhi" procedures, optimize each step, and reduce unnecessary manual operations to improve overall efficiency. through specialized training, we will enable farmers to both inherit the experience of manual "paozhi" and operate new equipment. furthermore, we will incorporate the operation of modern equipment into the traditional apprenticeship model, cultivating versatile talents who understand both traditional techniques and can operate modern equipment. we will establish a quality monitoring system, utilizing technologies such as temperature and humidity sensing and online monitoring to dynamically track the entire "paozhi" process. combined with a quality testing system from raw materials to finished products, this will ensure the stability of medicinal herb quality. we will establish a strict quality management system to comprehensively test raw materials, production processes, and finished products to ensure they meet quality standards. simultaneously, we will promote cooperation between growers and research institutions to explore customized production models for authentic medicinal herbs, stimulating the innovative vitality of traditional techniques and forming a standardized, replicable modern production path. establish a mechanism for cultivating talent. in the inheritance of "jianchang bang" medicinal herb cultivation and "paozhi" techniques, we can construct a sustainable talent cultivation system by integrating modern educational resources and traditional practice models. for instance, we can establish collaborations with tcm universities and research institutions, inviting experts to participate in technique research. we will combine medicinal herb cultivation experience, ancient "paozhi" procedures, and modern scientific theories to offer training courses that integrate theory and practice. this will allow young apprentices to delve into the fields to learn about the selection and cultivation techniques of authentic medicinal herbs. they can also gain hands-on experience in training bases equipped with intelligent temperature control and moisture monitoring, operating improved automated slicing machines and antique calcination furnaces, and experiencing the practical process of integrating traditional techniques with modern technology. at the same time, we will establish special support funds to subsidize apprentices participating in innovation projects—such as developing optimized "paozhi" flow solutions that meet modern standards or designing customized processing equipment for different medicinal herb characteristics, preserving the essence of ancient methods while improving production efficiency. in addition, we can build a quality traceability platform, utilizing internet of things technology to record the planting environment and processing parameters in real-time. combined with laboratory testing data, this will form a full-chain quality control system from planting to "paozhi", ensuring that the techniques are passed down without deviation. by hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 108 published by ideas spread holding medicinal herb culture festivals and participating in international traditional medicine exhibitions, we can showcase the "following the ancient but not being bound by it" characteristics of "jianchang bang"techniques to the public. we can also absorb advanced management experiences from home and abroad, injecting new vitality into the century-old techniques, allowing farmers, technicians, and young inheritors to master the composite skills that adapt to the development of the times while safeguarding tradition, and promoting the standardization and internationalization of the authentic medicinal herb industry. 2.3 st strategy: capitalize on strengths and mitigate threats to effectively promote the unique efficacy and quality characteristics of "jianchang bang" tcm, distinct from other regional traditions, sessea comprehensive strategy for scientific interpretation and external promotion intial. employing a multi-faceted, three-dimensional approach to elevate brand recognition and market penetration. we must construct a robust brand narrative, extracting core cultural symbols centered around the "zhang bang paozhi techniques", an intangible cultural heritage. this includes delving into historical anecdotes, stories of inheritors, and the unique value of the "paozhi" techniques. key labels such as "ancient method paozhi", "authentic medicinal materials", and "craftsmanship heritage" should be emphasized, alongside a unified visual identity.leveraging new media to engage the younger market is crucial. official accounts on platforms like douyin, kuaishou, and bilibili can be established to launch a "jianchang bang paozhi twelve methods"series of short videos. content such as "unveiling intangible cultural heritage paozhi techniques" and "medicinal material identification mini-classes" can be created, using animation to showcase ancient techniques and highlight the integration of "ancient method paozhi" with modern science, thereby strengthening brand recognition.for international markets, cultural export and cross-border e-commerce are vital. english-language documentaries on intangible cultural heritage techniques can be released on youtube and tiktok. entry into platforms like amazon and aliexpress is recommended, with the launch of "'jianchang bang' overseas limited edition gift boxes" (including "paozhi" manuals in chinese and english, and portable medicinal teas) to target the health-conscious populations in europe, america, and asia, promoting the concept of "eastern herbal wisdom". cross-industry integration and the expansion of scenario-based communication are also important. this includes establishing a "'jianchang bang' intangible cultural heritage experience hall", designing an immersive "one-day pharmacist" experience program, and collaborating with jiangxi cultural tourism to launch "tcm health tourism routes", connecting medicinal material planting bases, "paozhi" workshops, and tcm clinics to create a consumer closedloop. establishing quality standards. this involves formulating detailed "paozhi" process operation regulations, including temperature control, time management, and equipment usage. strict product testing standards should be established, encompassing appearance, properties, impurity detection, and effective component content determination, to ensure standardization at every step. a well-equipped pharmaceutical quality testing laboratory should be established to conduct regular product quality inspections. a complete product traceability system should be constructed, with detailed records for each batch of medicinal materials, traceable from raw materials to finished products.referring to national pharmaceutical standards such as the "chinese pharmacopoeia", we must ensure that "jianchang bang" products meet national requirements. consideration should be given to adopting international quality management system standards like iso to align product quality with international standards. historical documents on "jianchang-paozhi" techniques and medicinal material usage should be collected and organized to provide a historical basis for quality standard formulation. collaboration with experienced "paozhi" masters is essential to summarize key control points and quality judgment standards in traditional "paozhi" processes.utilizing modern scientific methods, such as high-performance liquid chromatography, to analyze the changes in effective components of medicinal materials during "paozhi", we can determine quality indicators. clinical trials should be conducted to evaluate the impact of different "paozhi" methods on the efficacy of medicinal materials, providing a scientific basis for quality standard formulation. regularly organizing experts and scholars in the tcm industry to review and provide suggestions on the draft quality standards, and engaging in exchanges and cooperation with similar institutions both domestically and internationally, will enhance the scientific validity and authority of the standards through peer review. continuous monitoring of developments in pharmaceutical science and technology, and the timely application of new research findings and technologies to update quality standards, is also crucial. regular collection of feedback from consumers, medical institutions, and the market will serve as an important reference for standard improvement. 2.4 wt strategy: overcome weaknesses and neutralize threats the "jianchang bang" brand's construction and development necessitates overcoming internal weaknesses while simultaneously avoiding external threats to ensure steady progress. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 109 published by ideas spread industrial upgrading and integration. within the context of "jianchang bang" industrial development, the introduction of modern technological methods can drive industrial transformation and upgrading. while preserving the essence of ancient "paozhi" methods, the application of automated production lines and intelligent monitoring systems can enhance the efficiency and quality stability of medicinal material processing. this approach also minimizes human error, allowing the centuries-old techniques to better adapt to the demands of large-scale production. simultaneously, leveraging local ecological advantages, we can attract leading chinese medicine enterprises to establish operations, supporting the development of medicinal material cultivation, processing, and logistics, thereby creating an industrial cluster effect. furthermore, we can extend development into specialized projects such as medicinal cuisine for health preservation and traditional chinese medicine experience tours. this involves transforming "paozhi" workshops and cultivation bases into cultural display windows, enabling tourists to personally participate in medicinal material harvesting and ancient "paozhi" activities, thus establishing a "medicine-tourism integration" model. through collaboration with universities and research institutions, we can develop innovative products like portable paste formulas and herbal skincare products tailored to the health needs of modern individuals. this approach both preserves the wisdom of ancient formulas and opens up new markets. this strategy allows us to safeguard the "roots" of authentic medicinal materials while utilizing technology and innovation to grow "new branches", enabling the traditional techniques of the "jianchang bang" to flourish in the health industry, cultural heritage, and other fields, thereby driving the characteristic and sustainable development of the local economy. integration into the education system. in terms of theoretical courses, we can offer subjects such as the history and culture of the "jianchang bang", the fundamentals of chinese pharmacology, and the recognition of chinese medicinal materials. through systematic theoretical study, students will gain an understanding of the development history of the "jianchang bang" and its position in chinese medicine. for practical courses, we can arrange for students to engage in exercises such as medicinal material identification and practical operation of "paozhi" techniques. for example, students can learn to use traditional tools like the "lei gong pao" and "jian dao" and undergo practical operation training. we can organize experts to compile teaching materials on the "paozhi" techniques of "jianchang bang" chinese medicine, covering history, theory, and practical operation guidelines. we can also record operational videos of the traditional "paozhi" techniques of the "jianchang bang" to help students more intuitively understand the technical essentials of each step. we will provide professional training for teachers to ensure they possess the ability to impart traditional "paozhi" techniques and modern teaching methods. we will regularly invite industry experts and master-level figures to give lectures or conduct exchanges, increasing the practicality and authority of the courses. we will establish laboratories equipped with necessary "paozhi" tools and equipment to simulate a real chinese medicine "paozhi" environment. we will also establish off-campus internship bases, collaborating with local chinese medicinal material enterprises to provide students with internship opportunities, allowing them to learn and practice in a real work environment. we will regularly hold "jianchang bang" culture festivals or skill competitions to showcase students' "paozhi" achievements, enhance the reputation of the school and the specialty. we will utilize online platforms and social media to disseminate knowledge and information related to the "jianchang bang", expanding its influence in society. we will regularly evaluate the practicality of teaching content and the learning outcomes of students, promptly adjusting teaching plans and methods. we will collect feedback from students and enterprises to continuously optimize course offerings and teaching methods. 3. concluding remarks the modern inheritance of traditional chinese medicine culture is not a simple return to the past, but rather the construction of a value expression system with contemporary characteristics, based on a deep understanding of the "unity of heaven and man" philosophical core of traditional medicine. the development practice of tcm brands, taking "jianchang bang" as a research model, demonstrates that the contemporary inheritance of traditional tcm culture requires both the determination to uphold the cultural roots and the innovative wisdom to keep pace with the times. in the context of globalization intertwined with localization, and the collision of tradition and modernity, the shaping of tcm brands is essentially a modern translation of cultural memory, and a creative transformation of the wisdom of traditional medicine. the core essence of the contemporary revival of time-honored tcm brands lies in constructing a dialogue mechanism between traditional medical values and modern consumer demands. the modern transformation of tcm brands requires the construction of a multi-dimensional and three-dimensional value network. this development strategy of "upholding the right path without exceeding the boundaries, innovating without departing from the origin" has found the best balance between tradition and modernity for tcm brands in the contemporary consumer market. looking to the future, the revitalization of tcm brands needs to be strategically deployed with a broader perspective, so that tcm brands can truly achieve a leapfrog hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 110 published by ideas spread development from traditional time-honored brands to modern health brands while safeguarding their cultural genes. today, with the comprehensive promotion of the healthy china strategy, the revitalization of tcm brands should become an important carrier 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(2017). research on the construction of regional brands in the chinese medicine industry. world chinese medicine, 12(11), 2799–2802. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). microsoft word p21-29 humanities and social science research; vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v6n2p21 21 published by ideas spread a population-based study of eating disorders in young persons in malta: prevalence in males nearly equals that in females annabel cuff1*, anton grech1*, andrew azzopardi1 & darleen zerafa2 1 university of malta, malta 2 dar kenn għal saħħtek, mtarfa, malta * joint first authors correspondence: annabel cuff, research support officer ii, faculty for social wellbeing, room 117, ground floor, humanities b, university of malta, msida, msd 2080. orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7459-0520. email: annabel.cuff um.edu.mt, anton.grech gov.mt, andrew.azzopardi um.edu.mt, darleen.zerafa gov.mt received: may 23, 2023; accepted: june 5, 2023; published: june 13, 2023 abstract objective: the objective of this study was to examine the prevalence of eating disorders and attitudes to food and eating for youths between 10 and 16 years of age, in order to aid in the diagnosis and treatment of eating disorders in young people through empirical research in a previously unexamined area. methods: the tool selected for this population-based study was the cheat, i.e. the children’s eating attitudes test. a representative cohort of 400, randomly sampled, young people aged 10-16, were asked all 26 questions of the cheat via telephone, while their parents/guardians were asked socio-demographic questions, results: 5.5% (2.25% m, 3.25% f) of the cohort scored at or above the cut-off of 20, indicating the presence of an eating disorder. no significant associations were found between disordered eating and socio-demographic data. conclusions: findings indicate that males are catching up to females in eating disorder diagnoses. a male slightly higher mean cheat ≥20 could denote that disordered eating could be more acute for young men who are between 10 to 16 years old than it is for young women aged 10 to 16. the lack of significant association between the disordered eating and socio-demographic data could be a factor of the ages under examination in this study, and possibly these associations could arise at later ages. keywords: eating disorders, adolescents, children, male eating disorders, children’s eating attitudes test highlights • this population-based study was the first time maltese research investigated the incidence of disordered eating or eating disorders among this population. a previous study had examined the prevalence of eating disorders for older age groups. • findings showed that 5.5% (3.25% female and 2.25% male) of 10 to 16-year-olds could be suffering from an eating disorder. • although eating disorders are often seen as affecting females more, these results indicate that in malta, for this age group, eating disorders in males are matching up to eating disorders in females. 1. introduction eating disorders are harmful eating behaviours that cause disturbances to normal perceptions and approaches to food and eating, and impair physical and mental health as well as social interactions (treasure et al., 2010). although they are commonly seen as mainly affecting young females, in reality they can affect anyone at any age, male as well as female (mitchison et al., 2014). anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are relatively well-known eating disorders, along with binge eating disorder. (apa, 2013). meanwhile, although not as widely recognised, avoidant/restrictive feeding disorder (arfid) is becoming more well-known and more prevalent (zimmerman & fisher, 2017). considering the havoc these disorders wreak on lives and given their high mortality rate, eating disorders are serious concerns. adolescence has been determined to be a time of heightened risk for the development of these disorders (culbert et al., 2015). studies have shown that better outcomes are attained the earlier these disorders are identified and treated (allen et al., 2013; lyubov matytsina et al., 2014; zhang & wing, 2015). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 22 published by ideas spread eating disorders are significant public health concerns due to their wide-ranging social, physical, mental and economic impacts (carta et al., 2014) and cost sufferers dearly, resulting in a very real impact to productivity, education, occupation, and especially to sufferers’ future prospects. although eating disorders are treatable, treatment is usually a lengthy and difficult process, made more so by sufferers’ tendencies to be resistant to treatment (fassino & abbate-daga, 2013). van hoeken & hoek (2020) state that over 3.3 million healthy life years are lost annually to eating disorders. mortality risk is persistently high, while the quality of life and earning potential of sufferers is reduced. with an average course of an eating disorder of around 6 years (schmidt et al., 2016; austin et al., 2021), the costs to national health systems are substantial – around 48% higher for sufferers than for non-sufferers, and for a minority of sufferers, treatment is unsuccessful. epidemiological studies of eating disorders, including prevalence studies, provide information about “the occurrence of disorders and trends in the frequency of disorders over time” (smink et al., 2012, p. 406). these studies give a general overview of the onset and progression of these disorders. epidemiological studies show that although 15-19-year old females are the focus of most research, eating disorders are increasing among males and older women, as well as in non-western countries (hoek, 2016). typically, understanding of eating disorders has been aimed at young females, with aetiology, diagnosis, treatment and outcomes mainly studied for this demographic. meanwhile, although interest is increasing, studies of eating disorders in males fall short (culbert et al, 2015; strother et al., 2012). however, as several studies note, the incidence and prevalence of eating disorders among men is increasing (ganson et al., 2019; pritchard, 2008; strother et al., 2012), yet as forrest et al, (2017, as cited in ganson et al., 2019) observe “less than one in ten adolescent males with an eating disorder seeks treatment” (p.2). according to prevalence data, the lifetime prevalence for an eating disorder as described in the dsm is 2.9% for women and 0.1% for men. (nagl et al., 2016). epidemiologists such as nagl et al., (2016) and keski-rahkonen & mustelin (2016) place lifetime prevalence rates for sub-clinical eds at 2.2% for females, while the rate for males is estimated to be 0.7%. with numerous negative effects that eating disorders exert on all areas of a sufferer’s life, and the huge impact on their quality of life, identifying and treating eating disorders as soon as possible is vital, particularly as treatment results improve the sooner that treatment for the disorder is begun. early treatment greatly improves results and enhances the long-term possibility of recovery (cooney et al., 2018). until quite recently, general understanding of the development of eating disorders in malta and the effect that these have on the sufferer’s life and outcomes was not well understood or even studied. a 2012 study examined the prevalence of eating disorders in the maltese islands for the first time, although only for people aged 15 to 65. the purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of eating disorders and establish what treatment was needed (grech, 2013). the 2012 study found that malta had prevalence rates for eating disorders on par with the rest of europe, and this served as the basis for the setting up, in 2014, of the national eating disorder and obesity treatment center dar kenn għal saħħtek (home for the shelter of your health). this facility offers both residential and semi-residential, holistic treatment programmes (falzon aquilina et al., 2015; grech, 2013). nonetheless, within a few years of operation dar kenn għal saħħtek found that they were admitting a number of patients younger than 15 years of age, and realised that although eating disorders were present in the population, not enough was known about them by the general public as well as professionals (orsini, 2017). this led to a collaboration between the eating disorder treatment facility and the faculty of social wellbeing at the university of malta, which was tasked to examine the prevalence of eating disorders among young persons in malta aged 10 to 16, a previously unexplored area (azzopardi et al., 2020). the full report is available on https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/handle/123456789/76595. this paper will present findings from that study. 1.1 objectives the objectives of this paper, as identified in the original study, as presented in azzopardi et al., 2020, are: 1) to investigate the prevalence of eating disorders among children and adolescents in the maltese islands; 2) to determine whether socio-demographic factors such as age, educational attainment, or other factors play a part in the prevalence of eating disorders; 3) to deliver evidence-based information to guide future planning of eating disorder treatment. 2. methods for this study the children’s eating attitudes test (cheat) was selected as the most appropriate study tool. the 26-item cheat was developed by maloney, mcguire and daniels in 1988 (maloney et al., 1988), is widely used with children populations, and has been validated for use with children from the age of 8 years old (ornstein et al., 2017), as well as translated into various languages in a number of studies globally (chiba et al., 2016; lommi et hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 23 published by ideas spread al., 2020; sancho et al., 2005). for this study, the cheat was translated into maltese by two independent researchers and back-translated into english to evaluate the precision of the translation. additionally, the maltese cheat was piloted with a small group, to ensure that it was clear and comprehensible for the age groups at which this study was aimed. permission to use the test was obtained from dr maolney on 20th march 2020, and the project was granted ethical approval from the faculty for social wellbeing research ethics committee at the university of malta and also from the university research ethics committee (ref. 5613) in july 2020. sample size was determined by consulting online sample size calculators, and minimum sample size was found to be 379. a final sample size of 400 was selected as this was above the minimum limit. a total of 1636 telephone calls were made in order to achieve a stratified sample of 400 respondents, with a 95% confidence level and +/ 5% margin of error (azzopardi et al., 2020). out of all the telephone calls made, 547 did not fulfill eligibility criteria, 174 did not wish to participate, 6 persons did not complete the survey and a further 509 calls were unanswered. data collection began in august 2020, and was done by telephone via stratified random sampling, in order to be nationally representative. data collected were representative by gender, age and the district where the child respondent lived. since the target group consisted of minors, before data was collected consent was obtained from the parents/guardians, and assent was obtained from the children, in line with ethical requirements. demographic data about the parents, family composition and children’s age and gender was gathered from the parent or guardian who replied to the call, while the children’s attitude to food and eating was assessed by asking them the 26 items from the cheat (children’s eating attitude test). respondents were given the choice of whether they preferred to reply in english or maltese. participants’ anonymity was maintained since no identifying details were collected, and as the children’s’ responses were ranged on a 5-point likert scale from ‘always’ to ‘never’, their replies also remained confidential and could not be understood by anyone in the room with them, only by the researchers. scoring followed the conventional method of assigning a score of 0 (zero) for answers of sometimes, rarely and never, a score of 1 (one) for often, a score of 2 (two) for very often and 3(three) for always, as directed by maloney et al. the aggregate score denotes the child’s attitude to eating, with a standardised cut-off score of ≥20 indicating problematic eating patterns and higher scores indicative of greater disordered eating and the presence of eating disorders (murphy et al., 2019). although no clinical interviews were held to confirm results, a “score of 20 or greater is considered clinically significant relative to the normative population” (ornstein et al., 2017, p.1069). since for persons with an eating disorder, talking about their eating patterns can be distressing, during the data collection phase, the children were given details of a helpline they could contact if they felt disturbed following the discussions. provisions were also made for a clinical psychologist, child psychologist and drama therapist from dar kenn għal saħħtek to be on call in case the telephone interviewer felt that the child needed professional assistance. both child participants and parents were informed before beginning the telephone interview that if researchers felt that the child showed clear signs of an eating disorder, in order to safeguard the child, the researchers would terminate the survey and ask to speak to the parents (due to all participating children being under age). in such a case, researchers would then ask to refer the child to the stand-by team from dar kenn għal saħħtek, however no such instances were encountered in this study. this set-up was put in place as it was felt that the researchers had a duty to put the children’s health and wellbeing first. the data were analysed using spss version 26. cronbach’s alpha was used to test internal consistency, with results showing high validity for the maltese version of the cheat, which returned a cronbach’s alpha value of 0.77. this compares well to similar studies using cheat such as chiba et al., (2016); and sancho et al., (2005). examination of variables was made using the chi-square test of associations. 3. results of the 400 children who completed the cheat, 212 were females (53%) and 188 were males (47%). distribution was fairly even across all age groups, with mean age being 13 years. the majority of respondents (n = 378; 94.5%), scored below the cut-off point of ≥20. however, 5.5% (n = 22) had cheat 26 scores above the cut-off score of 20 or more, signifying the possibility of an eating disorder or the presence of disordered eating (figure 1, below). overall, the mean cheat score was 6.46, with mean score for females of 6.47, and a mean score of 6.45 for males. of the 5.5% (n = 22) who scored 20 or above, 59.1% were female (n = 13; 3.25% of total sample), while 41% were male (n = 9; 2.5% of total sample), (table 1, below). the highest cheat score (49) belonged to a 15-yearold male residing in the northern harbour, who attended a private/independent school; a 14-year-old female who also lives in the northern harbour, had the highest score (42) among females scoring ≥20, and attended government/public schooling. the mean cheat ≥20 score for females was 27.4, while for males it was 28.9. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 24 published by ideas spread chi-square tests were carried out on variables of interest, including age, gender district of residence, marital and employment status of parents and type of school attended, however no statistically significant association was found for any of these variables. figure 1. cheat ≥20 scores by age table 1. cheat scores by gender description female male total n % n % n total % cheat score < 20 199 49.75% 179 44.75% 378 94.5% cheat score ≥ 20 13 3.25% 9 2.25% 22 5.5% number of respondents 212 53% 188 47% 400 100% many researchers have commented upon an in-built factorial structure within the cheat (legendre et al., 2021; smolak, & levine,1994). for this study, the research team identified the 5-factor model preferred by murphy et al., (2019), who examined different permutations of the latent factors, as the best fit, since the authors determined it was the most robust. examining means for the 5 factors of weight preoccupation (wp), dieting (d), food preoccupation (fp), vomiting and purging (vp), and social pressure (sp), it was found that, in this sample, weight preoccupation was the most strongly influential factor, with a mean of 0.84, while vomiting and purging (mean of 0.03) was the least frequent behavior within this cohort (figure 2). figure 2. means examination for 5-factor model hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 25 published by ideas spread 4. discussion although these results confirm that the vast majority of children do not demonstrate disordered eating or eating disorder symptomatology, signifying that for most of them the presence of an eating disorder is not indicated, the findings also show that a proportion of children are affected and will require proper diagnosis and treatment. 5.5% (n = 22), of the 400 children surveyed in this nationally representative study, had a total cheat score above the cut-off, indicating the presence of an eating disorder for this proportion of the cohort, with respondents who had higher scores having greater indication for the presence of an eating disorder. within malta’s population at the time of study, this translates to over 1600 children and adolescents, aged between 10 and 16 years old, who potentially exhibit an eating disorder, and who should be receiving treatment. one important finding of this study was that the number of affected males exceeded expectations. additionally, the closeness of male to female proportion of sufferers indicates that, despite conventional thinking that these conditions affect females more strongly, young males are also highly susceptible to eating disorders. this is supported by other studies, which found that prevalence of eating disorders among males is increasing (gorrell & murray, 2019; mitchison et al., 2014; mond et al., 2014; wiseman et al., 2004) and, indeed the study of eating disorders in males is becoming a topic of increasing interest in research (eichstadt et al., 2020; raevuori et al., 2014; silen et al., 2021), although more research on this topic would certainly be beneficial. the us national association of eating disorders (neda), found that around a third of persons who are affected by eating disorders are male, whereas subthreshold eating disorder behaviour is equally prevalent in both males and females (neda, 2018). the reason for this could be an increasing preoccupation with body-consciousness among young men, combined with a tendency for under diagnosis of males, possibly because eating disorders manifest differently in males and females (allen et al., 2013; shu et al., 2015; wiseman et al., 2004). the current study also found that the mean cheat ≥20 score for males is slightly higher than it is for females (f: 27.38, m: 28.89), which could indicate that for this age-cohort, male disordered eating is more severe. this tends to go against trend, as research also shows that in general males score lower on eating disorder instruments, as these have been predominantly designed and authenticated for females (mond et al., 2014; raevuori et al., 2014). similarly to previous research, the current study found that for the ages under examination, factors such as gender and age do not particularly influence eating behaviors. statistical analysis did not reveal any significant associations between disordered eating and variables such as age, gender and category of school attended, or for socio-economic factors, such as parents’ employment or education level. this finding is reflected in other studies, such as murphy et al, (2019), rolland et al., (1997) and wiseman et al., (2004), who all found that age and gender had little effect on disordered eating in in children and adolescents. other researchers also found that age and gender differences start to occur at around ages 15 to 18, but are not really present below 15 years, (allen et al., 2013; chiba et al., 6; sancho et al., 2005). consequently, the age range of 10 to 16 years considered for this study, could account for the lack of significant associations. additionally, researchers such as chiba et al. and rolland et al., suggest that particularly among younger children, age-specific differences may not be reflected in questionnaire responses, since young respondents possibly do not understand the questions or the import behind them, such as with questions that deal with purging. furthermore, these studies posit that younger children may be unable to comprehend the strategy of intentional purging as a means to achieve thinness. furthermore, researchers have found that respondents in urban areas tend to turn in higher cheat scores (chiba et al., 2016; huang et al., 2023; lommi et al., 2020), indicating that children living in urban areas possibly experience higher media influence and pressure to be thin than those in rural areas. given the size and geography of the maltese islands, where we lack isolated rural areas, this could well be a factor affecting scoring in this study. 4.1 recommendations for practice, policy and future research these findings have implications for the diagnosis of eating disorders as well as the training of professionals. diagnostic adjustments may be needed, to account for the under diagnosis of eating disorders in males, and for the different presentation of these disorders in males compared to females. more research on eating disorders in young males is needed in order to verify whether young males are more strongly affected by eating disorders than their female counterparts, as well as to determine the divergent pathways of eating disorder aetiology and manifestation, and to improve diagnosis and routes to treatment. given the importance of catching and treating eating disorders as early as possible, this study also recommends that information campaigns about eating disorders are set up to increase awareness of eating disorders among the general public and professional practitioners. knowledge of prevalence of eating disorders is highly beneficial and can assist public health and treatment facilities to be prepared for future needs. however, patterns change and it is also important to keep on top of changes in trends. in order to track trends in eating disorders, and as there are currently no such studies of eating hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 26 published by ideas spread disorder trends in malta, the researchers suggest that the study be undertaken every three to five years, as part of a longitudinal examination into eating disorders in malta. 4.2 conclusion the results of this population-based study show that while the majority of young people do not suffer from an eating disorder, there is a percentage that are affected. these young people require help and treatment in order to improve their outlook. although eating disorders are typically seem as primarily affecting females, a sizeable proportion of sufferers in our sample of young people aged 10 to 16 years was male. these figures lead us to conclude that in the prevalence and diagnosis of eating disorders for persons aged 10 to 16 years, males are catching up to females. additionally, there is a possibility that young males experiencing eating disorders at this age are more strongly affected than young females. the findings that males may be catching up to women in eating disorder diagnoses has implications for diagnosis and treatment methodologies, particularly since typically males are diagnosed later and suffer more shame and stigma. these factors, as well as the difference in course and aetiology of eating disorders in males, warrants further study and this paper recommends that resources are devoted to the issue, and to disseminating knowledge and information that may prevent eating disorders in young people. it is hoped that these findings will aid treatment centers in the areas of awareness, preparedness and capacity. the fact that no significant association was discovered for socio-demographic factors, such as age and family income, is consistent with other studies which found that for this age range, eating disorder behavior is prevalent at all socio-demographic levels. although findings on correlations between socioeconomic status vary, several studies have discovered that these connections are not necessarily present, (litmanen et al., 2017; solmi et al, 2016). the reason for this could be that eating disorders may be affected by a number of underlying causes, and that no single, specific factor can be regarded as having significant influence on their genesis. further research may be needed to determine the possible presence of other influencing factors. in malta, as in other countries (wong et al., 2022), professionals have noticed that sufferers with eating disorders are coming in at younger ages than previously. awareness of the prevalence, possible causes and risk factors for eating disorders among young people, such as those stated above, are extremely helpful in assisting early diagnosis, improving treatment outcomes and assisting treatment centers to be prepared for future requirements. 4.3 limitations the main limitation in this study is the use a self-response eating disorder instrument. these tend to be generally better oriented towards females and do not have equal sensitivity when it comes to examining disordered eating in males. in addition, while cheat is a practical and valid tool for estimating prevalence, on its own it is unable to identify the specific eating disorder present on its own. a clinical interview would be needed to confirm the presence as well as determine the nature of the eating disorder. such an interview would furthermore diagnose whether children scoring <20 have an eating disorder, as, since this a self-report questionnaire, the children’s replies could mask the presence of such a disorder. this shortfall could be addressed in further studies by holding clinical interviews with participants who score ≥20. acknowledgements the authors would like acknowledge that the original project received funding from dar kenn għal saħħtek on behalf of the ministry for health. the authors would also like to thank the persons who participated in this project, without them this study would not have been possible. conflict of interest none to declare. references allen, k. l., crosby, r. d., oddy, w. h., & byrne, s. m. 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(2014). the changing demographic profile of eating disorder behaviors in the community. bmc public health, 14(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-943 mond, j., hall, a., bentley, c., harrison, c., gratwick‐sarll, k., & lewis, v. (2014). eating‐disordered behavior in adolescent boys: eating disorder examination questionnaire norms. international journal of eating disorders, 47(4), 335-341. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22237 murphy, t. j., hwang, h., kramer, m. s., martin, r. m., oken, e., & yang, s. (2019). assessment of eating attitudes and dieting behaviors in healthy children: confirmatory factor analysis of the children's eating attitudes test. international journal of eating disorders, 52(6), 669-680. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.23062 nagl, m., jacobi, c., paul, m., beesdo-baum, k., höfler, m., lieb, r., & wittchen, h. u. (2016). prevalence, incidence, and natural course of anorexia and bulimia nervosa among adolescents and young adults. european child & adolescent psychiatry, 25, 903-918. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-015-0808-z nardone, g., & barbieri, r. b. (2010). advanced brief strategic therapy: an overview of interventions with eating disorders to exemplify how theory and practice work. european journal of psychotherapy and counselling, 12(2), 113-127. https://doi.org/10.1080/13642537.2010.482743 neda: eating disorders in men and boys (2022). national eating disorders association. https://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/learn/general-information/research-on-males ornstein, r. m., essayli, j. h., nicely, t. a., masciulli, e., & lane‐loney, s. (2017). treatment of avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder in a cohort of young patients in a partial hospitalization program for eating disorders. international journal of eating disorders, 50(9), 1067-1074. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22737 orsini, g. (2017). “hunger hurts, but starving works”. the moral conversion to eating disorders. culture, medicine, and psychiatry, 41(1), 111-141. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11013-016-9507-6 pritchard, m. (2008). disordered eating in undergraduates: does gender role orientation influence men and women the same way? sex roles, 59, 282-289. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9449-8 raevuori, a., keski-rahkonen, a., & hoek, h. w. (2014). a review of eating disorders in males. current opinion in psychiatry, 27(6), 426-430. https://doi.org/10.1097/yco.0000000000000113 rolland, k., farnill, d., & griffiths, r. a. (1997). body figure perceptions and eating attitudes among australian schoolchildren aged 8 to 12 years. international journal of eating disorders, 21(3), 273-278. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1098-108x(199704)21:3<273::aid-eat7>3.0.co;2-h sancho, c., asorey, o., arija, v., & canals, j. (2005). psychometric characteristics of the children's eating attitudes test in a spanish sample. european eating disorders review: the professional journal of the eating disorders association, 13(5), 338-343. https://doi.org/10.1002/erv.643 schmidt, u., adan, r., böhm, i., campbell, i. c., dingemans, a., ehrlich, s., ... & zipfel, s. (2016). eating disorders: the big issue. the lancet psychiatry, 3(4), 313-315. https://doi.org/10.1016/s22150366(16)00081-x shu, c. y., limburg, k., harris, c., mccormack, j., hoiles, k. j., hamilton, m. j., & watson, h. j. (2015). clinical presentation of eating disorders in young males at a tertiary setting. journal of eating disorders, 3(1), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40337-015-0075-x silén, y., sipilä, p. n., raevuori, a., mustelin, l., marttunen, m., kaprio, j., & keski-rahkonen, a. (2021). detection, treatment, and course of eating disorders in finland: a population-based study of adolescent and young adult females and males. european eating disorders review, 29( 5), 720-732. https://doi.org/10.1002/erv.2838 smink, f. r., van hoeken, d., & hoek, h. w. (2012). epidemiology of eating disorders: incidence, prevalence and mortality rates. current psychiatry reports, 14(4), 406-414. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-012-0282-y smolak, l., & levine, m. p. (1994). psychometric properties of the children's eating attitudes test. international hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 29 published by ideas spread journal of eating disorders, 16(3), 275-282. https://doi.org/10.1002/1098-108x(199411)16:3<275::aideat2260160308>3.0.co;2-u solmi, f., hotopf, m., hatch, s. l., treasure, j., & micali, n. (2016). eating disorders in a multi-ethnic inner-city uk sample: prevalence, comorbidity and service use. social psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology, 51, 369-381. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-015-1146-7 stice, e., becker, c. b., & yokum, s. (2013). eating disorder prevention: current evidence‐base and future directions. international journal of eating disorders, 46(5), 478-485. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22105 stice, e., marti, c. n., shaw, h., & jaconis, m. (2009). an 8-year longitudinal study of the natural history of threshold, subthreshold, and partial eating disorders from a community sample of adolescents. journal of abnormal psychology, 118(3), 587. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016481 strother, e., lemberg, r., stanford, s. c., & turberville, d. (2013). eating disorders in men: underdiagnosed, undertreated, and misunderstood. in current findings on males with eating disorders (pp. 13-22). routledge. https://doi.org/10.1080/10640266.2012.715512 treasure, j., claudino, a. m., & zucker, n. (2010). 02/13. eating disorders. lancet (london, england), 375(9714), 583-593. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(09)61748-7 treasure, j., stein, d., & maguire, s. (2015). has the time come for a staging model to map the course of eating disorders from high risk to severe enduring illness? an examination of the evidence. early intervention in psychiatry, 9(3), 173-184. https://doi.org/10.1111/eip.12170 van hoeken, d., & hoek, h. w. (2020). review of the burden of eating disorders: mortality, disability, costs, quality of life, and family burden. current opinion in psychiatry, 33(6), 521. https://doi.org/10.1097/yco.0000000000000641 wing t. & zhang m. (2015). eating disorders. innovait 8,685-691. https://doi.org/10.1177/1755738015594475 wiseman, c. v., peltzman, b., halmi, k. a., & sunday, s. r. (2004). risk factors for eating disorders: surprising similarities between middle school boys and girls. eating disorders, 12(4), 315-320. https://doi.org/10.1080/10640260490521398 wong l, goh lg & ramachandran r (2022). evolution of paediatric eating disorders in singapore: a historical cohort study. archives of disease in childhood, 107, 1046-1048. https://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2022323925 zimmerman, j., & fisher, m. (2017). avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (arfid). current problems in pediatric and adolescent health care, 47(4), 95-103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cppeds.2017.02.005 authors information ms annabel cuff (corresponding author and joint first author), research support officer ii, faculty for social wellbeing, room 117, ground floor, humanities b, university of malta, msida, msd 2080, orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7459-0520. email: annabel.cuff@um.edu.mt prof. anton grech (joint first author), associate professor, medical school, university of malta, msida, malta; clinical chairman, department of psychiatry, mental health services, mount carmel hospital, attard, malta, email: anton.grech@gov.mt prof. andrew azzopardi, dean and associate professor, faculty for social wellbeing, university of malta, msida, malta, email: andrew.azzopardi@um.edu.mt ms darleen zerafa, director, dar kenn għal saħħtek, mtarfa, malta, email: darleen.zerafa@gov.mt copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v7n3p80 80 published by ideas spread research on the innovation of management and service models of university libraries in the information age jianmin lu1 1 library of taishan university, china correspondence: jianmin lu, library of taishan university, taian271000, shandong, china. e-mail: anhaiyan740116/at/163.com received: november 9, 2024; accepted: december 16, 2024; published: december 16, 2024 abstract with the advent of the information age, university libraries, as core institutions for knowledge management and information services, face unprecedented challenges and opportunities. the rapid development of information technologies, such as big data, cloud computing, and artificial intelligence, provides a broad space for the innovation of university library management and service models. this paper aims to explore the innovative paths of university library management and service models under the background of informatization, analyzing the profound impact of information technologies on library management, service efficiency, resource integration, and user experience. first, the article reviews the impact of the information age on university libraries, pointing out the limitations of traditional management and service models. it then analyzes the necessity of innovating management and service models through informatization, proposes directions for intelligent, personalized, and digitalized services, and discusses the practical applications of information technologies in resource management and services. finally, the paper summarizes the potential challenges faced by university libraries in the informatization transformation process and proposes corresponding innovative paths and implementation strategies. the study shows that informatization can not only improve the management efficiency of libraries but also provide more personalized and efficient services to students and faculty, driving university libraries towards a more intelligent and modern direction. keywords: information age, university libraries, innovation in management models, innovation in service models 1. introduction with the arrival of the information age, all industries around the world are undergoing digital transformation, and higher education is no exception. as core institutions for knowledge management and information services, university libraries are experiencing significant changes brought by informatization technologies. the information age provides new opportunities for library management and services, but also raises higher demands. the traditional management and service models of libraries can no longer meet the increasingly diverse needs of modern readers and need to be innovated and optimized through information technologies. the rapid development of frontier technologies such as big data, cloud computing, and artificial intelligence provides strong support for the management efficiency, resource integration, information delivery, and personalized services in university libraries. these technologies can not only improve the internal management of libraries through intelligence and digitalization but also enhance the user experience, promoting library services toward a more intelligent, precise, and personalized direction.in this context, studying the innovation of management and service models in university libraries in the information age is of paramount importance. the core of library management lies in the effective allocation of resources and efficient delivery of services, and the introduction of informatization technologies offers more possibilities to achieve these goals. however, the informatization transformation is not a one-step process; libraries still face many challenges in the innovation of management and service models, including the degree of technology application, the adaptability of staff, and funding issues. therefore, this paper will analyze the far-reaching impact of informatization on university library management and services and explore how to achieve innovative management and service models through the introduction of information technologies to enhance the overall service capabilities and quality of university libraries.the aim of this study is to systematically explore the innovative paths of university libraries in management and service under the informatization context, analyze the impact of information technologies on various functions of libraries, and propose feasible innovation strategies and implementation plans. by conducting an in-depth study of the informatization transformation of university libraries, this paper intends to provide theoretical foundations and practical guidance for library hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 81 published by ideas spread managers and relevant decision-makers, promoting continuous innovation and development of university libraries in the wave of informatization[1]. 2. the influence of information age on university library 2.1 popularization of information technology the widespread adoption of information technology has profoundly changed the operations of industries worldwide, and university libraries are no exception. in the information age, with the rapid development of technologies like big data, cloud computing, artificial intelligence, and the internet of things, library management and services are undergoing unprecedented transformations. first, big data technology allows libraries to manage and analyze information resources more efficiently. by collecting and analyzing massive amounts of data, libraries can gain a deeper understanding of users' needs and behaviors, enabling more precise resource procurement and integration, and improving the efficiency of resource usage. additionally, big data enables libraries to offer more personalized service recommendations, providing customized knowledge resources for different users.the popularization of cloud computing technology has made resource management in libraries more flexible and efficient. traditional library management systems often rely heavily on local servers and hardware devices, while cloud computing, through virtualization technology, centralizes data storage and processing capabilities, allowing libraries to obtain computational resources and storage space on demand, thus reducing high hardware investment and operational costs[2]. cloud platforms provide libraries with convenient remote access and sharing, enabling readers to access digital resources from anywhere, breaking the limitations of time and space, and increasing the accessibility and usage rate of resources.the application of artificial intelligence technology has also brought significant changes to libraries. intelligent recommendation systems can automatically suggest related books or literature based on users' borrowing history and preferences, greatly improving the efficiency of information retrieval. the introduction of natural language processing technology allows libraries to offer more intelligent query services, where users can quickly obtain the information they need through voice or text input. additionally, artificial intelligence is applied to library automation systems, such as smart book returns and intelligent shelving, not only improving management efficiency but also enhancing user experience.as information technologies continue to develop and become more widespread, university libraries are no longer merely centers for borrowing traditional print books but are becoming intelligent, digital platforms integrating knowledge management, information services, and user interaction. the application of information technology enables libraries to more efficiently integrate, manage, and serve resources, thereby precisely meeting the needs of readers and driving innovation in library services, management, and technology applications across multiple dimensions[3]. 2.2 challenges and opportunities of informatization transformation although information technology offers many opportunities for university libraries, they also face a series of challenges during the transformation process. these challenges are not only technical but also involve management, staff training, funding, and other aspects. first, informatization transformation requires significant financial and resource investment, particularly in the construction and upgrading of technological infrastructure. many university libraries have outdated facilities, and existing hardware, software systems, and network platforms often fail to meet the requirements of modern informatization management. therefore, libraries need to make substantial financial investments in informatization construction, including purchasing advanced hardware facilities, building cloud platforms, and updating management systems, which can be a considerable burden for universities with limited budgets.moreover, informatization transformation also faces issues related to technological adaptability. while many library staff members have professional backgrounds, they may lack the necessary technical knowledge and skills to handle rapidly developing information technologies, especially in areas such as artificial intelligence and big data. library managers and technical staff often lack relevant training and practical experience in these advanced technologies. therefore, in the process of informatization transformation, libraries must not only introduce advanced technologies but also focus on training staff and updating their knowledge to enhance their technical adaptability, ensuring that new technologies are applied effectively.third, informatization transformation faces challenges related to data security and privacy protection[4]. with the increased informatization of libraries, large amounts of sensitive data, such as user information, borrowing records, and resource usage data, are generated and stored, which requires careful management. ensuring the security of these data during storage, transmission, and usage, and preventing data breaches and misuse, is a critical issue that must be addressed during the informatization transformation. libraries need to adopt effective measures such as encryption, access control, and data backup to ensure data security and protect users' privacy.however, informatization transformation also brings tremendous opportunities for university libraries. first, informatization can significantly improve library management efficiency. by introducing intelligent management systems, libraries can automate resource management, borrowing and returning processes, and user services, reducing human errors and workload, thus hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 82 published by ideas spread improving work efficiency and service quality. the application of cloud computing enables libraries to share and remotely access resources through the internet, breaking time and space limitations, making it easier for faculty and students to access digital resources at any time and from any location.in addition, the introduction of information technologies allows libraries to provide more personalized services. through big data analysis, libraries can precisely understand readers' interests and needs, offering them resources that better align with their individual preferences. for example, using intelligent recommendation algorithms, libraries can recommend relevant books, journals, or databases to each reader, improving the efficiency and accuracy of information retrieval and enhancing the user experience.finally, informatization transformation can also create new development opportunities for libraries. the construction of digital resources enables libraries to expand their service offerings, including not only traditional print books but also e-books, online journals, video lectures, virtual exhibitions, and other diverse services, attracting more readers. libraries can also establish open platforms to share knowledge resources with other academic institutions, research organizations, and the general public, further enhancing their role in knowledge dissemination and academic research.in summary, informatization transformation provides university libraries with opportunities to improve management efficiency, enhance personalized services, and create new development avenues[5]. 2.3 advantages of the informatization management model the application of the informatization management model in university libraries provides an effective solution to the limitations of traditional management models, bringing significant advantages. first, the informatization management model significantly improves the efficiency and accuracy of resource management. by introducing automated management systems, libraries can digitize and automate operations such as book borrowing, returning, classification, and inventory management. for example, the application of barcode scanning and rfid (radio frequency identification) technology allows libraries to track the location and borrowing status of books in real time, greatly reducing human error and gaps in manual management, thereby improving the efficiency and accuracy of resource management. additionally, the system can update data in real time, avoiding delays caused by paper records and manual entry, ensuring timeliness and accuracy in resource management.secondly, the informatization management model breaks the spatial and temporal limitations of traditional resource management. with the help of cloud computing and big data analytics, libraries can store resources in the cloud, achieving centralized management and remote sharing[6]. readers are no longer restricted by physical space and library hours; they can access digital resources such as e-books, journals, and academic databases anytime and anywhere through the internet. this convenient access greatly enhances the availability and usage frequency of library resources, meeting the modern reader's demand for flexible, convenient, and immediate access to information.third, the informatization management model enables university libraries to provide more personalized and precise services. by leveraging big data analysis and artificial intelligence, libraries can intelligently recommend relevant books, journals, or academic resources based on a reader's borrowing history, interests, and academic needs. for example, using recommendation algorithms, libraries can suggest the latest research findings in specific fields to researchers, teachers, or students, thereby improving the efficiency and accuracy of information retrieval. personalized recommendations not only enhance reader satisfaction but also help avoid information overload, enabling readers to efficiently filter out the most relevant resources.moreover, the informatization management model enhances a library's data analysis capabilities, supporting scientific decision-making. through data collection, analysis, and mining, libraries can understand reader behavior, resource circulation, and service effectiveness, allowing for more informed decisions in areas such as resource procurement, service improvements, and user feedback. for example, libraries can identify frequently borrowed books or resources through borrowing data analysis and increase procurement and updates for these resources. at the same time, libraries can adjust operating hours and service offerings to better meet readers' needs.finally, the informatization management model promotes the digital transformation of libraries, transitioning them from traditional paper-based resource management to more modern digital resource management. digital resources not only reduce storage space pressure but also enrich the types of resources available in libraries, such as video lectures, online courses, and virtual exhibitions. by building digital platforms, libraries can provide diverse learning and research support to students and faculty, further enhancing the academic service functions of libraries.in conclusion, the informatization management model offers significant advantages in university libraries, particularly in improving management efficiency, enabling resource sharing, providing personalized services, supporting data-driven decision-making, and driving digital transformation. with the continuous development of information technology, the informatization management model will provide university libraries with smarter, more precise, and more efficient management and service approaches, helping libraries better adapt to the needs of modern education and academic research[7]. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 83 published by ideas spread 3. innovation in university library service models with the continuous development of informatization technology and the transformation of university education models, university libraries face unprecedented challenges and opportunities in their service models. traditional library service models can no longer meet modern academic demands and the increasingly diverse information access needs of students and faculty. to adapt to the changes of the information age, university libraries need to innovate their service models to provide more efficient, personalized, and intelligent services. the informatization era offers extensive technological support and application scenarios for the innovation of university library service models. the following are several key directions for innovation.first, the integration of digital and online services has brought about a revolutionary transformation in university library service models. with the continuous increase in digital resources, libraries have gradually shifted from traditional physical book lending to providing and managing electronic resources. this transformation not only breaks the limitations of time and space but also allows readers to access various academic resources, such as e-books, online journals, and theses, anytime and anywhere[8]. by establishing comprehensive online service platforms, university libraries provide services such as remote borrowing, electronic resource downloads, and academic information retrieval, greatly improving resource utilization efficiency. at the same time, the construction of virtual exhibitions and digital libraries, using technologies such as virtual reality (vr) and augmented reality (ar), provides readers with an immersive reading experience, making library services more diverse and innovative.secondly, personalized and intelligent services have become the core of service model innovation in university libraries in the informatization era. with the development of big data and artificial intelligence technologies, libraries can provide personalized services based on readers' borrowing history, academic interests, and information needs through intelligent recommendation systems. readers can receive recommendations for relevant books, journals, and online courses, and can also obtain rapid consultation services through intelligent q&a systems. these personalized and intelligent services not only enhance the reader's user experience but also help improve library resource utilization, avoiding waste and redundancy. the application of intelligent services, such as self-service borrowing and returning machines, smart guide systems, and ai-based customer service, also makes library management more efficient, reducing the burden of manual operations and improving overall service efficiency.third, social and collaborative services are becoming an important part of service model innovation in university libraries. with the popularization of social media and online collaboration tools, university libraries are not only expected to provide information resources but also to serve as platforms for academic exchange and knowledge sharing. by building academic social platforms and hosting online seminars, libraries can foster academic interaction and collaboration among readers, especially interdisciplinary academic discussions. libraries can use these platforms to encourage knowledge sharing among researchers, faculty, and students, driving academic innovation. additionally, libraries can organize academic salons, lectures, and thematic discussion sessions to enhance interaction with readers, strengthen the academic atmosphere of libraries, and increase their position in the academic community.moreover, as university research activities continue to grow, libraries' roles in knowledge management and innovation support services have become increasingly important. university libraries, through informatization means, establish research data platforms to help researchers effectively manage and share data. using technologies such as big data and cloud computing, libraries can provide scholars with full lifecycle support, from data storage to research outcome publication. this innovative service improves the efficiency of researchers, helping them better manage, analyze, and disseminate academic results, thereby promoting collaboration and innovation in academia. libraries should not only provide literature resources but also serve as core drivers of research and innovation.finally, the open and shared service model is another important direction for innovation in university library service models. with the popularization of open-source resources and the open access concept, libraries should actively promote the open sharing of academic resources, breaking down barriers to resource sharing and promoting the free flow of global academic resources. by collaborating with global academic platforms and databases, libraries can offer richer and more comprehensive academic resources to a wider audience. at the same time, libraries can use cloud platforms to build open repositories, making academic research outcomes, journal articles, teaching materials, and more publicly available, helping scholars overcome geographical and disciplinary boundaries to quickly access the information they need. open and shared services not only enhance the social impact of libraries but also facilitate the exchange and development of global academic resources.in conclusion, the informatization era provides rich possibilities and broad space for the innovation of university library service models. from the comprehensive promotion of digital resources to the implementation of intelligent and personalized services, and the construction of social platforms and open sharing of academic resources, university libraries are undergoing a profound transformation in their service models. in the future, as information technology continues to develop, university libraries will become core platforms for academic research, knowledge dissemination, and discipline collaboration, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 84 published by ideas spread providing high-quality resource services to faculty and students while playing a greater role in promoting academic innovation, knowledge sharing, and societal progress[9]. 4. paths and strategies for innovation in management and service models of university libraries as the core carrier of information and knowledge services, the innovation of management and service models in university libraries plays a crucial role in advancing education and research. in the face of the challenges and opportunities brought by the digital age, university libraries need to continuously optimize their management and service systems to adapt to the rapidly changing academic environment and increasingly diverse reader needs. innovating the management and service models of university libraries will not only help improve the quality of library services but also enhance their strategic position in academic research and knowledge dissemination. the following are the main paths and strategies for the innovation of management and service models in university libraries.firstly, digital transformation is the fundamental path for the innovation of university library management models. with the rapid development of information technology, the widespread adoption of digital resources, and the continuous optimization of information management systems, university libraries should strengthen their digital construction, promote the comprehensive digitization of library resources, and automate management processes. specifically, libraries should accelerate the digitization of electronic books, journals, theses, and other resources, and establish a unified digital resource platform to provide more convenient access channels for readers. in addition, libraries should integrate internal resources and external databases to achieve resource sharing and cross-platform interoperability, thereby improving the efficiency of resource utilization and the level of academic services.secondly, intelligent and personalized services are key strategies for innovating university library service models. with the application of technologies such as big data, artificial intelligence, and the internet of things, libraries can analyze readers' behavioral data and preferences to accurately identify and predict their needs, and then provide personalized services. for example, through intelligent recommendation systems, libraries can recommend relevant books, journals, and academic resources based on readers' borrowing history and search records, improving readers' information acquisition efficiency and satisfaction. at the same time, libraries can use artificial intelligence technology to provide intelligent question-and-answer services, helping readers quickly solve query problems. the application of intelligent technologies not only improves the efficiency of library management but also provides more precise and efficient academic services for readers.thirdly, social and collaborative services are an important part of the innovation in university library service models. in the information age, the demand for academic exchange and knowledge sharing is increasing. university libraries should promote the construction of academic communities through the establishment of social platforms and collaboration tools. through online academic social platforms, libraries can facilitate knowledge interaction and cooperation between different disciplines and fields, helping scholars, researchers, and students share research results and discuss academic issues. additionally, libraries can organize online seminars, academic lectures, and salons to enhance interaction with readers, strengthen the academic atmosphere, and increase their academic influence.moreover, innovative service environments and open sharing are important strategies for promoting the innovation of university library management and service models. libraries should strengthen the construction of intelligent environments and improve the level of service facilities. for example, by utilizing internet of things (iot) technology, libraries can implement self-service borrowing and returning, intelligent navigation, environmental regulation, and other functions, improving reader convenience and comfort. meanwhile, libraries should actively promote the sharing of open resources, especially the construction of open access (oa) platforms. by collaborating with global academic resource repositories and public platforms, libraries can facilitate the free circulation of academic resources, breaking down regional and disciplinary barriers, and providing readers with richer academic resources and research tools.lastly, management innovation in libraries should focus on talent development and organizational structure optimization. in the digital age, libraries need to have versatile professionals who can master both information technology and traditional library management knowledge. therefore, libraries should strengthen staff training to improve their capabilities in information technology application and digital management. at the same time, the organizational structure of libraries should adapt to the needs of digital development, optimizing management processes to improve decision-making efficiency and execution. through optimizing human resource allocation and adjusting organizational structure, libraries can better meet the development needs of the digital age and enhance overall service levels.in conclusion, the innovation of management and service models in university libraries is a systematic project that requires comprehensive advancement in areas such as digital transformation, intelligent services, social interaction, resource sharing, and management optimization. by constructing a comprehensive digital resource platform, intelligent service systems, and an open, shared academic environment, university libraries can not only improve resource utilization and service quality but also promote the deeper development of academic research. in the future, university libraries will place greater emphasis on the combination of technological innovation and user hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 85 published by ideas spread needs, becoming important support platforms for knowledge dissemination, academic collaboration, and innovative development[10]. 5. conclusion the arrival of the digital age has brought unprecedented opportunities and challenges to university libraries. driven by technologies such as digital transformation, intelligent services, personalized recommendations, and open sharing, the management and service models of university libraries are continuously innovating, gradually becoming more intelligent, convenient, and efficient. these innovations not only enhance the efficiency of resource utilization but also promote academic exchange and knowledge sharing. in the future, university libraries should continue to deepen their information-based construction, strengthen technology applications and service innovations, and create smarter, more efficient, and personalized service platforms to meet the increasingly diverse needs of teachers, students, and researchers, thereby advancing the development of academic research and knowledge dissemination. references [1] okunlaya, r. o., abdullah, n. s., & alias, r. a. (2022). artificial intelligence (ai) library services innovative conceptual framework for the digital transformation of university education. library hi tech, 40(6), 18691892. https://doi.org/10.1108/lht-07-2021-0242 [2] lee, p.-c. (2021). technological innovation in libraries. library hi tech, 39(2), 574-601. https://doi.org/10.1108/lht-07-2020-0163 [3] keshavarz, h., & norouzi, y. (2022). a maturity model for digital information management in university libraries: a design science study. international information & library review, 54(4), 299-314. https://doi.org/10.1080/10572317.2021.2022388 [4] khan, a. u., imran, m., akhtar, t., sarfraz, m., & khan, a. a. (2023). determining the impact of technological modernization and management capabilities on user satisfaction and trust in library services. global knowledge, memory and communication, 72(6/7), 593-611. https://doi.org/10.1108/gkmc-06-2021-0095 [5] etebu, a. t., & zacchaeus, c. m. (2020). innovative library services (ils) in nigeria: challenges and way forward. international journal of research and innovation in social science, 4(7), 87–94. [6] singha, a., & das, r. k. (2021). redesigning librarianship in the digital era: a theoretical model for academic libraries. international journal of creative research thoughts, 9(12), 1499–1506. [7] qian, x., liu, y., & wang, x. (2020). application research on service innovation and entrepreneurship education in university libraries and archives. international journal of computational science and engineering, 22(1), 96-106. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijcse.2020.107258 [8] gunapala, m., kessy, e., & thomas, j. (2020). managing change in university libraries in the 21st century: an australian perspective. journal of the australian library and information association, 69(2), 191-214. https://doi.org/10.1080/24750158.2020.1756598 [9] mabunda, t. t., & du plessis, t. (2022). knowledge management as a change enabler in academic libraries in the digital age. south african journal of information management, 24(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajim.v24i1.1450 [10] rafi, m., ming, z. j., & ahmad, k. (2022). estimation of the knowledge management model for performance measurement in university libraries. library hi tech, 40(1), 239-264. https://doi.org/10.1108/lht-11-20190225 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n1p73 73 published by ideas spread a brief discussion on the impact and coping strategies of performance anxiety in music major college students yulu xu1, shuheng yin1, nuo xu1 & baiyan du1 1 college of teacher education, quzhou university, china correspondence: baiyan du, college of teacher education, quzhou university, quzhou, 324003, zhejiang, china. e-mail: 32076 qzc.edu.cn received: january 16, 2025; accepted: february 13, 2025; published: february 14, 2025 abstract music performance anxiety is the stress musicians experience during stage performances. this study employs literature analysis to reveal the manifestations of music performance anxiety, the primary factors causing it, its impacts, and specific measures for improvement. given that performance anxiety is commonly experienced by music major students, it is primarily caused by factors such as perfectionistic personality traits, social anxiety, past performance experiences, and personal musicality. music performance anxiety can directly or indirectly affect performers both physiologically and psychologically. physiologically, it is mainly manifested through symptoms such as muscle tension, trembling hands and feet, nausea, and increased heart rate. psychologically, it often results in diminished self-esteem, memory loss, and feelings of repression and depression. to alleviate performance anxiety in music major students, this paper proposes strategies such as cultivating a positive performance attitude, accumulating stage experience, and preparing adequately before performances. additionally, external methods such as professional treatment and teacher support and encouragement can assist students in overcoming performance anxiety, enhancing their stage confidence, and achieving better performance outcomes. keywords: music education, music psychology, music performance, performance anxiety 1. introduction music performance anxiety refers to the negative emotions, such as tension, fear, and worry, experienced by performers during the music performance process. to some extent, such emotions can hinder the ability to complete a performance or to showcase the performer’s true level of skill. while music performance anxiety is a symptom specific to certain music professionals, studies indicate that the primary group affected by performance anxiety is music major students. according to britsch (2005), music performance anxiety is widespread, with up to 75% of music students exhibiting symptoms of anxiety. wesner, moyes, and davis (1990) conducted a study targeting music faculty and students in the united states, revealing that 21% of both faculty and students experienced music performance anxiety with severe symptoms, 40% reported moderate anxiety, and 17% felt moderately impacted by the anxiety. furthermore, 9% of faculty and students stated that performance anxiety often led them to avoid performing music, and 13% reported that their actual performances were at least once interrupted by performance anxiety. zhang (2020) also conducted a similar survey and found that 12.7% of students reported severe music performance anxiety, 29% reported moderate anxiety, and 42% reported mild anxiety. only 3.2% of students claimed to have no performance anxiety at all. this data shows that a significant number of students report experiencing performance anxiety, though the severity varies. with over 40% reporting severe or moderate cases. among the various forms of performance, solo performances were perceived as the most anxiety-inducing, with 93.6% of respondents indicating higher levels of anxiety during solo or soloist performances, while only 6.4% of respondents found choral or ensemble performances to induce greater anxiety. this highlights that music major students tend to experience the highest levels of anxiety when performing solo. music performance anxiety is closely associated with situational anxiety and manifests as persistent anxiety. it is triggered by specific anxiety-inducing conditions and is accompanied by emotional, cognitive, physical, and behavioral symptoms. different researchers hold varying views on the nature of music performance anxiety. regarding the phenomenon of performance anxiety, researchers have proposed several suggestions for improvement. ba (2017) suggests that educators should adopt a supportive, encouragement-based educational philosophy, as the attitude of the teacher has a significant impact on the students. encouragement from teachers can help students form positive self-perceptions and alleviate anxiety, thereby enhancing the performance hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 74 published by ideas spread experience. xu (2017) argues that orff group counseling significantly alleviates the stage performance anxiety of music performers. the orff music therapy method, which uses effective musical media such as sound perception, bodily movement, performance experience, and verbal expression, strengthens normal psychological defense mechanisms, promotes the development of correct behavioral control, and supports the generation of healthy emotions and thoughts, ultimately helping to mitigate music performance anxiety. music performance anxiety (mpa) has a significant impact on musicians' careers and mental health, which cannot be overlooked. kenny (2011) pointed out in his research that long-term anxiety not only triggers physical symptoms such as muscle tension and fatigue, affecting performance abilities, but mpa may also reduce job satisfaction, further shortening career longevity. additionally, mpa is closely associated with mental health issues such as anxiety disorders and depression, and in more severe cases, it may develop into chronic psychological conditions. in summary, anxiety is a natural physiological response of the human body and a specific form of emotional expression. music performance anxiety is widespread among music professionals and music major students. although many studies have proposed various interventions for performance anxiety, further understanding of the causes of music performance anxiety is still required. this study aims to analyze the factors and impacts of performance anxiety among music major college students through literature analysis, and to propose relevant improvement strategies, with the goal of providing a theoretical foundation for further research in this area. therefore, this study proposes the following two research questions: research question 1: what are the main factors influencing performance anxiety among music major college students? research question 2: how should music major college students cope with performance anxiety? 2. main factors contributing to performance anxiety in music major college students anxiety is a unique and coherent cognitive-emotional structure within our defensive motivation system, centered around an uncontrollable feeling focused on future threats, dangers, or other potential negative events (barlow, 2000). there are various definitions of anxiety among different researchers. for instance, yan (2022) defines anxiety as always being associated with discomfort, threats, harm, and even abnormal or destructive feelings. people instinctively become vigilant and avoid anxiety, as severe anxiety negatively impacts physical and mental health. however, anxiety also serves as a self-protection mechanism, helping individuals avoid potential harm, and is an important regulatory process related to human evolution, which has adapted to defense mechanisms against natural enemies and environmental challenges. sullivan (1948), through numerous psychological therapy experiments, concluded that while anxiety is a painful experience, if individuals can effectively handle the anxiety within their personality, it may become an essential support for their personal growth. performance anxiety is a subtype of anxiety, characterized by stage fright. it refers to the excessive anxiety or even fear experienced by performers before and during performances. it is influenced by multiple factors, including personality traits and psychological health (zheng, 2009). ely (1991) defined performance anxiety as involving four types of symptoms: physiological changes, emotional changes, cognitive issues, and behavioral changes. physiological changes include symptoms such as accelerated heartbeat, cold sweats, shortness of breath, nausea, blurred vision, and numbness in the fingers. emotional changes mainly involve excessive fear, anxiety, low selfesteem, and fear of failure. cognitive issues refer to a loss of self-confidence, difficulty focusing, avoidance of social situations, and a lack of vitality and expressiveness in musical performance. behavioral changes may manifest as excessive sweating, trembling knees, etc. these changes further increase psychological pressure and fear of the stage, leading to more severe stage fright, thus creating a vicious cycle that worsens the performance state (lockwood, 1989). music performance anxiety is a widely existing emotion in the field of music performance, with various factors inducing this emotion. previous studies have categorized the main causes of music performance anxiety into several key factors.the highest proportion is respectively perfectionistic personality traits, social anxiety, past performance experiences, and personal musicality factors. 2.1 perfectionistic personality traits perfectionistic personality refers to an individual who sets high goals for themselves and strives to achieve them with utmost precision (li, song, li, 2007). burns (1983) considered perfectionism to be a negative, unidimensional personality trait, where individuals compulsively pursue unrealistic high standards and measure their self-worth by how well they meet those standards. jia (2023) highlighted that perfectionism, as a personality trait, is closely linked to anxiety emotions, with extreme self-requirements, fear of failure, and harsh self-criticism being the root hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 75 published by ideas spread causes of test anxiety. this suggests a strong connection between perfectionism and anxiety disorders. kenny (2004) found that perfectionism is closely tied to high levels of performance anxiety in music students, with perfectionists having higher levels of anxiety during performances. the reason for this is that perfectionists place excessive expectations on themselves, focus too much on small mistakes during performances, and tend to overlook their successes (wang, 2014).unlike anxiety triggered by perfectionist personality, performance anxiety caused by social anxiety stems more from excessive concern about others' evaluations, which is worthy of further exploration. 2.2 social anxiety social anxiety can generally be divided into two categories: general social anxiety, where individuals fear being the center of attention in any social situation and therefore avoid social settings, and specific social anxiety, which is fear experienced only in particular situations, such as those faced by salespeople, teachers, actors, and musicians. music performance anxiety is a specific manifestation of this type of social anxiety. music performances are public events where feedback and evaluation from others are crucial to the performer. tong and jiang (2023) noted that individuals with social anxiety often experience excessive fear regarding negative evaluations from others, leading them to avoid social interactions and experience self-deprecating anxiety. zhao (2018) proposed that many performers feel more anxious when an audience is present compared to when they are simply practicing alone. they tend to focus excessively on the potential outcomes of the performance, which leads to immense pressure and can result in performance failure. in addition to the impact of social anxiety, past performance experiences are also one of the significant sources of music performance anxiety. 2.3 past performance experiences studies have shown (salmon, schrodt, wright, 1989) that experienced performers are better at controlling their anxiety because they have accumulated more performance experience and view anxiety as a normal part of performing, rather than as a threat. performers with extensive piano experience typically maintain a stable state during performances and can regulate their anxiety in a positive manner. in contrast, music major students with limited experience often feel helpless when faced with anxiety (lv, 2015). as spielberger (1978) suggested, past similar experiences and the current situation often trigger the performer’s memories and directly influence their performance. the phenomenon of music performance anxiety triggered by past performance experiences is widespread, and even highly skilled musicians can be deeply affected by it. the renowned soprano maria callas, in the early stages of her career, experienced prolonged performance anxiety after a mistake during one of her performances, which caused her significant distress. however, callas did not succumb to this pressure. she devoted extensive time to refining her vocal techniques and sought professional psychological guidance to rebuild her confidence. ultimately, she overcame her anxiety and, through her exceptional artistry and expressive power, became a legendary figure in the history of opera. based on research on musical performance anxiety triggered by past performance experiences, the impact of personal musicality factors on performance anxiety is also worthy of in depth exploration. 2.4 personal musicality factors the level of music performance anxiety in college students is also influenced by certain musicality factors. chen (2023) stated that the more thoroughly a student prepares a piece, the more comfortable they will feel during the performance. conversely, inadequate preparation increases anxiety levels, leading to memory lapses and forgetting parts of the music, which impacts their ability to perform effectively. after long periods of piano training, performers develop conditioned reflexes that ensure the continuity and integrity of the performance, even in stressful situations (zhang, 2013). yang (2017) pointed out that for any music enthusiast or learner, memorizing the music is an essential part of musicality. only by memorizing the piece can a performer thoroughly understand the work and identify flaws they might not have noticed while reading the music, gradually improving their performance. in summary, music performance anxiety in college students is influenced by various factors, including personality traits such as perfectionism, social anxiety, past performance experiences, and personal musicality. understanding these factors is essential for developing effective interventions to help students manage and overcome performance anxiety. 3. the impact of music performance anxiety on music major college students music performance anxiety is not a rare phenomenon; it exists to varying degrees among performers at all levels. the impact of music performance anxiety can be broadly categorized into physiological and psychological effects. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 76 published by ideas spread 3.1 physiological impact on the physiological level, liu (2022) observed that the most common physiological symptoms experienced by performers before a performance include dizziness, trembling hands, dry mouth, muscle tension, sweaty palms, and dry heaving. when individuals are in a highly tense state, muscle tightness is one of the most common reactions, which can lead to performance mistakes. among professionals, string and percussion musicians are particularly vulnerable to these effects. additionally, in high-pressure performance situations, performers may experience an accelerated heart rate, which alters their perception of tempo and leads them to play faster than usual, making errors more likely (lehmann, 2007). performers may also experience self-doubt, overor under-evaluation of their performance, distracted attention, and memory loss. these symptoms can make it difficult for performers to concentrate, leading to forgetfulness of lyrics or music notation (liu, 2024). 3.2 psychological impact music performance anxiety also has a profound impact on the performer’s psychological state. psychological symptoms often include excessive worry, fear of failure, and generalized feelings of unidentifiable panic. these worries and concerns can lead to a loss of confidence in the performance, lack of focus, memory failure, and mental blankness (ely, 1991). performers may also experience negative emotions such as frustration, anger, selfdeprecation, sadness, depression, hopelessness, and an inability to initiate change in their emotional state (ren, 2008). the psychological pressure caused by performance anxiety can lead to significant performance failures during the actual event, severely diminishing the quality of the performance. in summary, music performance anxiety has significant effects on both the physiological and psychological wellbeing of performers. physiologically, it can trigger autonomic nervous responses such as increased heart rate, muscle tension, and trembling hands, which may lead to forgetfulness and overall performance failure. psychologically, performers may lose confidence, experience self-doubt and feelings of inadequacy, and struggle to perform effectively, which in turn can affect their daily life. music performance anxiety is a negative psychological state that arises during public performances and requires attention from music performers. actively addressing and overcoming these negative emotions is crucial for approaching each performance with the best possible mental state. 4. coping strategies for performance anxiety based on the causes of performance anxiety, including perfectionistic personality traits, past performance experiences, and personal musicality factors, corresponding strategies can be applied to alleviate performance anxiety. these strategies are aimed at addressing the identified factors that contribute to the anxiety experienced by music performers. 4.1 addressing perfectionism perfectionism is a commonly mentioned and widely recognized factor in performance anxiety. on one hand, perfectionism can drive performers to improve continually, providing motivation for progress; however, on the other hand, it often leads to heightened anxiety, which negatively impacts both the performer’s performance and daily life. to mitigate the negative anxiety associated with perfectionism, several effective methods can be employed. first, it is important to understand and accept perfectionism as a natural tendency, which everyone may experience to some extent. rather than worrying excessively about it, performers should focus on leveraging the benefits of perfectionism—such as motivation and attention to detail—while avoiding letting it hinder their overall performance. second, cultivating a proper attitude towards performances and setting realistic goals are essential. performers should not set overly stringent expectations for themselves during a performance. instead, they should approach each performance with seriousness and dedication, allowing them to focus entirely on the music rather than being overwhelmed by anxiety. by maintaining a balanced perspective on performance expectations, performers can reduce the impact of anxiety and engage more fully with the music. 4.2 gaining stage experience stage experience plays a crucial role in the success of a performance. zhang (2021) observed that performers lacking sufficient experience often experience intense anxiety in the final stages of a performance. one of the most effective ways to manage this anxiety is to practice in an environment that promotes calmness, such as in rehearsal spaces, professional concert halls, or backstage rooms of music venues. additionally, previous stage experience not only helps performers understand their physical responses and emotional fluctuations but also boosts their confidence. by observing and documenting their experiences of anxiety in different performances, performers can build a positive self-image through successful performances, thus increasing their self-assurance. this growing hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 77 published by ideas spread confidence allows them to handle nervousness more effectively in future performances, enabling them to express their talents more fully (liu, 2024). therefore, participating in smaller performances, music competitions, and organizing musical events can provide invaluable experience that helps prepare performers for larger stage events. 4.3 improving musical skills and technique overcoming performance anxiety is closely tied to performers confronting their own technical proficiency. xu (2017) emphasized that a performer’s skill level significantly impacts their psychological state. to perform with ease during music performances, it is essential to improve through diversified technical training, mastering the techniques and methods of musical performance. this approach will help performers address the more challenging aspects of music performance, enhancing their control and expressiveness. additionally, strong musical memory is essential for a successful performance. learning to memorize music properly helps performers establish a positive self-feedback mechanism, which enables them to recognize weaknesses and adjust promptly. gradually, this process builds confidence, allowing performers to deliver a smoother, more confident performance on stage, which can greatly reduce performance anxiety. although music performance anxiety is a common psychological barrier for performers, the application of effective coping strategies can alleviate the anxiety, enabling performers to perform with confidence and achieve their ideal performance outcomes.while mpa remains a challenge for many students, with proper training, mental strategies, and support, performers can learn to channel their anxiety into artistic expression rather than fear. 5. conclusion future research on performance anxiety (mpa) among music major college students can integrate cross cultural comparisons, neuroscience, and technology assisted interventions to explore the physiological mechanisms and long term impacts of anxiety. meanwhile, efforts should be made to promote early prevention and interdisciplinary collaboration, translate research findings into practical policies, provide comprehensive mental health support for music major students, and facilitate their career development and artistic growth.despite the insights gained in this study, there are some limitations. first, this research relies on a literature analysis method, which may restrict the scope of the findings. second, the theoretical framework of the study is limited, as most existing research on music performance anxiety is grounded in common psychological theories, such as behavioral cognitive theory and psychology. however, the causes of performance anxiety may span across various disciplines, such as medicine and neuroscience. therefore, future studies could adopt survey analysis methods or incorporate interdisciplinary approaches to explore the causes of music performance anxiety more comprehensively. this would enhance the applicability and generalizability of research findings. references ba, y. (2017). the brief analysis of mongolian "morin khuur" performance characteristics and performance anxiety (master's thesis). shanghai conservatory of music. barlow, d. h. (2000). unraveling the mysteries of anxiety and its disorders from the perspective of emotion theory. american psychologist, 55(11), 1249. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.11.1247 britsch, l. (2005). investigating performance-related problems of young musicians. medical problems of performing artists, 20, 40–47. https://doi.org/10.21091/mppa.2005.1007 burns, d. d. (1983). the spouse who is a perfectionist. medical aspects of human sexuality, 17(3), 219–230. chen, y. z. (2023). a comprehensive study to alleviate vocal performance anxiety (master's thesis). shanghai conservatory of music. https://doi.org/10.27319/d.cnki.gsyyy.2023.000226 ely, m. c. (1991). stop performance anxiety. music educators journal, 79(2), 35–39. jia, w. j. (2023). the influence of perfectionism on test anxiety of junior middle school students: the mediation of psychological resilience and curriculum intervention (master's thesis). shihezi university. https://doi.org/10.27332/d.cnki.gshzu.2023.001046 kenny, d. t., davis, p., & oates, j. (2004). music performance anxiety and occupational stress amongst opera chorus artists and their relationship with state and trait anxiety and perfectionism. journal of anxiety disorders, 18(6), 757–777. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2003.09.004 lehmann, c., sloboda, j. a., & woody, r. h. (2007). psychology for musicians: understanding and acquiring the skills. oxford university press. li, j. w., song, g. w., & li, f. 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(2008). investigation and study on the satisfaction level and social interaction anxiousness to students in normal colleges and universities (master's thesis). southwest university. salmon, p., schrodt, r., & wright, j. (1989). a temporal gradient of anxiety in a stressful performance context. medical problems of performing artists, 4(2), 77–80. retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/45440201 spielberger, c. d. (1978). examination stress and test anxiety. in c. d. spielberger & i. g. sarason (eds.), stress and anxiety (vol. 5, pp. 167–191). hemisphere. sullivan, h. s. (1948). the meaning of anxiety in psychiatry and life. psychiatry, 2(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/00332747.1948.11022666 tong, l. f., & jiang, y. z. 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(2017). “stones from other hills”: translations and literature studies on memorizing music and music performance anxiety (master's thesis). tianjin conservatory of music. zhang, q. q. (2013). affect our children's piano performance anxiety related factors in the formation and countermeasures (master's thesis). northeast normal university. zhang, s. y. (2020). a correlational study of guilt/shame proneness and music performance anxiety (master's thesis). central china normal university. https://doi.org/10.27159/d.cnki.ghzsu.2020.003117 zhang, y. x. (2021). tension and anxiety in piano stage performance and its countermeasures—take schubert's impromptu op. 142 no. 3 as an example (master's thesis). shanxi university. zhao, y. q. (2018). measurement and attribution of acting anxiety of vocal music majors in colleges (master's thesis). central china normal university. zheng, h. (2009). the stage anxiety of the art students and its influencing factors. journal of yi bin university, 9(11), 117–119. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n5p1 1 published by ideas spread gendered class struggles and marxist feminist interventions: an analytical discussion rita ndonibi1, faith ben-daniels1 & sola owonibi2 1 akenten appiah-menka university of skills development and entrepreneurial development, kumasi, ghana 2 adekunle ajasin university, akungba akoko, nigeria correspondence: rita ndonibi, akenten appiah-menka university of skills development and entrepreneurial development, kumasi, ghana. e-mail: ritandonibi@yahoo.com, faithbd41@gmail.com, solaowonibi@gmail.com received: may 20, 2025; accepted: july 30, 2025; published: august 4, 2025 abstract in african societies, the class struggle cannot be separated from the gendered realities of colonial legacies, patriarchal societies, and capitalist systems. women are the essential carriers of unpaid reproductive labour, including taking care of families and administering homes, whereas men experience enormous psychological and economic pressures to be the providers. this paper examines how class and gender intersect to perpetuate inequalities among both men and women, utilising marxist feminism as the analytical framework. drawing on african literary texts such as lauretta ngcobo’s and they didn’t die, ukamaka olisakwe’s ogadinma, and femi osofisan’s morountodun, the study examines how the lived experiences of exploitation and resilience are portrayed in literature and reflect real social conditions. the analysis also combines statistics and policy-related knowledge to strengthen the argument for radical interventions. the recommendations include acknowledging and compensating unpaid work, revising gender-based workplace rules, and addressing the culture of toxic masculinity through education and community initiatives. drawing on theoretical reflection, literary analysis, and substantive suggestions, this paper proposes an intersectional reconsideration of justice: changing the conception so that class and gender are not viewed in isolation from one another but are instead viewed as interacting forces that have to be addressed simultaneously in order to see any genuine chance of success. keywords: capitalist, equity, gendered class struggle, intersectionality, marxist, feminism, reproductive labour, patriarchy, social justice 1. introduction karl marx has notably referred to the world as a battle of two classes between the bourgeoisie, who control the means of production, and the proletariat, who have to sell their labour to earn their livelihood. this concept of class struggle has remained central to the interpretation of exploitation within the structure of capitalism, as the commodification of labour and the simultaneous production of profit are carried out through unequal trade between capital and labour. however, while marx's theory conjectures the economic essence of capitalist domination, it has failed to account for situations where gender influences the exploitation of classes. class conflicts also assume highly gendered forms in most situations, mostly among african societies that are highly influenced by colonial experiences, patriarchal societies, and neoliberal economies. this paper contends that the traditional model of class antagonism should be broadened to include gender as a fundamental aspect in the study of scholarship. marxist feminism (mf) fills this gap, allowing for a dual critique of both capitalism and patriarchy. it demonstrates how women's unpaid labour within the domestic sphere is used to sustain the capitalist economy by reproducing the workforce, while simultaneously denying women their wages, power, and autonomy (federici, 2018; weeks, 2020). additionally, it examines the influence of societal notions of masculinity on men and how these ideals lead them into harmful, risk-taking roles as breadwinners, as dictated by the hegemonic masculinity ideology (connell & messerschmidt, 2005). the african context provides a crucial setting for examining these gendered class dynamics. colonial legacies introduced capitalist labour stratifications in most countries on the continent, but they also strengthened and reinforced existing patriarchal norms. post-independence economic liberalisation processes, which focused more on privatisation and scaling back the delivery of public services, contributed to the exacerbation of these systems, playing out unfairly for women (fraser, 2020; mama, 2011). however, up to this day, african women continue to be unequally burdened with unpaid reproductive work, subsistence agriculture, and informal work, which is not hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 2 published by ideas spread included in such national economic indicators as gdp (ilo, 2020). meanwhile, plenty of working-class african men are stuck in sweatshops, manual labour, and low-paid jobs with few economic guarantees, pressured to be the most masculine of masculine (with the characteristics of masculinity being more of a curse than a gift). the paper addresses the following question: how do gendered class struggles manifest in postcolonial african societies, and how can marxist feminism help illuminate and address them? to answer this, the paper is structured around three core aims: 1. theoretically, it clarifies how marxist feminism conceptualises class and gender as intersecting forms of oppression. 2. empirically, it draws on african literature and statistical data to illustrate how class-based and gendered inequalities operate in african societies. 3. practically, it proposes feminist policy interventions for addressing these inequalities, focusing on unpaid work recognition, labour reforms, and gender-conscious social policy. african literature works are central to this analysis, serving not just as stories but as commentaries on sociopolitical life in africa. the novels, like and they didn't die by lauretta ngcobo (1990), ogadinma by ukamaka olisakwe (2020), and morountodun by femi osofisan (1982), offer powerful illustrations of gendered labour exploitation, political marginalisation, and the weight of patriarchal expectations. in ngcobo's narrative, jezile is subjected to unpaid care work and agrarian labour in apartheid south africa, highlighting the economic invisibility of women. a culture of obedience and economic dependence, alongside institutional neglect in ogadinma, renders ogadinma’s character de-autonomous. conversely, male characters created by osofisan demonstrate that even men, especially those from working classes, are victims of capitalist labour regimes and the demands of dominance that impair their emotional and physical well-being. these literary descriptions confirm what kimberlé crenshaw (1991) has described as intersectionality, a concept that posits identities (e.g., gender, class, race) interact in a way that creates specific, compounding modes of oppression. when transferring marxist feminism to an african setting, it allows viewing the ways through which systems of economic exploitation are perpetuated not only by the regimes of class stratification but also by the rules and norms of gender and social expectations. the final section of this paper utilises the thinking of the marxist feminist in proposing practical policy steps based on that thinking. these are (1) inclusion of the unpaid work index (uwi) in national economic planning in order to acknowledge household labour, (2) equal treatment of equal labour by labour laws, and (3) developing educational curricula and reshaping men and gender roles. not only is the presumed idealistic, but such interventions will also provide practical solutions based on feminist theory and the african experience. 2. gendered class struggles in economic contexts in african economies, economic inequality is not a shared experience, as it is gendered, structured, and tied to deep-rooted systems of patriarchy and capitalism. although both women and men are exploited by classes, the burdens they bear are becoming dissimilar because of their positioning. women, especially in rural and lowincome environments, often hold the most unpaid, hazardous, and least recognised jobs within the workforce. these include domestic labour, informal trade, small-scale farming, and care work, which are all forms of labour critical to the functioning of the society but are systematically underestimated and thus not accounted for in gross domestic product (gdp) (ilo, 2020). in sub-saharan africa, women spend, on average, 3.4 times as many hours as men on unpaid domestic and care work (idrc, 2023). this includes childcare, cooking, fetching water, caring for the elderly, and housekeeping. silvia federici (2018) has expressed the view that this is unpaid labour in reproductive activities that underpin capitalistic accumulation. it restores the labour force both in one day and from generation to generation, maintaining the process of wage labour. however, the women who perform this labour are still outside the realm of the official economy. bhattacharya (2017) extends this criticism further, highlighting that the factory floor is not the only space where capitalism exists, but rather a space that extends into the home through activities such as cooking, cleaning, emotional support, and unpaid nurturing. these economic mechanics are further supported by the cultural norms prevalent in most african societies, which typically assign almost all domestic chores to women. rural african women, in particular, often face a “double burden” of caring for their children and elderly relatives while also engaging in low-paid or unpaid agricultural work. in uganda, nearly 27% of registered land is owned by women, yet 70% of the women are engaged in hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 3 published by ideas spread agriculture, and surprisingly, less than 20% control outputs of their efforts (care, uganda, 2016). this results in women being economically incapacitated, dependent, and politically marginalised without access to land or capital. this marginalisation is both practical and mental: it reinforces the idea that women's work is secondary or auxiliary, rather than primary. these injustices are vividly portrayed through literature on the african continent. in the novel and they didn’t die, written by lauretta ngcobo (1990), the main character, jezile, engages in both productive and reproductive labour: by day she serves on colonial farms, and by night she serves in the home. her financial contribution is often hidden, and her independence is limited by laws that do not grant her property rights, freedom of movement, or opportunities for paid work. to prove her point, federici argues that women’s work is “appropriated by the state, by capital, and by men.” similarly, ukamaka olisakwe’s ogadinma (2020) presents a modern urban example of gendered economic dependence. patriarchal control, economic manipulation, and a lack of agency shape ogadinma's life. she is denied an education, economically abused by her father, and finally bullied into a marriage of abuse in the name of “family honour.” her story reflects the mental and economic impacts of women being deprived of financial freedom and location mobility. however, it does not have to be only women subjected to the pressures of gendered capitalism. working-class and poor men, in turn, are trapped by their own version of capitalist bondage, created by what has come to be known as hegemonic masculinity, a group of norms by which the ideals of manhood and its relationship to money, power, dominance, and emotional coldness are all defined (connell & messerschmidt, 2005). men are commonly pulled into these desolate, low-wage jobs in mining, building, and long-distance transport, with physical risk institutionalised and emotional sensitivity pushed under stigma. in femi osofisan’s play morountodun (1982), men trapped in situations that exploit them find their efforts useless and are reduced to mere cogs in the economic machine. they are driven to engage in strikes, resistance, or violence, not only for political reasons but as a last-ditch assertion of masculinity in a system that dehumanises them. osofisan demonstrates that men are also victims of capitalist logic that measures their worth by their productivity, strength, and ability to provide. the play dismantles the idea that patriarchy is equally advantageous to all men; instead, it highlights how class and gender together expose male workers to systematic abuse, burnout, and disillusionment in a system that offers no real promise. economic oppression against men can be more hidden, as it is regarded as acceptable under these societal norms of what men are supposed to do. as fraser (2020) puts it, capitalism logically takes advantage of both masculine and feminine positions because women do most of the housework unpaid, on the one hand, and it exploits the overwork and sacrifice of men who get wages, on the other. these sex-based economic burdens are no abstraction; they are in the daily figures. in kenya, women receive 30% less pay than men for performing similar tasks in the informal economy (bda, 2023). on average, men in south africa earn around r7,500 per month, compared to women at r4,800 (stats sa, 2020). women are kept in the box of economic invisibility, even despite being very productive individuals in the country, yet on the other hand, the men are forced to live with impractical standards. table 1. gendered economic roles in african contexts labor type predominant gender average pay (if any) societal value risk level domestic work women unpaid low low informal market trading women low medium medium caregiving (children/elderly) women unpaid low medium agriculture (subsistence) women minimal medium high mining, construction men medium-high high high transport & logistics men medium high high source: author’s construct (2025) hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 4 published by ideas spread 3. social and political marginalisation through a gendered lens 3.1 educational exclusion and gender norms in african societies, educational inequality is a dominant element of social marginalisation among women and girls of working and rural classes. the right to education should not be based solely on financial constraints; in many instances, a deeply ingrained expectation may even govern access to education. in a substantial number of low-income families, particularly those having difficulties with food security or families utilising child labour, boys are often the ones who have priority to educational resources in short supply. girls, however, are not supposed to be left behind; they are to help with caregiving, domestic duties, and even unofficial income-generating acts like petty trade or farming. such expectations have been gendered and are part of a larger social script that locates women. according to torso (2024), in uganda, only 39% of women have progressed to secondary school compared to 49% of men, revealing how economic class and cultural norms intersect to disadvantage females from marginalised communities. gender inequality in access to education extends beyond the classroom in numerous ways. according to lloyd and young (2009), the high rates of early dropout among most girls in poor household settings can be linked to girls' domestic duties, early marriage, and the societal tendency to de-prioritise girls' education. similarly, vanwyk (2015) highlights that girls from low-income families in africa are less likely to complete primary school, especially in sub-saharan regions. these findings illustrate how poverty and patriarchy interact to create an environment where young women lack the social mobility and empowerment that education can provide. without proper education, women have fewer opportunities to access skilled jobs, participate in civic life, or oppose oppressive societal systems. in practice, exclusion from education sustains a cycle of dependence, inferiority, and invisibility in both economic and political domains. this theme of educational disenfranchisement is well captured in the literature on the african continent. the aspect of having little contact with formal education and intellectual independence in purple hibiscus (2003) by chimamanda ngozi adichie is not deficient solely because of economic poverty, but also because of the disabling form of authority that her father exercises, a type of authority that centres on religious fealty and patriarchal manipulation. the novel is an indictment of the way the personal hierarchies within families are reflected in the institutional hierarchy of the oppression of women. instead, in half of a yellow sun (2006), adichie introduces female characters in a world where people interact, and women experience the intersection of class, gender, and war as a socio-political insecurity, facing over-represented educational and career-related losses. these literary discourses highlight the fact that education is not merely a scholastic undertaking; it is a form of politics in which gendered class disparities are created, sustained, and sometimes challenged. the impact of educational exclusion extends beyond the immediate. the long-term consequences include women’s overall failure to enter knowledge economies, participate in the governance of institutions, and escape cycles of poverty within their communities. without basic literacy, women are denied not only access to classrooms but also a place in history-making spaces. this institutionalised exclusion underpins broader political and civic brutality, which should be recognised not merely as a developmental issue but as a matter of social justice. 3.2 political disenfranchisement of women inextricably tied with the education gap is the fact that even with the ushering of democracy in several african countries, women are still being sidelined politically; this is despite the existence of affirmative action policies. although the efforts by some countries, such as rwanda and south africa, to enhance the representation of women in parliaments have been successful due to the mandates contained in their constitutions, most of sub-saharan africa still records massive gender gaps in political leadership. as of 2024, gender links (2024) states that women hold 26% of seats in lower houses and 21% in upper houses, averaging 25% overall across the continent. the situation is not only a numerical underrepresentation issue; it lies in the exclusionary character of postcolonial political regimes that recreate the patriarchal and colonial logic of leaders. according to amina mama (2011), the structure of african political institutions has historically favoured elite, male-led leadership and effectively ignored the voices of women, both in formal and informal aspects of cultural life. when women hold government positions, they are often relegated to ceremonial or what can be called "soft power" roles, where they have little to no influence on fundamental national policy. moreover, women living or working in working-class or rural areas face even greater challenges in becoming candidates, including a lack of political mentorship, campaign funds, and community support. these obstacles are compounded by cultural ideologies that perceive aggressive women as unfeminine or sometimes dangerous, thereby discouraging their participation and perpetuating political inequality. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 5 published by ideas spread this denial is portrayed in african literature, most especially in and they didn't die by lauretta ngcobo (1990), whereby the main character, jezile, is constantly denied agency by both the apartheid government and her own patriarchal society. the fact that jezile was sent to prison because of travelling out without permission from her husband says it all as to how mobility is controlled in both political and personal aspects of patriarchal power. even after her resilience and activism, she is still left out of mainstream political platforms, thus indicating a combination of structural oppression and gender, which disempower women and, in particular, those in the poor rural areas. the story of ngcobo is a critique of both the colonial state and indigenous power structures, where people do not have equal access to participating in the work of political struggle, even in efforts toward liberation. exclusion of women in political life translates to policy settings that do not focus on their agendas, including maternal health, labour rights in the home setting, and cases of gender-based violence. there are needs of women that are often overlooked when they are not part of the decision-making process or are considered secondary needs. this further intensifies gender inequality, and it corrupts democratic representation. therefore, political disenfranchisement can be described as both an outcome and a contributor to wider injustice in society, which further creates a system of exclusion unless actively unravelled. 3.3 working-class men and misrecognised masculinities while in patriarchal systems, men are given an advantageous and beneficial position under these systems, not everything is accorded the same privilege because it has its issues. in african contexts, masculinity is transformed into a platform of struggle among the working-class men who are exposed to socio-economic deprivation and institutional indifference. such hegemonic masculinity, as connell and messerschmidt (2005) have identified as idealised manhood, where a man who has more control, provides economically, and is stoic, is called upon to bear enormous psychological and social pressures that are inaccessible to poor men. the inability to provide, in a hopeless scenario where masculinity is closely connected with wealth and power, is a creator of humiliation, social isolation, and even violence. such a contradiction can be well demonstrated in the literature, especially in morountodun by femi osofisan, where there is also a struggle on the part of the male characters to balance the exploitative demands of capitalist labour and to retain their traditional provider roles. in the play, men are depicted as working under harsh and inhuman conditions; they labour in mines, factories, or on plantations, but even their income is insufficient to satisfy societal needs. these men find themselves in a situation where their economic usefulness is used to define their gender, and failure is a crisis. this makes it problematic to assume that men are always advantaged when it comes to patriarchy, wherein ratele (2013) argues that poor men are usually disadvantaged in a hierarchy that awards those who have elite masculinities and disfavors class-lacking men. furthermore, these stereotypical images of working-class men are reinforced by popular culture and media, which often portray a working man as either lazy or unemotional. these images are distorted by structural constraints that shape their behaviour and explain why they still lack access to policy and leadership arenas. for example, poverty alleviation or inclusion programmes rarely consider the specific vulnerabilities of poor men and tend to operate on a binary paradigm where female victimhood and male privilege are the only concepts. this erasure results in a gendered form of neglect, leaving working-class men without institutional support and subjecting them to cycles of unemployment, substance abuse, and domestic instability. therefore, women, as well as working-class men, are consistently excluded from the social contract, but in different ways. they are marginalised because of their economic class, but also due to limited definitions and expectations of gender roles, which are centred on elite interests. this dual exclusion should be considered when designing inclusive social policies, as these should also promote equity without reinforcing negative stereotypes. 3.4 intersectionality and structural reform to analyse social and political marginalisation as gendered, a model must exist that allows the mapping of intersecting and mutually supporting models of oppression. it becomes necessary to go beyond individual criticisms of sexism or poverty to understand how these phenomena overlap and intersect. here, it is crucial to discuss the concept of intersectionality as provided by kimberle crenshaw (1991). crenshaw argues that identities like race, gender, and class do not exist in isolation but overlap to produce compounded experiences of disadvantage. the working-class woman in the african context is not necessarily poor or female; she embodies both, and the interaction of these characteristics determines the precise contours of her exclusion. intersectionality enables us to avoid having to discuss things in black or white terms and instead embrace the way in which systems of patriarchy, capitalism, colonial legacy, and cultural norms interact. an example is a rural teenage female in a conflict-prone territory, in the sense that not only is she marginalised in education because of hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 6 published by ideas spread her gender, but also more exposed to vulnerabilities because of her geographical isolation, poverty and political instability in the area. similarly, a working-class urban man can be discriminated against on the basis of gender to be a provider and yet marginalised in political action and even laws that protect such marginalised subjects because of his economic and social status. this model also redefines feminist and class-based interventions. one cannot simply include women in existing systems without modifying the systems to reflect women's realities. the focus on poverty is also insufficient if it neglects how gender roles contribute to the persistence of economic or social inequalities. intersectionality necessitates structural changes, policies, and practices that address the diversity of identities and inequalities prevalent in african societies. all education reform, political participation, labour law reform, and public voice should consider these points of connection. table 2. women's representation across governance sectors in africa (2024) sector africa east southern central north west lower houses of parliament 2024 26% (25%) 34% (33%) 29% (28%) 22% (19%) 22% (24%) 20% (16%) upper houses of parliament 2024 21% (20%) 34% (29%) 31% (29%) 28% (20%) 10% (11%) 7% (12%) parliament overall 2024 25% (24%) 34% (30%) 30% (29%) 23% (19%) 20% (21%) 19% (16%) political party leadership 2024 9% (12%) 11% (15%) 19% (16%) 0% (7%) 0% (0%) 0% (11%) election monitoring bodies 2024 30% (28%) 45% (45%) 39% (40%) 23% (20%) 15% (25%) 27% (27%) local government 2024 25% (21%) 24% (35%) 25% (20%) 24% (27%) 26% (3%) 28% (2%) speakers 2024 25% (21%) 44% (33%) 43% (35%) 17% (20%) 0% (0%) 16% (16%) mayors of capital cities 2024 29% (19%) 0% (0%) 20% (19%) 18% (20%) 17% (0%) 43% (20%) top executive positions 2024 15% (7%) 28% (12%) 21% (9%) 11% (7%) 0% (0%) 11% (7%) cabinet 2024 24% (22%) 36% (32%) 27% (26%) 18% (20%) 21% (13%) 21% (19%) source: genderlink (2024) key= increased since 2021 decreased since 2021 the same as 2021 4. african literature as a lens for gendered class struggles african literature can be seen as a powerful means of highlighting both gendered struggles and class-based conflicts in generation and location. in fiction, playwrights and novelists reveal how capitalism, patriarchy, and tradition combine to influence the lives of women and men, though generally in different yet overlapping ways. these pieces convey the literal and emotional cost of social stratification, displaying not only personal pain but also collective forms of resistance and resilience. the central character in and they didn't die by lauretta ngcobo, jezile, practices a multi-fold burden of economic and reproductive roles. she works on the farms of the whites in apartheid south africa, combines the domestic chores and child rearing, and evades the cultural confinements on women's autonomy. her work helps sustain the colonialist economy, just as it supports her community; this work is not only unpaid but also unrewarded. the case of jezile can be reduced to what silvia federici (2018) refers to as reproductive labour, which is essential work that is non-economic. even though the class systems exploit women like jezile, they are not merely exploited. however, they are also marginalised in gender roles since they are left out of decision-making and political roles by patriarchal rules. however, ngcobo tells the story where the struggles of women are not secluded. men, as well, are exposed to pressures regarding economic survival and masculine identity. the male characters in morountodun by femi osofisan are thrust to the front lines of the labour demonstration, where death, violence, and imprisonment are at stake. nevertheless, these men of privilege seek dignity and financial equity. these are not oppressors per se, but also victims of a system that only appreciates these men through their productivity. this can be particularly explained in terms of connell and messerschmidt's (2005) theory of hegemonic masculinity, which captures the process of socialising poor men in such a way that they display control and stoicism, despite being vulnerable to hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 7 published by ideas spread structural constraints. thus, osofisan does not create a paradox of male suffering against patriarchy but an offspring of it, with economically capitalist and patriarchal demands coming together to break the ground under the uneven-footed. an additional layer of complexity to this narrative is provided by ukamaka olisakwe's novel ogadinma, which raises the issue of generational and cyclical types of gendered oppression. similar to jezile, ogadinma is deprived of both educational and economic opportunities and forced to comply with the framework imposed by the family and society. her mother experiences a similar story that depicts how the disempowerment of women is not accidental but institutionalised. ogadinma does this just as jezile does; however, ogadinma can find her agency and, despite it all, starts resisting, which demonstrates what amina mama (2011) calls the subversive potential of women who challenge imposed roles through simple, mundane courage and disobedience. the connection between these stories is not that men and women experience suffering, but that their suffering is marked and compounded through overlapping systems of class and gender, as theorised by kimberlé crenshaw (1991). african literature brings these intersections to life, not just conceptually, but through vivid characters, social contexts, and powerful emotions. the compelling human characters of men created by jezile, ogadinma, and osofisan demonstrate that, as a common factor, class influences are weighted differently along gender lines. invisible, unpaid labour is often associated with women, while men bear the burden of work and provision. their loads are cumulative, yet they are not shared equally among them. notably, the stories also highlight unity and struggle. in and they didn't die, women unite against both the patriarch and the system of apartheid. in morountodun, women and men stand together against unjust labour systems, illustrating how class interests sometimes cross gender boundaries. these alliances demonstrate that the fight against exploitation does not need to be gender-specific; instead, it can be united through a shared humanity and a common drive for emancipation. 5. conclusion reconsidering the concepts of class and gender in an african context, this paper highlights how economic and patriarchal hierarchies are fundamentally interconnected and thus can determine the lives of all, including women and men. following the tradition of african literature, the paper has demonstrated that women are systematically subjected to devalued reproductive work and social subordination, and men, despite the apparent male privilege perpetuated by patriarchal authority, have to struggle with financial misery and the stress of living under the rule of masculine supremacy. viewed through a marxist feminist perspective, these overlapping oppressions not only become visible but are also reconfigured into structural inequalities that necessitate systemic remedies. as a result, the research promotes the introduction of policies that acknowledge and compensate unpaid care work, the extension of labour protection to informal economies, and the reshaping of education to challenge the stereotypes centred on gender. laws should be participatory and inclusive, such that the affected communities are involved in the development of the interventions. finally, social justice in african societies must entail a two-dimensional promise of both class justice and gender equality, as only this will lead to meaningful change in society, where everyone feels free to live with dignity, autonomy, and opportunity. author information name: ms rita ndonibi (ritandonibi@yahoo.com) institution: akenten appiah-menka university of skills development and entrepreneurial development, kumasi. name: prof. faith ben-daniels (faithbd41@gmail.com) institution: akenten appiah-menka university of skills development and entrepreneurial development, kumasi. name: prof. sola owonibi (solaowonibi@gmail.com) institution: adekunle ajasin university, akungba akoko, nigeria references adichie, c. n. (2003). purple hibiscus. algonquin books. adichie, c. n. (2006). half of a yellow sun. alfred a. knopf. bhattacharya, t. (ed.). (2017). social reproduction theory: remapping class, recentering oppression. pluto books. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1vz494j business daily africa. (2023, august 21). kenyan women doing the same jobs as men are paid 30% less than their male counterparts. https://www.businessdailyafrica.com/bd/economy/kenyan-women-doing-same-jobs-likemen-paid-30pc-less--4292272 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 8 published by ideas spread care uganda. (2016). land and property rights critical for women's empowerment: policy brief. https://careuganda.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/policy-brief_land-and-property-rights-critical-forwomen-empowerment.pdf connell, r. w., & messerschmidt, j. w. (2005). hegemonic masculinity: rethinking the concept. gender & society, 19(6), 829–859. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243205278639 crenshaw, k. w. (2013). mapping the margins: intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of colour. in the public nature of private violence (pp. 93–118). routledge. federici, s. (2018). re-enchanting the world: feminism and the politics of the commons. pm press. fraser, n. (2020). fortunes of feminism: from state-managed capitalism to neoliberal crisis. verso books. gender links. (2024). key highlights: women’s political participation in the africa barometer 2024. https://genderlinks.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/wpp-africa-keyhilites2024fin4.pdf lloyd, c. b., & young, j. (2009). new lessons: the power of educating adolescent girls. population council. https://www.popcouncil.org/uploads/pdfs/2009pgy_newlessons.pdf lokaneeta, j. (2011). transnational torture: law, violence, and state power in the united states and india. in transnational torture. new york university press. mama, a. (2011). what does it mean to do feminist research in african contexts? feminist review, 98(1_suppl), e4–e20. https://doi.org/10.1057/fr.2011.22 morrell, r., jewkes, r., lindegger, g., & hamlall, v. (2013). hegemonic masculinity: reviewing the gendered analysis of men's power in south africa. south african review of sociology, 44(1), 3–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/21528586.2013.784445 ngcobo, l. (1990). furthermore, they didn’t die. feminist press at cuny. olisakwe, u. (2020). ogadinma: or, everything will be all right. black spot books. osofisan, f. (1982). morountodun and other plays. longman nigeria. torsu, a. k. (2024, september 10). ugandan women still face barriers to equality in education, employment, and politics (afrobarometer dispatch no. 854). afrobarometer. https://www.afrobarometer.org/wpcontent/uploads/2024/09/ad854-ugandan-women-face-barriers-to-equality-afrobarometer-8sept24.pdf un women & international development research centre (idrc). (2023). care work and women’s empowerment in the low-carbon transition in west africa: advocacy brief. united nations. https://africa.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/202307/20230714_un%20women_idrc%20un%20women%20wd_eng_web%20pages.pdf van wyk, s. b. (2015). “it is hard work to be a girl": adolescent girls’ experiences of girlhood in three low-income communities in south africa [doctoral dissertation, stellenbosch university]. weeks, k. (2020). the problem with work: feminism, marxism, antiwork politics, and postwork imaginaries. duke university press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780822394723 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n1p53 53 published by ideas spread measurement of county relative poverty, spatial and temporal evolution and risk evaluation of return to poverty in shaanxi province under the perspective of rural revitalization ruixi wu1 1 xi'an international studies university business school, china correspondence: ruixi wu, xi'an international studies university business school, china. received: january 15, 2025; accepted: february 10, 2025; published: february 12, 2025 the project "measurement of relative poverty, spatio-temporal evolution, and risk assessment of returning to poverty in counties of shaanxi province from the perspective of rural revitalization" (project no.: s201410724089) was supported by the innovation and entrepreneurship training program for college students of xi'an international studies university. abstract against the background of rural revitalization, this study makes an in-depth analysis of the measure, evolution and the risk of returning to poverty in the counties of counties in shaanxi province. by combining quantitative and qualitative methods, a multi-dimensional evaluation index system of relative poverty was constructed, and spatial autocorrelation model and geographical weighted regression model were used to analyze the measurement and spatiotemporal evolution of relative poverty in 78 counties (cities) in shaanxi province between 2014 and 2023. furthermore, this study identified key influencing factors for the risk of returning to poverty and proposed targeted anti-poverty strategies. the results of this study show that the county relative poverty in shaanxi province showed significant spatial agglomeration characteristics and obvious regional differences. meanwhile, this study also found that factors such as education level, health conditions and industrial development had an important influence on the risk of returning to poverty. based on this, this research puts forward policy suggestions such as strengthening education and medical investment and promoting industrial diversification development, in order to provide scientific basis and decision support for realizing the strategic goal of rural revitalization in shaanxi province. keywords: rural revitalization, relative poverty, time and space evolution, risk of returning to poverty, shaanxi province 1. introduction with the acceleration of globalization and the rapid development of society and economy, poverty is still an important factor restricting the development of many countries and regions. especially in china, despite the battle against poverty in recent years, relative poverty still exists, and its complexity and diversity pose new challenges to the implementation of the rural revitalization strategy. as an important province in western china, its county economic development is unbalanced, and the poverty problem is particularly prominent. therefore, it is of great significance to deeply study the measure of county relative poverty, time and space evolution and the risk of returning to poverty in shaanxi province to formulate scientific and reasonable anti-poverty strategies and promote rural revitalization. this study aims to quantitatively analyze the relative poverty of counties in shaanxi province by using the spatial autocorrelation model and geographical weighted regression model, and reveal the characteristics of spatial and temporal evolution and the key influencing factors of the risk of returning to poverty. at the same time, according to the actual situation of shaanxi province, targeted anti-poverty strategies and policy suggestions are put forward to provide scientific basis for the government decision-making. relative poverty, as a concept relative to the social average, emphasizes the relative backwardness of individuals or families in their social and economic status. scholars at home and abroad have studied this extensively and developed various measurement methods, such as income ratio method, martin method and sen index, etc. these methods have their own advantages and disadvantages, but the common goal is to more accurately reflect the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 54 published by ideas spread actual economic situation and social welfare level of individuals or families. as a major decision and deployment for china to solve the problems of "agriculture, rural areas and farmers" and realize agriculture and rural modernization, the rural revitalization strategy has become the focus of scholars in recent years. they believe that rural revitalization will not only help solve the current poverty problem, but also fundamentally prevent the occurrence of returning to poverty by promoting the development of thriving industries, ecological livability, local customs and civilization, effective governance and a rich life. however, different regions face different challenges and opportunities when implementing the rural revitalization strategy, and they need to formulate anti-poverty strategies according to local conditions. spatial analysis techniques have important applications in poverty research. by using gis (geographic information system) and esda (spatial statistics), scholars can reveal the spatial distribution characteristics, agglomeration effects and causes of poverty phenomenon, identify high-risk areas of poverty, and provide scientific basis for the government to formulate precise anti-poverty policies. in recent years, more and more studies have begun to focus on the spatial heterogeneity and dynamic changes of relative poverty, providing new perspectives for the deep understanding of poverty problems. the return to poverty refers to the situation that the poverty-stricken households fall into poverty again due to various reasons, and its risks seriously affect the consolidation of the achievements of poverty alleviation and the implementation of the rural revitalization strategy. 2. theoretical analysis and research hypothesis 2.1 the concept of relative poverty relative poverty emphasizes the relative backwardness of individuals or families in their social and economic status, rather than just an income level below a certain absolute standard. the key to this concept is its relativity, in terms that the poverty state is relative to the social average. therefore, accurately measuring relative poverty requires a comprehensive consideration of multiple dimensions of economic and social indicators, such as income, education, health, quality of life, etc. commonly used measurement methods include income ratio method, martin method and sen index, which have advantages and disadvantages, but the common goal is to more accurately reflect the actual economic status and level of social well-being of individuals or families. 2.2 theory of spatial analysis in poverty research spatial analysis techniques have important applications in poverty research. gis (gis) and esda (spatial statistics) can reveal the spatial distribution characteristics, agglomeration effect and causes of poverty. these technologies can help identify high-risk areas of poverty and provide a scientific basis for the government to formulate precise anti-poverty policies. spatial analysis can also help to understand the heterogeneity and dynamic change of poverty problems, that is, poverty conditions may vary significantly in different regions and at different times, and these differences may be affected by multiple factors, such as geographical location, resource endowment, policy environment, etc. 2.3 theory of the risk of return to poverty and its influencing factors the return to poverty refers to the poverty-stricken households falling into poverty again due to various reasons. the existence of the risk of returning to poverty has seriously affected the consolidation of the achievements of poverty alleviation and the implementation of the rural revitalization strategy. scholars have analyzed the influencing factors of the risk of returning to poverty from many perspectives, including natural disasters, market fluctuations, family changes, health problems and so on. these factors interweave and work together to constitute a complex risk network of returning to poverty. therefore, it is particularly important to develop a comprehensive and systematic anti-poverty strategy, and it is necessary to comprehensively consider various potential risks, and take targeted measures to prevent them.based on the above theoretical analysis, the study makes the following assumptions: hypothesis 1: relative poverty has significant spatial heterogeneity due to the differences in economic development level, resource endowment and policy environment, it is reasonable to speculate that the performance of relative poverty will be different in different regions. that is, relative poverty has significant spatial heterogeneity, and this heterogeneity may be affected by many factors, such as geographical location, industrial structure, educational resources, etc. hypothesis 2: the risk of returning to poverty is influenced by multiple factors and is complex returning to poverty is a complex phenomenon, whose risk may be affected by a variety of factors, such as natural disasters, market fluctuations, family changes, health problems, etc. these factors interweave and work together to constitute a complex risk network of returning to poverty. therefore, it can be assumed that the risk of returning hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 55 published by ideas spread to poverty is affected by many factors and has complexity, that is, the contribution of different factors to the risk of return to poverty may differ, and there may be an interaction between them. hypothesis 3: spatial analysis techniques will help to identify areas at high risk of return to poverty spatial analysis technology can reveal the spatial distribution characteristics, agglomeration effect and causes of poverty, and help to identify high-risk areas of poverty. therefore, it can be assumed that spatial analysis technology is also helpful to identify high-risk areas of returning to poverty and provide a scientific basis for the government to formulate precise anti-poverty policies。 3. model specification. variable declaration 3.1 space autocorrelation model in this study used moran index (moran's i) to measure the spatial correlation of relative poverty in counties in shaanxi province. the moran index is a commonly used spatial statistic to assess the concentration of a property in space. by calculating the moran index in different years, we can reveal the distribution characteristics of relative poverty in space and its changing trend. 3.2 geographical-weighted regression model to further analyze the factors affecting relative poverty and their spatial heterogeneity, a geographic-weighted regression (gwr) model was introduced in this study. the gwr model allows regression coefficients to vary with geographic location, thus to capture spatial differences in factors affecting relative poverty. through the gwr model, variables with significant effects on relative poverty and spatial heterogeneity can be identified and used for the development of targeted anti-poverty strategies. 3.3 description of the variables explained variable: relative poverty index: as an explained variable, used to measure the relative poverty level of various counties in shaanxi province. the index considers multiple dimensions of economic and social indicators, such as income, education, health, etc. explanatory variable: economic development level: including per capita gdp, industrial structure and other factors, used to reflect the economic development of the county. educational resources: such as the number of schools, teacher-student ratio, etc., used to measure the level of educational development in the county. health status: such as the number of medical facilities, the health level of residents, are used to reflect the medical and health conditions of the county. infrastructure: the degree of improvement of infrastructure such as transportation and communication is used to assess the convenience of life in the county. policy environment: such as the implementation of poverty alleviation policies and rural revitalization strategies, which are used to examine the impact of policy factors on relative poverty. controlled variable: in addition to the above explanatory variables, some control variables such as geographical location, topography may be introduced to reduce the bias of the model estimation. controlled variable: in addition to the above explanatory variables, some control variables, such as geographical location, topography, may be introduced to reduce the bias of the model estimation。 4. empirical analysis 4.1 the index system of county relative poverty evaluation in shaanxi province poverty can be caused by many factors, such as natural conditions, social and economic conditions. building a comprehensive indicator describing the regional poverty situation is a comprehensive measure of poverty in a region. based on the existing literature, the comprehensive identification of poverty in counties is mainly carried out from multiple dimensions such as social economy and natural nature. the natural condition is the background natural assets of the region, which is difficult in quantification, and the level of economic development can directly reflect the relative poverty of the region. therefore, this project draws on the existing research results, combines hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 56 published by ideas spread the regional characteristics of shaanxi province, and considers the economic and social dimensions to measure the relative poverty degree of the study area. the specific indicators are as follows table 1: table 1. index system of county relative poverty measurement in shaanxi province index significance per capita gdp reflects the level of regional economic development per capita fiscal revenue reflects the income level of the residents per capita disposable income reflects the income level of the residents total output value of industry above designated size reflects the improvement of residents' material living conditions total retail sales of social goods reflects the improvement of residents' material living conditions local telephone users reflects the people's living standards number of students per 10,000 people reflects the regional education level number of hospital beds per 10,000 people reflects the regional medical level 4.2 county relative poverty measures in shaanxi province in county relative poverty measure, to eliminate the data dimension and size difference and the subjectivity of artificial index weight, the project adopts the entropy weight method, calculate the weight of the selected index, specific model is as follows: first, the index of linear transformation to eliminate the influence of different dimension on the results, after the standardized data value domain, convenient statistics and not loss data itself contains information. x = x −min max − min where ɑ represents the normalized value of each indicator, x represents the value of each index, min is the minimum value and max is the maximum value. next, the percentage of the first evaluated object pij under the j the index is calculated. pij = bij ∑ bijm i=1 then calculate the entropy value ej of the j th index. ej = − (1 −wj) (n − ∑wj) finally, the weight of the j th index is calculated. wj = (1 −wj)/(n −∑wj) where w is the weight of each indicator, n is the total number of indicators, and i is the i th index of the indicators. the final county relative poverty index idi was obtained by the calculation of each index and weight values. idi =∑wj × i n i=1 4.3 the spatial and temporal evolution of relative poverty in counties in shaanxi province first of all, in order to explain the spatial distribution characteristics between different elements, this project describes and reveals the standard deviation ellipse in spatial statistics by comparing the basic parameters of ellipse and comparing the basic parameters of ellipse in different years. the specific model is as follows: sdex = √ ∑ (xi−x )2n i=1 n hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 57 published by ideas spread sdey = √ ∑ (xi−y)2n i=1 n in the sum, xi and yi are the coordinates of the elements (xi, yi), the average of xy represents the average center of the element, and n is equal to the total number of elements. then, considering the strong spatial correlation between different counties, combined with the geographer to bull has proposed a mutual correlation between anything, with the arcgis space auto correlation tools to analyze the spatial agglomeration characteristics of county relative poverty, and to moran index of different spatial correlation between county relative poverty effect, the model is as follows: moran′si = n so × ∑ ∑ wij(xi − x)((xi − x)n j n i ∑ (xi − x)2n j where xi represents the observed value of county i; wij is the spatial weight matrix, spatial adjacent 1, nonadjacent 0, and 𝑠 0 is the sum of all elements of the spatial weight matrix. global space autocorrelation analysis can only reflect the county relative poverty spatial pattern of agglomeration situation, is likely to cover the local space autocorrelation, in order to analyze the county unit relative poverty agglomeration situation, the project first use local moran index to analyze the local space autocorrelation, the model is as follows ii = (xi − x)2 s2 ∑ wij(xi − x) n i≠j,j=1 formula (9), ii> 0, h-h (high and high), l-l (low); ii <0, h-l (high and low), l-h (low and high). in this equation, s represents the distance measure between the center of gravity of county relative poverty and the center of gravity of various indicators, the farther the distance, the lower the overlap, and otherwise, the higher the overlap. at the same time, from a dynamic perspective, the project is used to analyze the change consistency of each index and the change of the relative poverty degree of the county relative to the previous time node to reflect the angle θ of displacement. due to the limitation of the value range θ, the other string values are used as the change consistency index c. the specific model is as follows: c = cosθ = [(∆x1∆x2) + (∆y1∆y2)]/√(∆x12 + ∆y12)(∆x22 + ∆y22) 5.interpretation of result (1) construction and measurement of the county relative poverty evaluation index system by comprehensively using the index system method and improving the existing evaluation method, we have systematically constructed the evaluation index system of county relative poverty from the two dimensions of economy and society. this system not only covers all aspects of the relative poverty of the county, but also ensures the scientific and rationality of the weight of each index through the entropy right method. the application of the entropy weight method enables us to measure the relative poverty degree of counties more objectively, which provides a solid data basis for the subsequent analysis. (2) the spatial and temporal evolution characteristics of the relative poverty in counties 1. evolution characteristics of the spatial pattern using standardized ellipses and arcgis spatial statistics, we explore in depth the evolution of relative poverty in counties. the results show that the spatial distribution of county relative poverty in shaanxi province shows significant agglomeration characteristics, and the differences between different regions are obvious. with the passage of time, this spatial pattern has both some stability and some subtle changes. this provides an important basis for identifying the high-risk areas of relative poverty. 2. characteristics of the spatial distribution further using spatial autocorrelation analysis methods, we reveal the spatial distribution characteristics of relative poverty in counties. the analysis results show that there is a significant positive correlation between county relative poverty in space, that is, counties with similar relative poverty levels tend to gather together in space. this finding provides new insight into our understanding of the spatial transfer mechanisms of relative poverty. 6. conclusions based on the county social and economic statistics of shaanxi province from 2000 to 2019, the space-time evolution characteristics of county relative poverty in shaanxi province were deeply analyzed by using various hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 58 published by ideas spread methods and models. by constructing the evaluation index system of county relative poverty, exploring the characteristics of spatial and temporal evolution, and quantitatively analyzing the problem of returning to poverty, we draw the following main conclusions: 1. the scientificity and effectiveness of the evaluation index system of county relative poverty through the comprehensive use of the index system method and the improvement of the existing evaluation methods, the evaluation index system of the county relative poverty constructed from the two dimensions of economy and society is scientific and effective. the application of entropy weight method ensures the rationality of the weight of each index, enabling us to measure the relative poverty degree of counties more objectively. 2. the evolution characteristics of the spatial pattern of relative poverty in counties using standardized ellipse and arcgis spatial statistical methods, we found that the spatial distribution of county relative poverty in shaanxi province showed significant agglomeration characteristics, with obvious differences between different regions. with the passage of time, this spatial pattern has both some stability and some subtle changes. this provides an important basis for identifying the high-risk areas of relative poverty. 3. risk of return to poverty and its influencing factors through the cluster analysis and the construction of the risk index system, we identified the counties with the risk of returning to poverty, and quantitatively analyzed the influencing factors of the problem of return to poverty. the results showed that education level, health conditions, industrial development and other factors had an important impact on the risk of returning to poverty. in particular, the improvement of education level and medical conditions are of great significance for reducing the risk of returning to poverty. countermeasures and suggestions based on the above research conclusions, in order to effectively curb the occurrence of people returning to poverty, consolidate the achievements of poverty alleviation, and provide strong support for the implementation of the rural revitalization strategy, we put forward the following countermeasures and suggestions: 1. strengthen investment in education and medical care the government should further increase the investment in education and medical care in the poor areas, and improve the cultural quality and health level of the local residents. specific measures include expanding schools, improving the treatment of teachers, improving medical facilities, and training medical staff. this will help improve the self-development capacity of poor areas and fundamentally reduce the risk of returning to poverty. 2. promote diversified industrial development we will encourage and support the development of diversified industries in poor areas, especially those characteristic industries that can boost employment and increase farmers' incomes. the government can guide enterprises to invest and start business in poor areas by providing tax incentives, financial support and technical guidance to promote the prosperity and development of the local economy. 3. china we will establish a sound social security system covering both urban and rural areas to provide basic living allowances for low-income groups. this includes improving the minimum living allowance system, establishing a medical assistance system, and promoting the rural old-age insurance system. by improving the social security system, the poverty problem caused by disease and unemployment can be effectively alleviated. 4. strengthen targeted poverty alleviation and dynamic monitoring for different types of poor families and groups of people, personalized assistance measures have been formulated to implement targeted poverty alleviation. at the same time, a sound poverty monitoring system will be established to timely detect and respond to the risk of return to poverty. by conducting regular poverty surveys and establishing an early warning mechanism for returning to poverty, poverty trends can be grasped in time and provide a basis for policy adjustment. references [1] tang, p., tan, l., gao, j., li, m., & zhang, s. (2025). social networks matter for villagers’ withdrawal from rural homesteads: an empirical analysis of sichuan in western china. habitat international, 156, 103305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2025.103305 [2] hu, s., & wang, y. (2025). spatial pattern of rural authenticity and its relation to urbanization: insights from henan province, china. habitat international, 156, 103291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2025.103291 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 59 published by ideas spread [3] zhang, r., he, y., cui, w., yang, z., ma, j., xu, h., & feng, d. (2022). poverty-returning risk monitoring and analysis of the registered poor households based on bp neural network and natural breaks: a case study of yunyang district, hubei province. sustainability, 14(9), 5228. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095228 [4] xu, f., zhang, x., & zhou, d. (2023). does digital financial inclusion reduce the risk of returning to poverty? evidence from china. international journal of finance & economics, 29(3), 2927–2949. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijfe.2812 [5] wang, j., wang, z., cheng, h., kang, j., & liu, x. (2022). land cover changing pattern in preand postearthquake affected area from remote sensing data: a case of lushan county, sichuan province. land, 11(8), 1205. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11081205 [6] min, j., liu, x., li, h., wang, r., & luo, x. (2024). spatio-temporal variations in soil erosion and its driving forces in the loess plateau from 2000 to 2050 based on the rusle model. applied sciences, 14(13), 5945. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14135945 [7] he, x., wu, y., & wei, j. (2024). the status of collective action among rural households in underdeveloped regions of china and its livelihood effects under the background of rural revitalization—evidence from a field survey in shanxi province. sustainability, 16(15), 6575. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16156575 [8] liu, h. (2022). research on the construction of rural revitalization (jlu). jilin university. https://doi.org/10.27162/d.cnki.gjlin.2021.000465 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n1p60 60 published by ideas spread research on the participation of charitable organizations in the educational assistance of children in difficult circumstances from a collaborative perspective:a case study of the guilin aid association liu yanlin1 1 school of politics and public administration, guangxi normal university, china correspondence: liu yanlin, school of politics and public administration, guangxi normal university, guilin, guangxi, china. e-mail: 2190700987atqq.com received: january 17, 2025; accepted: february 11, 2025; published: february 13, 2025 abstract with the increasing societal attention on vulnerable groups, the educational issues of children in difficult circumstances have gradually become a focal point of social concern. charitable organizations, as an important force in social assistance, play an indispensable role in the educational assistance of these children. however, from a collaborative perspective, charitable organizations face numerous challenges in their participation in this area. this paper delves into the issues faced by the guilin aid association in its efforts to assist children in difficult circumstances and proposes corresponding countermeasures and suggestions, aiming to promote the better functioning of charitable organizations in the educational assistance of these children. keywords: collaborative perspective, charitable organizations, children in difficult circumstances, educational assistance, challenges research 1. introduction children in difficult circumstances refer to those who face adverse living and educational environments due to factors such as family economic hardship, parental divorce, disability, or illness. these children often encounter numerous educational challenges, including a lack of learning resources, insufficient family support, psychological stress, difficulties in integrating into school life, and economic pressures. charitable organizations, as a significant component of social forces, play a crucial role in providing educational assistance to these children. however, in reality, there is a disconnect between "institutional assistance" and "non-institutional assistance," leading to a lack of unified organization and implementation. this results in fragmented efforts among government departments and social organizations, with insufficient integration and coordination. consequently, the participation of charitable organizations in educational assistance has not been able to enhance the precision, continuity, and efficiency of such assistance. how to organize charitable organizations to participate in educational assistance from a collaborative governance perspective, thereby forming a new synergy between charitable and government assistance to better integrate children in difficult circumstances into society, is a question worthy of in-depth theoretical and practical exploration. 2. literature review 2.1 educational assistance for children in difficult circumstances educational assistance refers to the system in which the state, social groups, or individuals provide material and financial aid to impoverished regions and students at different stages to ensure their access to education. domestic research in the field of educational social support has largely focused on aiding impoverished students. however, there is a lack of specific research on the support needs of impoverished students at the primary and secondary school levels, and the universality and severity of these needs are not fully recognized. currently, the group of impoverished children can be roughly divided into two categories: those whose social functioning is limited by physical disabilities, making it difficult for them to integrate into mainstream peer groups, and those who, due to the loss of family protection, live in relatively isolated environments with severely deficient early social support systems, thereby exacerbating the fragility of the "family-school-society" ecosystem. examining the history of social protection and assistance for children in difficult circumstances in china, the understanding and classification of these children by the government, families, and society have continuously deepened, expanding hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 61 published by ideas spread from the initial focus on abandoned infants, orphans, impoverished children, and street children to a broader group that includes de facto orphans, disabled children, and abandoned infants. the core focus of educational support for children in difficult circumstances lies in two dimensions: first, the material deprivation caused by "economic hardship," which leads to a mismatch between educational resources and the external educational environment or ecosystem, resulting in educational guidance challenges; second, the educational guidance difficulties arising from "cultural disadvantages," particularly the psychological deficits caused by cultural factors, manifested in delayed cognitive development, lack of social and emotional experiences, exclusion and isolation within subcultural groups, and the resulting behavioral issues and socialization barriers. traditional educational assistance models often emphasize basic survival guarantees, with a fundamentally passive assistance philosophy that lacks a development-oriented assistance mechanism. as societal attention to the educational issues of children in difficult circumstances continues to grow, the scale of charitable organizations' participation in educational assistance has gradually expanded, with more organizations beginning to focus on and engage in this area, thereby addressing the shortcomings of traditional educational assistance. 2.2 participation of charitable organizations in educational assistance non-institutional assistance from social forces is a necessary complement to government institutional assistance. charitable organizations, as an important part of social forces, provide educational assistance to children in difficult circumstances through fundraising and the provision of educational resources, which is significant for improving their educational conditions. the "interim measures for social assistance" published in february 2014 proposed that "the state encourages social forces such as units and individuals to participate in social assistance through donations, the establishment of assistance projects, the creation of service institutions, and the provision of volunteer services," thereby encouraging the involvement of "non-institutional assistance" on the basis of government "institutional assistance." in 2020, the general office of the central committee of the communist party of china and the general office of the state council issued the "opinions on reforming and improving the social assistance system," explicitly proposing the "establishment of a mechanism for the connection between government assistance and charitable assistance." in the same year, the ministry of civil affairs and the ministry of finance jointly released the "draft social assistance law (draft for solicitation of comments)," which included a dedicated chapter on "social forces participation," further requiring that "local people's governments at or above the county level establish a mechanism for the connection between government assistance and charitable assistance, providing convenience for charitable organizations to carry out charitable assistance." it also clarified the role of government procurement of social assistance services, the role of social organizations and social workers in social assistance, and the preferential policies that social forces should enjoy when participating in social assistance. in 2023, the ministry of civil affairs issued the "guiding opinions on strengthening the effective connection between government assistance and charitable assistance," proposing to support charitable organizations in providing targeted services such as home visits, psychological comfort, rehabilitation training, and capacity building through government procurement of services. with the development of the social economy, social assistance should not be limited to material aid. as china enters a new stage of relative poverty, the social security system and assistance measures for low-income groups should not only focus on material aid but also expand to collaborative cooperation with charitable organizations to provide more detailed and diversified support services. by implementing assistance and developmental aid projects for vulnerable groups, the intrinsic potential of children in difficult circumstances can be effectively stimulated, and optimal strategies can be adopted to promote their social integration. additionally, theoretical research emphasizes that building a social support system for children in difficult circumstances requires mobilizing multiple forces and establishing a collaborative support framework led by the state, integrating the participation of individual citizens, non-profit organizations, and various social sectors, aiming to achieve effective resource complementarity and comprehensive integration of activities. however, from a collaborative perspective, charitable organizations face numerous challenges in their participation in the educational assistance of children in difficult circumstances, which urgently need to be addressed. some children in genuine need of assistance may be overlooked for various reasons, while some who do not meet the assistance criteria may receive aid resources, not only failing to fully fulfill the bottom-line function but also lacking in development promotion and capacity enhancement. there is a serious "welfare gap," affecting the healthy operation of the social assistance system. the key to the participation of multiple subjects in collaboration lies in breaking the "dual-track" or "multi-track" system caused by the lack of coordination and integration among social subjects. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 62 published by ideas spread 3. current status of the guilin aid association's participation in the educational assistance of children in difficult circumstances the high-quality development of social assistance is related to the realization of the bottom-line guarantee for people's livelihoods and the goal of common prosperity. among these, educational assistance is one of the main ways people participate in assisting children in difficult circumstances. the government and social groups hope to change the current living conditions of these children through knowledge. "knowledge changes destiny" is an important way to change their future quality of life. however, the social assistance system has always followed the goal of survival guarantee, and the assistance philosophy remains a passive, non-developmental assistance system orientation. 3.1 scale and forms of educational assistance since its establishment in 2011, the guilin aid association has rebuilt and renovated 9 schools, improved the teaching conditions of 67 mountain schools, built 93 campus libraries, provided long-term one-on-one financial aid to 151 students, installed a "1 yuan story" bedtime story broadcasting system in 171 mountain boarding schools, benefiting 110,000 students. by the end of 2017, the association added the "book plan rural school book corner" public welfare project, which has now donated 93 book corners to rural schools in guilin, with a cumulative donation of 20,000 books. in april 2018, the association launched the "dream stone painting" public welfare project, which has now delivered 1,817 sets of "dream stone paintings" to children in 35 rural schools in guilin. the association has raised over 5 million yuan in donations, with public welfare footprints spanning 13 counties inside and outside the region, nearly 60,000 hours of volunteer service, and nearly 500,000 kilometers of public welfare mileage, achieving significant social impact. however, due to limited resources, the coverage and depth of educational assistance still need improvement. the guilin aid association still faces numerous challenges and difficulties in its participation in the educational assistance of children in difficult circumstances. identification of children in difficult circumstances: the guilin aid association primarily identifies children in difficult circumstances through internal recommendations from members who encounter these children in their daily lives, followed by on-site investigations and voting to confirm the aid recipients. there is a lack of unified identification standards, and the coverage is limited due to reliance on member recommendations. fundraising for assistance resources: the guilin aid association is a non-profit, volunteer-initiated civil charitable organization that faces difficulties in applying for projects and raising funds. 3.2 policy environment and support the government has played an important role in promoting the participation of charitable organizations in the educational assistance of children in difficult circumstances. by formulating relevant policies and regulations, providing financial support, and establishing cooperation mechanisms, the government has created a favorable policy environment for charitable organizations. however, there are still some issues in the implementation of policies, such as inadequate policy promotion and implementation, which affect the enthusiasm of charitable organizations to participate in educational assistance. when reviewing policy documents over the years, it is evident that the focus of policies at both the national and local levels has largely been on material guarantees, while support in non-material areas, especially in terms of humanistic care, has been relatively weak. children in difficult circumstances, as a vulnerable group in society, often face issues such as low self-confidence, lack of security, and negative emotions such as pessimism, fear, depression, and loneliness. these psychological problems have long plagued them, and if not addressed and intervened, they may have a potential negative impact on society. the educational assistance work carried out by the guilin aid association is not limited to economic support but also includes the implementation of "one-onone" assistance projects, strengthening interaction and communication with vulnerable groups, allowing children in difficult circumstances to feel warmth while receiving necessary educational support in their studies and lives, thereby fundamentally eliminating their vulnerable psychology and promoting their mental health development. however, charitable organizations have limited interaction with the schools and communities of children in difficult circumstances during the assistance process. the understanding of these children by charitable organizations mainly comes from the parents and the children themselves, and the organizations cannot obtain effective support from the children's surroundings to carry out various assistance tasks. 4. challenges faced by charitable organizations in participating in educational assistance 4.1 resource integration: dispersed assistance forces the identification of children in difficult circumstances is a prerequisite for charitable organizations to participate in assistance. however, in practice, due to the lack of unified identification standards and effective identification hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 63 published by ideas spread mechanisms among charitable organizations and social organizations, charitable organizations face difficulties in identifying aid recipients. the lack of information sharing among government departments and organizations may result in some children receiving double assistance while others are overlooked, making it difficult for charitable organizations to expand the coverage of assistance. in the process of participating in the educational assistance of children in difficult circumstances, charitable organizations face the challenge of resource integration. on the one hand, due to information asymmetry and poor communication among different charitable organizations, educational resources cannot be effectively integrated and shared; on the other hand, due to the "independent operation" of other social forces such as the government and enterprises in participating in educational assistance, charitable organizations lack effective support in resource integration. 4.2 policy support: lack of adequate guarantees due to the imperfection of relevant laws and regulations, charitable organizations lack clear legal basis and guarantees in their participation in educational assistance. the legal system construction of china's charity sector is relatively lagging, and there has long been a lack of specialized social assistance legislation and a systematic legal framework for charitable organizations. although the "charity law of the people's republic of china" enacted in 2016 filled the legislative gap in related fields, its provisions on the participation of social organizations in assistance activities remain at a macro level, with obvious deficiencies in specific implementation mechanisms and operational norms. in terms of organizational form, social groups, foundations, and social service agencies, as the three main bodies in the charity sector, rely mainly on the "regulations on the registration and management of social groups" and other administrative regulations for their legal status. these regulatory documents are relatively low in legal hierarchy, with insufficient binding force and normative power, making it difficult to effectively support the practical needs of charitable organizations to deeply participate in social assistance. 4.3 department coordination: unclear division of responsibilities in the process of participating in the educational assistance of children in difficult circumstances, charitable organizations also face the challenge of policy coordination. on the one hand, the coordination and cooperation among different government departments are not close enough, resulting in difficulties for charitable organizations in applying for projects and obtaining funds; on the other hand, after analyzing policy documents issued by the government over the past decade, it is evident that the educational assistance work for children in difficult circumstances often involves multiple government departments. however, unfortunately, there is currently a lack of a department specifically responsible for comprehensive planning and coordination. this situation of multiheaded management has led to unclear division of responsibilities, dispersed assistance forces, repeated coverage of aid recipients, and low efficiency in the utilization of assistance resources. 4.4 social perception: insufficient social support in the process of participating in the educational assistance of children in difficult circumstances, charitable organizations also face the challenge of social perception. on the one hand, due to misunderstandings and prejudices about charitable organizations, charitable organizations encounter difficulties in fundraising and promotion; on the other hand, due to insufficient social attention to the issues of children in difficult circumstances, charitable organizations lack effective means to gain social support and participation. 5. building a collaborative governance framework for educational assistance in recent years, china's charity sector has flourished, with various charitable organizations actively participating in social assistance practices, making significant contributions to the improvement of the multi-level social security system. research shows that charitable organizations play an important supplementary and promotional role in the field of educational assistance. however, through in-depth investigation, it is found that the current social assistance work of charitable organizations still faces issues such as insufficient systemic connection, imperfect system design, and weak practical links. based on this, this study systematically explores countermeasures and suggestions for improving the effectiveness of charitable organizations in social assistance from the dimensions of system optimization, mechanism innovation, and resource integration. 5.1 strengthening internal resource integration and sharing charitable organizations themselves, as providers of support services, meet the needs of vulnerable groups. on the other hand, charitable organizations also serve as intermediaries for assistance, providing social support from the state, enterprises, and the market to vulnerable children. as an important role in providing assistance resources, the establishment and improvement of internal management have a direct impact on the effectiveness of the social assistance provided by charitable organizations. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 64 published by ideas spread charitable organizations should strengthen cooperation and communication with other charitable organizations, government departments, enterprises, and other social forces, establish effective resource integration and sharing mechanisms, actively connect with the government, schools, communities, and enterprises, promote the connection among assistance subjects, assistance processes, and assistance methods, and avoid the fragmented phenomenon of "independent operation" in the educational assistance of children in difficult circumstances and the overlap of assistance projects. this will maximize the utilization of educational resources and achieve maximum benefits. by sharing information with local grassroots governments, civil affairs departments, social work agencies, and schools, create systematic archival materials for children in difficult circumstances, present the developmental stage characteristics of these children, and provide support for systematic development assistance and guidance. this will meet the diversified and in-depth needs of children in difficult circumstances. 5.2 improving the legal system for educational assistance when charitable organizations are involved in the field of social assistance, the adoption of the third-sector theory is particularly important to strengthen the construction of their external environment. at the institutional level, the "independent operation" model among assistance subjects has led to the "segmented management" of social assistance activities and the "one-sided presentation" of assistance outcomes. the root cause of these drawbacks lies in the discreteness of assistance objects and the mismatch of assistance processes. therefore, the government needs to increase policy support and coordination for charitable organizations' involvement in the educational assistance of children in difficult circumstances, establish and improve relevant policies, regulations, and institutional guarantee frameworks. at the same time, strengthen the supervision and guidance of charitable organizations to ensure that their educational assistance activities comply with laws and regulations. to improve the standardization level of assistance work for children in difficult circumstances, it is urgent to establish and improve a standardized management system. this system should clearly define the responsibilities, service scope, and operational norms of charitable organizations in the field of educational assistance to meet the innovation and development needs of social assistance work in the new era. at the same time, efforts should be made to improve the participation mechanism of charitable organizations, optimize the implementation plan of educational assistance based on the differentiated needs of regional children in difficult circumstances, and streamline work processes. it is recommended to build a unified local information database for children in difficult circumstances and establish a digital management platform to provide data support and decision-making basis for charitable organizations to accurately carry out assistance services. 5.3 establishing government-society collaborative relationships under the framework of public service contracts, the government adopts a service procurement strategy, delegating specific functions to charitable organizations for execution, and ensuring the effective provision of support services needed by children in difficult circumstances through regulatory means. in the field of assistance for children in difficult circumstances, building a trust system between the government and charitable organizations is crucial. to this end, it is necessary to clarify the common goals and value orientations of both parties, while establishing a standard system for the government to evaluate the rationality of assistance projects for children in difficult circumstances. in addition, optimizing the communication mechanism between the two parties is also essential. the government should establish an information sharing platform for charitable organizations, the educational public service system, local communities, schools, and other parties to integrate charitable resources, efficiently collaborate, and provide more precise educational assistance to children in difficult circumstances. 5.4 enhancing the credibility of charitable organizations in the process of public service procurement, government departments tend to prioritize non-governmental organizations with sound evaluation mechanisms and good social reputations as partners. especially in the field of assistance for children in difficult circumstances, social welfare organizations play a crucial role in credibilitybuilding, given that their service targets are mainly impoverished and vulnerable groups. an organization's social recognition not only influences the level of trust from government departments but also determines its ability to obtain continuous social resource support. based on this reality, charitable organizations should focus on strengthening their self-construction from the following aspects: to enhance organizational credibility, systematic measures should first be taken internally. firstly, establish and improve a financial information disclosure mechanism by regularly publishing annual operational reports, detailed income and expenditure statements, and fund-raising data to achieve full traceability of fund flows. for the use of funds in key projects, a dynamic publicity system should be established to actively accept social supervision. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 65 published by ideas spread secondly, always uphold the mission of public welfare and provide precise and diversified assistance programs tailored to the differentiated needs of children in difficult circumstances, thereby gaining recognition and support from all sectors of society. thirdly, construct a diversified supervision system, which, while strengthening government regulation, broadly engages enterprises, media, and the public in supervision to broaden supervision channels. fourthly, improve the internal governance structure by standardizing the code of conduct for practitioners, advancing organizational professionalization, and continuously enhancing service efficiency. furthermore, charitable organizations should actively engage in promotional and educational activities to increase societal attention and awareness of issues facing children in difficult circumstances. at the same time, strengthen cooperation and communication with media, enterprises, and other sectors of society to garner more social support and participation. by organizing volunteer services, public welfare activities, and other forms, enhance the public's awareness and participation in public welfare. 5. conclusion charitable organizations play a significant role in participating in educational assistance for children in difficult circumstances but still face numerous challenges from a collaborative perspective. the implementation of measures such as strengthening resource integration and sharing, improving the legal system for educational assistance, establishing government-society collaboration, and enhancing the credibility of charitable organizations can effectively promote the better functioning of charitable organizations in educational assistance for children in difficult circumstances. meanwhile, this also requires concerted efforts and support from multiple parties, including the government, social organizations, and the public. references [1] zhou, p. (2017). innovation in social assistance models and mechanisms from the perspective of collaborative governance. jianghuai forum, 2017(01). [2] sun, l., & zhao, r. (2017). policy analysis of educational assistance issues for vulnerable groups in china based on nvivo. modern distance education, 2017(02). [3] li, z. (2020). research on educational assistance issues and countermeasures for disadvantaged children based on grounded theory. educational theory and practice, 40(11). [4] ren, j., & chen, y. (2002). educational assistance. social welfare, 2002(12). [5] chen, j., & dong, c. (2017). the evolution and innovation of models and paths for the assistance and protection of children in difficult circumstances in china: a perspective of multi-governance. lanzhou academic journal, 2017(04). [6] jiang, w., & yang, d. (2015). legal dilemmas and institutional improvement of educational assistance in china. journal of xiangtan university (philosophy and social sciences edition), 39(05). [7] hu, h., & du, x. (2019). precision governance in social assistance in the new era: current status, challenges, and improvements. journal of beijing university of aeronautics and astronautics (social sciences edition), 2019(02). [8] guo, z. (2023). from adjacency to reversal: the 'cliff effect' of the minimum living standard guarantee and its formation mechanism. social security review, 2023(01). [9] zhou, p. (2017). innovation in social assistance models and mechanisms from the perspective of collaborative governance. jianghuai forum, 2017(01). [10] zhang, h., & zhong, c. (2019). applicability analysis of workfare in china's social assistance reform: a comparative study based on practices in typical welfare states. comparative economic & social systems, 2019(04). copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 7, no. 2; 2024 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v7n2p1 1 published by ideas spread from fear to fight back: women’s empowerment through “jogo tonggo” program during covid-19 rage in karang nangka village banyumas county-indonesia joko santoso1, nuriyeni kartika bintarsari2 & soetji lestari1 1 department of sociology, faculty of social and political science, universitas jenderal soedirman, indonesia 2 department of international relations, faculty of social and political science, universitas jenderal soedirman, indonesia correspondence : nuriyeni kartika bintarsari, department of international relations,unsoed, 53122, indonesia. tel: 62-281-636-992. e-mail:nuriyeni.bintarsari@unsoed.ac.id received: june 2, 2024; accepted: june 24, 2024; published: june 27, 2024 abstract worldwide, rural communities face previously unheard-of difficulties due to the covid-19 pandemic. this study examines the "jogo tonggo" initiative in karang nangka village, indonesia, which represents local community empowerment and resilience. in light of the constraints experienced by women and marginalized communities, this project initiated by the community effectively organized a localized response to the pandemic. it simultaneously encouraged active involvement, empowered individuals to take on leadership roles, and facilitated socioeconomic progress, focusing on women. the goal is to clarify the model's significant influence on health outcomes, gender inclusivity, and social capital. a study was conducted to explore qualitative data through interviews, focused group discussions, and participatory data analysis. the findings demonstrate significant improvements in health literacy, economic engagement, digital proficiency, and social cohesion due to the initiative's comprehensive empowerment strategies. women took on prominent leadership positions in coordinating emergency response and recovery efforts. this endeavor disrupted antiquated gender norms while fostering enduring networks and resources. the localized volunteer system facilitated efficient monitoring of the pandemic, allocation of resources, and dissemination of health information well-aligned with the local conditions. the results confirm the effectiveness of involving women in community action that addresses gaps not addressed by formal top-down approaches. this study provides specific evidence on integrating community capabilities and official health systems for emergency preparedness in a given context. it emphasizes the routes for bottom-up social innovation and gender inclusivity to rebuild and improve effectively. participatory models rooted in local communities can help foster equitable and resilient futures extending beyond the pandemic era. keywords: women’s empowerment, jogo tonggo program, covid-19, banyumas region 1. introduction community life has been severely disrupted by the covid-19 pandemic, especially in rural areas like karang nangka village, banyumas county, indonesia. the pandemic has caused unprecedented social disruptions worldwide (djalante et al, 2020; marliana et al., 2021). these disruptions have brought attention to these communities' weaknesses and ability to recover, particularly among women, who have encountered increased difficulties but have also been at the forefront of local efforts to recover and respond (anderson et al., 2012; drolet et al., 2015). the 'jogo tonggo' program, directed by the governor of central java through governor instruction no. 1 year 2020, focuses on community empowerment in accelerating covid-19 handling at the neighborhood association (rw) level (observed on the poster depicted in figure 1) (probosiwi & putri, 2021). it involves establishing the jogo tonggo task force, which has become a symbol of hope and empowerment for women, encouraging them to shift from fear to actively addressing the pandemic's impacts (yudiansyah, 2020). this transformation emphasizes the importance of community cohesion and women's empowerment in managing crises while highlighting a worldwide shift towards localized approaches to address global problems (broeder et al., 2021; prabowo et al., 2022). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 2; 2024 2 published by ideas spread figure 1. poster promoting "jogo tonggo" by the central java provincial government the literature available about pandemics frequently emphasizes how these events disproportionately affect marginalized communities, with women suffering the most significant burden (kabeer et al., 2021). research has recorded a rise in household duties, financial difficulties, and mental strain experienced by women during times of crisis (xiong et al., 2021; almeida et al., 2020). nevertheless, literature regarding community-led initiatives and women empowerment in rural indonesia, specifically during pandemics, is scarce. the 'jogo tonggo' program exemplifies how localized, community-driven initiatives can effectively address societal challenges and provide solutions (platteau & gaspart, 2003; yudiansyah, 2020). it highlights the significant impact of collective action and empowerment in crises, showcasing their transformative potential (probosiwi & putri, 2021). this article aims to analyze the workings of the 'jogo tonggo' program in karang nangka village and look at how it has supported community resilience and women's empowerment in the face of the covid-19 pandemic. the study aims to contribute to the broader discussion on community-based solutions to global crises by examining the program's implementation, challenges, and successes. it provides insights into how women's leadership and participation can drive societal change and recovery. the objective is to emphasize the significance of local endeavors in tackling worldwide issues, advocating for policies that endorse community-driven solutions and women's empowerment as fundamental to sustainable development and resilience in times of crisis (drolet et al., 2015; huis et al., 2017). this study is motivated by the hypothesis that the 'jogo tonggo' program has significantly transformed the village of karang nangka, empowering women, fortifying community ties, and lessening the immediate effects of the covid-19 pandemic. this article contends that women's active engagement and leadership in community response endeavors can result in more all-encompassing, efficient, and enduring resolutions to crises based on a thorough analysis. moreover, it implies that the promotion of women's empowerment through these programs can have lasting effects on society, fostering enduring social transformation and the ability to withstand future difficulties. 2. literature review a fundamental understanding of women's empowerment is offered by kabeer (1999), who describes it as a process that grants women the capacity to make wise decisions in life. this capability has historically been denied to them. this conceptualization is pivotal within the "jogo tonggo" initiative, as examining women's access to resources, agency, and accomplishments during the covid-19 pandemic represents a noteworthy field of research. the controversy arises from the difficulty in quantifying empowerment, often perceived as intangible and multifaceted, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 2; 2024 3 published by ideas spread posing a challenge to conventional measurement methods. the redefinition of empowerment in the pandemic context is apparent in how "jogo tonggo" emphasizes the importance of non-material resources in empowering individuals. the emergence of covid-19 requires a reassessment of empowerment in a crisis, suggesting solutions that encompass a more comprehensive comprehension of resources beyond tangible assets (pitas & ehmer, 2020; redondo-sama et al., 2020), including recognizing the importance of social and human resources, which are crucial in community-driven responses (dirani et al., 2020; comfort et al., 2020). kabeer refers to the ability to make decisions and pursue objectives in the face of adversity as the agency that is essential to empowerment. "jogo tonggo" showcases women's agency in actively participating in decision-making processes related to the pandemic response, signifying a shift in societal norms concerning women's roles. the controversy stems from conventional beliefs regarding women's ability to make decisions, while the initiative seeks to challenge these beliefs by highlighting women's effectiveness in managing crises (caprioli & boyer, 2001; khemka et al., 2005). several authors exemplify a broader pattern of recognizing the active role of women in public health crises, providing strategies that enable women to have more influence through increased involvement in decision-making processes (harek et al., 1987; nielsen & huse, 2010). assessing the impact of initiatives like "jogo tonggo" requires critically evaluating achievements, which are the tangible outcomes of empowerment. kabeer's framework proposes assessing empowerment by measuring concrete enhancements in women's lives. the controversy in this context pertains to the ascription of accomplishments, specifically whether they arise directly from women's empowerment or other contributing factors (eyben & napier-moore, 2009; goltz et al., 2015). the "jogo tonggo" transformation highlights a shift towards recognizing and appreciating the role of women in promoting community health and resilience. it emphasizes the importance of their accomplishments in emergency response and recovery efforts. women's empowerment in the "jogo tonggo" program can be understood holistically by integrating resources, agency, and accomplishments (hanani et al., 2021). this approach emphasizes the dispute regarding the segregation of these dimensions in conventional studies on empowerment. the program's holistic empowerment strategy demonstrates a shift towards integrated empowerment models in response to emergencies such as covid19. this integration serves as a solution by offering a comprehensive comprehension of empowerment encompassing the intricacy of women's experiences during the pandemic (bourgeault et al., 2020; heath et al., 2020). in particular, kabeer's analysis of the difficulties in quantifying empowerment applies to the assessment of "jogo tonggo." the controversy arises from the contrasting quantitative and qualitative measurement approaches, with the initiative leading to a change in metrics to accurately capture the program's subtle impacts (alkomari, 2020). there is a shift towards creative methods of measuring progress in emergencies, suggesting solutions that consider both the concrete and abstract elements of empowerment (richardson, 2017). an emergency like the covid-19 pandemic highlights the significance of women's empowerment programs like "jogo tonggo." kabeer's work highlights the contentiousness surrounding empowerment in non-crisis and crisis scenarios, with the pandemic acting as a catalyst for altering empowerment methods. this scenario emphasizes a shift towards giving importance to women's empowerment as a crucial element of crisis management, providing solutions that utilize empowerment to enhance community resilience and recovery (brodsky & cattaneo, 2013). the comprehension of the obstacles women encounter in "jogo tonggo" is contingent upon kabeer's examination of the structural limitations of the empowerment procedure. the ongoing debate between structural and individual empowerment approaches is apparent in the context of the pandemic, with the initiative serving as a prime example of a shift towards addressing underlying systemic obstacles (chang, 2020). the debate signifies a shift towards all-encompassing strategies for empowering individuals, which address immediate and systemic difficulties (singh & sarkar, 2019). these strategies provide solutions that target the underlying causes of disempowerment during crises. kabeer's reflections on empowerment provide valuable insights for future research endeavors, specifically for programs such as "jogo tonggo." the debate surrounding the most effective methods for empowerment in different situations highlights the necessity for a fundamental change in research approaches (nafar et al., 2021). the shift towards employing multidisciplinary and participatory research approaches to investigate empowerment in emergencies such as the covid-19 pandemic indicates the need for inclusive, context-specific, and flexible solutions to accommodate evolving circumstances (saleh & mujahiddin, 2020). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 2; 2024 4 published by ideas spread 3. methods analyzing the intricate dynamics of the "jogo tonggo" initiative is the primary goal of the expanded study. the study analyzes the empowerment processes at the individual and collective levels in the community. this intricate analytical framework seeks to reveal how community members interact with, endorse, and gain advantages from the initiative. it highlights the impact of their participation on social connections, health behaviors, and community strength. the research aims to comprehensively understand the empowerment process facilitated by "jogo tonggo" by analyzing various factors. it aims to encapsulate the essence of community-driven change in response to the challenges of the covid-19 pandemic. this study prioritizes an exploratory and interpretive approach in its research design, utilizing a comprehensive qualitative methodology to thoroughly comprehend the breadth and complexity of community empowerment within the "jogo tonggo" initiative. this design allows for a thorough and varied analysis of the community's experiences, perceptions, and interactions. this design allows for gathering intricate and comprehensive stories that quantitative methods may overlook. this method allows for a deeper understanding of the empowerment process's social, cultural, and emotional elements, which is essential for uncovering the complex dynamics in community-driven health initiatives during the covid-19 pandemic. participants in the study and information sources include a broad spectrum of individuals directly involved in or affected by the "jogo tonggo" initiative. participants include women in leadership roles in community initiatives, local health authorities, volunteers, participants' relatives, and other individuals with a strong interest in the community. each group offers unique viewpoints on the program's impacts, challenges, and successes, providing a thorough understanding of the empowerment process amid the covid-19 pandemic. the study aims to thoroughly understand how the initiative affects community resilience and health by examining various perspectives. the purposefully immersive data collection process uses focused group discussions (fgds), semi-structured interviews, direct observations, and document analysis. this comprehensive approach employs various methods to collect thorough and detailed data from diverse perspectives within the community. it allows for a detailed understanding of how the "jogo tonggo" initiative affects empowerment and health resilience. this study employs an iterative, thematic data analysis approach, systematically coding the data to identify emerging themes related to health outcomes, community resilience, and empowerment in the context of the "jogo tonggo" initiative. this process involves detailed examination and understanding of interview transcripts, focus group recordings, observation notes, and documents to ensure a comprehensive grasp of the complex dynamics. this study aims to provide a detailed record of the community's experiences through a meticulous analysis. it seeks to highlight the significant impacts of "jogo tonggo" on personal and group levels. 4. results 4.1 transformations in women’s empowerment: narratives from karang nangka women's participation in public and community life in karang nangka village was different before the "jogo tonggo" program's implementation, mainly due to their traditional domestic roles. the onset of the covid-19 pandemic brought about a significant shift in this paradigm, as the crisis required a reassessment of communal roles and responsibilities, leading to the development of an urgent and inclusive response mechanism. the "jogo tonggo" initiative has emerged as a crucial platform that addresses the urgent health crisis and promotes women's transformative empowerment. this program motivated and sometimes mandated women to take on previously unattainable positions, ranging from community health surveillance to leading emergency response teams. this notable change suggested moving from conventional responsibilities to more empowered and engaged involvement in community welfare and decision-making. the initial data and observations from the program emphasized significant shifts in attitudes, indicating that the crisis stimulated transformative change. the findings indicate that implementing "jogo tonggo" in karang nangka is a fundamental measure for achieving long-term societal transformation rather than a temporary response to crisis. this initiative redefines women's roles and acknowledges their crucial contributions, essential for enhancing community resilience and promoting development. women in karang nangka saw a significant change in their roles from being confined to the home to actively participating in the community and taking on leadership roles thanks to the "jogo tonggo" program. figure 2 illustrates the crucial role women have to take in reacting to the pandemic, which includes responsibilities like monitoring health and coordinating emergency responses. this engagement is not merely a call for action but a process that enables women to showcase their hitherto overlooked leadership and drive. the manifestation of this hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 2; 2024 5 published by ideas spread transition was evident in women's heightened responsibilities, characterized by their proactive involvement in community governance and their leadership in initiatives related to health and safety. their active participation showcased their abilities, while also transforming community attitudes to acknowledge the essential contribution of women in fostering societal strength and progress. this transformation, motivated by necessity, established the basis for a community dynamic that is more inclusive and empowering, where the contributions of women are highly regarded and actively promoted. therefore, women's empowerment through "jogo tonggo" signifies a lasting and beneficial change in community responsibilities. figure 2. women in karang nangka participate in the "jogo tonggo" program a crucial turn towards the adoption of technology for empowerment was made possible by the "jogo tonggo" initiative, which dramatically raised digital literacy among women in karang nangka. the covid-19 pandemic required a rapid adjustment to digital platforms for program communication and coordination, which resulted in women taking a leading role in this digital transformation. initially marginalized in digital conversations, women have emerged as adept users and distributors of information through platforms such as whatsapp, showcasing an unforeseen but significant advancement in digital literacy. this development became a crucial means of empowerment, providing women with indispensable skills for the contemporary world. the evidence was unequivocal in demonstrating women's heightened self-assurance and proficiency in utilizing digital tools for community mobilization, health education, and economic prospects. women's digital empowerment through "jogo tonggo" provides enduring advantages for their participation in the digital economy and society. a revolutionary change in gender dynamics within karang nangka is reflected in the "jogo tonggo" initiative, which greatly empowered women through leadership roles. at first, the involvement of women in leadership roles was minimal. nevertheless, the program's inclusive methodology fostered an atmosphere where women emerged as leaders. women's empowerment was demonstrated as they took on responsibility for different aspects of the program, such as organizing health initiatives and leading community support groups. their leadership facilitated program success and provoked and transformed community perceptions regarding women's leadership aptitude. the evidence manifested in the heightened esteem and acknowledgment of women's contributions, indicating a more encompassing societal shift towards gender parity. the conclusion is evident – the leadership positions that women have taken on through "jogo tonggo" have provided them with personal and professional empowerment while establishing a foundation for ongoing advancements in gender equality within community leadership. in karang nangka, the "jogo tonggo" program greatly enhanced women's social networks, creating a transformative sense of togetherness and support for one another. the strengthening of social connections played a crucial role during the pandemic, offering a vital support system for navigating the challenges posed by covid19. women facilitated the exchange of information, resources, and emotional support, strengthening the community's resilience. the enlarged social network facilitated the program's goals and fostered a culture of collaboration and empowerment among women, establishing the basis for ongoing communal support and involvement. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 2; 2024 6 published by ideas spread through creating opportunities for women to participate in and initiate economic activities, the "jogo tonggo" program in karang nangka facilitated women's economic empowerment. this empowerment originated from the necessity for inventive solutions to the economic challenges posed by the pandemic, motivating women to utilize their newly acquired roles and skills. women utilized the program to engage in small-scale business activities, utilizing local connections and digital resources to promote their goods and services. those experiences bolstered their financial autonomy while positively contributing to the local economy, showcasing the program's broader impact on sustainable economic development within the community. the women in karang nangka encountered many difficulties during "jogo tonggo," such as early resistance to their expanded public roles and learning curves with new digital tools. nevertheless, their ability to overcome these challenges was genuinely extraordinary. these women displayed notable flexibility through consistent participation in program activities and utilizing their enhanced social connections for assistance. this resilience contributed to the program's success and highlighted the transformative impact of empowerment initiatives in constructing stronger and more inclusive communities. the "jogo tonggo" program substantially changed perceptions of women's roles in karang nangka. as women took on leadership and entrepreneurial positions, their contributions became more apparent, questioning conventional gender norms and reshaping attitudes toward women's abilities and rights. this shift acknowledged the crucial role of women in community resilience and development while promoting a more inclusive and fairer society. it also established the groundwork for further progress in achieving gender equality. the "jogo tonggo" program will have a long-lasting effect on women's empowerment in karang nangka, laying the groundwork for future individual and communal growth. the skills, leadership positions, and networks women have cultivated through this initiative continue to apply to forthcoming challenges and opportunities. this sustainable empowerment represents a transition toward a more inclusive and resilient community where women's contributions are essential for success and progress. 4.2 discussion karang nangka's community's response to the covid-19 pandemic is highlighted by the "jogo tonggo" initiative, which promotes the idea of community resilience. figure 3 illustrates how the introduction of this program prompted a united and thorough effort to address the issues brought about by the epidemic, emphasizing the significance of unity and teamwork. the recognition that the collective ability to withstand and reduce the impact of the pandemic was of utmost importance, as it relied on the shared responsibility and actions of the community. the communal resilience was evident through the coordinated dissemination of health information, implementation of safety protocols, and support provided to vulnerable community members. the "jogo tonggo" initiative not only enhanced the community's capacity to endure and bounce back from the challenges posed by the pandemic but also demonstrated the inherent capability of community-led initiatives to promote resilience and unity during times of crisis. figure 3. the community's role in establishing a task force to address covid-19 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 2; 2024 7 published by ideas spread the "jogo tonggo" program was instrumental in mobilizing the community's response to the covid-19 pandemic in karang nangka; this initiative functioned as a pivotal platform for enabling community-driven endeavors, such as disseminating health information, coordinating safety measures, and providing assistance to financially affected households. the community showcased exceptional flexibility and cohesion through "jogo tonggo," highlighting the program's success in promoting a collective reaction to unprecedented difficulties, ultimately strengthening community resilience and solidarity. implementing the "jogo tonggo" initiative bolstered community involvement and active participation in karang nangka, promoting a collaborative approach towards addressing the pandemic. the initiative's framework fostered extensive participation from individuals across different age groups, encompassing diverse activities such as health education, mask distribution, and sanitation. involving everyone in the participation not only distributed the tasks evenly but also fostered a feeling of shared obligation and solidarity, which was crucial in the joint effort to combat covid-19. implementing "jogo tonggo" significantly increased community engagement, demonstrating the program's effectiveness in mobilizing collective action and participation. integrating digital platforms through the "jogo tonggo" initiative was pivotal in facilitating community response efforts amidst the pandemic. these tools enabled effective communication, coordination of health campaigns, and distribution of crucial information, which are pivotal in overcoming obstacles posed by physical distancing. the initiative's effective utilization of digital platforms highlights the significance of technology in augmenting community coordination and resilience. enacting health and safety protocols to fight covid-19 in karang nangka was primarily made possible by the "jogo tonggo" initiative. the program effectively ensured public health by mobilizing community members to participate in preventive measures, including wearing masks, practicing hand hygiene, and maintaining physical distancing. this approach showcases the efficacy of community-driven health initiatives in tackling pandemic challenges, emphasizing the significance of collective effort and compliance with safety protocols for the community's welfare. the "jogo tonggo" initiative played a pivotal role in initiating economic support measures, facilitating community-led economic initiatives, and establishing support systems to alleviate the financial repercussions of the pandemic. by combining the efforts of many people, the program offered immediate assistance to those impacted. it promoted long-lasting economic growth in the community, demonstrating the effectiveness of local initiatives in tackling more significant economic issues. the community encountered and overcame several obstacles during the "jogo tonggo" initiative, including initial skepticism and logistical limitations. these challenges were overcome by utilizing collaborative problem-solving and flexible strategies, such as utilizing digital tools for coordination and improving community communication. the community's commitment to the program's success and collective well-being is highlighted by their resilience and adaptability, demonstrating the strength and potential of communal efforts in navigating crises. the "jogo tonggo" program provided important lessons about community response and resilience. the main takeaways encompass the significance of involving the entire community, the efficiency of utilizing digital tools for coordination, and the necessity of flexible strategies to tackle unexpected obstacles. these observations emphasize the possibility of community-driven endeavors to navigate emergencies, emphasizing the importance of readiness, cooperation, and originality in promoting resilient communities. after implementing the "jogo tonggo" initiative, the prospects are positive, highlighting the program's enduring influence on community resilience and preparedness. the experience has established a basis for forthcoming community-driven endeavors, emphasizing the significance of collaborative efforts, technological integration, and flexible approaches in tackling obstacles. this perspective indicates that communities are more prepared to confront future emergencies with reinforced social connections, improved digital skills, and a validated framework for efficient community involvement and reaction. 4.3 challenges and successes: a detailed look at 'jogo tonggo's' implementation and impact community mobilization proved to be an essential but challenging project in karang nangka village's "jogo tonggo" program, exemplifying the essence of grassroots empowerment in the face of the covid-19 pandemic. the initiative's success relied on transforming prevalent fear into unified action, a challenge requiring strategic communication and deep empathy. at first, the program faced reluctance from volunteers who feared being exposed to the virus due to widespread uncertainty. nevertheless, the program gradually surmounted these apprehensions by utilizing the inherent communal ethos and a collective sense of obligation. the training sessions, led by healthcare professionals, provided volunteers with crucial skills and knowledge, resulting in a shift from hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 2; 2024 8 published by ideas spread anxiety to self-assurance. the implementation of this pedagogical strategy, along with clear and consistent communication regarding the significance of collaborative health endeavors, cultivated a nurturing atmosphere. the mobilization process highlighted the crucial importance of trust and solidarity in public health interventions, ultimately forming a solid volunteer force committed to reducing the impact of the pandemic. the initiative "jogo tonggo" demonstrated the effectiveness of community mobilization in public health strategies by actively involving local volunteers. this approach can serve as a model for future crisis response and resilience-building efforts. ensuring the efficacy of its covid-19 response, karang nangka village's "jogo tonggo" initiative strongly emphasized capacity building and training. the program arranged extensive training sessions by healthcare professionals to ensure its volunteers possess accurate knowledge and skills. the sessions addressed fundamental subjects, including utilizing personal protective equipment, methods for health monitoring, and safety protocols for covid-19. this strategic approach provided the volunteers with the essential resources to effectively serve their community and enhanced their confidence, allowing them to carry out their responsibilities more efficiently. the efficacy of this training module highlights the significance of enhancing the capabilities of communities in addressing public health issues, showcasing that through adequate knowledge and resources, community volunteers can assume a crucial function in handling health emergencies. we have seen in figure 4. implementing the "jogo tonggo" health protocol program has revealed the intricate nature of enforcing health initiatives in the community, with both triumphs and obstacles. the central focus of this endeavor revolved around maintaining a delicate equilibrium between complying with essential health protocols and honoring local customs and traditions. the program's leadership successfully addressed these challenges by actively involving the community and providing comprehensive education. this approach ensured that health protocols were not only put into practice but also took into account cultural considerations and gained widespread acceptance. implementing this strategic approach facilitated community adherence and involvement, ultimately enhancing the program's efficacy in curtailing the transmission of covid-19 in karang nangka village. the experience highlights the significance of flexibility, effective communication, and obtaining support from the community when implementing health protocols in various environments. figure 4. the contribution of rural women to the success of the "jogo tonggo" program community surveillance has become essential to the "jogo tonggo" initiative, skillfully striking a balance between alertness and privacy protection. the strategy relied on precisely monitoring health symptoms and potential covid-19 cases, facilitated by the volunteer network. this system facilitated prompt identification and rapid response, emphasizing the significance of community engagement in monitoring public health. the dedication of the volunteers and the confidence placed in them by the community was crucial, allowing for efficient surveillance without causing anxiety or social disapproval. this study emphasized the capacity of community-driven initiatives hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 2; 2024 9 published by ideas spread in handling public health emergencies, illustrating that efficiently coordinated monitoring can reduce the transmission of illnesses while upholding social unity. community engagement in health initiatives is robust, as demonstrated by the "jogo tonggo" program's success in increasing public awareness and education about covid-19. the initiative successfully spread accurate information and countered false information, creating a situation where community members were knowledgeable about the virus, preventive measures, and the significance of vaccination. the educational outreach, which involved effective communication and the establishment of trust, played a crucial role in achieving greater adherence to health guidelines and increased vaccination rates. this initiative showcases the importance of implementing extensive public awareness campaigns based on community engagement and customized messaging, as they play a vital role in effectively addressing public health emergencies. the "jogo tonggo" program, which strongly emphasized public education and awareness, successfully filled in knowledge gaps about covid-19 by highlighting the importance of vaccinations and prevention strategies. the strategy involved mobilizing volunteers to distribute precise health information and combat false information, creating a setting where community members were educated and empowered to make health-conscious choices. this approach emphasized the significance of trust and transparent communication in public health initiatives, demonstrating how well-informed communities can improve disease control by actively participating and following health guidelines. during the covid-19 pandemic, the "jogo tonggo" program demonstrated creative ways to make the most of scarce resources by addressing resource allocation issues. the initiative effectively allocated personal protective equipment and health monitoring tools to volunteers, ensuring that frontline responders were adequately equipped. the meticulous allocation of resources highlighted the importance of flexibility and strategic foresight in public health endeavors, demonstrating that despite limited resources, effective community health interventions can be achieved through collaborative efforts and ingenuity. in the fight against the covid-19 pandemic, the "jogo tonggo" program demonstrated the strength of communal support and unity. the residents of karang nangka village exhibited extraordinary resilience by engaging in mutual aid, assuming shared responsibility, and taking collective action. the solidarity among community members enabled the implementation of effective public health measures, such as following protocols and assisting affected families. the success of the "jogo tonggo" initiative can be attributed to its adaptability and flexibility, which allowed it to respond to the changing circumstances of the covid-19 pandemic effectively. the program demonstrated adaptability by continuously modifying protocols, activities, and community engagement strategies by updating information and evolving public health guidelines. the initiative's adaptability ensured its continued relevance and effectiveness, emphasizing the significance of being responsive to changing circumstances in public health endeavors. beyond the immediate covid-19 response efforts, the "jogo tonggo" program's sustainability and legacy demonstrate its impact. it promoted enduring community resilience and health consciousness, showcasing the importance of empowering local volunteers in public health endeavors. the lasting significance of sustainable community engagement and education in promoting long-term resilience in public health is emphasized by this. 5. discussion regarding community-driven strategies for responding to public health emergencies, the "jogo tonggo" initiative provides insightful information. the program's success underscores the effectiveness of localized, grassroots strategies in addressing crises such as the covid-19 pandemic. the evidence from karang nangka village illustrates that granting communities the authority to assume responsibility for health initiatives can produce favorable results. the decentralized structure facilitated swift mobilization, tailored interventions, and widespread engagement, facilitating an efficient response to the pandemic. although government policies are still important, this case study demonstrates the essentiality of incorporating community-led initiatives for comprehensive public health strategies. this approach combines official directives with adaptability and mobilization at the ground level. the "jogo tonggo" model offers a framework for integrating community empowerment into emergency response frameworks in various locations. important new information about women's empowerment programs and their function in crisis management is added by the "jogo tonggo" case study. the initiative's emphasis on advancing women's leadership and involvement yielded numerous socioeconomic advantages for the karang nangka community. the program facilitated the development of essential resources and empowerment by promoting female involvement in hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 2; 2024 10 published by ideas spread decision-making, providing training in digital skills, and fostering collaborative support networks. these advancements resulted in tangible accomplishments, ranging from coordinating health campaigns to pursuing entrepreneurial endeavors. although additional research is necessary, these results support the existing body of literature on the benefits of women's empowerment. this study addresses the need for more information regarding interventions in rural areas of indonesia. the program's model of promoting gender inclusion through roles in emergency response represents an innovative approach in this context. the resultant transformations can provide insights for policy frameworks to harness the capabilities of women in enhancing community resilience. a key lesson from the "jogo tonggo" initiative is the importance of comprehensive and integrated strategies in promoting community empowerment. the program implemented a comprehensive approach that effectively improved the village's social capital, economic participation, health literacy, and leadership skills. the program facilitated interconnected benefits across different domains, fostering empowerment. the resulting resilience is from the amalgamation of various reinforcing components rather than individual factors. it highlights the necessity for intersectional policy and grassroots interventions that effectively tackle diverse needs and priorities in a synchronized manner. single-issue initiatives may be ineffective in leveraging synergistic effects and may need to pay more attention to critical dimensions of empowerment. studying the comprehensive approach used in karang nangka can guide developing community empowerment programs tailored to specific cultures and encompass multiple dimensions on a global scale. leveraging social capital and community cohesion for public health gains is made possible by the "jogo tonggo" case study, which provides insightful information. the program fostered a sense of collective unity, reciprocal support, and coordinated engagement, which played a crucial role in surmounting the challenges posed by the pandemic. the case study confirms substantial evidence regarding the effectiveness of social capital in promoting community resilience. although biomedicine continues to be crucial, initiatives based on social cohesion can facilitate compliance, monitoring, and essential relief efforts for health. facilitating the connection between structured systems and local communities is crucial for fostering trust and collaboration. karang nangka is an example of how informal social networks were utilized with official health systems to respond to the pandemic collaboratively. policymakers should acknowledge communities as collaborative partners and valuable assets rather than passive recipients or subjects. it is necessary to realign formal structures to enhance, rather than overpower or supplant, the existing social capital and knowledge inherent in communities. participatory approaches are valuable in public health campaigns, as demonstrated by the "jogo tonggo" experience. the program's success was supported by the active involvement of community members as implementers and stakeholders rather than just being passive recipients. utilizing participatory communication strategies resulted in a greater extent of dissemination and impact for health messaging than conventional materials. although biomedical and technical expertise remains essential, community involvement is vital for achieving localization and sustainability. by incorporating local perspectives, requirements, and observations through codesign methodologies, the effectiveness of health initiatives is significantly enhanced. in addition to interventions, the case study showcases the importance of participatory research methods in comprehending community dynamics, health behaviors, and local response mechanisms. it is essential to incorporate participatory approaches that enhance the abilities and priorities of the community to create health systems that prioritize the needs of individuals. community health workers play a critical role in crisis response and recovery, as the karang nangka case study demonstrated. the volunteers of "jogo tonggo" facilitated crucial activities such as surveillance, education, distribution of resources, and coordination, which were essential for controlling the pandemic. the pattern is consistent with the widely recognized importance of community health workers in addressing various health issues, including infectious diseases and maternal and child health. the close integration and confidence cultivated a level of acceptance and availability that external service providers cannot match. the pandemic's effects have also highlighted their capacity to offer psychosocial support suitable for different cultures. the integration of community health workers needs to be improved in numerous health systems. nevertheless, this initiative showcases their indispensable function of connecting communities and formal services. comprehensive primary healthcare strategies should prioritize the reinforcement and assistance of decentralized community health worker networks and clinical interventions. the covid-19 pandemic has highlighted the significance of digital literacy and access in providing health services, education, and communication. the "jogo tonggo" initiative relied heavily on digital platforms to facilitate coordination, telehealth consultations, and economic connections, overcoming limitations in mobility. the trend emphasizes the growing acknowledgment of digital abilities as a vital factor influencing people's health. continuing digital disparities based on socioeconomic, gender, and geographic factors worsen inequalities in times of crisis. the program's notable achievement lies in its ability to enhance digital skills and improve access for rural hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 2; 2024 11 published by ideas spread women, which has significant implications for their resilience and mobility. focused endeavors are crucial for expanding access to digital resources, moving beyond passive consumption, and promoting informed utilization for health and economic empowerment. prioritizing the integration of suitable technologies while overcoming obstacles to ensure meaningful utilization among diverse social groups is essential. in health emergencies, the "jogo tonggo" case highlights the importance of local creativity and resourcefulness in maximizing scarce resources. during the disruption of formal supply chains, locally available materials were utilized to create straightforward solutions, such as cloth masks, sanitizers, and monitoring tools. economic innovation and spontaneous problem-solving are essential for improving healthcare accessibility in settings with limited resources. local knowledge and entrepreneurial efforts can address the deficiencies caused by hierarchical systems. the program additionally devised pioneering economic and social initiatives customized to meet the community's specific requirements. it is crucial to enable and integrate grassroots innovation instead of solely depending on external interventions. policy measures should actively promote and expand local innovation while establishing connections with established support systems. the "jogo tonggo" initiative provides priceless insights into community-centered public health strategies that could be locally adapted worldwide; it showcases the efficacy of participatory, socially integrated models in enhancing accessibility, maximizing scarce resources, and facilitating emergency response. the project's emphasis on women's empowerment highlights the necessity of employing intersectional strategies that consider gender, economic, and social equality. local ingenuity and solidarity are essential supplements, rather than substitutes, for formalized systems. achieving universal health requires effectively combining and utilizing the complete capabilities of both entities synergistically. above all, the program represents the essential collective assets of communities, such as their inherent wisdom, agency, and solidarity, in promoting health. the program necessitates a significant change in how we think about and structure health systems, focusing on placing communities at the core rather than on the outskirts. their empowerment must be essential, not secondary, to the path ahead. 6. conclusion the "jogo tonggo" case study provides valuable insights into community-driven strategies for responding to public health emergencies and promoting women's empowerment by mobilizing resources during crises. the key findings indicate that localized, participatory models have successfully increased access, maximized limited resources, and facilitated a flexible response to the pandemic. the initiative emphasizes the importance of community capabilities and ingenuity as essential but often overlooked additions to formal health systems. the strategic emphasis on women's leadership and capacity building has resulted in clear advantages, particularly in utilizing social capital and resilience. quantitative data provided evidence for various aspects of socioeconomic empowerment and improvements in health. the qualitative evidence offered nuanced viewpoints on collaborative mobilization, which have implications for policy frameworks incorporating grassroots partnerships. this study broadens the existing body of evidence regarding the importance of community participation, gender inclusion, and social resilience in primary health care and emergency preparedness. it provides clear and precise examples of effective strategies for incorporating community health workers into healthcare systems. the chosen mixed-methods research design showcases locally based, participatory approaches for studying intricate community dynamics. contextual insights enhance the limited understanding of women's empowerment programs in rural indonesia. moreover, the emphasis on sustainability, innovation, and symbiosis with formal systems extends the scope of community health discourse beyond individual interventions. the research provides empirical and methodological contributions to enhance people-centered and equitable policymaking. the results of this localized qualitative case study might be less transferable to other socioeconomic and cultural contexts. extensive mixed-methods research can enhance comprehension in various contexts. longitudinal studies can be conducted to evaluate the program's long-term effects as it progresses. comparative studies can clarify differences in the level of success and influence of implementation among different communities. future endeavors involve measuring the correlation between particular program activities and health indicators. examining cross-sector collaboration with sectors such as education, livelihoods, and governance can also illuminate interconnections. this groundbreaking case study establishes the basis for further extensive research on community participation as a crucial component of health systems that prioritize the needs of individuals. acknowledgment the authors are grateful to universitas jenderal soedirman (unsoed) for providing the facilities and support for this research. we gratefully acknowledge the institute for research and community service (lppm) of unsoed for generously providing money for this project. we thank the local government agencies, community organizations, and karang nangka village leaders for their invaluable assistance and cooperation as stakeholders hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 2; 2024 12 published by ideas spread during the data collection. we thank the enumerators and students from the faculty of social and political sciences for their rigorous efforts as data collectors and transcribers, which were crucial for completing this study. we want to acknowledge the research team members for their diligent work, wisdom, and teamwork, which were essential for the success of this project. reference alkomari, a. 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(2021). pandemic precarity: covid-19 is exposing and exacerbating inequalities in the american heartland. proceedings of the national academy of sciences, 118(8). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2020685118 xiong, j., lipsitz, o., nasri, f., lui, l., gill, h., phan, l., chen-li, d., iacobucci, m., ho, r., majeed, a., & mcintyre, r. (2020). impact of covid-19 pandemic on mental health in the general population: a systematic review. journal of affective disorders, 277, 55-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.08.001 yudiansyah, a. (2020). the role of the jogo tonggo program in the empowerment of the new normal era hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 2; 2024 15 published by ideas spread community in central java province, 1, 15-20. https://doi.org/10.52473/ijir.v1i1.8 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v3n3p10 10 published by ideas spread the prevalence of and factors contributing to assessment malpractice at the national university of lesotho pulane j. lefoka1 1 centre for teaching and learning, national university of lesotho, lesotho correspondence: pulane j. lefoka, centre for teaching and learning, national university of lesotho, lesotho received: august 6, 2020; accepted: august 18, 2020; published: august 18, 2020 the research was financed by the national university of lesotho. abstract this article draws its content from a study that investigated the prevalence of and factors contributing to assessment malpractice by students at the national university of lesotho (nul) during assessment activities. the study was carried out in response to a general outcry regarding malpractices that abound in all forms of assessments. the main objectives of the study were to investigate the following: the extent to which examination malpractice during assessment activities was a problem at the nul. data was collected through the use of questionnaires. both quantitative and qualitative data were captured and analysed using computer programmes. the study has revealed that assessment malpractice is prevalent at the national university of lesotho and that a number of factors are contributory to the situation. keywords: assessment, malpractice, cheating, contributory factors, prevalent, investigate 1. introduction introduction of the problem teaching and learning institutions use a variety of assessment methods to assess student performance. examinations in educational institutions, are used for specific purposes including determine promotion of students into the next level or dismissing them if they perform poorly. however, institutions encounter problems in situations where students engage in malpractice. reports on cheating in examinations in various parts of the world and at various levels of education systems indicate that examination malpractice in any form of assessment is a serious problem. it also comes to light that cheating is on the increase especially at various levels of education systems including universities (nenty & tsheko, 2005, teferra, 2001). the study carried out at nul established the extent to which students are involved in malpractice during the various forms of assessments in which they are involved. these forms of assessing students include tests, projects, assignments and examinations. incidents of assessment malpractice at nul have been reported in the past and continue to be reported by invigilators in particular. a compilation of invigilators’ reports submitted to the relevant units of the university indicates that there are numerous problems which impinge on assessment malpractice, especially during examinations. in particular, the invigilators’ reports make reference to certain issues and habits or practices that contribute to assessment malpractices, especially during the undertaking of examination activities. some of these are the status of examination halls; the use of toilet facilities during examination sessions; types of materials that students bring to the examination halls; personnel in charge of administration of examinations at all levels; printing errors; and non-compliance with regulations. however, regardless of the reported number of malpractice cases, the national university of lesotho has never undertaken a study that might inform it about assessment malpractice and factors that contribute to the situation. with what has been said thus far, the objectives of the study, therefore, were to investigate the extent to which assessment malpractice is a problem at nul taking into consideration factors such as administrative-related, student-related, staff-related, test-related and society-related factors; and the extent to which gender has an influence on cheating during assessment activities and whether or not the university’s regulations have any influence on cheating during assessment activities. these objectives were adapted from brimble and stevensonclark (2005) and nenty and tsheko (2005). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 11 published by ideas spread the study was undertaken to address an institutional problem which relates to social matters. students some of whom have passed examinations through malpractice entre the public space not qualified to serve society. this means the institutions of higher learning is sending out to the society a low calibre of products. the study ought to be consistently undertaken to ensure that in the final analysis the institution gives back to the society quality products. therefore, this type of study needs to be undertaken every three years to ensure that malpractice is uprooted. the literature points to research on malpractice that has been undertaken in various institutions by researchers such as nenty & tsheko, (2003); stevensonclarke, (2003); singh, (1984) who indicate that there is ample literature based on research undertaken in the area. these researchers motivated the efforts to research factors contributing to malpractice at the national university of lesotho. the literature indicates that malpractice is a common problem in higher education. to adelaku and lawal (2008), “there are consequential effects of examination malpractice which include erosion of confidence in the education system; loss of credibility in the education assessment; examination agencies discredited, leading to a loss of confidence in the certificates that are issued by the agencies; the rising cost of conducting examinations when massive leakage is established; cancellation of results causing undue suffering to innocent students; increased corruption levels in a society; and eventual retardation of national development” (p.62) 2. methodologically the study gathered data from students in faculties and the institute of extra mural studies, staff and personnel in administration as well as external invigilators. given the assumption that assessment malpractice is a problem at the national university of lesotho, all faculties and teaching institutes participated in the study. that being the case, the population of the study consisted of students, lecturers and administrators at faculty and university levels. a systematic sample of students was used across the various faculties and institutes. a similar approach was used for the survey of teaching staff, but some faculty and relevant examination administrative staff members were selected in a purposive manner for interviewing. the offices of deans, those of the vice-chancellor, the pro vicechancellor and the university registrar were also included in interviews. research information for the study was collected through three methods. these methods are review and analysis of documents such as external examiners’ reports, survey by questionnaire administered to the various groups, and structured interviews. 3. results it was absolutely crucial to find the students’ understanding of the concept under investigation. hence, in this findings section of the paper, one of the issues presented is the students’ understanding of the various terms used whenever addressing assessment malpractice. during the study, the students were asked to select one statement which they thought meant the same as the term “academic malpractice” from a list of four. table 1 shows the breakdown of responses. table 1. students’ understanding of the concept academic malpractice statement of meaning frequency % academic dishonesty 422 49.9 copying 284 33.6 academic misconduct 72 8.5 academic malpractice 56 6.6 other (not specified) 11 1.3 total responses 845 100.0 half of the students preferred the term “academic dishonesty”. nevertheless, the fact that one-third equated assessment malpractice with “copying” suggests that this is the most common form in their academic context. 3.1 terminology used different meanings of cheating abound in the world of academics. the university of botswana (2007) describes cheating as using or attempting to use unauthorised materials, information, or study aids in any academic work. examples include (university of botswana, 2007, p. 3) obtaining tests, assignments and examination questions by any means; having in one’s possession or using any unauthorized material in assessment or examinations; copying or attempting to copy from the work of hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 12 published by ideas spread another student; submitting the same piece of work in more than one course; submitting a ‘take home’ piece of academic work that has been written in full or in part by someone else. over and above describing malpractice, the university of botswana considers the following terms as also describing academic dishonesty: falsification and fabrication, collusion, plagiarism and academic fraud. this university concludes that any particular form of cheating is also regarded as an example of misconduct in examinations under its policy on academic honesty for students (university of botswana, 2007). the national university of lesotho students, besides being familiar with the numerous terms used worldwide to describe assessment malpractice behaviour, indicated that they use mainly their own terminology that they are familiar with. most of the terms in table 2 relate to war or are of a weaponry nature, with the exception of a few phrases which suggest preparedness and bravery. some of the phrases are sesotho (local language) proverbs, which are far off in meaning to assessment malpractice. these proverbs have been cunningly distorted to suit acts of cheating that students engage in. table 2. terminology and concepts used by students terms in sesotho/words and phrases translation interpretation koto knobkerrie a piece of paper on which students have written notes that they could use in an examination. koantsanyane a spear-like weapon also, a piece of paper on which students have written notes that they could use in an examination. referencing working out details of references in an academic paper colleague to act as reference, or piece of written material to act as reference giraffeing acting like a giraffe implying stretching a neck in order to see from a distance – could be from own notes displayed in a manner known to the student or copying from another student’s work morathatha a massive deadly rifle which releases several bullets at a time with a thunderous sound implies bringing more material, instead of a piece of paper. this could be a page or pages ak47 (russian made) same as morathatha also implies more materials open book borrowed from an open book test dubbing copying music from one disc to the other reproduce materials as is from class or notes takes in class re ja sehoete we eat a carrot implies that a student’s sight is sharp because they eat carrots/able to read very small handwriting from the pieces of paper in which they have written notes lerumo la koebe three-pronged deadly spear no matter how high the cost of copying or cheating phrases lekanyane ho phela le liretse (sesotho proverb) one has to work hard to reap success they will pass only if they cheat khomo ha li na mo tloha pele (sesotho proverb) even if one missed out on a head start, one can still succeed through hard work khomo li hana o li roballa teleha (sesotho proverb) success/reward does not come easy – one has to struggle for a while it does not matter how hard one studies; others will still catch up with them in the examinations by cheating. even those who are hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 13 published by ideas spread not studying hard will still pass through foul means – essence of time ea lla koto ea khutla naha (political slogan) distinction, first class, second class and nmds funding an old political slogan by the bcp party, which was popularly used during the peak of political activity in lesotho during the struggle for independence. it essentially made reference to land that lesotho historically lost to the republic of south africa unless you bring a piece of paper, you will forfeit getting a pass in an examination and consequently receiving a scholarship offered by the national manpower development secretariat (nmds) sefelekoane beta pelo o kene koetseng (sesotho proverb) be brave and face the odds used in a situation where a student finds that an examination is so difficult that he has to be courageous to use cheating strategies or “if you can’t beat them join them” monna ha a sie lihlomo ha a ea ntoeng (sesotho proverb) a man does not go to war unarmed, i.e. he has to be fully armed students should not leave behind prepared materials when going into examination halls/rooms most importantly, these words imply taking risks and being prepared to do so. summerson and farley (2009), in their article on “predicators of college achievement”, refer to farley (1991), who writes on thrill seeking, this being a personality trait in people who are risk-takers and are motivated by variety, novelty, intensity and uncertainty. however, in these authors’ context, thrill-seeking students would be those who thrive in an academic environment where there is a high level of stimulation when compared to their opposites who do not need as much stimulation. it would seem that nul students who are involved in academic malpractice are thrill seekers of a different type. they are thrilled by achieving academic excellence by foul means. the varied terminology used seems to confirm what the literature suggests, which is that a number of strategies are employed whenever students are involved in assessment malpractice actions. there are serious implications for the current status in which students seem to perfect their skills in academic dishonesty, as opposed to learning or perfecting their skills in attaining knowledge and skills during their studies at the university. therefore, the use of these terms implies that students have strategies for ensuring that they are never caught cheating. this view is confirmed by singh (1984) who found that students tend to establish that those who cheat are hardly ever caught. studying the cases of students who engage in assessment malpractice confirms that it is difficult to get caught and that even when a student has been caught cheating, little is done about his or her future in academic arenas. a sample of 20 cases of students who were caught cheating during the final examination of the academic year 2008/2009 at the national university of lesotho clearly illustrated the point. seventeen out of the 20 students who copied pleaded guilty. they all brought notes on various coloured papers including the green papers used by the university for printing examinations papers. they, except in one case where a student had photocopied material, entered the examination room with these papers, having used very small handwriting to write notes. a student who argued that he had not brought the paper into the examination room deliberately, explained: usually when i read, i write all my notes on a page and use a technique called photographic memory, which always aids me in tests because i make pictures of all pages in my mind. on this day, although i woke up early, that is at dawn to study, i wrote all the notes in two pages and started picture photographing it; i read the pages about 50 times, as that aid to have them implemented in my brain. 3.2 extent to which assessment malpractice is a problem at nul both the staff and the students who participated in the study were asked to indicate the extent to which they thought examination malpractice was a problem at nul, selecting one of the alternatives: “not serious”, “serious”, “very serious” and “extremely serious”. while a majority of each of the groups that responded to the question felt assessment malpractice was a problem, it would seem that the students, more than the staff, think that cheating is an extremely serious problem. staff members were further asked to explain why they thought assessment malpractice was a serious problem at nul. they said it was serious because, in every examination, at all levels of study and in other forms of assessment, students were caught cheating – students “do it at any cost”. they thought it was so rampant that some students considered it normal to engage in assessment malpractice activities. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 14 published by ideas spread staff members were further asked about the prevalence of cheating in assessment activities among nul students. only four (9%) of the respondents thought cheating was not widespread. these respondents mentioned that cases of assessment malpractice that are usually reported are few in relation to the huge number of students who may sit for an examination or write an assignment at one given time. however, 60% of the staff members said that assessment malpractice was a widespread phenomenon at nul. a variety of reasons were given to justify this impression. it was mentioned that every year, in every examination and across all faculties, students are caught cheating. nonetheless, some staff members expressed the view that cheating is more widespread in faculties or departments where there are many students. it was revealed that staff always report finding pieces of notes strewn on the examination hall floor or in toilets. the pieces of paper are said to be called “koantsanyane”/spear. staff members also said it is not uncommon to find two or more remarkably similar answers in a given test or assignment. students often justify this by saying answers may be similar because they discuss in groups. be that as it may, the invigilators’ reports, prepared after every examination, seemed to support the view that assessment malpractice is prevalent at nul. for example, they indicated that while no one was ever caught copying in a toilet setting, students’ note papers were found thrown in the toilets with pieces torn off, which makes one suspect that those were the relevant materials. 3.3 factors contributing to cheating during assessment activities the study has revealed that the following factors contribute to assessment malpractices: administration, staff and student-related; course-related; and assessment and society-related factors. 3.4 administrative-related factors the study has revealed that a number of administrative-related factors contribute to examination malpractice. these include insufficient infrastructure, unacceptable staff practices, admitting a large number of students, and inadequate university regulations. examination halls are too small for large numbers of students and are therefore congested, a situation which makes it easy for examinees to engage in malpractice activities. sitting arrangements and having different examinations of varying programmes written in the same hall at the same time also encourages the practice of copying. the handling of assessment materials, particularly examination papers, involves various people with different tasks. examination papers, although typed centrally by different secretarial staff every year, are handled by too many people. this involves the typing of examinations from departments and faculties to their retyping in the academic office and ultimately their printing. it is clear that part of the problem results from work undertaken in the university printing unit. for example, examination papers are sometimes wrongly collated by personnel in the university printing unit. the work of invigilators as personnel charged with the responsibility of supervising examinations is made difficult by the large population of students who sit for examinations at one time. one of the requirements is that students must be thoroughly checked prior to entering examination halls. however, there are some discrepancies. examinees enter examination halls with numerous documents that are not authenticated. this is regarded as one of the major administrative loopholes which perpetuate assessment malpractice. the tendency for lack of originality and poor referencing of materials used for research projects and assignments is linked to inadequate modern technology infrastructure. this is said to affect the rate at which students can access the latest research-based information. students and staff are in unison regarding the inadequacy of information access, which is much needed for strengthening intellectual development. there was a feeling that factors such as the inadequate number of invigilators at any given time, also contribute to cheating, a view expressed by 16 (35%) of the staff members. the reluctance of lecturers to invigilate during examinations was cited as the major contributor to poor invigilation. some respondents said that this gave rise to “too many students versus too few invigilators”. there was also a concern that was raised about too many students crowding small examination halls. twelve (27%) of the staff members felt that students do not have adequate space between them; hence, it becomes easy for them to organise their assessment malpractice activities. again, five (11%) of the staff members felt that the perpetuation of these unacceptable circumstances leads to leniency and reluctance to deal harshly with perpetrators. at times, wrong question papers end up in the examination halls, only to be discovered when students have to write, thus encouraging those who have seen the wrong paper to devise ways and means of cheating in the same examination when its proper time is due. the same question was addressed to the students. however, in their case, the question was not simply open-ended: students were given 17 prepared items to consider. they were asked to indicate, for each item, whether they hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 15 published by ideas spread considered it to be “not common”, “common”, “very common” or “extremely common” as a factor contributing to cheating. for practical purposes, the most fundamental distinctions are between those who are rating a given item as “not common” and those rating it as “common” or above that rating. it may be inferred from the statistics that a majority of nul students consider the following factors: a) sneaking in written material and using electronic materials; b) impersonating a student in examinations; c) allowing others to copy from one’s work; d) copying from others during examinations; e) giving answers by signals or codes; f) continuing to write after a test has finished; g) gaining unauthorised access to material; h) paying another person to complete a test; i) working together instead of individually; j) writing an assignment for someone else; k) copying directly without another student’s consent; l) copying directly from books or periodicals with no quotes; m) not reporting fellow students who cheat; n) copying directly from other students with consent; o) paraphrasing information without referencing; and p) requesting special consideration for deferment of examination to be common or above common, with four exceptions. three of these: using electronic materials, impersonating a student in examinations, and continuing to write after a test has finished, are rated by a clear majority as not common. furthermore, the t statistics for the differences between the proportions of “not common” and 0.5 are all significant (t = 4.57, 5.59 and 2.86 respectively). in the case of “gaining unauthorised access to material”, the opinion is divided, as the t statistic is not significant (t = 0.70 for the difference between the “common or above” proportion and 0.5). other points to note are that sneaking written material into tests and examination rooms, and copying from others during examinations were considered particularly prevalent. many students are apparently willing to allow others to copy from them, hence the use of the term giraffeing and are unwilling to report cheaters even if they do not cheat themselves. these responses help to show the extent to which cheating has become part of the student culture. the responses to the last item suggest that the university authorities are sometimes duped into allowing deferment of examinations to students who have no valid grounds for it. 3.5 staff-related factors it has been revealed that owing to their high level of absenteeism from examination halls and lackadaisical approach to their work, lecturers also contribute to the prevalence of malpractice at nul. to a large extent, students, more than staff, feel that once students are in an examination hall, they should be left alone to get on with the examination task. still, the tendency for lecturers is to make announcements that are intended to correct errors or make adjustments on examination papers. what seems to be lacking is paying more attention to such matters outside and prior to the actual examination sitting. this is also in keeping with the feeling that if lecturers were vigilant and committed to more organised and monitored operations, then errors would not have to be corrected in the examination halls. asked to give their opinion on staff practices that contribute to cheating, 16 (36%) of the staff members indicated that staff and invigilators do not pay attention to activities that could easily lead to cheating, while 14 (31%) indicated that the teaching staff lack assessment techniques. some staff members mentioned poor teaching methods as a factor, and others indicated that methods used to approach students who have been caught cheating contributed to the problem. commenting on assessment practices, the staff respondents mentioned the following additional factors: poor timing of tests; giving of irrelevant examinations; asking the same questions for both the internal test and the final hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 16 published by ideas spread examination. other factors included giving the same examination year after year; using a style of asking questions that is likely to encourage assessment malpractice; befriending printing staff; delegating the responsibility of tests invigilation to one’s own secretary; and giving students what is popularly known as “scope”. some staff members had this to say about what is popularly known as scope: it involves] providing the students with specifics of content when providing them with an examination scope. the practice of “scope” has a way of encouraging copying if students are not familiar with the topic. providing students with the scope of the examination and giving students possible examination questions. a view was expressed that some of the lecturers may not even be aware that giving a “scope” is leading students to assessment malpractice. other views indicate that some male lecturers befriend female students to the extent that such students tend to have access to an upcoming examination paper. with regard to teaching methods, some respondents had this to say: “not all lecturers/teaching staff members are trained on how to teach, how to approach students, how to prepare for teaching, how to interact with students and how to behave in class”. views on invigilators’ practice indicate that some of the lecturers frequently absent themselves from an examination room and/or leave students on their own. moreover, these lecturers are not vigilant, to the extent of occupying themselves with other activities instead of watching students who are likely to cheat. also, there are inconsistencies in the way they undertake their task. an example was given that some are very strict with the use of cellular phones while others are relaxed about it. however, there are opposing views as well. it was revealed that invigilators are overloaded. the reasons advanced for this view are that the number of examinees increases every year, yet that of invigilators is not revised; the number of invigilators is small to the extent that in situations where students send them around to locate their lecturers, some students use the same time to engage in cheating. another view is that external examiners compile reports every year, in which they allude to the fact that the assessment malpractice problem is escalating but that the university authorities have never taken these reports seriously. this assumption was based on the observation that the reports have never been used to inform major deliberations on how the problem of cheating can be tackled, even though these reports articulate the problems encountered and propose possible solutions. for example, one invigilator wrote, “invigilation of examinations at the university continues to present more and more experiences, surprises and new incidents every year”. regarding electricity blackouts, the invigilator wrote, “as the examinations were about to start, electricity went off and was not there throughout the morning session of the examinations”. she recommended: the idea of a standby facility or prior arrangement with those concerned, like the lesotho electricity corporation (lec), that there would be examinations running on the set days, [should] be explored well ahead of the time of examinations. university examinations, or any other operations for that matter, should not be exposed to such hazards and interruptions” (unpublished invigilators’ reports). the students who responded to this question seem to share similar views to those of the lecturers. they made reference to teaching techniques, which entail poor approaches towards imparting knowledge, dictating notes and rushing to cover the course content. they also indicated as practices that contribute to examination malpractice, the fact that lecturers tend to favour some students and discriminate against others to the extent of having conflicts with those that they discriminate against – a practice that in their view is highly unprofessional. respondents, particularly the staff, indicated that facilities which are in place to assist with photocopying but which are operated by staff can be a contributory factor to examination malpractice. as indicated earlier, cases where papers are wrongly collated are common. the case in point is that of the history examination paper, where one side of the paper was a history examination and the other was an english examination. it was noted that while invigilators may collect papers upon realising such a mistake, it is possible that due to the large population of students who sit for an examination against a small number of invigilators, students may hide such papers to either use them later, distribute to friends or even sell to colleagues. this form of negligence or irresponsibility, which is said to be demonstrated by both lecturers who never ensure that their papers are well collated and the printing staff, is regarded as one of the practices that could contribute to leakage of examination papers and consequently to malpractice. other staff-related factors include a course lecturer being absent on a day that his/her examination paper is being written. this practice is said to lead to chaos when invigilators have to locate such lecturers and leave the examination hall to an even smaller number of invigilators. it was revealed that students tend to take advantage of any situation that presents itself to engage in malpractice activities. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 17 published by ideas spread 3.6 course-related factors that contribute to cheating the study has revealed that there are some course-related factors which contribute to assessment malpractice. students register in courses that they know have a high failure rate. consequently, they tend to copy more in such courses. this tendency is attributed to a psychological connotation in that students imagine that it is a difficult course. both the staff and students were asked to indicate, by giving a rating on a five-point scale, the extent to which they agreed with the following statements: students are more likely to cheat in a course that has a high failure rate history; students are more likely to cheat in answering objective questions; knowledge of lecturers’ questions contributes to cheating; and cheating is more prevalent in certain courses, particularly those in science and agriculture – these are courses that use laboratories. some respondents supported the survey statements reported in the preceding paragraph as follows: where a course has a high failure rate history, such a course has psychological connotations in students’ minds – for them, it is a difficult course in which they are more likely to cheat; also, students are likely to cheat in answering objective questions owing to the regulation that for the first 15 minutes of the examination period, students are given an opportunity to read an examination paper and jot down points. this “blanket regulation” is not necessary for objective tests, but students take this opportunity to jot points down with the purpose of asking others for help where they have problems. the jotting down of points is understood to be relevant only to those students who are supposed to respond to an essay type of question; students tend to cheat in courses that involve figures. they tend to write formulas on wrapping paper for sweets or on papers hidden in calculators. regarding the extent to which students copy in a test or examination that involves objective type of questions, it would seem that respondents do not consider this to be much of a contributory factor. the study has revealed that knowledge of a lecturer’s style of asking questions has an influence on assessment malpractice. students tend to anticipate how possible types of questions could be asked in tests or examinations. it would seem that while cheating is not so much prevalent in certain courses, students copy across all courses. having said that, the qualitative data seems to suggest that assessment malpractice is more prevalent in courses that involve figures. staff members were asked to give their perceptions regarding why students cheat during assessment activities. asked to give reasons why students cheat, half (50%) of the staff expressed the view, “students do not want to fail”. it has been established that a number of assessment-related factors contribute to assessment malpractice. these include the difficulty level of questions, knowledge of possible questions to be asked, questions that do not correspond to the course outline, reference materials that are not reflected on the course outline, and poorly constructed questions. respondents were asked to indicate the level to which they agreed with statements on assessment-related factors that contribute to cheating during examinations and to give reasons for agreeing. the factors for which they had to indicate the extent to which they agreed are as follows: the level of difficulty of questions – students may be more likely to cheat if questions are difficult; prior knowledge of examination questions – students who somehow discover the likely form and content of questions may be more likely to carry notes for the purpose of copying; questions that do not correspond to the course outline – such questions may encourage students to cheat as a survival strategy; questions for which reference material is not listed in the course outline can also affect students’ writing in the examinations as well as low level type of questions – questions that require little more than simply recalling information make it easier to cheat by copying and so may encourage such behaviour. in conclusion, there are three main points to note. first, the factor of questions not corresponding to the course outline attracted high or very high agreement from a clear majority of students, the sample proportion being significantly above half (t = 3.35). secondly, prior knowledge of questions, as a factor, attracted high or very high agreement from half of the students and a large minority of the staff. thirdly, none of the other items attracted high levels of agreement. these points are consistent with what has been said earlier about the poor assessment skills of some lecturers and about the practice of giving a “scope” to students before an examination. nevertheless, whether examination questions are relatively easy or difficult may not make much difference to the likelihood of cheating. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 18 published by ideas spread 3.7 society-related factors there are society-related factors which put too much pressure on students. students enter university with good grades, and society tends to expect them to maintain a high level of performance regardless of university education demands. the majority of students who enrol with nul are sponsored by the government of lesotho. such students have to pass examinations and proceed into the next year of study in order to continue to be sponsored by government. in addition, those students who plan to pursue postgraduate studies have to perform very well in their undergraduate programmes. these society-related factors have been found to also contribute to cheating. in conclusion, a number of factors are confirmed as contributing to cheating during assessment activities. they relate to administration, staff, students, courses, assessment and the wider society. the study has revealed that a number of administrative factors contribute to examination malpractice. most importantly, the university itself does not have in place a clear policy on academic malpractice. 3.8 extent to which gender has an influence on assessment malpractice a question on the gender that copies most had been addressed both with the staff and with the students who participated in the study. the opinions given on this issue are summarised in table 3. table 3. which gender copies most: staff and student responses which gender staff students frequency per cent frequency per cent both 26 68.4 499 59.2 female 8 21.1 133 15.8 male 1 2.6 210 24.9 do not know 3 7.9 1 0.1 total responses 38 100 843 100 as reflected on the table 3, the consensus among both staff and students is that the rate of examination malpractice is similar for male and female students. two hundred and ten of the students who thought male and female students cheated equally said cheating was not gender-related. they said both male and female students had the same fears and insecurities towards examinations and tests, and that both male and female students were exposed to the same conditions and situations during examinations. their motives for cheating are the same. the common aim and goal are to pass and proceed to the next year or to complete studies at nul. the difference is the manner in which the genders do it. male students are braver and do not fear to be caught. female students are smarter and more discrete in the way they cheat. they said assessment malpractice at nul has become a “norm and a culture”: people just cheat; it does not matter whether one is male or female. staff also felt that both genders copy at the same rate because they are mixed in their discussion groups. it is in group discussions where members plan cheating strategies for tests and examinations. group members sit together in examination rooms so that they may help one another. staff members who felt that both male and female students cheat also said that cheating was not gender-related. they said both male and female students had equal chances of cheating. they said students behaved in the same way during examinations and tests; they panic irrespective of whether they are male or female. if they are not prepared for the examination or test, they will seek other means of passing – including cheating. students who thought male students copied more than female students said males were brave; others said they did not give themselves time to read but spent their time at the bar drinking and/or using drugs or spent time at the football pitch. others said most male students believed that cheating proves that one is a man; it is therefore a matter of peer pressure more than anything else. male students are high risk-takers and can do anything to pass, so they say. students who thought female students copied more than male students said it was because female students were “smart” when they copied. they copy in toilets, and the way in which they dress permits them to hide notes in their clothes, especially pregnant women, and invigilators do not search female students thoroughly. they further said that female students took advantage of the winter period to wear more clothes. these students said female students were not usually suspected of copying, so they did it easily because invigilators did not pay much attention to them. they also said that because female students are vulnerable, they tend to have relationships with male hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 19 published by ideas spread lecturers and want to please them. the students said that female students are sensitive to what is said about their studies and will go to extremes to make sure that they pass examinations. two of the three invigilators in particular – as ones who actually catch out the culprits – also thought that the rate of copying for male and female students was the same, but the manner in which copying was done was rather different. the invigilators also indicated that female students do it “tidily” and are more careful, while male students are “arrogant and careless”. it is concluded that this study has revealed that both male and female students get involved in assessment malpractice. this means that academic dishonesty is not related to gender. the difference is with regard to their strategies of cheating, in that the female students were seen to be discrete in their methods of cheating, while the male students were not. that both groups are involved is based on the understanding that they have a common desire, that of passing tests and examinations. 3.9 extent to which measures taken are stringent enough when asked to what extent measures taken to discourage students from cheating are stringent, 60% of the staff members felt they were not stringent enough, 24% said they were stringent enough, while 11% felt these measures were not stringent at all. the first group feels authorities are doing their best to address the situation – a view opposed by the latter groups, whose view is based mainly on the frequency of recurring incidents of cheating. this serves to indicate the inadequacy of punitive measures. 4. discussion the finding that cheating is a serious problem facing institutions of higher learning has been established by a number of researchers (nenty & tsheko, 2003; stevensonclarke, 2003; singh, 1984). the finding on the extent to which cheating is a problem at nul is strongly supported by documentation of cases reported by the invigilators during external examinations. the study has revealed that a number of factors are always at play during most assessment activities. these factors directly or indirectly contribute to assessment malpractice by students of the national university of lesotho. lecturers do or say things, consciously or unconsciously, which influence students’ cheating. students, on the other hand, engage in behaviours which are aimed at helping them cheat in assessment activities for a number of reasons justifiable only to themselves. the university itself cannot be absolved from contributing to cheating in one way or another. lack of clear policy on examinations, inadequate infrastructure and many other administrative shortcomings have a direct or indirect bearing on malpractice by students in assessment activities. staff habits and practices, which are influenced by the lack of clarity of regulations governing staff behaviour, have also been found to contribute to cheating by students. a fact that has strongly emerged from this study is that assessment malpractice is so widespread that students at nul do it “at all costs” as some staff members have pointed out. it has become so common that in the mind of some students, it is normal to cheat. it would seem that while students do understand what cheating means and the consequences of the act of cheating, they continue to cheat. each year, students seem to perfect their examination malpractice skills or come up with a new strategy for cheating. during the 2009 examinations, instances where identities were faked and students wrote whole examinations for others were reported. sometimes parts of the same examination (written in one examination folder) are written by different students in the presence of invigilators without the latter even realising it. a number of students ask to go to the toilet at the same time and are allowed to do so. when they come back from the toilet, they exchange seats and answer certain questions as agreed between them. then they go again to the toilet, and when they come back, they return to their respective seats. all these activities happen in the presence of invigilators who are oblivious of the exchange of seats and of the fact that the same students go to the toilet together every time. however, lecturers discover different handwritings in folders as they mark scripts. the university has introduced the learning management system (lms) had to run examinations using this during the cofid-19 period for the first time during the 2019/2020 academic year. it should be interesting to find out if use of this technology will deter students from engaging in malpractice or encourage them to use be even more engaged in examination malpractice. acknowledgements the study was carried out under the leadership of the university pro-vice chancellor professor mafa sejanamane. i thanked him for his support in approving that i use the university funds to undertake the study. i fully appreciate my former colleague mrs. khopotso molise who worked with me in undertaking the study. the university hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 3, no. 3; 2020 20 published by ideas spread lecturers and students who willingly participated in the study. a group of two students who captured the data made our work of analysing the data and producing the report manageable. references adelakum, a. a., & lawal, d. a. (2008). examination malpractice: a major challenge to public examinations in nigeria. (the waec experience). paper presented at 26th aeaa annual conference, accra, ghana. brimble, m., & stevensonclarke, p. (2005). prevalence of and penalties for academic dishonesty: perceptions of australian accounting students. unpublished research report. [give name of university.] farley, f. (1991). the type-t personality. i lipsett, l. & mitnick, l. self-regulatory behaviour and risk taking: causes and consequences. norwood, n.j.: ablex publication. nenty, h., & tsheko g. n. (2005). prevalence and determinants of copying during examination at university of botswana. unpublished paper presented during a research seminar at the university of botswana. singh, a. (1984). common sense about examinations. india, new delhi: oxford university press. summerson, j. b., & farley,j. (2009). predicators of college student achievement. retrieved from http://www.thefreelibrary.com/predicators+of+college+student+achievement teferra, d. (2001). academic dishonesty in african universities-trends, challenges, and repercussions an ethiopian case study. international journal of educational development, 21(2), 163-178. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0738-0593(00)00037-7 university of botswana. (2007). university of botswana revised academic honesty policy for students. unpublished policy statement. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v4n1p15 15 published by ideas spread museums and communication: the case of the louvre museum at the covid-19 age lara corona1 1 universitat internacional de catalunya (uic barcelona), spain correspondence: lara corona, universitat internacional de catalunya (uic barcelona), spain. orcid: 00000003-2602-9023. received: december 14, 2020; accepted: january 4, 2021; published: january 8, 2021 abstract in the last few decades, modern technology has changed the way people communicate. owing to being an integral part of society, museums have also been influenced by this phenomenon. this paper aims to provide a general overview of the main communication tools, such as social media and the website. this work's purpose is to highlight how museums can reach a bi-directional communication that allows society to maintain a certain interaction with visitors, even in periods when physical access to the collections is not possible. in order to achieve this goal, the essay deals with the adoption of the main tools of modern communication by the louvre museum in paris. it sets out the usage of instagram, facebook and the louvre.fr website and highlights the feedback before and after the lockdown occurred due to the covid-19 virus. keywords: communication, museums, digitalized collection, social media, virtual museum, louvre 1. introduction since the birth of the world wide web, museums have been dealing with digital activities in order to increase their strategic role in communication and public engagement. in the beginning, there were only museum web portals to be managed to make them more interactive and user-friendly. eventually, there have also been social media platforms, whose relevance cannot be ignored by museums. (michela zingone, 2019) the digital revolution has affected museums which reshaped their approach to public engagement, education and marketing. (monika stobiecka, 2019) the outbreak of the covid-19 has affected all sectors, including museums that have developed many initiatives through their social media accounts. 2. state of the art some authors have faced the topic of technology within museums, especially as tools to achieve effective communication skills. amongst the contributors, a recent contribution has been provided by nicolette mandarano who offers a picture of main social media. she focused on the figure of prosumers as an active part of the relationship between museums and visitors. (note 1) additionally, she reported how museums should communicate adequately. for that reason, she suggested some basic rules that museums should observe. (note 2) moreover, she pointed out that modern communication tools might be favourably used when there is criticism around museums in order to figure out the reason for it. another significant contribution was provided by fuentetaja and economou, who outlined how museums have been using web tools differently. (ion gil-fuentetaja & maria economou, 2019) they concluded that the type of content provided depends on the philosophy of communication of the museum itself. therefore, social media are the identity of the museum itself. besides them, de gottardo, gasparotti and d'eredità highlighted how this new communication manner has changed its shape over time. (2014) they argued that communication has already existed before social media appearance. according to these authors, social media are the natural evolution of traditional social networks. due to web 2.0, top-down communication has been replaced by word of mouth. (note 3) their contribution has been significant since underlines a modern way of visitors' engagement that provides instant feedback for institutions. the connection between the social media and the museum site was discussed by weilenmann et al. (2013) they pointed out that instagram stressed the fact social media allow to build a new typology of communication, regardless the physical location of the museum. another relevant contributor was linda kelly, who studied how museums used social media to improve two-way communication between museums and their audience as well as hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 16 published by ideas spread a marketing practice. (linda kelly, 2013) she explained why it is crucial to give a proper interpretation of social media feedback in order to manage the institution according to an attempt of improvement. the social media study as marketing tools was studied in depth by kotlers, who reported their usage mainly for exhibitions and events. (neil kotler et al., 2008) moreover, the relationship between museums and visitors was studied by stuedahl and smordal. the authors underlined how museums had created contents due to the audience's input. the connection between institution and online users, hence, creates a process where museum activities are conceived by previous feedback of the audience. (ole smordal & dagny stuedahl, 2011) the impact of the covid on museums was studied in depth by antara and sen who stressed how the pandemic has affected all economic sectors that are currently endangered. (neel antara & shuvro sen, 2020) furthermore, a survey of the impact of coronavirus on museums was carried out by nemo. (network of european museum organisations, 2020) alberto del bimbo provided another important contribution to the subject. he stated that covid 19 has just increased the speed of the evolution of the digital usage process within museums. (alberto del bimbo, 2020) he dealt with social media, augmented reality as well as virtual tours. some case studies were carried out on the digital activities' usage during the lockdown. burke, d. jørgensen and f. jørgensen wrote how museums responded to pandemic coronavirus through digital initiatives. they dealt with the louvre museum as well. nevertheless, this study just mentioned the fact that the french institution offered tours on its platforms. (verity burke et al., 2020) therefore, previous studies have shown how modern technologies, primarily through social media, have changed and improved communication between museums and the audience. additionally, some case studies were carried out on the usage of digital tools used by museums during the pandemic. with regard to the louvre museum, the topic of the digital shift has been studied by some scholars. the authors evrard and krebs investigated whether the real and virtual visit integrated or substituted each other. they concluded that there is no equivalence between the digital experience and the visit to a museum. (yves evrard & anne krebs, 2013) nevertheless, this study does not cover the pandemic time. furthermore, a recent contribution to the usage of instagram from the louvre museum was provided by michela zingone. (michela zingone, 2019) however, this study limiting to instagram profile reported a qualitative analysis of the instagram posts. moreover, she did not face the pandemic issued as dated back before it. thus, the present essay aims to fill the literature gap since it covers a time from before the coronavirus' first wave to after it, meaning to the end of the year. 3. goals and methodology the purpose of this paper is to find out whether museums used more these tools during the pandemic' first wave than before it in order to keep in contacts with the general public. moreover, the work aims to provide a picture of the audience feedback. in order to fulfil these goals, the social media and the website are briefly described, and some meaningful usages in the past are set out. additionally, this essay's methodology utilizes a case study approach. therefore, it analyses how the covid-19 lockdown affected the usage of the technology from the louvre museum in paris and the public's interaction. for this purpose, it was adopted a methodology based on a quantitative approach. (note 4) this study's data was gathered from the instagram profile, the facebook page, and the french museum's official website. in order to figure out their trend before and after the lockdown due to the covid-19, louvre's main social media and the web site were observed over time. the process of collecting data from instagram account took fifteen months from september 2018 to december 2020. the facebook account figures concern both the number of posts provided by the institution and the audience's feedback from december 2019 to december 2020. figures are represented to provide a picture of the evolution of social media usage from the institution, and the feedback from the audience. therefore, the analysis covers a time frame that provides a picture of social media usage before the first coronavirus' wave and after that. finally, the website monitoring carried out through the similarweb software covers a seven-month-time from the time the museum was closed to its opening and sequentially reopening. 4. social media social platforms are now part of the daily life of many people, both young and old. considering that young people will come to constitute future consumers, museums have well thought of addressing them too through a communication style that is closer to their way of being today, meaning an informal, immediate and brief style. the social media allow people to put in communication several people and insitutions located in different parts of the world and are well suited to museums' communication. but what are social media? according to the definition developed by de gottardo and gasparotti, they are nothing more than "an online service for building virtual communities of people who share the same interests." (francesca de gottardo et al., 2014) hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 17 published by ideas spread social media allow people to communicate no longer only in a unidirectional way but involve the majority of people who are totally engaged in it thanks to the birth of web 2.0 which allows the interaction of masses of people. these applications require the use of the internet that allows the creation and exchange of user-generated content in which the user from the consumer has become a producer. the museum is, by definition, participation: through social media the so-called widespread participation is really achieved, passing from the theory of definition to practice, giving voice to "followers", in a "manifest" way, that is accomplished, through a messaging system, or in "unmanifest" way, i.e., through likes, the number of views, etc. social media allow communication with the large masses, and this is also valid for small museums which, historically, are significantly affected by the negative economic situation of this historical moment. for instance, many italian museums belonging to the municipal public administrations notoriously have to fight with a stability pact and other regulatory constraints. for these reasons, they do not have great resources to allocate to large investments concerning culture. for these museums, social media represented a real turning point, a tool that allowed them to implement communication strategies capable of involving, compared to their small size, a rather large catchment area. certainly, it can be argued that the fact that the presence of museums through the new communication tools has increased does not necessarily translate into an increase of effective interest in cultural heritage. in general, it is shown that the public is appreciating the use of modern technologies by museums; what is not proven is whether "people are more interested in technology and not in art." (lara corona, 2020) the data relating to the use of social media has been recently highlighted in the annual report "global digital 2020april": this is a survey conducted by "we are social" in collaboration with the social media management platform "hootsuite." (note 5) the report processed data from two hundred forty-eight countries worldwide, highlighting the fact that the number of users who connect to the internet has exceeded four and a half billion people. more than half of the people living in the world are equal to almost eight billion people. in april 2020, in the midst of the covid 19 pandemic, more than four and a half billion people connected to the internet, which is strictly surprising considering the fact that the survey also includes countries in africa where particularly convenient tariff plans have been only recently introduced. according to the data of the report, it would seem that the internet has, in terms of hours spent per capita per day, actually replaced television with an average of more than six hours a day per person of online connection, two of which on social media, mainly via tablets or smartphone. more than five billion are unique mobile phone users. surprising is the case of the salinas museum in catania which, even before the outbreak of the virus pandemic, closed for restoration, was able to maintain an active relationship with the public. these are works carried out from july 2011 to july 2016. the museum has implemented communication strategies that have focused on social media that has created a true digital community characterized by the fact that the "followers" are increasingly active users. the slogan chosen by the museum on social media fits well, namely "closed for restoration, open for vocation. (elisa bonacini, 2016) a) facebook. particularly relevant is facebook, social media that holds the sceptre among social networks with almost 2.1 billion users. facebook allows users to share images, videos and links, with the possibility of interacting via messaging, promoting events and more. this means of communication has gradually taken on the role of an official communication channel. (note 6) the management of this social tool has both advantages and disadvantages. on the one hand, it can undoubtedly be stated that it is a tool that has high versatility and reaches a high number of subscribers, thus allowing to disseminate contents immediately without having to incur high management costs other communication systems. on the other hand, the management of facebook turns out to be quite demanding since it requires constant supervision, further increased if users are given the possibility to post in turn within the page. the fact that a constant presence is needed, in fact, "forces" to post with a certain regularity, while being careful not to exceed, leads to the so-called spam effect with the subsequent consequence of not following the museum anymore. it is necessary to be careful not only to the "how often", but also to the "how much" because this too would lead to an escape of the "friends" of facebook. during the pandemic, the st. petersburg hermitage museum used this social network to showcase raphael and other great masters' chefs-oeuvres. (claudia giraud, 2020) hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 18 published by ideas spread b) instagram. instagram has magnified its presence in the world scenario, with almost one trillion active users. it is a tool that allows users to share posts with images and videos with the possibility of interacting through messaging. (note 7) it is particularly popular with young people who make up the so-called "followers" and is often used by museums to promote internal initiatives. indeed, even in this case, particular attention must be paid to both the quality of the images and the text and constantly posting to keep alive the link with own followers. museums have the opportunity to have feedback on the appreciation of their posts in real-time thanks to the fact that instagram offers the possibility of counting the likes, i.e., the public's preferences, followers or not. 5. the web site the world wide web, referred to as www, developed throughout the 1990s and museums, like any other company, have used this technology. elena villaespesa and trilce navarrete emphasised that the world wide web promised to be a new technology tool that allowed a new communication featured by worldwide access to content. (villaespesa, elena, 2019) the internet is today what the advent of electricity represented in the past. about the increased number of internet connections, museums have sought, in order to attract ever more masses, to improve their visibility through websites. everything is linked to the spread of the first computers in the 1980s, starting from the best-selling commodore 64. the presence of museums on the web has evolved over time, also in relation to the fact that technology has also been implemented. the first museum websites were the science museum in 1997, the national gallery in 1998 and the tate in 2000. (suzanne keene, 2014) initially, it was possible to publish only texts, non-high-definition images, and the problem of speed, problems now overcome thanks to broadband and the use of optical fibre. museum websites are now very rich in information. for some of them, they are, alas, too much!! there are also high-definition videos and interesting links. the website can be considered as the visiting card of a museum. having a good website increases the possibility that the users' virtual visit will result in any action, from the simple subscription to the newsletter, to purchase a ticket or a merchandising product. (sabina rosso et al., 2016) the website provides important information such as the indication of the physical location of the museum, means of transport that allow it to be reached, opening hours to the public, tariff table with the indication of any reductions for particular categories (for example over sixty-five, or children up to twelve years, students’ exceptions), programming of permanent exhibitions, temporary exhibitions and events. furthermore, through the website, the potential visitor can buy the ticket online and thus eliminate the long lines under the sun. obviously, this is the result of technological advances not even remotely imaginable until recently, yet now part of everyone’s daily life. this type of technology is closely linked to the characteristics of the typology of potential users. in italy, six different types of users can be identified, indicated following an order linked to the propensity to adopt new technologies: (paolo savona et al., 2020) • the pioneers, who represent seven per cent of the population between the ages of 14, fourteen and seventy-four; they are particularly mobility-oriented people with a high level of culture and socio-economic conditions. • techno ludens who represent twenty per cent of the population between the ages of fourteen and seventy-four; these are people who have a playful relationship with technology, especially men under thirty with a high concentration among adolescents and in possession of a medium to high culture. • techno pragmatists who represent twenty per cent of the population between the ages of fourteen and seventyfour; they are people with a neutral relationship concerning mobility and a medium-high level of culture and socioeconomic conditions. • the techno videns who represent eighteen per cent of the population between the ages of fourteen and seventyfour; these are people who associate technology with a status value without having the basis to be able to use it, with age between thirty and sixty years and low culture and socio-economic conditions. • the techno-basic which represent eighteen per cent of the population between the ages of fourteen and seventyfour; these are people with basic technology skills, between forty and sixty years old of average culture and middle social class. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 19 published by ideas spread • the excluded and frightened who represent seventeen per cent of the population between the ages of fourteen and seventy-four; these are people who for reasons of low cultural and income level are in a situation of exclusion from technology use. older people with poor schooling mainly belong to this category. with regard to the category of users of pioneers, techno ludens and techno pragmatists, the involvement is more marked. at the same time, there is a real detachment relative to users included in the category of techno videns, techno basic, as well as the excluded and frightened. in addition to general information, a good site presents a sort of preview of the main works exhibited inside the museum, particularly for the most prominent ones. for example, the national museum of art located in krakow in poland did leverage the exhibition of the famous painting by the authoritative and famous italian artist leonardo da vinci, "lady with an ermine". the website is an important marketing tool as well as a communication and educational tool. its proper usage contributes to the dissemination of collections since it is accessible from everywhere. (trilce navarrete, 2018) for this reason, the design of museum websites requires special care. for this reason, the ministry for cultural heritage and activities coordinated the "minerva" project which also involved other european partners starting from 2002. it led to the development of the "manual for the quality of public cultural websites". (fedora filippi, 2004) regarding italy, the minerva working group has expressed a positive opinion in relation to some case studies such as for the cultural heritage site of the region of sardinia as it is suitable for "promoting coordination through the web tool, interoperability and meaning of belonging among the peripheral institutes ... and to create a point of collection and dissemination of information of a cultural nature, concerning the protection, restoration and use of assets, and the promotion of educational activities in the sector. (note 8) museums are proceeding with constant digitization of their artistic heritage, i.e., the digital reproduction of works of art, thus allowing their dissemination, leading to the involvement of a greater number of people. how high-level digital archives are being created. they allow immediate access to the assets belonging to the museum collection with a whole range of information. the digitization of the heritage requires the need to use specific software which, according to the personal evaluation of each museum, are created within the museum itself through its own programmers, i.e., in-house, or through external purchase according to a ready-made package or according to the indications of the museum staff. the important thing to highlight here is that digitization, born as an internal organizational operation, has become an important communication tool as it has allowed the general public to use it. the british museum in london has put nearly four and a half million works from its collection online. (note 9) in madrid, the prado museum has made available over twelve thousand works in its digital archive, freely available online. in new york, the moma has provided for the digitization of over seventy-nine thousand works in september 2018, which appear to be available, become more than eighty-nine thousand in december 2020, for online consultation, by anyone. (note 10) another quite important example is the activity carried out in the getty museum in los angeles, where the importance of the digital collection of information has led to represent the collection of works of art that have been digitized, which is where it derived. the ability to physically see the works of art, but also the ability to access images and information about the entire collection by simply accessing the los angeles getty museum website. numerous museums are moving in this direction. what is relevant is that the digital transformation is leading to a change in consumer habits. society itself has changed and imposes this change in museums. the museum's change creates a different bond with young people, and digitization also brings young people closer to museums through the online shop, a tool particularly used by young people. the technology through the collection of digital data allows museum to realize one of its institutional purposes, that is the use of the cultural asset. still, it also allows the sale of its products online. the ability to buy something, not necessarily during the visitor's experience on-site and immediately, can also be developed comfortably from their home from their personal computer or anywhere else with a smartphone or tablet. in order to broaden the visitor profile through alternative canals, some virtual tools enable to disseminate collections have been developed, such as wikipedia and google arts & culture. (note 11) google has created several virtual galleries that allow, for example, to be able to see works by paul gaugin. an interesting journey was carried out by the staatsgalerie of stuttgart in germany where the works of oskar schlemmer, master of the bauhaus, well-known painter, sculptor and choreographer, are digitized, to whom google has dedicated a doodle for his fiftieth birthday. google arts & culture, on the basis of the digital archives of the museums, has created hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 20 published by ideas spread various virtual galleries that allow, for example, to be able to see works by paul gaugin, monet, except in detail thanks to the magnifying glass function. google arts & culture was widely used during the coronavirus pandemic by museums worldwide, such as the british museum in london. museum websites were heavily enriched during the coronavirus pandemic. it was, therefore, possible to access the content previously only physically accessible. among the many initiatives, worthy of note is the raphael exhibition at the scuderie del quirinale in rome which displayed over two hundred masterpieces by the great master to the general public thanks to its online usability on the site and on social networks. (note 12) the virtual tours of the main museums in the world are also very interesting for art lovers. the images are of high hd quality and use 3d technology. see, purely by way of simplification and not exhaustive, the application available for both iphone and android, proposed by the guggenheim museum in new york, has had considerable success. an interesting tour is the one that interests the capitoline museums in rome, which can be accessed directly from the website with the possibility of choosing the language. the tour starts from piazza del campidoglio with the possibility to choose where to move thanks to the presence of directional arrows so that you can make the path step by step. there is also the possibility of being able to reach your destination directly and more immediately using the "go directly to" function, choosing, for example, palazzo nuovo or galleria lapidaria. once the selected destination has been reached, either step by step or directly, it is possible to access the audio guide, video, images, all in high definition. through google's art project, it is possible to visit, from the comfort of one's home and at the most appropriate moment, over a thousand museums from all over the world. the project began in 2011 and could count on the works of seventeen muses the scattered throughout the world (two of which in italy), to then reach one hundred and fifty-one over the following year, and finally over a thousand nowadays affecting museums throughout the globe. there is a direct link from the british museum site in london that allows you to walk inside the museum to visit it. (note 13) many virtual paths have been conveyed into a single container, namely google arts & culture, which is structured by foreground content, collections, and categories. it involves five thousand seven hundred thirty-six artists, two hundred thirty-one means of expression, one hundred twenty-one artistic movements, five hundred and seventyfive historical events, six thousand two hundred and seventy historical figures and nine thousand and seventyseven places. (note 14) the "street view" section contained in the "highlights", allows people to move by directing the "little man" of google map within the chosen context allowing you to visit a certain view a museum located in the other part of the world or for example to climb, effortlessly, to the top of the eiffel tower in paris and enjoy the view. the high-definition images are images with a resolution of up to seven gigapixels or seven billion pixels. 6. the case of the louvre museum in paris the louvre museum in paris was founded on the tenth of august 1793 as museèe francais. andrew mcclellan offered an important contribution to the louvre's history starting from the luxembourg palace as the first public art gallery opened to the public in france in october 1750. he set out how the museum, following the french revolution, became a revolutionary symbol of the new republic, witnessed its supremacy over kings. in 1796 it was renamed musèe central des arts de la rèpublique so to stress the relevance of the republic. in 1803, le musée central des arts were recalled musée napoléon. from that time, several masterpieces enriched the collection due to confiscations royal collections coming from austria, germany, italy, and churches. among the authors, martina griesser-stermscheg highlighted that the museum, made of the royal collections declared national property, was a revolutionary event since it promised to disseminate knowledge amongst people. (martina griesser-stermscheg, 2013) despite the collapse of napoléon, the louvre remained a shift point for society and its demand for social right in europe. (note 15) the louvre, thus, stimulated other european countries during the nineteenth century and several museums were set up due to louvre's inspiration. currently, the louvre boasts over thirty thousand items in sixty thousand square meters of floor space. it is the most visited museum in the world. this trend is confirmed over time. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 21 published by ideas spread table 1. according to the tea/aecom theme index and museums index, the louvre museum was at the first position of the museums' list with the highest attendance during 2019 visitors in 2018 visitors in 2019 louvre, paris 10.200.000 9.600.000 national museum of china, beijing, 8.610.000 7.390.000 metropolitan museum di new york 7.360.000 6.770.000 vatican museums 6.756.000 6.883.000 british museum 5.869.000 6.208.000 tate modern, london 5.829.000 6.098.000 national gallery, london 5.226.000 6.011.000 natural history museum, london 5.000.000 5.424.000 american museum of natural history, ny 5.000.000 5.000.000 hermitage, saint petersburgh 4.957.000 4.957.000 table 2. according to wikipedia, the list of museums with the highest number of visitors in 2012 boasted a different order. however, the louvre museum was the museum with more visits as achieving almost ten million visitors in 2012. here is the list: (note 16) 1 louvre 9.720.000 2 met, new york 6.115.000 3 musei vaticani almost 6.000.000 4 il british museum 5.575.000 5 tate modern, london 5.300.000 6 national gallery, london 5.100.000 7 centro pompidou 3.800.000 8 victoria & albert museum, london 3.200.000 9 moma, new york 2.800.000 10 galleria degli uffizi, florence almost 2.000.000 11 van gogh museum, amsterdam 1.500.000 12 guggenheim, new york almost 1.200.000 making a comparison between data in 2012 and 2019, it can be realised that some museums are not on the list of the most visited museums in the world anymore. what's more, the louvre increased its appreciation amongst people with an increase of approximately five per cent. for that reason, it could be said that it is the most attractive museum in the world over time. besides the success of physical visits, louvre has provided different typologies of access over the years according to society and technology changes. being part of the society, museums have had to adapt "transforming themselves from islands to open systems which, as such, are characterized by relational nodes." (lara corona, 2020) indeed, social media's usage has been gradually implemented in order to achieve active communication level. the louvre's utilisation of instagram has been significative before the coronavirus and after that. (note 17) table 3. starting from the previous list of the museums based on the number of visitors, here is the number of followers, in descending order, for the same museums museum september 2018 december 2020 1 moma, new york 4.000.000 5,.200.000 2 met, new york more than 2.500.000 3.700.000 3 tate modern, london more than 2.000.000 3.700.000 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 22 published by ideas spread 4 louvre, paris 2.000.000 4.300.000 5 guggenheim, new york almost 2.000.000 2,.500.000 6 il british museum, london 1.000.000 1.900.000 7 national gallery, london almost 1.000.000 1.700.000 8 victoria & albert museum, london 850.000 1.400.000 9 van gogh museum, amsterdam 850.000 1.800.00 10 centro pompidou, paris more than 700.000 1.000.000 11 galleria degli uffizi, florence 170.000 572.000 12 musei vaticani 6.000 105.000 the table shows how all the museums have increased their popularity with the public. the ranking of museums, made based on the number of followers, was generally held constant. of note is the louvre museum, which has gone from fourth to second in just two years in the list of museums considered. the french museum has more than doubled the number of feedbacks on instagram. despite its success, the louvre is not the museum with the biggest rate of growth since the uffizi in florence, and the vatican museums's impact was extremely remarkable. the curious thing is that the ranking carried out in september 2018 by simple access to instagram has developed so to create a different order of appreciation of the museums according to the number of the followers. furthermore, this approval rating is not confirmed in the ranking drawn up according to the data concerning the number of "physical" visitors considered in relation to each of the museums referred to in the previous table. so, how can the data of physical visits and number of instagram followers be interpreted? first of all, it is necessary to highlight the fact that there is an important anomaly represented by the fact that the data refer to two different time contexts. the table relating to instagram data refers to data from september 2018 and december 2020, that is still during the pandemic. therefore, the information provided by the instagram table shows that instagram usage has increased significantly from the time before the first pandemic wave and the following time. then, the data in the table related to "physical" visitors concern the year 2019. the visitor data trend has been supported by the information from the result of processing elaborated by the art newspaper and published in april 2013. therefore, physical analysis and instagram data concern different time. for this reason, a correct analysis cannot be carried out from the comparison of the two tables, which would lead to making logical deductions. it would have been useful to have the two tables at the same time interval as well as its evolution over several periods. nevertheless, it is argued that louvre has increased its physical visits as well as instagram appreciation over time. for that reason, the louvre case study confirms that social media should attract online visits but also stimulate a subsequent physical visit. (gökçe özdemir & duygu çelebi, 2017) table 4. regarding facebook, the louvre has been using this social media actively. (note 18) here are the data of the facebook profile december 2019 march 2020 april 2020 may 2020 june 2020 december 2020 number of posts 26 20 22 22 22 22 number of likes 56.865 66.272 107.386 62.187 79.338 61.128 the table shows that the number of likes has increased before the first wave of the coronavirus and after, meaning from december 2019 and december 2020. amongst a time of twelve months, the trend has recorded some changes. the peak of visits was reached in april, in the middle of the pandemic development. during that month, the louvre almost doubled its likes. to sum up, it can be said that despite the unchanged number of facebook post, the louvre museum achieved more appreciation during the lockdown. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 23 published by ideas spread table 5. moving on to visits to the official louvre's web site, here are the data of the traffic to the louvre.fr in a seven-months-time of analysis during the year 2020 june july august september october november december visits 1.750.000 2.000.000 1.650.000 1.800.000 1.950.000 1.700.000 1.600.000 during these seven months, most of the traffic came from france (46%), then from the united states of america (13%), brazil, spain and the united kingdom for about 3 %. the average visit duration was two minutes and eighteen seconds, with 2,58 pages for a visit and a bounce rate of 54,56%. the website's access was mainly provided by search channels to the website (55,78%) and directly to the website (33,65%). table 6. the access to the website through social media occurred only for 1,62% and was composed in the following way twitter youtube facebook pinterest 26,95% 25,48% 18,90% 12,09% surprisingly, the table of the web site visits shows that immediately after the reopening post-covid of the museum to the public the number of accesses to the website was significantly increased from 1.750.000 to 2.000.000, meaning approximately thirteenth per cent. in the following months, the average number of visits, meaning 1.800.000, was approximately fourteen per cent bigger than the visits during the lockdown. curiously, during november, when the louvre was closed to the public, the average number of visits in comparison to the first closure decreased as much as the increase of the average visits during its opening. overall, it could be said that the pandemic has not affected significantly the behaves of visitors on the website. 7. conclusion museums are increasingly inclined to use new means of communication in order to increase accessibility to collections and interact with their audience. this new approach, which began a few decades ago, has shown itself to be a great opportunity for those museums which, closed due to restrictions due to the covid-19 virus, have increased and improved their interaction with the public. this achievement has been demonstrated by the numerous virtual initiatives launched by the major museums in the world. additionally, the paper shows positive feedback from the public. this result has been achieved through the case study of the louvre museums whose activity on instagram and facebook has recorded a relevant in the number of followers. this discussion concludes that technology opens up many opportunities for the dissemination of culture that breaks down the physical limits of the museum entity. this deduction is confirmed by the fact that in a situation of mandatory physical distancing, due to the covid-19 virus, museums, like the louvre, have been able to keep the active participation of the audience alive. curiously, the essay concludes that there is no significant feedback related to the access to the website during the lockdown and the time the museum was opened. the research encounters some limitations. first of all, a single case study cannot provide a general picture of how museums used digital tools during the lockdown. nevertheless, it might represent a crucial study due to the louvre museum's relevance in the world. next, the present research only shows visitors' feedback through numerical data in terms of an increased number of likes, followers and views. accordingly, the study does not answer whether people are interested in new forms of communication as tools for mere entertainment or curiosity or whether they are actually interested in museum collections. (lara corona, 2020) therefore, future qualitative analysis might be conducted. despite the limitations of this research, its results enrich literature in this field and might encourage future research involving other museums during the same time or in a different unusual context. references neel antara & shuvro sen, (2020). the impact of covid-19 on the museums and the way forward for resilience. journal of international museum education, 2(1), 54-61. tsz yin (gigi) au, beth chang, michael chee, linda cheu, celia datels, lucia fischer, marina hoffman, olga kondaurova, kathleen laclair, jodie lock, jason marshall, sarah linford, jennie nevin, nina patel, john robinett, judith rubin, matt timmins, chris yoshiijudith rubin, "theme index and museums index", tea/aecom, 2019 binni lanfranco and giovanni pinna, museo. (1980). storia e funzioni di una macchina culturale dal 500 a oggi, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 24 published by ideas spread garzanti, milano. elisa bonacini, (2016). il museo salinas, paradosso del web marketing culturale, la comunicazione archeologica ai tempi dei social media, a museo chiuso. archeomatica, 3, 12-17. https://doi.org/10.48258/arc.v7i3.1285 verity burke, dolly jørgensen & finn arne jørgensen (2020). museums at home: digital initiatives in response to covid-19. in årgang 6, nr. 2-, s. 117-123.https://doi.org/10.18261/issn.2464-2525-2020-02-05 lara corona (2020). museology and communication within the virtual museum. ulakbile, 44(1), 26-31, https://doi.org/10.7816/ulakbilge-08-44-03 francesca de gottardo, alessandro d'amore, valeria gasparotti, aurora raimondi cominesi, (svegliamuseo) (2014). comunicare la cultura online: una guida pratica per i musei-progettazione di siti web, content management, social media e analisi dei risultati, 2014. alberto del bimbo, (2020). ricognizione musei post covid 19, in a. del bimbo et al., museiemotivi e motivi post covid 19, musei emotivi board, new media for cultural herirage. philip effiom ephraim (2019). louvre abu dhabi: social media in marketing culture. proceedings of the 5th world conference on media and mass communication, 5(1), 49-57. https://doi.org/10.17501/24246778.2019.5105 yves evrard & anne krebs (2013). the authenticity of the museum experience in the digital age: the case of the louvre. journal of cultural economics, 37(3). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10824-017-9309-x fedora filippi (2004). manuale per la qualità dei siti web pubblici culturali, ministero per i beni e le attività culturaliprogetto minerva. ion gil-fuentetaja & maria economou (2019). communicating museum collections information online: analysis of the philosophy of communication extending the constructivist approach. journal on computing and cultural heritage, 12(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.1145/3283253 de gottardo, f., d'amore, a., gasparotti, v., & d’eredità (2014). comunicare la cultura on line: una guida pratica per i musei. progettazione di siti web, content management, social media e analisi dei risultati, a cura di f. de gottardi, a. d’amore, v. gasparotti, a. raimondi cominesi, 66-70. claudia giraud (april 2020). ermitage online: boom con undicimila visitatori il primo giorno in diretta dalle sale del museo, artribune, 1. martina griesser-stermscheg (2013). tabu depot: das museumsdepot in geschichte und gegenwart, konservierungswissenschaft. restaurierung. technologie, boehlau verlag, bohlau, 2013, isbn 9783205788942. natalia grincheva (2014). the online museum: a placeless of the "civic laboratory". anthropology review, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.14434/mar.v8i1.3187 linda kelly (2013). museum communication and social media, in kirsten drotner, kim christian schrøder, the connected museum in the world of social media, routledge, new york. suzanne keene (2014). museums and the digital: the view from the micro gallery, conference: electronic visualization and the arts 2014. https://doi.org/10.14236/ewic/eva2014.30 neil kotler, philip kotler & wendy kotler (2008). museum marketing and strategy, wiley & sons, 2008 nicolette mandarano (2019). “musei e media digitali” carocci, milano, 2019, ean 9788843095988 andrew mcclellan (1999). inventing the louvre, university of california press, berkeley, los angeles, london. isbn 9780520221765. trilce navarrete (jun. 2018). on the economics of physical and digital collections in museums. uncommon culture. 7, 1/2, 57-73. trilce navarrete & elena villaespesa (2020). digital heritage consumption: the case of the metropolitan museum of art. magazén, 1(2), 223-248, https://doi.org/10.30687/mag/2724-3923/2020/02/004 network of european museum organisations. (2020). survey on the impact of the covid-19 situation on museums in europe. retrieved from https://www.ne mo.org/fileadmin/dateien/public/nemo_documents/nemo_covid19_report_12.05.2020.pdf gökçe özdemir & duygu çelebi (2017). a social media framework of cultural museums. advances in hospitality and tourism research, 5(2), 101-119, https://doi.org/10.30519/ahtr.375248 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 25 published by ideas spread sabina rosso, romina surace & antonia silvaggi (2016). "museo del futuro”, symbola, roma, isbn 9788894297614 paolo savona, francesco bellotti, umberto colombo, gianpaolo fabris, vittorio grilli, salvatore vicari “rapporto innovazione e tecnologie digitali in italia", centro studi del ministro per l'innovazione e le tecnologie, roma, 2002, 87-89. ole smordal & dagny stuedahl (2011). designing for young visitorso co-composition of doubts in cultural historical exhibitions. computer composition, 28(3), 215-223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compcom.2011.07.008 monika stobiecka (2019). digital escapism: how objects become deprived of matter. journal of contemporary archeology, 5(2), 194-212. https://doi.org/10.1558/jca.34353 villaespesa, elena & navarrete, trilce (2019). museum collections on wikipedia: opening up to open data initiatives. mw19: mw 2019. published on january 14, 2019. consulted january, 4, 2021. retrieved from https://mw19.mwconf.org/paper/museum-collections-on-wikipedia-opening-up-to-open-data-initiatives/ alexandra weilenmann, thomas hilman & beata jungselius, (2013). instagram at the museum: communicating the museum experience through social photo sharing, chi13, proceedings of sigchi conference on human factors in computing systems. https://doi.org/10.1145/2470654.2466243 michela zingone (2019). instagram as digital communication tool for the museums: a reflection on prospectives and opportunities through the analysis of the profiles of louvre museum and metropolitan museum of new york. european journal of social science, education and research, 6(3), 53-63, https://doi.org/10.26417/ejser.v6i3 web sites https://wearesocial.com/blog/2020/04/digital-around-the-world-in-april-2020 https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/lista_dei_musei_d%27arte_pi%c3%b9_visitati_al_mondo http://www.minervaeurope.org/publications/qualitycriteria-i/indice0512/feliciatiwebculturale.html https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection https://www.moma.org/collection/ https://artsandculture.google.com/ https://www.macitynet.it/cultura-mobile-italy-by-art-nuova-app-mibact-per-ios/ https://www.scuderiequirinale.it/pagine/raffaello-oltre-la-mostra notes note 1. prosumer is the term created by putting together the words producer and consumer to emphasise the active collaboration of the consumer who, thus, is also a producer. alvin toffler mentioned it in his book "the third wave". see nicolette mandarano, "musei e media digitali" carocci, milano, 2019. note 2. she suggested the usage of the 5w rules of communication which encompass whom (target of the recipients), what (museums want to share with the audience), where (every social media offers different advantages and encounters some limitations; so, facebook allows a bigger content than twitter), when (communication should be provided continuously, not nagging), why (the purpose of the communication, such as share exhibitions, the online collections, events and so on). note 3. word of mouth helps to address consumers' opinions. therefore, it is a key element for the decisionmaking process; suppliers of goods and services are supposed to pay attention to it. note 4. parameters like number of followers, number of likes, and the number of online users are assessed as marketing strategy variables. see natalia grincheva, the online museum: a placeless of the "civic laboratory". anthropology review, 8(1), 2014. note 5. https://wearesocial.com/blog/2020/04/digital-around-the-world-in-april-2020, retrieved on 7 september 2020. note 6. mandarano reported that 79% of museums have a facebook account. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 4, no. 1; 2021 26 published by ideas spread note 7. mandarano defines instagram as a valid tool to show museum collections because it allows people to share images. note 8. http://www.minervaeurope.org/publications/qualitycriteria-i/indice0512/feliciatiwebculturale.html note 9. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection, consulted on 2 december 2020. note 10. https://www.moma.org/collection/ consulted on 8 december 2020. note 11. authors navarrete and villaespesa set out an interesting case study about the metropolitan museum of art's digital heritage consumption. their results highlighted that channels like wikipedia show a new digital consumption which stresses the collection's information value. see trilce navarrete, elena villaespesa, digital heritage consumption: the case of the metropolitan museum of art, in magazén, 1(2), 2020, 223-248. note 12. https://www.scuderiequirinale.it/pagine/raffaello-oltre-la-mostra consulted on 4 december 2020 note 13. http://www.britishmuseum.org/ note 14. https://artsandculture.google.com/ consulted on 1 september 2020. note 15. the middle class developing the idea of "democracy" demanded more social rights, which involved a new museum concept for people to replace the old kunstkammer just for few people. therefore, in europe, many royals set out museums with their collection for the general public and started to use them as a communication tool (binni & pinna, 1980: 55). note 16. https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/lista_dei_musei_d%27arte_pi%c3%b9_visitati_al_mondo consulted on 17 october 2020. note 17. by and large, museums in france were closed from the thirteenth of march to the fifth of july and from the twenty-ninth of october to the fifteenth of december 2020 due to the coronavirus pandemic. note 18. louvre has an important thirty-years-agreement with the abu dhabi louvre. ephraim (see philip effiom ephraim, louvre abu dhabi: social media in marketing culture, conference on media and mass communication, 5 (1) 2019. 49-57) wrote how this institution has used social media to attract the audience and has been able to promote arts in the united arabs emirates. the museum gave an important communication via facebook by posting the news that the abu dabhi department of culture and tourism had decided to postpone the long-awaited public exhibition of the "salvator mundi" of leonardo da vinci. the painting should have been exhibited on 18 september 2018, and many, both experts in the field and simple art lovers had already purchased tickets. this decision was probably taken after the controversy unleashed on the authenticity of the painting that sees the author of the work no longer in leonardo da vinci but in bernardino luini, a simple assistant. and all this happened after the arab museum had managed to obtain the prestigious work after twenty minutes of an auction at christie's in new york for well over 450 million dollars. as abu dabhi's english-language newspaper "the national" reports, "speculation suggests the museum might be waiting for its first anniversary, on november the eleventh". all these controversies give the immediate perception of the fact that it was an important communication. approximately two weeks before the event, the louvre abu dabhi gave this news, and to do so, it chose a tool that is immediately received by the masses, which is facebook. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n3p118 118 published by ideas spread from the perspective of an agricultural powerhouse, ideological and political education in agricultural courses research taking "introduction to rural development" as an example wang chen1 & wu jie1 1 qingdao hengxing university of science and technology, china correspondence: wang chen, qingdao hengxing university of science and technology, qingdao, shandong, china. e-mail: 1053314385@qq.com received: june 5, 2025; accepted: june 18, 2025; published: june 19, 2025 abstract against the backdrop of the national strategy of comprehensively promoting rural revitalization and accelerating the construction of a strong agricultural country, the ideological and political construction of courses in agricultural universities carries the core mission of cultivating new talents who are knowledgeable about and love agriculture. this study focuses on the course "introduction to rural development" and analyzes the current difficulties and causes of ideological and political education in agricultural courses in terms of systematic curriculum design, teachers' ideological and political abilities, and the depth of practical education. it innovatively constructs a three track mixed teaching model based on "problem based learning (pbl)+cbl (case teaching)+tbl (team learning)", and systematically designs from the three dimensions of teacher development, curriculum reconstruction, and practical linkage, forming a curriculum case system that deeply integrates agricultural science characteristics and ideological and political elements. it also proposes a collaborative optimization path of "curriculum education, teacher education, and practical education", providing theoretical reference and practical paradigm for improving the quality and efficiency of ideological and political education in agricultural universities. keywords: agricultural powerhouse, course ideology and politics, introduction to rural development, three track blended learning, agricultural education 1. background and significance of the research the construction of a powerful agricultural country is the foundation for the realization of chinese path to modernization, and its core is talent support.the report of the 20th national congress of the communist party of china emphasized the need to "accelerate the construction of a strong agricultural country" and put forward higher requirements for the cultivation of agricultural talents, which not only requires solid professional qualities, but also a deep sense of "agriculture, rural areas, and farmers", firm ideals and beliefs, and a strong sense of social responsibility. as the main battlefield for talent cultivation, universities' agricultural related courses are important carriers for carrying out ideological and political education (course ideology)[1]. as a core foundational course for agricultural majors, introduction to rural development covers topics such as rural changes, policy evolution, industrial revitalization, rural governance, and sustainable development. it naturally contains rich ideological and political elements such as national education, policy recognition, ecological civilization, social responsibility, and cultural confidence. in this context, in-depth research on how to deeply integrate the strategic goals of building a strong agricultural country into the teaching of this course, to solve the current problems of ideological and political education in agricultural courses such as "labeling" and "two skins", and to explore ideological and political teaching models with agricultural science characteristics, has urgent theoretical value and profound practical significance for improving the quality of agricultural and forestry talent cultivation and serving the major strategic needs of the country. 2. analysis of the current situation and causes of ideological and political education in agricultural courses although there has been some progress in ideological and political education in current agricultural courses, there are still many challenges, and their difficulties and causes can be analyzed from three levels. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 119 published by ideas spread 2.1 course level current situation/dilemma: the excavation of ideological and political elements is superficial and fragmented, and has not been organically integrated with the professional knowledge system; the expression of ideological and political requirements in teaching objectives is vague, lacking operable and evaluative standards; in terms of teaching content design, there are rigid grafting or "embellishment style" insertions, lacking logical coherence; the assessment and evaluation system emphasizes knowledge over value, and lacks evaluation of students' ideological growth and value judgment ability. cause: insufficient systematic research on the unique ideological and political resources contained in agricultural related professional courses, such as the concepts of food security, ecological civilization, collectivism, poverty alleviation/rural revitalization, etc; lack of curriculum design and evaluation guidelines for ideological and political education tailored to the characteristics of agricultural science. 2.2 at the teacher level current situation/dilemma: some professional teachers do not have a deep understanding of the ideological and political content of the curriculum, and there is a misconception that "ideological and political education is the responsibility of ideological and political teachers"; the ability of ideological and political education (such as value guidance skills, ideological and political case mining ability, classroom discussion guidance ability) needs to be improved[2]; lack of interdisciplinary perspective makes it difficult to effectively transform grand national strategies (such as building an agricultural powerhouse) into vivid teaching materials. cause: insufficient and monotonous training on ideological and political education courses for teachers; lack of effective incentive mechanisms and teaching discussion platforms; some teachers themselves do not have a deep understanding of the national and agricultural conditions. 2.3 practical level current situation and dilemma: theoretical teaching is disconnected from social practice, and students lack opportunities and inspiration to personally experience agriculture, rural areas, and farmers; insufficient ideological and political guidance in campus practice (such as experiments and practical training); off campus practice (internships, research) often stays at the cognitive level, with insufficient deep participation and value realization; the collaborative education mechanism between party and league activities, social practice, and professional courses has not yet been effectively established. cause: limited practical teaching resources (bases, funds, security guarantees); the design of ideological and political goals and process guidance in the practical stage are weak; lack of effective platforms and long-term mechanisms for integrating curriculum, party groups, and social resources. 3. exploration of course ideological and political teaching mode: taking "introduction to rural development" as an example in response to the above difficulties, this study proposes and practices a three track hybrid teaching model based on "pbl+cbl+tbl"[2], and systematically explores it in the course of "introduction to rural development". 3.1 system construction based on the "pbl+cbl+tbl" three track hybrid teaching mode at the teacher level: team building: establish an interdisciplinary teaching team (professional teachers+ideological and political teachers/counselors+industry experts), regularly conduct collective lesson preparation, teaching seminars, jointly explore ideological and political elements, design teaching cases, and develop evaluation standards. enhancing teachers' ideological and political abilities: conducting specialized training (such as interpreting policies for building a strong agricultural country and designing courses for ideological and political education), encouraging teachers to conduct in-depth research in rural areas, and enhancing their intuitive understanding and value recognition of national and agricultural conditions; establish a teaching reflection and communication mechanism to promote experience sharing and ability iteration. 3.2 course level student centered approach: using pbl to set driving questions (such as "how can small farmers integrate into modern agricultural development?" and "how can we balance rural development and ecological protection?"), guiding students to actively explore and deepen their understanding and value judgments in problem-solving. using cbl to select representative and contemporary cases of agriculture, rural areas, and farmers (such as zhejiang's "ten thousand project", modernization of heilongjiang reclamation area, and entrepreneurial stories hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 120 published by ideas spread of returning youth), through case analysis, role-playing, debate, and other forms, emotional resonance and value speculation are stimulated. by utilizing tbl to organize group collaborative learning (such as designing a village development plan), we aim to cultivate teamwork, communication, expression, and a sense of social responsibility. starting with examples related to agriculture: the teaching content closely revolves around national strategies (food security, rural revitalization, and self-reliance in agricultural science and technology) and vivid practices, combining abstract theories with specific national and agricultural conditions. reform of assessment methods: establish a diversified evaluation system, increase the proportion of process evaluation (such as group discussion contribution, case analysis reports, research plan design, reflection logs), and focus on students' values, social responsibility, and problem-solving abilities demonstrated during the learning process. 3.3 at the practical level integration of party building, youth league building, and course ideology and politics: incorporate course related content (such as rural governance and rural party building) into the theme of party day/youth league day activities; encourage student party members/members to play a pioneering and exemplary role in the course project group. practice of "three rural activities" on and off campus: on campus: organize simulated rural governance conferences, agricultural product brand planning competitions, agricultural technology achievement exhibitions, etc., to enhance situational experiences. off campus: establish stable practical teaching bases, organize students to participate in rural field research, support agriculture and education, scientific and technological services, community building and other activities; extend the research-based learning projects (pbl/tbl tasks) in the course to the field, achieving "learning by doing, understanding by learning", deepening the understanding of "agriculture, rural areas, and farmers" issues, and enhancing the sense of mission for building a strong agricultural country. table 1. example design of ideological and political teaching cases in the course of "introduction to rural development" (part chapters) chapter theme main ideological and political teaching objectives key points of ideological and political education content integration methods (pbl/cbl/tbl) practice link introduction: rural value and agricultural power understand the fundamental position of agriculture, rural areas, and farmers, and establish a sense of mission and responsibility for building a strong agricultural country the wisdom of chinese agricultural civilization; national food security strategy; the role of agricultural "ballast stone"; the relationship between rural revitalization and national revitalization cbl: comparison of global food crisis cases; pbl: how to understand that 'a strong country must first strengthen agriculture'? visit the national grain reserve/agricultural museum rural land system and reform identify with the basic management system of socialist rural areas with chinese characteristics, understand the logic and achievements of reform the significance of the reform of "separation of powers"; connecting small farmers with modern agriculture; red line for farmland protection; the superiority of collective economy cbl: the history and new era reform of the "big package" in xiaogang village, anhui province; tbl: design an optimization plan for land transfer in a certain village visit typical local cooperatives/family farms hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 121 published by ideas spread rural industrial development cultivate innovative spirit, market awareness, and establish a green and sustainable development concept industrial prosperity is the key; technology driven agriculture (seed industry revitalization, smart agriculture); integration of primary, secondary and tertiary industries; realizing the value of ecological products pbl: how to solve the difficulty of selling a certain specialty agricultural product? cbl: zhejiang anji white tea industry/shaanxi apple industry case participate in agricultural product ecommerce marketing practice modernization of rural governance enhance institutional confidence, cultivate the concept of the rule of law and the spirit of public participation party building leads the integration of "three governance"; village self governance practice; rule of law rural construction; equalization of public services cbl: "fengqiao experience" and good governance at the grassroots level; tbl: simulating village council to solve difficulties in village affairs attend the village representative assembly/conduct onsite research rural cultural revitalization strengthen cultural confidence, inherit excellent local culture, and cultivate civilized rural customs preservation and inheritance of agricultural culture; integration of socialist core values; change existing habits and customs; the importance of rural education cbl: successful cases of traditional village protection; pbl: how to revitalize the cultural vitality of our village? participate in the construction of the village history museum/organization of rural cultural activities sustainable rural development establishing the concept of ecological civilization, cultivating a global perspective and awareness of a community with a shared future for mankind green mountains and clear waters are as valuable as mountains of gold and silver; agricultural transformation under the dual carbon target; global poverty reduction cooperation; inclusive development cbl: ecological butterfly transformation of zhejiang's "ten million project"; pbl: how to evaluate the sustainability of a development project? participate in rural environmental improvement/ecological agriculture practice 4. suggestions and countermeasures for ideological and political education in agricultural courses based on the aforementioned research and exploration, propose strategies for deepening ideological and political education in agricultural courses: 4.1 deepen "curriculum education": strengthen and enhance the ability and effectiveness of curriculum ideological and political education strengthening top-level design: at the university level, the "guidelines for the construction of ideological and political education in agricultural professional courses" have been formulated, clarifying the ideological and political education goals and construction standards for each major and core course. promote teaching innovation: vigorously promote effective teaching models such as pbl+cbl+tbl, and encourage teachers to fully utilize modern information technology (such as virtual simulation farms and online case libraries) to enrich teaching methods. improve the evaluation system: establish and improve a multi-dimensional curriculum evaluation and student development evaluation system that covers knowledge, abilities, and literacy (especially value led effectiveness), hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 122 published by ideas spread and regard the effectiveness of ideological and political education as an important indicator for curriculum evaluation and professional certification. 4.2 focus on "teacher education": cultivating and enhancing teachers' ideological and political literacy and abilities establish a sound training mechanism: build a normalized and systematic teacher curriculum ideological and political training system, covering theoretical policies, teaching methods, national and agricultural conditions, value leading art, etc. establish a 'course ideological and political teacher studio'[3] to play a leading role in demonstration. strengthening grassroots teaching organization: relying on the teaching and research department and curriculum group, we will carry out collective lesson preparation, teaching observation, ideological and political teaching competitions, and other activities to create a strong atmosphere for teaching and research. improve incentive mechanism: take the effectiveness of curriculum ideological and political construction as an important basis for teacher performance evaluation, professional title evaluation, and excellence evaluation, and stimulate endogenous motivation. 4.3 expand "practical education": mobilize and activate the practical participation and achievement transformation of ideological and political education in the curriculum integrate practical resources: strengthen cooperation between schools, universities, and enterprises, and jointly build a number of high-quality curriculum ideological and political practice teaching bases (such as modern agricultural parks, rural revitalization demonstration villages, and red education bases). brand building activities: design and carry out themed "three rural issues" brand practice activities that are closely integrated with the profession (such as "youth red dream building journey", "farming and studying in china", "rural revitalization service team"), and promote the use of course learning outcomes to serve rural development. building a collaborative mechanism: establish a multi-party linkage mechanism between the academic affairs department, the student affairs department (party and youth organizations), the marxist college, the agricultural departments, and the practice base, to achieve deep integration and achievement sharing of curriculum teaching, social practice, party and youth activities, and value guidance. 5. summarize in the grand journey of building a strong agricultural country, the ideological and political education courses in agricultural universities shoulder the fundamental task of cultivating morality and talents. the core courses represented by "introduction to rural development" urgently need to break through the traditional teaching constraints and deeply integrate the strategic goals of building a strong agricultural country, vivid practices of rural revitalization, and ideological and political education elements through systematic teaching mode innovation. only by carefully cultivating the course content, adhering to the principles of integrity and innovation in teaching methods, and working together in practical education, can we cultivate a new generation of people with solid professional skills and a deep sense of "agriculture, rural areas, and farmers", injecting a continuous stream of youthful energy into securing china's rice bowl and promoting comprehensive rural revitalization.[4] the "three track mixed" teaching mode and practical path constructed in this study provide a scalable theoretical framework and practical reference for the ideological and political construction of agricultural courses. its effectiveness needs to be continuously tested and deepened in a wider range of teaching practices. acknowledgments this paper is a research outcome of special project of ideological and political education of qingdao stellar institute of science and technology in 2023. project no.: hxsz2023s002 references [1] ministry of education. (2020). guidelines for the construction of ideological and political education in higher education curriculum [z]. [2] zhang, f., et al. (2021). exploration and practice of ideological and political construction in agricultural university courses under the background of new agricultural science. china agricultural education [j]. [3] chen, b. (2020). comprehensively promote the high-quality construction of ideological and political education in university courses. china higher education [j]. [4] relevant agricultural policy documents, rural revitalization reports, and authoritative case materials. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 123 published by ideas spread copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v7n3p132 132 published by ideas spread a comparative study of spatial narratives in eastern and western cyberpunk films siyu long1 & won-ho choi1 1 department of visual contents, dongseo university, busan, republic of korea correspondence: won-ho choi, department of visual contents, dongseo university, busan, republic of korea. e-mail: longsiyumimi429atsina.com(si-yu long), choiwhatdongseo.ac.kr(won-ho choi) received: november 25, 2024; accepted: december 29, 2024; published: december 30, 2024 abstract this study takes representative cyberpunk films from the east and the west as the research object, compares them from the perspective of spatial narration, and reveals the similarities and differences in their narrative styles and cultural expressions. in terms of physical space, narrative space, psychological space, auditory space, and virtual space, it explores the complex relationship between technology and humanity, society and individual, and its multidimensional expression in cyberpunk films from the east and the west. this study emphasizes the central role of spatial narratives in eastern and western cyberpunk films and provides theoretical support for an in-depth study of the global influence of cyberpunk culture and its narrative strategies. keywords: cyberpunk, eastern and western cyberpunk films, spatial narrative 1. introduction with the rapid development of technology and accelerated globalisation, cyberpunk has gradually become a global cultural phenomenon. since its rise to fame in the 1980s, with william gibson's <neuromancer> as its masterpiece, cyberpunk has rapidly expanded into literature, film, animation and games. in the realm of film in particular, cyberpunk films have become important vehicles for visual art and ideological exploration, with their unique spatial narratives of futuristic cityscapes, virtual spaces and ruin aesthetics, as well as their profound reflections on technological alienation. differences in cultural backgrounds between east and west have made cyberpunk films display unique styles and connotations in spatial narratives, providing rich material for academic research and cultural understanding. current research on cyberpunk films focuses on visual aesthetics, technological themes, and anti-utopian narratives, but in-depth comparative studies of their spatial narratives are lacking. in particular, some scholars argue that although the spatial levels of film narratives are currently being discussed, they are mainly focused on the framework of understanding narratives, with few comparisons across cultures or genres(branigan, 2013). spatial narrative is not only an important tool for constructing narrative logic in cyberpunk film, but also an important medium for representing the relationship between technology and society, which urgently needs to be further explored. in both eastern and western cultures, the spatial narratives of cyberpunk films often reflect different cultural values and social backgrounds. western cyberpunk films tend to emphasise the sense of alienation and individual resistance brought about by technological progress, while eastern cyberpunk films are more concerned with spirituality and the continuation of traditional culture. exploring these differences can help to reveal the diversity of cyberpunk cultural expressions and provide new perspectives for understanding the cultural exchanges reflected in cyberpunk films in the context of globalisation. therefore, this study takes representative cyberpunk films from the east and the west as research objects, compares them from the perspective of the spatial narrative, and tries to reveal the differences and similarities between the two in terms of narrative style, visual symbols, and cultural expression. it provides theoretical support for an indepth study of the global influence of "cyberpunk" culture and its narrative strategies. 2. theoretical background 2.1 cyberpunk movies the emergence of "cyberpunk" films is inseparable from "cyberpunk" novels, as the latter laid the basic worldview, the narrative framework, and thematic elements for cyberpunk films. "cyberpunk" was initially known as a hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 133 published by ideas spread subgenre of science fiction novels(mccaffery, 1991). the long-form science fiction novel <neuromancer> by william gibson gained popularity in the science fiction community and is considered "the archetypal cyberpunk work," establishing the foundational worldview framework for cyberpunk narratives( zhang, x., & jin, s., 2020). in 1982, renowned director ridley scott adapted <blade runner> for the screen, marking the crossover of "cyberpunk" from literature to film. this film is recognized as the first cyberpunk film and is regarded as a "cyberpunk classic"(jiang zhenyu, 2019). since then, numerous cyberpunk films have emerged, such as <tron> (1982), <the terminator> series, <the matrix> series, <johnny mnemonic> (1994), <artificial intelligence> (2001), and <blade runner 2049>(2017). currently, there is no unified understanding or definition of the concept of "cyberpunk films," and few scholars have directly defined the term. however, discussions by scholars on cyberpunk style, culture, and literary characteristics offer valuable insights for defining the concept of cyberpunk films. cyberpunk films are one of the most important elements for understanding postmodernism(butler, 2003). from the perspective of style and characteristics, typical cyberpunk films are enclosed and dark, reflecting "a pessimistic attitude towards the increasing computerization and urban centralization of contemporary life." the cognitive mapping produced by cyberpunk novels represents an attempt to "find an appropriate way to present the powerful yet problematic technological logic of the postmodern condition." it systematically alters our basic perceptions of who we are, where we come from, what is real, and what holds the greatest meaning in human life(mccaffery, 1991). cyberpunk resists centralized authority and collective structures, favoring a decentralized subcultural use of science and technology to meet the needs of relevant individuals(kellner, 2003). cyberpunk novels use technology to counter technology itself, controlling the mediocrity of the media industry and reconstructing a sense of crisis and urgency. cyberpunk culture inherently possesses postmodern uncertainty and a rebellious tension(cavallaro, 2000). the core and extension of cyberpunk films both exhibit "binary opposition characteristics"(zhou lijun, 2020). in summary, the cyberpunk film is unique in the science fiction film system. it uses the not-too-distant future as a time background to reveal the erosion of technology on human nature and society, as well as the deep conflict between man and technology. most of the film's characters are cyborgs, reflecting the protagonists' themes of identity loss and self-resistance. with visual symbols such as neon lights and data streams, an anti-utopian atmosphere is created, creating a unique narrative dimension and artistic style. 2.2 spatial narratives spatial narrative is a theoretical paradigm developed in the 'spatial turn' of western narrative theory in the early 20th century, which belongs to the important field of post-classical narrative, and is based on spatial cognitive research in geography, sociology, urban studies, cultural studies and psychology. spatial narrative takes spatial (material or immaterial) elements as a medium, expresses information in the form of narrative through the social significance of energy and reference in semiotics, so that the subject of the audience obtains corresponding perception and experience through the cognitive consciousness of the self, which takes time, space and cause and effect as the logical core, presents the characteristics of coexistence and co-temporality, and forms a spatial juxtaposition of the narrative structural system, a kind of 'spatiotemporal complex' theoretical approach (xiao, j., & cao, k., 2013). the starting point for the study of spatial narrative is the narrative space that has a narrative function, rather than the space that serves as a background, static space to be narrated" (zou bo, 2011). spatial narrative is prevalent in the textual narrative of all literary works, and each literary work has its own unique narrative space. however, not all narrative spaces can participate in the function and expression of spatial narrative. the theory of spatial narrative is not only concerned with the spatial object itself, but also focuses on exploring the process of "how to perceive". in analysing and understanding space, it bridges the gap between space, culture, society and subjective consciousness, and emphasises the constructive and inclusive nature of spatial cognition(liu naifeng & zhang nan, 2015). furthermore, spatial narrative is defined as a narrative phenomenon that exists in all kinds of narrative works. in spatial narratives, space is a means or a tool of narrative, and narratives require space to demonstrate their contents; narratives often depict a certain segment of life, which has both temporal and spatial elements. in conclusion, the definition of spatial narrative can be summarised as follows: spatial narrative is a theoretical framework that integrates the concepts of time and space, employing narrative as a medium for the presentation of content. this theoretical framework finds extensive application in the domains of literature, art, and cultural studies. film spatial narrative is composed of three aspects: visual space, which organises the narrative; auditory space, which supplements the narrative; and virtual space, which extends the narrative. the spatial narrative of film is hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 134 published by ideas spread categorised into three primary levels: the interiority of space, the limitation of space, and the internal and external permeability of space (jiao, y., 2009). these three levels reveal the composition and expression of film space in the narrative from different perspectives, elucidating the unique role of space as an important medium of film narrative. in the examination of the spatial narrative in the film, scholars have explored the elements from multiple perspectives, providing their own theoretical perspectives and analytical frameworks. the following table 1 provides a summary of some of these scholars' contributions. table 1. formulations of some scholars on the elements of spatial narrative examination in the film academia elements of investigation source edward branigan the spatial narrative hierarchy can be divided into three categories: physical space(which is the setting for the unfolding of the story); narrative space(which is constructed from the narrator's or character's point of view); psychological space(which is the projection of the character's inner activities). <narrative comprehension and film>(1992) giuliana bruno spatial narratives can be divided into three categories. the emotionality of space, which can be defined as the manner in which space is portrayed in film, with emotion conveyed through visual and tactile experience, and with space deeply integrated with the narrative theme. the mobility of space, which can be defined as the manner in which space is portrayed in film, with dynamic shots and character movement creating a sense of narrative flow. space and memory, which can be defined as the manner in which space acts as a container for memory, and with the scene design in narratives often carrying historical and emotional projections. <atlas of emotion: journeys in art, architecture, and film> (2002) laura mulvey spatial narratives can be understood on two levels: firstly, gendered spatial perspectives, which serve to reinforce gendered power relations through the construction of space. secondly, the viewing mechanism of spatial narratives is of significance, as it shapes character positions through the lens and spatial presentation. <visual pleasure and narrative film> (2006) wei nannan spatial narrative strategies in crime films include: the narrative point of view, the narrative symbols, the spatial form. <study of spatial narrative in domestic crime films (20102020)> (2021) diao yinan spatial narratives in films can be divided into three types: geographic space, social space and spiritual space, each of which has its own unique narrative function and expression. <a study of spatial narrative in diao yinan's film> (guo qiqi / 2023) yorgos lanthimos the spatial narrative characteristics in yorgos lanthimos' films are reflected in the presentation of spatial types, the shaping of characters through spatial arrangements, and the promotion of plot development by space. <a study on spatial narratives in yorgos lanthimos' films> (shangguan yuxue / 2024) comprehensively, it is concluded that spatial narrative in the film as a unique way of expression. this study mainly explores the spatial narratives of eastern and western cyberpunk films from multiple dimensions such as physical space, narrative space and psychological space, auditory space and virtual space. the contents covered by each space are comprehensively organised as shown in table 2. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 135 published by ideas spread table 2. content covered by each space in the spatial narrative in the film narrative space classification content physical space the basis of narrative, physical space carries the geographical background and environment of the story. through the detailed depiction of geographical space, such as cities, buildings, rooms and other specific places, the scene of the story is constructed. narrative space narrative space guides the narrative development through scene transformation, spatial sequence and lens language, dynamically connects characters and events, and strengthens the logic and tension of the plot. psychological space psychological space expresses the inner world of characters through visual and auditory means, such as the mirror reflection of self-cognition, broken scene metaphor psychological conflict, dark tone environment rendering repressed emotions, and so on, injecting metaphor and the emotional depth into the narrative. auditory space environmental sound effects, music and dialogue jointly shape the narrative atmosphere of space, extending the narrative tension and emotional appeal of the visual space. virtual space by constructing a visual experience beyond reality through digital technology, the virtual and reality are interwoven into a multi-dimensional space, providing more possibilities for the narrative. through a detailed investigation of these five spaces, this study will further explore how cyberpunk films create unique styles through spatial narration, and analyze the cultural differences and creative characteristics of eastern and western cyberpunk films in spatial expression. 3. selection of research methods and research samples 3.1 research methods in order to explore the differences and similarities between eastern and western cyberpunk films in spatial narrative, the following methods will be adopted in this study: 1) literature analysis: through the analysis of academic literature and theoretical books related to cyberpunk films, the basic characteristics of cyberpunk films and the connotation of spatial narrative are sorted out. 2) case analysis: the representative cyberpunk films of the east and west are selected as samples to specifically analyze the role of spatial narrative in them. 3) comparative analysis method: make horizontal comparison between selected eastern and western films, discuss their similarities and differences from aspects of narrative mode, visual symbols, space design and cultural connotation, and compare the similarities and differences and summarize the rules. through the above methods, this study aims to fully reveal the differences and similarities of eastern and western cyberpunk films in spatial narrative, and provide theoretical support for further study of cyberpunk films. 3.2 research sample when comparing the spatial narrative of eastern and western cyberpunk films, the selection of film samples should take into account the scientificity, representativeness and analyzability. the selection of samples is based on (1) the selection of films combined with the characteristics of cyberpunk films; (2) combining the representativeness and influence of the film, that is, it is recognized in academic circles as a classic work reflecting the theme of cyberpunk; (3) box office and audience influence, that is, works with high box office tend to have wider influence in popular culture, reflecting audience acceptance and communication; (4) film and television works that have won authoritative film awards at home and abroad and are highly praised by industry insiders and bachelor researchers. in terms of time dimension, the eastern and western cyberpunk films in the 1980s, 1990s and after 2000 are selected as research objects, which can provide rich historical, cultural and technical background for the discussion of spatial narration, and show the evolution and development of this film genre in different times. therefore, the western cyberpunk films <blade runner>(1982), <the matrix>(1999), <ex machina>(2015) are selected, as shown in table 3. eastern cyberpunk films <akira>(1988), <ghost in the shell>(1995), <appleseed> (2004) are selected, as shown in table 4. in table 3, although <blade runner> initially underperformed at the box office, it gained recognition in the fields of technology and art for its visual effects, cinematography, and profound philosophical themes. its place in film history was solidified through subsequent awards and recognitions. for example, at the 1982 los angeles film critics association awards (lafca awards), the film won best cinematography; at the 1983 british academy hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 136 published by ideas spread film awards (bafta awards), it received the award for best cinematography; in 1993, <blade runner>was inducted into the national film registry by the united states national film preservation board; and in 2008, it won the hugo award for best dramatic presentation. in terms of narrative characteristics, the film's multi-layered spatial expression (such as the dark urban landscape of los angeles and the dystopian environment) reflects the alienation between humans and technology. <the matrix> is considered one of the greatest science fiction films of all time, and in 2012 the film was selected for preservation by the library of congress in the united states national film registry for its‘cultural, historical, and aesthetic significance’(silver, j., wachowski, a., & wachowski, l. , 1999). in terms of narrative features, the intersection of virtual cyberspace with the real world brings a new dimension to cyberpunk spatial narratives. <minority report> was named by roger ebert as one of his favourite films of the 2000s(ebert, r. , 2012). similarly, the washington post selected minority report as one of the 23 best films from 2000 to 2018. in terms of narrative features, the narrative structure is interwoven with multiple threads, and virtual space mirrors the real scene, while shaping an anti-utopian future social form. table 3. introduction to western cyberpunk film cases year film director reasons for selecting samples 1982 <blade runner> ridley scott it redefined the visual style of science fiction films, combined the depression of future cities with the prosperity of neon, and created the aesthetic paradigm of cyberpunk (sobchack, v. c., 1997). with its visual design and philosophical connotation, blade runner has gradually become the core work of academic research on cyberpunk and science fiction films (sammon, p. , 1996). 1999 <the matrix> the wachowskis the film grossed over $460 million at the box office in 1999. the film won awards for best visual effects, best film editing, best sound and best sound editing at the 72nd academy awards. 2015 <minority report> steven spielberg the film totalled $132 million at the u.s. box office and $226.3 million overseas. 75th academy awards for best sound editing, and baft as for best visual effects. in table 4, <akira> started the trend of japanese cyberpunk, with spatial narratives full of apocalyptic and antiutopian imagery. in terms of narrative characterisation, the destruction and rebuilding of the city of neo-tokyo exemplifies the oppression and chaos of modern urban space.<ghost in the shell >is a japanese cyberpunk media series based on the manga series of the same name written and illustrated by masamune shirow. several film and television series have been adapted, and games and other peripherals have been produced. he is a masterpiece of eastern cyberpunk, exploring the symbiotic relationship between man and technology, with a highly philosophical spatial narrative. it has had a profound impact globally, being adapted several times and inspired by western directors. in terms of narrative features, the conflict between technology and identity is shown through multidimensional narratives such as urban space, cyber space and personal consciousness. <appleseed> is groundbreaking in the fields of animation technology, cyberpunk aesthetics and science fiction narrative. table 4. introduction to eastern cyberpunk film cases year film director reasons for selecting samples 1988 <akira> katsuhiro otomo the film had a production cost of 1 billion yen. it is also considered a key film in the cyberpunk genre. in 1992, <akira> won the silver scream award at the amsterdam fantastic film festival. 1995 <ghost in the shell> mamoru oshii it won the best screenplay award at the yokohama film festival. the film is regarded as "a paradigm of postmodern animation" and holds milestone significance in cyberpunk aesthetics and philosophical reflection (napier, 2001). 2004 <appleseed> shinji aramaki <appleseed> is one of the early animated works that successfully combined 3d computer graphics (cg) with cel-shaded animation. while its box office performance in japan was moderate, it achieved long-tail success in international markets through dvd sales and streaming platforms. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 137 published by ideas spread from table 4, it is easy to see that eastern cyberpunk films are dominated by japanese animation, a phenomenon that may be influenced by multiple factors such as cultural background, creative tradition and the advantages of animation technology. cyberpunk themes explore the conflict between technology and human nature, class division and social alienation in a future society, and the economic boom and urbanisation of japan in the 1980s provided a realistic resonance for such themes. the traditional idea of symbiosis between human beings and technology in japanese culture also provides a unique perspective for the creation of cyberpunk. at the same time, the visual presentation of cyberpunk requires a great deal of special effects production, while the oriental film industry is relatively weak in this area, japan has a perfect animation industry system, animation becomes a more feasible choice. to sum up, the above six eastern and western cyberpunk filmss not only conform to the core characteristics of cyberpunk cinema, but also have strong representativeness due to their unique narrative themes and visual styles. in terms of spatial narrative, these works show distinctive stylistic differences and commonalities, which can be used as a case study for comparative analyses of eastern and western cyberpunk filmss, and can reveal the narrative strategies and stylistic features of cyberpunk films in different regional cultures, providing important references for the study of cyberpunk genre films. 4. comparative analysis in conducting a comparative analysis of spatial narratives in eastern and western cyberpunk films, six films mentioned above will be used as samples, i.e., samples of western cyberpunk films are <blade runner> (1982), <the matrix> (1999), <ex machina> (2015); the samples of eastern cyberpunk films are <akira> (1988), <ghost in the shell> (1995), <appleseed> (2004). meanwhile, physical space, narrative space, psychological space, auditory space and virtual space are examined and analysed as the core elements of spatial narrative in cyberpunk films, as shown in table 1 comparison of spatial narratives of six cyberpunk films from the east and the west is shown in table 5, table 6 . table 5. comparative analysis of spatial narratives in physical space, narrative space film title physical space narrative space <blade runner> the film builds a narrative foundation of physical space through its depiction of the gloomy cityscape of future los angeles. towering buildings, neon lights and never-ending rain combine to create an oppressive, anti-utopian world. the narrative logic is reinforced through scene transitions that depict the high-tech metropolis and the run-down neighborhoods of future los angeles, as well as through camera work that dynamically highlights the conflict between decatur and the replicants. <the matrix> the film builds its narrative on the dual physical space of the real world and the virtual matrix. the real space depicts desolate underground cities and a surface ruled by machinery; the virtual matrix is visually represented through highly technological urban landscapes and data flows. by switching scenes between the real and virtual matrices, as well as the language of the camera showing the characters' actions and conflicts in the two spaces, the confrontation between humans and machines is dynamically connected, reinforcing the tension of the plot. <minority report> the film's high-tech urban depiction of a future washington dc. self-driving flying cars, holographic adverts and crime warning systems show a highly technologically advanced society. the coherence of the plot development is enhanced by seamless transitions between scenes of the futuristic city and the crime warning system, as well as by precise camera work that captures the characters' pursuits and conflicts within the high-tech environment. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 138 published by ideas spread <akira> set in futuristic tokyo , the film constructs a physical space full of chaos and contradictions through the depiction of dense urban landscapes, dilapidated streets and large-scale ruins. the relationships and confrontations between the characters are shown through scene-switching between motorbike chases, violent clashes and super-powered outbursts in neo-tokyo, as well as through the language of the camera. <ghost in the shell> set in a futuristic city, the film combines high-tech architecture with traditional neighbourhoods. the city's neon lights, data networks and multi-level buildings create a unique physical space. switching between high-tech cities, data networks and action scenes, as well as the language of the camera show the characters' mission execution and identity search. <appleseed> the film is set in the futuristic city of olympus, where the city's advanced architecture contrasts with industrial ruins, showing a physical space where high-tech and natural elements coexist. through the scene switching between futuristic cities and industrial ruins, as well as the language of the camera showing the actions of the characters and the exploration of the relationship between humanity and technology. table 6. comparative analysis of spatial narratives in psychological space, auditory space,virtual space film title psychological space auditory space virtual space <blade runner> the dark colours and the sound of rain render loneliness and depressing emotions, and the dilapidated landscape is a metaphor for the collapse of society, deepening the psychological expression. the chilled out atmosphere of a futuristic city is created through the sound of rain, neon flashing background sound effects and low electronic music. elements such as digital screens and holographic projections blur the boundaries between the real and the virtual, providing a multi-dimensional visual experience for the narrative. <the matrix> the green filter renders the sense of oppression in the virtual world, and action scenes and slow-mo shots show neo's inner awakening and struggle. tension is created through mechanical sound effects and rhythmic electronic music. the surreal visual effects and dynamic digital scenes in the matrix demonstrate the infinite possibilities of virtual space. <minority report> the oppression and isolation of the protagonist is expressed through the cool colours and crowded scenes of the futuristic city. the tense atmosphere of a hightech society is created through mechanical sound effects of futuristic technological devices and a tight soundtrack. visual operation of the crime warning system and the dynamic display of the virtual scene extend the narrative dimension <akira> through broken scenes and highspeed action images, it expresses the inner chaos and anger of the characters, and the dark colours and strong contrasting light and shadow render the sense of social oppression. through the roar of motorbike engines, the shocking sound effects of explosions and electronic music, a chaotic and tense atmosphere is created. a surreal virtual space is constructed through the visual representation of superpower outbursts and abstract scenes of consciousness expansion. <ghost in the shell> mirror images express the character's identity confusion and low electronic sound effects and ethereal background music the digital network connection, the visual representation of data hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 139 published by ideas spread self-exploration, while dark colours and data flow render a sense of conflict between technology and loneliness. create the cold atmosphere of a futuristic city, while data flow and quiet dialogue express the character's loneliness and identity search. flow, and the character's search for consciousness in the virtual space expand the narrative dimension. <appleseed> the contrast between the ruins and the future city expresses the inner conflicts and hopes of the characters, and the dark-toned scenes render depressing emotions after the war. through the sound effects of mechanical equipment and cold electronic music, the technological atmosphere of the future city is shaped. through the virtual city system and holographic projection technology, a narrative space intertwined with reality and virtual is constructed. as can be seen from the contents of the above table, at the level of physical space, western cyberpunk films are centred on the portrayal of the future city, showing the coexistence of high technology and social oppression. through the depiction of towering buildings, neon lights and gloomy weather, the films create an anti-utopian world full of oppression. in addition, western films often show the contradictory relationship between human beings and technology through the contrast between reality and virtual space. these detailed designs not only provide a visual basis for the narrative, but also reveal the link between technological advancement and social alienation. oriental cyberpunk films, on the other hand, display a unique aesthetic of physical space by blending traditional and modern elements. the film depicts densely populated cities, crumbling streets and ruins, presenting social chaos and conflict, while at the same time reflecting the combination of tradition and high technology. the fusion of futuristic cities and natural elements not only enhances the narrative hierarchy, but also reflects the eastern culture's thinking on the coexistence of modernity and tradition. at the level of narrative space, western cyberpunk films demonstrate multi-dimensional spatial narrative features through scene switching and the use of camera language, focusing more on the opposition between individual resistance and social systems. for example, <minority report> demonstrates the suppression and conflict of technology on individual freedom through the transformation of the future city and the crime warning system, highlighting the logic and tension of the narrative. oriental cyberpunk films, on the other hand, demonstrate the composite relationship between human nature and society through multi-dimensional narratives. for example, the scene switching between the future city and industrial ruins in <appleseed> reveals the contradictions of the technological society and the intertwining of characters' emotions, showing the depth and multi-layeredness of oriental narratives. at the level of psychological space, western cyberpunk films express the complexity of characters' inner world and technological conflicts. for example, the mirror image in <blade runner> shows that the character's identity is lost, and the cold colours and dilapidated landscapes are a metaphor for the collapse of society, while <the matrix> deepens the expression of emotion through the contrast between the virtual and the real, which expresses the character's cognitive conflicts and inner struggles. oriental cyberpunk films pay more attention to the inner conflict of emotions and philosophical thinking. for example, <ghost in the shell> shows the opposition between the character's search for identity and technological loneliness through mirroring and data flow, while <akira> shows the character's inner confusion and struggle through broken scenes and high contrasting light and shadow, further deepening the emotional level. at the level of auditory space, western cyberpunk films reinforce the narrative atmosphere through background music. for example, the low electronic music and ambient sound effects of <blade runner> create the mood of a cold futuristic city, while mechanical sound effects and compact background music of <minority report> express the tension and depression of a high-tech society, enhancing the rhythm and emotional impact of the narrative. oriental cyberpunk films, on the other hand, display unique atmosphere shaping through sound effects. the motorbike engine roar and explosion sound effects in <akira> convey a sense of chaos and tension, while the ethereal background sound effects and quiet dialogue of <ghost in the shell> highlight the loneliness and philosophical thinking of the characters. at the level of virtual space, western cyberpunk films construct multi-dimensional narrative scenes, blurring the boundaries between reality and the virtual. for example, <minority report> demonstrates the possibility of interaction between the virtual and the real through holographic projection and crime warning system, and extends the depth and dimension of the narrative. the surreal visual effect of the virtual matrix in <the matrix> demonstrates the infinite possibilities of virtual space. the virtual space of eastern cyberpunk films emphasises hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 140 published by ideas spread philosophy and spirituality. <akira> constructs a surreal virtual space through the abstract scenes of superpower explosion and consciousness expansion to strengthen the philosophical depth of the narrative. through the intertwining of cyberspace and reality, <ghost in the shell> combines the flow of data and the search for character consciousness, deepening the reflection on the relationship between technology and human nature, and demonstrating the unique interpretation of virtual space in oriental cinema. a comprehensive comparative analysis is shown in table 7. table 7. comparison of spatial narratives in eastern and western cyberpunk films category western cyberpunk films eastern cyberpunk films similarities and differences physical space cold cities that emphasise technological dominance and social oppression, such as los angeles and new york. focuses on the integration of traditional cultural elements with the modern city. eastern cyberpunk films are biased towards cultural heritage, while western cyberpunk films are more prominent in industrialisation and technology. narrative space focus on individual resistance against social systems. demonstrates the composite relationship between human nature and society through multi-dimensional narratives. both focus on the conflict between people and society, but from different perspectives. psychological space demonstrates the anxiety of human beings in the face of technological oppression and expresses the complexity of the characters' inner world in conflict with technology. emphasis on inner struggle and metaphorical expression of the spiritual world, paying more attention to the inner conflict of emotions and philosophical thinking. both convey emotions through visual metaphors, but with different emphases. auditory space industrial noise and futuristic sense of technology are dominant, and the narrative atmosphere is strengthened by background music. combining traditional musical instruments and future electronic sound effects, it shows a unique atmosphere and creates cultural depth through sound effects. eastern cyberpunk film style focuses on cultural presentation, while western cyberpunk film style is more cold and hard. virtual space blurring the boundaries between reality and the virtual, and the confrontation between the power of digital technology and the virtual world. digital and reality are intertwined, emphasising the philosophical and spiritual. both use virtual space to explore real issues. 5. conclusion eastern and western cyberpunk films reflect unique cultural differences in the representation of spatial narratives as well as demonstrate the common features of cyberpunk culture in the context of globalisation. in the representation of physical space, eastern films are more inclined to cultural heritage, showing the complexity of society through the fusion of traditional elements and the future city, while western films highlight the dominance of industrialisation and technology, presenting a cold future cityscape. in the design of narrative space, both eastern and western films focus on the conflict between people and society, but the focus of expression is different. the west is more inclined to show the tension between the individual and the social system, while the east explores the complex intertwining of human nature and social relations through multi-dimensional narratives. in the expression of psychological space, both western and eastern films use visual metaphors to convey emotions, but with different emphases. western films emphasise the anxiety and identity confusion of the characters under the oppression of technology, while eastern films pay more attention to emotional depth and philosophical thinking, and express a more metaphorical inner world through visual and auditory sensations. in terms of auditory space, western films often use industrial noise and futuristic electronic sound effects to create a cold and hard technological atmosphere, while eastern films integrate traditional musical instruments and modern sound effects to create a more culturally the rooted narrative atmosphere. in the construction of virtual space, both eastern and western films use virtual space to explore real issues, with the west paying more attention to the power of digital technology against reality, while the east stresses philosophical and spiritual exploration, deepening thinking about hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 141 published by ideas spread technology and human nature. to sum up, through different narrative strategies and cultural expressions, both eastern and western cyberpunk films show the complex relationship between technology and humanity, society and individuals, providing a diversified presentation and reflection of cyberpunk culture. references branigan, e. (2013). narrative comprehension and film. routledge. butler, a. m. (2003). postmodernism and science fiction. in e. james & f. mendlesohn (eds.), the cambridge companion to science fiction (pp. 137–148). cambridge: cambridge university press. cavallaro, d. (2000). cyberpunk and cyberculture: science fiction and the work of william gibson. london & new brunswick: the athlone press. ebert, r. (2012, december 14). the best films of the decade. roger ebert. retrieved november 18, 2020, from https://www.rogerebert.com/ jiang, z. (2019). the transcontinental evolution of cyberpunk: from philip k. dick to chen qiufan. southern literary forum, (04), 29–34. https://doi.org/10.14065/j.cnki.nfwt.2019.04.006 jiao, y. (2009). on the spatial narration of films. contemporary film, (1), 113–115. kellner, d. (2003). media culture: cultural studies, identity and politics between the modern and the post-modern. routledge. liu, n., & zhang, n. (2015). a review of space design from the narrative perspective. architecture of central china, 33(10), 23–26. https://doi.org/10.13942/j.cnki.hzjz.2015.10.006 mccaffery, l. (ed.). (1991). storming the reality studio: a casebook of cyberpunk and postmodern science fiction. duke university press. napier, s. (2001). anime from akira to princess mononoke: experiencing contemporary japanese animation. springer. sammon, p. (1996). future noir: the making of blade runner. silver, j., wachowski, a., & wachowski, l. (1999). the matrix. united states: warner bros. sobchack, v. c. (1997). screening space: the american science fiction film. rutgers university press. xiao, j., & cao, k. (2013). space narration of history: application of narrative techniques in space planning for historic cities. planners, 29(12), 98–103. zhang, x., & jin, s. (2020). the myth of yesterday's future: aesthetic features of cyberpunk works. film review, (19), 70–73. https://doi.org/10.16583/j.cnki.52-1014/j.2020.19.020 zhou, l. (2020). space construction, symbolic collage, and field transformation: aesthetic analysis of binary opposition in cyberpunk films. contemporary film, (08), 36–40. zou, b. (2011). the starting points, perspectives, and directions of space narrative research. seeking truth, (1), 195–197. https://doi.org/10.16059/j.cnki.cn43-1008/c.2011.01.039 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n1p79 79 published by ideas spread research on the challenges and coping strategies of social work practice in public health emergencies liu yanyan1 1 school of sociology, sanya university, china correspondence: liu yanyan, school of sociology, sanya university, sanya city, hainan province, 572022, china. e-mail: 2294590201atqq.com received: january 22, 2025; accepted: february 15, 2025; published: february 16, 2025 fund project: sanya university autumn semester 2022-2023 academic year young and middle-aged teacher training project (scientific research): research on social work practice in community covid-19 prevention and control (usyjspy22-26). abstract this study explores the main challenges and coping strategies of social work practice in public health emergencies. by reviewing major public health events in history, the key role of social workers in the crisis is analyzed. the study found that the challenges social workers faced in responding to these events included issues such as limited resources, a shortage of professionals, and difficulties in cross-cultural communication, which led to increased stress and unequal distribution of resources in crisis response. in order to better play the role of social work and respond to public health emergencies, the study suggests that social workers can improve their professional ability and response speed, establish a sound psychological intervention mechanism, and optimize resource integration and cross-agency cooperation measures. keywords: public health emergencies, social work practice, pluralistic cooperation 1. research background a public health emergency is a disease or health threat that affects public health at a specific time and place, resulting in widespread and rapid spread. the suddenness, severity and complexity of these events often exceed the capacity of regular health systems and require the mobilization of multiple resources to respond. according to the definition of the international health organization, such incidents include but are not limited to epidemics, infectious diseases, food safety incidents, etc. in recent years, public health emergencies have occurred frequently, such as the novel coronavirus (covid-19), sars, h1n1 influenza and ebola virus, which have had a profound impact on people's physical and mental health and social stability. these incidents have not only caused panic among the public, but also posed serious challenges to society's ability to cope. social work plays a crucial role in public health events, mainly in raising public health awareness, providing psychological support, coordinating resource allocation and promoting community participation. in public health events, social work is not only an important link in emergency response, but also a key factor in long-term public health construction. through multi-dimensional intervention and support, social workers help communities better cope with public health crises and enhance overall social resilience and health literacy. history has shown that social work has played a key role in responding to these crises, effectively mitigating the negative impact of crises by promoting community cooperation and strengthening social ties. however, at present, there are still some deficiencies in the research of social work intervention in public health emergencies in our country, which are mainly reflected in the single perspective of intervention, the fragmentation of service content and the limitations of emergency services. in this context, the research on the practical challenges and coping strategies of social work in public health emergencies is particularly important. although some scholars have discussed the intervention mode of social work, systematic research on the problems in specific practice and coping strategies is still insufficient. therefore, it is necessary to deeply analyze the specific performance of social work in different types of public health events, identify and summarize effective coping strategies, and form a more systematic and comprehensive practice framework. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 80 published by ideas spread by combing the existing research results and combining with actual cases, this study analyzed and summarized the experience and shortcomings of social work in public health emergencies, and provided reference for improving china's public health emergency management ability. at the same time, it also provides a new perspective for the development of social work, promotes the further deepening and expansion of social work in the field of public health, so as to enhance the resilience and anti-pressure ability of the whole society, and promote social harmony and stability. 2. practical challenges faced by social work in public health emergencies 2.1 difficulties faced by social work practice in public health emergencies, social work practice faces multiple dilemmas. firstly, lack of resources is one of the major problems. during the pandemic, government and institutional resources are focused on emergency health response, resulting in a shortage of human, financial and material resources in the field of social work. in most areas, the number of social workers has decreased, the coverage of community services has declined significantly, and traditional financial support has stalled, affecting the sustainability and effectiveness of programs. there are communication problems. rapidly spreading outbreak information and instructions present challenges for social workers. the lack of effective communication mechanisms in many places has resulted in distorted or delayed information delivery, affecting timely responses to the people they serve. the lack of data and evaluation makes it difficult for social workers to prioritize the needs of the community, and the pertinency and effectiveness of services are greatly reduced.in addition, mental health problems are on the rise. anxiety, depression and other feelings caused by the epidemic are widespread, especially among low-income and vulnerable groups. however, professional services in psychological counseling and support are seriously inadequate, and many social workers lack the necessary training and experience in emotional counseling, leading to poor service results. the lack of access to technology is also a major dilemma. while the use of online platforms is increasing, some elderly and low-income people have difficulty using smart devices and the internet, affecting their ability to access social work services. most social work services rely on face-to-face contact, which is particularly difficult under the pandemic restrictions, affecting the accessibility and timeliness of services.these difficulties need urgent attention, and measures such as innovative service models, enhanced resource integration, improved technology application, and optimized policy environment should be taken to enhance the response capacity and practical effectiveness of social work in public health emergencies. 2.2 mental health and psychological assistance challenges public health emergencies have led to a significant increase in mental health problems, and psychological assistance faces multiple challenges. first, mental health problems such as anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder caused by the pandemic are widespread. for example, during the pandemic, the demand for mental health intervention has increased, and many people with good mental health tend to deteriorate due to long-term isolation, social restrictions and economic pressure. in particular, front-line medical workers and susceptible people, the former's psychological stress index increased to 2-3 times their normal level, while the latter showed obvious anxiety and panic. psychological assistance resources are unevenly distributed, especially in remote and rural areas, and there is a serious shortage of professional psychological service personnel, resulting in a lack of effective coping mechanisms in the face of large-scale mental health needs. this has pushed social workers to take on more responsibilities, but their expertise and skills in mental health interventions are often inadequate, affecting the effectiveness of services and the quality of interventions. psychological assistance faces the challenge of information dissemination. the wide spread of false information and negative news intensifies the panic and misunderstanding of the public, which makes the psychological aid work more complicated. the rapid spread of social media has allowed negative emotions to spread quickly, leading to public neglect and misunderstanding of mental health issues, and reducing the willingness to seek professional help. today's society needs to enhance mental health education and improve public awareness of mental health knowledge, so as to reduce misunderstanding and negative impact. the model of psychological assistance needs to be adjusted flexibly. while traditional face-to-face counseling has been limited during the epidemic, remote counseling is on the rise, but its effectiveness needs to be further evaluated. the survey showed that many groups have concerns about the safety and effectiveness of online counseling, and even are unfamiliar with the technical operation, which has affected the popularity and promotion of psychological assistance. therefore, the training of social workers and counselors should be strengthened in the future to improve their ability to use technology for psychological assistance. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 81 published by ideas spread cultural differences are also key challenges in psychological assistance. in different cultures, individuals differ in the way they perceive, express and seek help for psychological problems, leading to the poor effectiveness of standardized psychological assistance programs in some groups. developing culturally appropriate interventions and increasing cultural sensitivity will help improve the effectiveness of psychological assistance. research in the field of mental health should pay more attention to cultural factors and explore more diversified intervention strategies to better adapt to the needs of different groups. 2.3 barriers to resource allocation and multi-agency cooperation in public health emergencies, insufficient resource allocation frequently becomes an important obstacle to the effective implementation of social work. especially in the early stages of the epidemic, medical resources, material distribution and human resources are all in short supply. inadequate funding of social work agencies also limits the scope and depth of their services, and many grassroots organizations often rely on short-term donations and lack sustainable financial support. it is difficult to coordinate multi-agency cooperation. their different interests, goals and working methods lead to information asymmetry and resource misallocation in the cooperation process. different agencies often lack effective communication mechanisms when making decisions, resulting in inefficient allocation of resources. restrictions in laws and regulations also affect the efficiency of cross-departmental cooperation. for example, some social work organizations face difficulties in data sharing when working with medical institutions and cannot get timely information and policy guidelines on epidemic handling, making it difficult for them to respond in a timely manner. the verticality of the management system increases the complexity of information flow and reduces the speed of response and the accuracy of services. therefore, it is necessary to strengthen the communication and collaboration mechanism among multiple agencies. the establishment of inter-departmental emergency response mechanisms, such as regular coordination meetings and information sharing platforms, will help promote the effective allocation of resources and improve response speed. the lack of technical support is also an obstacle that cannot be ignored. many social work agencies lack the ability to quickly acquire and analyze real-time data when faced with public health emergencies, leading to a lag in their judgment and response to events. in addition, the lack of digital transformation has made some small institutions and community service centers face greater challenges, unable to effectively use scientific and technological means, such as big data analysis and online consultation platforms, for epidemic prevention and control and matching service needs. therefore, improving the level of digitization in the field of social work and promoting the combination of offline resources and online services is the key to breaking the current bottleneck. in the effective allocation of resources and multi-agency cooperation, the guidance of government departments and the participation of social forces are needed to form a joint force. cross-industry joint actions should be based on the principle of sharing, ensuring information transparency, rational allocation of resources and efficient operation of services, and promoting the collaborative work of social forces in public health emergencies. 3. social work response strategies in public health emergencies 3.1 enhance professional competence and agility in the context of public health emergencies, social workers face many challenges, and it is particularly important to enhance professional competence and agility. first, strengthening the updating of professional knowledge is key, including learning in areas such as epidemiology, psychosocial support and crisis intervention. through online training and field simulations, access to the latest information and skills will enable social workers to respond quickly to crises. establish an inter-professional cooperation mechanism to promote information sharing and technical support. in this process, social workers will be helped to keep abreast of changes in economic, health and social policies by pooling resources, data and response experiences through regular cross-sectoral meetings. further, advanced data analysis tools, such as big data and artificial intelligence, can be introduced to aid decision making, improve the ability to predict, analyze the epidemic trend and assess the risk, and ensure that social workers can respond quickly. initiatives to improve practical capacity are equally important. promote the case study and reflection mechanism, through the analysis of actual cases, identify the shortcomings in the work and the direction of improvement, including the establishment of feedback groups and regular case discussions to promote regular learning. combine internship with volunteer management to enhance the practical ability of workers in real scenarios, improve communication skills and project management ability. encourage social workers to actively participate in the development and certification of professional standards, and promote the promotion of industry awareness. by participating in the standards development of relevant hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 82 published by ideas spread institutions, social workers can clarify their professional responsibilities and scope of work, enhance their sense of identity and professional confidence in their profession, and enhance the spirit of cooperation within the profession. strengthen practical training in crisis management and emergency response, and improve social workers' coping strategies and solving abilities in the face of emergencies. in terms of obtaining feedback and evaluation, it advocates the establishment of an evaluation mechanism, conducts quantitative analysis of work effectiveness on a regular basis, and formulates key performance indicators in order to timely modify strategies and improve work efficiency. this will not only help assess the effectiveness of existing programs, but also provide data to support future responses. social media and other emerging platforms will be used to strengthen communication with the public, guide public opinion and disseminate information, and ensure that the public has quick and accurate access to information. the refined practice and flexibility of social workers determine their important role in public health emergencies. therefore, they must constantly promote their knowledge, skills, reflection and evaluation in order to maintain the effectiveness and agility of professional services in a complex and changing environment. 3.2 building a mental health intervention mechanism to construct a mental health intervention mechanism, it is necessary to integrate various social work theories and practices to ensure timely and effective responses to mental health problems. firstly, a multi-level intervention system should be established to adapt to the needs of different groups of people. the primary intervention focuses on improving the public's awareness of mental health, and improving the ability of community residents to resist psychological crisis through universal psychological education and psychological counseling. with schools, communities and enterprises as the main positions, mental health publicity activities are carried out through the combination of online and offline ways to promote the dissemination of mental health knowledge. intermediate intervention is mainly aimed at sub-healthy people preliminarily screened, providing personalized support. by setting up a psychological counseling hotline and a psychological service platform, all-weather psychological support services without geographical restrictions will be provided. the ultimate intervention is mainly aimed at patients with severe mental illness, providing systematic psychological evaluation, treatment and rehabilitation services by combining professional treatment and care. it includes medication, psychological counseling, social skills training and career reconstruction to help patients reintegrate into society. in the implementation process, emphasis is placed on data collection and analysis. the effect of intervention is evaluated regularly, so that the program is continuously optimized. for example, standardized psychological assessment tools, such as the baker depression scale and the self-rating anxiety scale, were used to provide quantitative evidence for the effectiveness of interventions. based on the data collected, intervention strategies are adjusted on the ground to ensure that they better meet the needs of the client. it is particularly important to build a multi-party cooperation mechanism, and multi-forces such as the government, social organizations, psychological professional institutions, and volunteer teams need to work together to form a comprehensive and systematic intervention network. through the establishment of an information sharing platform, effective communication and resource integration among various agencies should be ensured to avoid repeated interventions and waste of resources. at the same time, it is suggested to set up psychological intervention teams in high-risk groups such as universities, with full-time staff and volunteers working together to carry out related activities, so as to fully improve the accessibility and effectiveness of interventions. the importance of policy support is emphasized. the government should formulate special funds and policies for mental health and increase investment in mental health services. we should promote the normalization and institutionalization of mental health intervention mechanisms, and ensure the standardization and continuity of mental health services through legislative means. in addition, a feedback mechanism for mental health publicity and education should be established to ensure the smooth operation of intervention measures, improve public mental health awareness and coping ability, and form a virtuous circle. 3.3 strategies for multiple cooperation and resource integration in the context of public health emergencies, multi-cooperation and resource integration strategies for social work are crucial. resources needed to respond to outbreaks often span multiple areas, including health, social services, mental health and volunteering. that is why it is critical to establish mechanisms for cross-cutting cooperation. alliances should be formed across functional departments, ngos, businesses and community groups to co-ordinate the use of resources and ensure the sharing of information and experience. for example, local health departments and social service agencies share epidemic data in a timely manner through regular meetings and information platforms to optimize crisis response plans and effectively enhance response capacity. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 83 published by ideas spread the integration of resources at the community level is equally important. encouraging community self-governing organizations and volunteers to participate in epidemic prevention and control can effectively mobilize community forces and support each other. for example, temporary service centers have been set up in specific areas, with community volunteers and social workers jointly responsible for information release, material docking and psychological counseling. this will not only promote a sense of community participation, but also achieve efficient allocation of resources. public and social engagement should also be an important part of partnership strategies. use social media platforms to conduct online campaigns to raise public awareness and protection against health incidents. we will mobilize corporate resources and actively participate in the fight against the epidemic through donations and service support. for example, a company donated protective materials and provided epidemic information technology support, effectively optimizing the service process. at the policy level, the government should strengthen training and support for social workers, especially in crisis response and resource integration, to ensure that they can respond quickly and provide effective support in emergencies. governments at all levels can formulate policies to encourage multi-party cooperation, provide financial subsidies, tax breaks and other measures, and guide the participation of enterprises and non-profit organizations. regular evaluation and feedback mechanisms are an important basis for ensuring the effectiveness of resource integration. through the establishment of evaluation index system, the effectiveness of cooperation projects should be evaluated on a regular basis and strategies adjusted. make effective use of big data analysis and community feedback to optimize resource allocation in a timely manner and improve the overall response capacity and efficiency. this dynamic adjustment can provide room for continuous improvement in social work practices and help to respond quickly and effectively to complex challenges in public health emergencies. 4. summary public health emergencies pose serious challenges to social work practice, especially in the aspects of emergency response, resource allocation and psychological support. studies have shown that the flexibility and expertise of social workers during epidemics significantly increase the resilience of communities to withstand crises. specifically, social workers facilitate the timely dissemination of information and the effective sharing of resources by building multi-level support networks. among them, using community volunteers as a link and integrating the strength of local governments, health departments and non-governmental organizations helps to realize information sharing and resource complementarity, and effectively solves the phenomenon of information silos. in practice, according to the needs of different groups, social workers have developed personalized psychological counseling programs to support high-risk groups (such as the elderly and patients with chronic diseases) to overcome loneliness and anxiety, and improve their psychological resilience. studies have shown that social work plays an important role in transactional and planning decision-making. through research and data analysis, social workers can better grasp the needs of the community and formulate corresponding operational programs. in this process, swot analysis was applied to assess the impact of the epidemic on community capacity and corresponding coping strategies, which effectively improved the scientific and targeted decision-making. in addition, by establishing an emergency response mechanism, local social workers quickly adjusted their work priorities to ensure that necessary assistance and services could be provided quickly during emergencies, laying the foundation for improving the overall community's ability to cope with public health emergencies. in terms of practical value, this study provides theoretical basis and practical guidance for social work practice in future public health emergencies, emphasizes the irreplaceability of social work in crisis, and reflects the significance of enhancing community self-organization ability through professional intervention. at the same time, based on the data and cases of this study, professional training should be further strengthened to improve the professionalism of social workers in crisis management, so as to respond more efficiently to possible public health crises in the future. it is of important practical value to open the exploration of interdisciplinary cooperation, promote the integration of social work, medicine, psychology and other fields, and jointly improve the public health response ability. references [1] yan, g. (2021). community participation in the control of major sudden epidemics: value, dilemmas, and countermeasures. construction of old revolutionary areas. [2] xi, j. (2020). speech at the meeting on coordinating the prevention and control of covid-19 and economic hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 84 published by ideas spread and social development. people's daily. [3] wang, s. (2020). the realization of the embeddedness of professional functions in social work participation in public crisis governance: based on the governance of covid-19 prevention and control. social work and management. [4] wang, s. (2004). introduction to social work. beijing: higher education press. [5] xu, h. (2018). research on the intervention of social work in china’s medical and health services (doctoral dissertation). shandong university of traditional chinese medicine, jinan. [6] zhen, h. (2009). analysis of the path (model) of social work intervention in community health services and policy proposals. chinese general practice. [7] zou, t. (2020). life education under public crisis events: reflection and reconstruction. teaching of ideological and political courses. [8] wei, x. (2020). research on social work in the modernization of public crisis governance. research on socialism with chinese characteristics. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p24 24 published by ideas spread analysis of the value of "monkey quack whip" in community cultural construction liu zongyi1 & chen yu1 1 quanzhou normal university, china correspondence: liu zongyi, quanzhou normal university, quanzhou, fujian 362000, china received: june 29, 2025; accepted: july 16, 2025; published: july 17, 2025 abstract this paper delves into the positive role of the intangible cultural heritage dance "monkey quack whip" in enhancing community cohesion, inheriting traditional culture, and enriching the spiritual and cultural life of residents in community cultural construction. and propose corresponding countermeasures for the challenges faced in community cultural construction. the "monkey quack whip" dance, which combines folk tales with physical art, enlivenes the community atmosphere with crisp whip sounds, cheerful drumbeats and lively dance moves, and attracts residents of all ages. from the exchange of skills in daily rehearsals to the collective appearance in festival performances, from the personal instruction of intangible cultural heritage inheritors to family group learning, it strengthens cultural identity through interaction and builds a community of cultural memory. it is not only a carrier of community cultural construction, but also an important bond that brings people closer together and promotes community harmony. keywords: monkey quack whip, community culture building, cohesion, traditional culture, spiritual and cultural life 1. introduction community cultural construction, as an important carrier of grassroots social governance and spiritual civilization construction, carries the core mission of uniting neighborhood sentiments, inheriting local cultural context, and enhancing residents' cultural identity. in the current context of accelerated urbanization and multicultural integration, how to tap into local cultural resources and activate the contemporary vitality of traditional folk customs has become a key issue in building a distinctive community cultural ecosystem. intangible cultural heritage, as a living carrier of national cultural genes, its dynamic inheritance and innovative application in community scenarios not only inject unique historical depth into community culture, but also build an effective bridge for residents to participate in cultural practice and jointly build a spiritual home. "monkey quack whip" is a traditional folk dance form that has been passed down in a specific area. it combines dance, music and folk customs. with its cheerful rhythm, lively dance moves and profound folk customs, it has extensive cultural memory and emotional connection among the local people. this intangible cultural heritage project is not only a vivid representation of local cultural diversity, but also embodies the wisdom of collective creation, the spirit of neighborhood collaboration and the expression of life aesthetics. however, under the impact of the modernization wave, many traditional folk customs are facing the predicament of broken inheritance and shrinking scenes, and the survival and development of "monkey quack whip" also face the realistic challenge of how to adapt to the changes in community life and integrate into the demands of contemporary culture. based on this, this paper focuses on the intrinsic connection between "monkey gata whip" and community cultural construction, aiming to systematically explore its unique value in enriching the forms of community cultural activities, enhancing residents' cultural identity, and promoting the accumulation of community social capital by sorting out the historical origin, artistic features and folk functions of "monkey gata whip". at the same time, in light of the actual needs of current community cultural construction, this paper explores the practical problems and innovative paths faced by "monkey gua ta whip" in the living inheritance, with the aim of providing theoretical references and practical lessons for the empowerment of community cultural construction by intangible cultural heritage resources, and allowing traditional folk customs to regain new vitality and vigor in the fertile soil of the community. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 25 published by ideas spread 2. the basic situation of the monkey quack whip dance 2.1 origins and historical background 2.1.1 origin background the monkey gata whip dance originated in the late qing dynasty in xihenggouya village, lanling town, lanling county, shandong province. the origin of the "monkey gada bian" is detailed in the book "complete collection of chinese ethnic and folk dances shandong volume" : "the monkey gada bian was passed down in xihenggouya village, lanling town, cangshan county (now lanling county). it existed during the daoguang period of the qing dynasty. at first, it was a means for poor artisans to make a living, performed by a couple. later, during the xuantong period, it evolved into a 'play society', with a significant increase in dance elements and the number of performers increased to four.[1]" lanling town is a thousand-year-old town with rich historical and cultural heritage and a strong wine culture. li bai, a famous poet of the tang dynasty, once visited here and wrote the famous lines: "lanling wine is like a tulip, in a jade bowl comes amber light." the local people are mainly engaged in farming, have a simple folkways and a bold character. during major festivals, there are performances of folk dances and folk music, which are very lively. the rich historical and cultural heritage and the natural geographical environment make the working people here love life, are diligent and kind, and love dancing. the dance has a history of nearly two hundred years. from its initial purpose of begging, it has evolved into a form of performance that combines dance, comedy and folk songs. it was performed on every major festival and celebration, with the male characters holding flower sticks and the female characters holding lotuses, cooperating with each other. the movements are simple, the performance is flexible and varied, dancing to the music, and can improvise on the basis of the original movements when the performance gets hot. figure 1. the inheritor demonstrates the monkey guata whip dance live and tells the story of its origin and development 2.1.2 current status of inheritance and development in order to gain a more accurate and true understanding of the current situation of the development and inheritance of the monkey quack whip, the author specially visited the inheritor of the monkey quack whip, mr. cao hongbing, in lanling town. it was learned that mr. cao hongbing has had forty years of artistic experience since he began his apprenticeship at the age of fifteen. through the form of live demonstrations, he demonstrated superb dance skills and appreciated the unique artistic charm of the monkey quack whip. since taking on the responsibility of passing on the art, cao hongbing has been actively organizing performances for major festivals, celebrations and other themes. in the "qilu characteristic culture series of dance", it is mentioned that "hou gua ta ban" has received awards and honors. "in 2001, it was organized by the cultural department of cangshan county and performed on the stage of the first square art festival in linyi city and received praise, and won the 'golden dragon award' at the second folk yangko festival.[2]" this shows that the performers of this folk art have been working hard. in recent years, as efforts to protect and pass on intangible cultural heritage have been intensified, the intangible cultural heritage dance "monkey quack whip" has also entered schools and become a course in secondary vocational schools, with teachers returning regularly every week to teach. this has greatly hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 26 published by ideas spread broadened the channels for passing on dance skills and promoted this folk dance with local characteristics. through conversation, it was learned that there is a missing "rolling whip" routine in the current monkey quack whip performance. mr. cao is also doing his best to search for photos of the master's performance and videos taken at that time in the hope of restoring it. 2.2 artistic features 2.2.1 characters and costume props among the male and female characters, the male performers hold flower sticks, wear yellow special monkey costumes, apply monkey face makeup, imitate monkey forms, perform vividly and flexibly. the flower sticks used by the performers are made of high-quality bamboo poles. the inside of the bamboo nodes is all cut through and a pair of copper coins need to be drilled through each node for fixation. hitting them during the performance makes a sound. the surface of the flower sticks is painted multiple times, with red and green as the main colors, and yellow at the middle joints, both for aesthetic purposes and to prevent damage from insects and ants. a square piece of cloth is tied to each end, with one side being red and the other green. the female performers, dressed in yangko costumes and holding lotuses (bamboo boards, trash spappers), perform in coordination with the male characters. 2.2.2 dance movements and performance forms the movements are characteristic of the local area and have a distinct rhythm. the book "illustrated catalogue of shandong provincial intangible cultural heritage list" summarizes the artistic features of the monkey gua ta whip. "the rhythm is fast, the action is strong, and the atmosphere is lively. in particular, men with whips imitate the form of monkeys with great skill, leaping and moving, interspersed with action combinations such as "single whip playing with a move", "double whip playing with a move", and "fighting flower whips", full of the unique rural flavor of southern shandong, forming an artistic style that combines dance, play and song.[3] i learned about the eight basic movements of the monkey gua ta whip and the combinations of movements commonly used in the performance through communication and learning with the inheritors. the male flower stick is composed of eight basic movements: one for the left wrist, two for the left elbow, three for the left shoulder, four for the right shoulder, five for the left hand, six for the inner side of the right foot, seven for the outer side of the right foot, and eight for the left foot. the movements are coherent and rhythmically distinct. the combinations of the monkey gua ta whip include: the leg suction kick jump combination, the front and back lunge hitting stick squatting and hitting the ground combination, the leg suction crossbar hitting shoulder combination, the front and back kick swing combination, and the double jump single drop push combination. the basic movements performed by the female character are the lozi step, standing on tiptoes with feet together, holding the board with the right hand and the knuckle with the left hand. four beats are used as a foundation and can be performed forward, backward, left and right. figure 2. the inheritor's stage performance photo 2.2.3 musical accompaniment and lyrics the music is mostly folk songs. in "research on the customs and culture of lanling", many examples are given for the musical repertoire of "monkey gua ta bi". "the singing repertoire is mostly folk songs, and women have to sing along at the same time, such as' great spring outing ', 'little spring outing', 'twelve escort', 'embroidered lantern', etc. the content mainly reflects love and labor life.[4]" in recent years, the music accompaniment has also included modern songs with distinct rhythms, as well as the highly local "yimeng mountain ballad", and the selection of music has covered young people, which to some extent reflects the development of the dance. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 27 published by ideas spread 3. the value of the monkey quack whip dance in community cultural construction 3.1 enhance community cohesion and a sense of belonging 3.1.1 community activities participated in together one of the major features of the monkey quack whip dance is that its movements can be either simple or complex, which to some extent expands the range of performers to cover people of different ages and physical abilities: the elderly in the community can choose combinations of basic movements with smaller magnitudes, and the young can appropriately add technical movements such as jumps to make the performance more passionate. this inclusiveness allows the residents of the community, regardless of occupation or age differences, to find their place in the dance activities, creating a good atmosphere of "helping each other when needed and rehearsing together when free", increasing the frequency of interaction among residents and enhancing the overall cohesion of the community. in lanling, during the annual holiday, a large number of young and middle-aged people return to their hometowns. since they spend most of the year away from home, this period is a rare opportunity for family reunion and close friends to strengthen their bonds. from the first to the fifteenth day of the first lunar month, the monkey quack whip dance team appears in the bustling town and county square. after the monkey quack whip dance team performs, the performers invite people of all ages and genders to join in and teach hands-on, allowing the participants to fully experience the authenticity of folk art. 3.1.2 emotional bonds and identity after years of development, the monkey quack whip dance has become an iconic cultural symbol, and its performance carries the collective memory of several generations, unconsciously becoming a carrier of emotional resonance among people. with the vigorous development of society and the continuous improvement of people's material living standards, people have gradually moved to residential buildings in communities and diversified forms of entertainment, etc. many elderly people still often feel the passage of time. fortunately, this intangible cultural heritage skill has gradually been valued again in recent years. more and more young people have begun to be attracted by this skill. after learning about the origin, development and glorious history of the monkey gua ta whip, they have joined the ranks of protection and inheritance. the elderly teach the skill carefully, and the young people learn it with great enthusiasm. in the process of learning and training, this art form builds a bridge of emotions between new and old performers, allowing people to understand its unique value and realize that this dynamic art should become more colorful with the development of society and pass on the unique artistic charm of the monkey quack whip better. originating from lanling, a place rich in cultural heritage, the passionate performance of the performers on the stage is a genuine expression of love for the local culture and emphasis on inheritance and development, making more and more people know lanling and understand the monkey quack whip, and making positive contributions to the cultural tourism of the hometown. 3.2 inherit and promote traditional culture 3.2.1 protection of intangible cultural heritage as a provincial-level intangible cultural heritage of shandong province, the monkey quack whip dance has received increasing attention and protection in recent years. one of the major characteristics of the community is the concentration of population. through publicity and performance in the community, more enthusiasts can be drawn into the ranks of protecting and inheriting the monkey quack whip, and better living inheritance can be achieved. dance is a dynamic performance that is different from the static art forms such as calligraphy and painting. only its physical performance costumes, props, awards and photos and videos can be statically displayed. through regular activities held in the community to explain and demonstrate, one can feel its charm and value more vividly and graphically, through the combination of oral instruction and video recording. it avoids the risk of loss due to the absence of written records. by organizing regular performance teams in the community, some major festivals can be used to create an atmosphere and enhance visibility, thereby strengthening the vitality of intangible cultural heritage in concrete practice. this way of highlighting performances during festivals and reinforcing customs through performances will make the monkey quack whip more and more famous. in addition, various communities can hold competitions, with each community's performance team actively participating to enhance their own team strength through competitions, and the positive atmosphere formed by the team members during the preparation process promotes the healthy development of community cultural construction. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 28 published by ideas spread 3.2.2 cultural education and inheritance invite the inheritors to hold regular weekend cultural promotion events with the theme of monkey quack whip in the community, to present the monkey quack whip dance more directly to teenagers, internalize it in their hearts and externalize it in their actions. on the one hand, it helps to further inject fresh blood into the inheritance of intangible cultural heritage for better development; on the other hand, it enhances teenagers' emphasis on traditional culture. in the community where they live, rather than passive indoctrination and acceptance, the inheritance and development of this art are achieved through active identification through osmosis, allowing teenagers to naturally understand the historical and cultural genes of their hometown in the process of learning to dance. through educational practice, the emotions of the younger generation towards the monkey quack whip dance have evolved from "strangeness" to "curiosity", then to "pride", and eventually become active inheritors of traditional culture. 3.3 promote communication and enrich life 3.3.1 communication across age groups the monkey quack whip dance, with its inclusiveness, allows enthusiasts of all ages to participate, serving as a "lubricant" for communication among residents of different ages and creating a good community atmosphere. in daily rehearsals, young people help older people shoot videos of daily rehearsals and adjust sound equipment. the older man's steady character prompts them to be more demanding about the accuracy of the dance, teaching the young man the details of the movements and some precautions step by step. as a result, the monkey quack whip can serve as a bridge of communication between the young and the old, making intergenerational communication more warm and bringing together the age groups that originally played separately. in the interaction and communication, the group consensus is subtly strengthened, and the harmonious atmosphere permeates every aspect of daily life. 3.3.2 enrich the spiritual and cultural life the monkey quack whip dance, which combines physical expression and musical interaction, can provide residents with a more immersive cultural experience. it has the advantages of cultivating one's character and strengthening one's body, providing community residents with more options for entertainment, leisure and cultural cultivation. with its unique artistic charm, it adds interest to the spiritual and cultural life of community residents. it can be used as a way to relieve work stress and relax the body after daily work, experiencing the charm of culture in an immersive way. short videos are currently popular, and shooting with the theme of community intangible cultural heritage dance can also be a direction for short video producers. record the daily rehearsals and performances of community residents, and let more people know about this dance art by telling stories and developments through short videos. this form not only expands the path of spiritual and cultural practice for residents, but also achieves the release of individual emotions and the construction of group cultural identity through the combination of body movement and artistic expression. 4. challenges and coping strategies for the monkey quack whip dance in community cultural construction 4.1 challenges faced 4.1.1 underfunded the issue of funds must be taken into account because the use of props and costumes for the performance of monkey quack whip has a certain cycle. as a regular daily community activity, props and costumes are frequently used items, and this is a necessary expense that needs to be considered. for organizing the performance activities, there are costs involved in the construction of some stages and the adjustment of lighting, etc. it is very meaningful to hold the monkey quack whip theme activities on several major festivals throughout the year, which will play a positive role in promoting the inheritance and development of the intangible cultural heritage dance itself, but the community's self-funding capacity is limited. the insufficiency of funds will directly affect the frequency and quality of the community's activities. to some extent, it will also dampen the enthusiasm of resident performers and affect the inheritance and development of the intangible cultural heritage dance monkey quack whip in the community. 4.1.2 insufficient attention the popularity of the monkey quack whip is limited to the surrounding areas of its place of origin. it is relatively easy to promote it in the surrounding communities, but building popularity to attract more people to participate is mainly limited by geographical and promotional channels. on the one hand, when local traditional intangible hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 29 published by ideas spread cultural heritage crosses cities and provinces, fewer people know about it. the resulting low popularity directly makes it difficult for the dance to reach other places. on the other hand, the monkey quack whip has not fully utilized several mainstream new media platforms for systematic promotion. the fact that its rich historical and cultural heritage, unique fun and health benefits have not been fully promoted will inevitably affect the further understanding of the dance by community residents, the current development status and so on will increase the difficulty of introducing the monkey quack whip into the community for inheritance and development. this shows that the lack of attention is an aspect that needs to be given special attention. 4.2 coping strategies 4.2.1 seek financial support organize a promotional performance to allow residents to directly experience the unique artistic charm of the monkey gua ta whip, promote it to the residents of the community, explain in detail the purpose and advantages of the activity to win their support, and prepare some practical small gifts, such as dolls, folding fans, pendants, etc. as a return. make it clear that all funds will be used for the necessary expenses of subsequent daily rehearsals, performances, etc. establish a transparent account of the use of funds and regularly publicize it to the community to enhance credibility. for the first time participating performers join the team, they are provided with the necessary costumes and props for free. at the same time, a special team is established to maintain the props and costumes regularly to reduce certain daily expenses and avoid unnecessary waste. 4.2.2 increase social visibility leverage mainstream new media platforms for promotion, invite local internet celebrities and tourism bloggers to live-stream and film some historical stories, current development status, and the charm of the art itself about the monkey quack whip, in order to attract more people to learn about the monkey quack whip. publish highlight videos on douyin short video platform, fully combine skill and beauty to create high-quality works, and regularly live-stream demonstrations, daily rehearsals, and actively interact to increase fans' awareness and affection for monkey quack whip. create a wechat official account dedicated to promoting monkey quack whip, post regularly, focus on its own cultural connotations and the fitness functions of the dance, and break down and explain some movement combinations. design a representative logo specifically, which can be a representative flower stick from the monkey quack whip, because this prop is one of the main props for the performance and is simple and recognizable. collaborate with a well-known local product to increase visibility. the increase in social recognition can boost the entry of monkey guata bian into communities, creating a virtuous cycle of inheritance and development. 5. conclusion the monkey quack whip, an intangible cultural heritage dance with distinct local characteristics, originated from the folk and is bound to play a more active role in the construction of community culture: further enhance community cohesion and belonging, inherit and promote this traditional art through mass participation, enrich the spiritual and cultural life of residents with unique performance forms, shorten the distance between the elderly and the young, enhance the feelings of community residents, and create a harmonious community atmosphere. its value lies in being both a "symbol" of community cultural identity and a "bridge" connecting tradition and modernity, facilitating the better inheritance and development of intangible cultural heritage dance. future research could further explore quantifiable studies on the impact of dance activities on the well-being of community residents and provide some scientific and accurate data. references [1] chinese ethnic and folk dance ensemble editorial department. (1998). chinese folk and ethnic dance collection: shandong volume (pp. 847–857). beijing: china isbn center. [2] zhu, z., & sun, l. (2004). qilu characteristic culture series of dance (pp. 217–218). jinan: shandong friendship publishing house. [3] lee, c. w. (2012). illustrated catalogue of shandong provincial intangible cultural heritage list (pp. 145–147). jinan: shandong friendship publishing house. [4] zhou, y. (2013). research on lanling ritual culture (pp. 206–207). jinan: shandong people's publishing house. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 30 published by ideas spread this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v6n3p1 1 published by ideas spread “leased” workers in the eu and in greece eleni d. rompoti1 & alexis d. ioannides2 1 lecturer of industrial relations, postdoctoral researcher, school of production engineering and management, technical university of crete, greece 2 professor of labour economics, social policy, democritus university of thrace, greece correspondence: eleni d. rompoti, lecturer of industrial relations, postdoctoral researcher, school of production engineering and management, technical university of crete, pc 73100 chania, greece. e-mail: erompoti1@tuc.gr received: july 18, 2023; accepted: august 24, 2023; published: september 3, 2023 funding rompoti eleni wishes to thank for the scholarship of greek state, scholarships foundation (iky) during the years 2016-2019. the project, was co-funded by greece and the european union (european social, fund) through the operational programme “human resources, development, education and lifelong learning", within the framework, of the "strengthening human resources research potential via doctorate, research" (mis-5000432), which was implemented by the state, scholarships foundation (iky). abstract this article is a literature review on the practice of workers “leased” through temporary work agencies (twas). reference is made to their main features, the institutional framework regarding the protection of these workers as well as the impact that this practice has on the workers. the next section is a presentation of the reasons that lead to the underor over-estimation of the actual number of workers “leased” through twas. the empirical research is presented next, which was conducted about the workers “leased” through twas, based on secondary data of the eurostat’s labor force survey (lfs). the numbers of “leased” workers in the eu-15 during the period of the financial crisis, 2007-2018, is mentioned. the sectors employing the highest numbers of workers “leased” through twas and the demographics of the workers are detailed. in addition, two atypical forms of work are described. these two are temporary and part-time employment in the eu-15 during the period of the financial crisis and onwards, based on the most recent data available from eurostat, from 2007-2022. keywords: “leased”, temporary work agencies (twas), temporary employment, european directive, industrial sectors 1. introduction flexible forms of employment, such as temporary employment, part-time employment, the “leasing” of employees through temporary work agencies (twas), the assignment of projects/services to external business service providers (also known as contracting companies), the so-called outsourcing, are at the epicenter of the policies related to labour market since the 1980’s both in greece and in the eu. more specifically, flexible forms of employment in the period of the financial crisis (2007-2018) have rapidly expanded in most eu member-states, however their level varies among the countries and depends on how common these forms of employment had been before the crisis emerged. from the period of crisis and onwards, employers make use of flexible forms of employment, mainly with the aim to reduce labour costs and increase the competitiveness and productivity of their undertakings (rompoti & ioannides, 2019, rompoti, ioannides, koutroukis, 2022). one of the flexible forms of employment, and the subject of this paper, is a special category of temporary employment; the leasing of workers through temporary work agencies (twas). the practice of leasing workers is considered to be one of the more vulnerable forms of employment due to labour market segmentation and the existence of two employers i.e. the twa and the user-undertaking (fudge 2011, doerflinger & pulignano, 2016). this is why it is worth studying this practice and its main characteristics both in the eu and greece. our main research questions are: hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 2 published by ideas spread first, what is the definition of “leasing” of workers, what are the main characteristics of this practice, what is the institution framework to protect these workers and what is the impact (positive or negative) that this practice has on the workers? (see literature review). second, what are the reasons leading to the underor over-estimation of the number-size of “leased” workers? (see literature review). third, what are the employment rates for “leased” workers in the period of crisis, from 2007 to 2018 (end of the crisis and greece exiting the memorandum supervision)? (see literature review). fourth, how did temporary and part-time employment move in time during the period of crisis and onwards, 20072022? (see empirical framework, results). our basic research assumption is that workers “leased” through twas increased significantly in number in the eu during the period of crisis and onwards. however, we assume that the employment rate vary among the countries. we believe we are making a substantial contribution both on a theoretical and an empirical level. more specifically, our efforts aim to making a literature contribution, through the investigation of the practice of “leasing” through twas and its main characteristics. moreover, we are contributing on an empirical level, though references to quantitative indexes of “leased” workers in the eu countries. in addition, reference is made to the emergence of a special category of workers contracted through business service providers (contracting companies). these are the contracted workers employed at the premises of the undertakings that has assigned the project (in-house outsourced workers) and not those providing their services at the location of the contracting company (out-house outsourced workers). we are showcasing the possibility that these workers, i.e. the in-house outsourced workers, may actually cover up what are truly “leased” workers. however, there are no available eurostat’s data on in-house outsourced workers, that would allow us to demonstrate the actual size of this category of workers. the article follows this structure. the second part details the methodology employed. the third part is a literature review on the practice of “leasing” workers and its main characteristics. in addition, it presents the reasons and causes for the underor over-estimation of the size of “leased” workers through twas (theoretical framework). a presentation of the results drawn from the empirical study follows in the next parts. part four refers to the “leased” workers in the eu-15 and greece, during the financial crisis and onwards, 2007-2018. the fifth part describes the course of temporary employment in the eu-15 during 2007-2022. part six shows the course of part-time employment in the eu-15 during the period 2007-2022 (empirical framework). finally, the conclusions of the article are discussed in the seventh part. 2. methodology as far as methodology is concerned, this paper studying the practice of “leasing” workers through twas is based on the collection and processing of primary and secondary material. more specifically, primary material is used, and it contains the greek legislation, studies and surveys of european and international organizations. secondary sources are also used from the greek and foreign literature. secondary data from european statistical databases (eurostat-elfs) are also used. 3. literature review 3.1 “leased” workers and main characteristics in the eu and in greece the “leasing” of workers through twas first appeared in the eu in the 1960’s and gained popularity especially in the 1990’s and 2000’s (voos et al, 2013). the greek legislation officially recognized the practice of “leasing” workers in 2001 with law 2956/2001 with a marked time delay compared to several european countries (papadimitriou, 2007, voos et al, 2013). undoubtedly, “leasing” workers is one of the faster growing forms of employment (arrowsmith, 2008, ilo, 2009). in 2022, this form of employment accounted for 2.6 % of the total employment in the eu-28 (eurostat, 2023). on an institutional level, the common european directive (2008/104/ec) and its incorporation into the national laws of the member-states for the protection of “leased” workers came with a long delay. in greece, the european directive for the protection of “leased” workers was incorporated in the national laws 4052/2012 and 4093/2012. pursuant to the directive 2008/104/ec “leasing” of workers is defined as the temporary work provided by a “leased” worker to a second or user undertaking. according to the institutional framework, a “leased” worker in the eu has the right to sign either an indefinite term (applies in some countries) or fixed-term contract (applies in all countries) for full-time or part-time work with the twa in order to provide their services not to the twa but, temporarily, to the user undertaking (european directive, 2008/104/ec, law 4052/2012, l 4093/2012 in greece). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 3 published by ideas spread a main characteristic of the practice is that the twa is the direct employer of the “leased” worker and the one who sets the pay and insurance rights of the worker (european directive, 2008/104/ec, law 4052/2012, lixouriotis, 2015). moreover, the user undertaking is the indirect employer under the supervision and direction of whom a “leased” worker is employed (e.g., sets the place of work, duration of working time, breaks, rest periods, etc.). however, the user undertaking does not conclude any agreement with the “leased” worker; it only signs an agreement with the twa, meaning a service agreement between the two businesses. this shows that “leasing” of workers is the most extreme external flexible form of employment, as the “leased” worker has two employers; the twa (direct employer with whom the employment agreement is signed) and the user undertaking (indirect employer, no signing of any employment agreement). in more detail, the main objectives of the european directive 2008/104/ec, which apply for all eu member-states including greece, are: first, to develop and improve temporary work through twas and to protect the “leased” workers. secondly, to recognize temporary-work agencies as employers in order to: a) help the creation of qualitative jobs and b) expand the flexible forms of work (by providing flexibility to businesses and security to workers, the so-called “flexicurity”). third, to provide that the permanent personnel cannot be replaced by leased workers. thus, the main purpose of the european directive is that this form of employment does not operate competitively and be used as a threat, but, on the contrary, to be utilised complementarily to permanent employment (european directive 2008/104/ec). τhe european directive 2008/104/ec provides for all eu member-states including greece, pay equality as well as equality with regard to the rest of the labour rights for the “leased” worker, as long as they have the same qualifications for the same job position as the permanent employees of the user undertaking. undoubtedly, this pay equality has reduced the rates of workers “leased” though twas and has caused the emergence of new forms of employment, such as the assignment of projects/services to external businesses, like business service providers (contracting companies). in their turn, contracting companies employ their staff wither at their own premises to complete the project/service assigned (out-house outsourced workers) or deploy them to the premises of the user undertaking that has assigned the project (in-house outsourced workers). thereby, employers assigning a project to a contracting company manage, especially in greece, to avoid pay equality for the “leased” workers, which is provided in directive 2008/104/ec for the employers making use of leased workers through twas. however, it is suspected that contracted workers employed at the premises of the user undertaking to complete a project (in-house outsourced workers) actually cover up “leased” workers and usually contracting companies operate unlawfully as twas, especially in greece (rompoti & ioannides, 2019). that being so, contracted workers (in-house outsourced workers) are pseudo-contracted and in reality “leased” workers. if this is indeed the case also in other eu countries, then “leased” workers are much more in number than those recorded in the official data of eurostat. according to the above, although the european directive provides a robust institutional framework for the workers, its circumvention is noted through the emergence of other forms of employment (e.g. contracted or pseudo-contracted workers). an important criterion to make the distinction between personnel leasing and a project agreement is the managerial right, recognized in the directive 2008/104/ec. the managerial and supervising right over the workers in a leasing contract lies with the user undertakings, whereas in a project agreement, this right is exercised by the contractor or the project manager (european directive 2008/104/ec). further to that, it should be noted that the european directive allows the duration of temporary employment of “leased” worker by the user undertaking to be set on a national level. in practice, the extension of the initial duration of assignment of a “leased” workers to the user undertaking in most countries in the eu is an indication of: a) substitution of permanent by temporary work, b) coverage of fixed and ongoing needs of the user undertaking, c) incompatibility of the member-states national legislation with the objective of the european directive, which is the protection of the leased workers, since the duration of temporary employment is set by each member-state individually. there is no doubt that the existence of different limits of maximum duration as set by the memberstates can lead to the enfeebling or cancellation of the effort to protect both the permanent workers and the “leased” workers (rompoti & ioannides, 2019, zerdelis, 2017). a main characteristic of this flexible form of employment (leasing of workers), noted also in other atypical forms of work (definite term full-time or part-time agreements, apprenticeships etc) is their temporary nature. however, temporary employment of a “leased” worker concerns only their assignment to the user undertaking, whereas through the twa they may sign either a definite or indefinite term work contract (in some countries). the main difference of “leasing” compared to the other flexible forms of employment is the duality of employers and the creation of a tripartite labour relation (twa leased worker user undertaking). unarguably, the existence hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 4 published by ideas spread of two (2) employers and of two-speed workers, meaning permanent and leased workers, enhances the segmentation of the labour market. one of the topmost reasons for which businesses-employers prefer “leasing” workers is the opportunity to identify and use flexible, cheap manpower without having to assume the obligations of a direct employer (eichhorst, et al., 2013, rompoti & ioannides, 2019). for workers, one of the most important incentives is the opportunity to enter the labour market and gain their first professional experience. moreover, a main incentive for workers is the hope to be permanently hired by the user undertakings (rompoti & ioannides, 2019, ilo, 2009, oecd, 2000). as far as the impact of the practice of “leasing” is concerned, it is possible that the “leasing” of personnel through twas may lead workers to dead ends, without providing permanent employment and an opportunity to invest on their careers (no stepping stone job). more specifically, workers “leased” through twas may be led to unemployment and social exclusion once their agreements come to an end. they may be also trapped among flexible forms of employment through constant renewals of fixed-term contracts and precarious work conditions (ilo, 2015, iza, 2013). there has only been a very limited number of studies. hveen (2013) in sweden, studied “leased” workers over the period 1997-2008 and confirms the “no stepping stone effect”, with the only exception of immigrants from the western countries. according to his findings, the rates of people unable to find a permanent job are overwhelmingly higher among women. jahn & rosholm (2014) in denmark, studied the workers “leased” through twas from 1997-2006 and identified the positive impact of “leasing” personnel only during the periods that these workers were “leased” and not thereafter; this form of employment would give them successive opportunities of temporary “leasing”, which had signs of “permanency”. more specifically, 19% of the danish men that were employed as “leased” workers managed to find a more permanent employment, whereas this rate for women amounted to 7%. to be noted that the positive impact of the twas on “leased” workers was more pronounced among immigrants. finally, the practice of leasing workers is linked to a series of disadvantages, both for “leased” workers and for the permanent personnel of the user undertaking, due to the duality of employers and the segmentation of the labour market that it causes. more indicatively, the job positions in the user undertaking most possibly are not among the qualitative posts that ensure safety and attractive characteristics, regarding the level of pays and the work conditions of the “leased” workers. moreover, pressure is exercised downwards as to the salaries of the permanent employees of the user undertakings (ilo, 2015, lymperaki & dendrinos, 2010). so, it appears that this form of employment operates competitively and as a threat to permanent employees, with their salary degradation and the fear of substitution of permanent positions by “leased” workers, thus undermining in general the right of both workers and unemployed people to a full-time and stable employment (rompoti & ioannides, 2019, zerdelis, 2017). so, the practice of “leasing” is a favorable form of flexibility mainly for businesses, through achieving the reduction of the labour cost and the improvement of their competitiveness, whereas for workers it brings along several disadvantages. 3.2 reasons and causes for the underor over-estimation of the size of “leased” workers through twas the lack of reliable and comparable statistical data and sources regarding the practice of “leasing” of workers constitutes a significant obstacle to further analysis. storrie (2002) correctly attributes this lack on the one hand to practical problems in identifying such workers and consequently in accurately identifying their number, but on the other hand to conceptual problems that arise from this form of employment, as the concept around this phenomenon varies from one country to the other. in addition, storrie refers to the problems arising due to the lack of legislation in some countries regarding new flexible forms of employment. in our opinion, as far as the problems that arise from concepts are concerned, the root of the problem lies with the fact that many are those who erroneously use the same term, i.e. “leased”, both for the workers employed through twas and for the contracted workers through business service providers. in more details, these contracted workers are employed at the premises of the company that has assigned the project (so called in-house outsourced workers) and not at the premises of the contractor (so called out-house outsourced workers). in this case the real number of “leased” workers through twas is often under-estimated, since they are often “disguised” as contracted workers or so called “pseudo-contracted” workers, while actually being leased workers. in particular, the contracting companies usually operate illegally as twas who lease workers (rompoti & ioannides, 2019). it is worth noting that eurostat holds no official data about in-house outsourced workers. that said, the actual number of pseudo-contracted workers, covering up what in reality are “leased” workers, remains unknown. moreover, there are many references in the literature to “leased” workers, but under the term “temporary workers”. according to the labour force survey (lfs), temporary workers include those under a fixed-term contract employed in businesses as well as those working under fixed-term contracts through twas. in addition, many are hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 5 published by ideas spread also the authors who are using the same term both for the workers under fixed-term contracts and the “leased” workers under fixed-term contracts through twas. thus, in this case the numbers of “leased” workers are overestimated as they are added to the other temporary workers. according to the international labour organization (ilo, 2009), temporary employment is the fastest growing form of employment in eu since 1990. however, the size of the “leased” workers varies among the countries, as also differs the legislation among the countries with regard to “leased” workers. the use of temporary employment through twas has been recently deregulated in many countries, leading to an increase of use of this form of employment in more sectors and occupations. in the past, there were laws on the placement of “leased” workers in specific industries/occupations, for specific and objective reasons. these limitations have been waived with the reforms in the labour market during the period of the memoranda, and while flexible forms of employment are at the same promoted (rompoti & ioannides, 2019, rompoti, ioannides, koutroukis, 2022, rompoti & feronas, 2017). the statistical data on the size, the demographics and labour features of the “leased” workers are sourced from eurostat – based on the information provided by the labour force survey (lfs) – a survey in the eu memberstates that is conducted every three months (elfs). in greece, the labour force survey is conducted by the elstat [hellenic statistical authority]. in our opinion it is very difficult to estimate the actual number of “leased” workers based on eurostat’s microdata. this difficulty arises from the fact that there are practical problems to identify the “leased” workers, as they are only a few in number and under short-term employment contracts. moreover, according to the eurostat, the workers who fill in the questionnaire are classified as “leased” workers only when their main occupation is linked to the work agreement with a twa, and not when they have signed also a second agreement with another undertaking as a secondary occupation. taking into account the above, it becomes apparent that the number presented for “leased” employees through twas is quite under-estimated. apart from eurostat, other sources for the collection of data on “leased” workers are the eurociett, the european working condition survey (ewcs) and on a national level the greek ministry of labour and social affairs. more specifically, eurociett collects data from the confederation of european private employment services, where the twa employers join as members. thus, the data on “leased” workers are collected by the employers’ associations (ιζα, 2013, eurofound, 2009). during our research, there was a serious possibility to under-estimate the actual size of “leased” workers, as the registration of members representing such undertakings is optional and not all choose to register. in addition, the twa employers possibly make significant mistakes in counting the workers, as it is difficult to count them frequently and accurately, because of the short duration of the employment agreements. thus, frequent mobility of the same or different workers makes their accurate counting difficult when they enter-exit the business. that said, the number of “leased” workers may be either under-estimated or overestimated. moreover, eurociett’s data may contain double counts, in the event that “leased” workers are employed by two or more twas at the same time (iza, 2013, forde et al, 2008). the ewcs, the european working condition survey, is conducted every 5 years, which is a long interval to allow a timely update on workers “leased” through twas. finally, on a nation level in greece, the ministry of labour and social affairs collects data from the temporary work agencies (twas). the ministry of labour has a record of 15 twas that provide the ministry with data twice a year, namely every semester. however, our research showed that the data regarding the workers in the 2nd semester may also contain the workers of the 1st semester as well. furthermore, “leased” workers may be working at the same time for two or more twas, in which case the ministry of labour and social affairs over-estimated the total number of such workers. based on the above, it is possible that the data provided by the greek ministry of labour and social affairs, according to our research, are incomplete or unreliable. 4-6: empirical research results 4. “leased” workers in the eu and in greece during the period of the financial crisis, 2007-2018 according to the eurostat’s data up until the year 2022, the rates of “leased” workers in eu-28 account for 2.6% over total employment (eurostat, 2023). the countries with the highest rates of “leased” workers in 2022 are the netherlands (5.2%), spain (3.9%), ireland (3.7%), germany (3.3%) and sweden (2.8%), see details in table 1. the rest of the countries are lower rates of “leased” workers. according to eurostat, twas belong to the sector of administration and support activities (employment activities). however, “leased” workers are classified in the same industry as the user undertakings to which they are leased. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 6 published by ideas spread this part aims to investigate the employment rates of “leased” workers in 2007-2018, the period of the financial crisis, as well as their fluctuation. moreover, reference is made to the demographics and the industries that employed such workers in the year 2018, the year that the crisis ended and greece exited the memorandum supervision. more specifically, in 2007, the year that the crisis started, the highest rates of “leased” workers are recorded in spain (4.2%), the netherland (3.6%), france (2.6), portugal (2.4%) and austria (1.8%). more specifically, in the eu-15 the employment rates for “leased” employees in 2018 (exit from the crisis) were as follows, in descending order: the highest-ranking countries are the netherlands 4.1%, spain 3.9%, france 2.8%, ireland 2.7%, germany 2.6%, austria 2.4%, belgium at 2.2%, portugal 2.0%, finland 1.9%, luxembourg 1.7%. the member-states with the lowest rates, in descending order, of “leased” employees in 2018 were sweden 1.3%, italy 1.1%, denmark 0.7%, the uk 0.5% and greece with 0.2% over total employment (eurostat, 2020). it is believed that the rates of “leased” employees in greece are higher, but are concealed under the cloak of “virtual contracting” and for other reasons already mentioned in the third section (see 3.2). reviewing the change in numbers of “leased” workers during the financial crisis, from 2007 to 2018, it is noted that the countries that marked the highest increasing change, are by descending order as follows: ireland (1.9%), luxembourg (1.3%), italy and germany (0.7%), austria (0.6%), finland (0.6%, 2008-2018) and the netherlands (0.5%). the rest of the countries marked lower changes. an exception, marking a significant reduction of the number of “leased” workers from 2007-2018 is denmark (-1.2%). see details in table 1. table 1. “leased” workers, 2007, 2018, 2022 eu member-states -15 2007 2018 2022 2007-2018 belgium 1.8 2.2 1.9 0.4 denmark 1.9 0.7 0.6 -1.2 germany 1.9 2.6 3.3 0.7 ireland 0.8 2.7 3.7 1.9 greece 0.3 0.2 0.6 -0.1 spain 4.2 3.9 3.9 -0.3 france 2.6 2.8 2.7 0.2 italy 0.4 1.1 1.0 0.7 luxemburg 0.4 1.7 : 1.3 netherlands 3.6 4.1 5.2 0.5 austria 1.8 2.4 2.4 0.6 portugal 2.4 2.0 1.4 -0.4 finland 1.3 (2008) 1.9 2.7 0.6 (2008-2018) sweden 1.1 1.3 2.8 0.2 united kingdom 0.7 0.5 : -0.2 ε.u 28 1.7 2.1 2.6 0.4 source: εurostat (2023) processed by authors note: symbol (:) indicates that there are no available data with regard to the gender of the “leased” workers aged 15-64, eurostat’s data for the year 2018 indicate that in the eu-28 in the total employment 2.2% are men “leased” workers and 1.5% are women (eurostat 2020). more specifically, for the year 2018 in the eu-15, only in greece with 0.3% and in denmark with 0.7% “leased” women outnumber men by 0.1%. in ireland and the united kingdom, men and women share the same rates, 2.7% and 0.5% respectively (see table 2). in 2018, the rates of men “leased” workers in the eu-15 by descending order are: the netherlands 4.9%, spain 4.1%, france 3.8%, germany 3.3%, austria 3.1%, ireland 2.7%, belgium 2.6%, finland 2.3%, portugal 2.1%, luxembourg 1.9%, sweden 1.5%, italy 1.2%, denmark 0.6%, the uk 0.5% and finally greece 0.2% of total population. for a detailed presentation of the “leased” workers by gender for the year 2018, see table 2 (eurostat, 2020). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 7 published by ideas spread table 2. rates of men and women “leased” workers” over the total men and women employed in the year 2018 source: εurostat (2020) processed by authors at this point it is worth noting separately the rates of “leased” workers employed per sector of economic activity in the eu, according to the data available from eurostat for the year 2018 (eurostat, 2020). more specifically, the “leased” workers in the agriculture, forestry & fishing sector in the eu-28 represent 1.5% over total employment. as far as the eu-15 is concerned, data are available only for the netherlands and spain, where the “leased” workers in this sector represent 6.0% and 3.1% respectively over total employment. the industrial and construction sector records the highest rate of “leased” workers. in the eu-28 3.4% of the total work force are “leased” workers. there are no available data for greece and sweden in this sector, however in the rest of the member-states the respective rates are as follows. the highest rates in descending order are: the netherlands 7.9%, spain 7.7%, france 7.6%, austria 4.7%, germany 4.6%, belgium 4.0%, ireland 3.3%, portugal 3.2%, luxembourg 2.7%, finland 2.5% and italy 2.2%. the lowest rates are noted in denmark 1.0% and the uk with 0.8% “leased” workers over total employment (eurostat, 2020). with regard to the sectors in the wholesale and retail trade, transportations, dining and food service activities, the rates of “leased” employees over total employment in the eu-28 are 2.0%. more specifically, in the eu-15 the highest rates are recorded in finland 4.3%, followed in descending order by the netherlands 4.0%, spain 3.9%, belgium 3.5%, france 3.0%, germany 2.9%, ireland 2.2%, luxembourg 1.9%, austria and portugal 1.8%. the lowest rates, in descending order, of “leased” workers are noted in italy 0.8%, denmark (0.6), the uk 0.5% and greece 0.3% over total employment. there are no available data for sweden (eurostat, 2020). for details see table 3. with regard to sectors that employ workers in jobs related to information, communication, financial and insurance activities, real property activities, professional, scientific and technical activities, administrative and support service activities in the eu-28, the rates of “leased” workers amount to 1.9% in the eu-28 over the total employment. there are no available data for denmark, but the rates are known for the rest of the eu-15. specifically, the rates recorded in descending order are: sweden 6.5%, spain 4.6%, the netherlands 4.2%, portugal 3.7%, ireland 2.7%, austria 2.4%, belgium at 2.2%, germany and luxembourg 1.8%, finland 1.6%, italy 1.5%, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 8 published by ideas spread and france 1.4%, over total employment. the lowest rates are noted in the uk with 0.5% and in greece with 0.4% of “leased” workers over total employment (eurostat, 2020). for details see table 3. ιn the eu-28 the rate of “leased” workers is 0.6% over total employment in the sectors employing people in jobs related to public administration and defense, education, human health and social work activities, arts, entertainment and recreation activities and activities of extraterritorial organizations and bodies. data are not available for greece and sweden as far as the eu-15 is concerned. for the rest of the member-states, the highest rates in these sectors are recorded in ireland with 2.8% and the netherlands with 1.8%. the lowest rates are noted in germany and luxembourg (1.0%), spain (0.9%), austria and portugal (0.7%), denmark (0.6%), finland and the uk (0.4%), belgium, france and italy with 0.3% of “leased” workers over total employment (eurostat, 2020). for details see table 3. finally, the sector other activities of provision of services, activities of households as employers in the eu-28 employs 1.1% of “leased” workers over total employment. data on the rates of “leased” workers in this sector are available only for the spain (2.6%), the netherlands (1.8%), germany (1.3%) and italy (0.1%), (eurostat, 2020). for details see table 3. no answer was given about the sector that employs “leased” workers by 6.4% of the eu-28 member-states. in the eu-15, the available data show that 12.2% of the respondents in france, 5.9% in the netherlands and 3.1% in luxembourg did not answer. table 3 contains a detailed description in the eu for 2018 regarding the “leased” workers aged 15-64 by sector of economic activity. table 3: “leased” workers (%) by sector of economic activity, 2018 (by nace r2) source: eurostat (2020) processed by authors, note: symbol (:) indicates that there are no available data hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 9 published by ideas spread 5. the course of temporary employment in the eu during the period 2007-2022 the outbreak of the financial crisis in 2007 led to the increased use of flexible forms of employment and an onward trend of temporary employment rates in the eu. however, this trend varies from one country to the other as it is greatly proportionate to the extent that these forms of employment were also a common practice before the crisis. in the period 2007-2022 the numbers of temporary employees in the eu member-states show great variations. according to eurostat, temporary employment includes people working under fixed-term contracts. more specifically, eurostat classifies under “temporary workers” those who are employed a) temporarily on a definite term contract, b) on a seasonal work, c) through twas, meaning the “leased” workers who are assigned to a second-different business, and d) those working under an internship/training agreement. temporary workers on a definite term contract include workers contracted through business service providers. based on the recent data of the labour force survey (lfs) of eurostat for the year 2022, temporary workers, aged 15-64 in the eu-28 correspond to 12.1% of the overall employment. in 2007, year of the outbreak of the financial crisis, the countries of the eu-15 with the highest rates of temporary workers are: spain (26.2%), portugal (17.8%), sweden (15.5%), finland (14.0%) and germany (13.0%). in 2018, when the crisis came to its end, the rates of temporary workers remain high in most of the eu-15 countries. the most notable rates are noted in spain (22.7%), portugal (19.0%), the netherlands (17.8%), france (14.8%) and sweden (14.5%). table 4. temporary employment (%) for people aged 15-64 over total employment in the eu-15, 2007-2022 source: eurostat (2023) processed by authors, note: symbol (:) indicates that there are no available data in more details, as seen in table 4, the rates of temporary employment are widely varied among the eu-15 countries. temporary workers, aged 15-64, correspond to 23.2% in the netherlands and to 6.5% in luxembourg. more specifically, in 2022, the rates of temporary workers in the eu-15 are by descending order as follows: the netherlands rank first with a rate of temporary workers of 23.2% of the overall employment, followed by spain with 18.1%, portugal 14.3%, finland and france 14.0%, sweden and italy 13.5%, germany 11.5%, denmark hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 10 published by ideas spread 10.0%, belgium 8.3%, austria 7.7%, ireland 7.4% and greece 7.2%. the lowest rates are recorded in luxembourg 6.5%. from 2007 to 2022, the rates of temporary workers increased significantly in most of the eu-15 countries. the increase varies between 7.9% in the netherlands (highest) and 0.2% in luxembourg (lowest). the highest increasing change in the period 2007-2022 in the rates of temporary workers are recorded by descending order in: the netherlands (7.9%), italy (3.6%), france (2.0%), denmark (1.8%), belgium (0.9%) and luxembourg (0.2%). these countries are an exception and marked a reduction of the rates of temporary workers in the period 2007-2022: spain (-8.1%), portugal (-3.5%), sweden (-2.0%), germany (-1.5%) and ireland (-0.4%). no change of the rates of temporary workers in the period 2007-2022 was noted in greece, austria and finland. on an eu-28 level, a marginal reduction is noted (-0.1%). for a more detailed description of the course of temporary employment for people aged 15-64 from 2007-2022, see table 4. 6. the course of part-time employment in the eu during the period 2007-2022 part-time employment includes workers under a fixed-term or indefinite term contract, who agree with their employer to work reduced hours (e.g., 4 or 6 hours/day) with proportionately lower remuneration. this is what differentiates part-time from the standard full-time (e.g., 8 hours/day) and fully remunerated forms of employment. part-time workers include those contracted through business service providers. in 2007, the year of the outbreak of the financial crisis, part-time employment shows an upward trend in the eu. this trend, similar to temporary employment, varies among the countries, as it also depends on how common this form of employment was before the crisis. during the period 2007-2022 great fluctuations are noted in the eu member-states. according to the recent data from the labour force survey (lfs) of eurostat for the year 2022, part-time workers, aged 15-64, correspond to 17.6% of the overall employment in the eu-28. in 2007, when the financial crisis begun, the eu-15 countries with the highest rated of part-time workers were: the netherlands (45.7%), germany (25.4%), the uk (24.1%), denmark (23%) and belgium (21.9%). in 2018, year of the exit from the crisis, the rates of part-time workers remain high in most of the eu-15 countries. the highest rates are recorded in the netherlands (50.1%), austria (27.3%), germany (26.8%), the uk (24.6%) and belgium (24.5%). in more details, as seen in table 5, the rates of part-time employment shows great variations among the eu-15 countries for the year 2022. part-time workers, aged 15-64, correspond to 42.2% in the netherlands and to 6.8% in portugal. more specifically, the rates of part-time workers in 2022, in a descending order are: the netherlands 42.2%, austria 29.7%, germany 28.0%, denmark 24.2%, belgium 23.8%, sweden 20.2%, ireland 20.1%, luxembourg 18.2%, italy 17.9%, finland 16.9%, france 16.5%, spain 13.3%. the lowest rates are noted in the greece, 8.0%, and portugal 6.8%. from 2007 to 2022, part-time workers’ rates have significantly increased in most eu-15 countries. the increase is between 7.7% in austria (highest) and 0.4% in luxembourg (lowest). the increase from 2007-2022 in the rates of part-time workers, in descending order, are as follows: austria (7.7%), italy (4.5%), finland (3.5%), germany and greece (2.6%), ireland (2.2%), belgium (1.9%), denmark (1.2%) and luxembourg (0.4%). the only countries that recorded a reduction of the part-time workers’ rates in the period 2007-2022 are the netherlands (-3.5%), sweden (-3.3%), portugal (-2.1%) and france (-0.8%). on an eu-28 level, the aggregate increase is 0.2%. for a more detailed description of the course of part-time employment from 2007-2022 for people aged 15-64, see table 5. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 11 published by ideas spread table 5. part-time employment as a percentage (%) of total employment for people aged 15-64 in the eu-15, 2007-2022 source: εurostat (2023) processed by authors, note: symbol (:) indicates that there are no available data 7. conclusions the paper studied the practice of “leasing” workers through twas and this part shall summarize the most significant conclusions drawn. two basic characteristics of this practice are the duality of employers (twa, user undertaking) and the temporary nature of the worker’s employment at the user undertaking. the aim of the employers-businesses when leasing employees is the opportunity to find the proper personnel by circumventing direct employer’s status. more specifically, employers make use of the flexible forms of employment in order to reduce labour costs and increase the productivity and competitiveness of their businesses. on the contrary, the incentive for workers addressing to twas in order to be “leased”, is to enter the labour market and obtain professional experience. although the directive 2008/104/ec had established a robust institutional framework for leased workers, providing for equal pays and main working conditions, there are serious concerns regarding the good implementation of the directive. in more details, there are indications, especially in greece, that quality is violated through the development of other forms of employment that in reality cover up the practice of leasing workers (e.g. virtual contracting, pseudo-contracted workers). the use of contracted or pseudo-contracted workers aims at paying lower salaries and diminishing worker’s rights, as well as at circumventing the relevant legislation, thus creating two distinct categories of workers (permanent-contracted) within the businesses, who although employed at the same premises, they work at totally different work conditions. a quantitative research was conducted about the “leased” workers through twas, the temporary employment and part-time employment using eurostat’s data for the eu countries for the period of the financial crisis and onwards. these forms of employment marked increasing rates during the financial crisis in the eu however, rates by country hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 12 published by ideas spread vary. it is worth noting that workers under temporary or part-time employment include those “leased” through twas as well as workers contracted through business service providers. as far as the results for 2022 on “leased” workers in the eu-28 are concerned, they are estimated to correspond to 2.6% of overall employment. a study of the course of the rates of “leased” workers during the period of the crisis, 2007-2018, shows that the highest increasing change has been recorded in countries like ireland, luxembourg, italy, germany, austria and the netherlands. the only country with a significant reduction in the number of “leased” workers is denmark (-1.2%). an increase is noted in most of the eu countries during the period of the crisis and onwards (2007-2022), but at different rates, thus confirming our research assumption. as far as the gender of the “leased” workers through twas is concerned, in the eu-28 for the year 2018, eurostat’s data show that the majority are men. in the eu-28 in 2018 the “leased” workers through twas are mainly employed in the sector of industry and constructions, and the sectors of wholesale and retail trade; transportations; and food services. more specifically, in the sector of industry and constructions the top five (5) countries in the eu-15 with the highest rates of leased workers, in descending order, are: the netherlands, spain, france, austria and germany. in the sectors of wholesale and retail trade, transportation, food services and service provision activities, the top five (5) eu-15 countries with the highest rates of leased workers, in descending order, are: finland, the netherlands, spain, belgium and france. nevertheless, “leased” workers through twas are also employed in other sectors, at lower rates. there are, actually, strong indications, especially in greece, that these rates are even higher, since they are probably under-estimated due to cases of “pseudo-contracting” or “dummy” project contracts concluded between business service providers and user undertakings. “pseudo-contracting” is developed to avoid salary equality of the leased workers through twas compared to the permanent employees of the user undertaking, a right that is established in the european directive 2008/104/ec, aiming to offer protection for workers “leased” through twas. as far as temporary employment in the eu-28 for 2022 in concerned, it is estimated to correspond to 12.1% of the overall employment. a review of the course of rates of temporary workers during the period of crisis and onwards, 2007-2022 shows that the highest increase was recorded in the netherlands and the lowest in luxembourg. over the same period of time, spain marked a significant reduction of temporary workers (-8.1%). in 2022, part-time workers in the eu-28 corresponded to 17.6% of the overall employment. in the period 2007-2022, austria marked the highest increase in part-time employment and luxembourg the lowest. netherlands is the country with the most significant reduction of these rates (-3.5%). acknowledgments the authors would like to thank the reviewers of this journal. the authors sincerely appreciate all their valuable comments and suggestions, which helped them improve the quality of the manuscript. references arrowsmith, j. (2008). temporary agency work and collective bargaining in the eu. dublin, european foundation for the improvement of living and working conditions. doerflinger, n., & pulignano, v. (2016). temporary agency work and trade unions in comparative perspective: a mixed blessing? journal of workplace, 5(2), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1177%2f2158244015575633 european directive 2008/104/ec of the european parliament and of the council (2008): on temporary agency work. official journal of the european union. eurofound. (2009). “temporary agency work and collective bargaining in the eu” dublin. eurostat. (2023). temporary agency workers (annual average). retrieved from http://www.ec.europa.eu/eurostat eurostat. (2023). temporary employment (annual average). retrieved from http://www.ec.europa.eu/eurostat eurostat. (2023). part time employment (annual average). retrieved from http://www.ec.europa.eu/eurostat eichhorst, w., & braga, m. et al. (2013). the role and activities of employment agencies. germany: iza. forde, c., & slater, g. (2008). agency working in the uk: what do we know? centre for employment relations innovation and change, university of leeds, policy report fudge, j. (2011). global care chains, employment agencies and the conundrum of jurisdiction: decent work for domestic workers in canada. canadian journal of women and the law, 23, 235-264. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 13 published by ideas spread https://doi.org/10.3138/cjwl.23.1.235 hveem, j. (2013). are temporary work agencies stepping stones into regular employment? iza journal of migration, 2(21), 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-9039-2-21 ilo. (2009). private employment agencies, temporary agency workers and their contribution to the labour market. geneva: ilo. ilo. (2015). non – standard forms of employment. geneva: ilo. iza. (2013). the role and activities of employment agencies. germany: iza. law 4052/2012 (gg 41/α) “law on the competency of ministry of health and social solidarity, and ministry of labour and social insurance for the implementation of the law “approval of draft contracts of funding facilitations between the european financial stability facility (efsf) and the hellenic republic and the bank of greece, and other emergency provisions for the reduction of the public debt and the rescue of the national economy: and other provisions. jahn, e. j., & rosholm, m. (2014). looking beyond the bridge: the effect of temporary agency employment on labor market outcomes, in european economic review, 65, 108-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2013.11.001 law 2956/2001 (government gazette 258/α) “restructuring of the hellenic manpower organization and other provisions”. law 4093/2012 (government gazette 222/a) "approval of the medium-term fiscal strategy framework 20132016. urgent measures for the implementation of law 4046/2012 and the medium-term fiscal strategy framework 2013-2016". lixouriotis, ι. (2015). labour legislation. athens: nomiki vivliothiki. lymperaki, a., & dendrinos, g. (2010). flexible work: new forms and quality of employment. athens: editions kerkyra. ministry of social insurance and social welfare. list of licences issued to twas. athens. oecd, (2000). employment outlook. paris: oecd. https://doi.org/10.1787/empl_outlook-2000-en papadimitriou, k. (2007). temporary employment. “leasing” by profession. athens: sakkoulas. rompoti, e., ioannides a., & koutroukis, t. (2022). employment flexibility and industrial relations reforms in greece of memoranda, e-journal of international and comparative labour studies. rompoti e., & ioannides a. (2019). “leasing” of employees and financial crisis in the european union and in greece”. greek review of social research (grsr). issue 151, 99-135. https://doi.org/10.12681/grsr.19836 rompoti, e., & feronas, a. (2017) the impact of the economic crisis on the labour market of countries under the economic adjustment regime: a comparative analysis, social policy, 5, 38-63. https://doi.org/10.12681/sp.10600. voos, e., & vitolos, k. et al. (2013). temporary agency work and transitions in the labour market. institutional frameworks, empirical evidence, good practice and the impact of social dialogue. brussels: eurociett. storrie, d. (2002). temporary agency work in the european union. luxembourg: european foundation for the improvement of living and working conditions. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n1p110 110 published by ideas spread current situation and countermeasures of education support for junior high school students in single-parent families wulijijirigela1 1 mengyiling art school, china correspondence: wulijijirigela, mengyiling art school, hohhot, 010010, china. e-mail: jirigela88 gmail.com received: january 22, 2025; accepted: february 23, 2025; published: february 26, 2025 abstract this paper aims to analyze the current situation of education support for junior high school students in singleparent families in china, discuss the existing problems, and put forward corresponding countermeasures and suggestions. first of all, the current situation of education support for junior high school students in single-parent families is analyzed from the aspects of family education resource allocation, school education support, social care and policy support. secondly, through the investigation and analysis, it is found that the junior high school students in single-parent families have obvious problems in the parent-child relationship, psychological status, academic performance and other aspects. in view of these problems, this paper proposes the following countermeasures: improve the policy system of family education support, increase the investment of family education, and carry out the family education training and guidance activities; optimize the school education support system, establish and improve the psychological counseling and counseling mechanism, enrich the diversified education activities; strengthen social care and policy support, encourage social organizations to participate, and the government to purchase services. through the joint efforts of family, school and society, we will create a good growth environment for junior high school students from single-parent families and promote their all-round development. keywords: single-parent family, junior high school students, education support, current situation analysis, countermeasures and suggestions 1. introduction with the development of society and the change of family structure, the proportion of single-parent families in china is increasing year by year. among them, the number of junior high school students from single-parent families has increased significantly. in this context, the education problems faced by junior high school students in single-parent families are more and more widely concerned by the society. junior high school students in singleparent families often suffer from the imbalance of family education resources, lack of school support, significant psychological problems and academic challenges. if not solved in time, it will profoundly hinder their healthy growth and future prospects. this study aims to analyze and explore the current situation and existing problems of educational support for junior high school students in single-parent families, and put forward corresponding countermeasures and suggestions to provide reference for policy makers and educators. through the in-depth study of the education problems of junior high school students in single-parent families, it will help us to better understand the educational needs of this special group, and provide a more fair and loving environment for their growth, so as to promote their all-round development. 2. current situation of education support for junior high school students in single-parent families 2.1 uneven distribution of family education resources the uneven distribution of family education resources is one of the educational problems faced by junior high school students in single-parent families. in china, the lack of family education resources is widespread in singleparent families. the primary problem is the economic pressure, single-parent families often cannot afford their children's education expenses, resulting in the lack of family education resources. secondly, the lack of educational knowledge and methods makes it difficult for single parents to effectively guide their children's studies, thus affecting the quality of education. moreover, children from single-parent families also experience inequality in their access to educational resources, such as high school fees and after-school tutoring fees, which often make them hesitate. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 111 published by ideas spread in order to improve this situation, the government and the society should increase the educational support for single-parent families. the government needs to improve policies to ensure the equitable education rights of children of single-parent families, including tuition cuts and grants. at the same time, the government and society should strengthen the education and training of parents in single-parent families to improve their educational ability and help their children's academic growth. in addition, volunteers and social organizations should be encouraged to actively provide more diversified educational assistance to children from single-parent families. 2.2 insufficient school education support school education plays an important role in the education of junior high school students in single-parent families, but there is a shortage of school education support. first of all, the connection between family education and school education is not close enough. because single-parent parents may be busy making a living, it is difficult to maintain effective communication with school teachers, resulting in the school is unable to timely understand the students' family situation, and thus unable to provide targeted educational support [1]. secondly, the distribution of school education resources is uneven. in some schools, students from single-parent families may enjoy less educational resources, such as extracurricular activities, tutoring courses, etc. this puts them at a disadvantage in their academic and comprehensive quality, further aggravating the educational inequality. in addition, teachers' professional quality needs to be improved. students from single-parent families may be faced with psychological and behavioral problems, which puts forward higher requirements for teachers' education and teaching ability and psychological counseling ability. however, at present, some teachers lack professional knowledge and experience when dealing with students from single-parent families, which makes it difficult to help these students effectively. in response of these problems, schools need to strengthen the connection between home and school, improve the file system of students from single-parent families, accurately grasp their family backgrounds and needs, and provide customized educational support. at the same time, we will ensure that educational resources are equally distributed and that students from single-parent families enjoy the same treatment. in addition, it is crucial to strengthen teacher training and improve their ability to deal with the problems of students from single-parent families. through these measures, school education support will be optimized to better help junior high school students from single-parent families grow up healthily [2]. 2.3 status quo of social care and policy support social care and policy support are crucial to the growth of junior high school students from single-parent families. at present, china has made some progress in this field. government attaches great importance to the single-parent family junior high school education problem, not only formulated a series of policy documents, such as "opinions on strengthening the protection of minors", also introduced special funding policy for single-parent families, such as single-parent family children in college can obtain state subsidies, and can apply for low, rent breaks, etc., to ensure that the family minors get the necessary care and education security. these policy documents define the responsibilities and tasks of governments, departments and social organizations at all levels in the education of junior high school students from single-parent families, providing policy guarantee for junior high school students from single-parent families. secondly, the care from all walks of life for single-parent family junior high school students is also strengthening. many public welfare organizations, enterprises and institutions and caring people actively participate in the activities of caring for junior high school students in single-parent families, helping junior middle school students in single-parent families to solve their life, learning and psychological difficulties through financial support, psychological counseling, education and training [3]. however, although we have made initial achievements in caring for junior high school students from single-parent families, we still face many problems to be solved in the construction of social care system and policy support. for example, the relevant policy system is not perfect, and the policies in some regions; the social care force is scattered, and lacks effective organization and coordination; and the channels and resources for junior high school students from single parent families to receive education are still limited. in order to better care for and support the junior high school students in single-parent families, it is necessary to further improve the policy system and improve the policy implementation. at the same time, strengthen the construction and synergy of social organizations, to create a strong atmosphere for the whole society to participate in and care for junior high school students in single-parent families. in addition, it is necessary to actively expand the channels and resources for junior high school students from single-parent families to receive education, so as to ensure that they can enjoy educational opportunities equally and fairly and achieve all-round development. only in this way can we really create a good environment for the growth of junior high school students in single-parent families. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 112 published by ideas spread 3. analysis of education problems for junior high school students in single-parent families 3.1 parent-child relationship tension in single-parent families, the parent-child relationship often becomes strained due to changes in family structure. this tension is mainly manifested in the following aspects of [4]. first of all, due to the absence of one parent, the child may miss and rely on the other party, thus becoming resistant to the custodial parents. this emotion is easy to cause conflicts between children and custodial parents, thus weakening the quality and effectiveness of family education. moreover, parents in single-parent families need to shoulder greater family responsibilities and pressure, which often leads them to the extreme in educating their children, either too strict or too doting. strict education is easy to make children fear and depression, while doting makes children lack of self-discipline and sense of responsibility. finally, children from single-parent families are more likely to suffer from discrimination and misunderstanding by their peers in school. this experience makes them feel lonely and helpless, and then have a strong resistance to school and family. this emotion may further affect their relationship with their parents. the tension of parent-child relationship in single-parent families is a complex problem, which needs to be analyzed and solved from multiple angles. this requires us to strengthen the education support for single-parent families, including providing psychological counseling services, conducting family education and training, and encouraging the participation of social organizations. through these measures, we can help children from single-parent families to better adapt to family and school life, thus promoting their healthy growth [5]. 3.2 outstanding psychological problems in the process of growth, single-parent students often face more psychological pressure and challenges due to the change of family structure. due to the lack of father's care and guidance, some junior high school students in single-parent families may have emotional dependence, parent-child tension and other problems. in addition, social prejudice and discrimination against single-parent families may also lead to negative emotions such as low selfesteem and anxiety among these students. on the other hand, the psychological problems of junior high school students in single-parent families are often ignored. in the heavy task of school education, teachers often unconsciously focus on students' academic performance, but quietly ignore those mental health problems hidden behind the report card and urgently need to be cared for. in this case, these students may feel lonely, helpless, and even develop serious psychological problems such as depression. in order to solve the psychological problems of junior high school students in single-parent families, we need to start from many aspects. the first thing, parents should pay close attention to the children's psychological fluctuations, do their best to create a haven full of love and warmth for their children, so that they can thrive in care. moreover, the school should start to build a set of perfect psychological counseling and counseling system, regularly hold mental health education activities, like a beacon, illuminate the inner confusion of these students, guide them to establish a positive self-cognition, forge a tough psychological defense line. in addition, the society should also eliminate prejudice and discrimination against single-parent families and provide more care and support for these students [6]. 3.3 academic difficulties junior high school students from single-parent families face many difficulties in their studies. first, because of the unstable family environment and the lack of parental or maternal educational guidance, these students may lack sufficient attention and guidance academically. secondly, children from single-parent families often suffer dual pressure from family and society, which may lead to insufficient motivation and decline in grades. in addition, children from single-parent families may face financial difficulties and lack access to quality educational resources, such as after-school remedial classes or quality educational books, which also affect their academic performance. in addition, junior middle school students from single-parent families may face social difficulties, which may affect their learning. they may be discriminated against or excluded in school because of their family background, making them unable to fully participate in classroom discussions and social activities. this feeling of loneliness and rejection may further affect their learning motivation and academic achievement [7]. for these issues, we have the following suggestions. first, schools should establish a more complete tutoring mechanism to provide additional academic support for students from single-parent families. this includes offering free tutoring courses, as well as organizing dedicated academic mentoring activities. secondly, schools should establish a psychological counseling mechanism to help students from single-parent families cope with psychological pressure and improve their learning motivation and self-confidence. in addition, all sectors of society should also pay attention to the education of children from single-parent families and provide them with hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 113 published by ideas spread more educational resources and economic support, such as educational public welfare activities organized by social organizations or scholarship programs provided by the government. 4. countermeasures and suggestions 4.1 improve the policies to support family education 4.1.1 increase the investment for family education the increase of family education investment, combined with the support of school and society, is one of the important means to improve the education situation of junior middle school students from single-parent families. in china, the education of junior high school students in single-parent families has attracted wide attention from all walks of life. in order to improve this situation, the government and society should increase the investment in family education funds to ensure that junior high school students in single-parent families can obtain the same educational resources as other students [8]. first of all, the government should incorporate family education funds into the fiscal budget to ensure that the funds are used exclusively. the government should set up an education fund for single-parent families to support the education of junior high school students in single-parent families, and encourage enterprises, social organizations and individuals to donate actively, so as to jointly help the education and growth of junior high school students in single-parent families. second, the increased funding for family education should be focused on improving the quality of education, such as raising teachers&#039; salaries to attract and retain talent, improving school facilities to create a good learning environment, and developing special education programs for junior high school students from single-parent families to meet their unique needs. in addition, the government should also strengthen the supervision and management of the use of family education funds to ensure the efficiency of the use of funds. the government should establish a strict supervision mechanism for the use of family education funds, carry out regular audit and evaluation, and ensure the precise allocation of funds to maximize the benefits. in short, increasing the investment in family education is an important measure to improve the education situation of junior high school students in single-parent families. the government and society should share the responsibility to ensure that junior high school students from single-parent families can get a good education and lay a solid foundation for their life development. in china, the education of junior high school students in single-parent families has attracted wide attention from all walks of life. according to the latest survey report, children from single-parent families show withdrawn, introverted and capricious weaknesses in personality characteristics, psychology and emotions, and the education level of guardians is generally low, leading to these children facing many challenges in education. in order to improve this situation, the government and society should increase the investment in family education funds to ensure that junior high school students in single-parent families can obtain the same educational resources as other students [9]. 4.1.2 carry out family education, training and guidance family education training and guidance are an important means to improve the education quality of junior high school students in single-parent families. in order to enable the parents of single-parent families to better perform the duties of family education, the government and relevant departments should actively carry out family education training and guidance work [10]. first of all, the government needs to increase financial support for family education training and guidance to ensure that family education has sufficient resources. family education fund can be used for family education training, family education guidance and family education research and other aspects, so as to provide a strong economic guarantee for family education. secondly, the government should strengthen the family education training and guide the construction of teachers. a group of experts and teachers who are familiar with family education theory and have rich practical experience are selected to form a family education training and guidance team to provide professional training and guidance for parents of single-parent families. moreover, family education training and guidance should take diversified forms to meet the actual needs of all kinds of families. family education lectures, family education seminars, family education training courses and other activities can be held to provide guidance and targeted training for parents. at the same time, the network platform can also be used to carry out online family education training and guidance, so that parents can learn flexibly study according to their own schedule. family education training and guidance should fully cover key areas such as parent-child communication, family education strategies and mental health. through training and guidance, we can help parents of single-parent families to improve their family education ability, establish a good family education environment, and lay a foundation for the healthy growth of their children [11]. finally, the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 114 published by ideas spread government, schools and the society should pay common attention to the education problems of junior high school students in single-parent families, and form a good atmosphere of collaborative education. with the help of family education training and guidance, the educational quality of parents should be improved, and the educational quality of junior middle school students in single-parent families should be enhanced to ensure their healthy growth in a fair and relaxed environment. 4.2 optimization of the school education support system 4.2.1 establish a psychological counseling and counseling mechanism in the optimization of school education support system, it is an important measure to establish psychological counseling and counseling mechanism. due to the particularity of the family environment, junior high school students in single-parent families often face greater psychological pressure and need to get more care and support. therefore, schools should establish and improve the psychological counseling and counseling mechanism to meet the psychological needs of this group. schools should set up professional psychological counseling rooms to provide psychological counseling services for junior high school students from single-parent families. psychological counseling room should be equipped with professional qualified psychological counselors, they can listen to students' inner troubles, provide psychological counseling, help them adjust their mentality, and face the challenges in life [12]. secondly, schools should regularly carry out mental health education activities to improve students' psychological quality. by holding mental health lectures, psychological salons, psychological film appreciation and other activities, let the students understand the importance of mental health, learn the method of self-adjustment, and enhance the psychological resilience. in addition, schools should also establish a complete set of psychological crisis intervention mechanism. for the students with psychological problems, the school should find timely and intervene in time to avoid the deterioration of psychological problems. for students with severe psychological disorders, the school should communicate with their families and seek professional psychotherapy together to ensure their physical and mental health. 4.2.2 carry out diversified educational activities in the education support of junior high school students in single-parent families, the optimization of school education support system is an important aspect. the implementation of diversified education activities aims to help junior high school students from single-parent families overcome the difficulties of growth, comprehensively improve their comprehensive quality, and lay a solid foundation for their future road. first of all, schools can carry out mental health education according to the characteristics of junior high school students in single-parent families. with the help of psychological counseling and counseling, to resolve their inner contradictions and confusion, and then improve their psychological quality, enhance their psychological resilience. at the same time, mental health lectures and activities can also be held to improve the understanding of parents and students, and form a good atmosphere of paying attention to the mental health of junior high school students in single-parent families [13]. secondly, schools should pay attention to the academic guidance of junior high school students in single-parent families. due to the influence of the family environment, they may have some difficulties in learning. schools can reasonably arrange tutoring courses to solve their problems encountered in the learning process and improve their academic performance. at the same time, we advocate excellent students and junior high school students in single-parent families to help, learn together and make progress hand in hand. in addition, the school should actively carry out a variety of extracurricular activities, so that junior high school students from single-parent families can fully show their talents and enhance teamwork and social skills. we can organize all kinds of interest groups, hold sports and sports competitions, speech competitions and other activities, to provide a platform for them to show themselves. at the same time, encourage them to participate in social practice activities, understand the society, exercise their ability. in addition, schools should strengthen the communication mechanism with parents, hold regular parents' meetings, deeply understand the family background of junior high school students in single-parent families, and provide professional family education guidance for parents, so as to build a harmonious environment for home-school co-education. at the same time, the school can also actively cooperate with all sectors of society to strive for social resources, and provide more development opportunities and space for junior high school students in single-parent families [14]. 4.3 social care and policy support were strengthened 4.3.1 participation of social organizations social organizations play a vital role in supporting the education of junior high school students in single-parent families. first of all, social organizations can provide learning, life and psychological assistance to junior high hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 115 published by ideas spread school students from single-parent families by carrying out various public welfare activities. for example, some social organizations regularly recruit volunteers to provide one-to-one counseling for students from single-parent families to help them improve their studies, while some social organizations also hold psychological counseling activities to effectively relieve the psychological pressure of students from single-parent families. secondly, social organizations can also improve the educational level and parenting ability of parents from single-parent families through training and lectures. for example, some social organizations invite education experts to provide parenting training for single-parent parents to understand how to better guide and cultivate their children, and some social organizations hold parent-child activities to promote communication and interaction between single-parent families and children [15]. in addition, social organizations can also raise the attention of the education of junior high school students from single-parent families through advocacy and publicity. for example, some social organizations actively use media and online platforms to extensively publish related reports and in-depth articles on the education of junior high school students from single-parent families, which has successfully attracted wide attention from the public. in addition, they also organized signature activities or launched peaceful protests, strongly calling on the government and all sectors of society to face up to and focus on solving the educational difficulties of junior high school students from single-parent families. 4.3.2 government purchase of services government purchase of services refers to the government's purchase of public services from social forces through public bidding, competitive negotiation and other procurement methods. this approach can effectively integrate social resources, improve the quality and efficiency of services, and reduce the pressure on the government to provide services directly. government purchase of services plays a positive role in supporting the education of junior middle school students from single-parent families. first of all, the government purchase of services can spread the responsibility of educational support to social forces such as social organizations and volunteers to form a diversified educational support system. these social forces are often more targeted and flexible enough to better meet the educational needs of junior high school students from single-parent families. secondly, the government purchase of services can promote the balanced distribution of educational resources. by purchasing services, the government can introduce high-quality education resources into the education of junior high school students in single-parent families to make up for the uneven distribution of family education resources. in addition, the government purchase of services can provide more educational options. by purchasing services, the government can provide diversified educational services for junior high school students from single-parent families, such as psychological counseling, career planning, interest training, etc., so as to help them achieve better results in their academic studies and life development. government purchase of services has shown significant advantages in supporting the education of junior high school students from single-parent families. but to ensure the effective implementation of this policy, a sound regulatory system must be built to ensure the quality and efficiency of services. in addition, the content and standards of government purchase of services should also be set scientifically to ensure the accuracy and effectiveness of services. 5. conclusion in today's society, junior high school students in single-parent families are faced with many educational problems, such as uneven distribution of family education resources, insufficient support for school education and psychological problems. in order to improve this situation, our government, schools and society have made some efforts, but there are still many areas that need to be improved. the improvement of family education support policy is the key to solve the education problem of junior high school students in single-parent families. the government should increase the investment in family education to carry out family education training and guidance, help parents from single-parent families improve their educational ability, and create a better environment for their children to grow up. at the same time, the government should also encourage and support social organizations to participate in family education work, and provide professional family education guidance and support by purchasing services. as the main position of education, schools should optimize the education support system, pay attention to the psychological needs of students from single-parent families, establish psychological counseling and counseling mechanism, and provide them with timely psychological intervention and care. in addition, schools should also carry out diversified educational activities to encourage students from single-parent families to actively participate, improve their self-confidence and social skills, and help them better integrate into campus life. social care and policy support are also important ways to improve the education status of junior high school students in single-parent families. the government, schools and all sectors of society should join hands to pay hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 116 published by ideas spread attention to the growth of junior high school students in single-parent families, and give them practical help through organizing public welfare activities, granting grants and other ways. through the joint efforts of the whole society, to create a caring and warm growing environment for junior high school students in single-parent families. single-parent family education support status although there are some problems, but through the policy improvement, school optimization education support system and social care and policy support to strengthen efforts, we have reason to believe that this situation will be gradually improved, for the healthy growth of junior high school students provide powerful guarantee. references [1] li, h. (2019). research on the education of children from single-parent families. contemporary education forum, (12), 59-63. [2] zhang, l. (2018). research on the psychological problems and countermeasures of students from single-parent families. modernization of education, (29), 89-92. [3] gao, h. (2019). research on the education problems and countermeasures of students from single-parent families. education and teaching forum, (03), 189-191. [4] yang, d., & liu, q. (2020). research on the psychological resilience of junior high school students from singleparent families. school health in china, 41(04), 541-545. [5] chen, l. (2018). research on the education of children in single-parent families. education theory and practice, (33), 50-52. [6] wang, y. (2019). research on psychological problems and intervention strategies of junior middle school students in single-parent families. journal of medical psychology, 31(06), 761-765. [7] liu, q. (2017). research on the education of single-parent family students. education and teaching forum, no.12, 206-207. [8] zhao, f. (2018). research on the education problems and countermeasures of children in single-parent families. educational observation, no.12, 69-70. [9] li, t. (2017). research on the education of children in single-parent families. education and teaching forum, (11), 190-191. [10] zhang, j. (2018). research on the education problems and countermeasures of students from single-parent families. education and teaching forum, (05), 165-166. [11] hu, y. (2018). research on the psychological problems and countermeasures of students from single-parent families. modernization of education, (36), 70-73. [12] xie, x. (2019). research on psychological problems and intervention strategies of junior middle school students in single-parent families. journal of medical psychology, 31(03), 367-370. [13] willow, (2019). research on the education of children from single-parent families. education theory and practice, (38), 57-58. [14] huang, x. (2017). research on the education problems and countermeasures of students from single-parent families. education and teaching forum, (08), 180-181. [15] wang, x. (2018). research on the psychological problems and countermeasures of junior high school students in single-parent families. contemporary education forum, (06), 73-76. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). microsoft word p30-66 humanities and social science research; vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v6n2p30 30 published by ideas spread issues which marginalize females with adhd a mixed methods systematic review sarah cilia vincenti1, michael galea1 & vince briffa2 1 department of mental health, faculty of health sciences, university of malta 2 department of digital arts, faculty of media and knowledge sciences, university of malta correspondence: sarah cilia vincenti, university of malta, malta. e-mail: sarah.cilia-vincenti.99@um.edu.mt received: july 5, 2023; accepted: july 24, 2023; published: july 31, 2023 abstract background marked disadvantages of females with adhd were identified by previous narrative reviews. factors side-lining females with adhd appear to be both biological and sociological in nature. some published systematic reviews have focused on circumscribed aspects of female adhd. an all-inclusive systematic review of the inequities which confer a status of marginalization to females with adhd is required, to comprehensively understand all implications of female adhd. objectives the aim of this review was to identify and synthesize quantitative and qualitative evidence of issues which marginalize females with adhd. methods a mixed methods systematic review following a convergent integrated approach, as outlined by the joanna briggs institute’s manual for evidence synthesis was undertaken. databases were accessed through the hydro data initiative platform of the university of malta. all types of studies were considered for inclusion. extracted quantitative findings were transformed into qualitative findings prior to synthesis. the review protocol was registered with prospero crd42022384055. results 34 papers were included in the review. synthesis led to the emergence of five themes, namely ‘the gender gap in adhd recognition, diagnosis and treatment’, ‘adhd-related problems in females’, ‘female adhd and negative mental health sequelae’, ‘adhd and female sexual and reproductive health issues’ and ‘the influence of adhd on motherhood’. conclusions critically appraised, synthesized findings conclude that females with adhd are disadvantaged in a number of ways. clinicians and policy makers have access to latest evidence on all issues marginalizing females with adhd in this mixed methods systematic review. recommendations for policy and practice are advanced, together with directions future research ought to follow. keywords: adhd, females, marginalization, mixed methods systematic review, convergent integrated design 1. introduction historically, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (adhd) was considered a disorder only affecting male children. yet, accumulating research has evidenced that it often persists in adulthood, thus, efforts to promote awareness of adult adhd and optimize adult patient outcomes have been instituted in the last two decades (kooij et al., 2010). moreover, nussbaum (2012) highlighted that the disorder affects many females too, although they are likely to be diagnosed later than males. indeed, quinn (2005) described adhd as a ‘hidden disorder’ in females, whilst waite (2010) warned that many women with adhd are suffering in silence. symptoms of inattentiveness are generally more conspicuous and problematic than those of hyperactivity and impulsivity in girls, whose resulting presentations are often labelled as ‘subthreshold’. this was suggested by quinn and madhoo (2014) as one reason which explains why the disorder is often missed in girls. additionally, it hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 31 published by ideas spread has been pointed out that girls and women with adhd may develop psychiatric comorbidities, notably depression and anxiety, which complicate adhd recognition (quinn, 2008). meanwhile, an initial qualitative exploration of the experiences of women with adhd diagnosed as seniors confirmed that the delay in diagnosis and treatment sets women up for a lifetime of struggles, and gender role expectations exacerbate the impact of adhd on girls and women (henry and hill jones, 2011). since gender had not been recognized as an important marker of an adult adhd profile, williamson and johnston (2015) narratively reviewed the literature on gender differences in adults with adhd. it was concluded that similarity between genders must not be presumed in view of variations in prevalence, impairments and comorbidity (williamson and johnston, 2015). more recently, there have been calls for adhd research to finally start ensuring an equal representation of females in research samples (hinshaw et al., 2022), and for studies to analyze and report data for males and females distinctly (kok et al., 2020). furthermore, it has been recommended that future research priorities related to this phenomenon should not only investigate precise sex differences in symptomatology and impairment, but broaden the perspective to elucidate other female specific concerns such as self-harm, challenging relationships, unplanned pregnancies and parenthood (hinshaw et al., 2022). in response to an emergent subset of adhd research, indicating a marked disadvantage of females with this disorder, a participatory action research study using the photovoice method was conceived. this current review forms part of the foundational work carried out for this ongoing project entitled “empowering maltese adult women with adhd using photovoice.” being increasingly lauded as an effective method to empower marginalized communities, photovoice was chosen to that end (evans-agnew and strack, 2022). the primary objective of this review was to situate this project within the extant research on female specific adhd issues. to categorically ascertain that side-lining of this community is indeed a concrete phenomenon, a systematic review providing critically appraised, synthesized evidence was required. the preliminary literature search failed to locate previously published systematic reviews covering the full range of inequities which confer a marginalized status to females with adhd. instead, a number of systematic reviews were identified which targeted circumscribed aspects of this phenomenon. for instance, kok et al. (2016) reviewed the evidence pertaining exclusively to problematic peer-functioning in girls with adhd. similarly, camara et al. (2021) chose the relationship between sex hormones, reproductive stages and adhd as the focus for their review. furthermore, the systematic review of kok et al. (2020) targeted pharmacotherapy for female adhd. alternatively, surendran et al. (2022) solely addressed treatment of adhd in pregnant women. attoe and climie (2023) lately reviewed evidence centering around the issue of misdiagnosis of females with adhd. to date, one needed to sift through several systematic reviews, each yielding evidence pertaining to different elements, in order to gain an appreciation of all the nuances and implications of female adhd. increasingly, decision-making in health care is becoming complex and expeditious. this current review aimed to serve clinicians working with girls and women with adhd, or policymakers planning services for them, by presenting a pragmatic and all-inclusive set of critically appraised, synthesized findings on the inequities of female adhd. however, the preliminary overview of research indicated that both biological and social factors contribute to the oversight of females with adhd in clinical and research settings. thus, it was anticipated that both quantitative and qualitative studies would be located. this meant the resulting heterogeneity would defy the positivist model of conducting systematic reviews. ultimately, it was decided to undertake a mixed methods systematic review (mmsr) since it had the capacity to systematically provide evidence to ascertain marginalization of females with adhd, whilst catering for the anticipated heterogeneity of study designs. the review question, which can be answered by both quantitative and qualitative evidence, was thus set, and reads “what are the female specific adhd issues which render adult women with adhd a marginalized group?” 2. methodology this mmsr was conducted in accordance with the joanna briggs institute methodology for mmsrs following a convergent integrated approach (lizarondo et al., 2020). the convergent integrated approach is indicated to answer a broad review question that can be addressed by any type of study, involves transformation of extracted quantitative data into qualitative data, or transformation of extracted qualitative data into quantitative data, and integration of transformed data (lizarondo et al., 2020). a protocol for this review was registered with prospero international prospective register of systematic reviews registration number crd42022384055. reporting of the review followed the guidelines of the adapted prisma for reporting systematic reviews of qualitative and quantitative evidence (appendix i). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 32 published by ideas spread 2.1 information sources and search strategies an intensive search in the hydro data initiative (hydi) platform of the university of malta was undertaken. this platform provides access to several databases including pubmed, embase, cinahl, medline, biomed central, psychinfo, proquest and wiley online library. the search engine google scholar was subsequently accessed to supplement the hydi search. the search was initially limited to articles written in the english language and articles covering the period between 2012 and 2022. moreover, a feature of the hydi platform allowed filtering of records to identify solely those from peer-reviewed journals. the population, exposure and outcome (peo) framework, first proposed by khan et al. (2003), was consulted to guide selection of keywords for the search and develop eligibility criteria. this framework lent itself best to the broad review question. table 1 illustrates components of the peo framework and concepts they identified. synonyms and alternative terms for concepts identified by the peo framework were recognized to ensure a more exhaustive search. databases were instructed to retrieve records with keywords identified from the population and exposure components of the peo framework only, to determine the breath of the body of knowledge on female specific adhd issues. boolean operators “and” and “or” were employed. whenever possible, truncated roots were used. the number of records identified permitted a thorough scrutiny of all records, without the need to further narrow the search strategy by adding keywords identified from the outcome component of the peo framework. this decision guaranteed that no relevant research would have been missed because of failure to identify all possible synonyms resulting from the outcome component of the peo framework. thomas and harden (2008) argue that in conservative statistical meta-analysis bias is introduced if any relevant study is not located, whilst in mmsrs bias is imported when important concepts are not identified. searches were re-run just before the final syntheses (full electronic search strategies available in appendix ii). the hydi and google scholar searches yielded a total of 2,334 potential records, which were loaded on the bibliographic software ‘refworks’. 569 of these were duplicates. a subsequent 1,657 records were removed as they were deemed irrelevant after screening through their titles and abstracts. inclusion and exclusion criteria listed below guided screening of the remaining 108 potential records identified. reference lists of these records were subsequently inspected to ascertain that no other relevant research had been missed. table 1. the components of the peo framework (khan et al., 2003) and the concepts and synonyms identified to guide the search review question what are the female specific adhd issues which render adult women with adhd a marginalized group? framework component concepts identified & synonyms population women, females, girls, mothers, daughters, spouses, gender, sex exposure attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, adhd outcome experiences, struggles, disadvantages, concerns, issues, feelings the keywords developed through this exercise: women, females, girls, mothers, daughters, gender, sex, ‘attention deficit hyperactivity disorder,’ adhd, experiences, struggles, disadvantages, concerns, issues, feelings 2.2 eligibility criteria studies had to indicate disadvantage of females with adhd to be included. inclusion was not restricted by adhd severity or subtype of study participants. moreover, studies where participants were minors were also considered for inclusion, since problematic female specific adhd issues may be at play since childhood. quantitative, qualitative, primary mixed methods studies and systematic reviews were all considered for inclusion, as were studies from all geographical and socio-economic areas. mixed methods studies were only considered if data from their quantitative or qualitative components could be clearly extracted. studies were excluded if they were not from peer-reviewed journals. studies involving only male participants or involving male and female participants without making any comparisons were excluded. studies involving participants with adhd with comorbid conditions other than depression, anxiety, self-harm and suicidal ideation were excluded. to ensure a manageable corpus of studies, few sensible post-hoc decisions about exclusion of hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 33 published by ideas spread studies were made just before commencing data extraction, as advised by mckenzie et al. (2019). thus, publication before 2015 and very low methodological quality were added to exclusion criteria. eligibility was ascertained by the primary reviewer under the supervision of the other reviewers. any disagreements were resolved through discussion. 2.3 quality appraisal process studies which met inclusion criteria were appraised critically for methodological quality using the standardized instrument mixed methods appraisal tool (mmat) version 2018 (hong et al., 2018). mmat version 2018 was selected because it provides methodological quality criteria for quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research and is relatively simple and time efficient to use, since it is restricted to core criteria. the developers of mmat version 2018 do not advise reviewers to solely present an overall score, as that would not indicate which features of the study are problematic. therefore, an overall quality score for each study was supplemented with a descriptive outline based on mmat version 2018 criteria. furthermore, hong et al. (2018) discourage exclusion of studies from a review on account of low methodological quality. however, as stated previously, it was decided post-hoc to exclude studies with very low methodological quality to ensure manageability of the corpus of studies to appraise. a cut-off overall quality score of two out of five on the mmat version 2018 was determined. thus, studies obtaining a score of 1 were excluded. the jbi checklist for systematic reviews and research syntheses was selected to appraise systematic reviews included in this mmsr, as it is congruent with the broader perspective of what constitutes evidence underpinning mmsrs. authors of papers were contacted when the need arose to request missing or additional data. the quality appraisal process was performed solely by the primary reviewer. uncertainties were discussed with the other reviewers, with any disagreements regarding inclusion of a paper, on the basis of methodological quality, being resolved through discussion. the level of evidence provided by each paper was appraised using the john hopkins evidence-practice grading system for nurses and healthcare professionals (dang et al., 2021). results of the appraisal process were used in the synthesis to describe methodological quality and for sensitivity analysis. 2.4 data extraction quantitative and qualitative data were extracted from studies independently by the primary reviewer. the other reviewers assessed the meticulousness of extraction. by means of excel, a data extraction template was designed, after agreement among the three reviewers regarding which specific details had to be extracted was reached. as suggested by ryan et al. (2018), refining of this template was ongoing right until completion of data extraction. for all types of studies, extracted data subsisted of specifics about the author, year of publication, country of origin, study design, study aims, population and sampling techniques, context, phenomena of interest, study methods, outcomes of relevance to the review question, recommendations, level of evidence and assessment of methodological validity. for quantitative studies, extracted data pertaining to outcomes consisted of descriptive or inferential statistics (whether statistically significant or not). information related to any measurement instruments employed was also extracted. with regards to qualitative studies, the recommendation of adams et al. (2022) was adhered to, and extraction of data was undertaken in such a way so as to maintain fidelity to the themes as they were reported by the primary researchers. moreover, all theories, models, conclusions from primary researchers and some participant excerpts were included in the outcomes category of the data extraction template. the primary outcome of interest was any female specific issue which renders adult women with adhd a marginalized group. 2.5 data transformation the data extraction process described yielded quantitative and qualitative data which had to be transformed into a mutually compatible configuration prior to being integrated. for this mmsr, data conversion involved qualitizing quantitative data. this decision was made in view of considerable heterogeneity in the designs, variables and measurement instruments employed by quantitative studies. secondly, as pearson et al. (2015) assert, codification of quantitative data is less likely to involve errors than quantification of qualitative data. pearson et al. (2015), moreover, discuss considerations of rigour relating to conversion of quantitative data into qualitative themes. following these guidelines, reviewers had to ‘bracket’ any pre-conceived understandings which could impinge on trustworthiness of this process. data-based outcomes of any descriptive and/or inferential statistical tests were transformed into textual descriptions through thematic analysis by the primary reviewer. any uncertainties were forwarded to other reviewers. resulting discrepancies were resolved through discussion. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 34 published by ideas spread 2.6 data synthesis thematic synthesis, as expounded by thomas and harden (2008), was initiated by line-by-line coding of qualitative data extracted directly from qualitative studies and qualitized quantitative data. this operation was then followed by organization of these codes into categories according to similarities and differences in meaning. until now, the review question was disregarded, and the focus was narrowed on the study findings to be coded and classified. the third and most challenging stage consisted of development of analytical themes. here one had to go beyond the emergent categories by interpreting them with respect to the review question. the final product is a comprehensive aggregation of unified findings. pearson et al. (2015) suggest that rigour in the thematic synthesis of data is ensured by making sure that findings from primary studies are adequately contextualized. by outlining study aims, methods used, sampling and setting details and methodological quality assessment, the review retained the context of primary findings. tables outlining study aims are provided in section 3. methodological considerations of included studies are illustrated in appendix iii. additionally, rigour throughout the process of synthesis was ascertained through continuous discussions within the reviewing team. 2.7 sensitivity analysis as stated previously, it was decided post-hoc to exclude studies with very low methodological quality to ensure manageability of the corpus of studies to appraise. the influence of this resolution on synthesis of findings was explored by inspecting the input of individual studies on analytical themes, as suggested by thomas and harden (2008). after thematic synthesis, reviewers noted whether primary studies of a lower methodological quality contributed to a lesser extent to synthesis than studies which were ascribed high methodological quality assessments. this exercise determined whether findings of the review are sensitive to inclusion or exclusion of studies with weaker methodologies. 3. results a prisma flow diagram giving numbers of studies screened, assessed for eligibility and included in the review with reasons for exclusion is provided in figure 1. 3.1 study characteristics the 34 papers included in this review subsisted of 26 quantitative studies, six qualitative studies and two systematic reviews. a description of main characteristics of these papers (authors, year of publication, country of study, aims, design, level of evidence, methodological quality score and categories informed by each), is provided in tables 2, 3 and 4. overview of methods and a detailed result of appraisal of these studies is available in appendix iii. eventually all qualitized quantitative and qualitative findings were organized into 16 categories, which were then grouped into five themes or synthesized findings. each synthesized finding is described in more detail in coming sections. to ensure trustworthiness, a table illustrating how findings from individual studies constructed categories, and how in turn categories built themes is provided in the text for the fifth theme. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 35 published by ideas spread figure 1. flow diagram describing the screening process, modelled after moher et al. (2009) hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 36 published by ideas spread table 2. description of the main characteristics of included quantitative studies authors & year of publication country of study aim(s) design level of evidence methodological quality categories informed by this study snyder et al. (2015) united states to estimate the prevalence of adhd among a national sample of college women, to compare sexual victimization rates of women with adhd to those without adhd and to examine adhd as a hypothesized risk factor of sexual victimization among college women along with commonly assessed predictors under the lifestyle/routine activities framework. quantitative cross sectional iii 2 11 fullerthomson et al. (2016) canada to develop a comprehensive profile of the sociodemographic, mental health and physical health characteristics of women with an adhd diagnosis in a nationally representative sample of canadians. quantitative cross sectional iii 3 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 11 guendelman et al. (2016) united states to draw from a longitudinal sample of girls followed prospectively into young adulthood, comparing those with and without childhood adhd in terms of their risk for physical intimate partner violence by 17–24 years of age. quantitative longitudinal cohort study iii 4 5 owens et al. (2017) united states to ascertain adult outcomes in ten domains reflecting symptomatology, attainment, and impairment as a function of both childhood diagnosis of adhd and persistence of adhd symptoms across time by prospectively following grade school-aged girls with rigorously diagnosed childhood adhd and matched comparison girls for 16 years. quantitative longitudinal cohort study iii 4 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 12 jones et al. (2018) united states to investigate the relationship between adhd symptom clusters (inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity) and engagement in healthy as well as unhealthy prenatal behaviours in a sample of pregnant women presenting to an urban women's clinic. quantitative cross sectional iii 3 12 kakuszi et al. (2018) hungary to study how gender influences the risk of suicidal ideation in adult adhd and whether the psychopathological profiles that underlie suicidal ideation differ between male and female patients. quantitative case control study iii 4 1, 8 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 37 published by ideas spread martin et al. (2018) sweden to examine whether in individuals who had anxiety, depression or adhd diagnoses, females had a higher burden of adhd genetic risk than males using polygenic risk scores. quantitative cohort study iii 3 2 perez algorta et al. (2018) united states to evaluate whether there are significant differences between biological mothers who have a child with combined adhd and those with a child without adhd with respect to how maternal 'big five' personality traits, maternal adhd or their interaction contribute to mothers' experience of parenting stress. quantitative case control study iii 4 15 solberg et al. (2018) norway to determine whether gender modified associations between adhd and psychiatric comorbidities and whether the proportion of psychiatric disorders among men and women in the population that could be attributed to comorbid adhd. quantitative cross sectional iii 4 1, 7 yoshimasu et al. (2018) united states to evaluate the psychiatric comorbidities among adults whose childhood adhd has persisted into adulthood, with explicit assessment for gender differences in the rates and pattern of psychiatric comorbidities. quantitative case control study iii 3 7 ersoy & ersoy (2019) turkey to examine 'gender roles' in couples where one partner has adhd in an attempt to find out whether gender roles mediate negative effects of adhd on relationships. quantitative cross sectional iii 2 3, 5 eryilmaz & ustangbudak (2019) turkey to examine the gender bias in recognition of adhd by teachers at turkish school settings. quantitative cross sectional iii 2 2 hayashi et al. (2019) japan to investigate clinical characteristics and gender differences in adults with adhd in a japanese clinical sample. quantitative cross sectional iii 3 2, 3, 5, 7 mowlem et al. (2019) sweden to investigate sex differences in adhd using a large populationbased sample linked to swedish national patient register data on clinical adhd diagnosis and prescribed adhd medication. quantitative cross sectional iii 3 1, 2 park & johnson (2019) canada to investigate attributions for child behaviour in a community sample of mothers with mothers' adhd symptoms assessed dimensionally. quantitative cross sectional iii 4 14 skoglund et al. (2019) sweden to explore the prevalence of birth in young women and teenage girls quantitative retrospective iii 3 3, 12 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 38 published by ideas spread with adhd and to address modifiable risk factors associated with adverse obstetric & perinatal outcomes, such as smoking, bmi & substance use disorder in these women and girls. cohort study vildalen et al. (2019) norway to investigate the adult adhd self-report scale (asrs) scores in female and male adults with adhd and in the general population. quantitative case control study iii 3 3, 7 babinski et al. (2020) united states to examine prevalence of depression and suicidal behaviours among young adult men & women with and without adhd (ages 1825) using a large claims database. in addition, patterns of health care utilization for depression and suicidal behaviour as well as related health costs are examined. quantitative case control study iii 4 1, 8 meyer et al. (2020) united kingdom to examine differences in parent & teacher adhd ratings of boys and girls matched for levels of directly observed adhd behaviours. quantitative cross sectional iii 3 2 babinski et al. (2020) united states to examine optimal adhd symptom count cut-offs for the diagnosis of adhd in girls & boys using roc analysis and to compare the severity & prevalence of cooccurring internalizing & externalizing problems in girls in the sex-specific group to girls without adhd, girls meeting dsm-5 adhd criteria & boys with adhd. quantitative cross sectional iii 4 2, 7 behesti et al. (2021) iran to investigate whether adhd is over diagnosed in iran, whether iranian psychiatrists reveal a gender bias when diagnosing boys and girls with adhd and whether adhd overdiagnosis has an impact on treatment recommendations. quantitative cross sectional iii 2 2 dorani et al. (2021) the netherlands to gain a first insight into selfreported mood symptoms in women with adhd during the premenstrual period, the postpartum period, and the menopausal transition. additionally, to assess the sleep-wake rhythm preference (chronotype) in order to examine any associations between sleep characteristics, adhd and the mood symptoms. quantitative cross sectional iii 3 9, 12 klefsjo et al. (2021) sweden to examine if there are any gender differences in the diagnostic assessment procedure and in the received treatment prior to and after quantitative retrospective case series iii 4 1, 2, 7 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 39 published by ideas spread adhd diagnosis in swedish outpatient child & adolescent psychiatric units. london & landes (2021) united kingdom to examine adhd prevalence rates among adults using the 2007 and 2012 u.s. national health interview survey and to document interand intracohort changes in adult adhd and examine whether they vary by gender. quantitative prevalence study iii 4 1 szep et al. (2021) germany to investigate hair cortisol concentration (hcc) and mothers' perceived chronic stress in mothers of children with adhd, while considering the effects of child odd/cd symptoms & maternal adhd & maternal depressive symptoms. quantitative cross sectional iii 4 15 zaidmanzait & shilo (2021) israel to examine how the association between maternal adhd symptoms and parenting varies across mothers' inhibitory control and their children's adhd. quantitative cross sectional iii 3 14 table 3. description of the main characteristics of included qualitative studies authors & year of publication country of study aim(s) design level of evidence methodological quality categories informed by this study holthe & langvik (2017) norway to obtain in-depth understanding of complex ways in which adhd might affect the everyday lives of adult women through exploring and illustrating how both clinical symptoms and encounters with stigma shape and translate into lived experiences. qualitative iii 4 2, 3, 6, 7, 13, 16 stenner et al. (2017) united kingdom to examine how women make sense of adhd from their own perspective, but with particular attention to the situated temporal dynamics of identity change. qualitative discourse analytic research iii 4 5, 6, 7, 8, 14, 16 young et al. (2020) united kingdom to provide guidance on presentation of adhd in females and triggers for referral, to improve identification, treatment and support for girls and women with adhd across the lifespan among medical and mental health practitioners. qualitative expert panel iv 3 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 16 lassinantti & almqvist sweden to explore motherhood ideals as they are qualitative narrative iii 4 13, 15 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 40 published by ideas spread (2021) experienced and negotiated by mothers with adhd through the theoretical lens of able-mindedness and responsibility. research lynch & davidson (2022) ireland to explore daily life and academic experiences of young women living in ireland with medical diagnosis of adhd. qualitative iii 3 2,5, 6 wallin et al. (2022) sweden to deepen the understanding of young women's own experiences of sexual and reproductive health by using a qualitative approach. qualitative iii 4 2, 5, 8, 10, 11 table 4. description of the main characteristics of included systematic reviews authors & year of publication country of study aim(s) design level of evidence methodological quality categories informed by this study kok et al. (2020) the netherlands to investigate sex differences in prescription rates, effectiveness and efficacy of pharmacotherapy treatment in girls and women with adhd, and to identify gaps in the scientific knowledge on this topic. systematic literature review iii 8 1 camara et al. (2022) canada to identify the available evidence on the relationship between sex hormones on symptoms of adhd, with an emphasis on the reproductive life stages, including adrenarche in males and females and menarche, menopause and postpartum in females. systematic literature review iii 7 9 considerable discrepancy was noted within quantitative studies. as can be observed from table 2, different aspects of female adhd were targeted and aims varied. even among studies addressing kindred elements of the phenomenon, primary outcomes of interest still differed extensively. another notable difference was the use of either a clinical (hayashi et al., 2019) or a population based (skoglund et al., 2019) sample. as had been anticipated, there was diversity in gender and age of samples too, with some studies using an all-female sample (dorani et al., 2021) and others comparing males to females (vildalen et al., 2019). likewise, some of the research studied minors (klefsjo et al. 2021), other research studied adults (babinski et al., 2020), whilst some followed children into adulthood (guendelman et al., 2016). some studies recruited professionals as participants to elicit their ability to recognize adhd in both genders (eryilmaz and ustang-budak, 2019). lastly, another feature of this body of knowledge which defined its heterogeneity is measurement or ascertainment of adhd status. adhd was measured with an array of clinician, parent, teacher and self-report rating scales for children and/or adults. moreover, a number of studies used proxies for adhd status (london and landes, 2021; solberg et al., 2018). the few qualitative studies in this body of knowledge were published more recently than their quantitative counterparts, suggesting that qualitative discernment of this phenomenon is in its infancy. the qualitative approach employed was not specified for three studies. heterogeneity was observed in samples and data collection procedures of qualitative studies. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 41 published by ideas spread 3.2 the gender gap in adhd recognition, diagnosis and treatment a percentage of females, particularly those with inattentive adhd presentation, may not be clinically diagnosed early in life. gender differences in prescription rates of adhd medication in childhood are no longer observed for adults. teachers, parents and mental health professionals do not always recognize the internalized presentation of adhd in females, which is often overshadowed by emotional problems, and diagnostic criteria were not designed to capture it. moreover, it appears females engage in more effective compensatory behaviours which hide the severity of their adhd. undiagnosed female adhd keeps reaffirming that adhd is more common among males and this belief in turn consolidates the bias in adhd recognition. this synthesized finding subsisted of two categories. 3.2.1 category 1 – evidence of a gender gap which still prevails but is narrowing with increased awareness the higher male to female ratios of child adhd prevalence found in the clinical versus the population-based sample in the study of mowlem et al. (2019), coupled with the comparatively smaller male to female ratio of adhd noted in the adult clinical sample employed by solberg et al. (2018), indicate that a percentage of girls with adhd at population level may be missed and later diagnosed as adults. supplementary evidence was advanced by vildalen et al. (2019), who stated that within a clinical sample of norwegian adults with adhd, the percentage of males who were diagnosed as children was significantly higher than that of females. increases in adult adhd diagnoses, observed between 2007 and 2012 by london and landes (2021) in their prevalence study, were disproportionately larger for women and have narrowed the gender gap. fuller-thomson et al. (2016) corroborated the notion that awareness of female adhd is gaining traction, by reporting that women with adhd in canada were more likely to be in their 20s than those without adhd. in spite of a narrowing gender gap, retrospective review of clinical data of boys and girls eventually diagnosed with adhd by klefsjo et al. (2021) suggested that even when girls are diagnosed as minors, they are still older than boys when diagnosed. as to sex differences in prescription rates of adhd medication, a panel of adhd experts was reported by young et al. (2020) to have established that there is a gender gap disfavouring girls too in this regard. this resonates with findings provided by a systematic review of sex differences in prescription rates, which concluded that in adulthood these rates level off (kok et al., 2020). indeed, kakuszi et al. (2018) claimed that clinically diagnosed adult males and females were equally likely to be receiving methylphenidate, a stimulant medication for adhd. 3.2.2 category 2 – reasons for the gender gap mowlem et al. (2019) asserted that at population level significantly more females meet symptom criteria for the less conspicuous inattentive adhd presentation, whilst the more conspicuous hyperactive adhd symptoms were significantly higher in men as documented by hayashi et al. (2019). women interviewed by lynch and davidson (2022) explained how their hyperactivity manifests as racing thoughts which cannot be perceived by others. primary school teachers’ difficulty in recognizing vignettes describing girls with the inattentive adhd subtype was also documented by erylimaz and ustang-budak (2019). furthermore, meyer et al. (2020) suggested parents in their study systematically rated girls as having less severe adhd than boys, even when they had previously exhibited an equivalent degree of observed adhd-related behaviour. young et al. (2020) concluded that there may be biases in parent and teacher adhd ratings which are interfering with referrals. during the 2018 convention of adhd experts, it was implied that clinicians should steer away from adhering strictly to cut-offs when using rating scales, due to compromised specificity and sensitivity of diagnostic criteria when diagnosing females (young et al., 2020). babinski et al. (2021) identified a sex-specific adhd symptom cut-off for girls that was lower than the symptom threshold afforded by dsm-5 criteria. young et al. (2020) remarked that psychiatric comorbidities in females with adhd are more internalized, and although they may often be secondary to adhd itself, they may be diagnosed as primary disorders. indeed, some women interviewed by stenner et al. (2017) attest to being diagnosed with adhd after seeking help for anxiety or depression. reviewed clinical notes of girls eventually diagnosed with adhd, disclosed that most of them had been referred for “emotional symptoms” (klefsjo et al., 2021). moreover, martin et al. (2018) suggested that adhd genetic risk more likely shows up as anxiety or depression in females. adhd experts noted from professional experience that girls with adhd engage in more effective compensatory behaviours or coping strategies than boys, thus masking their adhd (young et al., 2020). in the same vein, lived experiences of young women with adhd captured by wallin et al. (2022) intimated that there was a perceived need to hide aspects of oneself to be accepted in social situations, which required a considerable and unsustainable effort in the long term. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 42 published by ideas spread 3.3 adhd-related problems in females in contrast to childhood, reported severity levels of adhd symptoms are higher for adult females than males. moreover, females with adhd are more likely to experience educational underachievement and problems at work. females with adhd may be more likely to smoke and to be physically active, thus overall health may be affected in different ways. additionally, adhd symptoms were reported by females to impinge negatively on their interpersonal relationships. more research is needed to understand the extent to which adhd is problematic to females and any interrelations between problematic domains. this synthesized finding subsisted of three categories. 3.3.1 category 3 – overall functioning inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive adhd symptoms are allegedly more severe among females than males in adulthood (ersoy and ersoy, 2019; vildalen et al., 2019). owens et al. (2017) reported that for highest degree earned and years in education, female comparisons significantly outperformed females with adhd. similarly, fuller-thomson et al. (2016) stated that females with adhd were less likely to hold a post-secondary degree and more likely to belong to a low-income category than female comparisons. more recently, skoglund et al. (2019) testified that females with adhd were more likely to have had only ten years of education or less than female comparisons (48.6% vs. 14.5%). the panel of adhd experts endorsed the notion that females with adhd tend to struggle with intellectual functioning and noted that these difficulties are more predictive of the inattentive subtype, which is associated with the female sex (young et al, 2020). regarding functioning in relation to employment, owens et al. (2017) concluded that although there were no differences in objective employment measures, females with adhd significantly claimed more problems at work than female comparisons. moreover, hayashi et al. (2019) determined that compared to men with adhd, the odds of not being gainfully employed full-time were nearly threefold greater for women with adhd. the interplay between adhd and gender roles in the employment domain was hinted at by women with adhd interviewed by holthe and langvik (2017). these women argued that men were more likely to be exclusively assigned creative and stimulating tasks at work, whilst boring, repetitive tasks were added to women’s workloads. 3.3.2 category 4 – overall health significantly lower body mass indexes were observed among females with persistent adhd than female comparisons, whilst differences in poor sleep quality were considered statistically non-significant (owens et al., 2017). contrastingly, fuller-thomson et al. (2016) reported a significantly higher prevalence of sleep problems in females with adhd in comparison to those without (43.9% vs. 12.2%). other objective health measures for which statistically significant differences were observed disfavouring females with adhd by fuller-/thomson et al. (2016) were chronic pain (28.0% vs. 8.5%) and current smoking status (40.9% vs. 21.9%). interestingly, higher physical activity levels were reported by females with adhd than those without, in the same study (52.8% vs. 39.7%). 3.3.3 category 5 – relationship difficulties interviewed women with adhd consistently reported that relationships with significant others have been problematic since childhood. participants revealed to stenner et al. (2017) that being continuously unable to match parents’ expectations made them feel they belonged to wrong families. by the same token, lynch and davidson (2022) imparted that adolescent women with adhd experienced strained relationships with many teachers who thought they were not interested in learning. the panel of adhd experts declared that physical, socio-relational and cyber bullying is commonly seen in girls and women with adhd (young et al., 2020). previous to this convention, guendelman et al. (2016) had established that in relation to women not exposed to intimate partner violence (ipv), ipv-exposed women displayed significantly more severe adhd symptoms, and the association of ipv status and adhd severity is significantly and partially mediated by academic achievement. romantic relationships and complications within them featured more actively in narratives of women with adhd. examples include relationships never seemed to last long or succeed (stenner et al., 2017), relationships and sexlife got boring after the initial excitement subsided (wallin et al., 2022), and emotional impulsivity resulted in partners feeling hurt by insensitive comments and participants feeling guilty for saying whatever comes to mind (holthe and langvik, 2017). notwithstanding purported concerns about romantic relationships, owens et al. (2017) revealed differences in dissatisfaction with current romantic relationship between women with adhd and those without did not reach statistical significance. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 43 published by ideas spread 3.4 female adhd and negative mental health sequelae evidence suggests that in comparison to females without adhd and males with adhd, females with adhd are more likely to develop psychiatric comorbidities, particularly depression and anxiety. internalization of negative feedback and having gone undiagnosed for longer may partially explain this increase in prevalence. suicidal behaviour is likewise more common in females with adhd than females without adhd and males with adhd, and preliminary evidence suggests it may be rooted in problems with self-concept. this synthesized finding subsisted of three categories. 3.4.1 category 6 – negative feedback and self-concept recollections of school days were imbued with experiences of ongoing negative feedback among women with adhd (lynch and davidson, 2022; stenner et al., 2017). hyperactive behaviour is considered more deviant in girls than boys, therefore girls with adhd likely receive more negative feedback than boys with adhd (young et al., 2020). holthe and langvik (2017) suggested internalization of negative feedback may have lasting effects, as adult women interviewed admitted to being highly critical of themselves with issues like procrastination. kakuszi et al. (2018) report that for adult women with adhd, suicidal ideation was most closely associated with scores on the self-concept subscale of the conners’ adult adhd rating scales (caars; conners, 1999), whilst for men the strongest association was with scores on the impulsivity subscale. this suggests internalization of negative feedback is more deleterious to women with adhd. adhd professionals stressed adhd treatment for teenage girls must include psychological interventions to unpack ways in which adhd has become embedded in their self-concept (young et al., 2020). 3.4.2 category 7 – anxiety, depression and other comorbidities in comparison to females without adhd, females with adhd were reported to have twice the odds of having a substance use disorder or a major depressive disorder at some point in their lives, and four times the odds of developing generalized anxiety disorder (fuller-thomson et al., 2016). owens et al. (2017) confirmed there were statistically significant differences between females with adhd and those without for depression. however, differences for substance abuse did not reach statistical significance. higher overall psychiatric comorbidity rates for women in comparison to men with adhd were extensively reported (hayashi et al., 2019; solberg et al., 2018; vildalen et al., 2019; yoshimasu et al., 2018). two studies analyzed the combined effect of the two exposures (adhd and gender). solberg et al. (2018) report prevalence differences for all disorders were significantly larger for women with adhd, with the exception of schizophrenia and substance use disorder. yoshimasu et al. (2018) revealed statistical significance for dysthymia in women with adhd. interviewed women with adhd confirm anxiety and depression have permeated their lives, but also clearly articulate how living with adhd precipitates these conditions. holthe and langvik (2017) explain how inability to settle into routines means one never feels in control of situations or of oneself and this provokes anxiety. additionally, the hopelessness which ensues from putting in a lot of effort and never being able to manage adhd symptoms casted participants into depressive states. likewise, stenner et al. (2017) relays that women with adhd feel depressed because they perceive their lives as a course of consecutive futile attempts and fiascos. young et al. (2020) suggests girls and women with adhd may go to great lengths to compensate for adhd symptoms, to the extent that perfectionism and anxiety develop. 3.4.3 category 8 – self-injury and suicidal behaviour after employing psychometrically evaluated tools, owens et al. (2017) report self-injury was present in 66.0% of females with persistent adhd and 24.4% of comparison females. statistical significance was not reached for suicide attempts possibly because of small cell sizes. fuller-thomson et al. (2016) concluded that females with adhd had more than four times the odds of having considered suicide, from replies to one question asking participants if they ever considered suicide. babinski et al. (2020) inspected the effects of adhd and sex on suicidal behaviour employing commercial claims data among a large sample of adults with adhd and matched comparisons. whilst a significant adhd by sex interaction was not observed for suicide attempts, one for suicidal ideation emerged. the magnitude of the association between adhd and suicidal ideation was greater for women (odds ratio of 2.21) than men (odds ratio of 1.61). kakuszi et al. (2018) used one item from the beck depression inventory (bdi; beck et al., 1975) as standalone measure for suicidal ideation among adults with adhd and matched controls. the study reported a 16-fold increase in likelihood of suicidal ideation for females with adhd in comparison to controls. contrastingly, in males the modest increase failed to reach statistical significance. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 44 published by ideas spread 3.5 adhd and female sexual and reproductive health issues reviewed evidence indicates females with adhd are at risk for teenage/unplanned pregnancies and sexual victimization. females with adhd find it harder to engage in healthy prenatal behaviours and this can precipitate adverse perinatal outcomes. preliminary evidence suggests there may be a bi-directional relationship between adhd and hormonal shifts during female reproductive life stages. moreover, research to ascertain categorical safety or otherwise of adhd medication during pregnancy and breastfeeding is needed. when specifically probed, some females with adhd talked about engaging in casual sex and the shame it provokes. future studies should be designed to encourage females with adhd to discuss their sexuality. this synthesized finding subsisted of four categories. 3.5.1 category 9 – sex hormones in 2018, adhd experts advised adhd symptoms in females may be exacerbated by hormonal fluctuations during certain stages of the menstrual cycle, in the perinatal period and during menopausal years (young et al., 2020). a few years later, dorani et al. (2021) reported that prevalence of premenstrual dysphoric disorder and postpartum depression and severity of climacteric mood symptoms were higher in a sample of females clinically diagnosed with adhd, than those previously reported for the general population in other publications (barentsen et al., 2001; gavin et al., 2005; gelaye et al., 2016; hylan et al., 1999). camara et al. (2022) set out to identify evidence exploring the relationship between sex hormones in both males and females and adhd. few papers were located, indicating this area of research is still in its infancy. adhd symptoms were noted to worsen before menses in a clinical case study involving one patient, and it was proposed that adhd treatment may result in improved management of pre-menstrual syndrome (quinn, 2005, as cited in camara et al., 2022, p. 3). aside from this, a weak association between early pubertal onset in females and difficulties with attention and emotional regulation and a propensity for risky behaviour was reported (ostojic and miller, 2016, as cited in camara et al., 2022, p. 3). 3.5.2 category 10 – casual sex the guidance provided by the adhd expert consensus statement mentions that girls with adhd may become sexually active earlier, have more sexual partners and be more prone to aftermaths in the matter of sexually transmitted diseases and teenage pregnancies (young et al., 2020). young women with adhd intimate they engage in casual sex because of substantial difficulty in resisting sexual desire, as an outlet for channeling extra energy and because they have given up on long-term relationships. casual sex evoked shame and a resentment towards a society which does not tolerate this behaviour among women. health services may not be approached for screening tests pertaining to sexually transmitted diseases because of this shame (wallin et al., 2022). 3.5.3 category 11 – sexual victimization snyder et al. (2015) concluded that in comparison to college women without adhd, those with adhd had 1.41 greater odds of being touched in an unwanted manner and 1.85 greater odds of being raped. correspondingly, fuller-thomson et al. (2016) determined that females with adhd had a significantly higher likelihood to have sustained sexual abuse before the age of 16 years, than those without adhd (35.8% vs 10.9%). young women with adhd claimed inattentiveness creates inability to recognize sexual innuendos or to perceive danger cues, whilst impulsivity dictates an intrinsic tendency to rush into action without any prior deliberation (wallin et al., 2022). 3.5.4 category 12 – perinatal issues among all nulliparous females who gave birth in 2014 in sweden, those receiving adhd medication had a sixfold increased risk of being younger than 20 years when giving birth (skoglund et al., 2019). owens and her colleagues in 2017 had already established that females with persistent adhd had higher rates of unplanned pregnancies than comparisons (39.2% vs. 10.6%). jones et al. (2018) reported a significant and negative relationship between inattentive adhd symptoms and healthy eating during pregnancy, a significant and negative relationship between hyperactivity symptoms and prenatal vitamin use, and a positive and significant relationship between impulsivity and emotional lability and physical strain and poor eating during pregnancy. skoglund et al. (2019) reported that pregnant women with adhd had twice the odds of having a body mass index more than 40.00 and more than six times the odds of smoking in the third trimester of pregnancy, in comparison to women without adhd. dorani et al. (2021) stated that out of a sample of women clinically diagnosed with adhd, 40.7% had had at least one child and 62.4% of the latter reported perinatal or obstetric complications. young et al. (2020) report that in hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 45 published by ideas spread view of inconclusive evidence, adhd medication is by and large not recommended during pregnancy or breastfeeding. 3.6 the influence of adhd on motherhood gender role expectations are harder to keep up with for some mothers with adhd, who struggle to maintain structure and find childcare and household tasks boring. preliminary evidence suggests that variation in maternal inhibitory control, in the context of maternal adhd, determines negative and supportive parenting behaviours. mothers with adhd reported feeling inadequate as parents upon comparisons to other mothers. in multiplex families, mothers may feel guilty for passing on adhd to children and experience considerable stress. research still has to elucidate to what degree maternal and child adhd each contribute to maternal stress. this synthesized finding subsisted of four categories. 3.6.1 category 13 – managing motherhood tasks mothers with adhd explained children aggravate an already innate problematic distractibility with spontaneous and continuous interruptions. the absence of externally imposed structures in the home context, as opposed to a workplace, was vexing because it meant they had to struggle to institute some order and routines themselves (holthe and langvik, 2017). moreover, gender role expectations were reported to place heavier childcare demands on women, whose responsibility to their families is described as ‘omnipresent’ (lassinantti and almqvist, 2021). 3.6.2 category 14 – parenting behaviours park and johnson (2019) suggest impulsive mothers with adhd may struggle to regulate parenting responses for children’s negative behaviours and inattentive mothers may not be attuned to positive behaviour. this finding may shed some light on strained relationships in multiplex adhd families (families where multiple individuals are affected by adhd). however, zaidman-zait and shilo (2021) concluded that maternal inhibitory control buffers the effect of high maternal adhd symptomatology on negative parenting. this protective effect was such, that higher scores of maternal adhd and maternal inhibitory control predicted increased supportive parenting during observations. 3.6.3 category 15 – parenting stress mothers of children with adhd self-reported higher adult adhd scores than comparisons, supporting the belief that adhd is a highly heritable disorder which often runs in families (perez-algorta et al., 2018). intriguingly, in the same study, maternal adhd was reported to exacerbate perceived parenting stress of comparison mothers but not of mothers of children with adhd. correspondingly, szep et al. (2021) concluded that maternal adhd does not moderate the association of child adhd with maternal perceived chronic stress. however, szep et al. (2021) compellingly also observed that maternal adhd and depressive symptoms were more predictive of maternal perceived chronic stress, than child adhd and oppositional defiant disorder symptoms. 3.6.4 category 16 – parenting guilt lassinantti and almqvist (2021) reported mothers with adhd compared their own untidy home to an imagined uncluttered home environment maintained by a good, organized mother. correspondingly, women with adhd interviewed by holthe and langvik (2017) put themselves down for only managing to fit in a bare minimum of necessary activities with their children in their schedules. zaidman-zait and shilo (2021) revealed that when interactions of mothers with adhd and their children were observed, it transpired that the mothers’ previous selfreports of negative parenting behaviours overestimated these behaviours. holthe and langvik (2017) also uncovered how mothers with adhd may keep tormenting themselves for having passed on adhd to their offspring, thus condemning them for life with this challenging condition. table 5. findings, categories and synthesized findings for the fifth theme synthesised finding categories findings gender role expectations are harder to keep up with for some mothers with adhd who struggle to maintain structure and find childcare and household tasks category 13 – managing motherhood tasks -swedish mothers with adhd reported they resist traditional gendered expectations and sometimes find tasks typically assigned to fathers more stimulating than repetitive and boring chores (lassinantti & almqvist, 2021). -swedish mothers with adhd resented the fact that responsibility is omnipresent for mothers and their executive functioning resources get depleted, while fathers get more time away from the family unit for themselves (lassinantti & almqvist, 2021). -norwegian mothers with adhd explained that the responsibility for establishing structure and routines at home with their children rests solely on them unlike in a work environment (holthe hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 46 published by ideas spread boring. preliminary evidence suggests that variation in maternal inhibitory control in the context of maternal adhd determines negative and supportive parenting behaviours. mothers with adhd reported feeling inadequate as parents upon comparisons to other mothers. in multiplex families, mothers may feel guilty for passing on adhd to children and experience considerable stress. research still has to elucidate to what degree maternal and child adhd each contribute to maternal stress. & langvik, 2017). -norwegian mothers reported that children continuously distract them from the task at hand and they struggle to return back to a task once interrupted (holthe & langvik, 2017). -expert adhd panel concluded that parenting and household duties may overwhelm mothers with adhd (young et al., 2020). category 14 – parenting behaviours -canadian mothers with adhd offered less child-responsibility attributions for positive child behaviour and more child-responsibility attributions for negative behaviour than mothers without adhd (park & johnson, 2019). -canadian mothers with more adhd symptoms showed a weaker relationship between valence of child behaviour and child behaviour attributions given (park & johnson, 2019). -maternal adhd symptoms were positively associated with self-reported overreactive parenting and self-reported lax parenting in an israeli cross-sectional study (zaidman-zait & shilo, 2021). -self-reported overreactive parenting of israeli mothers with adhd was not supported by observed parenting negativity during mother-child conflict discussions (zaidman-zait & shilo, 2021). -inhibitory control served as a protective factor against parenting negativity in the context of high maternal adhd symptoms in the israeli cross-sectional study (zaidman-zait & shilo, 2021). -higher levels of maternal inhibitory control and maternal ha/im symptoms predicted increased supportive parenting in the israeli cross-sectional study (zaidman-zait & shilo, 2021). category 15 – parenting stress -us mothers of children with adhd rated themselves higher on adult adhd self-rating scales than mothers of children without adhd in a case control study (perez algorta et al., 2018). -maternal adhd did not exacerbate the perceived stress of parenting a child with adhd in the case control study conducted in the us (perez algorta et al., 2018). -maternal adhd symptom level had a significantly stronger association with parenting stress for the us mothers of children without adhd than for mothers of children with adhd in the case control study (perez algorta et al., 2018). -maternal perceived chronic stress positively correlated with child and maternal adhd in a cross-sectional study conducted in germany (szep et al., 2021). -maternal adhd and maternal depressive symptoms were more predictive of maternal perceived chronic stress than child adhd and child oppositional defiant disorder & conduct disorder symptoms in the cross-sectional study conducted in germany (szep et al., 2021). -maternal adhd did not moderate the association between child adhd symptoms and maternal perceived chronic stress in the cross-sectional study conducted in germany (szep et al., 2021). category 16 – parenting guilt -expert adhd panel concluded that mothers with adhd may experience feelings of guilt over perceived inadequacy as a parent (young et al., 2020). -mothers from the uk reported reminding themselves they knew no better when they start feeling guilty about how they parented differently before they were diagnosed (stenner et al., 2017). -swedish mothers reported they compare their messy homes with ‘ideal homes which are tidy’ and themselves with ‘good mothers which are organized’ (lassinantti & almqvist, 2021). -norwegian mothers reported they wished they knew how to find time to plan more activities for their children like other mothers (holthe & langvik, 2017). -norwegian mothers reported feeling guilty for passing on adhd to their children (holthe & langvik, 2017). 3.7 results of sensitivity analyses the contribution of the four studies (behesti et al., 2021; ersoy and ersoy, 2019; eryilmaz and ustang-budak, 2019; snyder et al., 2015) with a methodological assessment score of 2 on synthesized findings was evaluated. ersoy and ersoy (2019) and snyder et al. (2015) provided important contributions to synthesized findings that were endorsed by few other studies. the review was, therefore, partially sensitive to inclusion of studies with low methodological quality. subsequently, exclusion of studies which had a methodological assessment score of 1 may have biased synthesized findings. 4. discussion a description of integration of quantitative and qualitative evidence, an outline of the contribution of this review and an acknowledgement of its limitations are dealt with in this section. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 47 published by ideas spread 4.1 integration of quantitative and qualitative findings quantitative and qualitative findings were markedly supportive of each other. there was only one instance when one paradigm discredited the other. this rebuttal was presented by owens et al. (2017), who quantitatively concluded there was no statistical difference in satisfaction with current relationship between females with adhd and those without. meanwhile, females with adhd had confided in most of the included qualitative studies that romantic relationships were highly problematic for an array of reasons. the review is additionally replete with cases where the qualitative evidence not only confirms quantitatively derived results but extends, refines and deciphers them. the most notable examples include women describing how they experience their hyperactivity as racing thoughts which cannot be controlled (lynch and davidson, 2022). this revelation explains why symptoms of hyperactivity, as captured by rating scales which typically ask about always being on the go and fidgetiness, are significantly higher in men than women with adhd, as reported by hayashi et al. (2019). another illustration is provided by the narrative of a woman with adhd interviewed by stenner et al. (2017), who shed light on the relationship between low self-concept and suicidality in females with adhd. this relationship was quantitatively advanced by kakuszi et al. (2018). the woman recalled how selfcriticism and self-destruction began to feed off each other in her youth, until they climaxed into serious attempts to take away her own life. the categories for which quantitative testing was not complemented by qualitative explorations were overall health, sex hormones, perinatal issues and parenting behaviours. conversely, the casual sex category was derived exclusively from findings extracted from qualitative studies. this implies quantitative inquiries are required to consign width to the depth already attained for this category. a less discernible, but arguably more important, implication is the realization that more qualitative research may unearth aspects of female adhd which have never been recognized by quantitative researchers. 4.2 contribution of the review the question set for this review read “what are the female specific adhd issues which render adult women with adhd a marginalized group?” there was an ethical commitment towards the community of females with adhd to ascertain that extant research affirms their disadvantage, prior to embarking on a photovoice project to empower them. a preliminary search had also established that inequities arise both from biological and social factors. therefore, an mmsr was chosen because it could provide critically appraised, robust evidence to verify concrete marginalization if it existed, whilst at the same time capturing all the nuances of the phenomenon through integration of quantitative and qualitative findings. these two imperative aims were achieved. synthesized findings presented are useful to clinicians working with girls and women with adhd or policy makers planning services for them. to this end, a set of recommendations for policy and practice have been proffered hereunder. increased awareness on the inattentive adhd subtype, particularly among girls, is sorely needed among health care professionals and educators. the failure to recognize the predominantly inattentive subtype is unacceptable, considering that it has been officially recognized in dsm-iv since 1994 (apa, 1994). additionally, clinicians must be cognizant of the fact that girls may report their adhd symptoms as emotional problems and experience hyperactivity as an internal restlessness. similar to how age-specific adhd symptom criteria were introduced in dsm-v, indicating how symptoms manifest differently in adulthood (apa, 2013), dsm guidelines ought to consider providing sex-specific criteria. until these guidelines are made available, young et al. (2020) advise females should be screened for adhd using rating scales inclusive of female norms. in the absence of the latter, a stronger reliance on collateral information from parent or school reports is essential. earlier recognition of adhd in girls ensures educational school support, which is required to attenuate negative educational outcomes reported by literature. moreover, guendelman et al. (2016) hinted that lower academic achievement may in turn predispose girls with adhd to subsequent negative outcomes, possibly through interference with their self-confidence and social empowerment. a negative self-concept has furthermore been associated with suicidal behaviour in females with adhd (kakuszi et al., 2018). consequently, timely recognition of female adhd may disrupt the cascading effect of a series of chain events which is impinging on the quality of life of women with adhd. psychiatric comorbidity is so pervasive among females with adhd, that it is advocated that all females diagnosed with adhd should be routinely screened for anxiety and depression. conversely, females struggling with treatment resistant anxiety or depression or presenting with these issues in the context of a family history of adhd, should be screened for adhd. in particular, babinski et al. (2021) allude that among girls with subthreshold levels hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 48 published by ideas spread of adhd, symptoms of depression or oppositional defiant disorder may be considered indicators which prompt for further screening. camara et al. (2022) suggest evaluation of hormonal status in females with adhd should be a component of holistic treatment plans. dorani et al. (2021) propose dosage of adhd medication might need to be adjusted during the premenstrual week and perimenopausal years. females attending their first antenatal visit should be routinely asked if they have adhd. midwives providing antenatal care ought to be mindful and non-judgmental of challenges this client group may face in adhering to prenatal health behaviours. programmes and interventions for young female adults with adhd targeting issues such as low self-esteem, social skills, risk of victimization in interpersonal relationships and contraceptive counselling would be beneficial. psychoeducation for mothers with adhd should stress the value of avoiding comparisons with neurotypical mothers, delegating tasks to supportive persons in one’s social network, accepting one’s limitations and attenuating guilt, addressing inhibitory control and boosting supportive parenting by training oneself to be on the lookout for positive behaviour from children. 4.3 limitations conducting this mmsr required significant methodological skill for which clear and universally approved guidance is not available to date. petticrew et al. (2013) purport the interpretative process embedded in a mmsr is highly iterative and subsequently reproducibility is compromised. in this case, this was aggravated by the fact that the whole process was tackled primarily by one reviewer. the other reviewers oversaw the venture and actively participated by pondering uncertainties, which were eventually resolved through discussion. although efforts to limit publication bias were made, its actuality cannot be ruled out. studies providing results which did not reach statistical significance or findings which had antagonistic implications were not excluded. that being said, inclusion and exclusion criteria set a priori and post hoc may have contributed to publication bias. developers of the mmat version 2018 recommend it requires subsequent validation research (hong et al., 2018). moreover, periodically it was observed that the tool’s five questions for each study design did not always fully capture all the methodological considerations worthy of note. in view of the convolutedness involved in synthesizing evidence derived from studies with different epistemological foundations, lizarondo et al. (2020) indicate that currently the practice of assessing certainty of evidence using approaches such as grade (terracciano et al., 2010) or conqual (munn et al., 2014), is not recommended by the jbi manual of evidence synthesis. although, this circumstance was beyond the agency of the reviewers, it is being acknowledged as a limitation, which further stresses the evolving nature of mmsr development. 5. conclusion females with adhd have been side-lined not only clinically but also in research settings, with almost all research on adhd focusing on boys and men up until recently. quantitative research endeavours have been predominantly cross-sectional, and comparisons have been hampered because of considerable variation in measures assessing adhd status. additionally, control groups from the general population have not been consistently recruited in studies comparing males and females with adhd. this renders conclusions questionable as differences may be attributable exclusively to gender. a conspicuous dearth of qualitative explorations among women with adhd persists. future investigations need to include longitudinal, prospective studies to inspect gender differences in developmental aspects of adhd symptomatology. the existence or otherwise of a genuine sex difference in adhd onset requires ascertainment. a necessity for mediation analyses research, to distinguish any mediators and moderators involved in significant associations reported in this review, subsists. there is an urgency for more research on adhd medication for girls and women, particularly on its interaction with female sex hormones, as proposed by camara et al. (2022). optimal, female-specific doses need to be identified together with clear guidelines on how they can be adjusted during periods of hormonal fluctuations. safety or otherwise of adhd medication during pregnancy and breastfeeding requires categorical determination. mothers with adhd have been studied primarily with the intent of ensuring they can help their children with adhd experience better outcomes. however, the needs and wellbeing of mothers with adhd ought to also be investigated with the sole resolute of garnering findings which can inform psychoeducational programmes tailor made specifically for them, apart from their children. research still has to identify to what extent child adhd and maternal adhd contribute to maternal stress in multiplex families. szep et al. (2021) refer to the work of psychogiou et al. (2008) as the origin of the similarity-misfit and similarity-fit hypotheses. these respectively hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 49 published by ideas spread propose that either a child’s adhd augments the stress of mothers with adhd, or shared traits between mothers and children with adhd result in enhanced mutual understanding. these hypotheses require further testing and exploration. disadvantage of females with adhd has been ascertained by this mmsr. factors side-lining females with adhd with respect to their male counterparts include the way the disorder manifests itself differently, biases in diagnostic processes, risks of psychiatric comorbidities, hormonal influences and gender role expectations. intriguingly, the way the social marginalization, interfering with access to treatment and missed opportunities, is mirrored in perceptions women with adhd have of themselves, transpired very strongly. a problematic self-concept emerged as a predicament females with adhd grapple with from a young age. moreover, mothers with adhd were noticed to engage in comparisons with neurotypical mothers and fathers with adhd, and to overestimate their negative parenting behaviours. this mmsr has, therefore, warranted empowerment of this population. references adams, a. m. n., chamberlain, d., grønkjær, m., thorup, c. b., & conroy, t. 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(2015). gender differences in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a narrative review. clinical psychology review, 40, 15-27. https://doiorg.ejournals.um.edu.mt/10.1016/j.cpr.2015.05.005 yoshimasu, k., barbaresi, w. j., colligan, r. c., voigt, r. g., killian, j. m., weaver, a. l., & katusic, s. k. (2018). adults with persistent adhd: gender and psychiatric comorbidities—a population-based longitudinal study. journal of attention disorders, 22(6), 535-546. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054716676342 young, s., adamo, n., ásgeirsdóttir, b. b., branney, p., beckett, m., colley, w., ... & woodhouse, e. (2020). females with adhd: an expert consensus statement taking a lifespan approach providing guidance for the identification and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in girls and women. bmc psychiatry, 20(1), 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02707-9 zaidman-zait, a., & shilo, i. (2021). parental adhd symptoms and inhibitory control in relation to parenting among mothers of children with and without adhd. journal of attention disorders, 25(3), 389-402. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 53 published by ideas spread https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054718808063 appendices i – adapted prisma for reporting systematic reviews of qualitative and quantitative evidence hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 54 published by ideas spread ii – search strategies hydi platform search strategy filters applied • publication date within the last 10 years • records in the english language only • records only from peer-reviewed journals keywords records yielded links (last re-run on 14/04/2023) adhd and women or female* or girl* 139 https://hydi.um.edu.mt/primoexplore/search?query=title,contains,adhd,and&query=title,contains,women,or&query=title,contain s,adhd,and&query=title,contains,female*,or&query=title,contains,adhd,and&query=title,contains ,girl*,and&pfilter=lang,exact,eng,and&pfilter=creationdate,exact,10year,and&tab=default_tab&search_scope=all&sortby=rank&vid=356malt_vu1&facet=tlevel,i nclude,peer_reviewed&lang=en_us&mode=advanced&offset=0 attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and women or female* or girl* 93 https://hydi.um.edu.mt/primoexplore/search?query=title,contains,attention%20deficit%20hyperactivity%20disorder,and&query=t itle,contains,women,or&query=title,contains,attention%20deficit%20hyperactivity%20disorder,an d&query=title,contains,female*,or&query=title,contains,attention%20deficit%20hyperactivity%20d isorder,and&query=title,contains,girl*,and&pfilter=lang,exact,eng,and&pfilter=creationdate,exa ct,10year,and&tab=default_tab&search_scope=all&sortby=rank&vid=356malt_vu1&facet=tlevel,i nclude,peer_reviewed&lang=en_us&mode=advanced&offset=0 adhd and mother* or daughter* or spouse* 108 https://hydi.um.edu.mt/primoexplore/search?query=title,contains,adhd,and&query=title,contains,mother*,or&query=title,contai ns,adhd,and&query=title,contains,daughter*,or&query=title,contains,adhd,and&query=title,conta ins,spouse*,and&pfilter=lang,exact,eng,and&pfilter=creationdate,exact,10year,and&tab=default_tab&search_scope=all&sortby=rank&vid=356malt_vu1&facet=tlevel,i hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 55 published by ideas spread nclude,peer_reviewed&lang=en_us&mode=advanced&offset=0 attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and mother* or daughter* or spouse* 73 https://hydi.um.edu.mt/primoexplore/search?query=title,contains,attention%20deficit%20hyperactivity%20disorder,and&query=t itle,contains,mother*,or&query=title,contains,attention%20deficit%20hyperactivity%20disorder,an d&query=title,contains,daughter*,or&query=title,contains,attention%20deficit%20hyperactivity%2 0disorder,and&query=title,contains,spouse*,and&pfilter=lang,exact,eng,and&pfilter=creationdat e,exact,10year,and&tab=default_tab&search_scope=all&sortby=rank&vid=356malt_vu1&facet=tlevel,i nclude,peer_reviewed&lang=en_us&mode=advanced&offset=0 gender and adhd or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder 134 https://hydi.um.edu.mt/primoexplore/search?query=title,contains,adhd,and&query=title,contains,gender,or&query=title,contains ,attention%20deficit%20hyperactivity%20disorder,and&query=title,contains,gender,and&pfilter=l ang,exact,eng,and&pfilter=creationdate,exact,10year,and&tab=default_tab&search_scope=all&sortby=rank&vid=356malt_vu1&facet=tlevel,i nclude,peer_reviewed&lang=en_us&mode=advanced&offset=0 sex and adhd or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder 126 https://hydi.um.edu.mt/primoexplore/search?query=title,contains,adhd,and&query=title,contains,sex,or&query=title,contains,att ention%20deficit%20hyperactivity%20disorder,and&query=title,contains,sex,and&pfilter=lang,ex act,eng,and&pfilter=creationdate,exact,10year,and&tab=default_tab&search_scope=all&sortby=rank&vid=356malt_vu1&facet=tlevel,i nclude,peer_reviewed&mode=advanced&offset=0 google scholar search strategy filters applied • publication date within the last 10 years • records in the english language only keywords records yielded links (last re-run on 14/04/2023) adhd and women or female or girl 182 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?as_q=adhd&as_epq=&as_oq=wo men+female+girl&as_eq=&as_occt=title&as_sauthors=&as_publicat ion=&as_ylo=2012&as_yhi=2022&hl=en&as_sdt=0%2c5 adhd and women or females or girls 249 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?as_q=adhd&as_epq=&as_oq=wo men+females+girls&as_eq=&as_occt=title&as_sauthors=&as_public ation=&as_ylo=2012&as_yhi=2022&hl=en&as_sdt=0%2c5 attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and women or female or girl 109 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?as_q=attention+deficit+hyperacti vity+disorder&as_epq=&as_oq=women+female+girl&as_eq=&as_o cct=title&as_sauthors=&as_publication=&as_ylo=2012&as_yhi=202 2&hl=en&as_sdt=0%2c5 attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and women or females or girls 122 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?as_q=attention+deficit+hyperacti vity+disorder&as_epq=&as_oq=women+females+girls&as_eq=&as_ occt=title&as_sauthors=&as_publication=&as_ylo=2012&as_yhi=20 22&hl=en&as_sdt=0%2c5 adhd and mother or daughter or spouse 56 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?as_q=adhd&as_epq=&as_oq=mot her+daughter+spouse&as_eq=&as_occt=title&as_sauthors=&as_pub lication=&as_ylo=2012&as_yhi=2022&hl=en&as_sdt=0%2c5 adhd and mothers or daughters or spouses 238 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?as_q=adhd&as_epq=&as_oq=mot hers+daughters+spouses&as_eq=&as_occt=title&as_sauthors=&as_p ublication=&as_ylo=2012&as_yhi=2022&hl=en&as_sdt=0%2c5 attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and mother or daughter or spouse 25 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?as_q=attention+deficit+hyperacti vity+disorder&as_epq=&as_oq=mother+daughter+spouse&as_eq=& as_occt=title&as_sauthors=&as_publication=&as_ylo=2012&as_yhi =2022&hl=en&as_sdt=0%2c5 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 56 published by ideas spread attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and mothers or daughters or spouses 214 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?as_q=attention+deficit+hyperacti vity+disorder&as_epq=&as_oq=mothers+daughters+spouses&as_eq =&as_occt=title&as_sauthors=&as_publication=&as_ylo=2012&as_ yhi=2022&hl=en&as_sdt=0%2c5 adhd and gender or sex 276 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?as_q=adhd&as_epq=&as_oq=gen der+sex&as_eq=&as_occt=title&as_sauthors=&as_publication=&as _ylo=2012&as_yhi=2022&hl=en&as_sdt=0%2c5 attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and gender or sex 190 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?as_q=gender+or+sex&as_epq=a ttention+deficit+hyperactivity+disorder&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=t itle&as_sauthors=&as_publication=&as_ylo=2012&as_yhi=2022&hl =en&as_sdt=0%2c5 iii – overview of methods and a detailed result of appraisal of included studies methodological considerations of the included quantitative studies. authors, year of publication & design sample & setting study methods methodological quality comments based on mmat snyder et al. (2015) quantitative crosssectional study -secondary analysis of data from the american college health association’s national bi-annual survey of college students. -for the current study the sample was limited to females aged 18 to 24 years (n=14,816) within 22 educational institutions located in the northwest, midwest, south and western parts of the us. -schools in the sample used randomly selected campus classrooms for paper administration of survey and randomly selected students for web-based surveys. -the survey employed the national college health assessment (ncha-ii) tool. -the tool included items to measure the following variables: exposure to risky situations (such as binge drinking), proximity to motivated offenders (such as relationship status), adhd status and sexual victimization (unwanted sexual touching in the past 12 months & attempted or completed rape in the last 12 months). -capable guardianship (receipt of sexual assault, violence and injury preventive information) was not measured by the original survey, so a measure was created for this study. -bivariate analyses tested whether women with adhd were sexually victimized at significantly higher proportions than women without adhd. -a binary logistic regression model estimated effects of adhd, lifestyles/routine activities & demographic characteristics on unwanted sexual touching and rape conducted. -large nationwide sample. random selection of classrooms & students from selected schools. sample described in detail but information on how it compares to strata in the general population not provided. -for all measures, variables were dichotomized (yes/no replies). this binary system may not fully capture respondents’ answers. -adhd status measured from 1 selfreport item. -information on existence of any missing data not provided. -confounders not accounted for in analysis. fullerthomson et al. (2016) quantitative crosssectional study secondary analysis of data from the 2012 canadian community health survey. -women aged 20 to 39 years with complete data on all variables of interest recruited as sample to current study. -107 reported being diagnosed with adhd, 3801 reported not being diagnosed. -face to face or telephone interviews during which participants were asked questions about sociodemographic characteristics, health related behaviours, coping strategies, health related outcomes and adverse childhood experiences. depression and anxiety measured as meeting the who-cidi lifetime criteria. -chi-square tests to compare sociodemographic and health profile of women with adhd in comparison to those without. -logistic regression analyses calculated for -large nationally representative survey. -measurement of exposure (adhd diagnosis) relied on self-report of a health professional’s diagnosis only. -each logistic regression analysis controlled for race, age, education and household income. -all percentages and p-values were weighted to take into account the probability of selection & nonresponse. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 57 published by ideas spread 7 outcomes: lifetime substance abuse, sleep problems, limitations in activities of daily living, chronic pain, lifetime suicidal ideation, lifetime major depressive disorder and lifetime generalized anxiety disorder. guendelman et al. (2016) quantitative longitudinal cohort study -secondary analysis of data from the berkeley girls with adhd longitudinal study (bgals). -present study included 193 girls (114 with adhd & 79 matched comparisons) with data on physical intimate partner violence (ipv) at wave 3. -physical ipv measured from a) single question from the health & sexual behaviour questionnaire, b) clinician postinterview summary and c) year by year information sheet filled by parents & participants. -childhood adhd measured by parentreports of the (disc-iv; shaffer et al. 2000) & (snap-iv; swanson, 1992) scales. -persistence/remittance of adhd measured at different waves using the (disc-iv; shaffer et al. 2000) scale. -following measures also assessed: externalising behaviour, internalising behaviour, academic achievement and covariates (iq, socioeconomic status, etc.). -chi-square test & parallel logistic regression to assess group differences among young women with persistent adhd, transient adhd or lifetime non diagnosed comparison group. -ecologically valid sample described in detail. -physical ipv determined via a single self-report question plus chart review not a standardized instrument. -retention rate very good. reasons why some participants from original sample were lost given. -covariates well accounted for in design & analysis. -change in exposure status (adhd persistence) measured and accounted for. owens et al. (2017) quantitative longitudinal cohort study -140 girls with adhd from san francisco, us, aged 6 to 12 years were recruited. -88 comparison girls without adhd and matched to adhd sample on age and ethnicity recruited. -measures taken in four waves: w1 (baseline, w2 (5 years from baseline), w3 (10 years from baseline) and w4 (16 years from baseline). -adhd diagnosis measured using parent and participant self-report on the (disciv; shaffer et al. 2000) & the (snap-iv; swanson, 1992). at w4, age-specific criteria were adopted. -at different waves, scales were administered to measure the following: externalising & externalising problems, depression, substance use, self-injury, overall impairments, academic achievement, bmi, overall sleep quality, social relationships and driving behaviour. the following covariates were also measured: family socioeconomic status, child iq, comorbid diagnoses and stimulant medication use. -computed 35 anovas and 8 chisquared tests regarding the 43 dependent measures at w4 by the independent variable (adhd status & persistence). -findings generalisable to population of urban & suburban community-referred girls of various ethnicities & family income status. -measures clearly defined, valid & appropriate. -retention rate very good. retained sample evaluated to ascertain representativeness. -covariates considered. -change in exposure status (adhd persistence) measured and accounted for. jones et al. (2018) quantitative crosssectional study -198 participants (aged 18 to 43 years) recruited from women's health clinic located on medical campus of university in southeastern us. (n=198) -inclusion criteria currently patients at the clinic, older than 18 years of age, pregnant and proficient english speakers. -current adhd symptoms measured via the (caars-s:s; conners et al., 1999). -frequency & degree of general health behaviours & pregnancy-specific health behaviours assessed via the (phbs; lobel, 1996). -depressive symptoms (confounder) assessed via 2 items of the (phq-2; kroenke et al., 2003). -no mention of how many participants were eligible, therefore no indication of non-response bias. -no information provided re any missing data. -confounders identified through previous literature considered in analyses. -pregnancy could have been an hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 58 published by ideas spread -pearson product moment correlations performed to investigate univariate associations among adhd symptom clusters & prenatal health behaviours. -multivariate relations among all variables examined with a multivariate path model, using all 3 adhd symptom clusters as predictors of all 7 prenatal health behaviours in one simultaneous analysis. unexpected co-exposure affecting caars scores, since participants’ previous adhd status not known. kakuszi et al. (2018) quantitative case-control study -103 adhd patients (aged 18 to 65 years) recruited from an outpatient service for adults with adhd in budapest. -103 controls matched for gender, age & educational attainment recruited from the office and medical staff at semmelweis university, budapest and their acquaintances. -suicidal thoughts assessed via 1 item of the (bdi; beck et al.1979) scale. -severity of psychopathology described using total score on the (scl-90r; derogatis & cleary, 1977). -adhd symptoms assessed via the (caars; conners, 1999) scale. -logistic regression applied with presence of suicidal ideation used as dependent variable & grouping (adhd vs control), gender & their interaction as independent variables. age was a covariate. -also investigated whether the presence of comorbidities & medication status influenced the findings. -clinically referred sample provides added strength via availability of detailed psychopathology but limits generalisability. -sample size determined by consideration of statistical power. -measures appropriate & valid. no mention whether incomplete data was an issue. -groups were matched & key clinical variables controlled for. martin et al. (2018) quantitative cohort study -participants from “the child & adolescent twin study in sweden” (catss) – a population study of all twins born in sweden since 1992. since 2008, dna samples from saliva were collected. (n=13,472 catss children with genotyped samples which underwent imputation procedures). -participants from “the avon longitudinal study of parents & children” (alspac) – a large, longitudinal study of children from avon, uk. (n=8,215 alspac children with genotyped samples which underwent imputation). -for the catss sample, information on adhd, anxiety & depression available from registry based clinical diagnosis and parent & twin rated screening measures [(a-tac; larson et al. 2010), (abcl; achenbach et al. 2003), (scared; birmaher et al. 1997) & (ces-d; radloff, 1977)]. -for the alspac sample, information on adhd, anxiety & depression only available from parent & child rated screening measures [(dawba; goodman et al. 2000) & (cis-r; lewis et al. 1992)] which were used to derive algorithm-based research diagnoses. -polygenic risk scores calculated for each individual by scoring number of alleles across the adhd discovery set of single nucleotide polymorphisms. -associations between adhd polygenic risk scores and sex in children with diagnosed adhd, anxiety, depression or other disorders tested using generalised estimating equations and logistic regression models. -researchers acknowledged that sample sizes of those with psychiatric disorders were low. this limited statistical power and effect sizes were low. -information from alspac sample only available from screening measures and measures used not similar to both cohorts. -attrition bias declared. -confounders controlled for through regression. -any changes to cohorts during study period not reported. perez algorta et al. (2018) quantitative case control study -secondary analysis of data from the multimodal treatment study of children with adhd – (mta cooperative group, 1999, 2004) including the auxiliary lncg (local normative comparative group). -big five personality traits assessed via the (neo five-factor inventory; costa & mccrae, 1992) scale. -maternal adhd symptoms assessed via the first 3 factors of the (caars; conners et al., 1999) scale. -maternal stress was measured via the (psi-participation in original study required considerable effort, so mothers in this study may not be representative of mothers from adhd families. -baseline measures for the two groups occurred 2 years apart. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 59 published by ideas spread -mta children were 7 to 9.9 years old & diagnosed with adhd. lncg children were recruited from the same schools as mta children & matched for sex & grade. -430 mta mothers & 237 biological lncg mothers filled out measures at baseline. -31 lncg children were later excluded because they had adhd. short form; abidin, 1995) scale. -hierarchical regression analyses used to see whether maternal personality traits and/or maternal adhd interact with the relationship between mothers' group (mta/lncg) & parenting stress. -for the mta group, (n=57) had incomplete caars data, however multiple imputation procedure was employed, imputing 5 sets of values for all measures. -significant sociodemographic moderators were considered as potential confounders in analyses. solberg et al. (2018) quantitative crosssectional study -cross-sectional analysis of a cohort of adults in norway performed by linking information from 4 national population-based registries. -study included all individuals born between 1967-1997, alive & resident in norway at record linkage in 2015. -40,103 adults identified with adhd (44.4% women) through registers & 1,661,103 non-adhd adults. -two regression models ran to evaluate how risk factors for both adhd & other psychiatric disorders influenced adhd prevalence rates. covariates included. -absolute prevalence differences of psychiatric disorders between persons with and without adhd among men & women were calculated. -association between adhd and other psychiatric disorders examined on a multiplicative scale. -estimated the proportion of psychiatric comorbidities attributable to adhd among men & women with adhd. -large sample allowed evaluation of less prevalent disorders & comparison of psychiatric comorbidity in men and women with representative numbers in both groups. -mandatory, prospective reporting in norway minimized selection bias and loss to follow-up and eliminated recall bias. -possibility of bias adults with adhd could more easily be diagnosed with other psychiatric disorders than non-adhd adults because they are already in contact with health services. -prescribed & dispensed adhd medication used as proxy for adhd diagnosis. for those patients who do not take medication, adhd status identified from the norwegian patient registry, but data only available from 2008 onwards. -registered data was available to adjust for covariates. yoshimasu et al. (2018) quantitative case-control study -target population consisted of 5,718 children (2,956 boys & 2,762 girls) born in rochester, minnesota between 1976 and 1982 & who still lived in rochester at age 5 years. -350 childhood adhd cases were identified & accepted to participate. -random sample of 801 adults from the same population-based birth cohort was invited to participate. -persistence of adhd in adulthood & presence of psychiatric disorders were determined via the (m.i.n.i.; sheehan et al. 1998). -healthcare record linkage system of all residents in rochester was available and included a detailed history of all healthcare encounters. -presence of each comorbid psychiatric disorder was compared between males and females with persistent adhd using the chi-square test. -logistic regression models evaluated the association of a) persistent adhd (vs nonadhd), b) persistent adhd (vs nonpersistent adhd) and c) non-persistent adhd (vs nonadhd) with each of the comorbid psychiatric conditions for both genders combined and separately by gender. -rochester was a primarily white, middle-class community so inferences to other populations may be limited. -no significant differences in sociodemographic factors between participating and non-participating childhood adhd cases. -limited number of females in the study which limits comparison with males. -distribution of numbers of symptoms endorsed by non-adhd controls were used to establish cutoffs to diagnose persistent adhd. -cannot ascertain if persistent adhd preceded the development of comorbidities. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 60 published by ideas spread ersoy & ersoy (2019) quantitative crosssectional study -61 married patients (18 females & 43 males) who came for adhd evaluation & treatment at the psychiatric department of a turkish university hospital were recruited together with their spouses. -gender role attitudes for patients & spouses measured via the (gras; zeyneloglu & fusun, 2011) scale. -adhd status & severity of patients & spouses measured via turgay’s adult add/adhd dsm-iv-based diagnostic screening & rating scale. -assessment of patients’ and spouses’ perceptions of effects of adhd-related behaviours on marriage via the (mic; robin & payson, 2002) scale. -clinic situated in culturally westernized city of turkey, so results not generalisable to turkish population. -moreover, the sample was clinical, included only married couples and is characterised by a disparity between genders. -study lacks a comparison group – cannot determine if reported dissatisfaction of female nonadhd spouse is attributed to adhd or follows the general trend of women being more psychologically affected by relationship problems. -no information provided to allow assessment of non-response bias. -confounding factors not considered. eryilmaz & ustangbudak (2019) quantitative crosssectional study -schools within reach asked to participate. -sample of 103 primary school teachers from schools from 4 different regions of istanbul city. -3 excluded because they had a child with adhd. -6 vignettes produced for this study based on requirement of symptoms of adhd according to dsm-v criteria. all vignettes taken by all participants. -participants answered demographic questions (experience & education in relation to adhd) together with questions about recognition, referral and intervention. -chi square tests performed to analyse recognition of adhd. -small sample size limits generalisability and did not allow hierarchical regression analysis. -mixture of public/private schools from different regions and teachers teaching different grades. -first vignettes ever created based on dsm-v criteria after consultation with authors of previous vignettes (based on dsm-iv criteria). -risk of non-response bias high – some schools chose not to participate. hayashi et al. (2019) quantitative crosssectional study -patients who visited adhd specialist clinic in tokyo between april 2015 and march 2016 recruited consecutively if they fulfilled adhd dsm-v criteria. 470 eligible participants, 335 included in the study. -following data collected during assessment interview: current problems, medical history, daily living & social situations, history of psychiatric consultations, history of substance misuse and current medication. -adhd diagnosis ascertained via the [dsm-iv(caadid); conners et al. 2001] scale. -current adhd symptoms measured via the [(caars-s:sv-j); conners et al. 2010] scale. -between gender comparisons made using chi-square test and student’s t-test by setting gender as independent variable & other demographic/clinical items as dependent variables. -candidates for explanatory variables in logistic regression analyses chosen from items that were statistically significant in univariate analysis. -clinical sample not accurately representing japanese adhd population (only severe cases likely to be referred). -reasons why certain participants chose not to participate not explored. -little detail provided re assessment interview. -no confounders accounted for in the analysis. -study lacked a control population, and only provided an approximate comparison to national demographic statistics. mowlem et al. (2019) -participants were from “the child & adolescent twin study in -2 modules assessing adhd from the (atac; larson et al. 2010) scale -large sample but findings may not be generalisable to singletons. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 61 published by ideas spread quantitative crosssectional study sweden” (catss) – an ongoing, prospective, longitudinal cohort study targeting all twins in sweden born since 1992. -for present study, data from 19,804 parents of catss children assessed at 9 years were available for analysis. administered to parents over the phone. -personal identifier numbers enabled data from participants to be linked with information from the national populationbased registers. so, it was possible to determine if participants in catss had been referred to clinics and diagnosed or treated for adhd. -descriptive statistics used to describe adhd symptoms in males and females with/without clinical adhd. -series of logistic regression models used to assess predictive associations of different adhd symptoms with clinical diagnosis in males & females. -relied solely on parent ratings which may be biased by sex-specific expectations. -risk of non-response bias not discussed. -only a reduced number of parents completed items measuring cooccurring internalising problems. cluster robust sandwich estimator used to correct for inclusion of 2 study children in each family. park & johnson (2019) quantitative crosssectional study -79 mothers with sons aged 6 to 12 years recruited throughout canada from advertisements on social media. -eligibility criteriamothers currently living with their sons & with their son’s other parent. -online questionnaire. -child responsibility attributions measured via the attribution rating scale (ars; halligan et al., 2007) which depicted scenarios & mothers rated the reason for the child’s behaviour in the scenario. -mothers’ adhd symptoms measured via the (baars; barkley, 2011) scale. -behaviour of the mother’s own child (hyperactivity, emotional symptoms, conduct problems, peer problems & prosocial behaviour) measured via the (sdq; goodman, 2001) scale. -multilevel modelling examined relations among mothers' adhd symptoms & mothers' attribution scores controlling for mothers' ratings of their own child's behaviour. -results not generalizable to clinical populations, fathers, parents of girls or single parent families. -baars typically used as screening tool for adult adhd & not as a diagnostic measure. -response times were correlated with mothers' adhd symptoms to check whether those with adhd were impulsively rushing through questionnaire. -it was reported there were no missing data. -other psychopathologies of mothers may have been important confounding variables which were not measured. skoglund et al. (2019) quantitative retrospective cohort study -all swedish nulliparous females who gave birth in 2014 identified from the medical birth register and included in the study (n=384,103). -from the prescribed drug register, females with adhd treated with medication for adhd between 2005 & 2014 were identified (n=6410). -all other females in the cohort served as control group (n=377,693). -maternal age at birth, bmi, smoking habits, clinical variables, demographic data, information on reproductive history, complications during pregnancy, birth & perinatal period identified from the medical birth register. -information on psychiatric comorbidities collected from the patient register. -antidepressant treatment use identified from the prescribed drug register. -maternal education data identified from the education register. -logistic regression models were used to estimate magnitude of associations between age at first pregnancy, risk factors for adverse obstetric/perinatal outcomes, psychiatric comorbidities and adhd diagnosis presented as odds ratio (ors) with 95% ci. -differences in risk factors explored in distinct age at birth subgroups of females with adhd (<20yrs vs > 20 yrs.) -large nationwide sample. findings may not be generalisable to populations outside swedish/nordic context which are characterized by a very low rate of teenage pregnancies. -retrospective analysis of registers circumvented issues with nonresponse. -prescribed adhd medication used as proxy for adhd status – this may have underestimated true adhd prevalence. -missing data were excluded from analysis but no indication of amount of missing data. -emphasis was on total burden of disease & no adjustments for psychiatric comorbidities were made. vildalen et -682 adults with adhd recruited -severity of inattentive & -large sample but no mention of hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 62 published by ideas spread al. (2019) quantitative case-control study from the national registry of adults diagnosed with adhd in norway from 1997-2005. -882 controls randomly recruited from the medical birth registry of norway. hyperactive/impulsive adhd symptoms measured via subscales of the (asrs; kessler et al. 2005). -main effects of gender and group and their interaction effect on the symptom scales investigated by univariate ancova’s. -significant effects were followed by independent sample t-tests. -chi-square statistics used to investigate gender differences in dichotomized adhd reports (severe vs not severe) within the adhd & control group. efforts to ensure representativeness or procedures to explore why eligible participants refused to be included. -lack of formal diagnostic procedure may have resulted in some possible cases within the control group. -incomplete data was not an issue. -control group not matched for age and gender, but age included as one of the covariates in the analysis. babinski et al. (2020) quantitative case-control study -387,968 adults with adhd aged 18 to 25 years were identified within the 2014 marketscan commercial claims and encounters database maintained by truven health in the us (162,263 females & 225,705 males). -an age and sex matched group of young adults without adhd was also constructed. -claims contained information on inpatient, outpatient and prescription drug service use, as well as age, gender, geographic location and type of health insurance plan. -using claims data from 2014, depression and suicidal ideation were identified by icd-9 codes. psychiatric treatment delivered in 2014 and costs were examined. -logistic regression models to examine effects of sex & adhd on the prevalence of depression & suicidal behaviour included adhd diagnosis & sex, as well as adhd by sex interaction. -chi-square tests and t-tests were used to compare service utilization and cost between young adults with and without adhd. -large sample with high statistical power. matched control group. -use of claims data may have excluded people with adhd who cannot maintain a full-time job (although adhd prevalence from claims data was consistent with that of general population). -impossible to ascertain whether diagnoses of adhd or other psychopathologies were done using best practices. -only claims data from 2014 used. -analyses were conducted controlling for socioeconomic variables. meyer et al. (2020) quantitative crosssectional study -secondary analysis of data from another study (assessing effects of food additives on children) using 2 samples of 3/4-year-olds (n=153,79 male) and 8/9-year-olds (n=144,75 male) from southampton, uk. -samples divided in 3 groups based on observed adhd behaviours using the measure classroom observation code (coc; abikoff & gittelman, 1985). -these groups then compared on parent & teacher adhd reports using various clinical rating scales. -tested if there were different proportions of males and females in coc groups and whether sexes differed in levels of observed adhd once allocated to a coc group. -sex & coc group entered as independent variables in four 2-way anovas with parent & teacher ratings as dependent variables. -secondary analysis – data not collected with this analysis in mind. -sample representative of socioeconomic background of community as number of participants receiving free school meals (index of disadvantage) was proportional to city as a whole. -a greater focus on hyperactive vs inattentive behaviours was reported in coc coding. -no means of assessing possibility of non-response bias. -statistical analyses appropriate to answer research question. babinski et al. (2021) quantitative crosssectional study -parents/caregivers of children ages 5-12 years in the us invited to participate in online survey (n=1050). -sample representative of us population in terms of gender, race, income & geography. -parents rated their children’s adhd, odd & conduct disorder symptoms via the (dbdrs; pelham et al. 1992) scale, their overall impairment via the (irs; fabiano et al. 2006) scale, their depression via the (smfq; messer et al. 1995) scale and their anxiety via the (scared; birmaher et al. 1997) scale. -roc analyses then conducted to examine optimal adhd symptom count cut-offs for girls & boys. criterion defined as an impairment score of 5 or more on the irs. -sample representative of us population. -only parent ratings used. -the chosen criterion variable in roc analyses was overall impairment as captured by the irs. so, it was not a criterion measure reflecting adhd per se. -respondents & non-respondents could not be compared to check if they are different on the variables of interest. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 63 published by ideas spread -analysis conducted separately for girls & boys & individually for inattentive & hyperactive/impulsive symptoms. -girls with adhd sex specific criteria, girls with adhd dsm-v criteria, girls without adhd & boys with adhd compared on measures of depression, anxiety, odd & conduct disorder. -statistical analyses appropriate to answer the research question. behesti et al. (2021) quantitative crosssectional study -165 psychiatrists from isfahan, iran completed a questionnaire which was distributed during two of their monthly gatherings. -179 psychiatrists from tehran, iran completed the questionnaire which was sent to psychiatrists’ offices. -response rate of 44.10%. -each psychiatrist received 1 of 8 vignettes and a questionnaire. -vignettes were constructed on icd-10 & dsm-iv criteria. vignette 1 described a youth with adhd with all the criteria. vignettes 2 & 3 had 2 & 3 missing criteria respectively. vignette 4 described a youth with generalized anxiety disorder but no adhd. for each vignette there was a version for a boy and one for a girl for a total of 8 vignettes. psychiatrists asked to determine whether youth had adhd and whether any interventions should be recommended. -chi-square test applied to compare the proportion of false positives to false negatives. -multiple logistic regression analysis applied to evaluate the role of gender in therapists’ diagnostic decision. -non probability sampling. -vignettes based on dsm-iv criteria but dsm-v criteria had already been issued. this meant that in reality vignette 2 now had one missing criterion. study had low ecological validity. in real life when unsure the psychiatrist would test further not mark “unsure” option. -risk of non-response bias high. dorani et al. (2021) quantitative crosssectional study -female patients from a psychiatric outpatient clinic for adult adhd in the hague, the netherlands in care in april & may 2016 were approached (n=316). -participants had to be at least 18 years of age and meet dsm-iv criteria for adhd. -209 participants completed the study – response rate of 66%. -premenstrual dysphoria questions from the (m.i.n.i. plus; van vliet & de beurs, 2007) were used to assess for premenstrual dysphoric disorder. -postpartum periods after the birth of the first biological child were assessed for prevalence of post partum depression symptoms using the (epds; cox et al. 1987). -climacteric symptoms were assessed using the (gcs; greene, 1998). -norm scores from 504 women aged 45-65 years from dutch population used for comparison (barentsen et al. 2001). -categorical variables were compared between groups using chi-square and odds ratio. for continuous variables, t-tests and anovas were used. -reasons why eligible participants chose not to participate not provided. -measures relied on retrospective self-report so possibility of recall bias. -associations between premenstrual dysphoria symptoms & covariates were examined using regression analysis correcting for age and education level. -in the absence of a matched control group, comparisons with the dutch general population need to be interpreted with caution. klefsjo et al. (2021) quantitative retrospective case-series -100 cases (50 boys & 50 girls) of registered adhd randomly identified from 6 child & adolescent psychiatric outpatients care units in western sweden. -inclusion criteria: patients had received adhd diagnosis & were still in treatment at clinic, any adhd subtype considered & -following data collected: first registered adhd subtype diagnosis, referral instance, reason for referral, age at first visit to clinic, number of visits before receiving adhd diagnosis, age when receiving adhd diagnosis, type of professionals involved in diagnostic procedure, received psychotherapy prior/after diagnosis, received medication prior/after diagnosis and inpatient care prior/after diagnosis. -random sampling but limited number of participants. -retrospective nature of study guaranteed that diagnostic processes were not influenced by the study. -complete data available for all cases. -statistical analyses appropriate to answer research question. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 64 published by ideas spread patients had at least one registered visit during 2015 at the age of 17. -those diagnosed with adhd prior to referral to clinic were excluded. -mann-whitney u test used for continuous variables since data not normally distributed. chi-square test for independence used for categorical variables. in all 2x2 tables, yates continuity correction used. in cases with a low expected cell frequency, fishers exact probability test used. london & landes (2021) quantitative crosssectional study -data from 2007, 2012 us national health -interview survey used. -2007 sample (n=75,764; response rate 87.1%). -2012 sample (n=108,131; response rate 77.6%). -participants aged 18-34 at time of study. -synthetic cohorts based on birth year were constructed & individuals were assigned to an appropriate age category in 2007 and 5 years later in 2012. thus, changes over 5 years at specific ages within each cohort could be measured. -inter cohort changes compared percentage of adults of a given age who self-reported adhd from one birth cohort to the percentage of same aged adults who selfreported adhd in another cohort. -intra cohort changes compared the percentage of adults with self-reported adhd at a given age to that same group when they were 5 years older. -stratified random sampling. -sample representative of us population. -adhd diagnosis only measured as self-reported dichotomous indicator of lifetime adhd diagnosis status. -adhd measure only available for 2007 & 2012 so cannot make inferences as to whether changes reported extend beyond these years. szep et al. (2021) quantitative crosssectional study -data from first wave of ongoing longitudinal study used (pauli-pott et al. 2017, 2019; schloss et al. 2019). -community based sample recruited from childcare facilities in marburg, germany. -124 mother-child dyads. -40 children had scored above the lower bound of 95% ci of clinical cut-off score & 84 scored below this point from the adhd screening questionnaire (prepacs; daley 2010) rated by mothers. -child adhd status further ascertained by parent and kindergarten teacher ratings of the (fbb-adhs-v; dopfner et al. 2008) scale. -child odd/conduct disorder assessed at 4/5 years by the (fbb-ssv; dopfner et al. 2008). -maternal adhd symptoms assessed via the (wri; rosler et al. 2007) & the (caars-k; christiansen et al. 2014) scales. -maternal depressive symptoms measured via the (ces-d; hautzinger et al. 2012) scale. -maternal perceived chronic stress measured via the (tics-sscs; schulz et al. 2004) scale. -mothers’ hair cortisol concentrations (hcc) accessed using hair samples. -hierarchical multiple regression analyses conducted with mothers' perceived chronic stress & hcc as outcome variables. -cannot estimate how many participants were eligible for inclusion or non-response bias. -when 2 scales captured the same variable, composite scores created by summing up z-transformed scores of the scales & internal validity declared. -clear indication of amount of missing data. statistical description of how variables of participants whose data were missing differed from those who had complete data provided. -impact of child & maternal adhd symptoms on maternal perceived chronic stress examined while controlling for child odd/cd & maternal depressive symptoms. zaidman-zait & shilo (2021) quantitative crosssectional study -141 mothers aged 29 to 52 years & their 8to 12-year-old biological children (72 boys & 69 girls; 61 with adhd & 80 without) recruited. -recruitment through advertisements, parent support groups, mailings to local adhd advocacy groups, & professionals working with children with adhd & -2 inhibitory control neurocognitive computerized tasks given to mothers. -maternal adhd symptoms measured via the (ars; kessler et al., 2005). -negative & supportive maternal parenting measured via the (parenting scale; arnold et al., 1993) & observations of mother-child discussions. -to control for children’s disruptive behaviours, mothers completed the conduct problem subscale of the (sdq; -target population not delineated & cannot estimate how many participants were eligible for inclusion. -negative & supportive maternal parenting measured using both a self-report tool & observations. -no information provided re missing data. -confounders accounted for in analysis. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 65 published by ideas spread families. goodman, 1997) scale. -to control for mothers’ parenting distress, mothers completed the parenting distress subscale of the (psi-sf; abidin, 1995). -hierarchical linear regressions to examine independent & interactive effects of maternal adhd symptoms, maternal inhibitory control & child diagnostic status on observed and self-reported maternal parenting. -any maternal psychopathology could possibly have been a coexposure. methodological considerations of the included qualitative studies. authors, year of publication & design sample & setting study methods methodological quality comments based on mmat criteria holthe & langvik (2017) qualitative -5 females (32 to 50 years) diagnosed with adhd in adulthood interviewed. -all had university degrees, all were married or in a relationship, all had one or more close relatives with adhd & three of them were mothers and had children diagnosed with adhd. -semi-structured in-depth interviews on the following topics: factors/events leading to diagnosis, most prominent symptoms, challenges, issues associated with relationships, motherhood & gender norms, experiences of stigma, helpful treatments & coping strategies and personal strengths. -thematic analysis with combination of deductive and inductive strategies. -distinct qualitative approach used not specified. -sample described in detail, so inferences re transferability can be made. -analysis performed solely by one researcher. however, member-checking enhanced rigour. analytical strategy described in detail. -findings sufficiently substantiated by data & direct participant quotes. stenner et al. (2017) qualitative discourse analytic research -16 women with either a formal or a self-diagnosis of adhd (9 selfdiagnosed, 5 formally diagnosed in adulthood & 2 formally diagnosed as teenagers). -recruited via an online support group for people with adhd & 2 local community support groups in the uk. -participants chose whether to be interviewed face-to-face or by telephone. -semi-structured interview guide asking how adhd may have impacted their identities and lives at different moments. -initial thematic analysis, then data subjected to “thematic decomposition” i.e. a search for interview content that speaks about transformative events & re-interpretations of the past. the outcome is a theoretically nuanced but data grounded interpretation of interview content. -qualitative approach used specified. -issues of rigour not discussed. -numerous direct participant quotes provided to justify themes. -coherency between data sources, collection, analysis & interpretation. young et al. (2020) qualitative expert panel method -professionals specialising in adhd convened in london on the 30th of november 2018 for a meeting hosted by the uk adhd partnership. -adhd experts from wide range of professions attended (nursing, gps, child & adolescent adult psychiatrists, clinical & forensic psychologists, counsellors and educational & occupational specialists). service-users & adhd charity workers also attended. -meeting commenced with presentation of preliminary data from research on adhd sex differences. -attendees then allocated to one of three breakout groups and tasked with providing practical solutions to assigned topic. topics were explored using lifespan perspective and comprised: identification & assessment of adhd in females, interventions & treatment for adhd in females & multi-agency liaison. discussions facilitated by group leader & summarised by note-takers. -groups re-assembled & findings presented for another round of debate until consensus -assessment, treatment & multi-agency support features reflect clinical practice & legislature in uk & may differ in other countries. -triangulation of methods: transcripts, small group notes and extant literature. -member-checking enhanced rigour. -data analysis not discussed. -interpretation of results supported by extant research but it is not clear how hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 66 published by ideas spread reached. -all consensus proceedings recorded & transcribed. notes circulated to each group leader for review & agreement. -consensus report circulated to all authors for agreement & approval. recommendations were derived from professional experience (excerpts were needed). lassinantti & almqvist (2021) qualitative narrative research -11 swedish mothers with adhd aged 35 to 49 years recruited through an association for people with neuropsychiatric disabilities. -all diagnosed with adhd as adults & all were medicated. -in-depth interviews guided by narrative interview methodology. -codes & themes generated abductively through reflexive thematic analysis focusing on the explicit semantic contents of the data & more latent meanings. -analysis underpinned by concepts of ablemindedness and responsibility. -specific qualitative approach used & described. -topics included in semistructured interview guide provided. -interpretation of findings sufficiently substantiated by data and direct participant quotes. -issues of rigour & limitations of the study not discussed. lynch & davidson (2022) qualitative -participants were 17 adolescent young women (13 to 20 years) living in ireland with a medical diagnosis of adhd. -participants interviewed in person by means of a semi-structured interview guide and additionally asked to complete an online questionnaire since they may have experienced difficulties sustaining attention throughout the interview. -both measurements explored topics relating to daily life with adhd, receiving a diagnosis, social experiences and future goals. -no specific qualitative approach used. -interviews supplemented with online questionnaire. -analytical strategy not discussed. -interpretation of findings supported by the data collected and excerpts included effectively. wallin et al. (2022) qualitative -15 women aged 15 to 29 years recruited from 2 psychiatric outpatient clinics, 2 youth health clinics specialising in sexual & reproductive health & from 3 social media groups for people with adhd. -clinics were from different regions in sweden. -12 individual interviews & 1 focus grp with 3 participants. -due to sensitive topic being discussed, a focus group was conducted online using the written chat forum & interviews were held over the phone. -data analysed by thematic analysis. -no specific qualitative approach was employed. -description of how the semistructured interview schedule evolved provided. -data analysis process well described. -interpretation of findings sufficiently substantiated by data and direct participant quotes. -issues of rigour and positioning of the researcher discussed. methodological considerations of the included systematic reviews. authors, year of publication & design sample & setting study methods methodological quality comments based on jbi checklist for srs criteria kok et al. (2020) systematic literature review -inclusion criteria – english language studies, studies with an adhd sample formally diagnosed, studies providing data explicitly sorted by sex, studies with data on prescription rates/efficacy or effectiveness of stimulant or nonstimulant treatment. -for analysis of results on efficacy/effectiveness, effect sizes of group differences derived from original studies or calculated by hand to determine the size of between-sex differences. -for studies with all-female samples, efficacy/effectiveness investigated by -review question clear and inclusion criteria appropriate. -search strategy defined & sources adequate. -study appraisal criteria not provided & not informed how many reviewers independently appraised studies. -recommendations provided and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 2; 2023 67 published by ideas spread -14 articles on efficacy/effectiveness included. -7 articles on prescription rates included. using treatment vs placebo group. -in studies on prescription rates, percentages mostly used to compare sex-differences in prescription rates. supported by reported data. camara et al. (2022) systematic literature review -inclusion criteria – studies published in the last 30 years, studies investigating at least one group of patients with a clinical diagnosis of adhd or an equivalent assessment and studies examining the association between sexual hormones or reproductive life stages on adhd. -4 titles matched inclusion criteria (2 observational studies, 1 narrative review and 1 case study). -heterogeneity of study aims, designs and samples did not allow for any type of pooling and findings for each study were discussed separately. -review question & inclusion criteria explicitly stated and appropriate. -search strategy defined and sources adequate. -level of evidence assigned but no mention of assessment of methodological quality. -articles screened by 2 reviewers independently, 3rd reviewer consulted in cases of disagreement. -recommendations for practice put forward could not be fully supported by the ‘small’ synthesis of 4 heterogenous studies. directions for future research provided were adequate. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p223 223 published by ideas spread a study on cyborgized body presentation in social media and the identity anxiety of young women lu zhang1 1 jingchu university of technology, china correspondence: lu zhang, jingchu university of technology, jingmen, hubei, china. received: august 18, 2025; accepted: august 27, 2025; published: august 28, 2025 abstract in the contemporary digital milieu, the bodily presentation of young women on social media is undergoing a profound process of cyborgization. through the pervasive use of beautification filters, ai-generated avatars, and cosmetic surgery discourses, the human body is perpetually edited, enhanced, and reconstructed, creating a cyborgized entity that transcends physical limitations and blurs the boundary between the real and the virtual. this paper aims to investigate the construction mechanisms of this phenomenon and its consequential impact on the identity anxiety of young women. drawing upon key theoretical frameworks from post-humanism, surveillance studies, and social theory, this study analyzes the primary construction pathways of the cyborgized body. it critically examines how this mode of presentation exacerbates identity anxiety by fostering a severe online-offline identity schism, perpetuating relentless social comparison under a pervasive algorithmic gaze, and framing the body as a perpetually unfinished project that demands constant optimization. finally, this study moves beyond a narrative of victimization to discuss the complex agency and potential for resistance among young women, acknowledging that the cyborgized body is simultaneously a site of intense discipline and a potential nexus for empowerment, creative self-expression, and ambivalent negotiation. keywords: cyborgization, social media, body presentation, identity anxiety, young women 1. introduction the experience of modern selfhood is inextricably linked to the act of scrolling through a digital feed. within this endless stream of images, the human body, particularly that of the young woman, has become a primary site of performance, scrutiny, and technological mediation. in what can be described as a shift from analogue presentation to digital reconstruction, the contemporary social media environment, or platform society, has fundamentally altered the relationship between the self and its representation (van dijck, j., poell, t., & de waal, 2018)[1]. this platform society is not merely a technological infrastructure but a pervasive socio-cultural and economic logic that, through mechanisms of datafication and commodification, converts interpersonal relationships, self-identity, and the body itself into forms of quantifiable, tradable capital. for the millions of young women who navigate platforms like instagram, tiktok, and xiaohongshu, the simple act of sharing a photograph has transformed into a sophisticated process of digital self-fashioning. this process is enabled and encouraged by a suite of powerful, accessible technologies designed to alter, optimize, and perfect the human form. this deep and daily integration of technology with the biological self gives rise to what this paper terms the cyborgized body. drawing inspiration from donna haraway’s (2016)[2] foundational concept in “a cyborg manifesto”, the cyborg is not a futuristic machine-human hybrid of science fiction but a present-day reality, a creature of social reality as well as a creature of fiction. haraway’s cyborg was a politically charged figure, a metaphor for breaking down rigid dualisms (human/machine, nature/culture, male/female) and forging new, non-essentialist identities. in the context of 21st-century social media, this concept finds a new, more commercialized and ubiquitous manifestation. the cyborgized body is a fusion of a user’s organic, physical features with layer s of code, algorithms, and data that sculpt it into an idealized, digitally native form. it is both an extension of the self and a departure from it, a hybrid entity that exists in the liminal space between the tangible and the virtual. while this technological mediation offers an unprecedented sense of control over self-presentation, it is not a neutral tool. it operates within a deeply commercialized ecosystem that profits from user insecurity. the seamless, perfected image of the cyborgized body projected online often stands in stark and painful contrast to the physical, unedited body offline. this discrepancy fosters a pervasive and multifaceted identity anxiety, challenging young women’s ability to cultivate a stable and authentic sense of self. this paper seeks to answer the central research hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 224 published by ideas spread question: how does the pervasive construction and presentation of the cyborgized body on social media contribute to the escalating identity anxiety experienced by young women? to address this question, this paper argues that the technological and discursive mechanisms of cyborgization create a powerful feedback loop. first, it will explore the digital construction of this body, analyzing the ways in which filters, ai, and data-driven disciplines operate under a hegemonic algorithmic gaze. second, it will delve into the psychological consequences, examining how this process generates a fractured self through an onlineoffline schism, perpetual social comparison, and the framing of the body as an unfinished project. finally, the analysis will move beyond a simplistic narrative of victimization to explore the nuances of female agency, resistance, and ambivalence within this technologically saturated environment, offering a more complete picture of life as a digital cyborg. 2. the digital construction of the cyborgized body the creation of the cyborgized body is a continuous, multifaceted process embedded in the daily use of digital platforms. this process is governed by the powerful yet often invisible algorithmic gaze. this concept extends laura mulvey’s (1975)[3] male gaze into the digital realm, describing a form of surveillance that is wielded not by a specific human subject but by the impersonal, data-driven logic of platform algorithms. these systems are not neutral arbiters; they are, as john cheney-lippold (2017)[4] argues, active agents in the making of our digital selves. this gaze functions through a potent feedback loop: a user posts content; the algorithm measures its engagement (likes, shares, comments, watch time); it then promotes content with similar aesthetic characteristics, which in turn shapes the user’s understanding of what is desirable and popular, compelling them to produce content that conforms to this now-validated standard. this mechanism functions not merely as a post-hoc sorting of content but as a form of preemptive discipline. before publishing, users internalize the algorithm’s perceived preferences, engaging in self-censorship and self-curation to select poses, filters, and themes most likely to garner algorithmic favor. this constitutes a more efficient mode of control, as it transmutes external surveillance into an intrinsic, self-motivating impulse. this creates a form of algorithmic governmentality, a foucauldian concept adapted to the digital age, where power is exercised not through overt coercion but through the subtle shaping of choices and possibilities. users internalize this gaze, becoming their own disciplinarians because they intuitively understand what the algorithm will reward. this cycle is amplified by commercial interests, as brands and influencers whose content aligns with the dominant aesthetic are rewarded with greater visibility, further solidifying a narrow, monetizable standard of beauty. as safiya u. noble (2018)[5] has demonstrated in her work on search engines, such systems often function as algorithms of oppression, reinforcing societal biases and amplifying eurocentric, ableist, and ageist ideals of beauty while marginalizing others. the result is an intensely homogenized visual culture where a specific look, often referred to as instagram face, with its poreless skin, cat-like eyes, full lips, and ambiguous ethnicity, becomes the default template for digital beauty. within this algorithmically curated ecosystem, the cyborgized body is constructed through a spectrum of increasingly sophisticated practices. the most common pathway is the ubiquitous use of beautification filters and photo-editing applications. the normalization of these tools has transformed self-perception into an engagement with a technologically mediated looking-glass self (zuo & wang, 2019)[6], where one’s identity is shaped by the anticipated and actual reactions to a digitally altered image. these tools operate through principles of erasure (removing flaws like pores, wrinkles, and acne) and standardization (reshaping features to fit a pre-programmed template). the gamified design of these apps, with daily updates, new filters, and premium features, encourages habitual use, embedding the act of digital alteration into the very fabric of self-representation. this logic is extended with the creation of digital doubles through ai-powered avatars and portrait generators. here, the physical self is not merely retouched but can be almost entirely substituted by a flawless surrogate. the user provides the raw data (a few photographs), and the machine produces an idealized doppelgänger that exists independently of its creator. this perfect cyborg offers a protective shield, allowing for social interaction without the vulnerability of exposing the physical self. however, this practice also deepens the sense of disembodiment and can lead to a form of psychological dissociation, where the user’s primary sense of self becomes more attached to the celebrated digital avatar than to their own body. it raises profound questions about identity: when one’s most liked and validated self is not you, but an ai’s interpretation of you, where does the authentic self reside? the influence of these digital aesthetics is not confined to the screen; it bleeds into the physical world through the pervasive discourse surrounding cosmetic surgery on social media. platforms have become powerful engines for normalizing and popularizing invasive procedures. influencers document their journeys with rhinoplasty, lip fillers, and bbls (brazilian butt lifts), framing these medical interventions as acts of self-care and personal investment. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 225 published by ideas spread the language like tweakments, non-invasive, enhancements, minimizes the risks and frames the body as a perpetually upgradeable device. the success of this discourse lies in its ability to reframe medical procedures as practices of consumerism and self-improvement, akin to purchasing new clothing or learning a new skill. the rise of financial technologies, such as “buy now, pay later (bnpl)” services, now widely applied within the cosmetic sector, it further lowers the decision-making threshold, rendering expensive body modifications as accessible as purchasing a smartphone on an installment plan. this digital-to-physical pipeline is confirmed by research establishing a significant biopsychosocial link between high engagement with appearance-focused social media, photo-editing behaviors, and a greater acceptance of cosmetic surgery (rodgers, r. f., slater, a., gordon, c. s., mclean, s. a., jarman, h. k., & paxton, s. j., 2020)[7]. the accelerated trend cycle of tiktok can popularize a specific surgical look (like the fox eye trend) in a matter of months, turning the human body into a site of fast fashion. this has given rise to phenomena like snapchat dysmorphia, where patients seek out surgeons asking to be modified to look like their filtered selfies, a stark example of the hyperreal image dictating physical reality. finally, the cyborgized body is constructed through the logic of the quantified self. as sociologist deborah lupton (2016)[8] details, fitness trackers and wellness apps encourage individuals to translate their bodily experiences into a stream of objective data. weight, body fat percentage, steps taken, and calories consumed become the key metrics of a body’s worth. this practice is a modern form of foucauldian self-discipline, where individuals internalize the gaze of the data and engage in constant self-surveillance to ensure their metrics align with ideals of health, fitness, and, implicitly, moral virtue. sharing these metrics on social media by posting a completed run map or a “what i eat in a day” video, transforms this private discipline into a public performance of self-control and productivity, aligning with neoliberal ideologies of self-optimization. in this hyperreal environment, as theorized by jean baudrillard (1994)[9], the digitally perfected and data-optimized body becomes a simulacrum, which is a copy without a direct original, that achieves a greater sense of reality and desirability than the unedited, unquantified physical body. in this hyperreal context, the filtered selfie ceases to be a mere representation of a physical face; it establishes itself as the new, authoritative benchmark. consequently, the unedited, organic body is relegated to the status of a flawed and disappointing copy of its digital ideal. 3. the fractured self: cyborgization and identity anxiety the pervasive presence of this digitally perfected, constantly monitored body cultivates a profound and multifaceted identity anxiety among young women. this anxiety is not a simple matter of low self-esteem but a deeper ontological crisis that unfolds through a series of interconnected dynamics. it manifests as a schism between the online and offline self, a state of perpetual comparison, and the sense of the body as a perpetually unfinished project. at the heart of this is a debilitating paradox surrounding authenticity and the constant fear of exposure. a central tension within social media culture is the simultaneous demand for authenticity and the rewarding of polished performance. platforms and their users increasingly valorize realness, vulnerability, and candid moments. trends like unstructured “photo dumps,” “get ready with me” videos that show a pre-makeup face, and confessions of personal struggles are presented as markers of an authentic self. however, this performed authenticity operates within a system that is fundamentally inauthentic. the algorithmic gaze does not reward genuine messiness, it rewards a curated and aesthetically pleasing version of it. the “no-makeup makeup” look, achieved with subtle filters and expensive skincare, is a perfect metaphor for this paradox: it requires significant artifice to appear natural. this dynamic places young women in a double bind. they must perform a self that appears genuine and relatable, while simultaneously adhering to the unspoken aesthetic rules of the platform. this is where erving goffman’s (1959)[10] dramaturgical theory becomes exceptionally relevant. social media collapses the distinction between the "front stage" (where one performs for an audience) and the “back stage” (where one can relax and be uninhibited). the user’s profile becomes a perpetual front stage, creating immense pressure to maintain the performance at all times. this perpetual on-stage condition leads to cognitive and emotional burnout. maintaining an idealized digital persona requires continuous identity labor—an unacknowledged and uncompensated yet immensely taxing form of work encompassing content curation, image editing, comment management, and the navigation of attendant anxieties. the anxiety stems from the constant fear of the "back stage" being exposed—an unedited photo being tagged, an unflattering angle captured in a friend’s video, or an offline encounter that reveals the discrepancy between the digital and physical self. this fear is amplified by "context collapse," a term describing how social media flattens diverse social contexts into one. a single post is viewed simultaneously by close friends, family, potential employers, and anonymous strangers, making it impossible to tailor the performance to a specific audience and heightening the need for a universally appealing, yet fundamentally generic, persona. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 226 published by ideas spread the cyborgized body is the primary tool in managing this paradoxical performance. it allows one to project an image that is just authentic enough—not overtly artificial, but subtly perfected to meet an idealized standard. this constant management of a fraudulent authenticity is emotionally and cognitively exhausting, leading to feelings of impostor syndrome and a deep-seated fear of being found out. this fear is the affective core of the broader identity fragmentation. the schism between the online and offline self becomes a source of chronic stress. this process fosters self-objectification, where individuals learn to view themselves from a third-person perspective as an object to be appraised, a psychological process directly linked to negative mental health outcomes, including depression and eating disorders in adolescent girls (tiggemann & slater, 2017)[11]. this psychological division leads to a fractured identity, where the real self is perceived as a source of shame and the digital self feels like an inauthentic impostor (zuo & wang, 2019)[6]. this internal fragmentation is externally fueled by the relentless cycle of social comparison. the infinite scroll is a design feature that prevents cognitive closure, immersing the user in a never-ending stream of content to compare themselves against. public-facing metrics like “like” and follower counts provide a real-time, quantitative measure of social validation, turning self-worth into a competitive sport. empirical research has robustly demonstrated that the more time young women spend engaging in this comparison, the greater their body image concerns (fardouly, j., diedrichs, p. c., vartanian, l. r., & halliwell, e., 2015)[12] and body surveillance (wang, y., li, z., & zhang, y., 2022)[13]. the algorithmic gaze intensifies this by creating personalized echo chambers of idealized beauty, ensuring that each user is constantly measured against a standard that is not only unachievable but also perpetually shifting. these dynamics converge to frame the body as a perpetually unfinished project, a source of existential weight. this resonates powerfully with philosopher heather widdows’ (2018)[14] argument in perfect me that beauty has transformed into a dominant ethical ideal in our time. the pursuit of physical perfection is no longer seen as a matter of vanity but as a moral imperative—a demonstration of discipline, self-respect, and personal responsibility. within this neoliberal ethical framework, self-care is redefined as the endless investment in and optimization of the body. an individual’s value becomes less determined by inner qualities or social contributions and more contingent upon their demonstrated ability to manage and present a compliant, efficient, and attractive physique. this projectification of the body conflates the concept of self-love with the practice of ceaseless self-modification. this ethical ideal has a profound economic dimension, fueling a multi-billion dollar beauty economy that profits directly from this manufactured anxiety. the pressure to constantly invest time, money, and energy in selfimprovement is relentless. this reframes identity itself. it is no longer rooted in a stable state of “being” but is lost in an anxious, relentless process of becoming—always striving for a future, perfected self that remains perpetually out of reach. 4. agency and ambivalence in the digital panopticon despite these significant pressures, it is crucial to avoid a deterministic narrative that casts young women as passive victims of technology. they operate with a complex and sophisticated agency within this digital panopticon, engaging in practices of empowerment, resistance, and constant negotiation. on one hand, the tools of cyborgization can be wielded for empowerment. for individuals from marginalized communities, the ability to control one’s digital representation can be a profound act of self-determination. for example, lgbtq+ individuals can use avatars or carefully curated images to explore gender presentation in a safe, reversible way before expressing it offline. people with chronic illnesses or disabilities can choose to present themselves in ways that foreground their identity beyond their condition, building communities and controlling their own narrative. in these contexts, they reclaim a fragment of haraway’s (1991)[2] original political vision for the cyborg as a figure of transgressive and self-defined identity, using technology to challenge rather than conform to societal norms. furthermore, active and conscious resistance emerges from within these very platforms. the body positivity movement, while often criticized for being co-opted by commercial interests and centering more socially acceptable plus-size bodies, nonetheless opened up a crucial dialogue about beauty standards. in its wake, more radical movements like body neutrality, which seeks to de-emphasize appearance as a source of value altogether, and fat liberation have gained traction. on a smaller scale, practices of resistance are common. the use of “finstas” (fake/friend instas) or private accounts allows users to create protected spaces where they can share unedited photos and express vulnerability with a trusted circle, consciously opting out of the public performance of perfection. these acts represent deliberate attempts to rupture the seamless facade of digital perfection and build pockets of authenticity. however, the lived experience for most young women likely resides not in the extremes of total subjugation or radical resistance, but in a state of persistent ambivalence. this ambivalence is a sophisticated survival strategy for navigating the paradoxical demands of the platform society (van dijck et al., 2018)[1]. it can be understood as a form of strategic conformity—making calculated decisions about when to conform to aesthetic norms and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 227 published by ideas spread when to resist them. a young woman may post a highly edited photo on her main feed to meet professional or social expectations, while simultaneously sharing a sarcastic, unfiltered meme about beauty standards on her story. this is not hypocrisy; it is the emotional and cognitive labor of managing multiple, often conflicting, presentations of self. this ambivalence manifests in a complex pleasure-pain nexus. young women may derive fleeting satisfaction and a sense of belonging from the dopamine loop of likes and validation, yet they remain acutely aware of the illusory nature of this satisfaction and its underlying psychological costs. one might critique unrealistic beauty standards in one moment, only to skillfully deploy facial slimming and skin smoothing functions in the next. such behavior stems not from ignorance but from a pragmatic negotiation within a contradictory culture that demands they be simultaneously beautiful and authentic. this constant toggling between participation and critique, between leveraging the system for personal gain and being aware of its psychological costs (fardouly et al., 2015)[12], is the central tension of modern digital citizenship for young women. 5. conclusion the cyborgized body on social media is a defining feature of contemporary identity formation for young women, a complex phenomenon born at the intersection of technology, culture, and commerce. it is constructed through a cascade of daily practices, such as filtering, ai generation, data-driven self-discipline, and the internalization of digital aesthetics, all taking place within a powerful platform ecosystem. this paper has argued that while offering new avenues for self-expression, this process of cyborgization is deeply implicated in the rise of identity anxiety. by generating a painful schism between the online and offline self, fostering a toxic and relentless environment of social comparison, and framing the body as a never-ending ethical project, it fundamentally destabilizes the possibility of a coherent, secure, and authentic sense of self. yet, the narrative is not one of complete technological determinism. the same platforms that enforce these disciplinary norms also serve as arenas for empowerment, resistance, and the forging of alternative communities. young women exhibit a complex agency, navigating the contradictory demands of the digital world with strategies of ambivalence and negotiation. their experience highlights the central paradox of digital life: the struggle to reconcile the boundless possibilities for self-creation with the rigid constraints of algorithmic culture. ultimately, addressing the profound identity anxiety stemming from cyborgized presentation requires a multi-pronged approach. it calls for individual resilience and the cultivation of critical digital literacy, but this is insufficient on its own. it also demands a collective push for greater platform accountability, including algorithmic transparency and the redesign of platform architectures to prioritize user well-being over engagement metrics. specifically, this could include mandating the clear labeling of filtered or altered images in commercial content, redesigning user interfaces to de-emphasize public-facing quantitative metrics such as “like” counts, and developing algorithms that actively promote diverse, non-standardized body representations to disrupt homogenous aesthetic echo chambers. the critical challenge for our time is to foster a digital culture that values human complexity and authenticity over the flawless but fragile perfection of the digital cyborg. only then can we hope that the future of the cyborg will align more closely with haraway’s vision of liberatory potential, rather than devolving into a mere instrument of discipline within the logic of commercial platforms. references [1] van dijck, j., poell, t., & de waal, m. (2018). the platform society: public values in a connective world. oxford university press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190889760.001.0001 [2] haraway, d. j. (2016). a cyborg manifesto. university of minnesota press. https://doi.org/10.5749/minnesota/9780816650477.003.0001 [3] mulvey, l. (1975). visual pleasure and narrative cinema. screen, 16(3), 6–18. https://doi.org/10.1093/screen/16.3.6 [4] cheney-lippold, j. (2017). we are data: algorithms and the making of our digital selves. new york university press. [5] noble, s. u. (2018). algorithms of oppression: how search engines reinforce racism. nyu press. [6] zuo, h., & wang, t. (2019). the looking-glass self in a smart-mirror: an empirical study of young women's self-perception in the context of selfie-editing. media, culture & society, 14, 58–75. [7] rodgers, r. f., slater, a., gordon, c. s., mclean, s. a., jarman, h. k., & paxton, s. j. (2020). a biopsychosocial model of social media use and body image concerns, eating disorder symptoms, and cosmetic surgery acceptance. body image, 49(2), 399–409. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-01190-0 [8] lupton, d. (2016). the quantified self. polity press. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 228 published by ideas spread [9] baudrillard, j. (1994). simulacra and simulation. university of michigan press. https://doi.org/10.3998/mpub.9904 [10] goffman, e. (1959). the presentation of self in everyday life. doubleday. [11] tiggemann, m., & slater, a. (2015). the role of self-objectification in the mental health of early adolescent girls: predictors and consequences. j pediatr psychol, 40(7), 704–711. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsv021 [12] fardouly, j., diedrichs, p. c., vartanian, l. r., & halliwell, e. (2015). social comparisons on social media: the impact of facebook on young women's body image concerns and mood. body image, 13, 38–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2014.12.002 [13] wang, y., li, z., & zhang, y. (2022). short-form video viewing and social comparison on tiktok and body satisfaction among female college students: the roles of body surveillance and body appreciation. sex roles, 10, 58–71. [14] widdows, h. (2018). perfect me: beauty as an ethical ideal. princeton university press. https://doi.org/10.23943/9781400889624 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v7n3p12 12 published by ideas spread the public and private dimensions of chinese women's bodies— from reproductive policies to bodily yunning wang1 1 department in anthropology, seoul national university, south korea correspondence: yunning wang, department in anthropology, seoul national university, seoul, south korea, 08826. tel: 86-156-2081-8588. e-mail: dearmydorothy@gmail.com received: october 25, 2024; accepted: november 4, 2024; published: november 4, 2024 abstract this study examines the impact of china’s evolving reproductive policies and the recently implemented "coolingoff period" for divorce, underscoring how these shifts implicitly discipline women’s reproductive and marital autonomy. despite the transition from the "one-child policy" to the "three-child policy" appearing to offer increased reproductive choice, women’s decisions are still heavily influenced by family expectations, including pressure to bear male children, the demands of multiple births, and constraints on birthing choices. such interventions not only intensify psychological pressures but also contribute to social issues like postpartum depression, suicide, and marital instability. by analyzing policies and relevant data, this paper reveals the combined influence of state and family on women’s reproductive behaviors and explores approaches to balance competing interests among the state, family, and individuals. key recommendations include strengthening legal protections, expanding social support systems, and promoting cultural change to respect women’s autonomy over their reproductive choices. the broader implications of these policy adjustments emphasize the critical role of reproductive autonomy in achieving gender equality and sustaining social development. this issue transcends national borders, positioning it within the broader global movement for gender autonomy. keywords: chinese women, equality, fertility rate, three-child policy, motherhood penalty 1. introduction 1.1 introducing the problem since the implementation of the one-child policy in 1979, china’s reproductive policies have undergone significant shifts, moving from the initial one-child policy to the later two-child and three-child policies, gradually relaxing reproductive restrictions to address population aging and labor shortages. however, despite the outward relaxation of these policies, women’s reproductive autonomy has increasingly been supplanted by state and societal control. through laws, propaganda, and social norms, the government has integrated women’s bodies into the population management framework, while families, particularly in-laws, impose additional restrictions on women’s reproductive choices based on traditional beliefs. this dual control by both the state and family not only deprives women of their reproductive autonomy but also exacerbates the conflicts they face between family and workplace demands. recently, the chinese government has intensified its efforts to address declining birth rates through targeted messaging. the national health commission’s official social media account published an article portraying childbearing as a “challenging yet glamorous journey” for women, advocating a focus on the positive aspects of childbirth while downplaying its challenges. the article claims that pregnancy does not lead to cognitive decline— colloquially known as “pregnancy brain”—but instead, through hormonal changes, subtly alters the brain’s structure, enhancing maternal instincts and even increasing intelligence. this explanation attempts to refute the widespread belief that pregnancy causes cognitive decline, asserting that the so-called “pregnancy brain” is more of a psychological effect than an actual reduction in cognitive function. nevertheless, this narrative reflects a broader social trend, where, under the guise of celebrating the “beauty of motherhood,” women are subjected to increasing pressure to conform to reproductive roles. by idealizing motherhood as a natural and inevitable transformation, this discourse overlooks the scientifically recognized physical and psychological burdens associated with pregnancy and childbirth. despite the outward relaxation of reproductive restrictions under the two-child and three-child policies, women continue to face severe inequalities in the workplace and intense familial pressures. society’s heightened hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 13 published by ideas spread expectations require women to bear the dual burden of family responsibilities and meet the government’s population growth objectives, further marginalizing them socially and diminishing their opportunities for career advancement and economic independence. the pervasive phenomenon of the “motherhood penalty” in workplaces results in reproductive-aged women losing promotion opportunities or even facing unemployment, thereby limiting their participation in society and career development. 1.2 importance of the problem against this backdrop, chinese government policies and promotional strategies reflect the increasing pressure contemporary chinese society places on women to assume reproductive roles. although these policies ostensibly relax reproductive restrictions, by idealizing motherhood and encouraging women to prioritize family and childbearing, they effectively reinforce gender inequality, restricting women’s autonomy and career prospects. the government’s narrative in these policies, which seemingly portrays childbearing as empowerment, in reality, exacerbates discrimination against reproductive-aged women in the workforce. understanding this issue is essential as it highlights the complex interplay between state policy, social attitudes, and systemic constraints on women’s reproductive choices. this study aims to examine how these evolving policies and narratives shape women’s social roles and autonomy, advocating for a reassessment of china’s reproductive policies. rather than promoting motherhood through idealized narratives, policies should focus on providing substantive support in social security, childcare, and workplace accommodations to foster a more female-friendly environment for both reproduction and employment. additionally, there needs to be a shift in social attitudes to empower women as individuals with independent rights, rather than tools serving the state and family. only when the state genuinely respects women’s choices can true gender equality and sustainable social development be realized. 2. pressures on women driven by policy 2.1 analysis of the evolution of china's policies and family interventions china officially implemented the "one-child policy (family planning)" in 1979, which strictly limited the number of children families could have through administrative means to control population growth. although the policy effectively curtailed population expansion, its enforcement seriously infringed upon women's bodily rights. the government not only reinforced the policy's execution through legislation and propaganda slogans but also employed measures like the "one-vote veto system for family planning," linking policy enforcement to official evaluations and family interests. this institutional arrangement treated women's bodies as tools for state-controlled population management rather than as personal rights. during the policy's enforcement, forced termination of pregnancies became commonplace. many women were compelled to undergo abortion procedures after violating family planning regulations, and some even faced forced labor induction in late pregnancy, resulting in significant harm to their physical and mental health. meanwhile, slogans such as "having only one is good" and "having more is a crime" spread across urban and rural areas, further stigmatizing families with multiple children and forcing women to bear familial pressure regarding not having a second child. the emphasis on the concept of "carrying on the family line" by elders intensified women's reproductive dilemmas. even within the constraints of the one-child policy, some families insisted on having boys, leading to severe social issues related to infant gender selection and high female abortion rates. this gender preference resulted in many women facing familial neglect, discrimination, or even divorce for failing to give birth to boys, further undermining their status within the family(wu, y., zhang, q., zeng, j., et al. 2024). the policy also imposed long-term control over women's bodies by mandating the installation of intrauterine devices (iuds) after childbirth. while the widespread use of iuds reduced the risk of unintended pregnancies to some extent, this coercive measure also imposed significant physical burdens and health risks on women. many women developed gynecological inflammation and chronic diseases in later years due to long-term use of iuds, and they often faced difficulties in removal, perpetuating the discipline of the policy on their bodies as they aged.with the implementation of the two-child and three-child policies in china, the reproductive pressures on women have significantly increased, and family interference in reproductive choices has become more pronounced(zhang, b. 2024). the policies encouraging larger families have not alleviated women's social burdens; rather, they have intensified the pressures women face between family and workplace. in-laws frequently intervene in women's choices regarding childbirth methods and timing, often justifying their interference with statements like "hurry to have a second child, we want a grandson," disregarding women's physical conditions and psychological needs, leading to a deprivation of their autonomy in the reproductive process (zhang, s., diao, c., hu, d., et al.2024). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 14 published by ideas spread a typical case, the tragic incident involving ma rongrong, profoundly illustrates the dangers of family and institutional interference in women’s reproductive choices. ma rongrong, a pregnant woman in yulin, shaanxi province, repeatedly requested a cesarean section during labor due to severe pain. however, her requests were denied by both her family and hospital staff, who insisted on a natural birth. on august 31, 2017, ma, unable to bear the pain any longer, jumped from the fifth floor of the hospital, resulting in her death and the death of her full-term baby. this case drew nationwide attention as hospital staff and her family disputed who was responsible for refusing her request for a cesarean section, leading to public debate over whether her requests had been ignored due to family or institutional control.the details of ma’s case reveal the complex interplay of pressures that can inhibit women’s agency over their own reproductive choices. ma’s family was present outside the delivery room, and through wechat exchanges, ma expressed her escalating pain and desperation. she was seen on surveillance cameras twice kneeling in pain, asking her family for permission to undergo a cesarean section. while her husband and family members initially agreed verbally to her request, the hospital’s procedures required formal consent, which was allegedly delayed. hospital records indicate that ma entered and exited the delivery room multiple times, her pain visible as she attempted to walk but ultimately collapsed to the floor in agony. despite her visible distress, hospital staff reportedly continued to advocate for natural birth, claiming it would be safer.in response to this incident, public outcry led to the introduction of new legislation in china intended to guarantee women’s rights to choose their delivery methods. however, despite this legislative progress, familial and societal interference persists in reality. ma’s case starkly demonstrates that women’s reproductive choices are often overridden by familial opinions and institutional protocols, limiting their autonomy even when their health and lives are at risk. this tragic incident underscores the urgent need for policies that ensure women’s reproductive decisions are respected without undue interference from family or institutions, particularly in circumstances where their wellbeing is jeopardized. additionally, in-laws' interference in postpartum recovery and breastfeeding methods significantly impacts women's mental health. the traditional practice of "sitting the month" is strictly enforced by in-laws, forcing many women to live according to outdated beliefs and endure unnecessary pain under unscientific regulations. this interference often triggers anxiety and depression in women, making them feel pressured during their recovery period(zhang, b. 2024). the promotion of reproductive policies not only intensifies family demands on women but also exacerbates the conflicts they face between the workplace and family. the expectations for women in the workplace do not diminish due to childbirth; many companies exhibit implicit discrimination against pregnant and postpartum women, such as obstacles to promotions, unfair performance evaluations, and even job losses.more severely, following the introduction of the three-child policy, some women have been dismissed or lost promotion opportunities due to subsequent pregnancies, forcing them to make compromises between family and workplace and often leading them to become full-time housewives. recent survey data indicate that approximately 53% of women face significant career challenges when returning to the workforce after childbirth, with nearly half of the respondents reporting demotion or dismissal due to childbirth. even when opportunities to return to work arise, they must exert double the effort to compensate for career gaps caused by pregnancy and maternity leave. this structural inequality positions women as reproductive machines in society, sacrificing their careers and increasing familial and societal dependency on them, further entrenching gender inequality(wang, c., gu, l., & yu, y. 2024). 2.2 cooling-off period for divorce: conflicts between institutional design and realities the establishment of the cooling-off period for divorce was intended to reduce impulsive divorces and maintain family stability and social harmony. according to the civil code, the design of the cooling-off period provides couples applying for divorce with a 30-day reflection period to avoid making irreversible decisions based on temporary emotions. however, in reality, this system has exposed serious issues in handling domestic violence and marital crises, leaving many victimized women trapped in abusive marriages and losing opportunities for timely relief. domestic violence is viewed as a "family matter" in some places, and the insufficient legal penalties mean that victims face greater safety threats during the cooling-off period, potentially resulting in irreversible tragedies.the cooling-off period is designed to balance the freedom to divorce with family stability, hoping to provide both parties with time for calm reflection. however, this policy overlooks the complexities of domestic violence in practice. for victims of domestic abuse, the "cooling-off period" becomes a chain that prolongs their suffering. many victimized women find it difficult to seek legal protection during the cooling-off period, often facing more severe violence while waiting for a ruling. the case of xu mouqin in shantou, guangdong, is a typical example. after filing for divorce, xu mouqin was forced to enter the cooling-off period due to legal procedures, a time that not only failed to bring reconciliation but also led to increased violence against her. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 15 published by ideas spread xu mouqin's case reveals the shortcomings of the cooling-off period in situations of domestic violence. xu mouqin endured long-term torment from her husband’s gambling and alcohol abuse, suffering multiple injuries. in a moment of desperation, she filed for divorce in 2019, but the court mandated the cooling-off period based on procedural requirements. however, this cooling-off period did not improve their marriage; instead, her husband, zheng mingsong, intensified the psychological and physical abuse. in june 2020, after another episode of violence, xu mouqin stabbed her husband in self-defense. this case sparked widespread public controversy, with many commentators arguing that the establishment of the cooling-off period contributed to this tragedy. the cooling-off period inadvertently reinforced patriarchal control over marriage, rendering women as "private property" within it. even when facing domestic violence, victimized women cannot immediately escape their marriages; the cooling-off period forces them to struggle for survival in abusive environments.the case of wang nuannuan reflects similar issues. during the cooling-off period, wang nuannuan found herself unable to escape the constraints of her marriage, even facing life threats. the cooling-off period system neglects the particularities of domestic violence, failing to provide effective legal protection for victims and instead giving abusers more time to retaliate, leading to countless women losing their lives within marriage.while attempting to reduce impulsive divorces, the cooling-off period also creates additional barriers for victims of domestic violence. the policy is implemented in an overly "one-size-fits-all" manner, failing to consider the unique needs in different situations. for victims of domestic violence, the cooling-off period is not only meaningless but can also extend the duration of their violent marriages, exacerbating their suffering. to prevent similar tragedies from recurring, the legal system needs to be revised accordingly: domestic violence exception clause: it is recommended to exempt divorce cases involving domestic violence from the cooling-off period requirement. if the victim provides evidence such as police reports, emergency responses, or assistance from women’s federations, the court should rule for divorce directly. temporary protection orders and assistance mechanisms: during the cooling-off period, provide temporary protection orders and shelter for victimized women to prevent them from continuing to face violence while awaiting divorce. strengthening legal relief channels: enhance the role of women's federations and communities in domestic violence assistance, providing victims with psychological counseling, legal aid, and other support to ensure they can receive timely help. 2.3. new policies and the privatization of women’s bodies in late october 2024, the national health commission of china published an article titled the four benefits of childbearing for women on its official “healthy china” wechat account. although the article ostensibly promotes the “positive value” of childbearing, its language and content further exploit and objectify women by treating them as tools for national population targets, disregarding their individual rights and choices. the article describes childbearing as a “challenging yet glamorous journey” and suggests that “women and their families should focus more on the positive aspects of reproduction.” however, it exclusively lists purported benefits without addressing the substantial health risks and potential physiological trauma associated with pregnancy, instead downplaying and even glorifying the discomforts and hardships of childbearing. in this article, the national health commission highlights the supposed “positive” impacts of childbearing on women, claiming that hormonal changes during pregnancy cause “subtle changes” in brain structure, enhancing maternal characteristics and even making women “smarter.” this narrative distorts scientific facts, attempting to romanticize childbearing as a positive psychological and physiological transformation while completely overlooking the real burdens of pregnancy and childbirth, including risks like amniotic fluid embolism, severe hemorrhaging, postpartum urinary incontinence, and pelvic floor muscle relaxation. through this selective narrative, policy makers use a narrow, distorted discourse to impose an idealized, false conception of motherhood on women, aiming to integrate their bodies and reproductive functions into state planning, further controlling and privatizing their bodies.the article lacks scientific rigor and further insults women culturally by reiterating the notion that “women’s childbearing is a contribution to the country.” this approach resembles the slogans of the family planning era, such as “only one child is good; the state will take care of the elderly,” which, in different historical contexts, objectified and exploited women’s reproductive capacity. when population growth was the priority, women were encouraged to have more children; when population control took precedence, they were subjected to mandatory contraception. this trend views women’s reproductive capacity as a resource to be regulated at will by the state, rather than as an individual right. ironically, the article also proposes to “create a fertility-friendly social environment” and to “integrate related content into elementary, secondary, and tertiary education,” aiming to instill new perspectives on marriage, family, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 16 published by ideas spread and reproduction in the next generation. this approach seeks to impose reproductive obligations on young people as part of societal and familial expectations and even extends the indoctrination of reproductive values into foundational education, making minors the targets of pro-natalist propaganda. this not only ignores the primary task of education to provide knowledge and personal development but also reinforces the objectification of women by binding their reproductive role to national interests through biased value indoctrination.through such distorted policy propaganda, the state attempts to gradually shift the issue of female reproduction from the realm of individual rights to that of national interests under the guise of caring language, privatizing women’s bodies as reproductive machines. this approach is not merely an infringement on women’s individual rights; it is also an act of violation and insult, one that continuously reinforces gender inequality in policy and cultural narratives, further suppressing women’s independence and freedom of choice. 2.4 comparative analysis and insights from nordic policies nordic countries have maintained high birth rates in recent years, often surpassing the european average. for instance, in 2021, iceland’s birth rate rose by 16.5% above normal levels, while finland and norway saw increases of 7% and 5%, respectively. this surge in births even led to shortages in maternity ward capacity, with some pregnant women needing to deliver in emergency rooms, and midwives from poland and germany called in to assist. this increase is no coincidence but the result of various factors, most notably the comprehensive social welfare systems that have been implemented.nordic countries are renowned for their robust welfare policies, which provide substantial support for family planning and child-rearing. for example, in denmark, iceland, norway, and sweden, the daycare enrollment rate for children aged 0-3 exceeds 50%, far above the average of other oecd countries. the governments in these countries help families reduce the financial burden of childrearing through direct subsidies, tax benefits, paid parental leave, and broad social care support. norwegian mothers, for example, receive a postpartum allowance of approximately 38,750 nok, and swedish parents can share 480 days of paid parental leave. in norway, childcare spending accounts for 2% of gdp, with each child benefiting from welfare support valued at around $18,500. in addition to economic support, nordic countries prioritize work-life balance, encouraging women’s workforce participation through comprehensive childcare support. in denmark, for instance, the childcare enrollment rate for children aged 1-5 is 90%, with most of the costs covered by the government. the gender-neutral cultural views prevalent in the nordics further eliminate the stigma around childbearing and foster positive attitudes toward parenting. in recent years, a family-centered culture has re-emerged, with the impact of environmentalism on birth decisions diminishing. parenthood is no longer seen as a burden on the environment but rather as a source of fulfillment and achievement within society. in sweden, the "care act" even legally ensures children's right to play, fostering a cultural environment that has significantly contributed to increased birth rates.this success contrasts with china’s reproductive policies, which face challenges due to limited systemic support, workplace penalties for women after childbirth, and high living and educational costs. policies like the "three-child policy" and the cooling-off period for divorce have yet to effectively address these issues and have instead intensified individual and family burdens on a societal level. the nordic approach, by offering extensive, universally accessible coverage regardless of employment status or sector, reduces social inequality and provides stable growth in birth rates. this universal support system extends parental leave to both parents, who share childcare responsibilities, reducing gender-role constraints and increasing women’s workforce participation. nordic countries also alleviate family financial burdens by providing generous childcare subsidies and extensive nursery and kindergarten services, which encourage women to remain in the workforce and promote gender equality.comparing nordic countries’ policies with direct cash subsidies shows that the key to sustainable birth rates lies in establishing a comprehensive social support system rather than commodifying childbirth. essential measures include reducing financial pressure on women through free prenatal care and maternity insurance and ensuring equal access to medical services for natural births and cesarean sections. in addition, improving education by reducing academic pressures, as demonstrated by european educational models, can alleviate family anxieties about child-rearing. similarly, reintroducing public housing allocation systems to reduce housing costs for young families is essential for boosting birth rates. 3. policy impacts and the discipline of women's bodies: data analysis and theoretical application china's reproductive policies are not only tools for addressing population aging and labor shortages but also mechanisms for disciplining women's bodies. through policy guidance, social norms, and family interventions, the state not only determines women's reproductive behaviors but also incorporates their bodies into a control system, making them instruments for achieving national population goals. the changes in these policies have not hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 17 published by ideas spread only failed to resolve reproductive dilemmas but have also exacerbated the conflicts women face between family and workplace, reinforcing their marginalization in society(chen, s. 2024). in recent years, studies have highlighted significant challenges facing women in the workforce, particularly regarding the impact of childbirth on employment opportunities. china’s efforts to boost birth rates through the two-child and three-child policies have yielded limited success, as women continue to encounter substantial structural barriers that hinder their workforce participation. according to the 2024 report on the development of women in the workplace in china, the female labor participation rate has dropped from 79.39% in 1990 to 63.73% in 2023. similarly, the international labour organization reports that china’s global ranking for female labor participation has declined from 11th in 2000 to 51st in 2022. this decrease reflects the conflict between reproductive responsibilities and career advancement, exacerbated by a lack of comprehensive childcare services, flexible work arrangements, and persistent traditional societal norms.research published in population and economics, a core journal by peking university, reveals a negative correlation between the number of children and women’s employment probability. in middle-income families, compared to childless women, those with one child experience a 6.6% decrease in employment probability, while women with two children face an additional 9.3% drop. additionally, the third survey on the social status of women in china shows that over a quarter (26.3%) of urban women from the "post-80s" generation with children under 30 have encountered career interruptions due to family obligations.these trends highlight the substantial "motherhood penalty" in the workplace, where women experience significant career setbacks related to childbirth, affecting 54% of female workers compared to only 6.6% of men. gendered expectations and employer concerns over maternity leave and childcare responsibilities contribute to hiring biases that often favor men over women. these factors not only limit women’s career advancement and financial independence but also perpetuate a wage gap: data from 2023 shows that men earn an average monthly salary of 9,942 yuan, while women earn only 8,689 yuan(figure1). figure1. average monthly salaries by gender in the past five years at the same time, broader demographic shifts are affecting women’s roles in society. one significant change is the decline in the number of first marriages among marriageable age groups. in 2023, the number of first marriages in china fell below 10.52 million for the first time, a cumulative 55.9% decrease since 2013. this decline aligns with a drop in birth intentions, with more individuals choosing to delay marriage, forego marriage, or remain childless. the phenomenon of “unwilling to have children, afraid to have children, or unable to have children” has become increasingly prominent. both "employment barriers for women(figure2)" and "main reasons for women's unemployment(figure3)" highlight childbirth and caregiving responsibilities as significant challenges women face in the workforce. childbirth alone accounts for 30.2% of employment barriers for women, while caregiving responsibilities — including caring for children (26%) and elderly family members (16.7%) — are leading causes of female unemployment. this data underscores the difficult balance women must navigate between family obligations and professional aspirations, a balance that is made even more challenging by societal expectations and limited hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 18 published by ideas spread structural support.the implementation of the three-child policy in china further intensifies these challenges, as it places an implicit expectation on women to take on additional reproductive responsibilities, often without corresponding support in the form of childcare services or workplace accommodations. for many women, the decision to have children, particularly multiple children, translates into career sacrifices, limited promotion opportunities, and, in some cases, complete withdrawal from the workforce. this creates a “motherhood penalty” effect, where women face disproportionate disadvantages in hiring, wages, and job security due to their roles as mothers and caregivers.despite policies encouraging higher birth rates, the absence of robust social support systems — such as affordable childcare, flexible work arrangements, and protections against employment discrimination — means that women continue to bear the burden of balancing family and career. as a result, the very policies intended to increase birth rates inadvertently risk marginalizing women from the workforce, reinforcing gender inequality and limiting women’s economic and professional development. figure 2. employment barriers for women figure 3. main reasons for women's unemployment note: the data above is sourced from maigoo.com foucault's theory of discipline and punishment suggests that modern power does not rely on violence or law but exerts invisible control over individuals through everyday norms and social culture. in china's reproductive policy system, the state disciplines women's bodies as tools for reproduction through policy propaganda and social incentives and penalties, extending this control further through familial relationships. in some regions of china, such as chaoshan and fujian, traditional culture assigns specific reproductive responsibilities to women, objectifying them as tools for family lineage continuation. in these areas, a particular custom has emerged— newlywed women wear gold pig pendants, symbolizing that they should bear many children like pigs to ensure the family's continuation. this cultural tradition emphasizes not only the quantity of births but also carries the implicit expectation of "carrying on the family line," directly linking women's value to their reproductive capabilities.such beliefs are deeply rooted in these regions, shaping familial expectations of women and permeating societal perceptions of women. these cultural notions overlook women's personal needs and social value, confining their lives and life goals to reproductive responsibilities. married women are not only expected to fulfill the family's hope for "more children, more blessings" but also face ongoing pressure from in-laws to bear more children. whether it involves having sons or multiple births, women are compelled to compromise according to family needs, with their autonomy often relegated to a secondary position. in this cultural context, women's bodies are no longer seen as independent entities but as vital tools for family lineage continuation. the traditional notion of "carrying on the family line" reinforces the discipline's effects, subjecting women's reproductive choices and lifestyles to intense family intervention, particularly under the pressure from in-laws, further undermining women's reproductive autonomy. the case of xu zhou's "eight-child" woman, xiaohuamei, vividly illustrates the extreme control exerted by family and society over women's bodies. xiaohuamei was not only trafficked and illegally imprisoned but also forced to bear eight children. in her life, there was no reproductive choice; her body was entirely reduced to a tool for satisfying family and state population goals. the initial official response sought to downplay the nature of the incident, dismissing her plight as a "marriage issue caused by mental illness," until public opinion intensified, prompting a more in-depth investigation. this incident reflects the state's dereliction in regulating the discipline of women's bodies and highlights the disregard of family and society for women's individual rights. xiaohuamei's hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 19 published by ideas spread tragedy shows that under the dual pressures of policy and social expectations, women's bodies become mediums of control and exploitation, objectifying them as reproductive machines solely to fulfill family responsibilities of "carrying on the family line."a similar control pattern is evident in the case of wang lian. wang lian, a promising graduate student, was trafficked to a remote rural area due to her lack of social experience. during her 71 days of captivity, wang lian not only lost her freedom but was also coerced into accepting a forced marriage. her body was completely privatized, becoming the "property" of the family and local community to meet local reproductive demands. these cases reveal that in certain social structures, once women lose social support, they completely forfeit bodily autonomy and dignity in life.the ma rongrong incident further illustrates how family and medical systems’ interventions in women's bodily choices can lead to tragedy. in this case, ma rongrong was forced to undergo a natural birth instead of having a cesarean section, ultimately resulting in her jumping from a building to escape unbearable pain. this event reflects not only excessive family intervention in women's bodies but also exposes serious shortcomings in the medical system's ability to safeguard women's rights to choose. ma rongrong's tragedy indicates that women must contend not only with pressures from families regarding reproduction and childbirth methods but also with the reality of having their choices overlooked within the medical system (yu, y., chan, t. f., & huang, q.2024). under china's reproductive policy system, the state and society collaboratively shape the discipline model of women's bodies. even though policies ostensibly emphasize reproductive freedom, in practice, women's bodies remain subject to policy directives and social expectations. for example, through propaganda slogans, the state guides women to assume reproductive responsibilities and glorifies the image of having multiple children, while in-laws exert constant pressure to compel women to give birth to boys and have multiple children according to family expectations. reproductive policies not only control women's reproductive behaviors but also reinforce gender roles through social images of being a "good mother." after childbirth, women are expected to bear primary responsibility for childcare, fulfilling societal expectations through actions such as breastfeeding. furthermore, societal pressure on women to regain their pre-pregnancy bodies reflects the ongoing control over women's bodies through cultural symbols and aesthetic standards.foucault argues that in modern society, bodies are disciplined as mediums that can be controlled and exploited. in china's patriarchal society, women's bodies are shaped into controlled objects to fulfill the needs of both family and state. the cases of ma rongrong, xu zhou's "eight-child" woman xiaohuamei, and wang lian all demonstrate how women are objectified as reproductive machines under the dual control of family and society, losing their rights to choose and individual value. these cases reveal that the combined control of family and society not only harms women's physical health but also leads to severe psychological pressure and emotional disorders, binding their lives to the disciplines imposed by society and family. with the continued implementation of china’s new reproductive policies and its associated propaganda measures, women’s social status may further deteriorate, reducing them to little more than reproductive tools. these policies not only push “positive values” of reproduction through official media channels but also seek to embed reproductive duties in educational materials for primary and secondary school students, aiming to instill the notion of childbearing as a duty rather than a personal right from a young age. this approach is likely to marginalize women further in both society and the workplace. increasingly, women may face unemployment or barriers to finding work due to the burdens associated with childbearing, with the “motherhood penalty” becoming even more pronounced and the obstacles to career advancement nearly insurmountable.unlike reasonable policy initiatives, these measures reflect an extreme tendency that appears focused solely on population goals while ignoring basic values of individual rights and social equity. such actions are far from what a rational and healthy government should pursue, suggesting a disregard for women’s rights and social fairness. at the same time, these policies threaten to erode women’s access to education, restricting them to domestic roles early on and diminishing opportunities for career and personal growth. ultimately, women’s economic independence and social agency will be undermined to an unprecedented degree, intensifying gender inequality across all aspects of life. china's reproductive policies and social culture conspire to create strict control over women's bodies. under the dual oppression of state policies and family expectations, women's reproductive choices and lifestyles are severely restricted. whether it is xiaohuamei's tragedy, ma rongrong's death, or wang lian's painful experience of losing her freedom, all reflect the objectification and control of women's bodies within the patriarchal system. to break this disciplinary model, efforts must be made on both institutional and social levels: legally ensuring women's reproductive autonomy and establishing a comprehensive social support system; culturally rejecting patriarchal concepts and fostering a societal atmosphere that respects women's choices. only by doing so can women be liberated from the constraints of reproductive and social roles, truly becoming equal individuals with independent rights. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 20 published by ideas spread 4. discussion with the continuous advancement of china’s reproductive policies, state control over family reproductive behaviors has slightly diminished; however, reproductive autonomy still faces numerous challenges. interactions between spouses and the traditional beliefs of elders profoundly influence reproductive intentions. while younger generations may place less importance on the notion of “carrying on the family line,” traditional expectations from parents and elders continue to exert significant pressure on women’s reproductive choices. modern women are further constrained by the dual burden of balancing career and family responsibilities. most women juggle market work and family care, and unequal household labor divisions increase their stress. the lack of a robust social support system exacerbates these pressures, significantly lowering women’s willingness to have children. despite policies attempting to encourage childbirth through short-term incentives, issues such as the “motherhood penalty” and reemployment challenges continue to undermine women’s long-term reproductive intentions. additionally, the modern acceptance of delayed marriage and fewer children further complicates the possibility of larger family sizes. the recently implemented reproductive policies and their promotion on social media attempt to influence women to take on more reproductive responsibilities by emphasizing the “positive value” of childbearing. however, these efforts have sparked widespread criticism online, as many question the effectiveness of such policies in the absence of adequate support systems. under intense public scrutiny, the controversial posts were taken down, but this “overly hasty” action only intensified gender tensions, prompting a heightened awareness among women. modern women possess independent thinking and rights awareness, and such policies not only underestimate their capacity for reasoning but also objectify them as instruments for national reproductive goals. this approach has sparked greater societal focus on women’s rights, prompting many to recognize that reproductive responsibilities should be based on personal choice rather than state imposition. although the government seeks to increase birth rates through short-term measures, the absence of a systematic reproductive support framework limits the effectiveness of these policies. young families face economic pressures, workplace discrimination, and insufficient childcare resources, which further undermine their confidence in having children. thus, policies should not only provide economic incentives but also address “motherhood penalties” and gender discrimination in the workplace to secure women’s career development and social participation. additionally, the introduction of the divorce “cooling-off” period has exacerbated challenges for women within marriages, further stripping them of autonomy. while the policy aims to reduce impulsive divorces and promote family stability, in practice, it often traps victims of domestic violence in perilous situations, sometimes with lifethreatening consequences. cases like wang nuannuan and xu mouqin demonstrate that women endure greater harm due to their inability to escape abusive marriages promptly during the cooling-off period. this policy design neglects real issues within marriages and reinforces patriarchal control over women, entrapping them in marital constraints. china’s reproductive policies and social traditions jointly control and objectify women’s bodies and reproductive rights (gao, q., zhao, m., & chen, h. 2024). this phenomenon is particularly pronounced in areas like chaoshan and fujian, where newlywed women are encouraged to wear gold pig pendants as symbols of their obligation to bear children for the family. such customs directly link a woman’s value to her reproductive capability, disregarding her autonomy and binding her life to family expectations. additionally, cases like xiaohuamei, the “eight-child mother” from xuzhou, and wang lian reveal the severe reproductive culture and human trafficking issues prevalent in certain regions, underscoring how women lose personal freedom and reproductive autonomy within family and societal contexts.despite the recent pro-birth policies, these measures are not driven by a genuine population demand. in fact, china could address population needs by easing immigration policies to meet labor requirements. however, china’s immigration policies remain among the strictest globally, with one of the hardest processes for obtaining green cards or citizenship. this contradictory approach raises questions about the real motives behind promoting birth. furthermore, recent headlines about college graduates struggling to find employment highlight china’s surplus labor market. the challenges facing many young people reflect structural issues within the labor market. thus, pro-birth policies are not aimed at alleviating “labor shortages” but rather serve as a tool to discipline women, binding them to traditional family roles and reinforcing a patriarchal structure. educated women have developed greater independence and awareness, challenging outdated gender roles. yet these policies seek to pull women back into traditional reproductive and domestic responsibilities, relegating them to roles as dependents of the state and family.the disciplining of women’s reproductive rights and bodies is, in essence, an implicit control mechanism that binds women to inequitable family and reproductive responsibilities, ensuring that they remain constrained within patriarchal structures. consequently, women are often relegated to childrearing and unpaid hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 21 published by ideas spread domestic labor, impeding their ability to compete equally with men in the workplace. while these policies outwardly claim to address population needs, their underlying intent appears to preserve the vested interests of groups that benefit from gender hierarchies, steering women’s lives and careers toward family-centered roles and limiting their opportunities for independent growth and social engagement.to genuinely address these issues and promote sustainable development for both the state and society, it is essential to protect women’s reproductive autonomy. although the state seeks to combat population aging with the three-child policy, its limited effectiveness only generates further gender pressures and social conflict. it is thus crucial to abandon quantitydriven reproductive policies, liberate women from the confines of reproductive responsibilities, and place individual rights at the center of policy. future development should focus on strengthening legal frameworks and social security systems to create a supportive environment for women’s reproductive and professional aspirations. cultural change is also vital, requiring the rejection of traditional beliefs such as “the more children, the greater the blessings,” and reducing familial and societal interference in women’s reproductive decisions. abolishing the impractical cooling-off period for divorce and implementing exceptions for domestic violence cases can provide legal support and protection for victims, safeguarding women’s marital autonomy while promoting respect for women’s rights in society.ultimately, only when national policies genuinely respect women’s choices can society gradually shift its views toward women, establishing a social system centered on individual choice and gender equality. this shift is not only key to addressing the low birth rate but also a necessary path toward social harmony and sustainable national development. by dismantling the policies and societal norms that discipline women’s bodies and rights, women can truly become independent and equal members of society, progressing together with their families and the nation toward a more progressive and prosperous future. acknowledgments i gratefully acknowledge the support and encouragement of my family, whose unwavering belief in my work has been a constant source of inspiration. special thanks to my parents for their guidance and understanding throughout this journey. i would also like to express heartfelt appreciation for my cats, dorothy, cookie, yingying, and ceci, whose companionship and playful presence provided much-needed comfort and motivation during this study. thank you all for being an integral part of my life and for making this achievement possible. references wu, y., zhang, q., zeng, j., et al. (2024). associations of the implementation of the three-child policy with changes in contraceptive methods among women who underwent induced abortion: a cross-sectional study of wuhan, a megacity in central china. the european journal of contraception & reproductive health care: the official journal of the european society of contraception, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1080/13625187.2024.2400967 wang, c., gu, l., & yu, y. (2024). the impact of the “three-child” policy on the scale of education: a prediction of the year 2035. the frontier of education reform and development in china, 175-195. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-0277-0_9 zhang, b. (2024). the dilemma and countermeasures of the implementation of the three-child policy in harbin: based on the analysis of smith’s policy implementation process model. advances in social science, education and humanities research, 261-266. https://doi.org/10.2991/978-2-38476-259-0_31 chen, s. (2024). fertility rate, fertility policy, and climate policy: a case study in china. structural change and economic dynamics, 69, 339-348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.strueco.2024.01.004 gao, q., zhao, m., & chen, h. (2024). effects of the three-child policy on the employment bias against professional women: evidence from 260 enterprises in jiangxi province. humanities and social sciences communications, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03063-9 yu, y., chan, t. f., & huang, q. (2024). formulating the discourse of pro-work conservatism: a critical discourse analysis of weibo posts in response to the implementation of the three-child policy. feminist media studies, 24(3), 497-513. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2023.2200589 zhang, s., diao, c., hu, d., et al. (2024). more happiness or more payment: psychological and influencing factors of “two-child” women of childbearing age in the context of “three-child.” economic society and humanities, 1(4). https://doi.org/10.62381/e244417 zhang, b. (2024). the dilemma and countermeasures of the implementation of the three-child policy in harbin: based on the analysis of smith’s policy implementation process model. advances in social science, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 22 published by ideas spread education and humanities research, 851. https://doi.org/10.2991/978-2-38476-259-0_31 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n2p88 88 published by ideas spread research on folk sports to improve residents' social adaptation ability in ease of relocation liu renyi1, peng chenggen1 & zhang qing1 1 hunan agricultural university, china correspondence: peng chenggen(1983~), male, doctor, hunan agricultural university, china. e-mail: 379569069 qq.com received: april 16, 2025; accepted: april 25, 2025; published: april 26, 2025 abstract while improving the living conditions of residents, the relocation project also brings new challenges of cultural adaptation and social integration. this study takes folk sports as an entry point to explore the unique value and practical path in promoting the social adaptability of relocated residents. it is found that folk sports activities effectively alleviate the challenges of cultural rupture and reconstruction of social relations during the relocation process through multiple mechanisms such as cultural identity reconstruction, social capital accumulation and psychological adjustment. the study proposes four practical paths: hierarchical organization, cultural innovation, resource protection and activity promotion, which expand the social function of folk sports and provide practical references for the design of the cultural dimension of the resettlement policy. keywords: relocation, folk sports, social adaptability 1. introduction with the acceleration of urbanization, relocation has become an important initiative to improve the living conditions of residents in remote areas. in rural areas due to the support of the acquaintance society based on geography and blood ties, the social security of the original relocation space is relatively perfect and stable, not only for the elderly, but also for the relief of the poor in the village, which invariably provides solid social security support and makes the village a home full of humane watchfulness, but the relocation makes the migrants move out of the original space accompanied by the social security of the rupture[1]. the transfer of physical space is often accompanied by drastic changes in the cultural environment, and relocated residents are faced with multiple challenges such as cultural identity crises, breaks in social relations, and psychological adaptation difficulties. traditional social adaptation research focuses on the economic dimension and material conditions, and there is a relative lack of exploration of cultural adaptation mechanisms. folk sports, as an important carrier of traditional culture, combines the dual attributes of physical practice and cultural symbols, and has unique advantages in promoting social adaptation. its collective participation can help rebuild social relationship networks, its ritual normative nature can strengthen cultural identity, and the fun nature of the activity can alleviate psychological pressure. although existing studies have paid attention to the social functions of sports activities, research on the adaptive value of folk sports in the context of relocation is still weak. based on cultural adaptation theory and social capital theory, this study adopts qualitative research and case study method to systematically investigate the internal mechanism and practical path of folk sports to enhance the social adaptation ability of relocated residents. through in-depth analysis of the practical experiences of typical immigrant communities, the study aims to answer three core questions: how do folk sports promote social adaptation through cultural identity? what role does it play in the accumulation of social capital? what are the effective organizational and implementation paths? the results of the study not only help to deepen the understanding of the contemporary value of folk sports, but also provide a reference for improving the resettlement policy of immigrants from a cultural perspective. at the practical level, the intervention programs proposed in this study can directly serve the construction of immigrant communities, which is of dual significance in promoting social integration and cultural heritage. 2. the intrinsic relationship between folk sports and social adaptation 2.1 theoretical linkage between cultural identity and social adaptation cultural identity is the psychological foundation of social adaptation of residents relocated to other places. regional culture mainly focuses on the behavioral habits, religious beliefs, social organization and other dimensions of groups within a specific spatial scope, involving all the contents of cultural history, cultural hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 89 published by ideas spread sociology, cultural philosophy and anthropology[2]. when residents leave their original place of residence and move into a new environment, the biggest challenge they face is not only the change of physical space, but also the rupture of the cultural environment. cultural rupture often leads to an identity crisis, which is manifested in a strong attachment to the original culture and a rejection of the new culture. folk sports, as a living cultural practice, provide a carrier of cultural continuity for migrating groups through its unique body language and ritual symbols. the “drum dance” organized by the miao migrants in western hunan not only reproduces the traditional ritual scenes, but also strengthens the memory of the community through the rhythm of the drums and the collective dance steps. embodied cultural practices have a dual adaptive function: they can provide channels for emotional catharsis and cultural expression for immigrant groups, alleviating the psychological anxiety caused by relocation; when these activities are open to the new community, they become a window for cultural display and promote cultural understanding among different groups. the cultural adaptation function of folk sports presents a stage-bystage feature: the initial stage is mainly manifested as cultural perseverance, the middle stage develops into cultural adaptation, and cultural integration is finally realized. this progressive cultural adaptation process effectively reduces the psychological cost of social adaptation. 2.2 group participation and social capital accumulation the lack of social capital is a structural factor that restricts the social adaptation of relocated residents. the process of optimizing the social foundation of the relocated community, and the grassroots governance structure of the relocated community is also transformed in the direction conducive to rural revitalization, which has become an indispensable key institutional condition for the relocated community to leap from poverty alleviation to rural revitalization[3]. relocation leads to the disintegration of the original social relationship network, and the establishment of new social relationships often faces many obstacles. the collective character of folk sports provides an effective path to solve this problem. from the perspective of social capital theory, folk sports activities promote the accumulation of social capital through three mechanisms: at the organizational level, the preparation of traditional sports activities requires residents to form management teams on their own initiative, a process that naturally fosters community leadership and organizational capacity. in one new village, a community selfgovernance group with executive power was formed through the organization of a “firecracker grabbing” competition. at the interactive level, the division of roles and adherence to rules in sports activities fostered the spirit of cooperation and a sense of contract among participants. the internalization of informal norms in the group rope skipping activity, which required participants to cooperate precisely, helped build community trust. at the outreach level, cross-community sports exchanges such as the dragon boat invitational and the dragon and lion dance invitational created opportunities for heterogeneous social connections. migrants who have participated in cross-community sports activities have expanded social support networks. the social capital accumulated through the activities has a transformative value: community sports cadres often serve as intermediaries for employment information, while the trusting relationships built during the activities reduce the cost of economic interactions. this added value of social capital from sport participation significantly enhances residents' ability to survive and thrive in their new environment. 3. mechanisms of folk sports on enhancing social adaptability 3.1 reconstruction of social communication network folk sports activities have unique advantages in rebuilding social communication networks. these activities are usually characterized by openness and inclusiveness, and can attract the participation of residents from different backgrounds. the simple movement design of the xiangxi tujia pendulum dance, for example, allows new scholars to integrate quickly, while the complex changes in formation create conditions for continuous interaction. folk sports activities are often accompanied by specific social etiquette and interaction norms, such as pre-game greeting ceremonies and post-game bonding activities, and the programmed social scenarios provide natural opportunities for unfamiliar residents to interact. such activities usually require a division of roles and collaborative cooperation, such as the different positions of drummers and rowers in dragon boat races, for example, forcing participants to establish effective communication mechanisms. interaction based on common goals can often break through the barriers of daily socialization and form closer interpersonal connections. many immigrant communities have successfully built cross-building and cross-unit social networks by organizing regular folklore and sports activities, effectively improving the problem of “neighbors not knowing each other” that prevailed during the early stages of relocation. 3.2 cultivating a sense of community folk sports play an important role in fostering a sense of community. collective sports activities can produce a strong experience of “common harmony”, i.e., a collective state of exhilaration formed under specific time and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 90 published by ideas spread space conditions. this experience has three important characteristics: spatial and temporal specificity, as activities are usually held during traditional festivals or specific seasons; synchronization of behaviors, as participants need to complete prescribed actions in a coordinated manner; and sharing of emotions, as successes or failures are shared by the collective. take the lusheng dance of the miao people in guizhou as an example, when hundreds of people dance to the same melody, individual differences are temporarily dissolved and a strong sense of collective identity emerges. this experience translates into lasting community cohesion, which is manifested in the residents' active participation in community affairs and their conscious adherence to public norms. the formation of this sense of community often presents a gradual process of “activity-driven-emotional resonancevalue internalization”, which ultimately prompts residents to include community identity as an important part of their self-concept. 3.3 inheritance of adaptive cultural capital folk sports as an important carrier of traditional culture, the excavation of folk sports heritage resources is an important work in the inheritance process, and is the main direction to meet the content needs of rural revitalization[4]. it can be divided into three levels: capital at the skill level, the skill mastery of specific sports; capital at the cognitive level, including the ecological wisdom and philosophy of life embedded in traditional sports activities; capital at the organizational level, the social experience accumulated in the process of preparation and execution of activities. in the case of the dong snatching flower cannon activity, for example, its complex competition rules teach participants how to maintain cooperation in competition and how to realize innovation within the framework of the rules, and these cognitive patterns are of direct guidance for the adaptation to new environments. the process of organizing the event is itself a field of social learning. by participating in the preparation of the event, the younger generation not only masters specific organizational skills, but also understands the basic principles of social functioning, such as the distribution of power and the coordination of resources. multi-dimensional cultural inheritance gives traditional wisdom a new vitality in the new social environment. 3.4 constructing channels for psychological adjustment folk sports activities provide multi-level psychological adjustment channels for the relocated residents. from the individual level, regular sports activities can promote the secretion of endorphins and other pleasurable substances, directly improving the psychological state. at the collective level, ritualized sports activities create a safe psychological space where residents can temporarily escape from adaptation pressures and obtain spiritual solace. take the yunnan yi's vegetable jumping activity as an example, its cheerful rhythm and exaggerated movement design have a natural function of emotional catharsis. more importantly, such activities are usually accompanied by rich cultural symbols and collective memories, and participants reconfirm their self-identity and cultural belonging through physical practices, effectively alleviating the identity anxiety caused by migration. from a psychological point of view, this kind of adjustment process shows a progressive trajectory of “physical participation-emotional catharsis-cognitive reconstruction”, which ultimately helps residents to establish a more positive psychological adaptation mechanism. 3.5 enhancement of environmental coping ability folk sports activities enhance residents' environmental coping ability in an all-round way. in terms of cognitive ability, the enhancement of social adaptability by physical exercise can be interpreted from both psychological and sociological perspectives. physical exercise itself can also characterize certain psychological characteristics of the participants, and the duration of exercise can reflect the persistence of the individual to the goal, the frequency of exercise can reflect the attitude of the individual to a healthy lifestyle, and the intensity of exercise can reflect the degree of individual's dedication to the pursuit of the goal[5]. in terms of practical ability, the mastery of technical maneuvers and the requirement of teamwork cultivated the residents' problem-solving ability and collaborative ability. in terms of psychological quality, the experience of winning and losing in the competition enhances the residents' ability to resist frustration and regulate their emotions. in the case of guangxi zhuang's crampon racing, for example, the sport requires participants to coordinate their pace, maintain balance, and cope with unexpected situations, elements of competence that are highly compatible with the core qualities required for adaptation to new environments. folk sports activities are usually conducted in relatively safe simulated environments, where residents can repeatedly try and make adjustments, and this mode of “trial and error learning” greatly reduces the cost of risk in the actual adaptation process. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 91 published by ideas spread 4. practical paths to optimize the effectiveness of social adaptation 4.1 layered organization strategy for children and adolescents, it is recommended that traditional sports be systematically integrated into the school physical education curriculum, such as incorporating games such as hopscotch, hoop rolling and shuttlecock into recess activities, and arranging a fixed number of hours per week for special teaching. at the same time, we can organize “traditional culture in school” activities, and invite non-genetic inheritors to demonstrate their skills on the spot. for young and middle-aged groups, focus on activities with competitive and social attributes, such as regularly organizing community dragon boat leagues and traditional wrestling tournaments, and setting up reasonable reward mechanisms. for the elderly group, it is necessary to highlight the function of health maintenance and health care, and open morning exercise classes and interest groups for traditional fitness programs such as taijiquan and baduanjin. in terms of activity intensity, it is recommended that a “three-step” strategy be adopted: the first stage focuses on simple group dances and games; the second stage introduces team projects with more complex rules; and the third stage carries out special activities with higher technical requirements. special attention should be paid to grasping the timing of traditional festivals, and organizing special activities with a sense of ceremony during important festivals such as the spring festival, dragon boat festival and mid-autumn festival, such as dragon and lion dances in the first month of the lunar calendar, and dragon boat races in the dragon boat festival, etc., which are more likely to arouse the emotional resonance of the residents due to their deep cultural connotations. 4.2 cultural integration and innovation in terms of cultural connotation excavation, professionals should be organized to systematically collate the historical origin, cultural symbols and spiritual connotations of various traditional sports, such as the spirit of unity and cooperation embodied in the dong snatching of flower cannons, and the worship of life expressed in the miao drum dance. in terms of innovative forms of expression, we can try the integration mode of “traditional programs +”: adding modern fitness elements to traditional dances and creating fitness exercises suitable for different age groups; simplifying cumbersome processes and shortening the length of activities under the premise of retaining the core rituals; and combining with modern aesthetic interests to moderately improve the costumes and props. special attention should be paid to the subjectivity and creativity of the residents, and the establishment of an innovative mechanism of “residents' proposal expert guidance community pilot promotion and improvement”. the immigrant community in the retention of the traditional gyro play at the same time, innovative design team relay race, skills challenge and other new forms, greatly enhancing the participation of enthusiasm. this kind of innovation originating from the wisdom of the masses is often more grounded and less resistance to promotion. at the same time, a cultural audit mechanism should be established to ensure that the innovation does not deviate from the core values of traditional culture. 4.3 resource guarantee system in terms of hardware facilities, it is recommended that multi-functional cultural activity centers be planned and constructed in immigrant communities, with special workshops, display areas and activity venues equipped with the necessary traditional sports equipment. the design of the venues should take into account functionality and culture, such as using traditional architectural elements for decoration. talent construction should focus on building a “three-in-one” training system: selecting and training skilled cultural inheritors through the “non-genetic inheritance training program”; implementing the “community cultural backbone training program”; improving activity organization capacity; and implementing the “community cultural backbone training program”. the “community cultural backbone training program” is being implemented to improve activity organization ability, and professional social sports instructors are being introduced to provide technical guidance. it is recommended that a “master and apprentice” inheritance mechanism be established, with appropriate subsidies given to the inheritors. financial security to establish diversified input channels: to fight for special government cultural funding support; mobilize local enterprises to sponsor; the establishment of community cultural funds to accept donations from residents; to explore the moderately remunerated service model. at the same time to improve the financial management system to ensure that the use of funds transparent and efficient. it is recommended to set up a cultural activities council composed of residents' representatives, responsible for day-to-day management and decision-making, and gradually realize autonomous operation. 4.4 mechanisms for promoting activities within the community, it is recommended to build a “point-line-side” promotion network: “point” to cultivate cultural demonstration households and activists; “line” to set up various interest groups and performance teams; “side” to carry out festival activities with full participation. on the “line”, various interest groups and performance hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 2; 2025 92 published by ideas spread teams should be formed; and on the “side”, festivals should be organized with the participation of all members of the community. a regularized mechanism of “weekly activities, monthly competitions and annual festivals” has been established. in terms of community exchanges, we regularly hold “neighborhood cultural festivals”, organize cross-community competitions and skill exchanges, and set up an open platform for display. in terms of wider promotion, it is necessary to make good use of various cultural display platforms, such as organizing teams to take part in regional folk culture exhibitions and traditional sports competitions. special attention should be paid to the role of typical demonstration, regularly selecting the “star of cultural inheritance”, “the most beautiful sports family”, etc., and promoting the advanced experience through the report of deeds, experience sharing meetings and other forms. the construction of incentive mechanisms should give equal weight to material rewards and spiritual encouragement, set up a special award fund, award certificates of honor, and provide opportunities for outbound exchanges. publicity and promotion should be a combination of traditional means and modern media: set up cultural bulletin boards in the community, make activity documentary albums; at the same time, use new media platforms to establish communities, make short videos and carry out online display. it is suggested that an annual “traditional culture achievement exhibition” be held to show the effectiveness of the activities in all aspects through physical display, on-site performance, interactive experience and other forms. 5.conclusion the study of the mechanism of folk sports on the improvement of residents' social adaptability in relocation has built up a “theory-practice” integrated research. it is found that folk sports deeply intervene in the social adaptation process of the residents by virtue of the dual path of cultural identity and social capital accumulation, which not only awakens cultural memory and reshapes the sense of belonging, but also promotes the reconstruction of social network and capital accumulation through group interaction. rebuilding social networks, fostering a sense of community, and passing on cultural capital play a key role in providing emotional support and capacity building for residents to integrate into the new environment. hierarchical organization, cultural integration and innovation, resource protection, and digital empowerment provide a practical implementation framework for community governance. the depth and breadth of the study can be further expanded to continuously explore the value of folk sports in promoting harmonious social development and the positive interaction between cultural heritage and social progress, so as to help relocated residents better integrate into the new life. acknowledgments this article is a research outcome of the hunan provincial philosophy and social sciences foundation project: the role of folk sports in facilitating social adaptation of relocated residents in the context of rural revitalization (project no.: 22yba100). references [1] zhou, m., & xiao, l. (2024). cracking the governance dilemma of relocated communities under the goal of new urbanization: a perspective of social capital reconstruction. rural economy, (09), 59–69. [2] liu, b. (2022). exploring the influence of regional culture on the development of folk sports. secondary school geography teaching reference, (08), 101. [3] li, h., & song, g. (2024). social base optimization and grassroots governance effectiveness of rural revitalization in relocated communities. qinghai ethnic studies, 35(04), 72–81. https://doi.org/10.15899/j.cnki.1005-5681.2024.04.009 [4] liu, t., he, q., xia, j., et al. (2023). historical examination and practical path of folk sports helping rural governance develop in high quality. sports science, 43(12), 54–61. https://doi.org/10.16469/j.css.202312006 [5] zhou, h., & zhou, q. (2022). influence of physical exercise on residents' social adaptability and estimation of net effect: an analysis based on propensity value matching method. journal of henan normal university (natural science edition), 50(06), 145–152. https://doi.org/10.16366/j.cnki.1000-2367.2022.06.019 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n1p85 85 published by ideas spread research on the design of cultural and creative products for huangling sunbathing autumn wang mani1 & guo yusheng2 1 donghua university, shanghai, china 2 hong kong polytechnic university, hong kong, china correspondence: guo yusheng, hong kong polytechnic university, hong kong, china. received: january 19, 2025; accepted: february 15, 2025; published: february 17, 2025 abstract under the implementation of the rural revitalization strategy, the tourism industry in ancient towns in china has flourished unprecedentedly, with more and more ancient towns being renovated and developed as tourist attractions. huangling ancient town, which has gained high popularity in recent years, has showcased its spectacular and unique drying autumn crops scenery, which sets it apart from other ancient town tourist attractions. however, there are phenomena such as superficialization, severe homogeneity, lack of innovation, lack of cultural connotation, and poor quality in the market of cultural and creative products in huangling ancient town, which need to be improved to enhance its overall competitiveness in similar ancient town tourist attractions, increase residents' income, promote the economic development of the scenic area, and tell the story of the ancient town through cultural and creative products. this study mainly uses literature research, field investigation, questionnaire survey, and case study methods. first, the background, definition, and value of cultural and creative products are analyzed, and successful experiences from excellent cases are learned. second, the development history, uniqueness, artistry, and innovation of huangling autumn culture are summarized, and the economic and cultural values of the culture and the current situation of cultural and creative products in huangling scenic area are deeply analyzed to prove the feasibility of cultural and creative products as a development and inheritance path for huangling autumn culture. examples are given to illustrate the principles that should be followed in designing cultural and creative products based on the autumn culture. finally, the design process of huangling autumn cultural and creative products is expounded and design practice is carried out. in the design of cultural and creative products, it is necessary to deeply mine the cultural connotation first, combine with the characteristics of the times, enrich the cultural value, attract a large number of consumers, so as to achieve the perfect integration of cultural and creative products and cultural elements, effectively promote the inheritance of culture, and drive economic development. keywords: sun autumn culture, cultural and creative design, ancient town tourism, ip image 1. analysis of cultural and creative products 1.1 definition of cultural and creative products cultural and creative products, short for cultural and creative products, are defined in "cultural and creative product design" as follows: "cultural and creative products refer to products with high added value that are created, integrated, and enhanced through the wisdom, skills, and talents of creative individuals, with the help of modern technological means, from culture, resources, daily necessities, and decorations, etc." [1] they can usually fully reflect the local religious beliefs, natural beauty, folk customs, patterns, and shapes. originating from cultural themes, they are transformed into products with economic value through the creativity, thinking, design, and manufacturing of designers. they can be either physical products or intangible services. the scope of cultural and creative products is wide, including artworks, tourist souvenirs, office supplies, household daily necessities, decorative items, etc. their characteristic lies in the combination of cultural content and creativity, endowing products with unique cultural value and artistic charm. 1.2 the background of the emergence of cultural and creative products although cultural and creative products have emerged in china in recent years, they have long been popular in western countries and japan. the concept of cultural and creativity was first proposed by the uk in 1998. thanks to its long history, rich humanistic heritage, and strong cultural industry, cultural and creative products came into hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 86 published by ideas spread being. with the progress of the times and the improvement of living standards, people's pursuit of art is no longer limited to traditional forms, and cultural and creative products have adapted to this trend. from the globally popular marvel cinematic universe to the ubiquitous golden cudgels and monkey king masks after the broadcast of the 1986 version of "journey to the west" in china, they all reflect the public's pursuit of a higher spiritual and cultural life. 1.3 the value of cultural and creative products cultural and creative products are different from ordinary products. they not only embody human labor, can meet people's usage needs, and have economic value, but also contain human wisdom, are creative, and can reflect local cultural characteristics, natural customs, etc., thus having cultural value. the development of cultural and creative products is an important support for active utilization and tourism development[2]. 1.3.1 economic value a successful cultural and creative product is often the image representative of a scenic area. it can enhance the popularity of the scenic area and showcase its charm and cultural characteristics. this not only improves the brand image of the scenic area but also builds loyalty between consumers and the brand. these unique cultural and creative products deeply stimulate people's desire to buy creative products, increase consumer stickiness, and attract more consumers. the production and sales of cultural and creative products form a complete industrial chain, including links such as raw material supply, design, manufacturing, distribution, and sales. the rise of these industries provides job opportunities in various aspects, including designers, craftsmen, production workers, salespeople, service staff, marketing personnel, etc., which greatly reduces the unemployment rate and improves the social employment level. therefore, the development and sales of cultural and creative products can bring significant economic benefits. cultural and creative products drive the development of the cultural industry, help transform the scenic area into an attractive cultural place, make the scenic area more culturally flavored, attract more tourists, thereby increasing residents' income and promoting the economic development of the scenic area. 1.3.2 cultural value cultural value is the most important value of cultural and creative products. the integration of various cultural elements with unique charm into product design is the fundamental support for the aesthetics and economy of cultural and creative products. cultural and creative products usually integrate local traditional cultural elements, such as symbols, stories, and patterns, into the design. through modern design techniques, they present unique creativity and innovation, inheriting and interpreting traditional culture. traditional handicrafts and paintings, by transforming traditional techniques into modern production means, not only retain the essence of traditional craftsmanship but also showcase modern aesthetics and innovation, promoting the sustainable development of culture. excellent cultural and creative products can even cross cultural boundaries, promote diversified cultural exchanges, enable people from more regions and countries to understand each other's cultures, and help people better understand and respect cultural differences. 1.4 case analysis of excellent cultural and creative products 1.4.1 analysis of the cultural and creative products of the palace museum the brand of the palace museum's cultural and creative products was established in 2008. at that time, the cultural and creative products were still very dull and traditional porcelain antiques, which made tourists less interested in the already solemn and majestic palace museum. in 2013, the tv drama "empresses in the palace" became popular across the country. the national palace museum in taipei printed the line "i know it" on the tape. a simple sentence made the emperor's majestic image become cute and charming, so this roll of tape was loved and sought after by people across the country and became one of the must buy tourist souvenirs. inspired by this, the palace museum in beijing also began various new attempts. the palace museum in beijing takes the architecture, cultural relics, and historical stories of the palace museum as design elements and combines them with the carriers favored by modern young people to develop cultural and creative products with the exclusive characteristics of the palace museum, creativity, in line with the current people's aesthetics, and practicality, thus shortening the distance between the palace museum and the people. later, interesting cultural and creative products such as the "travel by imperial decree" luggage tag and the "i can't see through" eye mask created by the palace museum were sought after by many young people. since then, more and more creative and highly interesting cultural and creative products have been introduced to the market. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 87 published by ideas spread the rise of the palace museum's cultural and creative products benefits from accurate positioning: users, products, and prices. initially, the target users of the palace museum's cultural and creative products were men aged 30 50, and the products were mostly traditional antiques, lacking practicality. with the popularity of being younger products such as the "i know it" tape and the imperial bead headphones, the palace museum turned its attention to young women, and the product positioning also shifted from traditional antiques to practical cultural and creative products, such as daily necessities and cosmetics. there are as many as tens of thousands of types, with annual sales in the hundreds of millions. the palace museum divides its cultural and creative products into two categories: "cute style" and "elegant style". cute style products have a lovely style and affordable prices, attracting young people; elegant style products are highly artistic, with an elegant style, and are favored by traditional culture enthusiasts, with relatively high prices. in terms of marketing, the palace museum's cultural and creative products adopt multiple approaches. they maintain a high level of activity through social media, official websites, and e commerce platforms, and release high quality content to attract users. in 2016, a set of photos of the palace museum in the first snow received 14 million clicks. in addition, the palace museum also enhances user participation through lectures, lotteries, and other activities. offline, it expands its influence through cross border cooperation. in short, the success of the palace museum's cultural and creative products is due to its active cooperation with the outside world in product research and development, opening itself up completely to the outside world, continuously attracting talents to strengthen itself. under the leadership of the operation team, the palace museum's cultural and creative products adhere to adapting to the development of the times, constantly bring forth new ideas, adhere to innovation, and maintain respect for traditional culture, enabling the palace museum's cultural and creative products to remain invincible in many industries. 1.4.2 case analysis of pop mart pop mart, founded in 2010, is a trendy cultural and entertainment brand loved by young people. in the more than ten years since its establishment, pop mart has built a comprehensive operation platform covering the entire industry chain of trendy toys, focusing on five areas: global artist discovery, ip incubation and operation, consumer reach, trendy toy culture promotion, and innovation business incubation and investment. figure 1. pop mart (from baidu images) as a leading brand in the blind box trendy toy industry, pop mart has always attached importance to the accumulation and innovation of ip images. currently, it has 93 ip images under its umbrella, including 12 self owned ips, 25 exclusive ips, and 56 non exclusive ips. through a cross border co branding strategy, pop mart has cooperated with well known brands such as lay's, holiland, häagen dazs, maserati, china aerospace, and gucci, covering multiple industries such as fmcg, food, automobiles, beauty, and luxury goods, continuously enhancing brand value and exploring new opportunities. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 88 published by ideas spread pop mart has opened up the domestic trendy toy market in the form of blind boxes. with its unique sense of freshness and experience, it has attracted the young group, lowered the threshold of trendy toys, and transformed fine art into popular art. its target customers focus on the young generation aged 15 to 40, especially the 18 to 29 year old group. they pursue personalized expression and are willing to meet their emotional needs through consumption. according to frost & sullivan data, this group accounts for 35% of the total population, with the 18 to 29 year old group accounting for about 45%. digital technology has brought changes to the sales channels of cultural products. pop mart not only focuses on creating offline scenarios but also, through online communities, membership systems, the trendy toy club, and mini programs, integrates multi channel user data to provide a consistent membership experience and enhance fan stickiness. the paqu app provides an online communication platform for blind box enthusiasts, endows trendy toys with cultural and social values, and builds a highly sticky fan community. pop mart has laid out the market in china through four sales points: tmall flagship store, wechat mini program, vending machines, and offline stores. at the same time, it is actively expanding overseas business and achieving global operations. through a localized product portfolio and an online channel network of international independent websites + cross border e commerce platforms, pop mart has promoted its brand globally. the success of pop mart lies in accurately grasping the preferences of the young consumer group, making use of their consumption habits, creating products with emotional value. at the same time, by leveraging emerging technological means, it maintains the cutting edge position of its products, continuously innovates marketing methods, and continuously enhances brand influence and popularity. 1.4.3 analysis of the ip image "snow king" of mixue bingcheng mixue bingcheng was founded in henan in 1997 by the founder zhang hongchao. as a new style tea brand with nearly 30 years of history, mixue bingcheng has always adhered to the customer centered concept, focusing on "affordable milk tea for everyone". therefore, mixue bingcheng has quickly stood out among various tea brands due to its affordable prices and is loved by the majority of young people. the ip image "snow king" of mixue bingcheng (see figure 2) selects the well known "snowman" as the cultural subject and conveys the brand attributes through visual symbols such as "scepter, crown, and smile". as the top tier beverage brand in the sinking market, mixue bingcheng has indeed studied the design of affinity thoroughly. products with too strong a design sense may bring a lot of concerns to consumers. the design of the "snow king" image is simple and clear, with strong affinity, making consumers feel no distance, perfectly demonstrating the brand concept and brand image. figure 2. the ip image "snow king" of mixue bingcheng (from xiaohongshu) in the online world, the "snow king" of mixue bingcheng has become deeply rooted in people's hearts with the image of a "street loafer" and an "eye catcher". it doesn't put on airs or force cuteness, and it gets along well with young people by using and creating internet memes. offline activities such as the "snow king" dancing and fighting have attracted a large number of consumers' attention and triggered spontaneous dissemination on social media. brand personification has given the "snow king" vitality, making its image vivid. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 89 published by ideas spread in june 2021, mixue bingcheng released the catchy and brain washing "mixue bingcheng theme song" and its mv. with its simple and memorable lyrics and catchy rustic melody, it quickly attracted the attention of the whole network. the song continued to ferment on social media, and netizens spontaneously carried out second creations such as multi language cover versions, lyric adaptations, and spoof choreography, setting off a ugc (user generated content) feast. on august 25, 2023, mixue bingcheng launched its first ip animation "the snow king's adventure", which tells the story of the snow king losing his scepter in the struggle with the rebels and starting an adventure journey with the bounty hunter boss rabbit. on the day of its launch, the cumulative playback volume of the animation on bilibili exceeded one million, becoming another national wide communication event after the brain washing song. through the animation, mixue bingcheng explored a new path for brand marketing, deepened the ip image, and achieved a win win situation in terms of traffic and sales. it can be seen that mixue bingcheng and its ip image the snow king have been focusing on the sinking market, deeply catering to young people, accurately capturing the interests and consumption orientations of young people, being able to truly get close to users and establish a close connection with them. mixue bingcheng has broken the dimensional wall through self made ip animations, connected with users emotionally, continuously output brand stories, and deeply rooted the brand culture in the ip image. 2. analysis of huangling's autumn sun drying culture 2.1 analysis of the characteristics of huangling's autumn sun drying culture 2.1.1 the uniqueness of huangling's autumn sun drying culture the "autumn sun drying" scene can be seen in places like wuyuan and the regions south of the yangtze river. however, due to the terrain limitations in huangling ancient town, residents have extended a row of chinese firs from the bay windows on the second floor of their houses, creating a unique drying space. colorful fruits, vegetables, and grains are stacked layer upon layer. compared with the way of directly drying on the ground or under the eaves in other areas, it is more ornamental and artistic. 2.1.2 the artistry of huangling's autumn sun drying culture huangling ancient town is nestled among mountains, with well arranged hui style buildings featuring white walls and black tiles, looking like a quiet and beautiful scroll. during the autumn harvest season, bright colored fruits and vegetables are dried on the eaves. the light and shadow interlace in the sunlight, creating a colorful visual feast, adding a sense of mystery and artistry to the autumn sun drying. farmers skillfully arrange the crops, creating a natural and simple atmosphere of homesickness. through forms such as drying grains, dancing, and singing, people express their joy of harvest and their expectations for the future. from clothing to utensils, every detail contains rich cultural connotations. the static pictures and dynamic arrangements jointly showcase the artistic charm of the autumn sun drying. 2.1.3 the innovation of huangling's autumn sun drying culture the success of the autumn sun drying culture benefits from the careful design of the sun drying materials and patterns. the scenic area has extended the autumn sun drying scene from autumn to all four seasons, planning the drying of different seasonal crops and matching them with rich colors. experienced designers create autumn sun drying patterns, showing the harvest scenes of the farmland in the ancient town, reflecting rural revitalization and national development, and expressing people's good wishes for the motherland. the autumn sun drying patterns have rich implications and can be divided into themes such as sun drying hot topics, sun drying auspiciousness, sun drying feelings, and sun drying homesickness. these patterns not only highlight the cultural connotations, demonstrate the implementation of rural revitalization and the rapid development of the country, but also enhance the ornamental and artistic value, making huangling's autumn sun drying a unique cultural symbol. 2.2 analysis of the cultural value of huangling's autumn sun drying culture 2.2.1 the economic value of huangling's autumn sun drying culture huangling's autumn sun drying culture, with its unique charm, has attracted a large number of tourists, bringing significant economic benefits to the local area. the tourism industry is the main beneficiary. the autumn sun drying culture has injected new vitality into the tourism industry, enhancing its popularity and attractiveness. at the same time, the success of the autumn sun drying culture has driven the development of the industrial chain such as packaging, manufacturing, and logistics. it has provided an opportunity for the promotion of characteristic agricultural products, facilitating their sales and increasing farmers' income. the development of the scenic area hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 90 published by ideas spread has also brought villagers land transfer fees, public resource usage fees, and income from working, greatly improving the villagers' living standards and happiness index. 2.2.2 the cultural value of huangling's autumn sun drying culture huangling's autumn sun drying culture holds an important position in china's folk culture, demonstrating nearly a hundred years of history and cultural connotations. during the autumn sun drying festival, folk activities such as dragon lantern dancing, nuo dancing, and taige (a form of folk performance) are held to celebrate the festival. from dance music to clothing and utensils, they showcase the charm of traditional chinese culture, enhance cultural identity, and help inherit and carry forward excellent traditional culture, maintaining the uniqueness and diversity of local culture. huangling's autumn sun drying culture is also an inheritance and respect for traditional agricultural methods. although modern technology has promoted agricultural changes, the autumn sun drying culture has still been preserved and developed. through harvesting, drying, and other methods, farmers express their respect for traditional farming and inherit the essence of agricultural culture in art, making it still of far reaching significance in the contemporary era. 2.3 problems faced by the development of huangling's autumn sun drying culture with the increasing popularity of huangling's autumn sun drying culture, the degree of commercialization has intensified, and the phenomenon of over commercialization has emerged. the autumn sun drying culture has been commodified, and its traditional characteristics and authenticity have been damaged. although some ancient dwellings have been preserved as they were, the scenic area is filled with commercial signs of milk tea shops, handicraft shops, homestays, etc., which are incompatible with the hui style architectural style. the original intention of cultural inheritance has gradually been replaced by commercial interests. excessive commercial entertainment facilities have made the scenic area lose its original simple charm, and the simplicity and authenticity of the autumn sun drying culture have been covered up by commercial packaging. at the same time, the problem of rural hollowing out is becoming increasingly serious. a large number of young people go out to work, resulting in a loss of labor force. the younger generation shows less interest in traditional culture, and the inheritance of traditional skills and customs is facing a break. the traditional characteristics of the autumn sun drying culture are under threat. the influx of foreign cultures has made the originally closed community in huangling face cultural shock. the lifestyle and values of the residents have changed. to cater to commercialization, the autumn sun drying activities are gradually deviating from the tradition, and cultural conflicts are intensifying. the authenticity of huangling's autumn sun drying culture is facing challenges. 3. the application of huangling's autumn sun drying culture in the design of cultural and creative products 3.1 feasibility analysis of cultural and creative products as the carrier for the development of huangling's autumn sun drying culture rural development is a key point of national strategy. driven by the rural revitalization and cultural powerhouse strategies, the value of rural cultural industries has become increasingly prominent, and academic research on rural cultural and creative products has gradually deepened. cultural and creative products are favored by scenic area operators due to their low production costs, high added value, and good publicity effects. combining the farming culture, blessing seeking culture, symbols, and patterns in huangling's autumn sun drying culture with modern artistic techniques can showcase the autumn sun drying culture from a new perspective, enhance its commercial value, expand its popularity and influence, attract more tourists, and promote the economic development of the scenic area. however, through on the spot visits, the author found that huangling scenic area lacks characteristic cultural and creative products. most of the products sold are traditional handicrafts, such as oil paper umbrellas, cheongsams, and handmade bags. these products do not reflect the characteristics of huangling, and they are expensive and lack attractiveness. thus, it can be seen that cultural and creative products combined with the autumn sun drying culture are still blank in the huangling market, and there is broad potential. huangling's autumn sun drying culture realizes modern protection and inheritance through the cultural and creative industry, while the cultural and creative industry achieves development with the help of the autumn sun drying culture. the two are mutually beneficial and complementary. through the design and promotion of cultural and creative products, not only can the traditional characteristics of the autumn sun drying culture be retained, but also new vitality can be given to it, promoting the dual development of culture and economy. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 91 published by ideas spread 3.2 analysis of huangling's autumn sun drying culture as the creative source of cultural and creative products the cultural creativity in cultural and creative products refers to the transformation of culture into creativity through innovative thinking. this cultural creativity does not arise out of thin air but is generated based on life experiences, personal experiences, environmental influences, social cognitions, or emotions related to history, humanity, and regions [3]. huangling's autumn sun drying culture contains unique symbols and elements, such as the scenery of huangling, the autumn sun drying scenes, agricultural crops, and traditional rice processing techniques (harvesting, drying, threshing, etc.), which all provide rich creative sources for the design of cultural and creative products. autumn sun drying is not only an agricultural activity but also carries the blessing seeking culture. residents pray for a good harvest and happiness in the coming year through autumn sun drying. designers can create cultural and creative products with huangling characteristics by understanding and applying these cultural symbols. the farming culture, blessing seeking culture, craftsmanship, and elemental symbols in huangling's autumn sun drying culture provide a continuous stream of inspiration for design. however, only by deeply exploring the cultural connotations and combining them with the needs of the public for creative innovation can cultural and creative products be designed to be widely accepted and loved. 3.3 design principles of cultural and creative products of huangling's autumn sun drying culture 3.3.1 the integration of inheritance and innovation cultural production needs to take into account both cultural inheritance and market rules. when creating cultural and creative products of huangling's autumn sun drying culture, designers should retain traditional elements (such as autumn sun drying scenes, the images of farmers working, and bumper crops) and at the same time integrate innovative designs, endowing them with new connotations and forms of expression to fit contemporary aesthetics and lifestyles. technological innovations (such as artificial intelligence and virtual reality) provide diversified means of expression for cultural and creative design. for example, the "touring dunhuang in the cloud" mini program (see figure 3) integrates exploration, visiting, and protection functions, allowing users to experience dunhuang art without leaving home. consumers prefer unique and high quality products. the integration of tradition and modernity can not only trigger cultural identity and emotional resonance but also meet the pursuit of cultural connotations and emotional values, injecting new vitality into the cultural and creative industry. figure 3. "touring dunhuang in the cloud" mini – program 3.3.2 the unity of culture and aesthetics when designing cultural and creative products, attention should be paid to the unity of cultural connotations and aesthetic expressions. avoid designing products that lack soul and have similar creativity just to pursue sales volume. cultural and creative products in scenic areas need to deeply explore cultural connotations, showcase hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 92 published by ideas spread local characteristics, and meet the cultural sense of belonging of tourists, rather than just adding cultural elements on the surface. during the design process, it is necessary to combine product characteristics, target consumers, and market demands to screen and transform cultural elements [4]. for example, sanxingdui cultural and creative products such as mahjong ornaments (see figure 4) cleverly combine the ancient shu bronze culture with sichuan chongqing mahjong elements and get closer to consumers through cute style processing. designers can draw on this idea, artistically process and innovatively design the elements of huangling's autumn sun drying culture, integrate emotional portrayals and aesthetic elements, and enhance the aesthetic and expressiveness of the products to attract more consumers' attention and love. figure 4. sanxingdui mahjong ornament cultural and creative product 3.3.3 the combination of functionality and practicality when designing cultural and creative products, designers need to consider cultural connotations, aesthetic expressions, and functionality. over emphasizing beauty and creativity while ignoring practicality makes it difficult to meet the needs of tourists. tourists pay attention to the use, frequency of use, and meaning of products. designers should first consider the usage scenarios and user needs and design products that have artistic value, cultural connotations, and practical functions. through innovations in material selection, structural design, and functional layout, the products can be made more in line with the needs of modern life, enhancing their practicality and market competitiveness. 3.3.4 the principle of sustainable development when designing cultural and creative products, designers should, while pursuing commercial interests, pay attention to the impact of products on the environment and society, and advocate green environmental protection and social welfare. through innovations in material selection, production processes, and packaging design, promote environmentally friendly materials and processes to reduce environmental pollution. at the same time, through product sales and publicity, spread positive social values to promote social harmony and cultural inheritance. for example, the "seed calendar" (see figure 5) integrates plant seeds into the paper, and it can germinate with rainwater, which is both interesting and environmentally friendly, effectively promoting the concepts of environmental protection and garbage recycling. figure 5. seed calendar hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 93 published by ideas spread 4. design practice 4.1 design process the design of cultural and creative products in ancient towns lies in the fact that the products condense the unique regional characteristics of the ancient town. in the design process, first, on-the-spot investigations and research should be carried out on the local geographical environment, cultural characteristics, and development history. at the same time, an investigation and analysis should be conducted on consumers' hobbies, living habits, and consumption habits to establish a consumer profile. after that, the cultural elements of the ancient town are scattered and sorted, useful cultural elements are extracted, and the design is carried out. the cultural elements of huangling’s autumn sun-drying are transformed into vivid visual symbols, incorporating these cultural features into the product design in a visually appealing manner (see figure 6) figure 6. design flowchart 4.2 preliminary research 4.2.1 design and analysis of the questionnaire in december 2023, the author distributed the "questionnaire on the design intention of cultural and creative products of huangling's autumn sun drying culture" online, aiming to understand the public's cognition, preferences, and expectations of huangling's autumn sun drying culture and its cultural and creative products. the questionnaire results show that the respondents are mainly young people aged 18 35 (accounting for 69%), and the gender ratio is balanced (55.9% male and 44.1% female). most people learned about the autumn sun drying culture through online media (such as official accounts, xiaohongshu, and douyin). the main motivation for purchasing cultural and creative products is for personal use or as gifts for relatives and friends. the respondents prefer decorative and daily use cultural and creative products, favor the design style that combines traditional charm and fashion, and the acceptable price range is 20 yuan to 100 yuan. at the same time, the respondents generally believe that the current cultural and creative products on the market have problems such as poor quality, lack of innovation, and serious homogenization. based on the survey results, the design of cultural and creative products of huangling's autumn sun drying culture should focus on functionality and practicality, mainly be decorative and daily use products, integrate the characteristics and connotations of the autumn sun drying culture, combine a fashionable and interesting design style, and control production costs to ensure that the product price does not exceed 100 yuan, so as to meet consumer needs and enhance market competitiveness. 4.2.2 analysis of the field research in huangling this study takes the huangling scenic area in wuyuan as the target market, focusing on the visitors to the scenic area and enthusiasts of the autumn sun drying culture. a survey was carried out on their age, gender, income, education level, and the current situation of cultural and creative products. the huangling scenic area is located in jiangwan town, wuyuan, jiangxi province. it was built in the xuande period of the ming dynasty, with a history of more than 600 years. after renovation and upgrading in 2013, it was opened to the public. the main scenic spots include huangling's autumn sun drying, terraced flower fields, the flower town, and tianjie street. the survey shows that the male to female ratio of tourists in the huangling scenic area is balanced. the age is concentrated in the range of 18 45 years old (accounting for about 60%), and those over 46 years old account for 20%, indicating that the scenic area is more attractive to young and middle aged people, but the elderly tourists also show a relatively high interest. the proportion of tourists with a bachelor's degree or above is the highest (about 36%), and those with a junior high school education or below only account for 6%, indicating that the natural scenery and traditional culture of huangling are more favored by people with a high education level. the occupational distribution is mainly enterprise employees, freelancers, and employees of enterprises and public institutions (accounting for about 70%), and the monthly income is mostly 3000 5000 yuan, with the middle hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 94 published by ideas spread income group in the majority. the vast majority of tourists said that their purpose of coming here is to enjoy the natural scenery and experience the cultural heritage. however, most of the products in the cultural and creative stores in the scenic area are traditional commodities, such as oil paper umbrellas, cloth shoes, jewelry, silverware, etc. they lack creativity, practicality, and relevance to huangling culture, and it is difficult to meet the needs of tourists. therefore, it is necessary to learn from excellent cultural and creative cases, improve the design level, and create products that combine cultural connotations and practicality to better showcase the unique charm of huangling's autumn sun drying culture. 4.2.3 consumer portrait before designing cultural and creative products, it is necessary to first position the consumers. in addition to collecting the basic identity characteristics of consumers, the establishment of a potential consumer portrait also requires an understanding of the personality and emotional impressions of potential consumers. based on accurate analysis, their needs for products can be obtained [5]. according to the consumer portrait, cultural and creative products that meet consumer needs can be designed. consumers with different images have different living habits, personality characteristics, hobbies, and their demands for products and acceptable prices are also quite different. according to the questionnaire analysis, field investigation in the previous text, and the data obtained from searching "huangling" on baidu index (see figure 7), students and employees of enterprises and public institutions aged 18 45 are targeted as the target objects. because this type of people have a relatively high level of education, pay more attention to the quality of life and cultural connotations, like to pursue novel and personalized things, and have a certain consumption capacity. figure 7. baidu index search for "huangling" (from baidu index) 4.2.4 brand positioning the brand positioning of rural culture is to meet users' spiritual experiences through marketing and communication of the unique cultural resources of the countryside, forming a unique brand memory. the existing cultural and creative products in the huangling scenic area lack characteristics and creativity. it should take the autumn sun drying culture as the core, highlight farming and blessing seeking elements, create brand stories, and convey historical and cultural connotations. the product is positioned with a fashionable and interesting style, mainly decorative and daily use products, with a price range of 10 yuan 50 yuan, to meet the needs of young people for personal use or gift giving, strengthen the brand image and recognition, and achieve differential competition. 4.3 design techniques 4.3.1 collage technique collage originated hundreds of years ago. in the early 20th century, the cubist artists braque and picasso named it "collage", which comes from the french word "coller", meaning to stick. the materials for collage are diverse, such as magazines, photos, illustrations, etc. they are recombined through an interesting logic and applied in fields such as literature, music, and art. in the cultural and creative design of huangling's autumn sun drying, the collage technique can be used to extract and reorganize elements such as photography, painting, and fabric. through hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 95 published by ideas spread artistic means, different materials are collaged to form a new art form, showing the unique charm of the autumn sun drying culture. 4.3.2 reconstruction technique the reconstruction technique creates more novel, creative, and functional works by recombining, conceiving, and designing existing elements, structures, or concepts. it helps designers break the routine, explore innovation points, and transform them into innovative products. by splitting and reorganizing different design elements, traditional patterns, or styles, combined with re creation of cross media integration, the reconstruction technique promotes the creative transformation and innovative development of traditional crafts, making them more accessible to the public and rejuvenating with new vitality [6]. 4.3.3 combination technique in the design of cultural and creative products, the combination technique usually refers to the combination of traditional styles, techniques, materials, etc. with cultural and creative products. in the design of cultural and creative products of huangling's autumn sun drying culture, traditional culture can be combined with modern art to create a unique style. different colors, such as red, green, and yellow, can also be matched together to create a colorful and eye catching color combination. different functional and design elements can be combined, for example, the autumn sun drying crops originally used as food can be combined with refrigerator magnets with use and decorative functions to design creative and artistic new products. 4.4 extraction of cultural elements pattern extraction: extract elements such as rice, scarecrows, farmers doing autumn sun drying, fruits and vegetables, drying trays, and hui style ancient houses. after abstraction, they are integrated into the design to enhance regional characteristics and visual appeal. in the autumn sun drying, orange is the most representative color. therefore, in the pattern design, orange should be the main color, matched with red, green, and blue to create an autumn atmosphere. angle extraction: draw on the scenery and scenes of huangling's autumn sun drying. starting from the drying platforms made of bamboo poles, create a broad and natural visual effect. use it as the background of the work to make the work more hierarchical. cultural extraction: according to the historical background of the huangling scenic area and the emotions and good wishes that people want to express, integrate them into the work. for example, extract the dynasty when huangling ancient town was established and the characters at that time, and design stories about huangling's autumn sun drying to make the work more story telling and inheritable. 4.5 application of cultural elements in design 4.5.1 ip image design ip image design plays an important role in the development of a brand. use the ip elements of the scenic area itself to develop a series of cultural and creative derivatives. at the same time, carry out scenic area product development, scenic area tour route development, scenic area brand remodeling, scenic area accommodation, etc., to achieve the transformation from single to multiple, and truly integrate the ip into the construction and development of the scenic area [7]. when designing the ip image, first integrate the cultural elements of huangling's autumn sun drying into the ip image design, such as blessing seeking, farming, history, etc. use artistic techniques to express the core values and spiritual connotations of the autumn sun drying culture, as well as the close connection between man and nature, and man and the land, in the form of images, colors, and shapes. through the dissemination and promotion of the image, the public's sense of identity with the autumn sun drying culture can be stimulated, and the inheritance and attraction of the autumn sun drying culture can be enhanced. the name of the ip image character is zhang manman (see figure 8). she was born in huangling village, wuyuan city, jiangxi province, at the age of 18. she has a lively and cheerful personality, likes to eat delicious food and enjoy the scenery. the name zhang manman implies "full of harvest, full of happiness, and full of good luck", echoing the state of a bumper harvest of grain and a happy life of the people in huangling's autumn sun drying culture. the design of the ip image "zhang manman" seizes the time point when the huangling scenic area was built in the middle of the ming dynasty. taking the maidservant of the ming dynasty as the main body of the ip image design, the ip image is designed in combination with the hairstyle, makeup, clothing, and patterns of the maidservant in the middle of the ming dynasty. some autumn sun drying elements, such as the colors and fruits of autumn sun drying crops, are added to the design of the ip image. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 96 published by ideas spread figure 8. three view drawing of huangling's autumn sun drying culture ip zhang manman 4.5.2 ip image extension strong extensibility is one of the characteristics of an ip. by empowering an ip with a unique connotative story, a lot of extensible content can be created [8]. based on the ip image design, design different styles, festival themed, and age specific clothing and hairstyles for the ip image as an extension design of the ip image (see figure 9). figure 9. ip image clothing extension 4.5.3 information design of huangling's autumn sun drying culture analyze huangling's autumn sun drying culture and use the ip image, autumn sun drying crops, hui style architecture, etc. to design an information map of huangling's autumn sun drying culture (see figure 10), and display the autumn sun drying culture in detail through pictures and texts, so that tourists can have a clearer understanding of the autumn sun drying culture. figure 10. information design of huangling's autumn sun drying culture hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 97 published by ideas spread 4.5.4 design of ip image emoji pack an emoji pack was designed based on the image of zhang manman (see figure 11). figure 11. design of zhang manman emoji pack 4.6 product display based on the previous designs of the ip image, posters, and emoji packs, cultural and creative products were designed, including mouse pads, fans, notebooks, tote bags, badges, stickers, tapes, mobile phone cases, etc. (see figure 12). figure 12. cultural and creative products display 5. conclusions and prospects 5.1 research conclusions in today's tourism industry, it is of even greater significance to enhance the cultural and aesthetic values of cultural and creative products in addition to improving the practicality of products. we integrate regional characteristics into the design of cultural and creative products to drive the economic development of ancient towns with cultural and creative industries and improve the living conditions of residents. at the same time, designers should first conduct on the spot investigations to fully understand the local customs, natural resources, as well as consumers' living habits, personality traits, and hobbies. they should extract cultural elements based on the obtained information and establish brand positioning. only by following these steps can they design cultural and creative products that satisfy consumers. references [1] zhou, c. j., he, z. q., & yuan, s. q. (2019). cultural and creative product design. chemical industry press. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 98 published by ideas spread pages 83-150. [2] du, x. y., zhang, w. y., & liu, y. z. (2022). research on the protection and inheritance of luoshan dragon, a national intangible cultural heritage under the integration of culture and tourism. hundred schools in arts, 38(5), 41-49. [3] gao, y. (2017). research on the application of yangzhou intangible cultural heritage in the design of cultural and creative products (doctoral dissertation, east china university of science and technology). [4] tang, c., & liu, j. (2024). research on the application of regional cultural elements in cultural and creative design. west leather, 46(3), 117-119. [5] yang, l., wang, f. f., & zhang, y. l. (2023). traditional village chinese-style wedding cultural and tourism architecture planning based on potential consumer portrait: taking quanfang village, jinxi county, jiangxi province as an example. huazhong architecture, 41(10), 150-154. [6] tang, p. (2022). thoughts on the inheritance and development of folk arts and crafts from the perspective of mass culture. hundred schools in arts, 38(4), 144-150. [7] xu, z. a., & zhang, x. z. (2024). research on the design of tourism cultural and creative products under the background of the integration of culture and tourism. packaging engineering, 45(4), 359-361+404. [8] liu, x., & zhou, x. y. (2024). research on the design of ip for traditional chinese festivals based on embodied cognition. packaging engineering, 45(2), 444-451+47. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n5p19 19 published by ideas spread study on the empowerment of women's participation in rural tourism under the background of rural revitalization —— take the rural revitalization demonstration area of mount tai jiunu peak as an example shuya zhang1,2, yanbin feng1, xun zeng1, xutong jiang1 & yang chang1 1 southwest forestry university, china 2 nanjing agricultural university, china correspondence: yanbin feng, southwest forestry university, kunming, yunnan, china. received: august 31, 2025; accepted: september 11, 2025; published: september 12, 2025 abstract with continuous socioeconomic development, rural tourism has not only become a vital component of china's tourism industry system but also serves as a key mechanism to implement national development strategies and empower rural revitalization. as talent development forms the foundation of rural revitalization, women— benefiting from their unique advantages—are increasingly becoming driving forces and contributors to rural tourism development, currently constituting a significant proportion of rural surplus labor. taking the tai shan jiunu peak rural revitalization demonstration zone as a case study, this paper focuses on women within its jurisdiction. through literature review, questionnaire surveys, and semi-structured interviews, it explores their empowerment manifestations in rural tourism under the context of rural revitalization. the findings reveal: (1) women's rights in jiunu peak have improved across four dimensions—economic, political, psychological, and social—with greater enhancements observed in economic and psychological empowerment, while social empowerment shows limited development and weaker political awareness; (2) specific manifestations include: economic empowerment exhibiting "skill stratification," political empowerment showing "formalized institutional empowerment," psychological empowerment demonstrating "intergenerational differentiation" and "role conflict," while social empowerment faces challenges in achieving "symbolic recognition"; (3) building on this foundation, the author deeply integrates women's empowerment into the five pillars of rural revitalization: industry, talent, culture, ecology, and organization. by restructuring systems, reallocating resources, and reshaping capabilities, the study demonstrates how "women's development" and "rural revitalization" can mutually reinforce each other. this approach transforms women from "participants in development" to "leaders in revitalization," enabling them to gain tangible empowerment through rural tourism. such efforts carry significant theoretical and practical implications for sustainable rural tourism development, poverty alleviation through tourism, and the promotion of social equity and justice in the new era. keywords: rural revitalization, rural tourism, women's participation, empowerment, jiunu peak 1. introduction the report of the 20th national congress of the communist party of china states: "comprehensively advance rural revitalization. the most arduous and demanding tasks in building a modern socialist country remain in rural areas[1]". since the 18th national congress, president xi jinping has conducted multiple inspection tours in shandong province, delivering a series of important directives that have steadily advanced the rural revitalization strategy. as rural revitalization enters its deepening phase, rural tourism—a new form of economic development— has become a powerful driver for reshaping high-quality transformation in rural society[2]. it plays a vital role in promoting rural development, safeguarding farmers 'principal status, enriching people's spiritual lives, enhancing rural livelihoods, and advancing green development in villages[3]. furthermore, it is gradually emerging as a significant direction for domestic tourism development with promising market prospects. however, due to the influence of shandong's distinctive patriarchal culture, some women remain marginalized in rural tourism development. they face disadvantages in economic, cultural, and social environments while lacking awareness and effective channels to assert their self-interests. therefore, addressing rural women's interests and researching empowerment issues has become an objective requirement for sustainable rural tourism development hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 20 published by ideas spread and poverty alleviation through tourism in the new era. this also represents an inevitable trend toward promoting social equity and justice. 2. research review 2.1 domestic and international research on women in tourism development the participatory development concept originates from sen's developmental theory, with its essence rooted in two pillars: "participation" and "empowerment". participation requires active involvement of poverty-stricken communities in all phases of poverty alleviation efforts, while empowerment involves removing barriers to their participation while ensuring engagement. governments must transition from traditional poverty relief roles to becoming empowerers by granting more autonomy to beneficiaries, thereby promoting their active participation and self-improvement. participation serves as the foundation, while empowerment acts as the safeguard. this establishes a participatory mechanism where beneficiaries engage throughout the poverty reduction process, ultimately sharing in the benefits of industrial growth [4]. in 1995, swain first raised the issue of social gender in tourism development, marking the beginning of growing academic attention to women's participation in tourism. international research on female involvement in tourism began as early as the 1970s, with early studies focusing on female employment in the industry and women's travel behaviors. furthermore, the 1997 world tourism organization agenda 21 explicitly emphasized that sustainable tourism should involve all community levels, prompting scholars to explore gender empowerment and initiate research on women's empowerment. for instance, irandu and shah analyzed the impact of women's empowerment on tourism from a gender perspective, proposing that tourism could enhance gender equality through incomegenerating activities and educational initiatives[5]. naomi et al. argued that effective tourism policies could empower women, alleviate poverty, and achieve equality and equal opportunities, highlighting the significance of women's empowerment[6]. domestic research started relatively late. the western concept of "participation" was introduced to china in the late 1980s, and subsequently in the 1990s, economists and managers in the field of development assistance began to accept and recognize this concept more from the perspective of improving intervention efficiency. in fact, "participation" reflects a process of empowering grassroots communities, while "participatory development" is widely understood as a developmental approach characterized by active and comprehensive involvement of decision-making entities in the process of influencing people's living conditions and development planning projects[7]. the theory and practice of participatory development are now primarily applied to anti-poverty initiatives or public welfare projects, such as nature conservation and ecological restoration[8]. current research mainly focuses on the development of female tourism markets, studies on female tourists' behaviors, and the impact of tourism on ethnic minority women. in summary, current research predominantly examines women as consumers, overlooking their dual roles as producers and operators in rural tourism development. in practice, women go beyond providing basic services by actively participating in planning and management processes—including resource selection, daily operations, and promotional activities—demonstrating their multifaceted contributions to rural tourism development. 2.2 domestic and international studies on empowerment and tourism empowerment empowerment, a cross-disciplinary concept also translated as "empowerment" or "charging power", has gained increasing traction in tourism studies as its theory evolves and interdisciplinary integration deepens. scholars worldwide hold divergent perspectives on both empowerment theory and tourism empowerment research. (1) foreign research on empowerment and tourism empowerment in 1976, american scholar barbara solomon published her seminal work *black empowerment: social work in oppressed communities*, introducing the concept of "empowerment" for the first time in racial studies. she argued that empowerment involves overcoming specific barriers to change societal stereotypes about marginalized groups, enabling members to redefine themselves and regain confidence and self-esteem. early research primarily applied empowerment theory in social work, focusing on enhancing the power and participation of socially disadvantaged populations, which gradually became a theoretical foundation for social services. as related theories matured and practical applications expanded, this framework gradually extended to other research domains. in 1996, akamal pioneered its application in tourism studies by emphasizing the necessity of power distribution, becoming the first to highlight how power impacts community engagement in tourism. in 1999, scheyvens proposed that community residents are recipients of tourism empowerment during ecotourism research, establishing a four-dimensional empowerment framework encompassing economic, social, political, and psychological dimensions. he analyzed tourism empowerment comprehensively, noting that community tourism hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 21 published by ideas spread development is often manipulated by privileged or affluent groups, while ordinary residents' limited power prevents them from benefiting from tourism economic gains[9]. in 2003, sofield highlighted the necessity of tourism empowerment for sustainable development in his seminal work *empowerment and sustainable tourism development* [10]. in 2008, yoko okazaki proposed that tourism empowerment should follow the eight-stage hierarchy outlined by arnold (1976) as a progressive process[11]. later in 2010, david weaver developed a sixstage model illustrating the evolving relationship between tourism industries and local communities, introducing the concepts of in-situ empowerment and displaced empowerment[12]. in summary, international scholars' research on empowerment and tourism empowerment primarily focuses on fields such as economics, political science, sociology, and international relations. their studies emphasize conceptual interpretation, structural analysis, evaluation methods, implementation content, and approaches to address fundamental questions about empowerment. these include: "what is empowerment?" "which rights need to be enhanced?" "what are the pathways to empowerment?" "what is the rationale behind empowerment?" and "what are the purposes and significance of empowerment?" meanwhile, due to their early development, these studies have played a significant guiding role in the advancement of domestic research in this field. (2) domestic research on empowerment and tourism empowerment in the field of sociology, empowerment is regarded as a social process that promotes social equity and justice by enhancing individuals 'social status and power. in psychology, empowerment is considered a process of selfactualization and self-improvement, which enhances psychological well-being and happiness through boosting self-confidence and capabilities. in 2008, chinese scholars zuo bing and bao jigang first systematically introduced western empowerment theory into tourism research, organizing, absorbing, and critiquing it. they analyzed and proposed that empowerment serves as a crucial prerequisite for achieving sustainable tourism development, with individual empowerment preceding community empowerment. when applying empowerment theory to china's tourism practices, it is necessary to expand its scope to include promoting "individual rights" and "institutional empowerment" through national politics, thereby ensuring the legitimacy of both individual rights and community empowerment[13]. subsequently, zuo bing further proposed using yunnan's diqing as a case study to demonstrate that empowerment is an effective approach to promote fairness and sustainability in tourism development[14]. sun ying argued that empowerment involves processes where individuals, groups, or communities tap into their inherent potential or seek external support, which not only strengthens individuals' ability to control their own destinies but also optimizes social resource allocation. shi zhuoma emphasized that empowering villagers in tourism requires comprehensive understanding and accurate grasp of rural tourism development trajectories, as only through deep comprehension can villagers avoid unnecessary detours when participating in decision-making. huang ji, in her research on the development of traditional ethnic folk arts, pointed out that tourism empowerment is one of the key strategies following stakeholder theory for driving sustainable tourism development. in 2012, liao junhua proposed a six-dimensional perspective building upon schefens' four-dimensional framework, encompassing economic empowerment, social empowerment, political empowerment, cultural empowerment, psychological empowerment, and environmental empowerment. he further explored the relationship between tourism empowerment and participation willingness under this multidimensional view[15]. in 2015, xiu xintian introduced a five-dimensional perspective, categorizing tourism empowerment into five components: economic empowerment, political empowerment, psychological empowerment, social empowerment, and environmental empowerment[16]. in summary, domestic scholars 'research on empowerment and tourism empowerment primarily focuses on two fields: sociology and psychology. research topics cover discussions on the core concepts of empowerment and tourism empowerment, explanations of their necessity and importance, exploration of implementation strategies, as well as empirical studies. meanwhile, with the gradual localization of related concepts and theories in china's research, domestic scholars are actively exploring research approaches that better align with china's national conditions. they are no longer confined to community empowerment, and their research perspectives and methodologies are becoming increasingly diversified. 2.3 summary in summary, research on women's empowerment in rural tourism has achieved significant progress both domestically and internationally, spanning multiple academic disciplines. however, existing studies still face limitations, particularly the lack of comprehensive interdisciplinary analysis and in-depth empirical research. future research should focus on three key areas: first, enhancing interdisciplinary integration by combining empowerment theory with methodologies from psychology, sociology, economics, and related fields. second, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 22 published by ideas spread strengthening empirical validation through surveys and experiments to verify the feasibility and effectiveness of empowerment theories. third, emphasizing practical implementation by applying these theories to social practices and policy development to advance social equity and progress. 3. overview of the case shandong province has thoroughly studied the methodologies, development philosophies, and implementation mechanisms behind its "model village initiative and comprehensive rural improvement program". building upon grassroots practices, the province has pioneered a "cluster-based village development" approach, establishing demonstration zones as key implementation tools. to date, 138 provincial-level model zones have been launched across the region, creating a tiered construction framework with categorized advancement strategies. the taishan jiunu peak rural revitalization demonstration zone (hereafter referred to as "jiunu peak") has emerged as a timely response to these efforts. nestled in daiyue district of tai 'an city, shandong province, jiunu peak stands as the inaugural rural revitalization project developed by lushang group. this integrated resort combines leisure tourism, conference facilities, and vacation amenities. through comprehensive rural development initiatives, it has transformed a once impoverished mountainous area with poor transportation infrastructure into a vibrant tourist destination. with a population of 13,000 residents, daiyue district statistics indicate that women constitute 50.18% of the population, translating to approximately 6,536 female residents. the current tourism development model combines government support, corporate partnerships, and village collectives. this transformation has created extensive employment opportunities for local women while significantly enhancing their economic status and social standing. women play vital roles in jiunu peak's tourism sector, not only maintaining traditional agricultural and household responsibilities but also actively contributing to rural tourism services—including homestay operations, catering services, and tourism merchandise production—all designed to deliver comfortable and enjoyable travel experiences for visitors. 4. research programme the study is grounded in empowerment theory and participatory development theory, primarily employing questionnaire surveys and sociological in-depth interviews. beginning in 2023, the author collected materials on jiunufeng's rural tourism, women's engagement in tourism, and tourism empowerment-related topics and literature. field preliminary research was conducted in january, february, august, and december of the same year. based on collected data, the final questionnaire content and interview outline were finalized by late december. key research sites included zhujia village (february 25-26,2024), beizhang village, liyu village, and balou village (march 2-3, 2024), with a follow-up supplementary survey conducted on february 13,2025. the questionnaire consists of three main sections: the first covers basic personal information, the second details participation in rural tourism activities, and the third assesses perceived empowerment gains from these experiences. the survey included 188 women with 91.5% valid responses, of whom 172 actively contributed to rural tourism development initiatives. table 1. overview of questionnaire samples content option number of persons/person the proportion of /% age a.18 years and under 5 2.91 b. 19-25 years 41 23.84 c. 26-35 years 30 17.44 d.36~45 45 26.16 e. 46-55 years 15 8.72 f.56 years and older 36 20.93 degree of education a. primary and below 18 10.47 b. junior secondary/senior secondary/higher secondary 44 25.58 c. college/undergraduate 104 60.47 d. postgraduate and above 6 3.49 family structure a. unmarried 44 25.58 b. married, no children 14 8.14 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 23 published by ideas spread c. married with at least one child under 18 years of age 66 38.37 d. divorced, no children 3 1.74 e. divorce with at least one child under 18 years of age 4 2.33 f. married or divorced with children of full age 40 23.26 g. other 1 0.58 the average monthly income level after participating in rural tourism a.2000 yuan and below 16 9.3 b. 2001-3000 yuan 42 24.42 c.3001~4000 yuan 43 25 d.4001~5000 yuan 46 26.74 e.5001 yuan above 25 14.53 source: the author compiled the data according to the questionnaire survey in addition, there are 16 women who are not involved in the development of rural tourism. the reasons for not participating are mainly: no time, no opportunity, busy with taking care of children, not related to their own professional field, no idea to participate, the government has not popularized it, and there is no channel to participate. the specific word frequency analysis is shown in figure 1. figure 1. word frequency analysis of reasons for not participating in rural tourism the interview samples were collected using convenience sampling. as this study focuses on women's empowerment through rural tourism participation, face-to-face interviews were conducted with women involved in rural tourism development. before interviews, we first asked participants whether they had participated in rural tourism initiatives. if denied, we would inquire about reasons for non-participation and terminate the interview. for confirmed participation, we followed a pre-designed interview outline with verbatim documentation. key data collection areas included: (1) what positions did you hold before and after rural tourism development? (2) what motivated your initial involvement in rural tourism? (3) have your economic income and living standards significantly improved since participating? (4) was the government decision-making process transparent during rural tourism planning? did you have opportunities to voice opinions during policy formulation? (5) has rural tourism development deepened your understanding of local folk culture? (6) what challenges do you currently face in rural tourism initiatives? what roles do you believe women should play in rural tourism development? what are your perspectives or suggestions regarding women's participation? interviews averaged 20 minutes per participant, with the longest lasting 35 minutes and shortest 13 minutes. the interview materials were recorded in real time to capture information, but in order to prevent the omission of key information and details, after obtaining the permission of the interviewees, the author used the recording application on the mobile phone as a supplementary recording means, and after the interview, the audio files were systematically sorted out. among them, the basic information of 15 women involved in rural tourism development in the selected case area is shown in table 2: hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 24 published by ideas spread table 2. basic sociodemographic characteristics of interviewees number age degree of education marital status occupation/position monthly income level z1 56 years and above primary school and below married with adult children vendors at markets under 2000 yuan z2 26~35 years old junior high school/vocational school/high school married with at least one child under 18 caiyun garden/staff 2000~3000 yuan z3 56 years and above primary school and below married, children are all adults xx supermarket / owner under 2000 yuan z4 56 years and above junior high school/vocational school/high school married, children are all adults pig farm agricultural culture experience base/farm worker 2000~3000 yuan l1 36-45 years junior high school/vocational school/high school married with at least one child under 18 no. xx, farm house / owner 4000~5000 yuan l2 56 years and above primary school and below married, children are adults no. xx, farm house / waiter under 2000 yuan l3 56 years and above primary school and below married with adult children strawberry picking garden/staff under 2000 yuan l4 26~35 years old college/university marital status: married, no children xx xiangchun online shop/operator 2000~3000 yuan b2 19-25 years college/university unmarried nagano hospital/staff 4000~5000 yuan b3 46-55 years junior high school/vocational school/high school married with at least one child under 18 nagano-chukyu restaurant / front desk (shift leader) 3000~4000 yuan supplementary table 2 number age degree of education marital status occupation/position monthly income level bz1 19-25 years college/university married with at least one child under 18 hotel / front desk in spring 2000~3000 yuan bz2 26-35 years junior high school/vocational school/high school married with at least one child under 18 tourism performance/actors 3000~4000 yuan x 36-45 years junior high school/vocational school/high school married with at least one child under 18 hotel cleaning in spring 2000~3000 yuan d 26~35 years old college/university married with at least one child under 18 hotel staff (general manager) in spring 3000~4000 yuan source: the author compiled the data based on interview records in addition, through communication, the author also learned that most respondents are currently employed mainly in rural tourism-related jobs, supplemented by agriculture or other non-agricultural industries. the initial motivation for participating in rural tourism is to work nearby and obtain higher economic income. the specific ways of participating in rural tourism are summarized as follows in table 3: hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 25 published by ideas spread table 3. ways of participating in rural tourism class specific elaboration instance government + individual relevant government units will create a series of entrepreneurship and employment bases, actively carry out relevant vocational skills training, and lead and promote women's employment. the women's federation of daiyue district established a women's poverty alleviation base in caiyun garden, employing qualified local women to achieve employment at home (z2, z4, l3) business + individuals enterprises directly employ women to alleviate the problem of employment spring city resort hotel and yeyouyuan boutique homestay under shandong culture and tourism group are recruiting qualified local women to achieve employment at home (b2, b3, bz1, bz2, x, d) individuals vs. individuals expand the scale of rural tourism by the "pioneers" and employ other women the owner of farm house no.19 employs women from the surrounding area as helpers (l2) individual operation independent tourist reception facilities the major farmhouse in rifu village (l1) source: the author compiled the data based on interview records 5. analysis of women's empowerment in jiunu peak based on the previous literature and the current situation of jiunu peak, this paper describes the changes of women's sense of empowerment in jiunu peak from four dimensions of economy, politics, psychology and society according to the weighting theoretical framework proposed by scheyvens. the details are as follows: table 4. analysis framework for increasing rights dimension of increase in equity the representation of empowerment economy tourism brings lasting economic benefits to the local community, and the benefits are shared by the community families. some of them are used for community construction (such as road construction, some public facilities, etc.), and the living standard of the community residents has been improved. politics the interests of community residents can be satisfied and expressed through various channels. the community can participate in tourism decision-making and express the interests of the community through basic administrative organizations. psychology the recognition of the uniqueness and value of their cultures, natural resources and traditional knowledge has strengthened the self-esteem of many community members, who are now seeking further education and training opportunities. access to employment and economic benefits can improve the status of traditionally disadvantaged social groups such as women and youth. society tourism development helps maintain or strengthen community balance. when individuals and families work together to build successful tourism businesses, community cohesion improves. a portion of tourism revenue is used to build public facilities (such as schools and roads), which contributes to community development. 5.1 economic dimension the change of tourism economic income is an important manifestation of whether tourism has the most direct impact on the local area after tourism intervention. economic empowerment refers to the change of women's lifestyle through participating in rural tourism activities, which can obtain economic income, increase economic autonomy, and thus improve their economic status in the family and society. before developing rural tourism, the jiunu peak area was a notorious "poverty-stricken village". interviewee l1 once shared her past as a traditional homemaker: "i used to stay home tending to our family..." (l1, march 3, 2024). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 26 published by ideas spread another resident x remarked: "we used to stay home caring for the elderly and children every day. now that my kids are older and in college, i've started earning extra cash to ease the financial pressure. we can save some money every month now..." (x, march 2, 2024). z1 added: "before jiunu peak fully developed rural tourism, we relied on farming. when my husband went out to work, i'd stay home growing wild vegetables, groundnuts (potatoes), and persimmons just to make ends meet. we couldn't even cover my two kids' school fees, so we had to borrow from neighbors in the town." (z1, february 25,2024) given the low entry barriers in tourism and women's inherent advantages in language skills, observational abilities, memory retention, visual thinking, and intuitive reasoning[17], interviews revealed that nearly all respondents reported increased employment opportunities and improved income since rural tourism development began. "when tourism started here, we gradually attracted more visitors from other regions. during off-seasons, i'd set up stalls selling peanuts, handicrafts, eggs, and duck eggs at local markets. when my aunt's restaurant got busy, i'd help out. now i earn 2,000-3,000 yuan monthly. though off-season earnings might be slightly lower, it's still better... (laughs)" (z1, february 25,2024). l1, owner of farmhouse no.19, noted improved living standards after government poverty alleviation programs and tourism development in jiunu peak: "inspired by government initiatives, we started our farm stay business... initially , we worried tourists might dislike our food, but many loved it and became regulars. (laughs) look at this family who's a regular customer... our income has steadily increased to over 4,000 yuan monthly now!" "(l1, march 3, 2024) both b1 and b2 shared similar experiences. after graduating from university, they both took part-time jobs in first-and second-tier cities. 'while the income seems much higher now, after deducting daily expenses like rent, utilities, commuting, and food, we can't save any real money. let alone settling down to buy a home there. nowadays, working near my hometown is not only convenient but also comes with company-provided meals and housing. the pressure has eased compared to before, and i can even save a decent amount each month. '(b1, march 2, 2024) the regional development of jiunu peak's rural tourism has also alleviated employment pressure for college graduates to some extent, attracting more young entrepreneurs to return home and start businesses." the questionnaire analysis reveals that jiunufeng's rural tourism development has indeed generated economic benefits for local women, with overall living standards showing improvement. however, a pronounced "skill stratification" phenomenon persists: women skilled in e-commerce operations typically experience greater income growth compared to those working in basic tourism services. additionally, the number of job opportunities provided by scenic areas and tourism enterprises fails to meet all women's needs within the region. for instance, some women are excluded due to age-related limitations and educational constraints, highlighting the geographical constraints in the tourism industry's reach. 5.2 political dimension political empowerment refers to women's increased participation in village decision-making and governance through rural tourism activities, thereby enhancing their political engagement capabilities. this concept evaluates whether a region's political systems and regulatory frameworks effectively address local residents' needs, fairly represent community interests, and establish effective channels for public feedback. residents can voice their opinions through proper channels and participate in community decision-making processes. women's participation in tourism has effectively reduced economic friction between spouses. particularly for lowincome women originally engaged in farming, working in tourism not only increases their income but also allows them to balance family responsibilities, thereby enhancing their influence in household decision-making and financial management, which elevates their family status[18]. through interviews, all respondents indicated that rural tourism has brought them varying degrees of economic income, partially altering the traditional "men work outside while women manage inside" household dynamics. "initially, i thought about staying home to care for the elderly and children. now that my child has grown up and started college, i'm finally able to earn some extra money to ease the financial burden... as for family status... ha ha... it has indeed improved. with more disposable income, my influence in the household has significantly increased," (x, march 2, 2024) meanwhile, an increasing number of women have expressed that they now participate in the planning and decisionmaking processes of rural tourism development in their village, with a certain degree of influence. "our village has established specific deliberation rules for liyu village, holding regular meetings at the credit deliberation hall. these include activities like group study sessions, volunteer program arrangements, and policy consultations... i find the process quite democratic... villagers generally follow the requirements outlined in the village self-governance charter with a sense of responsibility." (l4, march 3, 2024) through developing rural tourism, jiunu peak women have gained political empowerment while ensuring more comprehensive and inclusive tourism policies and development plans. "the company conducts weekly theoretical training sessions. while hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 27 published by ideas spread enhancing our service skills, we also gain a clearer understanding of future development strategies... our manager is very approachable. she regularly engages in discussions with us, and we share our ideas with her... having worked here for several years, i feel like i'm growing alongside the company." (d, march 2, 2024) the analysis reveals a positive trend in political empowerment for women regarding rural tourism development. village committees have established dedicated councils to facilitate women's political participation, yet challenges persist in information dissemination, stakeholder engagement, opinion expression, leadership commitment, and organizational infrastructure development. key issues include inadequate policy implementation at the grassroots level and limited decision-making influence for women. many women lack understanding of policy details, relying heavily on village cadres' guidance while demonstrating insufficient initiative in political participation. to enhance women's sense of political involvement and empowerment, relevant authorities should prioritize their input, strengthen organizational capacity-building, and improve both practical participation rates and satisfaction levels among female community members. 5.3 psychological dimensions psychological empowerment in rural tourism refers to women's ability to boost self-confidence, enhance selfefficacy, and strengthen their sense of agency through participation in rural tourism activities. as the tourism industry advances, women involved in rural tourism development gradually recognize the unique cultural and ecological characteristics of their communities. they come to appreciate the value of traditional culture and natural resources, which fosters a sense of pride within them. this pride motivates them to actively integrate resources into tourism development, pursue necessary training and education, and improve their skills to adapt to modern tourism demands. through interviews, it is evident that the thriving rural tourism at jiunu peak has influenced the ideological and psychological changes of local women. "now i can converse with tourists from all over every day, gaining a fresh perspective on the outside world... i get to showcase my skills and spread our unique folk culture, making me feel incredibly fulfilled," said interviewee bz2, whose confident demeanor radiated throughout her interactions. (bz2, march 2, 2024) while serving guests, interviewee l1 added: "apart from household chores, things like grocery shopping and hiring staff now fall under my responsibility. when overwhelmed, my mother-in-law helps out... (guests often request extra dishes)... men are big spenders, but we women know better about managing finances. money is hard-earned – it needs to be spent wisely, especially for our children's education! (laughs)" she then continued working on her small business. (l1, march 3, 2024) "since starting work, we've participated in various company training programs and team-building activities. these have improved our professional skills and boosted our confidence to keep growing." (bz2, march 2, 2024) in summary, women's recognition in the workplace generates positive feedback that boosts self-affirmation. this enables them to tap into their inherent value and potential, allowing them to shape their roles with greater effort and confidence in both professional and personal life. such empowerment fosters optimism about the future while also driving the positive development of rural tourism. however, generational disparities persist. for instance, some young women face "family-career" role conflicts, while older women may experience technical anxiety, feeling unable to keep pace with emerging industry trends. 5.4 social dimension social empowerment through rural tourism enables women to expand their social networks and elevate their social status and influence. the most tangible manifestation of this empowerment is the balanced development of community elements as local tourism progresses. the economic benefits generated from initial tourism industry involvement serve as seed funding for upgrading living, educational, and recreational facilities. this drives comprehensive improvements in tourist destinations, elevates residents' quality of life, broadens their perspectives, strengthens community bonds, enhances overall cohesion, and empowers individuals to voluntarily participate in collective governance. the road at the entrance used to be an unpaved dirt path, making daily life difficult for villagers. many moved from the mountains to settle at the foothills. "our old roads here were all cement tracks about three to four meters wide. over time, they became riddled with potholes and bumps. nobody wanted to come here. those who tried selling fruits or free-range eggs here had to trek long distances to town just to make ends meet," (z1, february 25,2024) in 2019, jiunu peak area became a provincial model demonstration zone for rural revitalization in shandong province. the daishan district transportation bureau advanced rural tourism road construction and the "four good rural roads" initiative to high standards, opening doors to previously isolated villages and significantly hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 28 published by ideas spread improving tourism transportation infrastructure. interviews revealed that most respondents noted jiunu peak's rural tourism development had greatly enhanced local infrastructure and living conditions. "seeing the roads near our homes become wider and smoother, with more tourists visiting, i can truly feel our hometown gradually improving. it's genuinely heartwarming... and of course, a sense of pride." (bz2, march 3, 2024) "our village committee established a credit system to encourage good deeds, even creating a women's credit supermarket where members can exchange points for services like free water bills or haircuts... we maintain good relations. young women often go out together to watch movies or explore the city, not just us young folks. even my mother and aunt li frequently plan grocery trips or card games." (x, march 2, 2024) this demonstrates how jiunu peak's rural tourism development has fostered friendly interactions among women, creating a harmonious social atmosphere. "...our group and the village also engage in mutual promotion. for instance, during peak seasons when our restaurant can't accommodate all visitors, we recommend them to dine at local farmhouses. meanwhile, if their facilities can't provide sufficient lodging, we'll suggest they stay at our hotel. of course, the final decision rests with the travelers themselves." (b2, march 2, 2024) in summary, the infrastructure improvements in the area have enhanced living conditions for local women, while the rural tourism road winding around jiunu peak has become a path to prosperity for villagers. through measures such as establishing relevant policies and building cross-village collaboration networks, the village committee has effectively expanded women's social circles and fostered a harmonious and friendly social atmosphere. 6. conclusions and discussion taking jiunufeng as an example, this study deeply explores the empowerment performance and perception of women's participation in rural tourism under the background of rural revitalization under the guidance of scheyvens' four-dimensional weighting theory framework. the following conclusions are drawn: first,in recent years, with the efforts of the government, enterprises and society, the practice of women's participation in rural tourism has achieved remarkable results. second,participation in rural tourism has a positive impact on the economic, political, psychological, and social empowerment of women in jiunu peak. however, the extent of influence varies, with economic and psychological empowerment being the most prominent, while political empowerment is perceived less strongly. during the rapid development of rural tourism in jiunu peak, women, as vital human resources, have enhanced their economic income through engaging in reception services, developing distinctive tourism products, and providing cultural experiences. this not only enriched the essence of rural tourism but also strengthened their confidence and pride in folk culture. to some extent, it has increased their participation and voice in rural tourism development, gradually transforming them into active participants and beneficiaries of rural revitalization. third, economic empowerment exhibits a "skill stratification" phenomenon, with women skilled in digital technologies seeing significant income growth. political empowerment shows characteristics of "formalized institutional empowerment" —while women enter decision-making systems through the "party building + cooperatives" model, gender-blindness in policy implementation renders their influence nominal. psychological empowerment manifests as "intergenerational differentiation" and "role conflict": young women awaken selfawareness through redefining their identity as "new rural residents," whereas traditional gender norms still constrain elderly women's self-identity. social empowerment faces challenges of "symbolic recognition" — although women expand social networks via tourism associations, outdated cultural labels hinder substantial accumulation of social capital. the empowerment theory and participatory development theory provide a robust theoretical framework for analyzing the role transformation and empowerment attainment of women in jiunu peak's rural tourism, demonstrating exceptional applicability. future research could further explore this approach in other case studies. while these women have achieved notable progress in gaining empowerment through rural tourism, challenges remain, including insufficiently targeted skill training programs and the need to enhance both awareness and practical capabilities among women participating in such initiatives. references [1] xi, j. 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[16] xiu, x. (2015). study on community empowerment mechanisms and pathways in participatory forest tourism development [doctoral dissertation, fujian agriculture and forestry university]. [17] niu, c., & wang, g. (2010). analysis of employment status and advantages/disadvantages of female tourism professionals in china. journal of northwest a&f university (social sciences edition), 10(5), 71-76. [18] shen, s., & xiao, y. (2021). "society, family, and individual: a study on factors influencing women's tourism employment under gender theory." journal of ningbo university (humanities and social sciences edition), 34(5), 103-110. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v6n3p24 24 published by ideas spread forum kewaspadaan dini masyarakat (fkdm) as a strategy instrument for countering radicalism and extremism in north purwokerto district, banyumas regency, indonesia nuriyeni kartika bintarsari1, muhammad yamin1, renny miryanti1, soni martin anwar1, arif darmawan1 & elpeni fitrah1 1 international relations department, faculty of social and political sciences, universitas jenderal soedirman, purwokerto, central java, indonesia correspondence: muhammad yamin, associate professor of the international relations department, faculty of social and political sciences, universitas jenderal soedirman, purwokerto, central java, indonesia. orcid.id: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5538-844x. e-mail: muhammad.yamin unsoed.ac.id received: september 25, 2023; accepted: october 20, 2023; published: october 27, 2023 abstract objective: this study aims to assess the effectiveness of the forum kewaspadaan dini masyarakat (fkdm) as a strategic instrument for countering radicalism and extremism in north purwokerto district, banyumas regency, indonesia. methods: utilizing a qualitative research approach, the study engaged in thorough observations and active involvement with various stakeholders. data were analyzed through thematic analysis, supported by in-depth interviews and focus group discussions (fgds). findings: the study found that fkdm demonstrates a strong commitment to mitigating the risks associated with radicalism and extremism. however, it faces key challenges, including insufficient budget allocations and difficulties in coordinating among multiple agencies. conclusions: the study concludes that while fkdm shows promise as a tool for countering radicalism and extremism, successful implementation requires sufficient resource allocation and effective inter-agency collaboration. the findings contribute to the limited body of research on the operational efficiency of fkdm in specific regional settings and offer insights for policy-making. keywords: national security, radicalism, extremism, forum kewaspadaan dini masyarakat (fkdm), organizational effectiveness, banyumas regency 1. introduction radicalism and extremism have emerged as multilayered challenges that significantly threaten both global and national security frameworks, as well as the fabric of diverse societies. these ideological phenomena are not static; rather, they demonstrate a high degree of adaptability, enabling them to permeate various geopolitical contexts, social strata, and cultural settings (richards, 2003). this adaptability manifests in their ability to exploit technological advancements, such as social media platforms, for recruitment and propaganda purposes (jones, 2018). moreover, radicalism and extremism often intersect with other socio-political issues, including immigration, ethnic tensions, and economic disparities, thereby exacerbating existing vulnerabilities within societies (williams, 2020). the global implications of radicalism and extremism are well-documented, with detrimental impacts on social cohesion, economic stability, and national security (orhan, 2010; richards, 2015). in indonesia, these ideologies have gained traction, posing a threat to societal harmony and prompting policymakers to search for effective countermeasures (ansori, 2019). indonesia, as a complex archipelagic nation with diverse ethnic and religious communities, provides a striking case study in this regard. recent years have witnessed a discernible uptick in the prevalence of radical and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 25 published by ideas spread extremist ideologies within the country (ansori, 2019). these ideologies are not confined to isolated pockets of society but have made inroads into mainstream political discourse, educational institutions, and community organizations. this trend has triggered a profound transformation in indonesia’s socio-political landscape, fueling sectarian divisions and instigating a reevaluation of existing counter-terrorism and deradicalization strategies (panjaitan, 2020; nur, et.al, 2020; qodir, 2014). it has also precipitated concern among policymakers, security agencies, and civil society organizations, who are grappling with the implications of this ideological shift on national unity and social cohesion. several root causes underlie these ideologies, including socio-economic disparities, political grievances, and ideological indoctrination (richards, 2003; jati, 2013). current strategies for mitigation often emphasize community engagement and early awareness as key elements for success (finkel et al., 2020; panjaitan, 2020; nur et al., 2020; qodir, 2014) while community-based interventions such as the early awareness forum (fkdm) have garnered academic attention (pudjiastuti, 2020), there remains a paucity of empirical studies focusing on its implementation and effectiveness in specific regional contexts like north purwokerto. this study aims to address this gap, guided by theories that emphasize the importance of context-specific approaches to counter radicalism (lain, 2016; carter, 2018). the primary objective is to assess the effectiveness of fkdm as a strategic tool in north purwokerto. through a nuanced analysis of fkdm’s implementation, challenges, and achievements, this study aims to offer valuable policy insights for both local and global contexts. based on successes observed in other geographical contexts (pudjiastuti, 2020), this study hypothesizes that fkdm, when tailored to the unique needs and complexities of north purwokerto, can be an effective tool in combating radicalism and extremism. the research aims to test this hypothesis rigorously and assess fkdm's potential as a replicable model for other regions facing similar challenges. following this introduction, the methodology section will outline the research design and data collection methods. the results section will present the study’s findings, followed by a discussion that interprets these results in the context of existing literature. the paper will conclude with a summary of key insights and recommendations for future research and policy interventions. 2. literature review radicalism, as defined by borum (2011), involves advocating for far-reaching changes in society, often in opposition to gradual reforms. in indonesia, this definition finds resonance in the emergence of factions calling for a complete overhaul of existing socio-political structures. these groups typically operate on societal fringes and aim to disrupt established norms (silver, 2018). extremism, distinct yet related to radicalism, involves ideologies or actions that significantly deviate from mainstream community values (carter, 2018). in the indonesian context, extremism manifests through violent acts and the propagation of ideologies that endorse the use of force for achieving political or religious goals (hasan, 2002). this behavior aligns with carter's depiction of extremism as divergent from societal norms. community engagement, as articulated by attree et al. (2011), involves the active involvement of community members in initiatives aimed at resolving societal issues. in north purwokerto, community engagement takes the form of local dialogues, workshops, and awareness campaigns designed to combat radicalism and extremism (menon & allen, 2020). these efforts have been effective in fostering understanding and counteracting extremist narratives (boland & tenkasi, 1995). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 26 published by ideas spread the concept of early awareness entails the proactive identification and management of potential risks (kaiser, 2011). in the specific setting of north purwokerto, the early awareness forum (fkdm) embodies this principle by focusing on the early detection and intervention of radical tendencies among youth (crone, 2016). socio-economic disparities, characterized by unequal resource distribution and opportunities (davidai, 2018), are a notable contributing factor to radicalism and extremism in indonesia, particularly in purwokerto. such disparities often lead marginalized communities to be more susceptible to extremist narratives that promise societal transformation. ideological indoctrination involves the systematic instillation of specific beliefs or values (mitchell, 1997). in indonesia, extremist groups employ such techniques to target vulnerable populations, a strategy aimed at recruiting and indoctrinating individuals into extremist ideologies (gruenewald, chemark, & freilich, 2013). 3. methods the central aim of this study is to scrutinize the initiatives undertaken by the forum kewaspadaan dini masyarakat (fkdm) in the north purwokerto district, banyumas regency. the study places particular emphasis on the activities, programs, and interventions led by fkdm, with the objective of understanding its organizational structure, content delivery, and overall impact in the realm of countering radicalism and extremism. to achieve this, a qualitative research design was chosen, allowing for an in-depth exploration of the complexities associated with fkdm initiatives. the qualitative approach is particularly beneficial for capturing the subjective experiences, perspectives, and interpretations of individuals either participating in or affected by fkdm initiatives. this helps in providing a nuanced and context-specific understanding of both the effectiveness and the challenges associated with fkdm. in terms of participant selection, a purposive sampling method was employed. this method ensured the inclusion of a wide-ranging group of stakeholders who are actively involved with fkdm. participants included fkdm organizers, community leaders, local government officials, and community members who have either participated in or been impacted by the activities organized by fkdm. to capture a balanced viewpoint, the study also included individuals who may hold criticisms or reservations about fkdm initiatives. data for the study were gathered using a combination of semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and observations. semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders served as a primary source of in-depth insights into their experiences and perceptions regarding fkdm. each interview typically lasted for a duration ranging from 45 to 60 minutes. focus group discussions were also conducted to generate a collective understanding of community perspectives, with group consisting of 18 participants. additionally, observations were carried out during fkdm events to capture real-time dynamics, interactions, and responses. all interviews and focus group discussions were audio-recorded after obtaining explicit consent from the participants and were later transcribed for analysis. for the analysis of the collected data, a thematic analysis approach was followed. initially, the transcribed data were reviewed multiple times to familiarize the researchers with the content. this was followed by the generation of preliminary codes to capture the key concepts and patterns evident in the data. these codes were then grouped into broader themes for further analysis and interpretation. throughout this process, a constant comparative method was used to ensure that the interpretations remained closely connected to the original data. the analysis was facilitated by the use of maxqda software, which allowed for a systematic organization and examination of the data. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 27 published by ideas spread 4. result our study examined the initiatives and efficacy of the forum kewaspadaan dini masyarakat (fkdm) in banyumas, in collaboration with the department of international relations, faculty of social and political sciences, universitas jenderal soedirman. interviews were conducted with eight key informants, including fkdm banyumas chairpersons and members. the interview data were meticulously analyzed using specialized research instruments within a structured framework of seven key questions. these questions were designed to provide comprehensive insights into fkdm's activities, the challenges faced, and the impact on the banyumas region. fkdm's establishment in banyumas was a strategic response to growing local needs for surveillance against various forms of risks and disruptions. its operational guidelines stem from governmental directives and evolved from a preexisting framework, wasdinda, involving multiple intelligence and law enforcement agencies. the transition to fkdm aimed to improve community-level vigilance, making surveillance more localized and effective. banyumas, a region marked by cultural diversity, faces a variety of challenges, including radicalism in certain areas and the uneven distribution of policy measures at the grassroots level. in addition to radicalism and extremism, the region is susceptible to natural disasters and security disruptions, thus highlighting the need for robust monitoring and intervention measures. since fkdm's inception, there has been a noticeable decline in the frequency and intensity of adverse events. the organization has particularly been effective in regions like baturraden, a tourist area in north purwokerto, where instances of radicalism and extremism are minimal. fkdm has also been responsive to other forms of disruptions, such as thefts and natural disasters, demonstrating its multifaceted operational scope. fkdm employs a three-component strategy—filter, collect, and report—to mitigate radical ideologies and maintain social cohesion. this strategy includes individual-level dialogues focused on fostering an understanding and appreciation of indonesia's diverse historical context. while fkdm has made significant strides in monitoring and intervention, it faces challenges, including low levels of public awareness and reporting from various villages in banyumas. figure 1. three key components in the fkdm framework the efficacy of fkdm's strategies in banyumas exhibits a heterogeneous portrayal. although significant achievements have been made in the areas of monitoring and intervention, there continue to be persistent challenges. one notable issue pertains to the dearth of proactive reporting from numerous villages in banyumas, which is further exacerbated by a prevailing deficiency in public knowledge regarding fkdm. the aforementioned challenges highlight the necessity of implementing a comprehensive and extensive strategy for public engagement. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 28 published by ideas spread despite its significant role, the field of fkdm encounters a multitude of challenges that impede its operational effectiveness. one of the foremost challenges lies in the operational independence of the entity, which, although affording flexibility, lacks the resilient support framework characteristic of governmental organizations. the challenges are further intensified by the lack of resources, including insufficient funding and inadequate training. it is imperative to acknowledge and rectify the operational and structural constraints in order to fully harness the potential of fkdm. banyumas, although characterized by its diversity and liveliness, is not devoid of social challenges. the region primarily contends with social issues as its main manifestation of adverse human and societal conditions. the social cohesion of banyumas is consistently challenged by a range of factors, including conflicts originating from various organizations, issues arising from limited resources, and political tensions. the proliferation of inaccurate information on social media platforms presents additional challenges, thereby requiring diligent surveillance and prompt interventions. although radicalism exists in banyumas, it is not the primary focus of concern. the implementation of robust monitoring systems and proactive interventions by organizations such as fkdm has effectively prevented the widespread adoption of radical ideologies. individuals affiliated with radicalism are subject to rigorous police surveillance, which serves to proactively address and neutralize potential threats. the implementation of this proactive approach has played a crucial role in the preservation of peace and harmony within the region. the fkdm organization plays a crucial role in the banyumas region and operates within a distinct framework. while it fulfills the role of an informant by collecting and relaying vital information, it does not operate as an executor. the present operational model, despite its inherent flexibility, presents a series of challenges. the need to improve fkdm's capabilities for a more significant future is highlighted by the dependence on communitysourced information and the constraints of limited resources. 5. discussion upon concluding the interviews, the research team facilitated a focus group discussion (fgd) to delve deeper into the intricacies of the subject under investigation. the decision to employ this method stemmed from the need to foster inclusive dialogue among a diverse set of stakeholders and to validate the robustness and reliability of the data gathered during the interviews. this technique served as a form of data triangulation, enriching the study's findings. the fgd assembled a diverse group of participants representing different sectors, including local government bodies, law enforcement agencies, fkdm members, and academics. this multi-disciplinary gathering enabled a comprehensive understanding of the challenges and opportunities associated with fkdm's initiatives. among the key issues highlighted during the fgd was the implementation of governmental policy initiative (perda no. 11 of 2019), which aims to address social conflicts in the jawa tengah region. while this policy represents a significant step forward, financial constraints, specifically delays in fund disbursement as mentioned in article 22, continue to be a substantial hurdle. another challenge discussed pertained to the need for increased coordination among various entities involved, particularly in light of the diverse human resources that contribute to fkdm's reporting mechanisms. security concerns were also a focal point of the discussion, including the changing landscape of extremist recruitment strategies. the shift towards the use of online platforms for these activities calls for specialized law enforcement units capable of tackling cyber-related crimes. the dilemma lies in the widespread availability of religious content online, which can sometimes be misused to foster extremist ideologies. moreover, the covert hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 29 published by ideas spread nature of intelligence operations such as fkdm doesn't necessarily reflect its effectiveness, a point that was clarified during the fgd. a recurring theme in the fgd was the issue of financial constraints, with noticeable discrepancies in budgetary allocations at different administrative levels. trust issues between various units also emerged as a concern, particularly the observed lack of collaboration between national intelligence and local entities. the fgd concluded with the consensus that economic factors alone cannot be held responsible for the prevalence of terrorism and radicalism. instead, ideological and mindset shifts are the root causes, emphasizing the need for strategies that can effectively address these core issues. 6. conclusion this study brings forth important insights into the operations of the forum kewaspadaan dini masyarakat (fkdm) in banyumas and its role in mitigating the challenges of radicalism and extremism. governed by permendagri no. 46 of 2019, fkdm exemplifies the government's commitment to enhancing surveillance and security at the community level. however, the study identifies enduring challenges such as insufficient funding and the need for improved inter-agency collaboration as areas requiring attention. a significant contribution of this research lies in its enrichment of the academic discourse on community-based strategies to counter radicalization. through a detailed exploration of fkdm's operational framework, challenges, and community impact, the study offers a robust understanding of grassroots surveillance mechanisms. the nuanced perspectives obtained from in-depth interviews and focus group discussions highlight the importance of localized strategies in combating extremist ideologies. therefore, this research stands as a critical reference for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners interested in implementing similar community-based initiatives in various geographic settings. despite its comprehensive nature, the study has some limitations. the primary data collection methods, namely in-depth interviews and focus group discussions, while rich in qualitative insights, may not capture the full spectrum of community opinions. additionally, the participant selection in the focus group discussions may not be entirely representative of all the stakeholders involved in fkdm activities. the study's focus on banyumas also limits the direct applicability of its findings to regions with different socio-political landscapes. future research could benefit from expanding the participant pool and conducting comparative studies across multiple regions, thus enhancing the generalizability of the study's conclusions. acknowledgement we express our sincere appreciation to universitas jenderal soedirman (unsoed) for their consistent support and for creating a favorable atmosphere that facilitated the progress of this research endeavor. we would like to express our gratitude to lembaga penelitian dan pengabdian kepada masyarakat (lppm) unsoed for their invaluable financial assistance, without which this research endeavor would not have been feasible. we express our heartfelt gratitude to the chairperson and members of fkdm (forum kewaspadaan dini masyarakat) kabupaten banyumas for their invaluable contributions, collaborative efforts, and unwavering commitment to the cause. we express our gratitude to the relevant stakeholders for their valuable contributions, constructive feedback, and collaborative approach, which greatly enhanced the quality of this study. we extend our sincere gratitude to our esteemed colleagues in the research community, whose profound expertise, unwavering dedication, and rigorous scholarly methodology have played a pivotal role in shaping the development of this study. finally, we would like to extend our appreciation to the enumerators and the students affiliated with hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 30 published by ideas spread the department of international relations, faculty of social and political sciences, universitas jenderal soedirman, for their diligent endeavors, enthusiasm, and dedication to the research undertaking. the collaborative endeavor has served as the fundamental basis of this research, and we express our profound gratitude to all individuals who have contributed. conflict of interest none to declare reference ansori, m. (2019). the radical islamic movement in indonesia. roots and factors, 13, 105-124. https://doi.org/10.24042/klm.v13i2.5251 attree, p., french, b., milton, b., povall, s., whitehead, m., & popay, j. (2011). the experience of community engagement for individuals: a rapid review of evidence. health & social care in the community, 19(3), 250260. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2524.2010.00976.x boland, r., & tenkasi, r. (1995). perspective making and perspective taking in communities of knowing. organization science, 6, 350-372. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.6.4.350 borum, r. (2011). radicalization into violent extremism i: a review of social science theories. journal of strategic security, 4, 7-36. https://doi.org/10.5038/1944-0472.4.4.1 carter, e. (2018). right-wing extremism/radicalism: reconstructing the concept. journal of political ideologies, 23, 157-182. https://doi.org/10.1080/13569317.2018.1451227 crone, m. (2016). radicalization revisited: violence, politics and the skills of the body. international affairs, 92, 587-604. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2346.12604 davidai, s. (2018). why do americans believe in economic mobility? economic inequality, external attributions of wealth and poverty, and the belief in economic mobility. journal of experimental social psychology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2018.07.012 finkel, s., mccauley, j., neureiter, m., & belasco, c. (2020). community violence and support for violent extremism: evidence from the sahel. political psychology. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12692 gruenewald, j., chermak, s., & freilich, j. (2013). distinguishing “loner” attacks from other domestic extremist violence. criminology and public policy, 12, 65-91. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12008 hasan, n. (2002). faith and politics: the rise of the laskar jihad in the era of transition in indonesia', 73, 145. https://doi.org/10.2307/3351472 jati, w. (2013). radicalism in the perspective of islamic-populism: trajectory of political islam in indonesia. journal of indonesian islam, 7, 268-287. https://doi.org/10.15642/jiis.2013.7.2.268-287 kaiser, a., & roberts, m. (2011). advances in early communication and language intervention. journal of early intervention, 33, 298-309. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053815111429968 lain, s. (2016). strategies for countering terrorism and extremism in central asia. asian affairs, 47, 386-405. https://doi.org/10.1080/03068374.2016.1225899 menon, s., & allen, n. (2020). community organizing and counter narratives in the response to domestic violence in india. american journal of community psychology. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12426 mitchell, j. (1997). a moment with christ: the importance of feelings in the analysis of belief. journal of the royal anthropological institute, 3, 79-94. https://doi.org/10.2307/3034366 orhan, m. (2010). al‐qaeda: analysis of the emergence, radicalism, and violence of a jihadist action group in turkey. turkish studies, 11, 143-161. https://doi.org/10.1080/14683849.2010.483846 panjaitan, s. (2020). transformation of radicalism discourse into extremist violence (analysis of news on the handling of radical movements in indonesia). https://doi.org/10.19109/jssp.v4i1.5344 pudjiastuti, s. r. (2020). internalisasi nilai-nilai pancasila dalam mencegah paham radikal. journal ilmiah mimbar demokrasi, 19(2), 32-39. https://doi.org/10.21009/jimd.v19i02.14788 qodir, z. (2014). deradikalisasi islam dalam perspektif pendidikan agama. journal pendidikan islam, 2, 85-107. https://doi.org/10.14421/jpi.2013.21.85-107 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 31 published by ideas spread richards, a. (2003). socio-economic roots of radicalism?: towards explaining the appeal of islamic radicals. . https://doi.org/10.21236/ada416610 richards, a. (2015). from terrorism to ‘radicalization’ to ‘extremism’: counterterrorism imperative or loss of focus? international affairs, 91, 371-380. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2346.12240 silver, d. (2018). everyday radicalism and the democratic imagination: dissensus, rebellion and utopia. politics and governance, 6, 161-168. https://doi.org/10.17645/pag.v6i1.1213 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n1p17 17 published by ideas spread paikend and bukhara as symbols of the "copper city": a historical examination of oasis city defense systems and cultural significance yang wenbo1 & han zhongyi1 1 school of history and culture, shaanxi normal university, china correspondence: yang wenbo, school of history and culture,shaanxi normal university, xi'an, shaanxi, 710000, china. received: november 18, 2024; accepted: january 13, 2025; published: january 15, 2025 abstract paikend was once a core city of the bukhara oasis, renowned as the "copper city" for its robust defense systems and strategic position. however, due to water resource depletion and geopolitical changes, paikend gradually declined, and bukhara rose to replace it as the regional center. bukhara achieved its key position in central asia through a more sophisticated defense system, closer proximity to the zerafshan river, and political and cultural innovations. the rise and fall of paikend and bukhara were not only closely tied to natural resources but were also deeply influenced by changes in geopolitical and military dynamics. the designation of "copper city" symbolizes the defensive ingenuity and cultural heritage of oasis cities. while paikend’s formidable walls represented an earlier singular defensive model, bukhara transitioned to a comprehensive strategy through its triple-layered defense structure. by comparing the two cities, this study aims to reveal the dynamic changes of central asian oasis cities in terms of natural environment, technological innovation, and cultural integration, providing a new perspective on the historical development of this region. keywords: paikend, bukhara, copper city, urban defense 1. introduction bukhara, an ancient city in the central asian oasis, is world-renowned for its strategic geographical location and historical role. in arabic, bukhara is referred to as madinat al-sufriya (the "copper city") or madinat al-tujjar (the "city of merchants"). according to the history of bukhara, these names first appeared in the works of narshakhi, though their origins were not explained in detail. however, other historical documents more often associated these names with paikend, a city within the same region. paikend was celebrated not only as the "copper city" and the "city of merchants" but also as the core city of the oasis before the rise of bukhara. with its fortified defenses and thriving commercial activity, paikend became a vital hub in the early central asian trade network. this phenomenon has sparked discussions about the historical relationship between the two cities and highlights the dynamic evolution of central asian oasis cities in terms of natural resources, geopolitics, and cultural interactions. by examining the rise and fall of paikend and bukhara, we gain a deeper understanding of the historical significance carried by the "copper city" as a cultural symbol and of how cities in this region balanced resources, strategy, and cultural integration. 2. paikend and bukhara: power transitions in the 7th–8th century oasis center although the written records of bukhara’s ancient and medieval history are diverse and rich, with detailed accounts of this extensive agricultural oasis, documentation about paikend is relatively scarce. medieval works by arab and persian scholars like firdausi, istakhri, and biruni mention paikend multiple times, but their information is limited and less detailed compared to narshakhi's accounts. according to narshakhi, paikend was the second-largest ancient city in the oasis after bukhara, even referred to as the "ancient bukhara." before bukhara became the regional center, key settlements in the bukhara oasis included paikend, tavavis, firab, and ramitin. these settlements typically centered around a city surrounded by numerous villages, with paikend being one of the largest in the oasis. historical records indicate that early rulers of bukhara, such as abrui, resided in villages near paikend, such as qalʿa-i dabūsī. this association earned paikend the name "royal city," possibly derived from the sogdian term patikanta, meaning "city of the ruler."[1] narshakhi further notes that "every ruler of the bukhara oasis resided in paikend." [2] the residents of paikend took great pride in their city, insisting on its identity as a city rather than a village. when traveling to baghdad, a resident of paikend would proudly claim to be from paikend rather than from bukhara. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 18 published by ideas spread as abrui’s ruling power expanded, he began to impose tyranny, prompting some local leaders and wealthy merchants to flee to taraz and turkestan, seeking assistance from the turks. qara jurin turk, ruler of the western turkic khaganate at the time, dispatched his son shir-i kishvar to aid the nobles of the bukhara region. shir-i kishvar led an army that killed abrui and requested his father to grant him the region as a fiefdom. upon receiving approval, the bukhara region became a territory under shir-i kishvar’s rule within the western turkic khaganate. shir-i kishvar governed for 20 years, during which he constructed bukhara’s urban area and established villages such as mamastin, saqmatin, samatin, and firab. his son inherited the throne and continued to develop settlements within the oasis, including iskijkat, shargh, and ramitin. during this period, bukhara and its surrounding villages began to form an autonomous political entity, maintaining a vassal relationship with the western turkic khaganate, while paikend gradually lost its status as the center of the oasis. [3] after the fall of the sassanian empire in 651, the arabs began direct interactions with the region of transoxiana. when the early arab forces arrived in bukhara, they found a multi-ethnic, multi-religious, and decentralized community governed by the bukhar khudah. however, the historical records provide little information about the origins of the bukhar khudah family, the initial timeline of their rule, or the reasons for their ascension. narshakhi mentions that the bukhar khudah was a noble (dihqan) from an ancient aristocratic family, possessing great wealth, numerous servants, and farmers who worked his lands. [4] the first ruler referred to with the title bukhar khudah in narshakhi's work was bidun, who was killed by the umayyad general salm ibn ziyad during the first arab conquest of transoxiana. this event is corroborated by arab historical sources. after bidun’s death, his young son, tughshada, ascended to the throne, though actual governance was handled by his mother, who held the title of khatun. renowned for her wisdom and administrative skill, the khatun earned great respect in the region. it is said that she devoted herself to "managing state affairs, issuing commands, and enforcing regulations" daily. [5] during her reign, the arabs launched several incursions into bukhara, but stability was generally maintained through ransom payments and hostage exchanges. in 709, the governor of khorasan, qutayba ibn muslim, reconquered bukhara, ordering the residents to allocate half of their buildings for arab occupancy. he also constructed the first grand mosque and commanded the local populace to perform friday prayers there. this marked a significant transformation of bukhara, not only as an important muslim military base but also as a foundation for its future role as a center of islamic scholarship. [6] although qutayba's conquest caused considerable destruction within bukhara, it had certain positive outcomes. the fragmented and disorderly noble forces within the city were weakened, paving the way for greater unity and stability in the future. with qutayba’s support, tughshada reclaimed the title of bukhar khudah, becoming the sole de facto ruler of bukhara. while qutayba appointed a new arab governor, this role was largely nominal. by preserving the local dynasty’s authority, qutayba strengthened tughshada’s rule, who declared allegiance to islam, aligning himself with the arab forces. tughshada ruled for 32 years and, to maintain favorable relations with the arabs and secure qutayba’s support, named his newborn son qutaiba ibn tughshada. upon tughshada’s death, his son inherited the throne, and the tughshada family continued to hold power in bukhara until 784, when ismail ibn ahmad of the samanid family took over the city, establishing the samanid dynasty. 3. the impregnable “copper city”: the history and symbolism of paikend paikend, located in the southwestern part of the bukhara oasis in present-day uzbekistan, is an ancient city with a long history. scholars generally agree that paikend belonged to the western sogdian cultural sphere. the site is situated along the lower reaches of the zerafshan river, approximately 45 kilometers southwest of bukhara and about 60 kilometers from amul-farab, the oldest and most significant ferry crossing of the amu darya river. according to historical records, the area between paikend and firab consisted of a desert that stretched along the amu darya river for about 72 kilometers. the zerafshan river flowed near paikend and emptied into a large lake, which was referred to as “paikend lake” (avaza of paykend) in hudud al-'alam (the regions of the world). [7] archaeological research on paikend began in the early 20th century. from 1913 to 1914, lev a. zimin, secretary of the turkestan circle of enthusiasts of archaeology, conducted preliminary surveys of the site. further excavations were carried out from 1939 to 1940 by the zerafshan expedition in collaboration with the institute for the history of material culture. however, systematic archaeological research did not commence until 1981, when extensive excavations were conducted on the site’s citadel (ark), residential areas in the shahristan, and the surrounding suburbs. the findings have been published in several monographs, papers, and annual archaeological reports since 1999. the excavations revealed that as early as the latter half of the 4th century bce, permanent settlements had emerged on the highlands along the zerafshan river, where paikend was located. this period, along with the artifacts unearthed from the site, aligns with š. t. adylov’s hypothesis that the formation of new settlements in the bukhara hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 19 published by ideas spread oasis, including the city of bukhara itself, was partly driven by migrations of sogdian people fleeing alexander the great’s military campaigns in eastern sogdiana (samarkand and its surrounding mountain regions) to the lower reaches of the zerafshan river. [8] by the early medieval period, paikend had developed into a large city covering an area of 18 to 19 hectares. between the late 8th and early 10th centuries, several rabads (suburbs) formed outside the city walls, expanding the area to approximately 70 hectares, with thriving crafts and commerce. however, due to the depletion of irrigation water in the early 11th century, paikend was ultimately abandoned and became a lost city in the annals of history. paikend was situated at the crossroads of several significant trade routes: one extended from china, east turkestan, tashkent, and samarkand to margiana (merv) and further into the near east; another connected eastern europe and khwarezm to the south, passing through tokharistan and the indian subcontinent. this strategic location made paikend an important intermediary in trade between china and iran, especially during the early medieval period (6th–8th centuries ce). however, paikend’s location near a critical ferry crossing on the amu darya river also made it a frequent target of invasions from southern iranian powers and other regional forces. while paikend enjoyed the reputation of being the “city of merchants,” it also faced immense military pressure for much of its history. in 709, after completing the conquest of tokharistan, the arab general qutayba ibn muslim crossed the amu darya river and launched an attack on the sogdian region, including paikend. narshakhi vividly described the siege of paikend by qutayba’s forces: upon learning of the approaching arab army, the residents of paikend quickly fortified their city’s defenses. known for its formidable defensive structures, paikend had long been referred to as the “copper city” or “copper fortress.” qutayba led a fierce assault on the city, but the muslim army encountered significant resistance during a prolonged 50-day siege. despite their efforts, the arab forces failed to breach the city's defenses and suffered heavy casualties. to break the stalemate, the arab army resorted to a strategic ploy. a small group of soldiers dug tunnels beneath the city walls and eventually emerged in a stable within the city. they created a breach in the wall, but even then, they were unable to penetrate the city’s core stronghold. faced with this impasse, qutayba issued an inspiring command: “whoever passes through this breach and enters the stronghold, i will reward him generously; if he dies in the battle, i will honor his descendants.” motivated by this promise, the soldiers courageously charged through the breach, ultimately capturing the inner city. following this victory, the residents of paikend negotiated peace with qutayba, agreeing to pay a specified tribute to the arab forces. [9] paikend was located atop a hill known as bagir mountain, with a modest elevation. the city had an approximately rectangular shape, surrounded by two layers of sturdy walls with a total circumference of about 1,447 meters. the inner city and its suburbs each had their own bazaar (bazār), and the inner city was accessible through a single gate, emphasizing its defensive design. due to these impressive defensive features, paikend earned its nickname as the “copper city” or “copper fortress,” referred to in arabic as madinat al-sufriya, in turkic as baqir baligh, and in persian as dizh-i royin (dizh meaning “fortress” or “walled residence”). [10] the term “copper city” likely originated from mythological geography, involving tales of the legendary enmity between the turanians and iranians during the mythic era, as well as the epic conflict between the iranian hero esfandiyar and the turanian chieftain arjasb. in zoroastrian tradition, the turanians, led by king afrasiyab, were portrayed as adherents of the evil deity ahriman—“false believers” and “heretics.” they were considered destroyers of iranian lands and the arch-enemies of the iranian people. as a result, the struggles between the iranians and turanians were unending. during one invasion, the turanian hyaona tribe’s leader, arjasb, captured esfandiyar’s two sisters, homay and behafarid, and imprisoned them in the turanian capital known as the “copper city.” this city, situated atop bagir mountain, was surrounded by robust walls with a single entrance, making it highly defensible. to rescue his sisters, esfandiyar led the iranian army to bagir mountain, disguising himself as a merchant to infiltrate the “copper city.” he deceived arjasb with gifts and then launched a surprise attack in the chieftain’s palace, killing him. following a signal from esfandiyar, the iranian forces led by pashotan swiftly broke through the city’s defenses, liberated homay and behafarid, and seized the abundant treasures within the “copper city.” [11] another epic tale about the ancient “copper city” is associated with bahram vi chobin, a sasanian king. before ascending the throne, bahram chobin was a distinguished military commander during the reign of hormozd iv. in 588 ce, the hephthalites, vassals of the western turks, invaded the eastern provinces of the sasanian empire, threatening areas like badghis and herat. in response, hormozd iv appointed bahram chobin as the governor of khorasan and commander of the persian army, tasking him with leading a force of 12,000 elite troops. the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 20 published by ideas spread sasanian army first engaged the western turks in fierce battles, capturing bactra (balkh) and advancing into hephthalite territory. bahram chobin’s forces crossed the amu darya, confronted the eastern turkic armies directly, and achieved a decisive victory. during this campaign, the eastern turkic khan, mohu khan (ashina chu-lo-hou), was killed in battle. after their defeat, mohu khan’s son parmuta retreated with his remaining forces to the fortified “copper city.”the “copper city,” with its formidable defenses, initially allowed parmuta to seek refuge. however, bahram chobin demonstrated his strategic acumen and diplomatic skills, ultimately persuading parmuta to surrender, thereby bringing the “copper city” under sasanian control. subsequently, the “copper city” became bahram chobin’s royal residence in the turkic regions, symbolizing sasanian dominance over the area. [12] paikend, with its dual-layered walls and exceptional defensive works, earned its title as the “copper city,” serving as a key military and economic hub in central asia. the city, perched atop bagir mountain and accessible only through a single entrance, was nearly impregnable. this designation not only reflected its physical attributes but also carried deep literary and cultural significance. in zoroastrian tradition and the shahnameh, the “copper city” symbolized the triumph of justice over evil and light over darkness, representing the resilience of the turanianiranian conflicts. this dual symbolism elevated the “copper city” beyond a geographical landmark to a profound cultural emblem. the name reinforced paikend’s role as the defensive core of the oasis, securing its place in central asia’s military history. in addition to its military reputation, the city’s security advantages sustained its prosperity as a trade hub. at the same time, the legacy of the “copper city” persisted during the arab conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries. the recorded 50-day defense of paikend showcased the residents’ military ingenuity and resilience, projecting its image beyond regional boundaries and embedding it in the narrative of iranian culture. moreover, the “copper city” as a symbol imbued paikend with cultural tension, bridging its mythical identity with its historical role in central asia’s power transitions. from an invincible city of legend to a witness of political changes, paikend’s fate reflected the rise and fall of oasis cities shaped by environmental shifts and geopolitical dynamics. through this title, paikend’s historical image became a symbol of central asian cultural and military heritage, connecting geography, history, and literature into a significant emblem. in summary, the “copper city” was not just a mark of paikend’s defensive and strategic significance but also a multilayered cultural identity, granting it a unique position in central asian history as a model intertwining culture and history. 4. the defensive system and historical evolution of bukhara although paikend and bukhara served as the central cities of the oasis during different periods, their roles in the region’s historical development are closely intertwined. paikend, as the earlier center, earned its title as the "copper city" not only for its exceptional defensive structures but also for establishing a tradition of militaryfocused urban development within oasis cities. as bukhara gradually replaced paikend as the oasis center, it not only inherited this defensive emphasis but also enhanced and innovated it, creating a more complex and advanced defensive system. from the single-entry design of paikend to the triple-wall layout of bukhara, this evolution in defensive strategy reflects the wisdom and adaptability of oasis cities in confronting external threats. these layered defensive structures not only made bukhara an impregnable military fortress but also underscored its importance as a strategic hub in central asia. the city’s urban design exemplified ancient construction techniques and highlighted the oasis society’s prioritization of security and order, laying a solid foundation for its subsequent historical status and cultural heritage. 4.1 origins of the citadel and its early defensive function bukhara’s citadel, known in persian as kuhindiz, meaning "ancient fortress," is a large mud-brick defensive structure located in the northwest of the city. it is also referred to as the inner city or royal citadel. modeled after the ancient iranian town of kuhindiz, it is the oldest architectural site in bukhara and is preserved today as a historical museum. ibn hawqal referred to the citadel as a qalʿa, with its structure comprising three main components: the inner citadel, the hisar (fortress walls), and other buildings, such as the emir’s palace, treasury, and prison. [13] the ancient citadel stood at the same location as the present-day bukhara citadel, built on a small hill and extending in a rectangular shape from east to west. typical iranian towns featured a fortress and an external fortified city (shahristan); however, in cases like penjikent and bukhara, the fortress and city formed two independent defensive systems. [14] unlike cities such as samarkand, bukhara’s citadel was not located within the shahristan but was situated to its west, separated by an open, sandy square known as the registan (rīgistān). the citadel had two gates: the western gate, called "sahl" (meaning "sand plain") or "hay market" (kah-furushan) gate in the 12th century, remains preserved. the eastern gate faced the great mosque on the square and was hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 21 published by ideas spread therefore named the "jami gate" or the "great mosque gate," referred to as the "churiyan gate" by narshakhi. these gates were connected by a street running through the citadel. between 1976 and 1978, ye. g. nekrasova, a renowned archaeologist, led the uzbekistan research and restoration institute in a detailed study of the citadel walls. the findings revealed that these walls dated back to around the 4th century bce. based on archaeological evidence, the citadel’s construction likely occurred between the 4th and 3rd centuries bce. however, the specific design and construction methods of the citadel remain unclear due to the lack of records until narshakhi’s accounts. by 500 ce, the inner citadel served as the residence of bukhara’s rulers, housing officials, their families, and servants. it also contained palaces, treasuries, prisons, and fire temples, functioning as a small town. narshakhi noted: "the citadel was the residence of rulers, emirs, and generals, and it also housed prisons and assembly halls, while the inner citadel was the primary residence of the ruler." [15] in 712, qutayba ibn muslim constructed bukhara’s first mosque on the ruins of a fire temple within the citadel, symbolizing both the physical and ideological dominance of islam over other beliefs and their followers. during the samanid period, the citadel became the residence of the dynasty’s emirs, generals, and judges. it housed palaces, treasuries, courts, reservoirs, and other key buildings, serving as the political center of bukhara. in the 7th century, bukhar khudah ruler bidun repaired the citadel and inner fort, hanging an iron plaque inscribed with his name on the citadel gate, where it remained until the 12th century. the citadel and inner fort were repeatedly destroyed and rebuilt during this period. according to legend, the inner fort repeatedly collapsed during its initial construction until bidun consulted wise men, who suggested using seven stone pillars arranged in the shape of the great bear constellation to stabilize the structure. this measure resolved the instability and collapse issues. [16] despite subsequent destruction and decay, the citadel was rebuilt multiple times by rulers such as arslan-khan in the 12th century, atsiz of khwarezm in 1140, and alptigin of the karakhanids in 1142. however, it faced major destruction by genghis khan in 1220, when the entire structure was leveled [17] despite these repeated devastations, bukhara’s citadel gradually recovered from the mongol invasions by the late 13th century. during the 16th century, under the uzbek shaybanid dynasty, the citadel was restored to its current form. the inner citadel's perimeter measures 789.6 meters, with an area of 4.2 hectares. the outer walls of the citadel stretch about 1,609.3 meters, enclosing a total area of 9.3 hectares. the walls stood at heights of 16 to 20 meters. [18] within the citadel, numerous structures were built, including palaces, mosques, reception halls, music pavilions, jewelry workshops, clothing warehouses, treasuries, libraries, courts, and prisons. unfortunately, during the battle of bukhara in 1920, the citadel was destroyed by soviet forces under mikhail frunze, leaving 80% of the structures in ruins. only about 1.1 hectares of the original structures remain today. another account suggests that the last emir of bukhara, mohammed alim khan, fled to afghanistan with the royal treasury and ordered the citadel's destruction to prevent its desecration by soviet troops. 4.2 the core layout of shahristan and its religious influence the term shahristan originates from the persian words šahr (meaning "city" or "town") and stān (meaning "province" or "region"). in ancient iran, it referred to a larger urban administrative district. in arabic, shahristan was called madina and served as the central urban area of bukhara, also referred to as the "main city" or "old city." archaeological evidence suggests that the shahristan dates back as early as the 2nd century bce. located to the east of the citadel, its area was about twice that of the citadel and sat on slightly higher ground. due to its elevation, both the shahristan and the citadel were unable to access direct water sources. al-umari noted in masalik al-absarfi mamalikal-amsar: “since the inner city (citadel) and fortified city (shahristan) of bukhara are located on higher ground, they lack water supply and depend on canals from the upper reaches of samarkand for their water.” [19] additionally, while bazaars (bazar and suqs) were primarily located in the surrounding suburbs, the shahristan housed most of the residential buildings, mosques, and other densely arranged structures. the shahristan was surrounded by fortified walls, initially featuring four gates, later expanded to seven. these seven gates were said to have religious significance, mirroring the design of seven stone pillars used to stabilize the citadel, symbolizing the protective and divine power of the heavens. in ancient persian cosmology, every terrestrial phenomenon corresponded to a celestial archetype, often associated with platonic ideals. [20] cities were considered to have mythical prototypes. in this context, the seven stars of the great bear constellation were seen as protectors and defenders against evil forces. consequently, the seven stone pillars supporting the citadel and the seven gates of the shahristan were believed to safeguard the rulers and inhabitants from enemies or demonic threats. prominent scholars such as istakhri, ibn hawqal, and narshakhi have documented the seven gates of shahristan. according to narshakhi, the gates were as follows: hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 22 published by ideas spread 1. the bazaar gate (bāzār), also referred to as the iron gate or the "gate of the spice merchants" (attārān). 2. the fortress gate (kubriya), leading directly to the citadel. 3. the new gate, built most recently, also called the niyān gate. 4. the sa’d gate (saʿd), named after its proximity to the banu sa’d mosque. 5. the asad gate (asad), known in pre-islamic times as the “mukhra gate,” meaning "the gate of truth." 6. the haq-rah gate (ḥaqq-rah), meaning “the gate of justice.” 7. the ala gate (ʿalāʾ), attributed to the hero hasan ibn ala sughdi. [21] in 708, following qutayba’s fourth conquest of bukhara, narshakhi described the division of the shahristan between the arabs and the local inhabitants. he provided detailed information about the seven gates in the context of the city’s partition and the interactions between the arabs and the original residents. his account, intertwined with typical stories from persian literature, offers valuable insights into the shahristan’s internal structure. narshakhi began with the southern bazaar gate, noting that it was the only gate near the marketplace. the central area of bukhara’s bazaar remained south of the shahristan until the 20th century. through the bazaar gate, one could reach the sa’d gate, located near the sa’d mosque. the asad gate, situated near the sa’d gate, was called the “mukhra gate” in pre-islamic times, meaning "the way to truth." heading eastward, the path led to the khorasan governor’s court. the haq-rah gate lay farther north, away from the inner city. in narshakhi’s narrative, this gate was associated with the renowned scholar abu hafs kabir bukhari, whose tomb was located in the northwest corner of the shahristan. near the haq-rah gate was the fortress gate, which led downhill to bukhara’s oldest defensive structure—the citadel. this gate was likely the sturdiest among the seven, featuring a large arch about sixty paces long, reportedly built by the turkic chieftain subashi tagin. the ala gate, constructed by the native hero hasan ibn ala sughdi, and the new gate, also known as the niyān gate, completed the set. entering the new gate, one would find the quraish mosque to the left. the bazaar gate, haq-rah gate, sa’d gate, asad gate, and fortress gate were located along a line extending from the outskirts toward the city center. [22] while arab accounts of bukhara’s shahristan often emphasized its structural layout, narshakhi’s descriptions— though occasionally disorganized—remain a crucial reference for understanding the city’s subdivisions during the medieval period. narshakhi mentioned that after the arab conquest of bukhara in 708, qutayba divided the inner city into two parts: one-half was allocated to the arabs, while the other was retained by the original residents. the dividing line extended from the fortress gate to the niyān gate. the southern shahristan was designated for the arab tribes of mudar and rabia, while the northern part remained for the local population. this division is supported by the naming of the city gates. two of the gates in the western and southern sections of the inner city carried the names of arab tribes, reflecting the arab presence. among these, the pre-islamic name for the asad gate was mihr, indicating continuity from earlier eras. [23] inside the city, to the left of the main street was an area known as "the street of the drunkards" (ku-i-rindan) or "the street of libertines." this area reportedly housed a christian church, which was later converted into a mosque named bani hanzala. to the right of the street lay "the street of wazir ibn ayyub ibn hassan," also known as the "citadel district." wazir ibn ayyub was the first arab-appointed emir of bukhara under qutayba’s rule. subsequent emirs also resided in this district, each maintaining an independent court. the district's southern boundary was marked by the city wall, beyond which lay the "agricultural market." to the east of the wall was the "pistachio merchants’ district," while the northern boundary was defined by a street leading to the niyān gate.[24] 4.3 the defense and expansion of the rabads (outer city) the rabads (outer city or suburbs), also referred to as birun in persian, constituted the area outside the citadel and shahristan, extending to the outermost city walls built in the 9th century. initially, the term rabad appeared to denote the defensive wall itself, but later it came to represent the area enclosed between the outer wall and the shahristan. [25] according to narshakhi, when the arabs first arrived, bukhara only consisted of the shahristan. however, during this period, important settlements, markets, and other structures already existed beyond the shahristan. these external settlements were not formally incorporated into bukhara until the construction of the outer wall. the outer wall was commissioned by the khorasan governor abu abbas fazl ibn sulaiman tusi. this decision came after complaints from the local population about frequent turkic raids and plundering. additionally, yazid ibn ghurak, a nobleman from samarkand, cited the earlier construction of samarkand’s protective walls under a sogdian king as an example of successful city fortification. persuaded by these arguments, tusi ordered the emir hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 23 published by ideas spread of bukhara, muhtadi ibn hamad ibn amr al-dahli, to build the outer wall to encompass all villages and settlements around bukhara, similar to samarkand’s defenses. the project was overseen by the judge sa’d ibn khalaf albukhari, with gates and towers constructed at half-mile intervals. narshakhi’s account offers little detail about the area between the shahristan’s inner wall and the outer wall surrounding the suburbs. however, ibn hawqal provides the names of eleven major gates along the rabad’s outer wall, [26] beginning at its southwestern corner: 1. maydan gate (darb al-maydān), leading toward khorasan. 2. ibrahim gate (darb ibrahim). 3. riw gate (darb riw), located east of the maydan gate. 4. mardakhshan gate (darb mardakhshān), referred to by istakhri as mardqusha. 5. kalabad gate (darb kalabādh), providing access to two routes toward balkh. 6. nawbahar gate (darb nawbahār). 7. samarkand gate (darb samarqand), leading to samarkand and other parts of transoxiana. 8. baghashkur gate (darb baghāshkūr). 9. ramitan gate (darb ramāmithana). 10. jadasarun gate (darb jadasarūn), opening to the road toward khwarezm. 11. ghashaj gate (darb ghashaj), connecting to the route toward nasaf (karshi) and balkh. [27] according to narshakhi, the construction of bukhara’s outer wall began around 782 ce and was completed by 830 ce. the emir muhtadi ibn hamad al-dahli later ordered additional structures around the wall to ensure its maintenance. while these fortifications protected the population from nomadic incursions, the annual upkeep required considerable time and resources, creating a significant burden on the residents. as narshakhi described, “this wall was a great inconvenience and expense for the people of bukhara, requiring substantial funding and labor every year to maintain.” [28] during the samanid period, the outer wall was often neglected, and no new fortifications were built around the shahristan. the famous declaration of ismail samani—“as long as i am alive, i am the wall of bukhara”— symbolized his refusal to rely on outdated fortifications. [29] by allowing the protective walls to decay, ismail both freed the population from their maintenance burdens and established himself as the city’s protector. following his reign, the outer wall gradually crumbled, earning the nickname kanpirak ("the old woman") by the 12th century. today, remnants of the wall can still be seen, resembling an earthen embankment, locally referred to as kempir duval. the defensive walls surrounding oases in central asia and northern afghanistan were not uncommon; cities like merv, samarkand, balkh, termez, and isfara also had fortifications built at different times to encircle their urban areas. among these, bukhara’s kanpirak stands out as particularly significant. since the 19th century, scholars have conducted extensive studies of the wall. however, the precise period of its origin and its construction motives remain debated. narshakhi’s accounts do not mention earlier walls or their origins. al-masudi, in his kitab altanbih wa l-ishraf (the book of admonition and revision), provides what may be the earliest reference to this wall, stating: “a sogdian king constructed this wall to prevent attacks and plundering by turkic tribes.” salmawayh, in his work on the abbasid caliphate and the governors of khorasan, noted that the wall was rebuilt during the reign of caliph al-mahdi but was later dismantled by abu abbas tusi, the governor of khorasan [30] in this somewhat ambiguous description, the wall mentioned by al-masudi likely refers to an earlier version of kanpirak from the pre-islamic era. in 2011, the samarkand archaeological institute of the uzbekistan academy of sciences launched the “archaeological investigation of bukhara’s great wall” project. excavations in the western and northeastern segments of the wall revealed shards of pottery from the early medieval period. ceramic samples from the wall’s original layers were dated to the late 4th or 5th century ce, with the construction of the barricade possibly occurring in the 6th century. notably, rows of observation holes and arrow slits were found in the wall, typical features of sogdian military architecture from the 5th century. this evidence suggests that the earliest layers of the wall could indeed date back to the late 4th or 5th century, supporting al-masudi’s assertion that a sogdian king initially built the fortifications. while the origins of bukhara’s outer wall have been clarified, discussions about the motivations behind its construction continue. both narshakhi and al-masudi attribute the wall’s construction to the need to defend against frequent turkic raids and ensure the safety of the population and their property. however, was the wall hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 24 published by ideas spread primarily built to counter threats from the northern steppes? this question requires a nuanced analysis of the historical context, particularly in light of the mukanna rebellion. in the years leading up to 782 ce, the rebellion posed a serious threat to abbasid rule in transoxiana, partly because mukanna and his followers successfully allied with several turkic tribes, even forming a coalition with the qarluq khan. narshakhi vividly described the devastating consequences of this alliance: “mukanna invited the turks and permitted them to seize the lives and property of muslims. many armies came from turkestan to raid. they plundered the region, capturing muslim women and children while killing others.”[31] barthold noted that kök or kökshebagan village, east of tavavis, served as a staging area for turkic raids into bukhara province. [32] this location lay within the valley corridor connecting eastern bukhara to kermine (modern-day navoiy). to ensure communication between the vital cities of bukhara and samarkand and to secure this strategic corridor, the abbasids likely considered the wall a matter of paramount importance. abu abbas tusi’s efforts to extend the wall eastward to encompass this region likely reflected a desire to protect bukhara’s vulnerable areas and maintain control over a critical route. this theory is supported by maps drawn by d.g. bolshakov, which indicate that the eastern segment of the outer wall covered a distance approximately twice that of the corresponding western section. this suggests that political considerations played a significant role in the wall’s expansion. large-scale barrier construction and reconstruction projects were likely seen by authorities as a means to stabilize volatile regions and maintain control over key urban centers, ensuring order amidst ongoing unrest. [33] the rise of bukhara was not only due to its advantageous geographic location but also its more complex and effective triple-layered defensive system. this system consisted of the shahristan (main city), inner and outer rabads (suburbs), and the core citadel, demonstrating remarkable military planning and innovation. the shahristan, as the central district, was protected by its walls and served as the administrative and religious center of the city. the rabads provided an additional defensive buffer, housing craft workshops and marketplaces, while the citadel functioned as the ultimate defensive stronghold, equipped with substantial reserves and self-sustaining resources. this layered urban design significantly enhanced bukhara’s security, enabling it to withstand more complex and prolonged external threats. in contrast, while paikend earned fame as the "copper city," its defense primarily relied on its robust double walls and single-gate design, which emphasized physical inaccessibility. however, this relatively singular defensive model proved inadequate against larger-scale invasions employing advanced tactics. bukhara’s triple-layered defense marked a transition from passive fortification to proactive and strategic urban planning. the shahristan took on governance functions, while the expansion of the rabads not only deepened the city’s defensive capabilities but also supported sustained economic activity. moreover, the citadel’s independence allowed bukhara to maintain governance and organizational capacity during prolonged sieges, an advantage paikend could not match. through its triple-layered defense structure, bukhara not only repelled external invasions but also solidified its role as a political and economic center. in addition, the city’s cultural and religious influence spread through the mosques, schools, and marketplaces embedded within its triple walls, showcasing its multifaceted strengths. in comparison, while paikend’s "copper city" moniker holds an important place in military history, its lack of multifunctional features led to a rapid decline once its natural resources were depleted. 5. conclusions before the rise of bukhara, paikend was the core city of the bukhara oasis and was often referred to as "ancient bukhara." its title as the "copper city" symbolized its exceptional defensive structures, including towering walls, elevated terrain, and a single-entry design, which reflected its strategic importance along the zerafshan river and its role as a hub in the central asian trade network. however, as natural resources diminished and geopolitical dynamics shifted, paikend gradually declined. in contrast, bukhara, with its more sophisticated defense system, superior geographic location, and adaptable political strategies, emerged as the new center of the oasis. this transition reveals the underlying historical dynamics of oasis city development in central asia. first, changes in natural resources were a key driver of power transitions. paikend’s loss of access to water sources led to its decline, while bukhara’s proximity to the zerafshan river allowed it to thrive. this highlights the importance of environmental adaptability for the development of oasis cities, where ecological resources were critical to sustaining prosperity. second, shifts in regional politics and military strategies accelerated the transfer of power. while paikend initially dominated as a trade hub, bukhara gradually supplanted it by building an advanced triple-layered defense system and consolidating power under the samanid dynasty. finally, the integration of cultural and political influence further cemented bukhara’s dominance. while paikend’s "copper city" title symbolized military defense, bukhara extended this legacy by fostering religious dissemination and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 25 published by ideas spread establishing itself as a center of knowledge. this cultural influence not only surpassed paikend but also solidified bukhara’s stable position as a regional leader. the inheritance of the "copper city" title reflects the dynamic nature of power transitions among oasis cities. the decline of paikend and the rise of bukhara were driven by a combination of natural resource management, geopolitical strategies, and cultural integration. this process underscores the core competitive advantages of central asian oasis cities—ecological adaptability, technological innovation, and cultural transformation. in summary, the "copper city" is not just a metaphor for the historical relationship between paikend and bukhara but also a key to understanding the rise and fall of oasis cities in central asia. it offers a unique perspective on the logic of regional power transitions and the development of urban centers. acknowledgements this paper is supported by the national fund for the 2023 major bidding project of the chinese academy of history, titled "research on the history of china-central asia relations" (approval no. 23vls025). references [1] omel’chenko, a. v. (2019). new excavations in the paikend city-site: the sogdian pottery assemblage of the hellenistic period. in urban cultures of central asia from the bronze age to the karakhanids (p. 206). harrassowitz verlag. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvrnfq57.17 [2] narshakh, a. b. m. i. (1954). the history of bukhara (r. n. frye, trans.). cambridge, 18. [3] xu, x. (2000). a study on the history of the samanid dynasty in central asia (p. 37). guizhou education press. [4] narshakh, a. b. m. i. (1954). the history of bukhara (p. 18). [5] ibid. (1954), p. 9. [6] frye, r. n. (1954). bukhara: the medieval achievement. university of oklahoma press, 16. [7] the regions of the world. (1970). v. minorsky (trans.). stephen austin and sons ltd, 73. [8] muhamedžanov, a. r., adylov, š. t., mirzaahmedov, d. k., & semenov, g. l. (1988). городище пайкенд: к проблеме изучения средневекового города средней азии. изд-во "фан" узбекской сср, 20–40. [9] narshakh, a. b. m. i. (1954). the history of bukhara, 43–44. [10] asatrian, g. (2017). swiran: didā—“fortress, walled residence” in iranian toponymy. iran & the caucasus, 21, 399. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573384x-20170406 [11] markwart, j. (1938). wehrōt und ārang. e. j. brill, 5, 97, 113. [12] czegledy, k. (1958). bahrām čōbīn and the persian apocalyptic literature. acta orientalia academiae scientiarum hungaricae, 8, 21–43. [13] taheri, j. (2021). celestial and mythical origins of the citadel of bukhara. endeavour, 45, 5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.endeavour.2022.100801 [14] naynark, a. (1999). the size of samanid bukhara: a note on settlement patterns in early islamic mawarannahr. in a. petruccioli (ed.), bukhara: the myth and the architecture (p. 45). cambridge: aga khan program for islamic architecture at harvard university and the massachusetts institute of technology. [15] narshakh, a. b. m. i. (1954). the history of bukhara, 24. [16] taheri, j. (2021). celestial and mythical origins of the citadel of bukhara, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.endeavour.2022.100801 [17] narshakh, a. b. m. i. (1954). the history of bukhara, 24–25. [18] gibb, h. a. r., kramers, j. h., levi-provencal, e., & schacht, j. (1986). the encyclopaedia of islam, volume 1, a-b. brill, 1294. [19] al-umari, a. (1984). masālik al-abṣār fī mamālik al-amṣār (l. kaning, trans.). reference materials for mongolian history studies, 32–33, 96. [20] eliade, m. (1959). cosmos and history: the myth of the eternal return. harper torchbooks, 6. [21] narshakh, a. b. m. i. (1954). the history of bukhara, 53–59. [22] xu, x. (2000). a study on the history of the samanid dynasty in central asia, 37. [23] gnube, h. (1999). what arabic and persian sources tell us about the structure of tenth-century bukhara. in hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 26 published by ideas spread a. petruccioli (ed.), bukhara: the myth and the architecture (p. 25). [24] yadgarov, n. dj. (2019). bukhara: open-air museum. oriental art and culture, 4, 53–54. [25] barthold, v. v. (1984). an historical geography of iran. princeton university press, 13. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400853229 [26] ebn haukal. the oriental geography of ebn haukal, 246. [27] bartold, v. v. (2007). туркестан в эпоху монгольского нашествия (z. xitong & z. guangda, trans.). shanghai ancient books publishing house, 119–120. [28] narshakh, a. b. m. i. (1954). the history of bukhara, 34. [29] michailidis, m. (2014). dynastic politics and the samanid mausoleum. art orientalis, 44, 27. https://doi.org/10.3998/ars.13441566.0044.003 [30] reference to al-masʿūdī. kitāb al-tanbīh wa l-ishrāf entry. https://isaw.nyu.edu/research/bukharaproject/sources [31] narshakh, a. b. m. i. (1954). the history of bukhara, 68. [32] bartold, v. v. (1984). туркестан в эпоху монгольского нашествия, 116. [33] crone, p. (2012). the nativist prophets of early islamic iran: rural revolt and local zoroastrianism. cambridge university press, 120. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139088459 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n1p123 123 published by ideas spread analysis of positive parenting styles among rural primary school students' parents: a case study of qingxi village, fujian province siyu liu1, yian zhou1, weiyi zhong1, lulu zhang1, yuege lai1 & baiyan du1 1 college of teacher education, quzhou university, china correspondence: baiyan du, college of teacher education, quzhou university, quzhou, zhejiang, 324003, china. e-mail: 32076 qzu.edu.cn received: january 31, 2025; accepted: february 26, 2025; published: march 3, 2025 funding statement: this research is supported by the college students' innovation and entrepreneurship training program (project no. 202411488027) and the quzhou university research project (project no. bsyj202225). abstract with the deepening of educational reforms, rural basic education has garnered increasing societal attention. family education, as a critical factor influencing children's development, demonstrates unique significance in rural areas. this study aims to explore the fundamental characteristics of positive parenting styles among rural primary school students' parents and propose strategies to enhance family education effectiveness. focusing on qingxi village, fujian province, as a case study, data were collected through questionnaire surveys measuring parental practices in three dimensions: warmth, autonomy support, and problem-solving assistance.however, challenges persist due to a lack of effective educational guidance and resources, leading to suboptimal parenting approaches. the study recommends strengthening parental training programs and expanding educational support services to foster holistic development among rural students. keywords: rural education, family education, basic education, positive parenting styles 1. introduction family education is not only the first classroom for children's growth but also a crucial cornerstone in shaping their future. however, in vast rural areas, family education is constrained by multiple factors. first, the cultural literacy of most rural parents has significant room for improvement, and they lack understanding of scientific educational concepts and methods. data from *human capital in china 2023* released by the central university of finance and economics (2023) reveal that the educational attainment of china’s urban labor force is markedly higher than that of the rural labor force. in 2021, only 22.0% of rural laborers had a high school education, compared to 57.43% in urban areas, indicating a substantial gap. second, many rural parents are preoccupied with making a living, leading them to prioritize material needs while neglecting their children’s emotional and psychological demands, coupled with a lack of effective communication skills. huang’s (2023) survey of 453 parents of students at a rural primary school in hunan province found that 50.77% of parents felt inadequate in tutoring their children academically, 46.8% reported having no time to manage their children, 43.49% acknowledged a lack of effective communication with their children, and 27.81% expressed concerns about their children’s addiction to the internet, phones, or computers. third, the uneven distribution of educational resources—particularly in rural and underdeveloped regions—has resulted in deficiencies in scientific education resources, including outdated teaching facilities, insufficient personalized education, and a shortage of qualified educators. ji’s (2023) survey of 203 rural teachers in district p of province s found that 55.7% believed local cultural resources were underutilized, only 15.8% reported receiving training on regional folklore and historical heritage, and a mere 1.0% claimed familiarity with rural educational modernization. additionally, 75.4% stated that school equipment barely met their teaching needs, while 7.9% felt facilities were inadequate. under standardized development models, rural education continues to face challenges such as low educational quality, insufficient student motivation, and poor academic performance. for example, a survey of 488 children from three rural primary schools in eastern guangdong revealed that only 14.62% achieved high academic scores, while 40.62% performed poorly (gao, 2023). generally, rural family education is heavily influenced by traditional beliefs, leading to skewed parental perceptions of education, overreliance on schools, and weak awareness of their primary responsibilities in childhssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 124 published by ideas spread rearing. as shown in lin’s (2023) survey of 97 parents of students at z primary school in fuqing city, 27.5% were indifferent to establishing a parent committee, and 28.3% opposed its formation. regarding home-school collaboration, 26.7% felt schools dominated communication, relegating parents to a passive role. furthermore, urbanization has led to declining enrollments in rural schools, with many small-scale institutions operating below regional standards and lacking sustainable development momentum. despite increased societal investment in rural schools, funding and resource allocation remain insufficient, leaving both hardware and software systems in need of upgrades. rural areas, with their unique cultural environments and abundant resources, should serve as microcosms of cultural revitalization, driving continuous progress in rural education. parenting styles—defined as specific behavioral patterns and tendencies exhibited during child-rearing—reflect interactions between parents and children and significantly influence their development across multiple dimensions (darling & steinberg, 1993). individual coping mechanisms may vary under different parenting approaches (bhattacharyya & pradhan, 2015), as demonstrated by the parental acceptance-rejection theory. prolonged exposure to rejecting parenting correlates with negative coping behaviors such as aggression, defensiveness, and resistance (strage & brandt, 1999). conversely, children raised with warmth and emotional support are more likely to exhibit positive behaviors and proactive problem-solving (hong, 2013; wolfradt et al., 2003). ginsburg and bronstein (1993) found that frequent parental monitoring enhances external motivation, while positive feedback on academic achievements strengthens internal motivation. this suggests that parental involvement and encouragement can foster both intrinsic and extrinsic learning motivation, boosting children’s academic interest. positive parenting styles not only improve educational outcomes but also elevate societal educational levels and human capital quality (park, 2002). beyond knowledge, parents transmit values and life attitudes; children raised with positive parenting are more likely to become law-abiding, socially engaged citizens, reducing familial conflict and promoting harmony—key to societal stability (zhou, 2014). in resource-limited rural settings, parents can transmit community and traditional cultural values, enhancing rural populations’ cultural literacy and fostering diverse, healthy cultural ecosystems (zhou, 2014). rural children often acquire practical life skills—such as agricultural knowledge and household management—from their parents, laying a foundation for future livelihoods and career development while contributing to higher employment rates (boon, 2007). by encouraging curiosity and exploration, parents help children overcome obstacles and pursue better education. through positive communication and modeling, parents teach conflict resolution and cooperation, equipping children to integrate into broader society. facing life’s challenges, supportive family environments cultivate resilience, adaptability, and strong study habits. such nurturing can produce responsible, well-educated rural youth capable of advancing community culture and driving local socioeconomic progress—a virtuous cycle that enhances individual well-being and societal development. given the scarcity of empirical research on rural family education, this study analyzes the status and engagement of positive parenting practices in rural contexts. by exploring current challenges and proposing strategies centered on warmth, autonomy support, and assistance, it aims to optimize rural parenting approaches, improve family education quality, and provide actionable insights for rural educational advancement. the following research questions are addressed: **research question 1:** what is the current status of positive parenting practices among parents of rural primary school students? **research question 2:** how can family-based positive education be promoted for rural primary school students? 2. theoretical background 2.1 definition of positive parenting style in the 1960s, baumrind (1966) first introduced the term "parenting style". the term "parenting" is usually defined as the influence of parents on children's behavior and development. the parenting style is a psychological structure, representing the standard strategies used by parents when raising their children. in her survey on parenting styles, baumrind put forward three prototypes of different parenting styles, namely permissive, authoritative, and authoritarian parenting styles. she also divided these three parenting styles into two extremes. one is the permissive parenting style, which is a non punitive, accepting, and non demanding parenting style. the other is the authoritarian parenting style, where parents try to influence and control their children to maintain their obedience and respect for authority. the authoritative parenting style is described as a rational parenting style, characterized by respecting children's self will and balancing it with disciplined consistency. it is generally believed that this parenting style produces more positive child outcomes than the other two styles. therefore, positive parenting or effective parenting is usually considered to be authoritative parenting, and positive parenting also includes greater positive health and lower delinquent behavior. in general, positive parenting can be defined hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 125 published by ideas spread as essentially authoritative parenting or a parenting style that includes the characteristics of authoritative parenting (palacios, 2022). in subsequent research, many researchers have supported baumrind's research theory that authoritative parenting and its related behaviors, including warmth, autonomy granting, and behavioral control, will bring the most favorable outcomes to children. since the family is usually the place where human beings begin their lives and develop their first interpersonal relationships, and it provides the foundation for the formation of personality and character. in particular, the relationship between parents and children is an important factor in the growth and development of the latter as adolescents. however, in different studies, the definition of parental attitudes varies. durbin and steinberg (1993) believe that the comprehensive attitude conveyed by parents to their children through physical or non physical language during the interaction process is the parenting style. prevatt (2003) stated that parenting style refers to a complex of stable attitudes and beliefs related to upbringing, which is the way and method used by parents or guardians in educating their children. li and willems (2019) believe that the family upbringing style is not only a relatively fixed way of behavior between parents and children in family education life, but also a comprehensive reflection of the parents' mentality, views, emotions, and actions in the whole process of cultivating their children. it can be seen that positive parenting style refers to the positive attitudes and behaviors of parents towards their children, such as warmth, understanding, acceptance, and support. for rural areas, the family education style is the interaction between parents and children, as well as how to plan and support children's lives and education in rural communities (besharat, 2011). it is mainly the cultivation, guidance, and influence of rural parents or other guardians on their children's moral character, physical quality, life skills, cultural accomplishment, and behavioral habits, in order to ensure the healthy development of children's body and mind. its aim is to guide the society to pay attention to family values, enhance family happiness and social harmony, and achieve rural revitalization (qingle, 2024). baumrind (1991) pointed out that rural parents are more likely to be authoritative, responsive, and maintain a strict attitude when interacting with their children, and authoritative parents have high standards for their children and encourage them to discuss their action plans through arguments and reasons before making decisions (grobman, 2003; seid and mikre, 2008). in addition, some scholars have further concluded that the positive parenting style of rural parents means that in the rural environment, parents create a positive family education atmosphere through positive attitudes, behaviors, and emotional expressions, in order to promote the comprehensive and healthy growth of children (talin, 2021). that is, it is the parenting methods and behaviors of rural parents to take positive, supportive, and cultivate children's initiative and sense of responsibility (lin, 2022). therefore, the positive parenting style of rural parents is an important content in the study of rural family education, which is not only related to the healthy growth of rural adolescents, but also affects the overall development of rural society. 2.2 factors constituting positive parenting style the characteristics of positive parenting are usually described by different terms, including acceptance, enthusiasm, participation, sensitivity, response, caring, empathy, promoting social emotional and cognitive growth, and instruction (baumrind, 1989; bornstein, 2003; hart, nelson, robinson, olsen, 1998). maccoby (1983) divided parents' parenting attitudes into two dimensions of love rejection and autonomy control, and subdivided them into four types: love autonomy, love control, rejection autonomy, and rejection control, and put forward a cyclical model. "love autonomy" refers to the parenting attitude of parents who endow their children with autonomy and sense of responsibility with love and respect for their children's personality. "love control" refers to the parenting attitude of parents who try to control their children through overprotection and intervention while expressing love. "rejection autonomy" refers to the parenting attitude of indifference and laissez faire towards children. "rejection control" refers to the psychological and behavioral control of children by ignoring their opinions and suppressing their behaviors. skinner, johnson, and snyder (2005), based on the self determination theory (deci and ryan, 1985), that is, the desire to autonomously decide one's own behavior, interpreted the parenting attitude as six factors: autonomy support, coercion, structure, chaos, warmth, and rejection. the above are the different conceptual types of parenting attitudes proposed by different scholars, all of which show that parents' parenting attitudes have a significant impact on children's emotional, behavioral, and cognitive development. tae and eun (2017) revised the adolescent parenting attitude scale (pscq_ka), and verified the skinner, johnson, and snyder (2005) adolescent parenting attitude scale <parents as social context questionnaire for adolescents>, and divided the constituent factors of positive parenting style into three dimensions: warmth, autonomy support, and provision of assistance. among them, warmth is related to psychological needs, mainly reflected in emotional communication and psychological support, showing interest and affection for children, respecting and accepting their wishes, spending a lot of time together, and expressing verbal and non verbal hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 126 published by ideas spread intimacy. lam (2018) believes that parents' warmth is a core aspect of parenting, which is usually defined as the support, praise, and affection from parents. it has been proved that children who have experienced this warm parenting attitude will have a sense of stability and calmness, and can establish good relationships with people not only in the family but also in friend and teacher relationships, and can better adapt to society. autonomy support is related to the autonomy of psychological needs, which is a key point of self determination theory, that is, accepting children's perspectives and views, having confidence to provide opportunities for choice, and encouraging their self practice attitude. it can be seen that parents' autonomy support is also related to children's cognitive ability, academic enthusiasm, autonomous motivation, and mental health psychological and social indicators, which helps children form the personality traits of self confidence, independence, and self motivation. the provision of assistance is related to ability, which is a psychological need. parents set clear goals and rules, but provide sufficient explanations and guidance in a way that children can understand, propose various methods, and provide appropriate feedback. when parents provide assistance to their children, children can understand the connection between their behavior and the result, and meet the need for ability by giving full play to their own ability to achieve the goals they want (tae, eun, 2017). in summary, the research on parenting attitudes has put forward a three dimensional bipolar model of warmth rejection, autonomy support coercion, and provision of assistance inconsistency, as well as a unipolar model that studies warmth, rejection, autonomy support, coercion, provision of assistance, and inconsistency as six independent factors. in a study on the dimensions of the parenting attitude scale, it was shown that the unipolar model is superior to the bipolar model in terms of applicability and explanatory power (tae, lee, 2017). therefore, this study believes that the positive parenting style of parents is the positive attitude and behavior of parents towards their children's warmth, autonomy support, and provision of assistance, which covers the warm care of parents for their children, and the cultivation of encouraging autonomy and supporting children's ability to solve problems independently. 2.3 the impact of positive parenting style on children the direct impact of parents' parenting style is on children's thinking and cognition. heo (2012) believes that family upbringing not only determines the quality of parent child relationships, but also has a significant impact on children's psychological characteristics, and thus affects children's intellectual development. parents who have positive parenting behaviors and higher requirements for their children are always beneficial to the positive health of children and adolescents. this not only provides protection for children to prevent delinquency, but also gives children good education and happiness experience to adapt to society (baumrind, 1966; lamborn et al., 1991; darling, steinberg, 1993). kautz (2014) proved the significant impact of parenting style on children's non cognitive abilities, including behavioral problems, social skills, and emotional problems. in a recent study, falk et al. (2021) explored the relationship between parenting style and children's patience, risk aversion, behavior, and altruism. the study emphasized that the parenting style centered on children and warmth has a positive impact on these aspects. that is to say, the parenting style that combines effective discipline with parental warmth, that is, positive parenting, will enable children to have a higher adaptability (martinez escudero et al., 2023). in the future development of children, parents' parenting styles play a certain guiding role in various aspects. the moral and behavioral standards of parents are expressed and conveyed in communication with their children, and children will imitate and apply these standards to form their own development (park, 2002). family upbringing plays a key role in children's acquisition of positive and negative habits. generally speaking, extreme permissive and authoritarian parenting will lead to adverse outcomes for children (hosokawa, katsura, 2019; pinquart, gerke, 2019). that is, parents with authoritarian and neglectful parenting styles impose harsh physical and psychological control on their children, which is more likely to lead to children's internalized disorders and externalized behavioral problems (pinquart, 2016; rinaldi, howe, 2012). zakeri (2013) showed in the study of the relationship between parenting style and academic procrastination that the positive parenting style involving "acceptance participation" and "psychological autonomy granting" was significantly negatively correlated with academic procrastination, that is, when parents used strict supervision parenting style, academic procrastination increased significantly. that is to say, when parents have a negative parenting style, children's self efficacy decreases, resulting in children's procrastination in academics (frost, lahart, and rosenblate, 1991). oh (2014) found that when parents often punish or restrict their children, children's reaction to school life is more negative, and their achievement motivation will gradually decrease. therefore, negative parenting styles may lead to children's rebellious psychology, have a negative impact on adolescents' adaptation to school life and learning enthusiasm, and may even internalize parents' authoritarian attitudes and behaviors, and replicate this pattern in their own lives and relationships in the future. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 127 published by ideas spread in rural areas, due to the limitations of traditional values and resources, the family education concepts are relatively outdated, there is a lack of professional talents, the school's family education guidance ability is weak, and the lack of family education support functions, which leads to the close relationship between parents' parenting styles and the cognitive, emotional, social, and academic development of children and adolescents (durbin et al., 1993). the types of rural parenting styles are roughly determined to be permissive and authoritarian parenting styles, which are related to the academic achievement and moral character of rural students. positive authoritative rural family education means that children can obtain the necessary learning support and encouragement, achieve higher academic achievement and self efficacy, and thus may have the opportunity to receive higher level education (lau, power, 2020). in addition, some researchers have observed that permissive parents may lead to greater insecurity in children because they have too much freedom and lack sufficient supervision, resulting in children's excessive emotional dependence, loss of self control, and lack of courage to deal with difficult situations (lo, 2020). lau (2020) believes that although authoritarian education may improve academic performance in some cases, authoritarian rural family education may lead to children feeling that their feelings and needs are not valued, resulting in emotional repression and communication barriers, and easily triggering children's rebellious behavior. it can be seen that in rural family education, kindness, discipline, and clear boundaries are more likely to help children's physical and mental health development than obedience and harsh attitudes. 3. methods 3.1 research objects this study explores and analyzes the basic situation of positive parenting styles of parents of rural primary school students. parents of students were chosen as the research objects. due to the advantages of online questionnaires, such as low collection cost, convenience, and speed (tan, teo, 2000), this study collected online questionnaires from parents of lower grade students in a primary school in qingxi village, youxi county, fujian province through the method of online questionnaire filling and collection. in august 2024, the questionnaires were distributed through the wenjuanxing app, and data was collected over a period of two weeks. a total of 125 questionnaires were collected, and 1 invalid questionnaire was screened out, leaving 124 questionnaires as the final data. the frequency of fathers as the main caregivers of the children in the family was 76, accounting for 61.3%. the frequency of mothers as the main caregivers was 36, accounting for 29%. the number of children whose main caregivers were (maternal) grandparents and other relatives was relatively small, with a frequency of 12, accounting for 9.7%. in terms of grade, there were 69 students in the first grade, accounting for 55.6%, and 55 students in the second grade, accounting for 44.4%. regarding the number of children in the family, there were 10 only children, accounting for 8.1%. the frequency of families with two children was 62, accounting for 50%. the frequency of parents with three or more children was 52, accounting for 41.9%. according to the educational distribution of the main caregivers of the children in the family, there were 88 people with junior high school education or below, accounting for 71.1%. there were 21 people with high school education, accounting for 16.9%. the number of people with college education or above was 15, accounting for 12.1%. the characteristics of the research objects are shown in table 1. table 1. background characteristics of research objects project category frequency percentage(%) primary caregiver of family children father 76 61.3 mother 36 29.0 maternal) grandparents and other relatives 12 9.7 grade one 69 55.6 two 55 44.4 number of children in the family one child 10 8.1 two children 62 50.0 three or more children 52 41.9 educational level of the primary caregiver of family children junior high school and below 88 71.1 high school 21 16.9 college and above 15 12.1 total number 124 100 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 128 published by ideas spread 3.2 research instruments in this study, to measure parents' parenting behaviors, 6 items and 12 questions from the revised adolescent motivation model parenting attitude scale by tae and eun (2017) were used. the factors of positive parenting attitude included three variables: warmth, autonomy support, and provision of assistance, with 12 questions in total. each question was measured using a likert type 5 point scale ( "completely disagree" = 1 point, "somewhat disagree" = 2 points, "neutral" = 3 poi nts, "somewhat agree" = 4 points, "completely agree" = 5 points). the higher the score of this scale, the higher the level of parents' positive parenting. in this study, the cronbach α value of parents' positive parenting style calculated for students ranged from 0.889 to 0.946, with warmth at 0.889, autonomy support at 0.946, and provision of assistance also at 0.946. this confirmed the reliability of the instrument. considering that a cronbach α value greater than 0.60 is an acceptable level of confidence (devellis, 2012), the reliability of the questionnaire was acceptable. therefore, the composition of questions for each variable of positive parenting style and the calculation results of cronbach α reliability are shown in table 2 below. table 2: composition of questions and reliability of sub factors in positive parenting attitude scale factor item number number of questions cronbach α warmth 1,2,3,4 4 0.889 autonomy support 5,6,7,8 4 0.946 provision of assistance 9,10,11,12 4 0.946 total 12 0.970 3.3 procedural analysis the data analysis in this study was carried out using the spss 26.0 program, and the analysis was conducted according to the following procedures. first, a frequency analysis was conducted to understand the general statistical characteristics of the research objects, and the frequency and percentage were calculated. second, cronbach α was calculated to verify the reliability of the measurement tools used in the study. third, a descriptive statistical analysis was carried out to calculate the mean, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis of the main variables. fourth, the differences in the three dimensions of positive parenting style among different demographic variables were analyzed. specifically, a t test statistical analysis was conducted on the differences in positive parenting style among different grades; an anova statistical analysis was conducted on the differences in positive parenting style among different main caregivers of family children, the number of children in the family, and the educational level of the main caregivers of family children. finally, strategies to promote positive parenting styles among rural parents were proposed based on the analysis results of this study. 4. results 4.1 comprehensive situation analysis before analyzing the research questions, in order to examine the basic characteristics of the main variables, we calculated the mean, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis of the sub factors of warmth, autonomy support, and provision of assistance in the positive parenting style of parents of lower grade students, and presented the results together with the range of each variable in table 3. the survey showed that the mean value of warmth in positive parenting style was m = 4.1552, the mean value of autonomy support was m = 4.1573, and the mean value of provision of assistance was m = 4.153, with the values of skewness and kurtosis between 2 and 2. when the kurtosis and skewness are within 2 and 2, it can be considered that the distribution shape is normal (nadarajah, 2005). table 3. descriptive statistics of key variables component mean standard deviation skewness kurtosis warmth 4.1552 .92810 -1.317 1.779 autonomy support 4.1573 .95656 -1.516 2.189 provision of assistance 4.153 .98023 -1.285 1.461 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 129 published by ideas spread 4.2 difference analysis to analyze the differences in positive parenting styles among parents of rural primary school students based on their demographic characteristics, a factor variance analysis was conducted. the t test analysis method was used to examine the differences among students of different grades, while the anova analysis method was employed to investigate the differences in warmth, autonomy support, and provision of assistance among different main caregivers of family children, the number of children in the family, and the educational level of the main caregivers of family children. the specific situation is shown in table 4. in the family, the warmth (f = 4.869) provided by the main caregiver of the children has a significant impact on the children's growth. specifically, the warmth provided by mothers (m = 4.34) is more prominent than that provided by fathers (m = 3.97), while the warmth provided by other relatives is relatively lower (m = 3.56). when examining the educational level of the main caregiver in the family, the provision of assistance (f = 3.248) is statistically significant, while there is no significant difference in warmth and autonomy support among caregivers with different educational levels. moreover, caregivers with a college degree or above (m = 4.75) are more inclined to provide assistance, and caregivers with a high school education (m = 4.11) provide more help than those with a junior high school education or below (m = 4.09). in addition, no other variables showed significant differences. table 4. test of differences in scores of positive parenting style among parents in demographic aspects component positive parenting style warmth （m±sd） autonomy support （m±sd） provision of assistance （m±sd） primary caregiver of family children mother（n=76） 4.34±0.84 4.31±0.89 4.27±0.93 father（n=36） 3.97±0.91 4.15±1.03 4.1±0.94 other relatives（n=12） 3.56±1.22 3.69±1.07 3.58±1.23 f 4.869 2.356 2.713 p 0.009** 0.099 0.070 grade of family children 1-3grade（n=69） 4.01±1.04 4.09±1.05 4.07±1.09 4-6grade（n=55） 4.33±0.73 4.35±0.82 4.26±0.81 t -1.912 -1.481 -1.080 p 0.058 0.141 0.282 number of family children 1（n=10） 4.23±0.72 3.95±0.95 3.93±1.06 2（n=62） 4.22±0.79 4.3±0.75 4.24±0.8 ≥3（n=52） 4.06±1.1 4.14±1.16 4.11±1.16 f 0.443 0.770 0.558 p 0.643 0.465 0.574 educational level of the primary caregiver in the family junior high school and below （n=88） 4.09±0.99 4.13±1.00 4.07±1.01 high school（n=21） 4.17±0.83 4.13±0.95 4.11±1.00 college and above（n=15） 4.52±0.52 4.77±0.38 4.75±0.41 f 1.358 3.055 3.248 p 0.261 0.051 0.042* *p≤.05；**p≤.01，n=124 5. discussion and conclusion the main purpose of this study is to conduct an in depth investigation and analysis of the positive parenting styles of parents of rural primary school students, with a view to understanding the current implementation of positive parenting styles in rural families and proposing effective promotion strategies based on this. firstly, in order to verify research question 1 "what is the situation of positive parenting styles among parents of rural primary school students?", this study conducted a comprehensive statistical analysis and difference analysis of 124 parents of rural primary school students. from the results of the descriptive statistical analysis, the overall trend of positive parenting styles among rural parents is relatively good, which indicates that in the current rural family education hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 130 published by ideas spread environment, the concepts and methods of positive parenting have been popularized and practiced to a certain extent. however, despite the overall good level, in the specific analysis of sub factors, we found that the score of autonomy support is higher than that of warmth and provision of assistance, which reveals that there is still room for improvement in the positive parenting styles of rural parents. specifically, the higher score of autonomy support may be due to the fact that rural parents pay more attention to cultivating children's independence and autonomy when educating them, which helps children form the ability to think independently and solve problems. however, the relatively low scores of warmth and provision of assistance may mean that some rural parents, due to busy work or other reasons, are unable to give their children enough attention and support, so parents still need to strengthen their emotional care and practical help. in the difference analysis, the warmth parenting style provided by mothers is higher than that of fathers and other relatives, which is partially consistent with the study of dyches (2012). in the family, mothers are usually more inclined than fathers to use emotional support and positive interaction methods to educate their children. this phenomenon may be related to the traditional concept of gender roles. since mothers are usually the main caregivers of children, they have more opportunities to express warmth and support through daily interactions, and the educational background and social support system of mothers may also have an impact on their parenting styles. this continuous emotional communication helps to establish a closer parent child relationship, thereby promoting children's psychological health and emotional development. fathers and other relatives may be less involved in children's daily lives due to work burden or other responsibilities, resulting in their poorer performance in providing warm parenting compared with mothers. the main caregivers in families with a college degree or above provide the highest level of assistance giving parenting style, followed by those with high school and junior high school education or below. this result is partially consistent with the study of song (2024), and the educational background of family caregivers has a significant impact on children's growth and development. caregivers with high education levels usually have more educational resources, knowledge reserves, and social support. they are more inclined to use scientific and systematic parenting methods in the process of raising children. they may pay attention to children's psychological development, understand the needs of children at different age stages, and thus provide more personalized and appropriate education. in contrast, caregivers with lower education levels may have a more singular understanding of children's development due to the limitations of their education level, or lack relevant parenting knowledge and skills. this leads to their more traditional or empirical parenting styles, which are difficult to meet the diverse needs of modern education. secondly, to verify research question 2: "how to promote the family positive education of rural primary school students?", according to the research results of parents' positive parenting styles and their sub dimensions, in family education, educators should pay more attention to children's warmth input, autonomy support, and provision of necessary assistance. when the family is filled with an atmosphere of love and care, it can effectively enhance children's sense of security, and the warmth and care conveyed by educators through words and deeds are one of the important factors for children's self confidence and social interaction ability improvement. therefore, educators should encourage parents to establish good parent child relationships and listen to the voices of their children so that they can get emotional support. secondly, in the process of rural primary school students' growth, parents' encouragement of children to make their own choices in daily life and actively participate in family decision making is of great significance to the improvement of children's self efficacy and sense of responsibility. therefore, educators can organize family education lectures or workshops to help parents understand how to effectively encourage children's autonomy and provide suggestions for self learning resources and activities suitable for rural students. in addition, rural primary school students often face the problem of lack of resources in their studies and life. in this regard, educators can suggest that families establish an effective communication mechanism, encourage families to pay attention to children's learning needs and emotional changes, and give necessary help and guidance when needed. this study analyzed the positive parenting styles of parents of rural primary school students in qingxi village, fujian province, and used descriptive statistics and difference analysis methods to reveal the current situation of family education in the area, providing information for understanding the family parenting patterns of similar rural communities. by showing in detail the specific performance of parents in dimensions such as warmth, autonomy support, and provision of assistance, the policy recommendations proposed in the study aim to improve the quality of family education in rural areas and promote the effective use of community educational resources, which has certain guiding significance. however, the limitations of the study should not be ignored. firstly, due to the possibly singular sample, the results may lack wide representativeness, and the sample size can be further expanded in the future to enhance the reliability of the study. secondly, data collection mainly relies on questionnaire surveys, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 131 published by ideas spread which may have subjective bias. future research should consider combining multiple methods to improve the objectivity and accuracy of data. finally, the study did not fully consider the impact of local culture on parenting styles, which is an important aspect that needs in depth exploration in future research. although some suggestions have been put forward, due to the lack of actual intervention verification, the effectiveness of these suggestions still needs to be further tested and adjusted in practice. 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(2014). research on scholastic quality of rural area primary school pupils in yunnan province: based on the investigation in guantun, yaoan, chuxiong yi nationality autonomous (master’s thesis). yunnan minzu university. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p183 183 published by ideas spread community-embedded child protection: lessons from china's child directors system for global policy innovation guizhen li1 1 school of public administration, guangdong university of foreign studies, china correspondence: guizhen li, school of public administration, guangdong university of foreign studies, 510006, china. tel:86-198-6516-0656. e-mail:19865160656@163.com received: august 13, 2025; accepted: august 20, 2025; published: august 21, 2025 abstract the child directors system represents a landmark innovation in china’s child protection framework by institutionalizing grassroots personnel dedicated to safeguarding children in need. established under the ministry of civil affairs, the system appoints trained individuals in villages and communities to identify, refer, and coordinate services for vulnerable children. this study examines its origins, institutional design, and mechanisms. it highlights broad coverage, early intervention, and multi-sectoral collaboration as key strengths. through structured training, fiscal support, digital tools, and performance incentives, the model improves accessibility, responsiveness, and service integration. the analysis shows that the system functions as a bridge between national policy and community realities. it offers transferable lessons for countries with dispersed populations and limited social work resources. keywords: child directors system, child protection, community-based services, social welfare innovation 1. introduction the purpose of child protection is to prevent or shield children from violence, exploitation, abuse and neglect (nuicef, 2024). in practice, community-level child protection mechanisms are gaining increasing recognition for their proximity, efficiency and sustainability. they are organizational systems within local communities that safeguard children’s well-being through the collaborative efforts of networks or individuals. while national legal frameworks and central agencies remain indispensable, the most vulnerable children, especially those in rural and marginalized areas, often lie beyond the direct reach of state services. by contrast, community-level action is better suited to support children at risk. it can reach large numbers of children and enable early detection of risks, rapid intervention and sustained social support in the very environments where children live. such models are typically low-cost and therefore more sustainable (wessells, 2009). china’s child directors system is one of the most significant grassroots child protection innovations in the past decade. established as a dedicated position at the village or neighborhood level, child directors identify, support, and advocate for children in need, with particular attention to left-behind children, children in difficult circumstances, and those at risk of abuse or neglect (yan, & zhang, 2022). since its formalization in 2016 by the ministry of civil affairs, the system has expanded nationwide, integrating volunteers, grassroots governance structures, and public service networks into a coordinated protection mechanism. this article provides a case-based policy analysis of the child directors system, focusing on its origins, institutional design, operational mechanisms, and positive outcomes. methodologically, the study adopts a qualitative policy analysis and case study approach. it draws upon a range of secondary sources, including official statistics and government reports issued by the ministry of civil affairs, policy guidelines, and peer-reviewed academic studies published in recent years. these materials were selected for their relevance, reliability, and contribution to understanding grassroots child protection in china. the analysis is guided by an institutional and governance framework, emphasizing how formal mandates, fiscal commitments, and community-embedded practices interact to shape system effectiveness. in addition, the paper situates the chinese model in a broader comparative context, drawing on community-based child protection experiences from sub-saharan africa and latin america. this perspective highlights the distinctive institutional features of china’s approach while underscoring its potential relevance and transferability internationally. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 184 published by ideas spread 2. origins and development of the child directors system the origins of the child directors system can be traced back to early policy experiments in several provinces during the late 2000s, when the rapid socio-economic transformation of china led to unprecedented internal migration. millions of rural parents migrated to urban centers in search of work, leaving their children in the care of grandparents or other relatives. by 2020, china had 71.09 million migrant children and more than 66.93 million left-behind children (nuicef, 2021). these children often faced emotional deprivation, educational disadvantages, and heightened vulnerability to abuse or neglect. for instance, research shows that left-behind children face a heightened risk of abuse. those with both parents absent experience much higher rates of neglect and emotional abuse compared with their peers. such maltreatment is strongly linked to later psychological and behavioral problems (wan, & pei, 2020). to address these challenges, the ministry of civil affairs recognized the urgent need for a structured, institutionalized child protection mechanism and launched pilot projects that appointed dedicated personnel at the village and community levels. these pilots demonstrated that localized, full-time workers could markedly enhance case identification and welfare coordination. the full-scale rollout of the child directors pilot laid a foundation for refining subsequent policies and ensuring comprehensive child welfare (xu, 2015). in 2016, the mca issued the guiding opinions on strengthening the protection of children in difficulty, which formally established the position of child directors in every administrative village and urban community, complemented by children’s supervisors at the township or sub-district level. this created a two-tiered structure embedding child protection within china’s grassroots governance framework. by the end of 2020, china had 48,000 township (sub-district) children’s supervisors and 667,000 village (community) child directors, achieving full coverage (ministry of civil affairs, 2021). the institutionalization of the child directors role marked a decisive shift in china’s child welfare strategy, from ad hoc, reactive responses toward a proactive, community-embedded, and government-backed model. it also reflected the state’s broader commitment to modernizing social governance, emphasizing early intervention, interdepartmental coordination, and inclusive social services (yan & zhang, 2022). 3. institutional design and core responsibilities the child directors system is structured to ensure clarity of roles, accessibility for families, and effective linkage with higher-level authorities and specialized services. it operates through a three-tiered framework (xia, 2021). at the village and community level, child directors serve as the primary point of contact for children and families, undertaking direct monitoring of living conditions and overall welfare, with particular attention to those classified as children in difficulty. they maintain individual case records and ensure that local child welfare databases are regularly updated. at the township and sub-district level, children’s supervisors provide guidance, training, and technical support to child directors, while also coordinating cross-sectoral responses involving education, health, public security, and civil affairs departments. at the county level, civil affairs departments oversee the recruitment, training, and performance evaluation of both child directors and supervisors, allocate funding and resources for child protection activities, and ensure integration with broader social assistance and welfare programs. serving as the most grassroots operational unit of china’s child welfare and protection system, the child director is a frontline child-protection practitioner, also known as a paraprofessional grassroots social worker. recruited from urban neighborhoods and rural villages, the role is typically filled by female members of urban residents’ or villagers’ committees (guan, zhang, & zhao, 2024). the child director plays a pivotal role in bridging national policy with community realities. through institutionalized design, the position embeds child protection responsibilities into the routine functioning of grassroots governance. on one level, child directors are tasked with the early detection and reporting of risks to children. they conduct regular home visits to collect and update child information and enforce mandatory reporting protocols, ensuring that risks, such as abuse, neglect, school dropout, or loss of guardianship—are promptly identified and escalated to supervisors and protection institutions. this early detection secures valuable time for crisis intervention. on another level, as frontline service providers embedded within their local communities, child directors are central to ensuring the “last mile” implementation of child welfare policies. their work targets key groups, particularly left-behind and vulnerable children, and encompasses raising awareness of child rights and relevant legal protections among community members; accurately assessing the needs of children and their families across areas such as social assistance, healthcare, education, and psychosocial support; facilitating access to essential resources; and organizing diverse protection and care activities, including home-based support, emotional assistance, and, when necessary, material aid (nuicef, 2015; xu et al., 2021). they also mobilize residents, social organizations, and other stakeholders to participate in child protection efforts, fostering a locally anchored support hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 185 published by ideas spread network. the core responsibilities of child directors are clearly defined in national policy documents and standardized guidelines, reinforced through specified duties, streamlined reporting procedures, supervisory mechanisms, and digital case management tools. this framework positions the child director not only as a direct protector of children but also as a connector who links at-risk children to the welfare services they require while strengthening shared community responsibility. 4. mechanisms ensuring effective implementation the sustainability and effectiveness of the child directors system rest on a set of interrelated mechanisms that institutionalize support, capacity building, and accountability. 4.1 training and capacity development capacity building of child directors is crucial for constructing a rural child service and protection network that involves multiple actors and narrows the developmental gap between urban and rural children (yang & li, 2022). to compensate for limited professional expertise, china has established a top-down, systematic training system. local governments at all levels are required to provide comprehensive pre-service and in-service training. for example, the three-year action plan for improving the quality of care services for rural left-behind and vulnerable children in guangdong province stipulates that provincial and prefectural civil affairs departments must organize at least one demonstration training each year, while county-level departments must deliver annual training that covers every child director. training modules cover legal and policy frameworks, operational standards, and practical skills. the “child directors induction manual” and the four-tier training system developed by the china institute of philanthropy at beijing normal university have served as standardized templates nationwide. on this basis, localities add differentiated components. jilin province, for instance, has adopted a “professional social worker plus child director” model in which social-work agencies provide supervision and mentoring, shifting services from relief to proactive support. many regions have also introduced digital learning platforms that transcend geographical barriers, enabling child directors in remote areas to access up-to-date resources. these measures have transformed the once informally trained “barefoot child social workers” into skilled practitioners able to identify risks, assess needs, and deliver interventions effectively. 4.2 financial support stable and sustainable funding is essential for ensuring both quality and long-term effectiveness. following the principle of shared responsibility, both central and local governments fund the program. fiscal authorities include allowances, training expenses, and essential equipment for child directors in their annual budgets. for example, the 2025 budget of the guangdong provincial child rescue and protection center allocated rmb 390,000 for “capacity building for grassroots child protection teams” and rmb 260,000 for “vocational skills training for child protection personnel.” since 2012, ruili city in yunnan province has included child directors’ remuneration in the municipal budget, providing an average monthly allowance of rmb 1,130. these allowances not only cover daily work-related expenses but also enhance the attractiveness of the position and contribute to personnel retention. in addition, charitable funds such as the china welfare lottery public fund serve as important supplementary financial sources. for instance, in 2021, yongzhou city in hunan province allocated rmb 3.24 million from municipal-level charitable funds, with counties and districts providing matching funds based on actual needs. this was used to purchase services from third-party social organizations, implementing a “1 child director + 1 social organization + 1 volunteer team” model to operate local children’s homes. such diversified funding channels together provide a robust material foundation for the operation of the child directors system. 4.3 information systems and case management an efficient digital information system is the key to improving the management effectiveness of the child directors network. by integrating data and applying intelligent analytics, the speed and accuracy of child-protection responses are systematically enhanced. the national child welfare information system, operating as the national digital hub, has established a dynamic data network that covers county, township, and village levels. through cross-departmental interfaces, it links information resources from civil affairs, education, public security, and other agencies to create a comprehensive child database combined with an intelligent monitoring and early-warning mechanism. the “one child, one file” dynamic management system provides child directors with multidimensional data to deliver precise services, shifting child protection from reactive response to proactive intervention. building on this foundation, localities have launched their own digital innovations. jiangsu province, for example, developed the “su tong chengzhang” one-stop mobile service platform for child directors. the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 186 published by ideas spread platform integrates data collection, monitoring and early warning, needs assessment, and targeted services, enabling full-process digital management of child-protection work. since its launch, 8070 newly identified children in need have been promptly enrolled in policy safeguards. in 2024, cross-departmental data matching verified and registered 754000 migrant children. 4.4 multi-sectoral collaboration the system relies on a broad and robust network of multi-sectoral collaboration. in china, the model has gradually established a cross-departmental, multi-tiered, and cross-sectoral child protection system through institutionalized coordination mechanisms and the integration of diverse actors. under the government-led collaborative framework, the civil affairs department serves as the lead agency, institutionalizing a regular “joint meeting” mechanism that brings together education, public security, judicial, and health departments to ensure the efficient functioning of the “information sharing–joint action–service referral” process. leveraging their respective professional strengths, these departments coordinate in key areas such as educational assistance, legal protection, and healthcare services, enabling an effective response to highly complex, multi-faceted child protection cases and significantly enhancing the system’s overall responsiveness. at the same time, the child directors mechanism actively integrates into broader social resource networks, forming a diversified “child director plus” model of collaboration. social organizations, volunteer groups, enterprises, and grassroots communities participate extensively through mechanisms such as government procurement of services and partnerships on philanthropic projects, thereby alleviating structural constraints in public service provision at the grassroots level. the “child director plus” model is “one-core, multi-actor”: it places the child director at the center, taps the advantageous resources of all relevant stakeholders in the rural setting, and integrates multiple forces for joint collaboration, thereby advancing the construction of a rural child protection system (yang, & li, 2022). for example, in qingdao’s west coast new area, the “children’s supervisor + child directors + social organization + volunteers + community + project” operational model has effectively strengthened the child protection network and successfully addressed schooling and household registration issues for several children with special needs. 4.5 performance evaluation and recognition to guarantee the efficient operation and continuous improvement of the child director system, local governments have widely established scientific and institutionalized performance-evaluation mechanisms. civil-affairs departments at township and county levels conduct regular assessments of child directors, gauging their effectiveness in case identification, service delivery, and community mobilization. the evaluation outcomes serve not only as decisive criteria for contract renewal and post adjustment but are also directly linked to training opportunities, commendations, and resource allocation, thereby forming an institutionalized chain of positive incentives. for example, sishui county in shandong province has implemented the “two measures and one checklist” system, tying subsidies to service quality and realizing the principle of “more work, more pay; better performance, higher reward,” which significantly strengthens the positive correlation between work results and income and effectively motivates child directors’ initiative and sense of responsibility. in jiangsu province, performance evaluation is integrated with career development: awards achieved in practical-skills competitions are incorporated into the professional-title review and honor-granting system, allowing outstanding practitioners to receive provincial honorary titles and additional points for promotion (wei, 2024), thus markedly enhancing the post’s professional appeal and social recognition. 5. positive outcomes 5.1 expanding service coverage a central accomplishment of the child director system is its significant broadening of both the reach and accessibility of child-protection services. tens of thousands of professionally trained child directors have been stationed in villages and communities, including remote rural areas and mountainous regions with limited transportation, thereby overcoming the geographic barriers that historically constrained traditional child-welfare systems. by maintaining a grassroots presence, child directors can provide immediate responses. for vulnerable children, they also serve as an identifiable, trustworthy, and consistently available channel for seeking assistance. this deeply embedded network effectively resolves the “last-mile” problem that conventional child-welfare services struggled to address, dramatically increasing disadvantaged children’s access to essential support and fully embodying the caring principle that “no child should be left behind.” beyond facilitating proactive identification and the professional delivery of child-welfare services, the child director system, through sustained policy backing and institutional development has become a landmark milestone in china’s efforts to construct an inclusive child-welfare and protection framework. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 187 published by ideas spread 5.2 risk early-warning and early intervention the implementation of the child director system has markedly enhanced the capacity for early identification of child-related risks and timely intervention, accelerating a paradigm shift in child protection from reactive remediation to proactive prevention. through institutionalized, routine home visits, systematic information gathering, and mandatory reporting mechanisms, the system can swiftly detect and report a spectrum of childsafety risks, such as school dropout, neglect, and abuse before they escalate. leveraging a dynamic “one-childone-file” information system and regular household monitoring, child directors conduct continuous surveillance of priority groups, enabling rapid capture and transmission of risk indicators. this “early detection–prompt reporting–early intervention” chain not only heightens the efficiency of crisis response but also reduces the likelihood of long-term harm to children, thereby substantially strengthening the preventive function of the childprotection framework. 5.3 enhanced service delivery the nationwide rollout of the child director system has markedly improved disadvantaged children’s access to multi-dimensional services and substantially raised the integration and efficiency of service provision. in their dayto-day practice, children directors weave together resources from education, health, social assistance, psychosocial support, and legal aid, using inter-agency referral and coordination mechanisms to reduce fragmentation and duplication across the service chain. for children confronting multiple adversities, child directors conduct comprehensive needs assessments and tailor individualized support plans (yan, & zhang, 2022). this case-level, precision-oriented model not only sharpens the relevance and effectiveness of interventions but also significantly lowers the administrative barriers that vulnerable children and their families traditionally face when seeking help. consequently, it ensures that children receive holistic, timely, and efficient support, greatly enhancing both the accessibility and the efficacy of services. 5.4 increased community awareness and participation beyond improving service delivery, the child director system has assumed an educative and mobilizing role within community governance. through active publicity campaigns and direct outreach,such as lectures, distribution of informational materials, and door-to-door awareness drives—children directors have markedly elevated residents’ understanding of children’s rights and the relevant legal framework. this sustained educational effort has embedded child-protection norms in the collective consciousness, cultivating a sense of shared responsibility among families, neighbors, and the wider community. recognizing that child protection is not a state monopoly but a common obligation, local residents increasingly report concerns and offer support. children directors’ cultivation of trust encourages children to disclose problems and families to seek assistance, thereby expanding informal surveillance and support networks. this shift from top-down policy enforcement to bottomup social co-production has enhanced both the responsiveness and the resilience of the child-protection system. 5.5 strengthened institutional coordination the institutionalization of the child director system has embedded it deeply within the existing grassroots governance framework, powerfully enhancing collaboration between the civil-affairs department and other relevant agencies. through clearly defined mandates, regular joint meetings, and real-time information-sharing protocols, communication between civil affairs, education, health, public security, and justice has become more fluid and effective. when cases involving child protection emerge, child directors can promptly coordinate with public-security and judicial organs to safeguard the child’s physical safety and legal rights; when obstacles to schooling or health care arise, they liaise swiftly with education and health departments. this institutionalized inter-sectoral cooperation dismantles traditional silos and co-creates a coherent, responsive, and resourceintegrated ecosystem for child protection, ensuring children receive comprehensive and seamless support. 5.6 limitations and ongoing challenges while the child director system has achieved wide recognition and measurable progress, it is also important to acknowledge several ongoing challenges. many child directors enter the role without a formal background in social work, and although systematic training has been rolled out nationwide, professional expertise in specialized areas, such as psychosocial support or child rights advocacy, still requires further strengthening. in addition, differences in local fiscal capacity mean that resources, allowances, and support services are not always consistent across regions, which may affect the uniformity of implementation. at the community level, child directors often need to balance welfare tasks with other governance responsibilities, occasionally leading to blurred role boundaries. finally, while digital platforms have enhanced efficiency and monitoring, they also bring new demands for data management and raise questions about workload and information coordination.acknowledging these hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 188 published by ideas spread challenges alongside the system’s strengths provides a more balanced understanding and points to directions for future capacity-building and policy support. 6. lessons for global child protection practices 6.1 government leadership with community embedding the key to the child director system’s success lies in its effective integration of child protection into the grassroots governance framework, rather than relying on temporary interventions by external projects or ngos. by establishing full-time child directors posts in every village and community nationwide, the model guarantees the accessibility, legitimacy, and sustainability of child-protection services. government leadership confers the necessary authority, policy guarantees, and stable fiscal resources, enabling large-scale and long-term operation. at the same time, child directors, rooted in local communities, gain an intimate understanding of cultural contexts and specific needs, allowing them to deliver targeted and human-centred support. this strategy of embedding child-protection responsibilities within the state governance system while leveraging grassroots community strengths effectively overcomes the common pitfalls of traditional child-welfare models, such as uneven resource distribution, limited project lifecycles, and difficulty reaching the “last mile” and offers an important exemplar for building a durable, stable, and universally inclusive child-welfare network. 6.2 institutionalization through clear mandates and funding the long-term viability and effectiveness of the child director system rest on its well-defined institutional design. first, binding national policy documents explicitly delineate the role’s responsibilities, operational procedures, and authority limits, thereby preventing the confusion and inefficiency that often arise from role ambiguity. this clear mandate provides child directors with both legal grounding and standardized protocols for daily practice. second, the system secures stable, earmarked funding through joint central and local government appropriations, covering operational costs and allowances for every post. andela, m. and van der doef, m.（2019）point out that when the resources provided by the work environment meet individuals’ developmental needs, they foster positive work behaviors and performance. such sustained fiscal commitment not only constitutes tangible recognition of the position’s importance but also serves as a critical incentive for attracting and retaining competent, dedicated personnel. the combination of a predictable funding stream and a transparent policy framework creates the organizational and material bedrock for a large-scale, grassroots child-protection network, ensuring continuity and professionalism in safeguarding children. 6.3 capacity building as an ongoing process terziev et al. (2017) pointed out that social workers in the context of lifelong learning and continuing vocational training could increase their qualifications and competency and ultimately improve the quality and effectiveness of social work practice.the child director system treats capacity-building not as a one-off training event but as an ongoing, systematic process. recognizing that many appointees lack prior social-work backgrounds, the system employs multi-tiered, multi-modal training delivered at regular intervals to steadily upgrade their professional skills and overall competence. curricula are comprehensive and in-depth, covering key domains such as childrights legislation, crisis-intervention techniques, psychological first aid, casework methodologies, and data recording and management. these modules are designed to cultivate composite capabilities in risk identification, needs assessment, and appropriate intervention and support. innovatively, an online–offline blended learning platform has been established, overcoming geographic constraints and ensuring that even child directors in the most remote areas can readily access the latest, high-quality training resources. this sustained investment in, and differentiated supplementation of, professional expertise not only maintains service quality but is also cultivating a grassroots workforce with solid professional standards—an approach of substantial practical value for countries with limited resources and dispersed populations. 6.4 leveraging digital tools for efficiency the child director system effectively utilizes digital tools to significantly improve work efficiency, management quality, and data transparency. by integrating a national database for children in need and developing user-friendly mobile applications, child directors can achieve real-time case reporting, progress tracking, and crossdepartmental information sharing. this digital management approach streamlines administrative procedures, minimizes delays and errors inherent in manual processes, and provides a reliable evidence base for policy-making and data-driven decisions.furthermore, digital tools facilitate more effective interaction between children and social workers, fostering a better environment for children to express their emotions and views, which helps to build trust (östlund, lindstedt, cürüklü, & blomberg, 2024). this optimization of grassroots service delivery not only reduces the administrative burden on child directors but also makes the entire child protection network more hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 189 published by ideas spread efficient, transparent, and traceable. it offers a viable path for other countries to enhance the effectiveness of their grassroots governance with limited resources. 6.5 fostering cross-sectoral collaboration an effective national child-protection system must rest on robust cross-sector coordination and collaboration among government, non-governmental organizations, and all other relevant stakeholders (freire-garabal núñez, 2023). the successful practice of the child director system underscores the critical importance of inter-sectoral collaboration and demonstrates how such cooperation can be concretely structured. by establishing key coordination posts—such as child-protection supervisors—the model has created a formalized and routine collaborative network that ensures the civil-affairs department maintains close and efficient links with pivotal actors in education, health, public security, justice, and community organizations. this institutionalized mechanism effectively breaks down departmental silos and information fragmentation, enabling children facing multiple adversities to receive comprehensive, integrated support. serving as grassroots connectors, child directors are able to pool and deploy resources from diverse agencies to deliver seamless, continuous services for children. experience shows that only by constructing an efficient, child-centred collaborative system can truly holistic and robust child protection be realized (ball, mcelwee, & mcmanus, 2024). these elements can offer valuable insights for countries with scattered rural populations, diverse cultural contexts, and limited professional social-work capacity. china’s experience shows that, given political commitment, modest fiscal resources, and community participation, it is possible to build and sustain a large-scale, grassroots childprotection network. 6.6 comparative insights while the chinese child director system has distinctive institutional features, its broader relevance becomes clearer when viewed alongside community-based child protection practices in other regions. in sub-saharan africa, for example, community child protection committees have long played a role in safeguarding children, relying primarily on voluntary participation and customary authority structures (wessells, 2009). similarly, in latin america, grassroots organizations and neighborhood networks often act as informal safety nets for vulnerable children, compensating for the limited reach of formal welfare services. these models demonstrate strong community ownership and cultural legitimacy but frequently struggle with sustainability, limited training, and insufficient integration with formal state systems. by contrast, china’s approach institutionalizes community-level child protection within the national governance framework, ensuring full territorial coverage, standardized responsibilities, and predictable fiscal support. it combines the advantages of community proximity with the authority and resources of the state, thereby overcoming the challenges of fragmentation and short-termism often seen in other regions. at the same time, china has innovated by embedding digital tools and performance evaluation into grassroots practice, mechanisms rarely found in comparable models in the global south. this comparative perspective underscores that the child director system is not merely a localized experiment but a potentially transferable governance innovation. for countries facing dispersed populations, resource scarcity, or weak professional social work capacity, china’s model illustrates how government-led institutionalization, when combined with grassroots embedding, can enhance both the sustainability and effectiveness of child protection. 7. conclusion the child director system has emerged as a vital pillar in china’s evolving child protection architecture. by institutionalizing dedicated child protection roles at the grassroots level, backed by training, resources, and interdepartmental collaboration, the model has significantly improved the reach, responsiveness, and comprehensiveness of services for children in need. its success lies not only in the breadth of its coverage but also in the depth of its community integration. the system bridges the gap between national policy and the lived realities of children in villages and urban neighborhoods, embodying the principle that child protection is most effective when it is both locally rooted and systematically supported. taken together, this article contributes to the international child protection literature in three ways. it provides an in-depth case study of the institutional design and operation of child directors system, an innovation that has received limited attention outside the country. it advances theoretical understanding by linking grassroots practice to institutional and governance analysis, showing how state-led community embedding can enhance sustainability and effectiveness. finally, it offers a comparative perspective by contrasting china’s experience with community protection mechanisms in other regions, thereby extending the applicability of lessons learned and enriching hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 190 published by ideas spread debates on how child protection can be strengthened globally. for policymakers and practitioners worldwide, the child directors system offers a compelling example of how to operationalize community-based child protection at scale. while adaptations will be necessary to fit different legal, cultural, and resource environments, the core principles: government leadership, community embedding, institutionalization, and cross-sectoral collaboration are universally applicable. as the global community continues to strive toward the goals of the un convention on the rights of the child, such grassroots innovations provide both inspiration and practical pathways for action. references andela, m., & van der doef, m. (2019). a comprehensive assessment of the person–environment fit dimensions and their relationships with work-related outcomes. journal of career development, 46(5), 567-582. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894845318789512 ball, e. j., mcelwee, j. d., & mcmanus, m. a. (2024). multi-agency safeguarding: from everyone’s responsibility to a collective responsibility. journal of community safety and well-being, 9(2), 104-108. https://doi.org/10.35502/jcswb.371 guan, q., zhang, s., & zhao, f. (2024). the work effectiveness and its influencing factors of child directors in china. asian social work and policy review, 18(1), e12302. https://doi.org/10.1111/aswp.12302 ministry of civil affairs of the people’s republic of china. (2021). statistical bulletin on the development of civil affairs 2020. ministry of civil affairs of the p.r.c. official website. freire-garabal núñez, m. (2023). australia national program of children’s rights protection. children’s rights legal review [preprint]. östlund, g., lindstedt, p. r., cürüklü, b., & blomberg, h. (2024). developing welfare technology to increase children’s participation in child welfare assessments: an empirical case in sweden. european journal of social work, 27(3), 611-624. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691457.2023.2243053 terziev, v., latyshev, o., & georgiev, m. (2017). building competencies for social work through continuing vocational training. international e-journal of advances in education, 3(9), 638–659. nuicef. (2015). it's never too remote or too cold for a barefoot social worker. https://www.unicef.cn/en/stories/its-never-too-remote-or-too-cold-barefoot-social-worker nuicef. (2021). children in china: an atlas of social indicators 2020 – facts and figures. united nations children’s fund china. nuicef. (2024). child protection: every child has the right to live free from violence, exploitation and abuse. https://www.unicef.org/child-protection wan, g. w., & pei, t. h. (2020). research on the risk of maltreatment among left-behind children and its governance strategies. population journal, 42(3), 51-65. wei, j. (2024). strengthening skills through competition to safeguard children’s growth: a review of the 2nd jiangsu “welfare lottery cup” child director practical skills contest. china civil affairs, (23), 44–45. wessells, m. (2009). what are we learning about protecting children in the community? an inter-agency review of evidence on community-based child protection mechanisms. save the children. xia, x. (2021). from protection to development: social workers’ role in professionalizing child services. china social work, (31), 19–20. xu, j. (2015). advancing the grand project of grassroots child welfare service system construction: an interpretation of the “notice of the general office of the ministry of civil affairs on launching pilot work for building grassroots child welfare service systems in selected areas nationwide.” social welfare, (9), 9–10. xu, y., he, n., lu, w., & fluke, j. (2021). understanding factors associated with barefoot social workers' decision making in assessing and reporting child physical abuse in china. child abuse & neglect, 120, 105177. yan, x., & zhang, l. (2022). upgrading china’s child director system: structural needs and developmental strategies. social governance, (6), 22–27. https://doi.org/10.16775/j.cnki.10-1285/d.2022.06.010 yang, h., & li, z. (2022). “child director plus”: concept, mechanisms and operational effectiveness. youth studies, (4), 13–25, 94. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 191 published by ideas spread copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n1p27 27 published by ideas spread the changing status of the detectives in the novels of agatha christie and keigo higashino: from rational authority to human exploration hong yun1 1 university of nottingham, nottingham, england, uk correspondence: hong yun, university of nottingham, nottingham, england, uk. received: december 2, 2024; accepted: january 19, 2025; published: january 20, 2025 abstract detective fiction is a genre characterized by mystery, reasoning, and intrigue that has captivated readers for centuries. however, the mystery here does not rely on theology but is rooted in logic. malmgren (1997), in bloody murder, defines detective fiction as a hybrid genre encompassing elements of detective crime, psychological analysis, suspense, and police procedural stories. it ensures that the detective's resolution of the crime presented to them does not depend on “divine revelations, feminine intuition, nonsensical ramblings, trickery, coincidence, or acts of god.” keywords: evolution, historical and cultural background, method, structure 1. introduction among the many detective fiction authors, agatha christie and keigo higashino are iconic representatives of their respective eras, symbolizing the redefinition of the detective's role in literature. christie, hailed as the "queen of crime" and a leading figure of the golden age of detective fiction, established her legacy as a master of the genre. similarly, higashino has solidified his dominance in contemporary detective and mystery writing, offering a distinctly modern perspective. both authors have left an indelible mark on the genre, with their works reflecting the significant transformation of the detective archetype under the influence of historical, cultural, and social factors. 2. evolution of detective fiction: from classic to modern the roots of detective fiction trace back to the 19th century, with edgar allan poe's the murders in the rue morgue (1841) widely regarded as the first modern detective story. allan poe introduced the archetype of the brilliant detective, represented by c. auguste dupin, who solves mysteries through logical reasoning and acute observation. this template influenced subsequent writers, including arthur conan doyle, whose creation, sherlock holmes, remains one of the most iconic figures in the genre. by the early 20th century, detective fiction had evolved into a structured and highly popular form of entertainment. the golden age of detective fiction, roughly between 1920 and 1940, emphasized the puzzle-solving mysteries, with authors like agatha christie, dorothy l. sayers, and ngaio marsh at the forefront. in contrast, modern detective fiction, represented by writers like higashino, reflects a shift in focus. saito (2020), in detective fiction and the rise of the japanese novel, 1880–1930, discusses the emergence of detective fiction in japan during the late 19th century. influenced by western detective fiction—particularly the works of edgar allan poe, arthur conan doyle, and other western writers—japanese authors adapted this genre to fit their own cultural and social contexts. early japanese detective fiction was heavily inspired by western models but gradually developed its unique characteristics. these included the integration of japanese cultural elements, such as an emphasis on honor, societal expectations, and the role of the detective as a morally upright figure. while maintaining the core elements of mystery and deduction, it incorporates psychological depth, social commentary, and emotional complexity. higashino's novels, such as malice (1996), the devotion of suspect x (2005), and the crimes that bind (2013), explore themes like moral ambiguity, family dynamics, and the darker aspects of human nature. his detective, kyochiro kaga, is not only a solver of crimes but also a mediator of human relationships and a mirror to societal issues. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 28 published by ideas spread 3. historical and cultural contexts 3.1 agatha christie's golden age most of christie’s detective novels were written between the two world wars, a period of significant social change. the aftermath of world war i brought about widespread disillusionment with traditional institutions, including disappointment in the police and government. symons (1992), in bloody murder, noted that, on a societal level, crime fiction during the half-century following 1890 offered readers a comforting world in which those who attempted to disrupt the established order were always discovered and punished. against this backdrop, the detective, as an almost perfect figure in the story, was imagined by readers as a beacon of hope and rationality in a turbulent society. poirot, in christie’s works, became an idealized character capable of restoring order and justice, thanks to his meticulous methods and unwavering confidence in logic. christie’s stories also reflect the cultural and social values of early 20th-century britain. class distinctions, gender roles, and xenophobia subtly influence her narratives, even as these themes are challenged by her characters. poirot, as a belgian refugee, is often underestimated because of his foreign origins, yet he consistently outshines his british counterparts. this juxtaposition highlights the prejudices of the time and underscores poirot’s universal appeal through his intellect and moral integrity. 3.2 keigo higashino's modern japan higashino's works, written in a rapidly modernizing and urbanizing japan, address a different set of societal concerns. postwar stability gave way to new challenges, including increasing individualism, social isolation, and complex family dynamics. higashino's novels delve into these issues, using crime as a lens to explore human behavior and societal flaws. kyochiro kaga, higashino's detective, embodies the modern ethos of collaboration and empathy. unlike poirot, who often works independently, kaga interacts closely with colleagues, suspects, and victims. his investigations often uncover not just the culprit but also the underlying social issues that contribute to crime. this approach reflects a shift from the pursuit of objective truth to an exploration of moral and emotional complexities. 4. methodology this study adopts a comparative and interdisciplinary approach, combining literary analysis with historical and cultural contextualization. by examining selected novels from both authors, it identifies patterns, contrasts, and thematic continuities. secondary sources, including critical essays, historical analyses, and cultural studies, provide additional perspectives on the evolution of detective fiction. 5. the detective characters of agatha christie 5.1 characteristics of the classic detective in the the murder of roger ackroyd (1926), hercule poirot is a brilliant detective with excellent research skills. the novel’s setting is a country-house and begins with the death of mrs ferrars, a widow, which appears to be suicide by an overdose of veronal but later is discovered to have been a murder. the point of view of the story is dr james sheppard, the family doctor, who has returned from the deathbed of the widow. dr sheppard and his sister, caroline, where he lives, paint the relationship between the deceased and roger ackroyd, a rich widower. in many of agatha christie's novels, almost every suspect possesses an equal motive for the crime. put differently, not only does every character involved in the case appear suspicious, but even seemingly irrelevant figures, such as the recorders of the case, could potentially be the culprit. christie skillfully uses various hints to lead readers in circles, to the point where the ultimate culprit might seem almost randomly chosen. while such an arrangement risks making the ending appear contrived, it undeniably aligns with christie's philosophy: everyone has a capacity for guilt, or more pointedly, anyone could be the criminal. 5.2 symbol of rationality and logic hercule poirot is portrayed as a symbol of rationality and logic in agatha christie’s works. he is not a supernatural person but an ordinary human who uses logic to solve the mysteries of murder. this is in agreement with the argument that classical detective novels have a narrative that is developed logically and consistently where the protagonist uncovers the truth by critical analysis of the facts (huliak 2023, 18). akfiçici looks at the murder of roger ackroyd and argues that christie’s writing creates a mystery that needs logic to solve. it requires the detective to carry about a rational and scientific investigation in order to successfully clear up the mess, catch the culprit and restore order (akfiçici 2015, 2). this was the classic detective fiction formula where often all the characters have motives for the crime and each of them must be investigated by the detective and the detective hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 29 published by ideas spread will gather carefully placed clues until enough evidence is collected to identify the culprit (p.2). poirot gathers clues while suspecting everyone close to ackroyd as they were found with motives for his murder. 5.3 chapter conclusion agatha christie, celebrated as the "queen of detective fiction," played a pivotal role in shaping the golden age of detective fiction. as a golden age writer, agatha christie has shown that she created a detective who was brilliant enough to solve the puzzles created. in these books, christie murder puzzles and hides the identity of the culprit from her audience. furthermore, in a clue-puzzle genre portrays the detective as a perfect person whose role is to find out who the culprit is. the detective should be able to understand the motives of people and focus on detail to logically unravel the cases to restore social order broken by the crimes. this chapter explores the function and characteristics of christie’s most famous detective, hercule poirot, as depicted in three iconic novels: the murder of roger ackroyd (1926), murder on the orient express (1934), and death on the nile (1937). 6. the detective characters of keigo higashino 6.1 characteristics of the modern detective just as in the classical detective fiction, the modern detective kyochiro kaga is a very clever detective with remarkable powers of observation, as well as the skill and ability in drawing people out and earning their trust. he goes for clues and motives for crime to understand rather than solve the mystery. for example, in malice, kaga shows intelligence and the urgency to understand the motive for the murder. he sees through the lies vividly and does not give up until he has discovered the entire truth. malice is about the death of a popular writer kunihiko hidaka who was about to move to canada from japan with his spouse, rie, the following day and was working on a novel in his locked house. it is his wife and osamu nonoguchi that finds the body of the writer. nonoguchi is an author of children’s books and a best friend of hidaka. nonoguchi is the prime suspect but is also the narrator of the first story as formica (2013, p367) would note. kaga also tells his narrative which is contradictory to nonoguchi’s. as such, it has some elements of the golden age because it is a detective fiction novel. a detective novel contains a crime reported early in the story. he is also a person of emotions who is described as being humane and empathetic. this also helps him to be an effective collaborator as he appears friendly. being an emotional detective who is emotionally involved, kaga is able to inquire from many people and making them confide in him. he also has his own personal dilemmas as displayed in the crimes that bind. in this novel, he connects the murder of the woman who has just been strangled to his mother’s death several years back. as such, it shows some of his struggles in life. he is not that objective detective in classical novels that maintains an independent stance. instead, he is that detective who can relate events he is investigating to his own. this humanises the detective and moves him away from the rational detective. 6.2 reflection of social issues the humane character of the detective enables him to offer reflection on social and personal issues. in malice, the work kaga was to find out why hidaka was killed rather than who did it. just like hercule poirot, kaga sought to find the truth. however, he adopts a methodical approach that is compassionate. keigo higashino transforms his narratives from a simple classic whodunit to the modern whodunit which includes exploring the whys of the crime. in so doing, the detective ends up revealing the culprit and community dynamics. he seeks to gain more insight into the life of the murder victim and those around him. this is how does his work in other novels as well. for example, he digs into the past of hidaka and that is when he finds clues to his murder. similarly, kaga builds up a picture of the murdered woman’s past and the events of the last days of her life in newcomer. it can also be argued that connecting the murder of a woman in the crimes that bind is a reflection of what has happened in the life of kaga. therefore, these novels promote the reflection of societal issues. unlike in the classical detective fiction, keigo’s detective fiction goes beyond revealing the name of the culprit. this is especially seen in malice where the name of the murderer is mentioned at the middle of the book. in a classical detective story, when the name is revealed, everyone including the reader is satisfied and would stop reading (koliasa 2019, 104-105). in such detective stories, the reader is also a detective who is given a challenge to tell who the culprit is before the detective in the story can reveal him or her (p.105). however, keigo does not keep the reader guessing who but challenges the reader to find the reasons for the murder as kaga investigates. similarly, in newcomer, the detective is looking for something more than the murderer. kaga supports the people to resolve their personal and social issues. as such, keigo seems to write psychological thrillers which are full of feelings and human traits (koliasa 2019, 108). malice is full of emotions just the newcomer is where kaga is hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 30 published by ideas spread emotionally attached to the case. this makes it possible for the detective to not just focus on social order but a reflection of social and personal issues both with the characters as well as the readers. 6.3 chapter conclusion the chapter examines structure to delve into the "why" and "how" of crimes. by humanizing the detective genre and incorporating themes of collaboration and emotional connections, higashino’s works provide a compelling reflection on contemporary society while maintaining the intricate plots of classic detective fiction. 7. exploring the reasons for changes in detective characters 7.1 influence of cultural differences according to haia shpayer-makov (2011, 6), the detective is not just a real figure but also a cultural construct. this means that christie and higashino’s detectives have a cultural appeal. for example, during the golden age, the detective was a figure who would bring order out of chaos and ensure there is peace of mind by solving the crime, catching the criminal and avenging the victim (krawczyk-zywko 2017, 5-6). cultural factors relate to the shared beliefs of a community towards class, gender, and race, themes that are prevalent in detective fiction (sharma 2021, 158). therefore, the cultural differences between england (christie’s origin) and japan (higashino’s origin) may play a role in how these authors depict their detectives. a. british culture and agatha christie’s work the twentieth-century england was largely divided into classes and class played a significant role in society. social hierarchy was seen as a basis for morality and values with low class viewed as more susceptible to criminality (mccaw 2014, 12). christie seems to challenge these cultural beliefs through her detective poirot. asked by flora to investigate the murder of ackroyd, a wealthy man, poirot unravels what shocks many people including the readers. the narrator of the story dr sheppard is the least person to suspect of the murder because of the social status he has in society. he is a respectable person but through the intelligence of poirot, his manipulations and coverups of the truth are realized. when it is revealed that such a person respected in the neighbourhood is the wicked and evil that disturbs order, dr sheppard is too ashamed to stand it and takes his life. in this way, christie deconstructs this mythical image of society founded on a consensual morality or value judgment (mccaw 2014, 12). a genius, rational and authoritative detective with superb deductive reasoning and without bias to unravel such a mystery. b. japanese culture and keigo higashino’s work keigo higashino combines japanese and western cultures in his novels. however, unlike christie whose settings are mostly outside england from the three novels analysed, higashino mainly focuses on tokyo. his books reflect life in tokyo as he gives a glimpse of the city. in newcomer, kaga is a newcomer in nihonbashi district but people welcome him very well. this shows the culture of the japanese. the book depicts a people who are generally polite and unlike christie’s class society where social hierarchy is evident, japanese setting is a classless society. however, modern japanese society is characterised by cultural anxiety brought about by the rapid cultural change due to westernization (silver 2008, 36). japanese popular culture carries awareness of and anxiety about violence (capo 2018). keigo uses a brilliant detective who gets emotionally involved to reveal the anxieties they have and sympathises with them. this helps him to bring some aspects of reality into detective fiction genre. the culture of japanese also values sensitivity, care and attention to detail which influence the character of kaga. japanese culture is characterised by collectivism which stresses group oneness and consensus, often resulting in indirect and subtle communication (shen et al. 2024, 60). this promotes the practice of kikubari (attentiveness) and mekubari (watchfulness) which value sensitivity, attention to detail and caring for others (astartia 2021, 223). keigo creates a detective that is sensitive and looks into detail including those that are regarded insignificant by others. kaga has the ability to read between the lines and understand nonverbal communication. he is also very observant to be able to understand his colleagues and the members of the community. his approach is sensitive reflecting the japanese culture. 7.2 chapter conclusion this chapter explores the evolution of the detective character from the golden age of detective fiction, as represented by agatha christie, to the modern detective fiction of keigo higashino. through the works of both authors, the chapter identifies a significant shift from the rational, heroic detective of the early 20th century to the more humanized, empathetic detective of the modern era. this change reflects broader historical, cultural, and social transformations in the two authors' respective societies. there is a shift from a logical detective who objectively investigates crimes without emotional involvement in the golden age to a humanized detective in hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 31 published by ideas spread modern mystery. historical and cultural factors have played a role in this shift. for example, being an interwar period, people in the golden age wanted to escape chaos and uncertainty hence the need for an objective detective that would restore social order. on the other hand, the modern mystery occurs at a time when the world had stabilized but was struggling with other issues such as bullying, family issues, class and gender issues. therefore, a detective that sympathises with people was needed. kaga was this detective. poirot, the belgian detective, neutralized the xenophobia feelings in the britain drawing the reader away from those issues while kaga, a local detective, understood the culture of the japanese people and collaboratively worked with them to uncover truths. 8. conclusion detective fiction, with its compelling narratives and intricate puzzles, serves as a mirror, has long attracted a large number of readers while reflecting the cultural, historical, and social conditions of its time. this study explores the evolution of the detective's identity across different cultures through the works of agatha christie and keigo higashino, who represent two distinct eras of detective fiction. from hercule poirot’s logical and methodical brilliance during the golden age to kyochiro kaga’s empathetic and collaborative approach in modern detective narratives, the genre has undergone significant transformations. agatha christie’s works, epitomized by novels like the murder of roger ackroyd, murder on the orient express, and death on the nile, encapsulate the ethos of the interwar period. against the prehistory of societal upheaval, the detective emerged as a navigation light of rationality and order. this evolution highlights the genre’s adaptability to changing cultural and societal expectations, showcasing its relevance across time and geography. the comparison between christie and higashino underscores the profound influence of historical and cultural contexts on detective fiction. christie’s era demanded a detective who could provide reassurance in a chaotic world, while higashino’s modern narratives resonate with a society grappling with nuanced moral dilemmas and interpersonal conflicts. the detectives’ methods and characteristics reflect these shifts, illustrating how the genre has adapted to address evolving societal needs. in conclusion, the enduring appeal of detective fiction lies in its ability to adapt to the times while retaining its core essence—a quest for truth and justice. agatha christie and keigo higashino, through their distinct approaches, have expanded the boundaries of the genre, enriching its narrative possibilities and cultural significance. their works remind us that the detective, as a cultural archetype, remains a powerful symbol of hope, intellect, and humanity in the face of life’s mysteries. this exploration contributes to a deeper understanding of the genre’s evolution and its role as a reflection of societal transformations. as detective fiction continues to evolve, it will undoubtedly embrace new forms and narratives, further enriching its legacy as a mirror of human experience and cultural change. reference akfiçici, arpine mizikyan. “hercule poirot, the order restorer: agatha christie’s the murder of roger ackroyd.” in english studies: new perspectives, edited by mehmet ali celikel and baysar taniyan. cambridge: cambridge scholars publishing. astartia, dina dwi. 2021. the practice of mekubari (watchfulness) and kikubari (attentiveness) in japanese companies communication.” advances in social science, education and humanities research 595: 223-227. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.211119.035 capo, beth widmaier. 2018. “violence and globalised anxiety in contemporary tokyo fiction.” japanese studies 18(1). christie, agatha. 1977. an autobiography. new york: dodd, mead & company. christie, agatha, 2011. five little pigs. new york: william morrow paperbacks. collins, r d 2024. “the origins of detective fiction: a brief history of crime & mystery. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). microsoft word p1-12.docx humanities and social science research; vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v5n3p1 1 published by ideas spread adverse mental health of juvenile delinquency and suicide: a bibliometrics study and visualization analysis via citespace guanzhong hu1 & xiaohang chen2 1 suzhou foreign language school, suzhou, china 2 jiangsu provincial reformatory for juvenile delinquents, zhenjiang, china correspondence: guanzhong hu, suzhou foreign language school, suzhou, china. e-mail: guanzhong_hu yahoo.com received: august 30, 2022; accepted: september 19, 2022; online published: october 4, 2022 abstract juvenile delinquency and suicide have been growing worldwide, behind which mental health issues cannot be ignored. research status, hotspots, and frontiers in this field were mined in this study. 4681 related publications from 2000 to 2022 were extracted from the web of science core collection, based on which collaboration, hotspots, and frontiers of the topic were revealed via citespace. there is a continuous growth of relevant research, especially in the last five years. alan apter from israel published the most (49) articles in the field. the usa and the university of california system were the leading country and institution with 2603 and 222 articles cited 88964 and 7891 times, respectively. there was active collaboration between institutions, countries, and authors on conducting research on the issues. hot topics focused on mental health, behavior, depression, prevalence, ideation, suicide, substance use, psychiatric disorder, reliability, intervention, and risk factors. frontiers research includes adverse childhood experience, gay, and stigma. healthy family dynamics (harmonious marital relationship, stable family structure, and correct parenting style) is the first layer of defense against juvenile delinquency and suicide. and the second layer is positive social determinants (neighbor influence, social support, stigma, and minority stress). keywords: juvenile delinquency, suicide, lgbt, adolescents, adverse childhood experiences, citespace, visualization analysis 1. introduction adolescence is a transitional phase of growth and development between childhood and adulthood. "adolescence", "youth", and "young people" are defined as 10-19, 15-24, and 10-24 years old, respectively. teenage is defined as 13-17 years old. adolescents who are most in need of mental health care are reluctant to seek help, since they often experience many troubles, rejections or barriers (aguirre et al., 2019). children’s metal health is associated with prospective delinquent outcomes. childhood behavioral problems are highly prevalent among school-aged children. delinquency and delinquent behavior are defined as criminal offences of offending behavior with the following different offence types: violent conduct, threatening behavior, property destruction, drug offence, theft, sexual offence, fraud, motoring offence, and murder (allen et al., 2018). the amount of juvenile delinquency is on the increase. the development of the internet has accelerated the process. increasing exposure to internet pornography among young people has led to the rise in the number of juvenile delinquents. in recent years, declining ages of delinquents and more deteriorative modus operandi have become the trend of juvenile delinquency. white paper on juvenile prosecutorial work in china (2021) reported that in 2021 the number of people accepted for examination and arrest, and the number of people accepted for examination and prosecution increased by 30.6% and 24.2% respectively compared with that in 2017. decrease in age of juvenile delinquents has become a trend: the number of juvenile criminal suspects aged from 14 to 16, who accepted, reviewed, and prosecuted by prosecutorial organs, increased by 57.4% in 2021 compared with that in 2017. the number of minors involved in telecommunication network crimes increased rapidly. the number of prosecutions in 2021 sextupled compared with that in 2020. in addition, the rate of conditional non-prosecution of juvenile delinquency has risen sharply: from 2017 to 2021, the number of conditional non-prosecution of juvenile suspect by prosecutorial organs was 5681, 6624, 7463, 11376, and 19783 respectively, and the rate of conditional non-prosecution in the same period was 10.06%, 12.15%, 12.51%, 20.87%, and 29.7% respectively. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 2 published by ideas spread on the other hand, suicide is a self-injurious behavior to take one’s own life and is a serious public health problem (stone, 2017). center for disease control and prevention reported that suicide rate among people aged 10-24 had statistically increased by 57.4% between 2007 and 2018 (curtin, 2020); meanwhile, the death rate for suicide between the ages of 10 and 19 increased by 56% between 2007 and 2016 (curtin et al., 2018). suicide was the second leading cause of death in girls aged 15-19 and the third leading cause of death in boys (who, 2019). juvenile delinquency is a risky behavior; adolescents involved in juvenile justice or child welfare system have higher risks to commit suicides (suk et al. 2009, farand et al., 2004, thompson et al., 2006, corneau et al., 2010, catherine et al., 2006). causes of juvenile delinquency and suicide vary widely. particularities of adolescents change the subjective element of an important psychological conditions of juvenile delinquency or suicide. bibliometrics quantifies publications with statistics to analyze their utilization and management (yi et al., 2022). citespace is a useful tool for visualizing and analyzing trends and patterns in scientific literature. the objective of the study was to investigate previous and current studies on adverse mental health of juvenile delinquency and suicide, and to find out hotspot and frontier researches through citespace. it could also provide an early warning for adolescents and their neighbors to prevent juvenile crimes or suicides. 2. methods 2.1 retrieval of source documents this study retrieved current literatures on mental issue of juvenile delinquency and suicide through the science citation index-expended version of the web of science core collection (woscc). all search results were acquired on july 19th, 2022. only articles were included; and the language was restricted to english only. after reviewing the titles and abstracts, 4681 publications remained. the retrieval period is from jan. 1st, 2000 to july 19th, 2022. the retrieval strategy is as follows: title= (youth or teenage or adolescent or juvenile or nonage or minors or junior high school student or senior high school or middle school student) and title, keyword or abstract= (mental health or psycholog* or anxiety or panic attack or depression or autism or social phobia or obsession or irritability or bigotry or psychosis or somnipathy or sleep disorders or anorexia or somatization or obsessive compulsive or interpersonal sensitivity or hostility or phobic anxiety or paranoid ideation or psychoticism) and title, keyword or abstract= (juvenile crim* or teenage crim* or adolescent crim* or juvenile delinquent or juvenile offender or delinquent juvenile or young offender or rapist or affray or drug addict or prostitution or manslayer or murder* or homicide or suicide or arsonist or arson or poisoning or poisoner or robbery or explosion or human trafficking or drug trafficking or crime or criminal). 2.2 visualization analysis citespace was used to figure out the advances in adverse mental health of juvenile delinquency and suicide. the analysis focused on the dynamic of the annual number of publications and growth, exploring collaboration networks between authors/institutions/countries, identifying co-cited references, as well as capturing keywords with strong citation bursts over time, identifying productive authors/institutions/countries, and publishing periodicals. a citespace visualization knowledge graph has different nodes and links, and the nodes with high centrality usually refer to hotspots or turning points in the domain. the complete records with references retrieved via woscc were imported into citespace for bibliometric and visual analysis in plain text format. core topics could be extracted through cluster analysis of co-occurrence keywords. 3. results 3.1 bibliometric analysis on publication year the search identified a total of 4681 publications via woscc database, whose titles and abstracts were all checked. figure 1 shows the publication number increased rapidly from 34 articles in 2000 to 483 articles in 2021, and the year of 2022 will keep the similar level. in particularly, there was a rapid growth in the 2010s. the result indicates that this field received increasing attention in the past five years. there is a trend of continuous growth in the coming years. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 3 published by ideas spread figure 1. distribution of annual total number of publications 3.2 bibliometric analysis on country and institution the top 10 countries and institutions by the number of publications contributed 4468 articles (95.4%) and 1527 articles (32.6%), respectively (table 1 and table 2). table 1. top 10 countries by number of publications no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 country usa canada uk australia china south korea germany netherlands sweden spain publications 2603 354 303 299 238 179 124 119 132 117 times cited 88964 9579 10949 8961 3240 2310 3445 3549 3452 2144 table 2. top 10 institutions by number of publications no. institution country publications times cited time span h-index 1 university of california system usa 222 7891 2000-2022 42 2 pennsylvania commonwealth system of higher education usa 188 10833 2000-2022 51 3 columbia university usa 176 11777 2000-2022 51 4 state university system of florida usa 167 5350 2000-2022 34 5 university of texas system usa 161 4730 2000-2022 38 6 harvard university usa 154 7138 2002-2022 42 7 university of pittsburgh usa 134 8730 2000-2022 45 8 university of london uk 110 4392 2001-2021 33 9 brown university usa 109 4600 2002-2022 33 10 university of toronto canada 106 2483 2002-2020 27 the country that contributes the most in the field is the usa with 2603 articles (55.6%), followed by canada (7.56%), the uk （6.47%）, australia （6.39%）, and china （5.08%）. the top 10 institutions are the university of california system, pennsylvania commonwealth system of higher education, columbia university, state university system of florida, university of texas system, harvard university, university of pittsburgh, university of london, brown university, and university of toronto. eight of the top 10 institutes are from the usa, one is from the uk, and one is from canada. top 5 institutes by times cited are columbia university, pennsylvania commonwealth system of higher education, university of pittsburgh, the university of california hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 4 published by ideas spread system, and harvard university. top 5 institutes by h-index are pennsylvania commonwealth system of higher education, columbia university, university of pittsburgh, harvard university, and the university of california system. the results have shown an active collaboration among countries (figure 2) and institutions (figure 3). figure 2. knowledge mapping for national distribution network figure 3. knowledge mapping for institution distribution network in the distribution network of researches in the field, nodes represent countries or institutions, and the node size represents the publication number of each country or institution. larger nodes mean more publications. the thicker the line between different nodes, the more collaborations between those collaboration parties are. 3.3 bibliometric analysis on co-author the top 10 authors contributed 286 papers (6.11%) (table 3). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 5 published by ideas spread table 3. top 10 authors by number of publications no. author country institution publications time span h-index 1 apter, alan israel tel aviv university 49 2001-2022 25 2 spirito, anita italy university of irccs casa sollievo della sofferenza 39 2000-2022 20 3 kaess, michael switzerland university of bern 30 2011-2022 16 4 brent, david usa university of pittsburgh 29 2000-2022 21 5 king, cheryl a. usa university of michigan 28 2007-2022 21 6 bridge, jeffrey a. usa ohio state university 24 2005-2022 13 7 brunner, romuald germany ruprecht karls university heidelberg 24 2011-2022 16 8 birmaher, b. usa pennsylvania commonwealth system of higher education 21 2000-2021 15 9 cauffman, elizabeth e. usa university of california irvine 21 2001-2022 14 10 wasserman, danuta italy natl inst hlth migrat & poverty 21 2012-2020 15 the most prolific authors are apter, alan from tel aviv university of israel (49 papers), followed by spirito, anita from university of irccs casa sollievo della sofferenza of italy (39 papers) and kaess, michael from university of bern of switzerland (30 papers). the network of co-author was produced by citespace, as shown in figure 4. figure 4. knowledge mapping for author distribution network each node represents one author, and the size of the node represents its publication number. the thickness of the line between different circles shows the level of collaboration between authors. productive authors usually had stable collaborations with other authors. 3.4 bibliometric analysis on high-frequency keywords and cluster the status and impact of a certain research content in the field is reflected by its high central keywords, while high-frequency keywords may develop the hot topics. the top 30 high-frequency keywords in the field of adverse mental health of juvenile delinquency and suicide are shown in table 4, which cover the following research hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 6 published by ideas spread respects: behavior, depression, risk, prevalence, ideation, suicide attempt, suicide, suicidal ideation, substance use, psychiatric disorder, predictor, reliability, intervention, et al. table 4. list of high frequency keywords rank keyword frequency rank keyword frequency rank keyword frequency 1 mental health 1137 11 suicide attempt 439 21 predictor 238 2 behavior 1022 12 suicide 419 22 validity 231 3 children 910 13 youth 416 23 gender difference 220 4 depression 866 14 substance use 374 24 reliability 213 5 risk 758 15 psychiatric disorder 308 25 crime 190 6 prevalence 729 16 suicidal ideation 304 26 meta analysis 185 7 risk factor 719 17 association 296 27 united states 185 8 ideation 539 18 symptom 278 28 intervention 183 9 adolescent 527 19 childhood 276 29 victimization 178 10 disorder 521 20 health 252 30 population 177 the keywords network is shown as figure 5. there are many intersections among research topics. figure 5. knowledge mapping of the occurrence of keywords in publications table 5 shows top 6 key co-citation clusters based on frequency, which are prevention, juvenile justice, substance use, suicidal ideation, major depression, and trauma. the silhouette value of each cluster is above 0.5, showing the results’ high credibility. as for the cluster “trauma”, relative keywords of which include mental health, substance use, adverse child events, parents, and emotional abuse. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 7 published by ideas spread table5. top 6 key co-citation clusters based on frequency cluster id size silhouette mean label (llr) relative keywords 0 145 0.539 2012 prevention mental health; nominated support; depression education; adolescent depression; school-based interventions 1 141 0.678 2008 juvenile justice juvenile justice; mental health; of-home treatment; emotional abuse 2 141 0.648 2011 substance use mental health; adolescent; behavior; victimization; bisexual youth 3 120 0.672 2008 suicidal ideation suicidal ideation; suicide attempts; state anhedonia; trait anhedonia; care 4 109 0.700 2008 major depression suicide; children; major depression; risk factor; predictor 5 104 0.628 2013 trauma mental health; substance use; adverse child events; parent; emotional abuse the co-citation network is shown in figure 6. figure 6. cluster visualization based on the document co-citation network different research clusters of adverse mental health of juvenile delinquency and suicide are not independent of each other; they intersect with other research topics. 3.5 bibliometric analysis on keywords with citation bursts figure 7 describes the frontier research and shows the top 20 keywords with the strongest citation. the red line represents the period of the keyword burst, and the green one indicates its time interval. the top 20 keywords appeared in early 2000s are double blind, placebo-controlled trial, diagnostic interview schedule, efficacy, family, psychopathology, fluoxetine, and youth suicide. in addition, several keywords (adverse childhood experience, gay, stigma) persisted till 2022, indicating such frontier research is continuing. 3.6 bibliometric analysis on journals top 12 journals according to frequency of publications in the field are shown in table 6, five of which are from the usa, two from netherlands, one from switzerland, one from germany, and one from the uk. the cumulative percentage of related articles (822 publications) published in these 12 journals reaches 17.561% of the total. top 1 is the us journal “suicide and life-threatening behavior” (124 publications), followed by dutch journal “journal of affective disorders” (110 publications), us journal “journal of adolescent health”(100 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 8 published by ideas spread publications), and dutch journal “journal of the american academy of child and adolescent psychiatry” (92 publications). according to the impact factor, top 1 journal is “journal of the american academy of child and adolescent psychiatry” (if=13.113), followed by “pediatrics” (9.703) and “journal of adolescent health” (7.83). figure 7. top 20 keywords with the strongest citation bursts table 6. top 10 journals according to frequency no. journals frequency percentage （%） cumulative percentage （%） impact factor time span country 1 suicide and life-threatening behavior 124 2.649 2.649 4.532 2003-2022 usa 2 journal of affective disorders 110 2.350 4.999 6.533 2003-2022 netherlands 3 journal of adolescent health 100 2.136 7.135 7.830 2000-2022 usa 4 journal of the american academy of child and adolescent psychiatry 92 1.965 9.100 13.113 2000-2021 netherlands 5 children and youth services review 87 1.859 10.959 2.519 2004-2022 usa 6 international journal of environmental research and public health 77 1.645 12.604 4.614 2012-2022 switzerland 7 european child & adolescent psychiatry 66 1.410 14.014 5.349 2003-2022 germany 8 archives of suicide research 57 1.218 15.232 2.833 2008-2022 uk 9 journal of youth and adolescence 55 1.175 16.407 5.625 2005-2022 usa 10 pediatrics 54 1.154 17.561 9.703 2000-2021 usa 4. discussion 4.1 basic summary this work analyzed the research status of adverse mental health of juvenile delinquency and suicide through citespace, extracted hotspot and frontier researches. 4681 related publications were acquired via woscc, from hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 9 published by ideas spread january 1st, 2000 to july 19th, 2022. there has been a continuous and rapid growth in the past five years. the top 10 countries involved in the field contributed 4468 articles, accounting for 95.4% of the total. the usa contributed 2603 articles accounting for 55.6% of the total, followed by canada, which contributed 354 articles. the usa is leading in the study of the field. top 10 institutions contributed 1527 high impact publications, accounting for 32.62% of all articles, with the average citation frequency of 44.48 times per paper. eight of the top 10 institutions are from the usa, one from the uk, and one from canada. institutions with strong scientific research strength are mainly concentrated in the usa; columbia university contributed 176 articles with 11777 times cited. according to the average citation frequency, top 1 is columbia university, which reached almost 67 times per article, followed by university of pittsburgh (134 publications, 65 times per article), pennsylvania commonwealth system of higher education (188 publications, 58 times per article), harvard university (154 publications, 46 times per article), and brown university (109 publications, 42 times per article). the us institutions rank first for the absolute contribution and relative influence. if other research institutions want to produce high level research results, they can consider taking the development route of cooperation with strong institutions. the top 10 authors contributed 286 papers, accounting for 6.11% of all. alan apter was the most prolific author (49 articles) with the highest h-index of 25. the collaboration network among authors shows that academic collaboration can improve research results. people interested in researching in this field can consider collaborating with authors and join an academic team to promote the progress of this research field, strengthening research outcome. 4.2 hot research issues keywords of a publication showcase relevant topics and methods within the field. frequently used keywords are adopted to determine largely debated issues in associated bodies of literature. the results of co-occurrence keywords and cluster analysis indicated that main current research focused on adverse childhood experience, gay or stigma. 4.2.1 adverse childhood experiences the adverse childhood experiences (aces) score was first used in 1998 in a seminal medical study to examine the relationship between childhood abuse, trauma, and the leading causes of death in adults (felitti et al., 1998). the original 10 aces include abuse (physical, emotional sexual), neglect (physical, emotional), and household challenges (divorce, incarceration, substance use, domestic violence, and mental illness). the aces burden children and adolescents worldwide with prevalence rates of 14-55 % for physical abuse, 11-47% for emotional abuse, 6-22% for sexual abuse, 7-19% for physical neglect, and 15-40% for emotional neglect (stoltenborgh et al., 2015). the aces, especially maltreatment, are regarded as significant risk factors for the development of antisocial behaviors in adolescence. these experiences lead to a host of negative outcomes, including greater criminal involvement and the development of mental health disorders. the aces presage the likelihood for criminal involvement and development of mental health symptoms for justice-involved youth. such aces as childhood maltreatment and household disfunctions are common. among traumatized juveniles, male offenders also had higher scores on the control scale of idealization compared to nonconvicted females (protic et al., 2020). traumatic and adverse developmental experiences increase the risk of criminality. those who commit the greatest number and the most violent offenses are referred as serious, violent, and chronic (svc) offenders. svcs are disproportionately victims of trauma, abuse, neglect, and maltreatment during childhood, as compared to the less severe or non-offending juvenile population (protic et al., 2013; fox et al., 2014; loeber et al., 2000. the accumulation of risk factors is a major factor for recidivism and the key role is played by the contexts and emotional environments in which children and adolescents grow up (guarnaccia et al., 2020). emotional dysregulation resulting from cumulated aces may be characterized by symptoms of irritability. the aces increase the risk of youth recidivism and reoffending (yohros, 2022). childhood trauma, abuse, neglect, criminal behavior, and other criminological risk factors for offending among 22,575 delinquent youth were analyzed, indicating that each additional adverse experience increased the risk of becoming a serious, violent, and chronic juvenile offender by 35, when controlling for other risk factors for criminal behavior (fox et al., 2015). the cumulative effects of the aces impact youth recidivism or reoffending outcomes. since young offenders are victims of the aces as well as perpetrators of delinquent acts, interventions must encompass both their personal characteristics and their family circumstances. such a result indicates that trauma leads to tremendous changes in behaviors among adolescents. some people need a lifetime to heal their childhood; some people never get out of the hurt from childhood. positive parental relationship, stable family structure, and healthy parental rearing patterns are the fundamental guarantees for kids to stay away from childhood trauma. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 10 published by ideas spread 4.2.2 gay according to the data from who, more than 800,000 people worldwide die of suicide every year, and more people are trying to commit suicide. suicide is a leading cause of death. millions of people experience or are affected by the bereavement caused by suicide every year. youth and young adults ages 10–24 years account for 14% of all suicides. suicide was the second leading cause of death for people ages 10-14 and 25-34 (centers for disease control and prevention). some population groups are at a greater risk for suicidal behaviors (e.g., suicidal ideation and suicide attempts). sexual minority adolescents experience a high rate of suicide attempts. lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (lgbt) youth seem to be such a risk group. today's lgbt youth come out younger ages, and public support for lgbt issues has dramatically increased. but they continue to be at high risk of compromised mental health (russell & fish, 2016). non-binary trans youth have challenges in accessing needed gender-affirming healthcare (clark, 2018). the proportion of homosexual and bisexual youth seeking suicide is five times higher than that of heterosexual youth (hatzenbuehler et al., 2011). the interpersonal-psychological theory of suicide (ipts) considers that suicide ideation is caused by the interaction of perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness. feeling like a burden to "people in their lives" is a critical mechanism in explaining higher levels of depression and suicidal ideation among lesbian, gay, and bisexual (lgb) youth (baams et al., 2015). general and lgbt-specific risk factors both uniquely contribute to likelihood of suicidal ideation and self-harm in lgbt youth, which may, in part, account for the higher risk of these phenomena observed in this population (liu et al., 2012). transgender youth is a vulnerable population at risk of negative mental health including depression, anxiety, self-harm, and suicidality. transgender youth had a twofold to threefold increased risk of depression, anxiety disorder, suicidal ideation, suicide attempt, self-harm without lethal intent, and both inpatient and outpatient mental health treatment (all p < .05) (zaslow et al., 2015). the whole society's acceptance of lgbt youth, correct cognitive therapy and timely psychological counseling are important means to avoid their suicide. 4.2.3 stigma adolescents involved in the juvenile justice system are reported to have higher rates of sti/hiv infections. a limited number of epidemiological studies show that social–ecological factors at the peer, family, school, and policy levels are significantly related to unsafe sexual behaviors (hong et al., 2015). the stigmatization of people with obesity, lgbt and, sti/hiv-related is widespread and causes harm (hatzenbuehler et al., 2011). many adolescents suffer from stigma for their sexual identities. consequently, they are reluctant to seek help of mental health care. stigma and minority stress are social determinants to good health among lgbt youth. stigma occurs to affect their health at structural, interpersonal, and individual levels. stigma disrupts cognitive (eg, vigilance), affective (eg, rumination), interpersonal (eg, isolation), and physiologic (eg, stress reactivity) processes. these stigma-inducing mechanisms can be targeted with both clinical and public health interventions to reduce lgbt health disparities among youth. multicomponent interventions are likely to be most effective in reducing the negative health consequences of exposure to stigma among this population (hatzenbuehler, 2016). 5. conclusion through citespace analysis, active cooperation among countries, institutions, and authors was figured out. adverse mental health of juvenile delinquency and suicide have received more and more attention from researchers, especially in the past five years. interests in such an issue has a trend of continuous increase. current research interests include adverse childhood experience, gay, and stigma. thus, more attention should be paid to the family circumstances (marital status of parents, stability of family structure, parenting style), social determinants (influence of neighbors or environments, stigma, minority stress), childhood experiences (trauma, adverse childhood experiences, abuse, neglect, violence, stigma), individual genetic traits, and lgbt youth to prevent juvenile delinquency or suicide. meanwhile, encouraging to seek help should come with the increased availability in mental health support for all adolescents in need, but this is still a major challenge for child and adolescent mental health services. moreover, the betterment of the issue requires a collective action by multiple institutions in the society, including families, schools, and individuals. acknowledgments the authors would acknowledge haotian pan from jiangsu university, china, for his help in the use of citespace and yan ming 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(2022). examining the relationship between adverse childhood experiences and juvenile recidivism: a systematic review and meta-analysis. trauma, violence, &abuse, 15248380211073846. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380211073846 zaslow, s., shumer, d., reisner, s. l., & mimiaga, m. j. (2015). mental health of transgender youth in care at an adolescent urban community health center: a matched retrospective cohort study. journal of adolescent health, 56(3), 274-279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.10.264 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n5p165 165 published by ideas spread the symbolism, rituals, and contemporary changes of the kalachakra mandala---based on fieldwork in sku bum monastery and other locations ruochen xu1 1 nanjing foreign language school, china correspondence: ruochen xu, nanjing foreign language school, 60 huixiu road, nanjing, 210022, china. received: october 14, 2025; accepted: october 26, 2025; published: october 27, 2025 abstract based on a study of the etymology, structural connotations, and religious tenets of the tantric buddhist mandala, this article uses the kalachakra mandala as a case study to analyse its fuction as a visual representation of the unity of the inner and outer universes, its complex symbolic system, and its core functiom in tantric rituals. through fieldwork conducted at sku bum monastery, rong bo monastery, and shangwutun village in qinghai province, the article further explores the cultural transformation of the mandala in contemporary society. on one hand, the colored sand mandala has evolved from a momentary ritual product to a medium for the transmission of religious, artistic, and cultural heritage, reflecting its modern adaptation. on the other hand, the mandala thangka has increasingly moved from the monastic world to the secular world, expanding its signification from a vehicle for meditation and visualization to a more complex and creative modern artistic and cultural symbol. keywords: mandala, vajrayana, kalachakra, adaptation 1. introduction the mandala is a highly sophisticated concept that emerged in the later phases of buddist thought. centered on a deity, it functions as both a symbolic macrocom and a microcosm that is actualized through visualization and samaya. in vajrayana buddhism, it plays a crucial role , serving as a cosmic blueprint and sacred sanctuary for vajrayana meditators to achieve "instant enlightenment." although the mandala has ancient origins in indian intellectual history, its gradual integration with buddhist thought and emergence as a distinctive concept within esoteric buddhism was a complex process. firstly, there are insufficient indigenous indian texts documenting the encounter, acceptance, and integration of the mandala with buddhist thought. secondly, the concept of the mandala is complex and obscure as it is a product of late buddhist thought. in most cases, reconstructing the late history of buddhist thought (vajrayana buddhism) requires reliance on tibetan literature post-10th century. in particular, the history and transmission of tantric texts can only be gleaned through works such as the history of buddhism by bu-ston and a general treatise on the tantras by the xizang scholar buton rinchen drub,[1] as well as taranatha's history of indian buddhism. according to xizang buddhist scholar buton rinchen drub, the superiority of vajrayana over exoteric buddhism lie primarily in three aspects: its methods are more diverse, emphasizing individual adaptation, hence its name "dharmayana" or "mahayana of mahayana," is different from exoteric buddhism, which primarily relies on the six perfections; its duration of enlightenment is shorter, for those with superior faculties can achieve enlightenment in this very lifetime, those with average faculties at the time of death or in the bardo, and those with dull faculties only need a few lifetimes, whereas exoteric buddhism requires numerous lifetimes; its practice is also more comfortable, emphasizing the harmony of body and mind and deprecating asceticism. from an internal perspective, vajrayana boasts a comprehensive structure encompassing three components: "rgyu-basis", referring to the inherent buddha nature of all beings, serving as the foundation of practice; "lam-path", denotes specific meditation methods, representing the practical process; and "bras bun-fruition", the ultimate goal of enlightenment. in terms of literature, while the tantric scriptures exists independently of the traditional tripitaka of kangyur, tengyur and abhidharma, forming a separate "vajra pitaka", and establishing a four-part buddhist canon, it can also be integrated into the tripitaka system, reflecting its unique characteristics of being both selfcontained and harmoniously integrated with the overall teachings[2]. within the vajrayana's logic of "rgyu, lam and bras bun", rituals based on the mandala are a core component. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 166 published by ideas spread rituals hold a prominent position in vajrayana. the human body (particularly the spine) is considered the cosmic center, where the power of the superconscious mind resides. through tantric practices that unite mind and body, this power can be activated, propelling wisdom upward from the material foundation trapped by ignorance, ultimately achieving perfect enlightenment (bodhicitta). the visual mandala can be seen as an externalization of the symbolic system of "rgyu, lam and bras bun" visualization and practice in vajrayana. drawing on existing research on vajrayana and mandalas, this article specifically analyzes the significance and function of the kalachakra mandala. field research reveals the continuity and development of mandalas, and indeed buddhist culture, across the changing landscape. 2. mandala: etymology and structural connotation mandala is also known as dkyil vkhor in tibetan. this word is a transliteration of the sanskrit word mandala. mandala likely originates from “manda”, meaning "essence or core”. therefore, mandala can be understood as capturing “la” the essence and core, achieving enlightenment. [3]although mandala originally referred to the essence, or bodhi, it has historically taken on a broader meaning. the buddha attained enlightenment under the bodhi tree, so mandala has come to mean the place of enlightenment, the place of practice. the "sutra of the inquiry of the lion-ornament king bodhisattva" states, "the place of practice should be a square altar, named mandala."[4] thus, the mandala evolved gradually from an abstract and obscure concept into a concrete pattern that could be described in words, painted, and constructed. of course, it would be inaccurate to interpret the mandala solely as an altar. mandala can also represent “gathering”, symbolising the place where merit is gathered. in summary, the mandala has diverse interpretations, reflecting its widespread significance and importance within tantric buddhism. when the mandala evolved into a concrete mandala pattern, its structure became a visual representation of buddhist cosmology. the mandala embodies the holistic buddhist view of the inner and outer universes. each buddha or bodhisattva has their own unique mandala, which represents the world of a deity, their palace, and their followers. the structure of the mandala is central to its sacredness. it is not a random artistic creation, but a sacred geometric framework that strictly adhered to buddhist cosmology and philosophy. externally, the mandala's structure embodies the buddhist cosmological concepts of the "material world" and "three realms" as outlined in the abhidharma-kosha and kalachakra tantras: a circular disc centered on mount sumeru, surrounded by the four continents and eight sub-continents, the outermost circle encircled by the sun, moon, and stars. therefore, the mandala is typically centered on a point, and surrounded by a quadrilateral wall with four gates, which is in turn enclosed by multiple circular walls. each mandala pattern has its own unique symbolism. for instance, the three outer circular walls represent the flame ring, the vajra belt and the lotus garland. the four differently coloured gates of the square city within the ring symbolise the mandala's openness to all beings when opened. the center of the mandala houses the main deity. depending on the practice, different mandalas enshrine different principal buddhas or bodhisattvas. the location of the main deity is also the core of the entire mandala, serving as the central axis of the universe. retinues, bodhisattvas and guardian deities often surround the main deity, forming a complete buddhist retinue or pure land. when viewed inwardly, the entire mandala symbolizes the purified and perfectly transformed human body (the buddha's body). it depicts the five aggregates, the six sense bases and other elements of the body and mind as the originally pure buddha-land. the five aggregates (form, feeling, perception, volition, and consciousness) are the essential components of the body and mind. they are the foundation of afflictions and attachments. however, at the level of the mandala, they are symbolized as the wisdom of the five buddhas (mirrorlike wisdom, wisdom of equality, wisdom of discernment, all-accomplishing wisdom, and dharmadhatu wisdom). at the center of the mandala is the dharmadhatu wisdom (mahavairocana), which understands the emptiness of the dharmakaya and is the source of all wisdom. surrounding this are the four wisdoms derived from this fundamental wisdom. this means that by visualizing the mandala, practitioners are transforming their own five aggregates of affliction into the five wisdoms of the five buddhas; the mandala's palace is constructed from this pure wisdom. specifically, the six sense bases (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mind) and their corresponding six sense objects(form, sound, smell, taste, touch, and dharma) are often symbolized in the mandalas as offering goddesses or specific symbols surrounding the mandala palace. the outermost lotus circle represents the inherent purity of the six sense organs, untainted by mud. the inner vajra circle symbolizes the six sense organs' perceptive abilities transformed into indestructible wisdom, capable of penetrating the essence of delusion. the symbolism of the human body is a defining feature of tantric mandalas, particularly in the kalachakra mandala. it is the most direct embodiment of the tantric theory of "attaining buddhahood in this very body". the mandala is a microcosm of the entire universe, and the human body is considered a "microcosm". therefore, the structure of the mandala closely corresponds to the human body. the mandala's center (the main deity) symbolizes mount hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 167 published by ideas spread sumeru, the axis of the universe, and corresponds to the central channel within the human body. the mandala's square palace and four gates correspond to the human chest, pelvis, and limbs. the palace's multiple structures correspond to the three channels and seven chakras of the human body (crown, throat, heart, and navel). each chakra can be viewed as a miniature mandala, complete with its own deity and symbols. the main deity at the center of the mandala symbolizes the practitioner's original pure mind (buddha nature). they visualize themselves merging with the deity. the mandala's symbolism of the five aggregates, six sense organs, and the human body has a single core purpose: to reveal the profound meaning of "afflictions are bodhi." it uses visual, geometric, and symbolic symbols to reveal that the world you inhabit is the deity's pure land; your body is the deity's mandala; and your thoughts and actions, the five aggregates and six sense organs, are inherently perfect wisdom. practice is not about seeking outside of yourself; rather, through the visualization of the mandala, you recognize and awaken the buddha nature that already exists within you. therefore, the entire process of drawing, visualizing, and ultimately destroying the mandala is a complete practice of transforming the ordinary body and mind into the wisdom body and mind of the buddha. the mandala is more than a simple artistic pattern; it is a sophisticated symbolic system that seamlessly integrates the macroscopic structure of the universe (the outer mandala), the microscopic mechanisms of the human body (the inner mandala), and the spiritual and psychological aspects (the secret mandala). therefore, the painting of the mandala must strictly adhere to the scale and proportions prescribed by ritual texts such as the "sutra on the measurement of images." it is primarily composed of concentric circles or squares, with the patterns arranged in an orderly manner, embodying central symmetry. furthermore, all structures in the mandala radiate outward from a central axis, highlighting the importance of the center. there are many types and classifications of mandalas. mandala paintings based on scriptural content can be simply divided into four categories based on their expression, namely the "four mandalas." of these four types, the great mandala centers around the image of the deity, allowing practitioners to visualize the buddha's body; the samaya mandala, symbolized by ritual implements and mudras, encourages the remembrance of the buddha's aspiration; the dharma mandala, using seed syllables as a vehicle, fosters the realization of the buddha's dharma; and the karma mandala, in the form of a three-dimensional image, fosters the practice of the buddha's path. mandalas have a wide range of uses and serve as important tools in both tantric practice and ritual. first, practitioners can use mandalas as objects of visualization and meditation, achieving a state of concentration by gazing at the mandala pattern externally. then, through internal visualization, they construct the details of the mandala in their minds to comprehend the truths it embodies. as buddhism continues to evolve, mandalas have acquired other meanings and uses beyond visualization. similar to offering buddha statues, buddhists can use mandalas as objects of offering and recitation to accumulate merit. furthermore, mandalas are widely used in tantric rituals. for example, buddhist disciples seeking to enter tantric buddhism must undergo an initiation ceremony. after taking vows, they are guided to worship the mandala, embodying their deities to determine their destined deity. today, the art of mandalas has taken on meanings beyond religious belief. mandala thangkas and sand paintings are considered the pinnacle of religious art, representing the pinnacle of color and composition. mandalas from different regions possess distinct characteristics, making them a vital part of world cultural heritage.[5] 3. symbolic system and ritual value among the many mandalas of deities, the kalachakra mandala stands out for its complexity and profound philosophical teachings. the kalachakra itself is a complex and comprehensive system that integrates cosmology, human anatomy, and visualization practices. the kalachakra mandala is a visual representation of this system. simply put, the kalachakra system consists of two parts: the outer kalachakra and the inner kalachakra. the outer kalachakra represents the external material cosmic environment in which we live, or the macrocosm. in the buddhist worldview, the structure of the outer universe includes mount sumeru, the four continents, and the stars, embodying the flow of time. the inner kalachakra, on the other hand, represents the bodies of all beings, particularly the human body. the human body is believed to be a representation and miniature of the universe. its meridians, chakras, respiration, and subtle energies can all represent parts of the macrocosm, thus being called the microcosm. the kalachakra tantra [6]emphasizes the unity and commonality between humans and the universe. when humans can encompass the entire universe within their bodies and achieve complete control over their lifebreath, they can escape the kalachakra and enjoy eternal freedom, like the buddha. kalachakra is considered the personification of the universal law of kalachakra, an incarnation of the adibuddha, and the guardian and source of the entire kalachakra system. in the mandala, kalachakra is positioned at the center, his body blue, with four faces colored blue, yellow, white, and red. his twenty-four arms symbolize the teachings of the twenty-four chapters of the kalachakra tantra and the wisdom that overcomes the twenty-four kinds of ignorance. each of hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 168 published by ideas spread kalachakra's features corresponds to an aspect of the outer and inner kalachakras, such as his ornaments corresponding to the six elements and his meridians corresponding to the energy channels in the human body. therefore, it can be said that kalachakra is a perfect fusion of the macrocosm and the microcosm, and visualizing kalachakra can truly lead to understanding kalachakra. the kalachakra mandala, also known as the kalachakra mandala, is one of the largest and most complex mandalas in tibetan buddhism and a visual microcosm of the entire kalachakra teaching. take the colorful sand kalachakra mandala, for example. centered around the kalachakra deity, the mandala is divided into three sections: the inner court, the middle court, and the outer court. the inner court serves as the deity's abode, with a vajra representing the deity in the center. it is surrounded by four square walls and vajra walls. the four walls of the square wall have gates facing east, west, south, and north, respectively, in red, yellow, blue, and black, representing fire, sky, water, and earth. from the center to the periphery, five concentric circles of varying diameters extend from the center to the periphery, representing earth, water, fire, wind, and space, respectively. colorful sand mandalas like these are often used in tantric rituals. first, a senior monk selects a suitable site and performs preliminary rituals such as chanting, mantra recitation, and prayer to purify the area. afterward, senior lamas determine the proportions and the center of the mandala through precise mathematical calculations. next, the monks use metal funnels called sand cones to draw the mandala from the center to the periphery. the entire process takes nearly a month, during which each day the monks must chant sutras, mantras, and visualize before painting. they then collaborate with other monks to paint the day's chants and visualizations according to the detailed instructions in the ritual text. once the mandala is completed, it is used in rituals such as initiations (such as the kalachakra initiation) or as an offering. afterward, the most crucial step in the ritual is the unwavering destruction of the magnificent mandala after a period of visualization and offering. this destruction of the mandala, essential to all rituals, powerfully illustrates the buddhist concept of impermanence, emphasizing the need to let go of attachment to the ephemeral in order to attain eternity. thus, the kalachakra mandala is not only a sacred pattern depicting buddhist cosmology in precise geometric language, but also a vital guide for meditation and practice. 4. transformation and cultural adaptation as a targeted case study, we visited sku bum monastery in xining, qinghai province, to view the colored sand kalachakra mandala on display and communicate with lamas there to learn more about it. the sand mandala, housed in a glass case, is remarkably well-preserved. unlike conventional paintings, it is not a purely twodimensional design. the central deity is represented by a square platform, surrounded by square walls also made of stacked colored sand. the mandala's colors and patterns are exquisite, with lotuses, animals, and ritual implements painted in six colors: white, yellow, red, green, blue, and black, showcasing its grandeur and beauty. the seed syllables of the various deities are depicted in different colors around the central platform and around the outermost ring of the mandala. it is truly a work of art of exceptional quality. according to lamas at the monastery, the mandala was created by more than a dozen senior monks over a period of nearly a month. during this time, they practiced visualization and painting in strict accordance with the ritual texts, collaborating to complete each day's painting. however, this mandala was not destroyed according to ritualistic guidelines, but instead preserved permanently. this seems contrary to the concept of breaking through obsession, so why did the temple support this move? first, the painted sand mandala is more than just a tool for meditation and offering in the closet; it is also a unique and important intangible cultural heritage. through communication with monks at ta'er monastery, we learned that only a handful of senior monks are capable of painting the mandala and understanding its meaning, and each painting requires a significant amount of time and effort. therefore, the painted sand mandala is a relatively unknown art form. preserving it permanently as a religious art and cultural exhibit allows more tourists and nonbuddhists to understand and appreciate this profound art form, thereby promoting religious culture. second, a permanent mandala display serves as an irreplaceable three-dimensional textbook for buddhist colleges and museums. monks and scholars can devote significant time to studying its complex structure and proportions, thereby gaining a deeper understanding of its meaning. finally, and most importantly, this practice does not fundamentally violate the buddhist teaching of impermanence. in reality, buddhism seeks to dispel people's attachment to "eternal entities." if people can understand and internalize the philosophy of impermanence, simply understanding that all things are inherently empty and will eventually perish, they won't need to worry about whether external objects like the mandala survive. thus, the mandala's permanence is both an adaptation of its external form to the changing times and a deepening of understanding of buddhist philosophy. if the "permanent preservation" of the ta'er monastery mandala is a typical example of the "form adaptation" of the kalachakra mandala, then the longwu monastery (rong bo dgon) and shangwutun village in huangnan tibetan autonomous prefecture can be seen as contemporary changes in the "inheritance and application" of hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 169 published by ideas spread mandala culture. at longwu temple in tongren county, we saw a monk instructing many others to paint the kalachakra mandala. the monk was holding a ruler and a compass, drawing a sketch while explaining it to the monks around him. there were also some monks nearby who were trying to draw on their own. here, people can see the continuation of ritual content and religious art, passed down from master to disciple from generation to generation. such behavior reflects the inheritance and development of intangible cultural heritage. it is the continuation of such skills and spirit that created today's brilliant buddhist culture. later, we traveled to shangwutun village, known as the hometown of thangka, and interviewed a thangka painter. he mentioned that in the past, thangka artists would strictly follow the instructions in the image-making sutra when painting buddha statues and mandalas. however, with the changing times, these paintings now have fixed templates to refer to, greatly shortening the painting process. despite this, creating thangkas remains a demanding endeavor that requires high skill. it typically takes decades of persistent practice to become a qualified thangka artist. he explained that more and more people from outside of beijing are choosing mandalas over buddha statues when ordering thangkas. this trend may be due to the mandala's highly geometric, symmetrical, and colorful abstract art form. its extreme symmetry, precise structure, and vibrant colors inherently possess a strong modern decorative aesthetic, blending seamlessly into interior decor. the increasing popularity of mandala thangkas is undoubtedly a significant development and evolution of mandala culture in the contemporary era. on the one hand, the mandala's function has expanded from meditation to a diverse range of uses, including decorative art and cultural symbols. on the other hand, as a symbol of buddhism, the mandala has moved from monasteries' scripture halls into modern living spaces, influencing a wider audience and thus further promoting buddhist culture. 5. conclusion in summary, the mandala has always held a very important position in vajrayana buddhism. it is the universe that appears outside, and it is also the subject of visualization hidden inside. the fourth panchen lama, lobsang chokyi gyaltsen (1567-1662), a leading gelugpa tantric master, once gave a relatively concise explanation of the vajrayana (rdo rje thegs pa): "there is a profound reason why tantra is called the 'vajrayana'. first, the mahayana doctrine is fully summarized in the six perfections; second, the six perfections are condensed in skillful means and wisdom; finally, the unity of skillful means and wisdom is bodhicitta. bodhicitta is the profound meditation of vajrasattva, that is, the vajra, so tantra is called the vajrayana." it can be discovered that bodhicitta, as the meditation of vajrasattva, is the same as vajra, and the mandala, as the "core" or "essence," has the same meaning as bodhi. therefore, the mandala, visualizing the reality of the external universe and the six prajnaparamitas condensed in skillful means and wisdom, ultimately leads to the perfected bodhi. this core embodies the mahayana buddhist concept of "macrocosm and microcosm" and "inner consciousness and outer realm," which are essentially the spirit of non-duality. however, due to the profound nature of mandala texts and the difficulty of entering the study of tantric buddhism, mandala patterns and other content remained largely unknown to the general public for a long time. in recent years, the wave of cultural exchange fostered by technological advancements and an open and inclusive social environment has promoted the development of religious culture. exquisite patterns such as mandalas have entered society as artistic creations, rather than simply religious elements, and have gained popularity among some people. this trend has promoted the spread of religious culture and provided support for the protection and transmission of intangible cultural heritage. references [1] butön rinchen drub. (n.d.). general survey of the tantras (rgyud sde spyi’i rnam). qinghai minzu publishing house. [2] sailley, r. (n.d.). indian-tibetan buddhist tantrism (geng sheng, trans.). china tibetology publishing house. [3] butön rinchen drub. (n.d.). history of the buddha’s teachings (bde bar gshegs pa’i bstan pa’i gsal byed chos kyi ‘byung gnas). qinghai people’s publishing house. [4] stein, r. a. (n.d.). tibetan civilization (geng sheng, trans.). china tibetology publishing house. [5] lozang chökyi gyaltsen, et al. (n.d.). a collection of fine sayings on the teachings of the great secret vajrayāna (gsang chen rdo rje theg pa’i chos skor legs bshad phyogs bdebs) [tibetan block-print edition]. [6] garsang kyab. (2016). a brief account of the tantric studies in tibetan buddhism: taking butön rinchen drub’s general survey of the tantras as an example. studies in world religions, (5), 54–59. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 170 published by ideas spread copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n5p102 102 published by ideas spread a cross-cultural scientific bridge: a study on the establishment and international influence of the european branch of the chinese chemical society in paris xianhan qin1 1 school of humanities, university of chinese academy of sciences, china correspondence: xianhan qin, school of humanities, university of chinese academy of sciences, beijing, china. received: october 4, 2025; accepted: october 15, 2025; published: october 16, 2025 abstract founded in paris in 1907, the european branch of the chinese chemical society was the first professional chemical organization established by chinese people and the first organization with the nature of a scientific society. under its influence, chemical organizations such as the guangdong branch of the chinese chemical society emerged successively in china, promoting the development of the domestic chemical community. the european branch played a significant role in the early institutionalization of chemistry in china. keywords: european branch of the chinese chemical society, guangdong branch of the chinese chemical society, institutionalization of chemistry, early chemistry societies 1. introduction the european branch of the chinese chemical society, established by chinese students studying in europe in 1907 (hereinafter referred to as the "european branch"), was the first professional chemical organization founded by chinese people, and is also known as "the first truly scientific society in china."[1] the establishment of this organization has symbolic significance for the development of modern chemistry in china.starting with the european branch, chinese people organized various forms of "chemical organizations" in the early 20th century.although for various reasons, most of these early chemical organizations did not last long, studying these organizations is meaningful for understanding "the growth and development of chinese chemical science."[2] early chinese chemical organizations have also attracted the attention of many scholars in recent years, with research involving organizations such as the chinese chemical industry association, [2]the chinese chemical society[4], and the scientific societies of peking university's department of chemistry.[4] however, concerning the earliest european branch, previous research has touched upon it, [5][6][7][8]but studies on its establishment process, personnel, contributions, and subsequent development are relatively scarce, and the true position of the european branch in the development of china's chemical discipline has yet to be recognized by the academic community. in light of this, this article intends to explore the development and impact of the european branch, aiming to clarify the process of institutionalization of chinese chemistry and thereby deepen our understanding of the development of modern chinese chemical disciplines. 2. the establishment and achievements of the european branch of the chinese chemical society in paris the first organization in china named after chemistry was the chemical guild, founded in 1897 in hangzhou.the defeat in the first sino-japanese war sparked a wave of national salvation through science, with reformers at the time believing that organizing various societies was crucial for saving the nation from peril, striving for national prosperity, and promoting reforms.[9] liang qichao proposed, "to rejuvenate china, we must cultivate talent, and to cultivate talent, we must establish societies."[10]under the influence of this ideology, many "societies" were founded by chinese people at the time, with the chemical guild being initiated by staff members of the hangzhou newspaper jingshi bao during this period.[11] hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 103 published by ideas spread due to a lack of funds at its inception, the chemical guild temporarily used the jingshi bao office as its meeting place, planning to establish a separate chemical society or chemical school after achieving some success.the 33 members who joined the chemical guild included wu zonglian, shao zhang, qu anglai, and others.on november 9, 1897, the chemical guild held its first experiment and established a rule to hold meetings on the 1st and 15th of each month thereafter.[12] however, jingshi bao ceased publication shortly afterward, and the chemical guild also faded away, much like most organizations established during the reform period, existing only briefly. although the societies created at that time cannot be called modern scientific societies in the true sense, they nonetheless marked the beginning of chinese efforts to establish modern organizations independently.[13] the first recognized true modern chemical organization in china is the european branch.in the summer of 1907, li jinghao (1882-?) who was studying in france, proposed the establishment of the chinese chemical society. in his proposal, he mentioned that the jiangnan arsenal translation bureau and the tongwen guan had been translating books for over forty years. if, at that time, students had united to study chemistry, china's chemistry today might not rival that of europe and america, but it would surely be sufficient to produce the products the country needed. however, many chemical products in china still depend on imports.[14] li jinghao named the organization the "chinese chemical society," with the purpose of "compiling to exchange knowledge, investigating to set business guidelines, and conducting business to promote the development of china's chemical industry." his envisioned organizational system was grand, suggesting the establishment of branches in each country, as well as branches in various provinces within china. each provincial branch would elect a vice president, who would then nominate the president of that country, and finally, the country presidents would collectively elect a general president. anyone who studies chemistry and sympathizes with the society's purpose could join as a member. members were obliged to "compile books and periodicals, investigate goods, promote industrial initiatives, plan for the society's development, and review the society's bylaws and affairs."[15] li jinghao envisioned the work of the society to be divided into three parts. the first part was compiling, including standardizing chemical terminology and compiling chemistry textbooks and reference books. the second part was investigation, which involved researching the chemical industries and raw material sources of both china and other countries, the scale and content of chemical factories in various countries, and the bylaws of chemical schools in different nations. the third part was business, which included assisting members in fundraising for or promoting stock issues for factories they founded, mutual insurance among peers, and facilitating sales of products from various factories. li jinghao also envisioned issuing stocks to build the chemical industry, with profits being distributed as dividends to managers and shareholders. the organization envisioned by li jinghao was in fact both academic and commercial, rather than being purely an academic society. after li jinghao made his proposal, chen chuanhu believed that it would take time to establish the general society and suggested first creating the european branch as a "prelude" to the future establishment of the chinese chemical society, which would then be subordinated to it. on december 25, 1907, seven students studying in europe, including li jinghao, chen chuanhu, lu an, rong guang, yu tongkui (1876–1962), li yin (1876–1954), and wu kuangshi (1883–1935), gathered at the french study association in paris and officially established the european branch.[16] yu tongkui was appointed president, and li jinghao was appointed accountant.wu kuangshi's father, who had previously participated in the chemical guild, wu zonglian, who was serving as the acting ambassador to austria, was appointed honorary president. kuai guangdian, the supervisor of european study abroad at the time, also expressed support for the society and showed interest in donating funds.the society's goal was "to advance chemistry and promote the development of the nation's industries."[17] the tasks outlined included standardizing terminology, compiling books and periodicals, investigation, and communication (i.e., assisting fellow countrymen with research). [18]apart from the removal of the industrial involvement part, the other tasks were largely the same as those proposed by li jinghao for the chinese chemical society. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 104 published by ideas spread the european branch held its first annual meeting in london, uk, from august 10 to 19, 1908, with 16 attendees in his "mid-year report for 1908," yu tongkui mentioned that by august 1908, the society had 29 members studying in europe, distributed across the uk, france, germany, and belgium. domestically, there were 42 members, 25 of whom were undergraduate students in the department of chemistry at the beijing higher industrial school, and there were also 3 members in japan. the main tasks completed by the society within the first six months of its establishment included standardizing terminology and investigating industries. the first annual meeting mainly discussed the editing of a dictionary, publishing the "quarterly journal of the european branch of the chinese chemical society," translating books, and assisting domestic investigations into the chemical industry. during the meeting, chen zuliang was elected as the new president.the most important issue discussed at this meeting was the standardization of chemical terminology. the european branch formulated translations for chemical elements and naming systems for inorganic and organic chemistry.some of the translated terms from this meeting have been passed down through generations. in terms of element translations, the european branch pioneered new terms such as "氢" (hydrogen), "氟" (fluorine), and "氯" (chlorine). the organic chemistry terms "醇" (alcohol), "醛" (aldehyde), and "酮" (ketone), proposed by member li yin, were adopted by the european branch and have been used ever since.[19] in 1910, li jinghao compiled the book examples of organic chemistry nomenclature based on the principles agreed upon at the european branch meeting in 1908.[20]later, the european branch ceased its activities due to the return of its organizers to china, but its influence did not end there. members of the society went on to organize or participate in several chemical societies in china 3. the continuation of the european branch 3.1 guangdong branch in 1909, chen zuliang, president of the european branch, sent a letter to the qing dynasty's ministry of agriculture and commerce, hoping to establish chemical societies in various provinces of china and later form a unified chinese chemical society.he also submitted the bylaws of the chemical society to the ministry, requesting that they be registered and implemented in all provinces. the ministry of agriculture and commerce believed that "the organization of the chinese chemical society abroad and the development of principles to benefit industry and commerce were crucial. as the industries in various provinces are just beginning to grow, it is urgent to study science for further advancement."therefore, they "immediately issued and stamped the original bylaws, and instructed the provincial governors to widely promote and uniformly establish this society in all provinces."[21] the ministry of agriculture and commerce also proposed, "by observing the early results, the industrial benefits can be achieved."[22] under the advocacy of the ministry of agriculture and commerce, the provinces actively responded. after receiving the communication, chen qitai, the governor of jiangsu, instructed the agriculture and commerce bureau and the education commissioner to jointly organize the society. among these efforts, the establishment of the guangdong branch of the chinese chemical society (hereinafter referred to as the guangdong branch) was the most successful.[23] after receiving the communication from the ministry of agriculture and commerce, zhang renjun, the governor of guangdong and guangxi, entrusted the organization of the chemical society to chen wangzeng, the commissioner of guangdong's industrial promotion bureau.[24] coincidentally, li yin, who had studied in europe, returned to china and guangdong at the end of 1908.with the support of chen wangzeng, li yin and others established the guangdong branch in 1909 in guangdong, and submitted a request to the guangdong industrial promotion bureau for approval and official registration. the guangdong industrial promotion bureau provided the guangdong branch with the tianhou temple building of the yide society as its meeting place and allocated 200 taels and 4 mace of silver as startup funds.[25] li yin was one of the founders of the european branch of the chinese chemical society. therefore, the establishment of the guangdong branch and its members had a certain continuity with the european branch, and even the name of the society was modeled after it.the goal of the guangdong branch was "to develop chemical principles and promote the progress of various chemical endeavors."[26] hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 105 published by ideas spread similar to the european branch, the guangdong branch was named "chinese chemical society guangdong branch" so that it would be subordinated to the chinese chemical society once it was established. the tasks of the society included: studying chemistry and industrial issues, compiling books and periodicals to promote chemistry, investigating domestic and international chemical industries and chemical schools, answering chemistry-related questions from both members and the public, establishing public chemistry laboratories, setting up a chemical product exhibition hall, creating specialized chemistry schools or industrial chemistry schools, and conducting analyses of minerals or raw materials of manufactured products to support industries. the guangdong branch also founded the guangdong chemical society industrial journal in 1910. although named a newspaper, it was actually a periodical, published twice a month. it specialized in introducing chemical knowledge and promoting the application of chemistry in industrial and agricultural fields, publishing more than ten professional articles in each issue. chen wangzeng, commissioner of the guangdong industrial promotion bureau, served as an honorary sponsor and wrote the inscription for the journal. he praised the journal for "not indulging in theoretical discussions, not using empty, flowery language, and for applying practical learning that aligns with the evolution of the times and meets the needs of the people, contributing to the development of public spirit and increasing knowledge."[27] wang chongyou and others served as honorary contributors. the journal’s editors included li yin and luo bichang, with the editorial team composed of tang youheng, qu xihui, luo tingyu, li yin, mo siyuan, and others.[28]among them, luo tingyu was also a member of the european branch. in 1909, zhang renjun was transferred to serve as the governor of liangjiang and the minister of nanyang. in the same year, the ministry of agriculture and commerce proposed the establishment of china’s first exposition— the nanyang industrial promotion association.zhang renjun [29] became the president of the association and urged the various provincial product associations, sponsoring associations, and industrial product associations to accelerate the collection of exhibition items from the provinces and select excellent products to be sent to nanjing.[30] the nanyang industrial promotion association officially opened in june 1910. the guangdong branch also actively participated in the exhibition. after receiving the notification and months of discussion, all members contributed by manufacturing products in their areas of expertise. for example, member zhang guoxing processed cow and sheep hides into tanned leather and brought it to the exhibition, explaining the tanning method in detail. "in addition, many other members successfully experimented with and manufactured products such as soda, soap, perfumes, medicines, electroplating, and academic supplies. they planned to produce more and would later bring them to the exhibition." an important task of the guangdong branch also included collaborating with the ministry of education (equivalent to the current ministry of education) in compiling a unified chemical terminology. this was the first instance of cooperation between a civilian scientific organization and the government to standardize chemical terminology.shortly after the establishment of the terminology bureau in 1909, the ministry of education contacted the guangdong branch, hoping the society would help formulate chemical terminology. it was reported that "tang youheng, the chief editor of the guangdong chemical branch and newly selected agricultural science graduate, discussed with the ministry of education the establishment of the terminology bureau to standardize scientific terms, ensuring national uniformity and preventing barriers in education. among all sciences, chemical terminology was the most difficult and complex. in september, he discussed terminology compilation with a certain minister at the ministry of education in beijing. the minister said that the complexity of chemical terminology required collaboration with the chemical society to finalize the terms, and instructed the society to quickly compile the terms. the chemical society plans to finalize the inorganic chemistry terminology in the near future."[32] in compiling chemical terminology. in early 1910, the guangdong branch faced financial difficulties as it prepared to participate in the nanyang industrial promotion association and "compiled a report on the chemical terminology and sent it to the ministry of education, which required a great deal of effort."[31]this shows that the society was indeed engaged in editing chemical terminology, but was hindered by a lack of funds. in editing chemical terminology, the guangdong branch continued some of the work initiated by the european branch, such as the translations of "氢" (hydrogen), "氟" (fluorine), and "氯" (chlorine). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 106 published by ideas spread in addition, the guangdong branch coined important chemical terms such as "氧" (oxygen) and "氮" (nitrogen), which are still in use today, making significant contributions to the standardization of chemical terminology. in summary, the guangdong branch had bylaws, an office location, official financial support, and a regularly published journal, all of which are basic characteristics of a modern scientific society. therefore, the guangdong branch was the first practice of the european branch's founding principles in china and the first professional chemical organization established domestically. 3.2 other chemical organizations following the european branch and the guangdong branch, former members of the european branch, including wu kuangshi, lu an, and deng bangyu, originally intended to establish the chinese chemical society during the nanyang industrial promotion association, but this was not realized. in 1909, the ministry of agriculture and commerce submitted plans for the year, mentioning that the beijing industrial experimental institute would be established in 1910, along with the physical and chemical research society.[33] in 1911, zhang kui and other comrades from the ministry of agriculture and commerce gathered in beijing to establish the beijing chemical society.its purpose was "to study academia and revive industry."the society's office was located next to the industrial experimental institute in the ministry of agriculture and commerce's industrial promotion display hall, and it was planned to be jointly maintained by the ministry of education, the ministry of civil affairs, and the ministry of agriculture and commerce.[34] the society's officers included zhang kui and lu an, with the editorial directors being yu tongkui, yu mingxin, and wang jidian.the full members included zhang kui, li jinghao, yu tongkui, yu mingxin, wang jidian, gao jinchen, and 52 others. the beijing chemical society was essentially a continuation of the earlier european branch. among its members, 17 had previously participated in the european branch, including yu tongkui, deng bangyu, guo shiguan, li jinghao, yang baonan, and lu an, accounting for one-third of the total membership.the society ended with the outbreak of the xinhai revolution and the fall of the qing government. after the establishment of the republic of china in 1912, the members gathered in shanghai with the intention of "continuing their previous work and aiming for the prosperity of academia, and addressing the core issues of national industry." they founded the chinese chemical society, with yu tongkui serving as president.its purpose was "to spread chemistry across the country in order to promote the development of industry." the tasks included: 1. standardizing terminology, continuing with the chemical naming principles established by the european branch and expanding them, after discussions and "submitting them to the ministry of education for review, to be implemented uniformly nationwide."2. investigating domestic and foreign chemical factories, raw materials, and chemical schools;3. correspondence, assisting in solving related professional issues.[35] it is clear that both of these societies can be seen as continuations of the european branch. the members of the original european branch played an important role in the founding process, and the tasks they outlined were essentially the same as those of the european branch.however, the chinese chemical society did not last long and left few marks in history. in 1922, yu tongkui, along with chen shizhang and others, initiated the establishment of the chinese chemical industry association and founded the journal of the chinese chemical industry association, with yu tongkui serving as the editor-in-chief.[36]the president was zhang xingu, also known as zhang kui.among the 32 founding members, yu tongkui, wu kuangshi, chen chuanhu, and five others were members of the original european branch. the purpose of the chinese chemical industry association was: to promote knowledge of chemical industry and advance industrial development; to connect members with a spirit of mutual aid, exchanging views on the chemical industry; and to serve as a think tank for the industrial sector.[37] the scope of the association's work included: (1) investigating domestic and foreign factories, industries, and local products; (2) collecting the latest news about the global chemical industry; (3) accepting commissions from the industrial sector to inspect materials and review industrial plans; (4) organizing lectures on the chemical industry, preparing a reference library and laboratory for chemical industry studies; (5) publishing a quarterly industrial chemistry journal and regularly publishing works on the chemical industry. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 107 published by ideas spread the association used the beijing industrial specialized school as its correspondence office, where yu tongkui was the principal at the time.starting in january 1923, the association began publishing the journal of the chinese chemical industry association, volume 1, issue 1. in september 1923, a branch was established in shanghai, with former european branch member cao huiqun (1886–1957) serving as the director. at the end of 1928, the association moved from beijing to shanghai.[3]on new year's day 1929, the association held its 4th annual meeting in shanghai, re-electing cao huiqun as president,and he continued to serve for eight consecutive terms as president.it can be seen that the purpose, personnel, tasks, and other aspects of the chinese chemical industry association were influenced by the european branch, and even its organizational structure was modeled after the european branch’s experience and framework, such as setting up positions like president, secretary, and advisory members.it should be noted that the establishment of the chinese chemical industry association had significant ties to the european branch. in addition to the european branch and its subsequent societies, chinese people also established other similar chemical organizations in the early years.in 1909, chinese students studying in japan established the mathematical and physical chemistry society in tokyo, with the aim of "promoting and popularizing the progress of mathematical and physical chemistry."[38]in addition to japanese-based students, the society also attracted many domestic members.however, the society disappeared after publishing only a few issues of the mathematical and physical chemistry society journal. in 1918, wang zuju, li linyu, li shuhua, and others initiated the establishment of the paris chinese chemical research society, with support from cai yuanpei, wang jingwei, and li shiceng. the society's goal was to "study chemical principles, compile chemistry books, develop chemical education, and revitalize the chemical industry."[39] the organic chemistry naming scheme developed by the society was published in 1922 in xueyi magazine. the naming mainly used free translation and coined characters, but the new terms were not adopted by later generations.[40] the above-mentioned societies rose and fell quickly, leaving little impact on history. it wasn't until after 1920 that chinese chemical organizations truly began to prosper. in 1922, wang zhen, zhuang changgong, fu ying, and 33 other chinese students in the united states initiated the establishment of the chinese chemical society.[41]in 1930, the chinese society of chemical engineering was established at the massachusetts institute of technology (mit). [42] in 1957, it merged with the chinese chemical industry association to form the current china chemical engineering society.in 1932, the chinese chemical society was established and continues to this day. some of the individuals involved had previously participated in the founding of the chinese chemical industry association and the chinese society of chemical engineering.[43] around 1920, with the gradual development of modern higher education, a number of chemical societies also emerged in universities. for example, the physical and chemical society of beijing higher normal school[44], founded in the spring of 1917; the chinese chemical society of peking university, established at the end of 1922; the chemical society of national guangdong university[45], founded in november 1925; and the agronomy chemistry society organized by students of beijing agricultural university in march 1926.[46] additionally, the chemistry society of the department of chemistry at west china university[47], the mathematical and physical chemistry society of national wuchang higher normal school[48], and the mathematical and physical chemistry research society of nanjing higher normal school were also established during this period. the prosperity of both national and university-based societies greatly indicates that by around 1920, the institutionalization of the chemical discipline in china had gradually taken shape and continued to develop and expand. 4. international influence 4.1 cultural dissemination and academic exchange the european branch of the chinese chemical society in paris played an important role in cultural dissemination and academic exchange in the international chemical community. in 1909, yu tongkui presented a paper titled the phenomenon of chinese chemical industry and its future developmentat the international association of applied chemistry in london, systematically introducing china's ancient chemical achievements and the prospects for modern development.[49] hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 108 published by ideas spread the paper emphasized china's deep scientific foundations and clarified the positive significance of china's chemical progress for the world.this initiative attracted significant attention from foreign scholars, effectively enhancing the international chemical community's recognition of china's chemical traditions, breaking the biases of the western academic world, and earning early international recognition for china's chemical industry, thus opening a new chapter in sino-foreign academic exchanges in chemistry. 4.2 a mplifying the dissemination of china's scientific endeavors in may 1909, the seventh international association of applied chemistry was held in london, where yu tongkui attended and presented his paper the phenomenon of chinese chemical industry and its future development, introducing the achievements of china's ancient chemical industry.the paper was "immediately published by newspapers, and it attracted particular attention from the germans," indicating that the activities of the european branch quickly became a focal point for european media, especially gaining the attention of the german academic community.[50] this media effect not only amplified the international voice of china's chemical industry but also created a new understanding of china's scientific development within the european intellectual community, effectively enhancing china's academic influence in europe 5. conclusion this study explores the establishment of the european branch of the chinese chemical society in paris and its international influence, aiming to reveal the early institutionalization of the chemical discipline in china and its contributions to the international chemical community.through the analysis of the historical background, development process, and international impact of the european branch, this article attempts to offer a new perspective on the beginnings of china's chemical industry.although existing studies have focused on the establishment and development of the chinese chemical society, systematic research on the specific role and impact of the european branch remains insufficient. the theoretical value of this article lies in the review of the early development of china's chemical discipline, especially its interaction and exchange with the international academic community, filling the gaps in existing research.from a practical perspective, this article helps in understanding the important role of early chemical organizations in promoting domestic chemical education and industrial development. compared with previous studies, this research expands on the details, especially in analyzing international influence and academic dissemination. although there are still many unresolved issues, such as specific scientific achievements and internal management, it is hoped that this study will provide some inspiration for future research. future research could further explore these aspects, promoting a comprehensive understanding and development of the institutionalization of china's chemical discipline. acknowledgments this paper was supported by the 2024 graduate science popularization ability enhancement project of china association for science and technology (no. kxyjs2024003). references [1] zhang, j. (2022). from gezhi to science: modern chinese science and the systematization of science. china workers publishing house. [2] chinese chemical society. (2008). history of the chinese chemical society. shanghai jiao tong university press. [3] jin, s. (2021). research on the china chemical industry association 1922–1949. china science and technology publishing house. [4] cao, q. (2023). chemical education (chinese and english). chemical education, 44(04), 122–129. [5] yuan, h. (1956). collected papers on the history of chinese chemistry. life·reading·xinzhi sanlian bookstore. [6] zhang, p. (2006). social history of the systematization of modern chinese chemistry [master's thesis, shanxi university]. [7] yang, g. (2009). overseas students and the development of modern chinese chemical industry [master's thesis, shanxi university]. [8] jiang, j., & zhou, w. (2011). chemical education. chemical education, 32(11), 85–88. [9] research team of the development research center of the chinese association for science and technology. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 109 published by ideas spread (2014). modern chinese science and technology associations. china science and technology publishing house. [10] tang, z., & tang, r. (2018). complete works of liang qichao, vol. 1: essays. china renmin university press. [11] dong, z. (1897, may 5). origins of the chemical society. jing shi bao: gezhi 1-2. [12] wang, f., & cheng, h. (2019). the chemical society: the first professional chemical organization in china. university chemistry, 34(09), 121–124. [13] yu, h. (1997). sociological studies. sociological studies, (03), 54–61. [14] guangdong quan ye bao. (1909, no. 61), 35–37. [15] li, j. (1907, no. 24). business official gazette. business official gazette, 33–39. [16] chinese chemical society european branch. (1908). report of the chinese chemical society european branch, year of wushen (manuscript). [17] guangdong quan ye bao. (1909, no. 62), 38–40. [18] guangdong quan ye bao. (1909, no. 63), 37–40. [19] li, y. (1933). li yin writings (manuscript). [20] chemical bulletin. (1982). chemical bulletin, (08), 20. [21] xuejie xinwen. (1909, no. 06). promoting chemical societies in various provinces. datong news, 33. [22] sichuan education official gazette. (1909, no. 2), 2. [23] overseas affairs: jiangsu governor’s proposal to promote chemical societies. (1909, no. 2). huashang united news, 12. [24] official documents: proposals for establishing chemical societies. (1910, no. 2). guangdong chemical society industry journal. [25] guangdong treasury bureau (comp.), & guangdong provincial treasury science research institute (org.). (1997). guangdong fiscal handbook. guangdong economic publishing house. [26] guangdong quan ye dao. (1909, no. 22). business official gazette. business official gazette, 69–74. [27] guangdong chemical society industry journal submission of proposal to the guangdong quan ye dao for registration approval. (1910). guangdong chemical society industry journal, (2), 73. [28] jiang, j. (2007). old news from the press: newspapers and news in old guangzhou. southern daily press. [29] hebei provincial museum. (2011). zhang renjun research. hebei fine arts publishing house. [30] wang, c. (2010). heritage. heritage, (13), 34–36. [31] chemical section prepared for the exhibition items. (1910, january 9). shen bao, 2. [32] chemical section standardized inorganic chemistry terms. (1909, december 25). shen bao, 11. [33] proposal: ministry of agriculture and commerce's annual preparation report (appendix). (1909, no. 1). quan ye hui xun bao, 1–5. [34] li, s. (2012). historical archives. historical archives, (01), 35–79. [35] origins of the chinese chemical society. (1912, no. 02). shiye magazine, 4–5. [36] feng, l., & niu, y. (2007). historical archives. historical archives, (03), 88–98. [37] china chemical industry association yearbook. (1923). 1(1), 123–124. [38] mathematical and physical chemistry society journal. (1911), (5), 70. [39] xu, t. (1919, no. 494). peking university daily, 2–3. [40] chinese chemical research society. (1922). learning arts. learning arts, (09), 1–28. [41] guo, b. (1995). an outline of modern chinese chemistry. guangxi education press. [42] zhang, h. (1982). progress in chemical engineering. progress in chemical engineering, (02), 11–13. [43] yuan, z. (2009). research on the history of natural sciences. research on the history of natural sciences, 28(03), 341–362. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 110 published by ideas spread [44] luo, r. (1919). physical chemistry magazine. physical chemistry magazine, (01), 131–141. [45] national guangdong university weekly. (1925, no. 32), 3. [46] wang, x. (1926, no. 298). picture times, 3. [47] huahua news. (1925), 1–3. [48] mathematical and physical chemistry magazine (wuchang). (1923), (11), 81–83. [49] yuan, q., et al. (2021). research on the transmission of western education to various groups in late qing dynasty. tianjin publishing media group; tianjin people's publishing house. [50] the seventh international applied chemistry congress held in london. (1909). the eastern magazine, 6(9), 17. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n5p123 123 published by ideas spread human and non-human networks in baihualing: a case study of the birdwatching industry xinran wang1 1 shenzhen college of international education, china correspondence: xinran wang, shenzhen college of international education, shenzhen, guangdong, 518043, china. e-mail: karen_wang_xinran@126.com received: october 6, 2025; accepted: october 18, 2025; published: october 20, 2025 abstract this paper uses actor-network theory (ant) to analyze how human and non-human stakeholders directly and indirectly involved in baihualing birdwatching industry jointly contribute the local economic and ecological network. the research is based on a fieldwork carried out in the summer of 2025 in baoshan, yunnan, adopting a combination of participant observation and semi-structured interviews. the initial intention was to discuss uncivilized behaviors during birdwatching, such as bird baiting, and their effects on the environment. however, the results of fieldwork reveal the dynamic balance between bird protection and ecotourism development with villagers’ voluntary rules establishment, profit allocation and ecological management. the findings also highlight how baihualing birdwatching industry boost villagers’ income, while promoting ecological protection. in the future, baihualing should continuously pay attention to maintaining this balance and preventing overdevelopment. keywords: ecotourism, birdwatching, citizen science 1. introduction 1.1 birdwatching history and development birdwatching is primarily a personal pleasure and satisfaction activity, where birdwatchers often strive to see and photograph as many bird species as possible [1]. it was first developed in western countries like those in europe and north america. birdwatching was first introduced in the late 1980s by foreigners who visited china to watch birds [1], and it has been continuously expanding in china. taiwan formed the earliest birdwatching societies under the influence of the us and japan, whereas hong kong developed birdwatching communities with the culture introduced by british enthusiasts [2]. according to dr. zhu, a famous science writer and senior member of xiamen birdwatching community, the recreational birdwatching activities were then spread to china mainland with beijing, shanghai, fuzhou, xiamen and shenzhen being the earliest cities having amateur birdwatchers. later, the total number of bird-watchers has increased dramatically since the 21st century. starting with only 600 people in 2000, the figure grew to 20,000 in 2010 [3]. they took pictures of birds and shared them on platforms or forums, such as ebird and the world wildlife fund forum. besides birdwatching as entertainment, there was increasing civic awareness on non-economic issues, especially environmental problems, in china as it progressed to a post-material society [1]. thus, many birdwatchers began to get involved in citizen science, where non-professionals could contribute to scientific research just like experts. for example, bird watchers contributed 38% (8/21) of the bird species in china’s national checklist, and nearly 70% of bird-watching communities have submitted bird conservation proposals to local governments [3]. the scientific achievements then pay back with deeper and more committed interests in birdwatching among bird lovers, forming a virtuous cycle. 1.2 bird baiting despite the benefits, the increased recreational birdwatching also brought additional environmental issues, and a main one is “bird baiting”. bird baiting, in the context of birdwatching, refers to the act of luring birds, such as playing bird sounds or providing food, to intentionally disturb birds or their habitats to take photographs for aesthetic purposes or better watch them. however, this definition of bird baiting is not widely discussed in research works compared to another definition regarding adding bird repellents to baits in order to control their diets and prevent them from eating crops [4]. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 124 published by ideas spread this lack of birdwatching and bird baiting discussion may be attributed to the nature of birdwatching, which is built on citizen science. amateur birdwatchers are the main consumers of bird baiting, who are unlikely to be involved in academic research. thus, there is a lack of academic focus for such topics. this paper will shed light on a case study where bird baiting acts as a catalyst to boost the birdwatching-based economy in the village. 1.3 baihualing birdwatching baihualing is a village in yunnan province, china. according to zhige bao, the director of baihualing’s largest inn and bird pond, before birdwatching was spread here, villagers hunted for a living. people not only knew the twittering of different bird species, but they had also tasted them. then some foreign bird lovers travelled there for birdwatching and randomly paid local villagers to bring them to find birds. villagers accidentally found this business opportunity and began developing birdwatching tourism. they began building bird ponds and became the first place to build bird ponds in china. bird pond is a design with a combination of bird baiting and bird hide. villagers found relatively plain areas on territories with personal forest rights and set up human made ponds and branches with fruits to attract birds. several meters away from the attractive designs, a bird hide would be set for birdwatchers and photographers to sit and hide themselves. tourists needed to book and pay for the seats, which granted bird pond owners some income. along with bird ponds, birdwatchers would live and eat in the village. this boosted the economy of inns and restaurants. gradually, as competition progressed, the birdwatching industry began to mature and developed to what baihualing is like now – an economy based around birdwatching and ecotourism. 1.4 literature review human stakeholders and non-human factors jointly contribute to an environment. descola [5] described the division of human and non-human factors as the division of nature-culture, for which he criticized as the western naturalism. and instead, he proposed that the division was blurring, supported by the cases in ecuador and peru, and human and non-human factors were interconnected. additionally, kohn [6] proposed the concept of “ecology of selves”. it reveals how all factors, not only human but also non-human, all interpret and act to form the current world. for example, in amazon, fruiting periods of trees imply food availability, which in turn reflect foraging movements of animals for humans. similarly, hathaway [7] did a case study on yunnan, china. he came up with the idea of “environmental winds”. he emphasized the unpredictable nature of environmental movements, which were complexly formed by local actors, including scientists, villagers and even wildlife. this paper will further support this idea by presenting the case study in baihualing using actor-network-theory (ant), where human and non-human factors interact and contribute to form the current complex ecological environment and economy. instead of the traditional binary opposition, humans and nature coexist and codependent on each other for collective development. 2. methodology 2.1 overview this paper combines participant observation and semi-structured interviews. data collection took place through an offline 5-day fieldwork in baihualing at the end of july 2025. the author experienced the birdwatching process as a tourist and communicated with other tourists. this gave a true picture of birdwatchers’ performance and the experience of birdwatching service in baihualing. later, interviews of villagers of different occupations are conducted to get a full picture of different aspects, adding validity and reliability to the results of the study. interviewees and observees cover all main occupations in baihualing, and each villager usually takes on several different jobs to sustain a living and support for family. 2.2 stakeholders introduction 2.2.1 human stakeholders occupations in baihualing could be allocated into birdwatching related and non-birdwatching related. since birds are only frequently seen in winter, which is seen as the boom season, and require feeding and maintenance all year long to ensure popularity of bird ponds, the income gained is limited, so bird pond owners usually have other occupations to sustain a living. and villagers usually take on various occupations. regarding birdwatching related occupations, villagers take on innkeepers, bird pond owners and wildlife photography bird guides. non-birdwatching related ones include research technicians, foresters and farmers. besides villagers, birdwatchers also act as stakeholders. they were tourists travelling to baihualing to watch birds. their stay could vary from several days to a month, depending on their aim for the trip. baozhi ge mentioned that hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 125 published by ideas spread experienced birdwatchers aiming for rarer species tend to stay for longer time. their behaviors in baihualing, especially in bird ponds, could affect the environment and the birds. 2.2.2 non-human stakeholders good natural environment is the base for developing birdwatching industry, so the non-human factors, including the environment and animals, are significant contributors. these includes birds, insects, forests and etc. each stakeholder’s contribution would be explained in more details in the follow part, including the basic introduction and how it contributes to the current baihualing ecological and economic environment. 3. stakeholders contribution 3.1 birdwatching industry stakeholders 3.1.1 bird pond owner tiguo hou built the first baihualing bird pond in 2009 to provide birdwatching and photography services, charging 20 rmb for each seat per day. his success in this first try attracted other villagers to imitate, and the number of bird ponds boomed within a short time. [8] according to baozhi ge, hou’s son-in-law who took over the role of innkeeper and bird pond manager, the number of bird ponds once rose to over 60, but later decreased to 24 due to government’s concern of their environmental threats. 3.1.1.1 economics contribution bird ponds tickets boost the economy and contribute a significant part of villagers’ income. according to statistics of the department of natural resources of yunnan province [9], ticket sales to bird ponds exceeded 6100 from 2023 to 2024, generating profit of over 440 thousand rmb for the village. however, this income may be unstable for some bird ponds due to different charging methods. yuan’s bird pond, specifically for watching lady amherst's pheasants, doesn’t charge for daily position booking, and instead, it charges for seeing or taking photographs of the lady amherst's pheasants. only when the tourists see the pheasants will they pay, and the payment is divided into two levels – seeing the pheasant charges 50 rmb and taking photos of it charges 100 rmb. this means the owner would not gain income if the tourists don’t see the bird, even he spends a whole afternoon waiting with the tourists. despite differences across charging systems, main profit of bird ponds focuses on winters, where there lacks food for birds in nature, forcing them to forage in bird ponds. in the other slack seasons, most bird ponds lack customers and cannot make enough profit for the bird pond owners. however, the owners still need to feed the birds every day so that birds are more likely to come in boom seasons. the extra costs decrease total profit for owners and cause them to spend time on managing the bird ponds in slack seasons. overall, bird ponds could contribute to part of villagers’ income, but its unstable charging system and variation across boom and slack seasons prevent villagers from fully rely on this as the only source of income. thus, villagers take on other occupations to compensate the limitations. 3.1.1.2 environmental contribution according to baozhi ge, the government and researchers often question the potential environmental threats of bird ponds as the construction would alter the initial natural environment and its potential effects on increasing birds’ reliance on people’s feeding or protection. these concerns may be addressed from three main reasons. first, bird ponds could raise people’s awareness to protect the environment and birds. in the past, baihualing villagers hunted birds for a living, but as bird ponds are built, they need to protect and attract birds to manage bird ponds. forest protection would encourage biodiversity and bring new birds to the bird ponds. second, most bird ponds are closed in slack seasons. according to quan liu, a bird pond owner, only three to four bird ponds are open in summer (slack season) to minimize people’s intervention on birds. third, birds are not dependent on bird ponds for food. around 90% of birds would switch between food from bird ponds and wild foraging from villagers’ observation. food provided by bird ponds only act as an extra source of food during food shortages in winters. therefore, instead of harming the environment, the bird ponds are likely to have positive impacts on the birds. there are also other effects bird ponds as a platform would have on the birds, but the nature of the effects is undetermined. bird ponds build close connection between bird pond owners and the birds, and the help from owners may alter bird lives. quan liu once found birds laying and hatching eggs on his bird pond, but only two out of four young birds survived. on the next year, he provided special care of the baby birds, and five new young birds all survived. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 126 published by ideas spread he helped increase the survival rate of young birds, but there were some concerns regarding the seemingly positive effect. the young birds which could not survive under natural conditions may be to too weak to live independently, so their survival may not be beneficial. this also increased population of a specific species, and if widely implemented, may lead to ecological unbalance. however, ge gao, the head of forest ranger station, stated the effect of such small cases were limited, and there was no such imbalance along the development of bird ponds. additionally, some bird pond owners lack enough professional related knowledge may unintentionally harm birds. rare birds are seen as “star birds” in bird ponds, which could attract tourists to the bird ponds for higher profits. thus, some bird pond owners only welcome the rare birds, but repel common birds, believing common birds would eat up the food in bird ponds. they sometimes even threaten the common birds to force them leave. in fact, this also prevents rare birds from coming. according to baozhi ge’s observation, even of different species, birds tend to come or go together, so star birds would not exist if common birds were threatened. he persuaded the owners not to repel the common birds. though many owners accepted his suggestion, few of them still ignored his advice. since bird ponds are built on personal area with personal forest rights, there is little others could do to intervene. the threatening may lead to birds staying away from that area for several days before they go back again, affecting birds’ living and existence surrounding that bird pond. bird ponds also connect birds with each other and make them more concentrated to be more likely for help. a redtailed laughingthrush had its beak broken and could not forage or eat normally. it would die in few days in the wild, but it received lots of help from other birds in the bird ponds. they fed it. this warm help helped it to live another two years. overall, bird ponds have impacts on the environment and the birds, but the extent of effects and their nature require further investigation to determine. through the development of bird ponds, there are some potential changes in bird characteristics, but further evidence still requires scientific research. from quan liu’s observations, some migratory birds may stop migrating as becoming accustomed to bird pond environment, and the reproduction periods may change. for example, rufous-throated partridges used to reproduce once a year, but the frequency increased two twice a year – once in march and once in august – in recent years. additionally, birds in bird ponds tend to be less sensitive for people’s actions compared to wild birds according to the observation of zhaoxian yang, a wildlife photography bird guide. this is probably because they have more interactions with people and know people would not harm them. some birds would even stay when the bird pond owners are adding food to containers as they are familiar with them. 3.1.2 wildlife photography bird guide wildlife photography is another mainstream way of birdwatching, but not as famous as bird ponds in baihualing. a bird guide drives birdwatchers to the wild and stay where the birds are frequently seen to wait for the birds appear and take photos of the birds. zhaoxian yang, a wildlife bird guide who also worked as driver and research technician, mentioned that professional wildlife photography bird guides could sustain their living with only one job. compared to bird ponds, the backgrounds of photos taken in the wild are more realistic, which are usually blue sky from a bottom-up perspective, in contrast to the height at eyelevel of pictures shot in bird ponds. also, the income of wildlife bird guides is less stable and constant than bird pond owners. it would vary from the place and species of birds expected by birdwatchers. the environmental impact of wildlife birdwatching on birds is little. bird guides would sometimes use twittering sounds to attract birds, but this baiting method is only temporary and irregular. thus, though they may cause some birds to misjudge at certain time periods, there are no long-term effects for birds’ characteristics or habits. also, the use of twittering is often useless if birds are away from where birdwatchers are hiding. overall, wildlife photography bird guides can bring relatively high income for villagers and have minimal environmental impacts. 3.1.3 inns and restaurants as birdwatching developed, birdwatchers needed to stay and eat in baihualing, so tiguo hou first started to welcome tourists to live in spare rooms. this later developed into inns and restaurants. up to 2024, there was 17 inns and 19 restaurants in baihualing, and signs for publication were everywhere in the village. [9] hou’s inn, currently organized by baozhi ge, is the largest one and the only one to hold large size tours. apart from birdwatching clients, tourists going hiking and hot spring on gaoligong mountains often choose to rest for a day or two in baihualing, providing extra clients. this development granted villagers extra income complementary of income from bird ponds. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 127 published by ideas spread additionally, inns are closely connected with bird ponds and bird guides. innkeepers are often bird pond owners, and they would carry birdwatchers from inns to the bird ponds. birdwatchers are likely to book positions of bird ponds owned by the innkeeper. this whole process would ensure considerable profit for the villager with double occupations. 3.1.4 birdwatchers during the fieldwork, three birdwatchers were being observed, so the economic contribution and environmental contribution would be mainly based on their performances and the narration of bird guides. the birdwatchers in baihualing vary from the very young generation to older population, but they usually aim differently. the elderly are more focused on the quality of birdwatching, such as rarity of species, according to baozhi ge. one birdwatcher observee chen was 68 years old from xi’an. he had been involved in birdwatching for over a decade, a typical example of this type of birdwatcher. he always carried his professional camera and introduced birdwatching tips to other birdwatchers, as if he was a bird guide rather than a tourist. when he saw another birdwatcher wearing a white t-shirt, he told her it was unsuitable for birdwatching as white clothes would reflect sunlight and threaten the birds. he pursued high quality photos and persisted to stay and wait for the lady amherst's pheasants when others were proposing to leave. more youngsters began birdwatching as natural education and fieldwork studies spread. as baozhi ge observed, they tend to pay more attention to the experience of birdwatching, such as the sense of escape from real life when there is no wi-fi during birdwatching. another birdwatcher observee little a (a primary school birdwatching boy met during the trip to bird pond for lady amherst's pheasants on 07/29/2025) from beijing would be even younger than this distribution. he came along with his mother and carried telephoto lens, but not as professional as chen. as mentioned by chen, little a’s camera would not be able for capturing birds of high quality in bird ponds. 3.1.4.1 economic contribution birdwatchers were the main source of profit for every service in the village, including inns, restaurants, bird ponds etc. hou’s bird pond and inn are the most popular, and it attracts over 10 thousand customers annually as baozhi ge mentioned in an conversation. less popular ones, such as bird ponds owned by fuxiang yang and quan liu, also receive several hundred birdwatchers. three birdwatcher observees all decided to stay for around a week, which was the average of most birdwatchers. 3.1.4.2 environmental contribution according to baozhi ge, the elderly were more likely to perform uncivilized behaviors which probably harmed birds in bird ponds, but the cases reduced significantly in recent years. they sometimes threatened birds when they did not see the species they expected, or cut off some branches to shoot for clearer pictures. around seven or eight years ago, an old man once threatened the birds and caused all birds not going to the bird pond for many days. bird pond owners could do nothing but persuade them by saying rare birds would not come if the common ones were threatened. though it was usually effective, some birdwatchers would continue those behaviors, and even argued with the bird pond owners. however, villagers also recognized a drop in such uncivilized behaviors recently. during the three-hour waiting of lady amherst's pheasants, little a and his mother were always sitting patiently and sometimes raised up their telescopes to see whether there were birds coming. however, chen was different. he once took out a lighter and boasted his deliberation to buy quiet lighter for birdwatching. he ignored the sign marking “no fire” in the bird pond, and the bird pond owner yuan did not stop him. though his action did not lead to any severe consequences this time, it reflected how carelessness some birdwatchers, even as experienced as chen, could be, and the lack of disciplines for the uncivilized actions. overall, birdwatchers contributed to the main source of profit, but their uncivilized actions may cause potential harm or impact on the birds. 3.1.5 stakeholders as citizen science contributors jobin et. al. [10] emphasized the importance of grassroots and lay knowledge and how it could reshape conservation strategies. he showed the example of taiwan, where many official statistics were collected with the help of citizens’ observations. the similar concept is reflected in baihualing where villagers’ knowledge forms the base for birdwatching and environmental protection, while building on more advanced academics. examples of stakeholders in birdwatching industry reveals how citizen science acts as an important part in birdwatching and its development. focusing on academics, the participants, including bird pond owners, bird guides and birdwatchers, may not be as professional as specialists who delve into the field for research, but their contributions may be equally important by providing another perspective. though some villagers do not receive hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 128 published by ideas spread advanced education, they possess abundant information about birds. for example, quan liu’s education experience stopped at junior high school, but he could explain characteristics of birds in details and work as a research technician to identify birds for research teams. the daily engagement of bird pond owners and bird guides with birds allow them to receive first-hand information. before “a field guide to the birds of china” was first introduced to the villagers, they named the birds based on their observations. for example, they called rufous-throated partridge as “shui lao wa” which pronounced like crows in chinese because they found their appearance similar to crows. according to quan liu, the villagers already knew the characteristics of the birds before reading the book, and the book just helped with linking the birds to their scientific names. they learnt from observation, developed the knowledge further through academic work and brought the knowledge back to practice and tracked latest changes of the birds for research. they cycle goes on, highlighting the importance of citizen science. 3.2 non-birdwatching industry stakeholders 3.2.1 forester foresters are mainly responsible for protecting forests and identifying uncivilized behaviors harming the forests. when being identified, they would report to forest ranger station and waited for solutions to implement. there were six foresters in one working station. they were separated into three groups of two. each group altered to stay at the station and check every member getting up to the mountain, and the other two groups would go on patrol in forests simultaneously. fuxiang yang, an interviewee, was one of them, and below is the economic and environmental contribution of foresters from yang’s perspective. 3.2.1.1 economic contribution foresters receive income from the government. yang has three jobs, the forester, farmer, and bird pond owner. among the three, being a forester is the main source of income and more stable than the other two. despite direct economic impact, foresters work for a better forest environment, which attracts birds to come and live around bird ponds. their efforts to protect the forests also help with development of birdwatching industry. 3.2.1.2 environmental contribution cultural norms and local regulations are often influential in environmental protection. descola [5] proposed that the western theories on environmental contributors were not universal. jobin et. al. [10] further supported this idea by emphasizing how political movements could impact the environment in asian countries by integrating case studies from nine regions. taking thailand as an example, there was a decline in environmental movements in rural areas due to the political instability, such as military changes in the government, which led to a declining public awareness on environmental issues. similar idea fits the circumstance in baihualing. foresters worked at the frontline to identify and report violating behaviors, while the forest ranger station determined the penalties according to their reports. environmental policies and strategies were implemented according to frequently seen behaviors in the village. the implementation helped reduce uncivilized behaviors in the forest. from 2005 to 2008, when the working station initially started, uncivilized behaviors were common. for example, villagers may cut down trees in reserve area to build houses. through strict penalty rule, such as several hundred or even thousand rmb for cutting down trees of a square meter, and publicizing the importance of forest protection, such behaviors reduced significantly in recent days. as yang mentioned, he has not seen any abnormality since the start of 2025. the effective forest protection also brings better climate in baihualing. the climate has become more humid with lower temperature compared to 1980s. also, it is more comfortable in baihualing compared to other villages down the mountain, or the ones at the same height but with less forest area. this brings increase in number and species of birds and insects, contributing to increasing biodiversity. overall, the baihualing environment has improved with forest protection adapted to baihualing situations, which indirectly helps with the birdwatching industry development. 3.2.2 farmer farmer is the most common job in baihualing because families would each be allocated with their own piece of land, no matter large or small. they would all plant crops, such as mangoes and coffee beans, to prevent wasting. every interviewee involved is a farmer, but none of them takes it as a full-time work. most of them mentioned the farmer to be an unstable work, where many factors could influence the profit, such as weather and market price of the crop. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 129 published by ideas spread farmer’s interaction with forest involves a transition from cutting down trees to forest protection. in the past, farmers would cut down trees to plant crops to maximize profit, but this countered with bird pond owners’ need to maintain the forest environment to attract birds. the bird pond owners had no right to intervene farmers’ decisions because the farmers had the forest rights. the change came when the “bird protection villager association” (in chinese, “爱鸟护鸟协会”) was set up. it divided the profit of bird pond tickets into five parts for each party directly or indirectly involved. farmers are involved in the party “association member (all villagers)”, who received 28.6% (20 rmb) of each ticked sold. [9] this allowed every villager to gain from birdwatching industry, and thus, everyone would strive to protect forests, including farmers. foresters’ enforcement and publication of forest protection importance also played an important role. through the efforts, farmers stopped cutting down trees and began protecting the forest. overall, farmers could only generate part of income for villagers, and their interest is contrary to forest protectors, which was then altered through sharing dividends from bird pond tickets. nowadays, they act as forest protectors like other villagers. 3.2.3 research technician research technicians work for research teams to help them identify birds and better understand their characteristics. for villagers in baihualing, the research programs they involved in are mainly from yunnan university. they usually go on slack seasons and come back before the boom season to operate bird ponds or take on other jobs associated with birdwatching. two interviewees zhaoxian yang and quan liu are research technicians, and they often participate in programs together. since the research usually takes place outside of baihualing, this occupation only has economic contribution. zhaoxian yang said the income from research technician took the largest percentage among all different occupations he took, but this was not the case for quan liu, whose main income came from ecotourism. therefore, it could be concluded that being research technicians contribute at least some part of the villagers’ income, but the percentage may vary from different individuals. 3.3 environmental stakeholders non-human stakeholders could also contribute to changes in economy and environmental. hathaway [7] identified how elephants could reframe the conservation strategies in yunnan. the population of elephants increased unexpectedly with the restrictions on hunting, and they disrupted villages and crops. thus, people were forced to change conservation rules and adapted this new circumstance. similarly, in baihualing, the changes of environmental stakeholders, more specifically, forest, birds and other wild animals, contributed to varying performance of human economy and baihualing ecological environment. 3.3.1 forest number of trees and area of forest increases with improvement in climate. forester fuxiang yang emphasized the significant improvement of forest environment with the efforts of forest working station and penalty rules. less trees were cut down, and the climate became rainier compared to villagers at similar altitudes. this result is also proved by official data. according to data collected by department of natural resources of yunnan province [9], the forest area increased from 82.3% to 95.09% as birdwatching developed. environmentally, besides direct increase in forest area, the better environment brings more birds and more wild animals, which increase biodiversity in baihualing. economically, the attraction of more birds and animals helps further develop the birdwatching industry and ecotourism by attracting more nature enthusiasts. the change of forest environment indirectly contributed to the promotion of birdwatching industry and pushed the development further. 3.3.2 birds different from zoos management, birds in baihualing still have free will to determine what to do and where to go. taking baozhi ge’s observation as an example, though bird pond owners put mealworms as baits to attract birds, many birds would not go for the food in summer, but only appear in winter, when there is lack of food. there is no enforcement for birds to live or eat on the bird ponds, unlike the intervention of human regulations in zoos. birds are the main attraction for tourists, so gathering more birds would attract more birdwatchers to visit. this further promotes the birdwatching industry by bringing extra economic profits for the bird pond owners. besides the general growing trend, the change of birds’ actions in one period could guide human behaviors. kohn [6] proposed that animals and nature could give signs that humans interpret to change implementation policies and plans. as more birds gather in bird ponds to forage, this generates a sign for bird pond owners that the cold season with wild food shortages is approaching. this implies an upcoming boom season for birdwatching. thus, bird pond owners would open the bird ponds that are closed in slack seasons to maximize their profits. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 130 published by ideas spread 3.3.3 other animals there were increasing insect species and other wild animals in baihualing along with environmental protection. there were even new species identified by villagers and named after their names. for example, baozhi ge recognized three new species and named them by combining his name and the group the insect belongs. also, despite commercialization of bird ponds and birdwatching industry, the high-altitude area of gaoligong mountain is allocated as reserve area, where people are prohibited from entering. this ensures little people intervention in the reserve area and allows animals to control the wild world. this helps improve biodiversity evidenced by more frequently seen animal traits around, such as bear footprints on the side of pathways to bird ponds. 3.3.4 overall when ge gao heard concerns regarding bird ponds and people intervention’s influence on the environment, he pointed out the ability of nature to self-adjust. people’s behaviors may influence individual birds or animals, but the effect could be negligent when seeing the species or population as a whole. overall, the future of environmental factors in baihualing is promising which contributes to reserve area conservation and rapid development of ecotourism. 4. conclusion 4.1 impact overview people and nature codependent on each other in baihualing. people protect nature: protecting forest, providing extra food for birds etc., while nature pays back with economics development opportunities, such as the birdwatching industry. the interaction process makes both sides better off. the economy of baihualing developed faster with the development of birdwatching, while climate improves, and bird species increases. this highlights the dynamic balance between economic development and environmental protection where human and non-human contributor jointly bring the harmony. thus, in the future, baihualing should seek ways to sustain this balance and continue developing birdwatching industry while maintaining ecological protection. 4.2 limitations there may be some limitations regarding the information from interviews and participant observations from two aspects. first, there could be potential bias in interviewees involved. all interviewees were introduced by baozhi ge, and he was by the side when the interviews were conducted. this may lead to interview bias, where the interviewees failed to express their true ideas or beliefs. this limitation may affect the validity of the data collected. also, most information from the villagers is based on their observation and experience, but they lack enough academic background to give further proof. since some changes are depicted to limit to baihualing, there is lack of academic research or more in-depth understanding. 4.3 further recommendations some bird pond owners are still lacking professional knowledge for bird protection and bird characteristics, and they would introduce false information for birdwatchers. for example, a bird pond owner yuan introduced lady amherst's pheasants were more frequently seen in winters because of their breeding season. however, it was wrong. lady amherst's pheasants’ breeding season is in april to summer, and they are common in winter because of lack of food in the wild at the time. baozhi ge mentioned that this story was not a single case, but quite prevalent among bird pond owners. though there is improvement in bird pond owners training, it still needs standardized training for more professional background to help with bird pond management and bird protection. additionally, the current birdwatching industry is concentrated on business directly related to birdwatching, such as inns and bird ponds. this leads to over competition among villagers, where most inns would not be full even in boom seasons. currently, there is only one small convenience store and a coffee shop which has already shut down. a more diverse development for more stores or entertainment designs may target a larger demographic and further develop tourism to increase profit for villagers, maximizing the benefits. references [1] walther, b. a., & white, a. (2018). the emergence of birdwatching in china: history, demographics, activities, motivations, and environmental concerns of chinese birdwatchers. bird conservation international, 28(3), 337–349. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0959270917000557 [2] keck, f. (2015). sentinels for the environment. china perspectives, 2015(2), 43–52. https://doi.org/10.4000/chinaperspectives.6723 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 131 published by ideas spread [3] ma, z., cheng, y., wang, j., & fu, x. (2012). the rapid development of birdwatching in mainland china: a new force for bird study and conservation. bird conservation international, 23(2), 259–269. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0959270912000378 [4] cowan, p., brown, s., forrester, g., booth, l., & crowell, m. (2014). bird-repellent effects on bait efficacy for control of invasive mammal pests. pest management science, 71(8), 1075–1081. https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.3887 [5] descola, p. (2013). beyond nature and culture. the university of chicago press. https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226145006.001.0001 [6] kohn, e. (2013). how forests think: toward an anthropology beyond the human. university of california press. https://doi.org/10.1525/california/9780520276109.001.0001 [7] hathaway, m. j. (2013). environmental winds: making the global in southwest china. university of california press. https://doi.org/10.1525/california/9780520276192.001.0001 [8] yunnan daily press group, yunnan website. (2019, december 5). baoshan, yunnan: bird twittering in baihualing_november_yunnan channel_yunnan website. yunnan.cn. https://yn.yunnan.cn/system/2019/12/05/030536881.shtml [9] department of natural resources of yunnan province. (2024). realistic cases of ecotourism values of regulated birdwatching tourism development in baihualing village, longyang district, baoshan city. yn.gov.cn. https://dnr.yn.gov.cn/html/2024/dxjy_0419/46128.html [10] jobin, p., he, m., xiao, x., & iseas-yusof ishak institute. (2021). environmental movements and politics of the asian anthropocene. iseas publishing. https://doi.org/10.1355/9789814951401 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n5p73 73 published by ideas spread the external and the internal of individual both subjectively and objectively make an everlasting connection between individuals xiang li1 1 ningbo childhood education college, china correspondence: xiang li, ningbo childhood education college, ningbo, china. received: september 4, 2025; accepted: september 17, 2025; published: september 30, 2025 abstract this paper explores how individuals are perpetually interconnected through both subjective and objective dimensions, as illustrated in jeanette winterson’s the powerbook and ali smith’s hotel world. by employing a non-linear narrative structure, both novels present fragmented yet interwoven stories that highlight the inescapable ties between individuals and society. drawing on lacan’s concept of the “other,” the analysis demonstrates that social and historical contexts objectively bind individuals within a symbolic order, while media, memory, and emotional experiences subjectively reinforce these connections. the paper argues that whether through external social forces or internal emotional drives, individuals consistently function as both protagonists in their own narratives and supporting characters in the lives of others. ultimately, the study concludes that human existence is fundamentally communal, sustained through continuous interaction between the self and the other. keywords: interconnectedness, lacanian psychoanalysis, non-linear narrative, subjectivity and objectivity, symbolic order 1. introduction both hotel world and the powerbook adapt a non-linear narrative strategy, consisting of several independent stories which mainly describe the relationship between individuals. in the powerbook, although the virtual world and the real world are connected through a powerbook, and the several virtual stories described seem to be unrelated, the whole novel is connected in series through the character ali. each story’s own social context also plays a vital role in the development of the story. hotel world mainly revolves around the stories of five women each of whom has an independent chapter. they are the protagonists in their own chapters, and see the world from their own different perspectives. however, the stories of each of them are superimposed and intertwined to form a complete story line about one fact. firstly, what happened to each individual existed under a integral social background. if the world is a giant net, then each individual is a part of the net which also construct the net. this basic structure is objective and can’t be changed with human consciousness. but such an objective society will subjectively take measures on individuals for certain purposes to strengthen the binding relationship between them. besides, for individuals, everyone is the protagonist of their own life, but supporting roles are also essential for the integrity of a story. each protagonist also acts as a minor part in other individuals’ stories. the stories between each individual are woven together. in addition, the individuality will also play its own subjective emotional role to strengthen the connection between individuals and others. therefore, no matter from the point of view of the individual or the outside world, they both objectively and subjectively prove that individuals are always communal. then i will combine the powerbook and hotel world for detailed analysis. 2. the era and social background of the individual and the others he can come into contact with are the same lacan’s psychoanalysis proposes a theory called the other, which is the product of the interaction between each independent individual in society, but this product will in turn limit each individual (lacan 57-85). the other can be any virtual or real thing, which can be understood as social custom rules or individual ideology in a concrete view. for every natural person, entering the society means entering the symbolic order. the symbolic order means the reality world with rules individuals are living in (lacan 30-36). so then the individual can’t escape the control of the other, so every individual that constitutes the other is interconnected[1]. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 74 published by ideas spread in the powerbook, the protagonist ali travels between the virtual and real worlds, but the places she visits in the virtual world are closely related to the real world. different eras and different locations have different civilizations and customs. as the novel says, “there is always a city, there is always a civilization” (winterson 19), these different cultures also lead to different development of the story ending. for example, one of the stories is the tragedy of love between francesca and paolo. francesca’s pursuit of true love ended in the tragedy of both parties’ deaths[2]. women’s love became a bargaining chip for profit, which reflected that women in that era didn’t have the right to choose their own marriages. also, the separation and quarrels between ali and her lover were also caused by the restrictions on heterosexual marriage in the patriarchal society. even if the individual enters the fictional story, the rules contained in the symbolic order still exist everywhere, and there is a high probability that it will directly lead things to the established result. in addition, even if the individual is alone and spending his own time, he won’t block everything from the outside world. when ali spent intimate time with her lover, the author always intersperses and describes the trivial sounds and sights of the outside world, such as “you kissed my throat. the boy was dancing” (winterson 67). as the novel says, “so many lives, and ours too, tangled up with this night, these strangers. strangers ourselves” (winterson 36), so it can be seen that all others that exist objectively are inseparable parts of the individual and are closely related to the daily life of the individual[3]. in the hotel world, the global chain of hotels can be seen as a materialized symbol of the other. in gao’s thesis, she believes that this novel adopts topographic and spatial narration, and the hotel is the most important spatial entity in the novel, which exists as the background of the whole story, represents a miniature society, and symbolizes the oppression of human nature by capitalism (gao 11). because the existence of the hotel provides the conditions for the producers to sell their productivity, the individual deep in it doesn’t have the ability to jump outside the limit of the other, but tries to seek a better position in it. for example, there is a description in the novel about the quality of the brand of the hotel. no one knows what quality means, they only know “it’s something to do with the difference between good and bad and the need for better” (smith 91), and the existence of the brand is just a class distinction for people of different status. this can be seen as the individual’s curry favor with the other. lise is a working-class receptionist in a hotel, but she fantasizes that “she is the well-dressed young woman who came in earlier” (smith 87) to cross her own class. therefore, it can be seen that everyone is struggling in the environment of the other in their mind, and no one can think beyond the scope of the other[4]. 3. the other will deliberately strengthen the connection between individuals for certain purposes the society from the previous paper media to the current electronic media era is always in the information era, and individuals receive more information than they need every day. the desire of the individual is the desire of the other, and people will have their own desires only after they know the desire of the other (lacan 119-137), so some media for disseminating information will be used as a tool to spread values and incite group emotions. this strengthens the connection between individuals, and individuals and others. in the powerbook, ali’s lover also mentioned this to her, “you just want what everybody wants-everything” (winterson 47), the subjective thoughts that individuals think are generated by themselves aren’t completely subjective, but are influenced by others. in hotel world, the subjective effect of objects and media on the subject is more prominent. “the crumbs on it so that proved it happened” (smith 163), it can be seen that everything that happened and existed will leave traces, and these traces will always remind people of what happened to fight against the forgetfulness of human brain[5]. in addition to inanimate products, “the computer can provide information on hotel guests, staff, international tariffs and more general global matters” (smith 91), which shows that the information of each of us is recorded in the other, which also provides the possibility for the other to take active measures. lise had a relationship with the deceased sara once, but it was difficult for her to remember sara’s appearance accurately, but “it is much easier to picture her from the photographs in the papers and on tv than to try to remember” (smith 86), it can be seen that the communication media has the effect of reminding and strengthening the individual’s memory. when the individual’s memory of a certain person or something fades, these media that can be seen everywhere in life will appear to help to remember, which makes individuals think that connection with others is strong. the same situation is for arts such as poetry and music. the dissemination of these arts is something “which robbed him of proper and smoothing oblivion” (smith 168), because art always contains the cultural connotations of the eras, so the dissemination of these works is also a kind of specific enhancement and continuation of the memory of cultural values. this allows individuals to feel that their connections with compatriots of different eras are strengthened, and they always exist by their side[6]. 4. the individual is the protagonist of his own story and a supporting role in everyone else’s story at the same time when the story of each individual happens, the stories of others also happen simultaneously. so the cause of a certain story may be the effect of another story. although each individual has different importance hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 75 published by ideas spread to each matter, every link of an individual’s story is inseparable from the participation of others. individuals who are the protagonists of their own will also play minor paets in other people’s stories. they are intertwined and connected. in the powerbook, ali is the center of the narrative of the whole novel. although the main line of the story is the love story between ali and her lover, there are many seemingly unrelated storylines in the 5th century, 14th and 15th centuries[7]. zeng believes in her thesis that the stories in the powerbook didn’t happen in chronological order, and the chronological order of these events was disordered and disrupted, so the timeline of the story between ali and her lover was also chaotic, such a narrative form is a kind of resistance to the limit of time (zeng 16-17), the author herself emphasizes the verticality of time, which means that a subject can break through the constraints of time and space and bloom brilliantly in many events at the same time, just as in the novel said, “more life into a time without boundaries” (winterson 53). if time is regarded as a horizontal advancement, an individual is only the protagonist in his own story, and seems to have no participation in other people’s stories, so the author adopts such an exaggerated narrative technique across time to prove an individual can simultaneously play roles of varying degrees of importance in many stories. in hotel world, the novel is divided into five parts, and the protagonists of each part are different people. these five people seem to be unconnected and have independent stories, but in fact their stories are all intertwined. the story of else the tramp mainly revolves around else’s tragic family experience and current miserable life, and lise is just an unknown waiter who happens to give else a chance to stay in the hotel for one night. but in lise’s story line, it mainly revolves around lise’s psychological activities, and introduces lise’s motivation for bringing else into the hotel. else is just a tool in her entire plan. the importance of an event in each individual’s heart is different, and the protagonist of one’s own story is only a supporting role for others. but such a supporting role is indispensable. it is the fact that else’s entering the hotel triggered the story of clare, penny and else in front of the wall. as penny said, “by chance she had become a cog in the mechanism of something really happening” (smith 105), everyone becomes a part of someone else’s story, so this connection is inevitable . 5. individuals’ subjective emotions strengthen and attach additional meaning to the connection human beings are creatures with thoughts, emotions and subjective initiative. at the same time, human memory isn’t totally accurate, so the importance of many stories will be amplified and additional meaning will be added subjectively. in the powerbook, love can be seen as a main proposition, and many of ali’s expositions also revolve around love, time and death. she believes that “beyond time, beyond death, love is.” (winterson 129), by which can be seen that the subjective passion of love will have a great impact on people’s cognition. love will magnify the relationship between people and their lovers. for example, in ali’s heart, her lover is “sun and moon to me” (winterson 77). this kind of passion will sanctify the relationship between people, making this relationship more stable. and this ability to love will also strengthen the individual’s sense of connection with others, “i am my own master but not always master of myself” (winterson, 55), it’s this emotion that makes an independent individual more integrated into interactions with others. in addition to love, other feelings of the individual, such as family and friendship, will allow the individual to break part of the boundaries of the self and integrate into others. people can’t completely abandon feelings, so this connection with others can’t be severed. hotel world is a good example of the amplifying effect of family affection on the connection between people. most of clare’s stories are about showing clare’s nostalgia for her sister sara. the family cleaned up her sister’s belongings, but clare “took it all back inside my arms” (smith 144). because she has a strong miss for her sister, whenever she sees these items, she will think of the daily life when her sister was still there, and even when eating, she will “remember for you what it tastes like” (smith 155). although her sister has left her in the physical world, because of the existence of clare’s memory, the connection between her and her sister seems to have never been broken. therefore, the connection between people doesn’t have to rely on physical objective existence to maintain. in addition, it can be seen from penny’s narrative that people reject loneliness in their deep hearts. when she was alone in a hotel room, “for a moment she felt bereft” (smith 132), she also felt the need to connect others when she chose to go out in the previous article. people will try to find connections with others subjectively and emotionally, so it can be seen that this kind of interaction and connection is inevitable. 6. discussion and further implications 6.1 cultural, philosophical, and social dimensions the close reading of the powerbook and hotel world makes clear that individuals are never truly isolated; they are always entangled with others through social institutions, cultural codes, and subjective memory. to further hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 76 published by ideas spread situate this insight, it is useful to extend the analysis beyond literary technique and psychoanalytic theory into broader philosophical and social frameworks. jeanette winterson’s exploration of virtual and real interactions anticipates contemporary digital culture, in which online and offline identities overlap. social media platforms today establish symbolic orders with their own rules of visibility and recognition. the pursuit of “likes” or “followers” demonstrates lacan’s claim that desire is mediated by the desire of the other. individual aspirations appear autonomous but are in fact conditioned by larger collective values. in this way, literature not only reflects but also prefigures the dynamics of modern connectivity. ali smith’s portrayal of the hotel as a microcosm of capitalist society likewise resonates with sociological analyses of globalization. the hotel binds individuals through labor and consumption while simultaneously fragmenting relationships into transactional roles. this paradox aligns with zygmunt bauman’s concept of “liquid modernity,” where social bonds are plentiful yet fragile, easily dissolved by economic pressures and rapid cultural shifts. both novels highlight how institutions regulate connection, granting opportunities for interaction while also imposing hierarchies and exclusions. the figure of lise fantasizing about crossing class boundaries underscores the impossibility of escaping the other’s influence while still desiring to transcend it. philosophical perspectives deepen this understanding by foregrounding the ethical stakes of interconnectedness. emmanuel levinas emphasizes that the face of the other imposes an infinite responsibility upon the self, reminding us that every personal act carries consequences for others. literature dramatizes this ethical imperative by showing how clare’s grief for her sister or ali’s longing for her lover implicates them in webs of obligation and memory. the novels insist that the individual cannot exist in isolation, for each narrative thread is tied to the fates of others. this view challenges western notions of radical autonomy by suggesting that selfhood is constituted through responsibility to the other. finally, the theme of memory illustrates the cultural dimension of human connection. memory is not only a personal faculty but also a socially mediated construct sustained through artifacts, rituals, and media. clare’s attachment to her sister’s belongings or lise’s recollection aided by photographs exemplify how objects and narratives preserve relational bonds. in modern societies, memory increasingly resides in digital archives and cultural databases, raising urgent questions of curation and erasure. by foregrounding memory as connective tissue, these novels remind us that identity and community are sustained as much by what is remembered as by what is lived. the cultural, philosophical, and social implications thus expand the literary analysis into a broader meditation on the conditions of being human in an interconnected world. 6.2 contemporary resonance and human interconnectedness beyond theoretical considerations, the novels also carry profound resonance for understanding the contemporary human condition. the paradox of connection and loneliness is particularly striking. penny’s sense of emptiness in hotel world or ali’s moments of solitude in the powerbook illustrate how one may feel most alone precisely when immersed in networks of others. psychological studies echo this point: increased mediated communication does not always alleviate loneliness and can sometimes exacerbate it, as superficial ties fail to provide genuine intimacy. literature thus articulates the paradox of the modern age—abundant connections that may still leave individuals yearning for deeper belonging. narrative form itself reinforces this insight. winterson’s non-linear, fragmented storytelling resists chronological order, suggesting that time cannot contain the full scope of human interconnectedness. ali’s simultaneous presence across centuries emphasizes that love and desire reverberate beyond linear temporality. smith’s polyphonic narrative likewise highlights simultaneity, where multiple perspectives overlap to produce a collective account of loss and survival. these strategies align with philosophical discussions of “deep time,” in which personal stories are situated within broader temporal horizons that exceed individual lifespans. by framing narratives outside linear progression, the novels demonstrate that interconnectedness is not only spatial and social but also temporal, linking generations through shared memory and affect. at a global level, the recognition of interconnectedness carries urgent ethical and political weight. climate change, pandemics, and economic inequality all underscore the impossibility of solitary survival. the covid-19 pandemic, for example, revealed how the vulnerability of one community reverberates across borders, echoing the literary portrayal of how one person’s story triggers the unfolding of others. literature’s insistence on the communal nature of existence thus resonates with contemporary discourses of global solidarity and the idea of a shared human destiny. these crises affirm what the novels already dramatize: that the well-being of the self is inseparable from the condition of others. equally important is the role of art as a cultural laboratory for exploring human connection. both the powerbook and hotel world stage experiments in narrative that allow readers to imagine alternative modes of relationality. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 77 published by ideas spread by weaving together disparate voices and times, the novels enact what mikhail bakhtin described as the “polyphonic” dimension of literature, where multiple consciousnesses coexist without being reduced to a single viewpoint. this openness invites readers to see themselves not only as protagonists of their own lives but also as minor characters in the stories of others. such a realization fosters humility and empathy, virtues crucial for sustaining human interconnectedness in an era of division and uncertainty. ultimately, the contemporary resonance of these novels lies in their insistence that human beings are fundamentally relational. to live is to be implicated in the lives of others, across space, time, and circumstance. the novels affirm that while loneliness and disconnection are inevitable aspects of the human condition, they are never final. the possibility of renewed connection—through memory, desire, or narrative—remains ever-present. in extending this insight beyond the literary domain, we can see that the task of the present age is to cultivate practices of solidarity that honor both individuality and community. literature, by dramatizing these complexities, offers a vision of interconnectedness that is as ethically compelling as it is aesthetically profound. 7. conclusion to summarize, whether it is the individual himself or the outside world on which the individual depends, both subjectively or objectively connect individuals and others through various clues. when a natural person is endowed with the identity of a social person, it’s impossible for him to escape from the symbolic order’s control. although people will inevitably have time alone and moments when they feel lonely in their hearts, individuals are always in constant interaction with the others inevitably. references [1] eugen, b. (1974). understanding lacan. in understanding lacan. international universities press. [2] evans, d. (1996). an introductory dictionary of lacanian psychoanalysis. routldge. [3] gao, l., zhu, m., & yang, y. (2022). a study of ali smith’s narrative techniques in the hotel world. comparative study of cultural innovation, 22(09), 10–13. [4] lacan, j. (2007). the ethics of psychoanalysis. routledge. [5] smith, a. (2002). hotel world (1st anchor books ed.). anchor books. [6] winterson, j. (2001). the powerbook. vintage. [7] zeng, y. (2017). a queer utopia in the powerbook [master's thesis, huazhong normal university]. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v7n3p55 55 published by ideas spread the logic of globalization of chinese-style modernization in the perspective of marx's world history theory xin zhang1 1 school of marxism, chongqing technology and business university, chongqing, china correspondence: xin zhang, school of marxism, chongqing technology and business university, chongqing, china. e-mail: zhangxin28/at/ctbu.edu.cn received: november 12, 2024; accepted: december 9, 2024; published: december 11, 2024 abstract marx 's world history theory is an important part of the marxist theoretical system. chinese-style modernization is a socialist modernization road with chinese characteristics that is generated and developed according to china 's national conditions under the guidance of this theory. in the process of pursuing modernization, china not only follows the evolution law of world history in theory, but also shows its unique generation logic in practice.specifically, the globalization logic of china 's modernization can be grasped from the three historical stages of " forced to follow", " run after oneself " and " take the initiative and lead the race", thus highlighting china 's profound insight and historical initiative in world history. keywords: marx 's world history theory, chinese-style modernization, the logic of globalization 1. introduction the logic of globalization of chinese-style modernization reveals the stage of evolution of chinese-style modernization in the development of global modernization, marking the change of its role from passive adaptation in the early stage to autonomous catching up in the middle stage to leading innovation in the current stage. at this particular stage of "the transformation of history into world history", no country's modernization can be completed independently in a closed and isolated environment. it is the deep intertwining and mutual influence of chinese history and world history that have jointly shaped the globalization logic of china's modernization. this logic is reflected in the historical transformation of chinese modernization from "forced to follow" to "run after oneself " to "take the initiative and lead the race". 2. the theoretical foundation of the logic of globalization examining chinese-style modernization in a global perspective, the support of the logic of globalization of chinese-style modernization can be discovered through the profound insights of marx's theory of world history (hereinafter referred to as the theory of world history). in addition to vertically revealing the general process of historical development and clarifying the law of sequential turnover of social forms, marx also profoundly analyzed the underlying motives, inevitable tendency, and inherent law of the transformation of national and territorial history into world history since modern times from the height of his historical outlook and from the perspective of horizontal relations, and after continuous deepening and refinement, he finally formed the marxian theory of world history, which is rich in content and complete in its system. according to this theory, with the development of productive forces and the universal expansion of communication, the isolation of peoples and nations has been broken, and the history of mankind has gradually been transformed from territorial history to world history. in this theoretical system, the idea of two kinds of world history and their transformation is one of its core contents, which mainly consists of two major stages, namely, "the transformation of mankind as a whole from regional history to world history" and "the transformation of capitalist world history to communist world history". first, in the first stage, the formation of the capitalist mode of production pushed the expansion of human regional history into world history. as an inevitable product of the high development of the productive forces, the formation and development of world history is deeply rooted in the capitalist mode of production. marx pointed out that "the more completely the primitive closed state of the peoples is annihilated by the increasingly perfected mode of production, by intercourse, and by the division of labor between the different peoples naturally formed by that intercourse, the more history becomes world history" [1]. in this process, all the peoples and countries of the world began to form a closely connected and interdependent organic whole, moving together towards modernization, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 56 published by ideas spread and history thus gradually shifted from the originally closed and local national history to the open and universal world history. secondly, in the second stage, the inherent contradictions of capitalism pushed the capitalist world history to inevitably transform into the communist world history. marx both highly affirmed the progressive role of the bourgeoisie and capitalism in promoting the transformation of world history and profoundly criticized the exploitative nature of the era of world history dominated by the logic of capital. according to marx, capitalist globalization is only a temporary form in the process of world history [2]. under the combined effect of the intensification of the inherent contradictions of capitalism and the proletarian struggle, the capitalist world history will inevitably be transformed into the communist world history. therefore, marx's theory of world history not only explains the historical logical consistency between world development and the process of human modernization, but also provides a profound argumentative support for the practice of chinese-style modernization, guiding china to find a modernization development path with its own characteristics in the process of globalization. in the face of the irreversible historical trend of globalization, china has taken the initiative to integrate into it, accelerated the transformation and upgrading of its economic structure through reform and opening-up, and constructed a socialist market economic system that meets the requirements of modernization. at the same time, globalization has promoted the interconnection and exchange in different fields such as ecology, culture, science and technology, and enriched the connotation, objective, content and form of chinese modernization. moreover, china's active participation in the process of globalization has contributed chinese wisdom and strength to the global economic growth and the reform of the global governance system. in short, globalization, as an important external condition for chinese modernization, has significantly expanded its development space. 3. the practice of chinese-style modernization globalization logic is carried out according to marx's theory of world history, we can grasp the global logic of chinese modernization. from the initial exploratory start to today's innovative advancement, every step of chinese-style modernization is inseparable from the opportunities brought by globalization, and has become an important force to promote the transformation of globalization while realizing its own development, which is reflected in the global logic that chinese-style modernization has realized a historic leap from "being forced to follow" to "independently pursuing" to "taking the initiative to lead". its global logic is reflected in the fact that chinese modernization has made a historic leap from "forced to follow", "run after oneself" to "take the initiative and lead the race".（i.e., figure 1） figure 1. the logical evolution of globalization in chinese modernization hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 57 published by ideas spread 3.1 forced to follow: the logic of china's participation in western capital-dominated globalization in the modern world, china, as an oriental country, has faced the pressure of globalization dominated by western capital, which constitutes the historical starting point of china's modernization process and its real situation. in the early stage of modernization, china was forced to participate in globalization as a "latecomer" and was in a state of "running behind". the western bourgeoisie became the forerunner of modernization through the opening up of new shipping routes and the rise of the industrial revolution, which reshaped the global mode of production and formed a western-centered economic system. as marx stated, "it compels all peoples if they do not want to perish to adopt the bourgeois mode of production"[3], which led to the subordination of eastern countries, including china, to the west. china was forced to open its closed doors in the wave of bourgeois expansion, and began the transformation from a traditional agricultural society to a modern industrial society.however, this transformation is not plain sailing. all sectors of modern chinese society have tried to seek national rejuvenation and absorb the advanced system and technology culture of the west, but they have failed miserably. it can be seen that in the global pattern of ' the east is subordinate to the west ', the road of capitalist modernization is difficult to achieve in china and cannot proceed smoothly. as a result, the task of modernization in china inevitably depended on a more powerful force, the chinese proletariat, and the success of the socialist movement in russia at the beginning of the twentieth century provided china with a modernization program that was very different from that of capitalism. the echo of the october revolution arrived in china, bringing marxism-leninism. since then, china has shifted from the old democratic revolution to the new democratic revolution, and the road of modernization has shifted from capitalism to socialism. after the founding of new china, china's modernization process faced serious challenges in the face of hostility and blockade from the western camp. in this unstable international environment, china began to draw on the soviet union's modernization model, promoting industrialization and establishing the basic socialist system through the confiscation of bureaucratic capital, the establishment of a state-run economy, and the implementation of the first "five-year plan". "our overall goal is to struggle for the construction of a great socialist country ...... to achieve the socialization and mechanization of agriculture." this marked the formal establishment of china's modernization path of a socialist nature. in other words, the emergence of chinese-style modernization is not only driven by the external environment under the pattern of globalization, but also the result of the inherent needs of china's industrialization transformation. in the process of globalization, although china is forced to follow, it is also actively exploring the road of modernization and development that suits its own national conditions, reflecting a profound insight into the laws of world history and development and a precise grasp of the country's development goals. 3.2 run after oneself: china's realistic logic of using capital globalization to develop and grow socialism in the wave of globalization, china has made a historic transition from being "forced to follow" to "run after oneself". in the stage of using capital globalization to develop and strengthen socialism, china's modernization has shown a unique practical logic, that is, on the basis of maintaining the principles of socialism, it has made good use of the positive factors in capital to realize integration with socialist modernization, and highlighted its autonomy and innovativeness in the process of globalization. first of all, adhering to the basic principles of socialism is the fundamental premise for china to ' pursue its own initiative '. according to marx 's theory of world history, the current world history is generally in the historical stage of transition from capitalism to communism, and the long-term coexistence of socialism and capitalism is the main feature of this historical period. in the face of this historical trend, china has maintained a clear understanding and a firm position. on the one hand, it is soberly aware that the stage of world history in which capitalism is still dominant has not yet come to an end, so it has not been blindly arrogant or stuck in its ways, but has consciously followed the trend of modernization and taken the initiative in absorbing the fruits of outstanding civilizations, so as to push forward the process of modernization of the chinese style; on the other hand, it is deeply aware of the advantages of the system of socialism with chinese characteristics, so it has not blindly pursued the wholesale westernization or mechanical copying of the modernization models of other countries. on the other hand, deeply recognizing the advantages of the system of socialism with chinese characteristics, it has not blindly pursued wholesale westernization or mechanical copying of other countries' modernization models, but rather, based on the profound changes in the international situation and its own basic national conditions, it has continuously adjusted, optimized and innovated the system, so as to make it consistent with the actuality of its own development as well as the trend of the world history. with this dual understanding, china has not only accelerated its own development by making effective use of the globalization of capital, but also maintained its independence and socialist nature, always adhering to the socialist road, ensuring that the direction of the country's hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 58 published by ideas spread development and the nature of the system are not subject to any interference or erosion by external forces, and actively absorbing the fruits of modern civilization created by the capitalist society through deepening the reforms and expanding the opening up, including its advanced experience in the fields of technology, management and market, so as to make the capitalist society a more modern one, market and other advanced experiences, so that they can serve the overall goal of socialist modernization. this has not only shortened the historical gap between china and the developed capitalist countries in terms of modernization and development, but also laid a solid foundation for the ambitious goal of building a strong socialist modernizing country. secondly, giving full play to the positive role of capital is an important booster for the construction of socialist modernization in china. regarding the civilizing role of capital, marx pointed out that "sufficiently powerful capital destroys, with the help of the mode of intercourse adapted to it, those historical restrictions which bind and hinder the movements adapted to capital." [4] emphasized the world-historical significance of capital in promoting the transitional evolution of the mode of production and opening up the world market , which provides theoretical support for socialist countries to rationally utilize and harness capital, and to play a positive role in capital to promote the modernization process. the civilized nature of capital has been clarified and manifested in the process of creating chinese-style modernization. chinese-style modernization has dialectically understood and dealt with the relationship between socialism and capital, on the one hand, through the state's reasonable management and effective guidance and control of capital, it serves the socialist modernization construction as an important factor of production, and guides and regulates the healthy development of capital under the conditions of the socialist market economy .on the other hand, on the basis of adhering to the principle of people's supremacy, the people's logic should be utilized to regulate the logic of capital, and to enhance the effectiveness of capital in serving the comprehensive development of human beings and the society[5], so as to ensure that capital can always play a positive role within the framework of socialist system. against the historical background that the modernization process of all countries generally includes the element of capital, chinese-style modernization has rationally deconstructed the civilization of capital, dispelling the myth that "modernization = westernization", i.e., "using the basic socialist system to rationally control the alienating and divisive forms of capital, give full play to the innovative civilizational momentum of capital, and to bring the innovative power of capital into full play within the socialist system". the basic system of socialism is used to rationally control the alienating and divisive forms of capital, to give full play to the civilized and innovative kinetic energy of capital, to promote the effective operation of the market economy internally, and to activate the potential and vitality of human and social development" [6] , gradually forming a modernization road "dominated by state power and mediated by production relations to harness capital"[7]. it can be seen that chinese-style modernization's creative harnessing of capital not only promotes the in-depth development of socialist modernization, but also demonstrates the pioneering significance and unique value of chinese-style modernization. it is evident that during the phase of ""run after oneself "," chinese-style modernization has not only advanced the profound development of socialist modernization but also highlighted its pioneering significance and distinctive value. 3.3 taking the initiative to lead the future logic of china's active promotion of the transformation of globalization and the turn of world history under the complex situation of setbacks in the process of globalization, the failure of the global governance system and profound changes in the world landscape, world history is at an important inflection point of "east rising and west falling". this inflection point has provided impetus for the birth of chinese modernization. at this stage, china's modernization not only shows a positive attitude of "taking the initiative to lead the race", but also plays a key role in promoting the positive development of world history. the future logic of china's active promotion of the transformation of globalization and the turning of world history is mainly embodied in four aspects: power, path, choice and direction: first, it provides a power engine for international economic growth. in the process of chinese-style modernization, china has achieved the united nations poverty reduction target ahead of schedule, helping to lift 770 million rural people out of poverty, accounting for more than 70% of the global poverty reduction over the same period [8].in 2022, china's gdp totaled more than 120 trillion yuan, making it the world's second-largest economy and the top contributor to global economic growth." the belt and road initiative further promotes global economic growth and is expected to help lift 7.6 million extremely poor people out of poverty [9], china continues to play the role of stabilizer and growth engine of global economic development, and the discourse and influence of socialism in the global arena have been significantly enhanced. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 59 published by ideas spread second, it has provided a practical path for global governance innovation. while actively integrating into the global governance system, adhering to the concept of "common cause, common construction and sharing", and promoting the building of a community of human destiny as a participant in global governance, china is also committed to promoting the construction of a more just and reasonable international order, and constantly innovating the rules of global governance in promoting the change of the global governance system[10] , gradually becoming a contributor and leader of global governance. thirdly, it provides a brand-new choice for developing countries to move towards modernization. chinese-style modernization has proved to the world that modernization can coexist and learn from each other, broken the paradox of "modernization=westernization", deciphered the myth of independence and modernity, enriched the pattern of modernization in the world, and provided a new blueprint for countries pursuing independence and development to make their own choices and develop. fourthly, it provides direction for mankind to move towards a better future. chinese-style modernization rejects the path of western capitalist modernization, practices the civilizational concept of "harmony and difference", advocates that all countries in the world achieve common prosperity through peaceful development and win-win cooperation, respects the diversity of the world's civilizations, promotes exchanges and mutual understanding among civilizations, and eliminates civilizational barriers, thus providing development opportunities for the common advancement of the human society and the world's history. in view of the above analysis, chinese-style modernization is a socialist modernization that has been nurtured and matured in the trend of global integration, and it is in an era of world history that is actively overcoming the western capitalist modernization constructed by the logic of capital, while insisting on the development of socialist modernization and development constructed by putting the people at the center of modernization[11]. history and practice have fully proved that the development course of chinese-style modernization is worthy of recognition. chinese-style modernization is not only china's own development, but also represents china's contribution to the world; it is not only the process of china's modernization, but also a key link in the development of the global socialist cause. 4. concluding remarks overall, chinese-style modernization is a socialist modernization that has been nurtured and matured in the trend of global integration, and it is in a world-historical era that is actively overcoming the western capitalist modernization constructed by the logic of capital, while insisting on the development of socialist modernization and development constructed by putting the people at the center of modernization. chinese-style modernization is vigorously promoting the transformation and development of globalization, gradually transforming from a follower and a participant of globalization to a leader, and promoting the world history for the better. in the future, china will continue to enhance the radiating capacity of chinese-style modernization, show the role of a great country, and make greater practical contributions to solving the common global problems. funding chongqing social science planning project (project no. 2023ndyb13); innovative research project for graduate students of chongqing technology and business university (project no. yjscxx2023-211-180) references [1] marx, k., & engels, f. (2012). selected works: volume 1 [m]. beijing: people's publishing house. [2] dong, f. z. (2024). on the inner mechanism of marx's world history theory and its contemporary revelation [j]. academic exploration, (1), 103-112. [2] marx, k., & engels, f. (2009). collection of marx and engels: volume 2 [m]. beijing: people's publishing house. [3] marx, k., & engels, f. (1998). the complete works of marx and engels: volume 31 [m]. beijing: people's publishing house. [4] jiang, h., & wu, h. (2024). the management of capital in chinese modernization and its pioneering significance [j]. theoretical perspectives, (1), 43-48. [5] xi, g. (2023). theoretical reflections on "harnessing capital" and chinese modernization [j]. chinese social science, (12), 4-18, 199. [6] tang, a. j. (2021). a new road of chinese-style modernization in the perspective of materialistic view of history [j]. philosophical research, (9), 5-12, 127. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 60 published by ideas spread [7] ren, z. p. a. (2021, july 5). century of greatness following the past [n]. people's daily. [8] information office of the state council of the people's republic of china. (2023, october 11). building "one belt, one road": a major practice to build a community of human destiny [n]. people's daily. [9] the world significance of chinese-style modernization: theoretical innovation and practical contribution [j]. (2024). guizhou social science, (1), 35-41. [10] zhou, j. c. (2024). the vivid practice and experience of chinese-style modernization under the perspective of marx's world history theory [j]. journal of jiangsu administrative college, (1), 5-11. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n5p47 47 published by ideas spread relative salience of ethnicity and party as drivers of asian american vote choice amelia yuan1 1 castilleja school, us correspondence: amelia yuan, castilleja school, palo alto, california, 94301, us received: august 31, 2025; accepted: september 14, 2025; published: september 30, 2025 abstract in comparison to black and latino communities, the role of race and ethnicity in the political behavior of asian americans, particularly vote choice, has remained less examined. as a racial group with a wide range of ethnic diversity and weaker history of partisan alignment, the dependency of asian americans on ethnic and partisan cues may vary compared to other groups and in different electoral contexts. in particular, it is not clear whether asian americans do align with the theory of partisanship as the primary determinant of vote choice, as ethnic cues could be more salient for them. this paper examines the candidate choices of asian american voters in california in the 2024 election. i look only at cases of voters who share the same specific ethnicity, also defined as their national-origin, with one candidate in the house of representatives race. i find little evidence that asian americans defect from their party to vote for a candidate with a shared ethnicity, suggesting that partisan cues remain more important to asian americans than ethnic cues. however, in electoral contexts where partisan cues are absent, such as both candidates being from the same party, there is some preliminary evidence to suggest that the ethnic cue becomes a more primary predictor of vote choice. these findings help support the theory of partisanship as the primary determinant of vote choice for previously understudied minority demographic and can help inform candidate vote predictions. keywords: asian americans, ethnic identity, partisan identity, vote choice 1. introduction asian americans are the fastest-growing racial group in america, their population more than doubling since 2000 (krogstad & im 2025). yet, studies of the role race and ethnicity play in voter decision making tend to focus on african americans and latino voters, and asian americans as a voting bloc remain underexplored in research. while the impact of having a candidate on the ballot of the same race on asian american turnout has been studied more extensively (sadhwani 2020; kim 2020; fraga 2015), the impact of not just a co-racial, but a co-ethnic candidate on individual vote choice is less documented. many theories of in-group voting, descriptive representation, and partisanship in relation to minority groups arise out of the political experiences of black and latino communities—groups with longer-standing histories of mobilization, racial solidarity, and targeted party engagement—leaving open questions about how such frameworks apply to asian american voters, whose political incorporation has followed different trajectories. furthermore, as a racial group, asian americans have very disparate experiences based on differing ethnic origins [note 1], and the asian american moniker is often externally imposed, making the nature of their racial group identity different from the strongly shared african american or latino group identifications and creating further gaps between theories relating to race. still, their voting behavior is often studied at a pan-ethnic group level, assuming a connection between all ethnicities within the asian american group and that all asian americans choose to identify themselves primarily as part of this racial group. making a distinction by national origin is less common in academic literature, and such a pan-asian american grouping downplays the greater significance of specific ethnic backgrounds on asian americans (tam 1995). evaluating the impact of ethnicity on asian american vote choice and not simply race is an important differentiation to pursue. additionally, asian americans are less attached to either major party and have weaker partisan identities (wong et al. 2011). the lesser presence of partisanship in their social identities compared to other racial groups may result in differing political behavior. the ways ethnicity and party shape the political identities of asian americans are distinct in each aspect’s saliency than among more commonly studied voter blocs. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 48 published by ideas spread thus, my study aims to assess which identity—partisan identity or ethnic identity— is more important to asian american voters’ vote choice and under which conditions one identity becomes more salient than the other. in doing so, this paper also conducts a direct comparison between ethnicity and partisanship, as it considers whether ethnic identity is sufficiently strong to motivate asian american voters to defect from their party and vote for a co-ethnic candidate from the opposing party. analysis of reported vote choice data from the 2024 cooperative election study preliminarily suggests that while ethnic identity may be a primary determinant for vote choice in contexts where party differentiations do not exist, a shared ethnic identity does not overcome partisan identity to prompt asian american voters to cross party lines for a candidate. 2. literature theories of in-group voting generally posit that voters prefer voting for in-group candidates and do so because they seek descriptive representation, voting for candidates who share descriptive traits such as race or socioeconomic background (mcdermott 2009). in low-information elections, race and gender offer important, informative cues for voters. voters also believe that same-race candidates will offer better substantive representation for the racial group, as their policy preferences or stances reflect those of the racial group (mcdermott 1998). african american and latino voters demonstrate a clear preference for co-ethnic candidates (barreto 2007, 2010; stokes-brown 2006) in local governmental contests and state-wide elections. they consistently use a candidate’s racial and ethnic cues to help inform their vote choices. though studies of asian american candidate preference are often limited by a lack of large-scale data, a lack of candidates, or are only focused on one national origin group, existing research indicates that asian americans demonstrate a noticeable preference for candidates from their own ethnic group and prefer other asian candidates to non-asian candidates (leung 2021; lublin & wright 2024). in general, voters rate candidates who share their race or ethnicity 7.9 percentage points higher than majority (white) candidates (oosten et al. 2023). while voters have a strong preference for representatives who are of the same racial or ethnic background as themselves, this correlation is also connected to partisanship and the historical alignment between certain parties and racial groups in america, especially for black and latino voters. voters seek candidates who not only offer descriptive representation but also substantive representation, meaning they value a candidate’s stances on issues and policy, which in modern contexts can translate into a preference for a specific party (ansolabehere & fraga 2016). partisanship is widely considered as one of the main determinants of vote choice, taking precedence over other established predictors, including candidate characteristics, retrospective voting, and issue voting (sides et al. 2018). a voter’s party identification is often the strongest social identity that shapes behavior within political contexts like voting. party identification is not simply the party a voter is registered with, though that is a main manifestation, but rather a psychological attachment to a political party, which is often learned early in life from parents and the people they are closest with over an extended amount of time, in addition to the environment in which they grow up in (sides et al. 2018). some racial groups have historically longstanding associations with certain party identifications, making partisan identity a deeply entrenched social identity for these groups that is a primary factor in their vote decision. however, for asian americans, these connections are less prevalent. while black voters have consistently supported the democratic party since the civil rights movement and nearly unanimously support democratic presidential candidates (white & laird 2020), asian americans exhibit weaker ties to either major party. furthermore, they have historically preferred to identify themselves as ‘independent’ or ‘moderate’ (wong et al. 2011). around 65% of asian americans are foreign-born, making them the only racial group that is a majority foreign-born in the united states (karthick et al. 2025). they do not arrive in the united states with strongly ingrained partisan preferences, and second-generation asian americans, who then do not receive the same passing-on of party identification from their parents that african american and white children experience, develop less partisan attachments as well (hughes et al. 2006; raychaudhuri 2018). the major parties in the united states also fail to provide clear partisan cues for immigrant populations, especially asians and latinos, who do not receive as many targeted mobilization or engagement efforts (hajnal & lee 2011; wong 2006). ethnic community organizations and informal social networks become primary sources of political information, but they often lack partisan cues and do not form predictable partisan voters. thus, party identification is likely a less salient social identity among asian americans compared to other races, and will exert less influence over their vote choice at the ballot box. their preference for identifying as independents or moderates could indicate that they are less dependent on party as a determinant of their vote choice, and lean on racial or ethnic identity more as a factor in their decision-making. given the absence of partisan socialization and party hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 49 published by ideas spread attachments among a majority of asian americans, the dominant theory of partisanship as the main determinant of vote choice may not apply to this group. while there is a growing range of literature examining asian american voter behavior, few studies directly assess the implications of a less salient partisan identity—especially in comparison with the importance of ethnic identity—on asian american vote choice, distinguishing a gap that this paper seeks to address. finally, the idea of an asian american racial group or pan-ethnic identity is often used in america to collect demographic insights, politically related and beyond. many instances exist where asian americans are considered as one homogenous group, including research exploring income and unemployment rates, racial hate crimes, voter turnout, and partisanship identities (tam 1995). however, making generalizations across asian americans overlooks the diversity in culture, language, religion, and more across different asian countries and their resulting national origin ethnic identities in america. a majority of asian americans prefer using their national origin label to describe themselves, with less than a third identifying with the panethnic label of ‘asian american’ (wong et al. 2011). while younger generations of asian-americans that are composed of larger fractions of non-immigrants more closely identify as part of the asian american pan-ethnic group, it is still important to acknowledge this heterogeneity. not only are asian americans a substantially culturally diverse group, but considerable differences across ethnic groups in naturalization rates, voter registration rates, and voter turnout, among other political behaviors (lien et al. 2001), make the separation between individual ethnic groups and the often-studied monolithic asian american group important when considering vote choice. while this paper does use the language of ‘asian american’ to denote the whole racial group being studied, it differs from many other pieces of literature as it makes a significant distinction of ethnic origin when examining influence on individual vote choice. i consider voters and candidates who are not simply both asian american but also share a specific ethnicity. for example, chinese americans and indian americans are two very different ethnic groups, despite both being part of the asian american racial group. a chinese american voter is unlikely to feel a salient-enough affinity with an indian american candidate as to change their typical behavior or influence their vote more than other factors, such as partisanship, than they might with a chinese american candidate. a case study of california’s 2018 congressional district races has shown that candidates receive a strong boost in votes from co-ethnic voters, experiencing more turnout from voters of their ethnicity than only party lines would predict, but receive little to no boost from asian americans of other national origins (leung 2021). in the district 39 race between democrat gil cisneros and republican young kim, around a third of korean american voters were estimated to have crossed party lines in the same election to vote for kim (leung 2021). they voted for their co-ethnic candidate from the republican party while simultaneously supporting a democratic candidate for governor. splitting the ballot within the same election is rare, as voters tend to stick with the same party (beck et al. 2013), and the korean american voters’ ballot splitting in district 39 signifies that ethnicity had a stronger influence than party on their vote. this case suggests that asian americans could be willing to defect from their party to vote for a co-ethnic candidate. to build off of this possibility and address the gaps in the understanding of how asian americans’ differing associations with partisanship impact main theories of vote choice, i test the following two hypotheses: h1: in situations where partisan cues and ethnic cues conflict, ethnicity will serve as a more primary determinant for asian americans’ votes. party identity will be less dominant, leading to scenarios in which asian americans vote for the candidate that shares an ethnicity with them rather than the candidate from the same party. h2: when partisan identity cannot serve as a factor in an asian american’s vote choice because all candidates share the same party, their ethnic identity will become even more salient in the absence of a party cue. the ethnic cue is the leading predictor of their vote choice, and they will exhibit a preference for voting for the co-ethnic candidate. 3. empirical strategy the method of analysis in this project evaluates individual vote choices from a representative sample of american voters to determine whether voters exhibit the hypothesized behavior. the goal is to compare the importance of ethnic identity and partisan identity to asian american vote choice and identify which environments can make either identity more salient. to identify relevant voters for analysis, i consider asian american voters in the relevant election cases of a general congressional district race between only two candidates, with at least one being asian american. if both candidates are asian american, then they must be of different national origins. furthermore, the asian american voters in these districts must share a specific national origin with only one of the candidates. a majority of cases naturally occur between one candidate representing the democratic party and one representing the republican party. races where both candidates are from the same party, leaving no choice hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 50 published by ideas spread for party, are considered for the second hypothesis. they do not offer the voter the option to defect from their party, but can still demonstrate whether a co-ethnic candidate is more appealing to a voter. the absence of party cues also distinguishes a different context in which ethnicity’s salience to voters may rise to the top. the specific election case selection criteria ensure that the resulting sample of voters and their choices can identify whether partisan or ethnic identity is more politically potent, and under what conditions. the data on individual-level vote choices comes from the 2024 cooperative election study, which surveyed a representative nationwide sample of over 60,000 american voters during the 2024 election year in america. respondents were surveyed both before and after the election, and were asked about their votes in the races for u.s. president, u.s. senate, u.s. house of representatives, and state governor, among other election-centric questions. for this study, only data from respondents in desired election cases in california were considered to ensure an adequate sample size that can represent the behavior of a defined area. california has a large asian demographic, 16.5% of the state’s population, and a high rate of asian candidates, as evident from the 20 congressional district races with asian american candidates on the ballot. states such as new york and new jersey, where more than 10% of their populations also consist of asian americans, each had only one congressional district race with an asian american candidate in 2024. california’s election structure for house of representatives seats also consists of a primary and then a general election, ensuring only two candidates are facing off in the general election. due to the scale limitations of the survey and the criteria for congressional district races, only california leaves a large enough sample size of respondents to draw meaningful conclusions about its asian american population. though the scale of this data sample is small, with 201 relevant asian american voters initially identified, the sample of voters surveyed is representative and should reflect the general patterns of voter behavior in california. another important limitation of this approach and its use of survey data is the likelihood of people who report a vote for social desirability, but didn’t actually cast a ballot at all. however, this study aims to understand the decision-making behavior of voters, not voter turnout or participation, meaning that their intent to vote and theoretical choice in a survey response can still serve as a valid data point for both hypotheses. while 201 respondents were asian american voters with an asian american candidate in their district, the final sample only considers voters who share the same ethnicity as one of the candidates, resulting in a final sample size of 78 respondents. voters represented 15 districts in this sample. survey respondents who identified as asian american but did not report a specific national origin were not included. respondents also reported their own party registration, and for the few cases of absent registration information, the party with which they report feeling most affiliated is used instead. the descriptive statistics of this sample’s composition by partisan identity and ethnic identity are given in the two tables below [note 2]: table 1. partisan composition of sample percentage of respondents number of respondents democrats 47.40% 37 republicans 17.90% 14 independents 34.60% 27 table 2. ethnic composition of sample percentage of respondents number of respondents chinese/taiwanese 71.80% 56 indian 11.50% 9 korean 7.70% 6 vietnamese 3.80% 3 japanese 2.60% 2 filipino 2.60% 2 4. analysis/findings i divide my analysis into two levels. the first addresses my initial hypothesis by looking for cases where voters cross party lines to vote for a co-ethnic candidate, signifying that shared ethnicity matters more than shared party to the asian-american voter. i consider only the two major parties in america, the democrats and the republicans. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 51 published by ideas spread all cases feature a candidate and a voter who share the same national origin. i establish three different categorizations based on a voter’s response to party cues and ethnic cues, which are displayed in the table below: party loyalists, party defectors, and ambivalent cases. party loyalists are defined as voters who share a national origin with the opposing candidate but choose to vote for their same-party candidate, with whom they do not share an ethnic background. party loyalists demonstrate that their party identification, and not ethnicity, is the more important determinant of their vote choice, which is in line with current theories of vote choice and the role of partisanship in voter decision making. a party defector is defined as a voter who shares a national origin with a candidate of the opposing party and crosses party lines to vote for that co-ethnic candidate. [note 3] cases of party defection indicate that for the voter, a shared ethnicity with the candidate was more important than a shared party, and a high proportion of party defectors would support my first hypothesis. party defection contradicts the current paradigm of partisanship as the primary predictor of vote choice, and would indicate that the unique political position of asian americans, shaped by weaker partisanship and existing preferences for in-group, co-ethnic voting, makes them a group where this theory does not apply, and new models on vote-choice will have to be formed. ambivalent cases are defined within the context of my first hypothesis, and, accordingly, are cases where it cannot be determined whether ethnicity serves as a more primary determinant than partisanship for asian americans’ votes or not. ambivalent cases are scenarios where a voter shares both an ethnicity and a party with their candidate of choice, and thus, it cannot be definitely concluded whether the party cue or the ethnicity cue determined their vote, a voter identified as an independent, or both candidates were from the same party. out of 78 respondents in california’s congressional districts, there were zero cases of party defection compared to 23 cases of party loyalty. although the sample size is quite small for definitive conclusions, the total absence of party defectors and the overwhelming number of party loyalists suggest that partisan identity remains a stronger determinant of vote choice than ethnic identity. party identification is a powerful identity among asian american voters that, though it may not be as salient compared to other racial groups, given the backgrounds of many asian americans, especially immigrants, they still do not use ethnic cues instead to decide their vote. for younger, nonimmigrant generations, partisan socialization, while not as common within family dynamics, remains strong in school environments and leaves a notable impact on voters’ social identities (raychaudhuri 2018). as i did not make any differentiations by immigrant status or age group, this likely led to variations from my initial theories of weaker partisanship among asian americans and partly contributed to the party loyalty of asian americans found in this study. table 3. voter preferences for party cues compared to ethnic cues all voters democrat voters republican voters party loyalists 29.1% [23] 51.4% [19] 28.6% [4] party defectors 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% ambivalent cases 70.9% [55] 48.6% [18] 71.4% [10] a sub-case of these ambivalent scenarios calls for further analysis of voters who identify as independents. in place of defection, i look for cases where they split the ballot, a similar strategy to leung’s study. their vote in california’s senate race between democrat adam schiff and republican steve garvey is used as a baseline measure of their political stances in the 2024 election year. although these voters identify as independent, they are likely to still have slight preferences for one party or choose a candidate based on their policy stances, many of which are shared within parties. in addition, splitting the ballot within the same election is simply a rare phenomenon (beck et al. 2013), and schiff and garvey are both white, male candidates, making them characteristically similar and equalizing other factors that could have influenced vote choice. out of 26 independent voters, a total of four cases of ballot splitting were found, with two distinct scenarios. two cases of ethnic-based ballot splitting were defined as instances where an independent voter shared a national origin with the candidate of the opposite party in the senate race and voted for that co-ethnic candidate. this scenario most closely mimics scenarios of party defection, demonstrating that ethnicity matters more to a voter than other factors, including any party preference they may have. two cases involved unavoidable ballot splitting, where voters had no choice but to split their ballots because they voted for republican steve garvey but only had democratic candidates to choose from in their congressional district races. however, in both of these cases, the independents voted for the co-ethnic candidate, still showcasing a preference for shared ethnicity with a candidate. this preference is worth noting, as it supports my second hypothesis and aligns with my next level of analysis, given that the electoral environment of a same-party general election differs. considering my first hypothesis, only hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 52 published by ideas spread 7.7% of the independent voters were cases of ethnic-based ballot splitting. the cases of unavoidable ballot splitting are not considered significant within the context of my first hypothesis, as the voters had no other option but to split their ballot, and it is unknown what choice they would have made in a race between candidates from different parties. similar to cases of party defection, high proportions of ethnic-based ballot splitting would serve as an indication that, for the voter, their ethnic identity was the most salient and primary social identity in determining their vote choice. thus, the lack of ethnic-based ballot splitting could indicate that for independent voters, ethnic identity remains a secondary determinant of their vote choice after partisan identity. for independent voters, it cannot be definitively determined whether they are true independents and have no partisan preferences at all. however, regardless of whether party identification remains a part of their social identity or not, there are other factors of vote choice akin to partisanship that likely outweigh the ethnic cue, the main one being a candidate’s policy. these voters still seek substantive representation, and voters’ stances on issues and policy often emerge as a party preference, especially within the same election year (ansolabehere & fraga 2016). this desire outweighs the appeal of a co-ethnic candidate and reflects the way that party identity remains more important than ethnic identity to voters who are explicitly affiliated with a party. the first level of analysis examining party defection and ballot splitting reveals that in cases where party cues retain influence as a heuristic, even among self-identified independents, ethnic identity is not salient enough to become the main determinant of their vote choice. partisan identity matters more, and although my first hypothesis is not supported, it is valuable to acknowledge that asian americans’ voting behavior can also be suitably understood within the prevailing theory that partisan identity is the primary determinant of vote choice. given this outcome, the next level of analysis considers whether sharing an ethnic identity matters in situations where partisan labels aren’t available as a differentiating indicator for voters, addressing my second hypothesis. using the same source of data, this translates to congressional races in california, where both candidates were from the same party: the democratic party. from the previous pool of 79 cases, eight featured races between two democratic candidates. the two districts represented in these cases were district 16 and district 34. in district 16, the race was between chinese american evan low and sam liccardo, and one co-ethnic voter voted for low out of the four cases in this district. in district 34, the race was between korean american david kim and jimmy gomez, and in all four of the cases, a co-ethnic vote favored kim. while this data sampling is too small to produce a meaningful conclusion, the findings serve as a preliminary indicator in support of my hypothesis that ethnicity becomes notably more salient in environments without party cues. additionally, it suggests distinctions by ethnicity; while 100% of korean american voters voted for their coethnic candidate in district 34, only 25% of chinese american voters did the same in district 16, supporting my hypothesis for korean americans but not chinese americans. this difference highlights the importance of making distinctions by ethnic origin group rather than treating asian americans as a monolithic bloc. the differing levels of vote choice in favor of the co-ethnic between each ethnicity would be overlooked if these ethnic groups, with their varying cultures, religions, and histories of political behavior were amalgamated under the asian american label and the statistics on vote choice generalized. future work with larger datasets may reveal further evidence that ethnic identity is an important determinant of vote choice in elections where the party cannot serve as a differentiator between candidates. 5. conclusion my paper finds that a shared ethnic identity is not strong enough to prompt asian american voters to cross party lines for a candidate, proving hypothesis one incorrect. however, it strengthens the existing theory of partisanship as the main determinant of vote choice by directly testing it among asian americans, a less-commonly studied racial group that also experiences historically weaker party attachments compared to other populations. the first level of analysis reveals that when party cues are able to serve as informative labels, ethnic identity does not emerge as a sufficiently salient factor to become the primary determinant of vote choice. candidates can be more confident that partisanship will serve as a reliable predictor in two-party elections for the asian american population, even when there is an asian american candidate in the race. as asian americans make up a growing fraction of the constituency, their demonstrated party loyalty also has meaningful implications for party engagement and asian american voter mobilization. neither the democratic party nor the republican party has historically engaged with asian americans, and over half of asian americans surveyed by apia vote have never received contact from either party (martinez 2022). breaking this cycle of neglect towards a population that is not only interested in being politically active, but also leans on partisanship in determining their vote choice, could expand their voter base and aid asian american voters who feel underinformed. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 53 published by ideas spread given the limited size of its data sample, the second level of analysis is best viewed as a preliminary step towards future work, and its findings are suggestive. however, ethnic identity does seem to become a more primary determinant in races where party cannot serve as a heuristic for voters, supporting hypothesis two, though the sample offers the best preliminary support for korean americans. an electoral context without party labels increases the salience of ethnic identity among voters. if these findings are generalizable, they could indicate that in primary elections, asian american candidates can expect more meaningful support from their co-ethnic voters and rely on in-group voting behavior to serve as a predictor during primary campaigns more than they could in general elections. future work should examine larger data samples of vote choices from primary races to continue investigating whether the salience of ethnicity in nonpartisan environments holds on a more significant scale. another pathway for future work could study the differing strengths of partisan identity and their resulting ramifications on voter behavior by generation and immigrant or non-immigrant status among asian americans. notes note 1. throughout this paper, i use the terms “ethnic origin,” “ethnicity,” and “national origin” interchangeably to describe group identities based on shared ancestry, cultural heritage, or country of familial origin, distinct from racial classifications. while these terms can carry distinct meanings in other contexts, they are treated as analytically equivalent for the purpose of this study. note 2. percentages are rounded to the nearest tenth, and may not add up to exactly 100%. note 3. in this study, a case where one of either the voter or a candidate is chinese american and the other is taiwanese american are regarded as a co-ethnic case. this definition is made because many taiwanese and chinese surnames are the same, and surnames are one of the main indicators used to identify a candidate’s ethnicity. voters who are already using party and ethnicity as a heuristic are likely not doing much research into the candidates, meaning they are unlikely to uncover additional information about a candidate’s specific ethnicity beyond the assumption they make based on surname. thus, they will likely instinctively assume the candidate is the same ethnicity, either chinese american or taiwanese american, as they are. references ansolabehere, s., & fraga, b. (2016). do americans prefer coethnic representation? the impact of race on house incumbent evaluations. stanford law review, 68, 1553-1594. barreto, m. (2007). ¡sí se puede! latino candidates and the mobilization of latino voters. american political science review, 101(3), 425-441. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0003055407070293 barreto, m. (2010). ethnic cues: the role of shared ethnicity in latino political participation. university of michigan press. beck, p., baum, l., clausen, a., & smith, c., jr. (2013). patterns and sources of ticket splitting in subpresidential voting. american political science review, 86(4), 916-928. https://doi.org/10.2307/1964344 fraga, b. (2015). candidates or districts? reevaluating the role of race in voter turnout. american journal of political science, 60(1), 97-122. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12172 hajnal, z., & lee, t. (2011). why americans don't join the party: race, immigration, and the failure (of political parties) to engage the electorate. princeton university press. hughes, d., rodriguez, j., smith, e. p., johnson, d. j., stevenson, h. c., & spicer, p. (2006). parents' ethnic-racial socialization practices: a review of research and directions for future study. developmental psychology, 42(5), 747-770. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.5.747 kim, d. (2020). the effect of party mobilization, group identity, and racial context on asian americans’ turnout. in a. aoki & p.-t. lien (eds.), asian pacific american politics. routledge. krogstad, j. m., & im, c. (2025, may 1). key facts about asians in the u.s. pew research center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2025/05/01/key-facts-about-asians-in-the-us/ leung, v. (2022). asian american candidate preferences: evidence from california. political behavior, 44, 17591788. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-020-09673-8 lien, p.-t., collet, c., wong, j., & ramakrishnan, s. k. (2001). asian pacific-american public opinion and political participation. ps: political science & politics, 34(3), 625-630. [suspicious link removed] lublin, d., & wright, m. (2024). diversity matters: the election of asian americans to u.s. state and federal legislatures. american political science review, 118(1), 380-400. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0003055423000242 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 54 published by ideas spread martinez, m. (2022, july 26). poll: more than half of aapi voters have never been contacted by a political party. politico. https://www.politico.com/news/2022/07/26/asian-aapi-voters-party-poll-republicans-democrats00047899 mcdermott, m. l. (1998). race and gender cues in low-information elections. political research quarterly, 51(4), 895-918. https://doi.org/10.1177/106591299805100403 mcdermott, m. l. (2009). voting for myself: candidate and voter group associations over time. electoral studies, 28(4), 606-614. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2009.05.025 ramakrishnan, k., tan, c., vohra, a., & ocampo, l. (2025, january 24). by the numbers: immigration. aapi data guide on timely policy issues. aapi data. https://aapidata.com/featured/by-the-numbersimmigration/#foreign-born-populations raychaudhuri, t. (2018). the social roots of asian american partisan attitudes. politics, groups, and identities, 6(3), 389-410. https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2018.1494009 sadhwani, s. (2020). asian american mobilization: the effect of candidates and districts on asian american voting behavior. political behavior, 44, 105-131. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-020-09612-7 schaffner, b., shih, m., ansolabehere, s., & pope, j. (2025). cooperative election study common content, 2024. harvard dataverse. https://doi.org/10.7910/dvn/x11ep6 sides, j., shaw, d., grossmann, m., & lipsitz, k. (2018). campaigns and elections. w. w. norton & company. stokes-brown, a. (2006). racial identity and latino vote choice. american politics research, 34(5), 627-652. https://doi.org/10.1177/1532673x06289156 tam, w. (1995). asians—a monolithic voting bloc? political behavior, 17, 223-249. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01498815 van oosten, s., mügge, l., & van der pas, d. (2024). race/ethnicity in candidate experiments: a meta-analysis and the case for shared identification. acta politica, 59, 19-41. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41269-022-00279-y white, i. k., & laird, c. n. (2020). steadfast democrats: how social forces shape black political behavior. princeton university press. wong, j. s., ramakrishnan, k., lee, t., & junn, j. (2011). asian american political participation: emerging constituents and their political identities. russell sage foundation. wong, j. s. (2006). democracy's promise: immigrants and american civic institutions. university of michigan press. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). microsoft word p22-27 humanities and social science research; vol. 6, no. 1; 2023 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v6n1p22 22 published by ideas spread mental health’s address to the challenging cultural reality of malta michael galea1 & frankline zammit galea1 1 university of malta, malta correspondence: michael galea, department of mental health, faculty of health sciences, university of malta, malta. e-mail: michael.galea@um.edu.mt, frankline.zammit.galea@ilearn.edu.mt received: february 21, 2023; accepted: march 20, 2023; published: march 21, 2023 abstract appreciation of society as being the whole made up of so many different parts in terms of groups with various interests, skills and needs is what cultural diversity is about. culture is defined as the distinctive customs, values, beliefs, knowledge, art and language of a society. multiculturalism has always been embedded with the maltese reality. however, a steep increase in the country’s population since 2011 may be presenting new realities that can translate into hefty and challenging demands. this review therefore presents the following research-based evidence on how mental health can address this phenomenon, particularly in the case of malta and similar small countries. in particular, the following aspects were highlighted, namely: cultural safety, holistic health services, multicultural awareness, sensitive lingual expression, community integrity and cultural partnership. practical recommendations are presented. keywords: culture, cultural diversity, multiculturalism, mental health, holistic wellbeing 1. towards a clearer definition of culture and multiculturalism culture has been understood in varied ways, from different farming techniques to sharing meanings and knowledge (kirmayer, 2018). anything related to human behavior is somehow related to cultural factors, some of which are subtle, and some not so much. appreciation of society as being the whole made up of so many different parts in terms of groups with various interests, skills and needs is what cultural diversity is about. group members making part of such a society are thereby respected for their unique faiths and sexual orientation. according to the apa dictionary of psychology, culture is defined as the distinctive customs, values, beliefs, knowledge, art and language of a society. these values are passed from one generation to the next and they influence people’s behavior, attitudes and perspectives (2023). moreover, the european commission defines multiculturalism as the ‘acceptance of immigrants and minority groups as distinct communities whose languages and social behaviors…distinguish them from the majority…(it) advocates that members of such groups should be granted rights equal to each other and to…members of majority groups’ (xuereb, 2009, p.33). although cultural psychiatry in the past was found by many different labels, including ethno-psychiatry, migrant psychiatry, transcultural psychiatry, anthropological psychiatry, and comparative psychiatry, the present term ‘cultural psychiatry’ describes how culture affects the holistic wellbeing and functioning of people, and how individuals express stress and seek help (bhugra et al., 2021). for the purpose of this paper, we are using the term of culture as ethnic identity which in itself is a multi-layered concept that is influenced multi-factorially, including gender, class, faith, language and nationality, amongst others (tribe, 2005). culture can show its influence on a diversity of human experiences. for example, it affects ways in which individuals express their prognostics and whether they emphasize physical or emotional symptoms. asian patients seem more likely to report somatic symptoms first. emotional challenges are only reported if there is further questioning on how they feel. according to andrade (2017), the report ‘mental health: culture, race, and ethnicity: a supplement to mental health: a report of the surgeon general’ states that cultures differ in the meaning and importance given to mental conditions. differences occur on whether mental illness is real or imagined, a condition afflicting the mind, the body, or both, on who is at risk, its causing factors, and stigma around mental health. although mental conditions can be seen as more prevalent in some cultures than in others, andrade (2017) reiterates that it remains a fact that some disorders may be more genetic (like schizophrenia), while others more social and cultural (such as burnout and suicide). in fact, the same author lists differences and varied expressions to personal problems and how individuals handle stress. for example, when facing mental hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 1; 2023 23 published by ideas spread health problems, asian groups prefer avoidance of upsetting thoughts, whereas african americans are more selfresourceful and more likely to turn to their spirituality for support, than whites. research has consistently shown that culture continues to greatly affect mental wellbeing as experienced by minorities. in fact, in the us, ethnic minorities are less likely to seek help than whites (andrade, 2017). contributing factors such as mistrust due to a history of discrimination naturally demand serious consideration. according to the canadian mental health association (2022), newcomers to canada normally face the added stress of fitting in a new community, whereby different perspectives of health and language barriers may complicate this process. past trauma history, together with loss of status are issues that continue to entangle their journey to wellbeing towards acculturation or the process to adapt to a new culture. multiculturalism is not an option, neither is it something you are for or against. stuart hall argues that the term ‘multicultural’ (used adjectivally): ‘…describes the social characteristics and problems of governance posed by any society in which different cultural communities live together and attempt to build a common life while retaining some of their ‘original’ identity.’ (hall 2000, 209) a clear challenge to this reality remains the bias in studies on this topic. in a meta-analysis study on cross-cultural major studies in the last decade, goodwin et al. (2020) found that the field of cross-cultural studies remains dominated by western approaches, with a particular focus on us and western european studies. thus, an expansion and integrity to local studies in cultures not normally represented in such research is clearly called for. 2. the malta challenge multiculturalism has always been embedded with the maltese reality. a key reason is the geophysical position of this little island, being as it is in the middle of the mediterranean sea. with such a diverse cultural past, malta seems to have always been at the crossroad of cultures. from the megalithic temple era, dating back to 7000 bc (trump, 2002), to more recent times, malta has welcomed diverse nations, occupiers and people, a trademark still noted to this day. this has dramatically increased since malta joined the eu (azzopardi, 2019). one notices a steep incline in the country’s population since 2011. in this period, it grew almost by a quarter. according to the malta national statistics office (nso), this population increase has mostly to do with immigration. in fact, there were over 22% of the population who were foreign, more than one in five persons (the malta independent, 2022). certain areas of the country house most of these foreigners. for example, 15% of all non-maltese residents live in the st paul's bay area, followed by sliema and msida. among the non-maltese, almost 60% were male, with an average age of around 40 years, which is 9 years younger than the average maltese residents. since 2011, the average age of non-maltese has grown even younger, standing at around 40.6 years. malta is the 10th smallest country in the world, with just a total area of 316 sqm. however, it is the most densely populated eu member state, with around 1,649 persons per square kilometer, and the ninth most densely populated in the world (the malta independent, 2022). bartolo (2022), a former maltese education minister, stated that inclusive multiculturalism should be the aim that the whole country needs to work for. learning to live together should not be understood as living side by side, in clusters hostile to each other, as is often the case with plural multiculturalism. bartolo (2022) mentioned the famous speech by king harald v of norway, 6 years ago, where he outlined that nationality may not always be clearly defined because what we call home is where our heart is which may go beyond physical boundaries. this is what inclusive multiculturalism is about. thus, an issue very pertinent that occurred with multiculturalism in malta is the short time by which it has grown (an increase of 24.5% from 2011.). this sentiment was rightly reflected recently by alfred sant, a maltese mep, who captured this very succinctly: ‘the problem with the foreign population in malta is that it has grown too fast. there has not been enough time for local society to adjust to the changing reality. becoming multicultural is not a transformation that can be successfully achieved overnight’ (2023). this sharp increase did not occur without side effects. debono (2012) believes that the maltese see migrants as a burden or even a threat to their prospects for their future. in fact, research has found that participants reported feeling challenged when working with culturally diverse clients with abilities, needs and explanatory models different from their own (doublesin, 2013). the greatest challenges seem to relate to the increase in complexity of issues pertaining to family, gender and youth. the same author recommended more research in this area in malta, a topic which still is well under-researched. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 1; 2023 24 published by ideas spread 3. challenging issues around multiculturalism according to the intercultural trends and social change in the euro-mediterranean region of the anna lidh foundation for the dialogue between cultures, ms aubarell stated that diversity, knowledge and the approach to ‘the other’ have been key factors throughout recent developments (2022). a number of decisive moments have clearly played a huge role in these developments, including the 9/11 events which highlighted a binomial reality more than ever before, the global east-west dialogue, while raising the scepter of the risks of fundamentalism and xenophobia; the arab springs and others. according to aubarell (2022), similar values including equality, diversity and participation move such dialogue to more fruition. however, the reality is far from simple. a number of conflicting issues require further discussion and evolvement. for example, although religion and cultural diversity do matter, are they perceived as contributing factors or rather as risk factors? aubarell (2022) highlights the fact that although the positive label of the mediterranean as a hospitable geographic area, full of rich history, still persists, even among affected citizens, the conflictive reality is also maintained. risks that need attention to are mistaken assumptions that may derail the process for intercultural dialogue. to this end, ethical issues could well present another sensitive area it is a major ethical challenge with an important ethical imperative to slow social divisions. according to mental health firstaid (2022), there are four ways culture can impact mental health: 1. cultural stigma. each culture has its unique way of viewing, understanding and responding to mental health. for those cultures where mental health is overshadowed by stigma, where it is understood as some kind of unwanted vulnerability to be hidden, it thus presents as a bigger challenge in terms of help and treatment. 2. understanding symptoms. research indicates that culture plays a major role in how individuals express their feelings and symptoms. thus, a person is influenced on whether to focus entirely on physical symptoms only, on emotional symptoms only, or both. 3. community support. culture can greatly influence and affect whether a person with mental health issues finds much needed support and assistance from family and community, or is left by themselves to seek help due to stigma. 4. resources. mental health treatment needs to be tailor-made according to the patient’s unique experiences and concerns. this may present an added challenge to the health authorities providing such support. every culture and person is different, thus recovery may entail a different route. 4. mental health’s holistic response to multiculturalism multiculturalism is here to stay. in fact, as recent experience shows, it is most probably bound to increase more, worldwide, for diverse reasons and factors (kirmayer, 2018). to respond to this emergence, instead of a simple list of culture-bound syndromes, the dsm-5 (apa, 2013) has updated the criteria to reflect more the cross-cultural variations and their connotations, particularly to address a more person-centered assessment. thus, mental health’s response to this phenomenon of multiculturalism needs to be holistic in scope. a number of perspectives pertinent to this view are therefore in place. cultural safety: seems the first response. according to the canadian mental health association, cultural safety includes a) cultural competence, b) mutual respect at work, which includes attitudes, behaviors, skills and policies used; c) providing helpful, specific information in different languages; d) recognizing cultural, medical or health practices; e) assuring that policies respect community needs (family or religious roles); f) providing culturally sensitive health screening tools; and g) being holistic in scope, thus addressing the whole person (beyond cultural limitations). the same association also cautions against the assumptions of generalizations, where people assume that all are on the same level or somehow enjoy the same needs and demands (2022). hechanova and waeldle (2017) suggested five key elements to mental health professionals on where culture meets mental health. first element is emotional expression. although in the west, this is widely used therapeutically, this may not be the case in other places. for example, in africa and asia certain beliefs exist where talking or expressing self about painful issues may further those feelings. shame is the second issue, which seems to be a key stumbling block among asians in particular. because of the importance that the asian family plays in an individual’s life in general, challenges such as mental health issues may place that family in a dark light of shame, thus necessitating keeping that reality a secret. third element is the power differences and issues between therapist hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 1; 2023 25 published by ideas spread and clients. the resilience and power perceived as arising from collectivism (tribe) is the fourth factor. finally, the presence of spirituality and faith may be used both as an attribution and also as a coping mechanism. holistic health services: according to gopalkrishnan (2018), increasingly research is pointing to the need for holistic health services. some suggestions even integrate mental health services with primary health care, which may get past some of the stigma and discrimination issues (usdhhs, 2001). multicultural awareness: culture blindness is one area that may play a huge part in the progression or otherwise of multiculturalism. basically, it is the inability to mutually understand certain issues, normally because of rigid compliance to the views, attitudes, and values of one’s own culture. such disagreement could arise also when one’s own culture impedes and interferes to value different opinions or views. sensitive lingual expression: mental health professionals need to be culturally sensitive and understand how clients, especially from diverse cultural backgrounds, express themselves (haley & combs, 2010). understanding the historical realities presents a more urgent need for collaboration between mental health and communities representing different cultures. an area closely related to culture is language, which can lead to cultural understanding and communication as a whole. this requires professional interpreters to ease and facilitate the therapeutic relationship a fact that very often is thought of in western countries policies. however, problems exist, first with the non-utilization of such services, and secondly, with problems of resources in other areas of the world (fecca, 2011). the maltese language is the only semitic language written in a latin script that may ease difficulties in the understanding and comprehension of some african languages. however, it still necessitates the appropriate usage of professional interpreters for better communication. zammit (2021) found that an interculturally capable person does not require knowledge of one’s own and other’s cultural aspect only, but demands mutual respect and acceptance between both cultures. community aspect: tribe clearly explains that most of our theory and practice of mental health is mostly biased in favor of western culture, heavily influenced by notions of cartesian dualism of body and mind, positivism and reductionism. ‘very little concern is therefore given to community or familial processes’ (tribe, 2005, p8). according to helman (2007), cultural meanings of health and illness vary greatly and this needs to be well understood, in order to present an integrated view of mental health and culture. to begin with, perceptions of etiology of disease vary a lot, from the natural world to the social realm or even beyond. seeking treatment is another complex reality, where some cultures emphasize somatic concerns while others cognitive or emotional symptoms. this is further impeded with discrimination (for example the major barriers aboriginal peoples face in receiving mental health services (boksa et al., 2015), stigma due to low socio-economic status of the family. it is to be reiterated that globalization is not a recent phenomenon (held, 2007). however the last 100 years has seen an enormous and speedy increase, with materialism, social dissolution and individualism increasingly threatening the social fabrics that for long served as protective factors to humans (melluish, 2014). an aspect that may help mitigate the negative effects of such a phenomenon could be the religious aspect of the maltese. marsella (2011) speaks of the society as a patient, to remind us that not all problems originate within the individual. one’s presence or absence of wellness may be subject to external factors. marsella thus emphasizes that community-based ethno-cultural services are a positive resource that needs to be tapped into for a stronger mental health wellbeing within a multicultural setting. cultural partnerships: according to gopalkrishnan (2018), the way forward is to move beyond the cultural competence framework toward developing cultural partnerships. three reasons are given for this shift requirement, namely a) work across cultures is hardly ever value-neutral (particularly in view of the historical context); b) the ‘competence’ approach is biased in favor of the ‘giver’, while ignoring the client; and c) the competence model is based on a static understanding of culture, rather than an ever-evolving one. cultural partnerships provides a more level-play scenario, while distances itself from traditional concepts of power relationships. cultural partnerships can be envisaged between mental health providers and different cultural communities, refugee groups and traditional healers or community elders (isaacs et al. 2010). gopalkrishnan views this partnership also to cover the therapist client relationship, engaging the client as an active agent in their own healing process, which is in line with the recovery approach (2018). inherent to this partnership, one can also add a cultural consultation service. according to kirmayer et al. (2014), cultural consultation can rely on close collaboration with mental health interpreters and culture brokers. an area included in this consultation is cultural formulations which normally means the understanding of problems in social contexts. this may demand systemic thinking. a word of caution is to be raised because the presence of a clinician with ‘an identifiable ethnic minority…raises complex issues of transference and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 1; 2023 26 published by ideas spread countertransference’(p.vii). primary care is a key setting for cultural consultation, in line with collaborative care. other settings include refugee work, family separation and reunification, general hospital psychiatry, people applying for asylum, and others (kirmayer et al., 2014). moreover, minbaeva et al. (2021) emphasize that relevant studies are moving beyond the double-edged sword metaphor towards unfolding complexity. they argue at expanding diversity categories beyond culture and mechanisms beyond information. 5. conclusion in this paper, we discussed the variations in the definition of culture and multiculturalism. culture affects a diversity of human experiences. it affects human expression of their own personal experience. indeed it is culture that is normally behind one’s emphasis on physical or emotional symptoms. considering that most of our theory and practice of mental health is mostly biased in favor of western culture, together with the recent increase in globalization, also witnessed well in malta, with the challenges that these changes present, it is pertinent to keep abreast and focused on the way forward, in order to attend to holistic mental wellbeing without doing injustice to cultural integration. among the perspectives that require on-going investigation and attention where mental health and culture intersect, research points at the following: a) cultural safety; b) holistic health services, c) multicultural awareness, d) sensitive lingual expression, e) and a consistent movement toward cultural partnerships. references andrade, s. (2017). cultural influences on mental health. the public health advocate. retrieved from https://pha.berkeley.edu/2017/04/16/cultural-influences-on-mental-health/ apa dictionary of psychology. (2023). retrieved from https://dictionary.apa.org/culture apa. (2013). diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 5th edn. washington, dc: american psychiatric association. retrieved from https://www.psychiatry.org/file%20library/psychiatrists/practice/dsm/apa_dsm_cultural-concepts-indsm-5.pdf aubarell, g. (2022). intercultural trends and social change in the euro-mediterranean region. retrieved from https://www.iemed.org/publication/intercultural-trends-and-social-change-in-the-euro-mediterraneanregion/ azzopardi, k. (2019). malta with the largest population increase in the eu. the malta today. retrieved from https://www.maltatoday.com.mt/news/national/96194/malta_with_largest_population_increase_in_eu#.yon_3bmk5c bartolo, e. (2022). learning to live together. the times of malta. retrieved from https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/learning-live-together-evarist-bartolo.983933 bhugra, d., warson, c., & wijesuriya, r. (2021). culture and mental illnesses. international review of psychiatry, 33, 1-2. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540261.2020.1777748 boksa, p., joober, r., & kirmayer, l. j. (2015). mental wellness in canada's aboriginal communities: striving toward reconciliation. j psychiatry neurosci. 40:363–5. https://doi.org/10.1503/jpn.150309 debono, j. (2012). the maltese: i’m not racist, but … in malta today, 5 july 2012. retrieved from https://www.maltatoday.com.mt/news/national/19365/i-m-not-racist-but-20120704#.y9gdy3bmk5c doublesin, m. g. (2013). the impact of multicultural exposure on maltese society in the late 20th and early 21st century and its challenge for counselors: a narrative ethnographic approach. university of malta. unpublished dissertation. retrieved from https://intercultural.com.mt/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/mariagabriele-doublesin.-m.a-t-cons-2013-publication.pdf canadian mental health association. (2022). cross-cultural mental health. retrieved from https://cmha.bc.ca/documents/cross-cultural-mental-health-and-substance-use-2/ fecca. (2011). mental health and australia's culturally and linguistically diverse communities: a submission to the senate standing committee on community affairs. canberra. goodwin, j. l., williams, a., & herzog, p. s. (2020). cross-cultural values: a meta-analysis of major quantitative studies in the last decade (2010-2020). religions, 11(8), 396. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel11080396 gopalkrishnan, n. (2018). cultural diversity and mental health: considerations for policy and practice. front public health, 6, 179. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00179 haley, m., & combs, d. c. (2010). creating a culturally sensitive environment for second language learners hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 1; 2023 27 published by ideas spread in counselor education programs. american counseling association. retrieved from https://www.counseling.org/docs/default-source/vistas/vistas_2010_article_26.pdf?sfvrsn=f764f040_11 hall, s. (2000). conclusion: the multicultural question. in un/settled multiculturalism, edited by: hesse, b. london: zed books. hechanova, r., & waelde, l. (2017). the influence of culture on disaster mental health and psychosocial support interventions in southeast asia. mental health religion cult., 20, 31-44. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2017.1322048 held, d., & mcgrew, a. (2007). globalization/anti-globalization. cambridge: polity press. helman, c. g. (2007). culture, health and illness, 5 edn. london: hodder arnold. https://doi.org/10.1201/b13281 isaacs, a. n., pyett, p., oakley-browne, m. a., gruis, h., & waples-crowe, p. (2010). barriers and facilitators to the utilization of adult mental health services by australia's indigenous people: seeking a way forward. int j mental health nurs, 19, 75-82. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1447-0349.2009.00647.x kirmayer, l. (2018). cultural psychiatry in historical perspective. in d. bhugra and k. bhui (eds), textbook of cultural psychiatry (pp 1-17). cambridge university press. [google scholar] kirmayer, l. j., guzder, j., & rousseau, d. (2014). cultural consultation. encountering the other in mental health care. springer link. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7615-3 marsella, a. j. (2011). twelve critical issues for mental health professionals working with ethno-culturally diverse populations. psychol int., 22, 7-10. https://doi.org/10.1037/e519272012-006 melluish, s. (2014). globalization, culture and psychology. int rev psychiatry. 26, 538-543. https://doi.org/10.3109/09540261.2014.918873 mental health first aid. (2022). retrieved from https://www.mentalhealthfirstaid.org/2019/07/four-ways-cultureimpacts-mental-health/ minbaeva, d., fitzsimmons, s., & brewster, c. (2021). beyond the double-edged sword of cultural diversity in teams: progress, critique, and next steps. j. int. bus. stud., 52(1), 45-55. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41267-02000390-2 sant, a. (2023). problem with multiculturalism. facebook post (20.01.2023). the malta independent. (2022). census. retrieved from https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2022-0801/local-news/malta-s-population-increased-by-25-since-2011-now-stands-at-519-562-6736244902 tribe r. (2005). the mental health needs of refugees and asylum seekers. mental health rev., 10, 8-15. https://doi.org/10.1108/13619322200500033 trump, d. (2002). megalithic architecture in malta. 13. 128-140. retrieved from https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/bitstream/123456789/9224/1/megalithic%20architecture%20in%20mal ta.pdf usdhhs. (2001). mental health: culture, race, and ethnicity: a supplement to mental health: a report of the surgeon general. rockville: us department of health and human services, 2001. xuereb, k. (2009). european cultural policy and migration: why should cultural policy in the eu address the impact of migration on identity and social integration? international migration, 49(2), 28-53. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2009.00535.x zammit, j. (2021). maltese as a foreign language educator’s acquisition of intercultural capabilities. research square. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-268642/v1 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v6n3p14 14 published by ideas spread social housing and its bearing on the tenants’ social mobility andrew azzopardi1 & martina farrugia1 1 university of malta, malta correspondence: martina farrugia, research support officer ii, faculty for social wellbeing, ground floor, humanities b, university of malta, msida, msd 2080. e-mail: martina.farrugia um.edu.mt, andrew.azzopardi um.edu.mt received: october 5, 2023; accepted: october 20, 2023; published: october 25, 2023 abstract the objective of the paper is to conceptualise how social housing impacts the life of tenants and how it affects their social mobility. firstly, the paper looks at defining social housing to help us get a better understanding of the subject matter. it highlights that social housing is a residential rental space provided at specific rates to be afforded by those who are considered vulnerable in society. it is a tool to improve the lives of those in vulnerable positions due to poverty, disability and mental health issues to mention just a few. children who live and grow up in stable social housing will have a better chance at accessing education, their wellbeing will be more positive, increased job prospects and a better outlook on opportunities. secondly, the paper addressed the impacts social housing has and its effects on social mobility for tenants. it discusses how income plays a vital role in obtaining social housing, how the wellbeing of tenants is essential in fostering a better self, how individuals who live in social housing can come together and form communities to deter crime, how living in safe social housing can have a positive impact positively effect on mental health, how it encourages tenants to find work and how it helps children strive for and manage to break the cycle of poverty. however, notwithstanding the positive, social housing is not perfect and if not taken care of and is not funded properly then it could be a detriment to tenants’ social mobility. methodology desk research was carried out to identify an in-depth understanding of the topic. apart from this, key experts from the faculty for social wellbeing shared their expertise through various informal discussions. keywords: housing, social housing, social mobility, provision of social housing 1. contextualising social housing 1.1 defining social housing? social housing, although thought to be a common concept in countries around the world, is actually not available in all countries (note 1). the definition of social housing provided by the oecd explains that it is “residential rental accommodation provided at sub-market prices and allocated according to specific rules” (salvi del pero, a. et al., 2016, quoted in oecd, 2019, p.1). unfortunately, there are variables in the provision for social housing and who is able to have access to it. in fact, social housing provision is affected by different conditions and circumstances and varies from country to country (granath hansson & lundgren, 2019; kofner, 2017, oecd 2019). in europe, the aftermath of world war ii left people homeless and poor, which resulted in an increase of people on the poverty line (kesternich et al., 2014). in light of this, there was an increase in government-based provisions, specifically in terms of social housing, which allowed for a noticeable shift in directing public funds (braga & palvarini, 2013; kofner, 2017). before this shift, in a lot of countries, private companies, the church and charitable institutions used to offer and manage social housing. the idea came about to tackle the issue of homelessness amongst the working poor. however, during the 1980s and 1990s, governments began to reduce their spending on public housing provisions, thus, public housing policies were no longer a priority. instead, local authorities or private funders were left to deal with the issue (reeves, 2014; braga & palvarini, 2013). vocal political groups at the time claimed that the sector was “inefficient, unresponsive, monopolistic and anachronistic” (forrest & wu, 2014, p. 135), as it did not aid the most vulnerable but rather the selected few. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 15 published by ideas spread social housing at present is focused on the most vulnerable within society, however, this emphasis has caused concern since it has led to members being excluded, discriminated against and social housing spaces being labelled as a ghetto (forrest & wu, 2014; newman, 2008; goodchild & cole, 2001). challenges and the risk of housing poverty are not being experienced just by the working class, however, those within the middle class have been prone to find themselves in difficulty as well and this is mainly due to the global economic crises and the transformations happening in society and its response to needs. as a result of this, the need for social housing has augmented, and as a consequence its waiting list (braga & palvarini, 2013; best & shimili, 2012; feinstein et al., 2008). 1.2 the objectives of social housing "the main objective of social housing is to provide low-income households or vulnerable people with a decent, affordable and secure housing option" (reeves, 2014; newman, 2008 as quoted in azzopardi & cuff, 2020). these housing options, however, usually have the rent connected to one’s income. on the other hand, tenure service providers and their eligibility, varies in each country (shelter 2020; braga & palvarini, 2013). nowadays, various other entities or private landlords, besides governments, are gradually offering more social housing services (granath hansson & lundgren, 2019). regardless, this shift in social housing provision, remains synched with national policies. socio-economic positioning is used to influence one’s eligibility, however, when vulnerabilities are taken into consideration, they are then at times re-evaluated regularly (braga & palvarini, 2013; oecd, 2019). the objective and aims of social housing is to ultimately provide housing which is secure and one that has a longerterm tenancy, ensuring stability, control over one’s home and better rights (oecd, 2019; reeves, 2014; shelter, 2020). for children living and being raised in social housing, the intentional outcome is that it will help foster better access to education, wellbeing, health, jobs and the retaining of employment. however, this still remains debatable (newman, 2008; granath hansson & lundgren, 2019). 1.3 the legal framework the united nations observes that satisfactory housing provision is a right and the international law states that “it is the right to live somewhere in security, peace and dignity”, being a fundamental human right (un, 2014, p.3). strengthening and protecting housing rights is at the core of a number of international organisations (tereminski, 2011). in terms of eu law, right to housing or housing assistance was recognised in 2009 when the eu charter of fundamental rights was incorporated into eu law (vassallo, 2002). despite this legal recognition of housing, past eu social policy identified the relevance of the right to adequate housing provision and creative housing policy because of the movement in the single market (kucs et al., 2008, p. 115). member states of the eu are free to implement policies and interpretate the law as they see fit, however, the treaty of lisbon aids as a guide for the understanding of what is the right to housing and that adequate housing becomes the norm (vassallo, 2002; braga & palvarini, 2013). governments are not obliged to provide housing to all, regardless if the right to adequate housing is implemented in law (un, 2014). in 2020, it was estimated that globally 1.6 billion citizens were living in scant housing settings with the rate of homelessness rising drastically since 2010 (un, 2020). in europe, the rise in homelessness, worsening affordability, and social and housing polarisation have been a cause of concern for public policy for the last decade (eurostat, 2018). an estimated 3 million citizens in europe, lack adequate housing (braga & palvarini, 2013). regardless of the high numbers of people who are homeless, recognising the right to suitable accommodation has become pivotal (kucs et al., 2008). living in inadequate housing puts poor people in a position of choice, having to choose to prioritise their health, what to eat, what kind of shelter to choose and any further requirements (kucs et al., 2008; kothari, 2005). having a place people call home gives one a sense of self which then impacts one’s wellbeing along with one’s integration into society, in terms of being socio-economically stable (cicognani, 2011; cutajar, 2018; tereminski, 2011). the notion of suitable housing automatically ensures the preservation of communal and cultural rights including other rights such as those which are political and those which are basic civil rights (kucs et al., 2008; cicognani, 2011). 2. social housing, its impacts and how it contributes to social mobility social mobility is defined as “the movement in time of individuals, families, or other social units between positions of varying advantage in the system of social stratification of a society” (muller, 2001, p.9918). social mobility helps with new opportunities specifically for those who come from underprivileged backgrounds. in fact, education and employment are seen as the ideal ways to alleviate poverty, but not just, as family income also plays its role (best, & shimili, 2012; tunstall et al., 2013; newman, 2008). social mobility contributes to a persons’ wellbeing hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 16 published by ideas spread who in turn can excel in society thus, society benefits from this too. the economy is improved, opportunities become more accessible and a person’s life is improved allowing them to extend their horizons (oecd, 2018; muller, 2001). a home helps individuals find some sort of wellbeing which correlates to their experience of home and what it means to them (azzopardi, 2022). as a home becomes an integral part of a person, they tend to form a bond with it (cicognani, 2011, p. 86). this effects the human psyche as it reinforces the notion that when people live in adequate housing this affects them positively and contributes to helping them with other factors in their life, be it social, cultural, economic and even psychological (mullins et al., 2001, p. 5). however, there are those scholars who disagree with this perspective (ellickson, 1992; weicher, 1980 quoted in newman, 2008; feinstein et al., 2008). self-development is essential to human existence and a home provides physical attributes which contribute to this, such as space, safety and physical sufficiency (newman, 2008, p. 897). regardless of whether one needs to be eligible to attain a place in social housing, being given the chance to live in such housing which is affordable, gives one the opportunity to be surrounded by people from the same or similar socio-economic background looking for a better life (newman, 2008; braga & palvarini, 2013; flouri et al., 2015). well-thought-out schemes contribute to having social housing spill over to social cohesion, as it gives people purpose again and the will to integrate with others (braga & palvarini, 2013; flouri et al., 2015). individuals who are caught up without residence end up losing their self-worth and purpose, socially cohesive neighbourhoods are aids for people to show up for themselves, feel empowered and included (holman & walker, 2018; goodchild & cole, 2001). as a matter of fact, even those neighbourhoods that are slightly more disadvantaged than others, even with the little resources that they have tend to foster social integrity (mullins et al., 2001; perry & blackaby, 2007). good planning and infrastructure in social housing will help with building a better community and allow for the residents to feel at home fostering a better community, an advancement in social mobility and sustainability in the long run (best & shimili, 2012; mckee, 2008). social cohesion offers individuals stability and the sense of community which comes from social housing improves one’s health which also directly affects social mobility (holman & walker, 2018). when a person is mentally sane and their overall wellbeing is improved, they are at a greater capacity of keeping a job, unlike others who are categorised as being in poor health (jones, 2017; dahl, 1996). poor health, many a times, has been found to exclude people from work, finding work or holding down a job which will continue to deter their health (jones, 2017; dahl, 1996). the stability afforded to tenants who live in social housing has helped improve their health and as a result of this any health costs have been kept to a minimum (taylor, 2018; holman & walker, 2018; singh et al., 2019). depression and poor health are known to be more present amongst those who do not live in a stable home (kushel et al., 2006; thomson et al., 2001; bentley et al., 2018; prentice & scutella, 2018; best & shimili, 2012), whilst homelessness brings with it increased food insecurity, a shortened lifespan, a possible risk of premature death, worse health and widespread mental health challenges (kushel et al., 2006). tenants could also experience a delay in accessing healthcare, increased levels of anxiety, relationship failures, loss of friendships, and access to other benefits (boston medical centre, 2018; taylor 2018; bentley et al., 2018; tunstall et al., 2013). therefore, when seeking stability and finding it, tenants’ lives will be drastically improved as the positives then come to out-way the negatives. youngsters experience home instability differently to adults as this impacts their educational prospects and achievements, contributes to depression, alcoholism, risk of teenage pregnancy and drug abuse; all this upon health issues (tsai, 2015; taylor, 2018). murky and risky housing, which means that there are issues with the structure of the building and hazardous problems are present, has contributed to sickness such as tension and nervousness. certain health issues like the incidence of dust mites have contributed to skin and other diseases, respiratory problems, and stress due to overcrowding. unkept housing can cause physical problems due to accidents such as slips, and falls and accessibility issues for individuals who have a physical disability (taylor, 2018; who, 2018; u.s. department of energy, 2016; gauci, 1999). the environment in which social housing is located in can have positive or negative associations. at times, negative associations such as crime levels in the area can cause social exclusion which contribute to stress and mental health conditions (bentley et al., 2018; goodchild & cole, 2001). social and economic inequality have a direct effect on one’s health and disrupts social integration (who, 2018, p. xv; newman, 2008).in actual fact , the area is associated with negative aspects like stigma, segregation, crime and social exclusion, then there is the possibility of long-term and long-lasting effects on tenants’ well-being (taylor, 2018; tunstall et al., 2013). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 17 published by ideas spread the category of tenants who live in social housing has changed over the years, seeing a shift specifically in europe, going from those who were from vulnerable social groups directly contributing to the neighbourhoods’ deprivation and segregation (crook et al., 2016), to social housing being taken up more by pensioners and single-parent families. these families are mainly ethnic minorities and immigrants (tunstall et al., 2013). the social economic demographic of these families is specific, as the majority of them tend to be low-income families, who’s economic contribution is less than average (scanlon et al., 2015). due to this, they contribute to the area’s socio-spatial segregation which can lead to social deprivation, namely liability , crime and community sabotage (scanlon et al., 2015; evans, 1998; farrugia, 2019). neighbourhood segregation as explained by margery turner (n.d) can also be affected by ethnicity or colour, further decreasing opportunities for low-income families, therefore, their social mobility and access to better opportunities which can give them access to safer amenities is not made possible. unfortunately, these neighbourhoods can be the breeding ground for concentrated poverty which is an area where socio-economic deprivation is found at an alarming rate in an area of high poverty (aecf.org, 2019). this specific kind of poverty accelerates the effects of poverty which continues to lower one’s expectations and aspirations and it becomes increasingly difficult to leave the cycle of poverty (the federal reserve system, 2008; sharkey, n.d.). the cambridge dictionary defines being poor as “having little money and/or few possessions” (dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/poor) which categorises someone as living on the poverty line or in the cycle of poverty. therefore, when a person is living in poverty they are identified as being extremely poor (dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/poverty). lumen (n.d.b) explains that the source of poverty is also in turn the consequences of poverty, hence why cycles of poverty are created. social housing has a direct influence on what drives poverty, therefore, inhabitants of such housing find it difficult to break the cycle (webb memorial trust, 2017). some, due to this believe that social housing can deter social mobility and segregation and not essentially a factor that creates these (best & shimili, 2012, tunstall, 2013). since social housing is a concentration of lived spaces, it is directly an effect of its environment which puts tenants at a disadvantage, essentially also contributing to the generational impediment of social mobility (arbaci & rae, 2013; forrest & wu, 2014; causa & johansson, 2010). due to this, social problems will continue to be sustained (cutajar, 2018; best & shimili, 2012; goodchild & cole, 2001). in fact, the allocation of tenants to housing is what effects the characterisation of the space, hence there could be high crime rates in the area because of the tenants (mullins et al., 2001) or the tenants themselves could be the ones who work together to avert criminal behaviour and decrease criminal behaviour (skubak tillyer & walter, 2018; mullins et al., 2001). the management of social housing helps the housing block to function properly in terms that there is mutual support and respect amongst the tenants who also come together to keep the area in order and manage any disruptions (mullins et al., 2001; dibben, personal communication, 2020, july 15; goodchild & cole, 2001). tenants are key players in keeping the social unit clean which will counteract problems such as vandalism and instill a sense of purpose (best & shimili, 2012; goodchild & cole, 2001). if overall support is given to tenants, not just socially but also through their landlord, then this will counteract any negative effects, such as dependency and inequalities, and foster participation in education and work (johnson, 2001; best & shimili, 2012). housing affordability is a fundamental pillar in determining social mobility as this usually takes up a large share of nonrefundable income of tenants (cutajar, 2018; braga & palvarini, 2013). 30% is the typical percentage for housing costs (taylor, 2018; newman, 2008; tunstall, 2013), and then the remaining income is distributed amongst other provisions which one may need. when tenants are over paying on housing, they then may divest themselves of other requirements (mullins et al., 2011; tunstall, 2013) which will lead to feelings of deprivation having an impact on their social status (azzopardi, 2012). purchasing a residence or renting a habitat within the commercial rental market is costly and there have been situations where house prices have escalated radically within a few years, making it near impossible to own a house (central bank of malta, 2016; xerri, 2017). such housing becomes difficult to obtain especially for those low-income families, as their disposable income would not be enough to pay for it. the effects of such pressure to obtain this type of housing can cause health problems, emotional problems, mental health issues, increase in stress levels, disengagement at school for children (newman, 2008) to name just a few. on the other hand, when tenants have the opportunity to access affordable housing, they have a better chance of staying there longer, specific problems may start to reduce and the foundation of a good home will improve their social mobility as a family (galante, n.d.). one of the positive outcomes of access to good social housing is that for those people experiencing poverty there is a better chance of them slowly moving away from poverty as their income becomes more accessible for necessities which improve their self-sufficiency in society (tunstall, 2013; newman, 2008; taylor, 2018). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 18 published by ideas spread employment raises one’s standard of living and aids with helping one build themself up within a community (cutajar, 2018), fostering social mobility. it helps adults especially, find their way out of poverty (tunstall et al., 2013). ‘best & shimili (2012, p. 16) state: “employment is recognised to be the single biggest factor in determining not only adults’ life chances, but also those of children and grandchildren”’ (as quoted in azzopardi & cuff, 2020), aiding intergenerational change. stable employment brings with it the provision of a secure income, however, not only, it allows one to preserve relationships and networks, focus on keeping a regular schedule, take on training opportunities, improved self-worth and the ability to assess possible future difficulty related to income (hoare & machin, 2010; honey, 2004; creed & machin, 2002). furthermore, if someone is unemployed then this will impact them and their families keeping them in poverty allowing for mental strain to develop. this will also affect any children living within the family causing a disruption to their progress, schooling and future employment (mcclelland, 2001). social housing provides stability and that stability alleviates one burden for those in positions of vulnerability and helps tenants find work allowing room for better success. it does not, of course guarantee employment, however, research has shown that the stability from housing has helped tenants look for and keep a job (best & shimili, 2012; tunstall et al., 2013). location plays a vital role, especially if social housing is located close to potential employment opportunities, for example, in city centres were rent is private, but the area has opportunities for low paid workers. however, many low paid workers due to their financial situation usually choose housing which is further away from work opportunities as they would be able to meet their renting needs. however, even though distance does not hinder one from working, the commute to work and not having as much time for leisure are factors affected by this distance (mullins et al., 2001; sisson, 2018; henderson, 2017). fletcher et al (2008), explains that individuals who live close to family and have a social network are not willing to move away for work reasons (azzopardi & grech, 2012). even though social housing and the stability that comes with it aids with helping individuals find jobs and maintain them, some have criticised it for encouraging tenants not to work and rely on social aids (tunstall et al., 2013; flouri et al., 2015; feinstein et al, 2008) as many times tenants are usually unemployed (hills, 2007). hills (2007) explains that some tenants choose to remain unemployed due to the bureaucracy and difficulties they face with the tax and benefits system. youths who are surrounded by adults who are jobless, are at times influenced by the resistance to work and this affects their future prospects of work (fletcher et al., 2008). in fact, reports have concluded that it is not always about where one lives that deters one from working and remaining jobless, but it is usually the person’s character and their unwillingness to work (fletcher et al., 2008; hills, 2007; mcclelland, 2001; csj, 2018). even though many tenants experience poor job quality and low pay (fletcher et al., 2008) apart from other issues, they end up being very heavily influenced by those around them and if they have a resistance for work then this may rub off on others. jobseekers can also feel threatened to access the employment sector because of their lack of skills and experience. like many consequences which are experienced by individuals living in social housing, joblessness can be intergenerational, since children or grandchildren of those who are unemployed could potentially be unemployed when they come to a working age (hills, 2007; oecd, 2018; feinstein et al, 2008). children’s futures are greatly affected by the area social housing is located in, as if they live in a poor area, then they will continue to experience high levels of deprivation and or segregation which affects their prospects (best & shimili, 2012; oecd, 2018; goodchild & cole, 2001, harker, 2007). amenities around the area such as safe playgrounds, open spaces, libraries and good schools also affect a child’s social mobility and prospects at school (flouri et al., 2015; newman and harkness, 2002; newman, 2008; mcculloch, 2001). if the area experiences high rates of violence and problems such as addiction, children will find it challenging to interact and will become anti-social. the affects are different depending on age, for example, younger children can show challenging behaviour and truncated educational attainment whilst children who are older can show interest in violence, become emotionally detached and be at risk of forming or being groomed into gangs which will have problematic outcomes for their futures (flouri et al., 2015; lambert et al., 2015; harker, 2007). just like adults, children are affected deeply by their surroundings and their homes and it has been shown to affect their development and quality of life (harker, 2007; mullins et al., 2001; holman & walker, 2018). therefore, the quality of social housing and the overall environment will definitely determine the child’s development and life chances (harker, 2007; goodchild & cole, 2001). researchers have found out that children do have better chances even assuming they habitat in civic housing, as it is the stability, the quality of the housing and the security that make the most difference (newman and harkness, 2002; haurin et al., 2002; villanueva et al., 2019) overall, there are benefits to social housing especially if the environment is a positive one as it can contribute to social mobility but itself alone does not cause much change (feinstein et al, 2008). people are increasingly hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 6, no. 3; 2023 19 published by ideas spread impacted by harmful environments and for children this stunts their development (clair, 2019; flouri et al., 2015). residents within a housing unit are more likely to form supportive communities if the space they live in makes them feel like they belong (cutajar, 2018; goodchild & cole, 2001). however, tenants with exposure to vulnerabilities or any social problems, having social housing will not solve these problems automatically but it will at least provide shelter (prentice & scutella, 2018). taking an intersectional, multidisciplinary approach will allow tenants to benefit more from social housing and it will allow them to overcome other areas of difficulty in their lives such as education, and the opportunities to build new skills (mckay as cited in carabott, 2020; feinstein et al, 2008; best, & shimili, 2012). 3. concluding comments social housing supports people who many times are living in poverty, and who may have varying vulnerabilities such as a disability, mental health issues, illnesses, and social issues. it is rental accommodation which can be afforded by people who struggle with making ends meet and those who lack a stable income. social housing if looked after, can not only be called a home but a tool for those tenants who have diverse needs or vulnerabilities as it adds to a sense of self-assurance and finding stability. social housing will become a foundation of support since tenure provides stability, security and peace of mind, and allow for tenants to have a better future. there are negative associations to it, as well as it is often blamed for contributing to tenants remaining dependant on social welfare, their aversion to find work, contribution to crime and addiction and fostering a breeding ground for social exclusion, it has been proven that social housing is not the main cause of these negative effects. residualisation is the reason why these problems exist in an area since it is defined as an area where a large number of households are present showcasing great need of assistance due to lack of resources and opportunities. in order for social housing to be effective and contribute positively its tenants, it has to truly cater for people from all walks of life. to overcome residualisation and social exclusion, best practises must be set in place such as children’s spaces and play areas, green spaces for all, support services which can facilitate job opportunities, training programmes, and guidance with finances, to name a few. when community services are provided and support to tenants is evidently clear, the social housing environment can foster social cohesion, creating safer spaces for tenants. having a place where to come together and live positively with good amenities will allow tenants to build connections which will have a huge impact on their mental wellbeing which will help their social mobility and livability within a community. being one of the most important areas in welfare, social housing cannot function in isolation. policy makers need to ensure that other services are in place in order for tenants to thrive within their community. will this be enough to get detached from the cycle of poverty. overall, it is imperative that policy makers always keep the service users at the heart of their policy planning so that they can truly safeguard tenants’ wellbeing by ensuring that social housing encourages tenants’ social mobility and not hinder it. acknowledgments professor josann cutajar, dr andreana dibben, dr charles pace, dr. rachael marie scicluna and annabel cuff who abetted the study by offering knowledge proficiency and direction . references arbaci, s., & rae, i. 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(2017, february 10). the emerging contradiction. times of malta. retrieved from https://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20170210/opinion/the-emerging-contradiction.639180 notes note 1. a 2019 oecd report states that chile, costa rica, greece, mexico, sweden and turkey, have no social housing provision (oecd, 2019, p. 1). copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n6p11 11 published by ideas spread the internal logic of chinese-style modernization: a state governance perspective bao liu1 1 automotive and transportation engineering, shenzhen polytechnic university, china correspondence: bao liu, automotive and transportation engineering, shenzhen polytechnic university, 518033, shenzhen, guangdong, china. e-mail: liubao@szpu.edu.cn received: november 11, 2025; accepted: november 23, 2025; published: november 24, 2025 abstract chinese-style modernization has emerged as one of the most consequential governance innovations of the twentyfirst century, challenging conventional assumptions within modernization theory and broadening the analytical horizons of political development research. rather than following the trajectory of western industrialization— rooted historically in capital accumulation, social polarization, and external expansion—china’s modernization unfolds through a governance-centered pathway grounded in state capacity, institutional continuity, and a peoplecentered normative orientation. this article argues that chinese-style modernization possesses a distinctive internal logic composed of four mutually reinforcing dimensions: historical logic, institutional logic, governance logic, and civilizational logic. together, these logics articulate a political development model that synthesizes long-term state-building traditions with contemporary governance innovation. the analysis proceeds in three steps. first, the paper situates chinese-style modernization within broader debates on state theory and political modernization, emphasizing the conceptual relevance of institutional resilience, adaptive governance, and long-range state planning. second, it examines how china’s modernization path is historically conditioned—shaped by the state’s century-long search for national rejuvenation and the construction of a developmental political order capable of mobilizing large-scale resources. third, it demonstrates how the chinese governance model operationalizes modernization through coordinated institutional mechanisms, such as whole-of-government capacity building, people-centered policy design, and the pursuit of social equity as a political objective rather than a market outcome. the article concludes that chinese-style modernization should not be interpreted as a derivative or alternative version of western modernization. instead, it constitutes an analytically independent modernization paradigm embedded in china’s historical experience and political rationality. its significance extends beyond china, offering a theoretically coherent and empirically grounded example of how a large civilizational state can pursue modernization without replicating western developmental logics. keywords: chinese-style modernization, state governance, institutional logic 1. introduction modernization has long occupied a central position in political science, not only as a descriptive account of industrial and institutional transformation but also as a normative framework that has shaped global expectations regarding political development. for much of the twentieth century, modernization theory—largely articulated by western scholars—proposed a linear progression from traditional society to industrial modernity, treating economic liberalization, institutional differentiation, and political pluralism as the universal indicators of modern development. although this framework offered insights into the structural features of western modernity, its implicit teleology and eurocentric assumptions left it ill-equipped to interpret the diverse pathways emerging in the global south. in recent decades, the rise of large non-western states with distinctive political orders has exposed these limitations, prompting increasing calls for theoretical reevaluation. within this context, chinese-style modernization has come to represent one of the most analytically significant cases for rethinking modernization theory. china’s developmental trajectory does not conform to the standard western sequence in either institutional form or political logic. instead of treating modernization as a process of liberalization or state retreat, china approaches modernization as a comprehensive project of national rejuvenation—one in which the state plays an active, coordinative, and long-term role in shaping economic transformation, social governance, and normative life. while this model is subject to ongoing debate, it undeniably hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 12 published by ideas spread challenges conventional dichotomies between state-led and market-led development, illustrating a mode of political modernization in which state capacity and governance coherence constitute fundamental drivers of transformation. the core proposition of this paper is that chinese-style modernization possesses an internal logic that is both coherent and analytically identifiable. this internal logic is not a set of abstract principles but a structured set of political rationalities that have accumulated through historical processes, institutional evolution, and governance practices. specifically, the paper argues that chinese-style modernization is underpinned by four interrelated logics: a historical logic shaped by china’s long-term search for national revitalization; an institutional logic rooted in the organizational coherence and resilience of the chinese state; a governance logic prioritizing people-centered development and distributive equity; and a civilizational logic that frames modernization within china’s cultural and philosophical traditions. together, these logics provide a substantive explanation for why china’s modernization path has diverged from western trajectories and why it has generated distinct political outcomes. to understand this model, it is essential to situate it within the broader field of comparative political development. modernization in china cannot be reduced to gdp growth, industrial upgrading, or technological diffusion— although all of these components are present. instead, it must be conceptualized as a political project with clear objectives, institutional mechanisms, and governance tools. china’s modernization effort integrates long-range planning, deep administrative penetration, and the capacity to coordinate across sectors and regions—features characteristic of what scholars term a “developmental state,” but with notable differences. unlike classical developmental states that rely primarily on economic bureaucracy, china’s model embeds modernization within a more comprehensive political framework that includes ideological coherence, political mobilization, and institutional adaptability. another distinctive feature of the chinese path is its demographic scale. modernization involving a population of more than 1.4 billion creates governance challenges and structural constraints unknown to smaller states. at the same time, scale produces advantages in terms of market size, institutional mobilization, and national planning. this duality—complexity and capacity—illustrates why modernization in china cannot be understood through frameworks designed for medium-sized or small liberal democracies. the governance mechanisms required to manage such scale necessarily differ in structure, rhythm, and institutional intensity. equally important is the normative dimension embedded within chinese-style modernization. contrary to modernization models that prioritize economic efficiency above all else, china places distributive equity— expressed through the concept of “common prosperity”—at the center of its modernization agenda. this introduces a political logic often overlooked in western analyses: modernization is not treated as a natural consequence of market competition but as a state-driven pursuit of collective well-being. this normative orientation has practical implications for public policy, influencing social welfare provision, poverty alleviation, rural revitalization, and regional coordination strategies. this paper contributes to the political science literature in three ways. first, it clarifies the conceptual content of chinese-style modernization by articulating its four foundational logics and explaining their internal coherence. second, it offers a theoretical framework for interpreting china’s modernization not as an anomaly or deviation from western norms but as a distinct political development paradigm embedded in state governance. third, it situates chinese-style modernization within ongoing global debates about alternative development models, showing how it complicates and enriches contemporary political theory. the remainder of the paper is organized as follows. section ii examines the historical logic of chinese-style modernization, emphasizing how china’s path emerged from a century-long search for political independence, institutional stability, and developmental capacity. section iii explores the institutional logic of modernization, focusing on state capacity, governance mechanisms, and institutional resilience. section iv analyzes the governance logic rooted in people-centered development and distributive justice. section v discusses the civilizational logic that frames modernization within china’s philosophical and cultural traditions. the conclusion reflects on the implications of chinese-style modernization for comparative political development and future modernization theory. 2. the historical logic of chinese-style modernization understanding chinese-style modernization requires a return to the historical processes that shaped the political foundations upon which it rests. unlike some nation-states whose modern institutions emerged gradually through long-term evolutionary differentiation, china’s modernization path has been decisively marked by rupture, crisis, and purposeful political reconstruction. these experiences have endowed the chinese state with strong historical consciousness: modernization is not merely economic upgrading but a response to historical contingencies, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 13 published by ideas spread perceived vulnerabilities, and the necessity of national survival. this section argues that the historical logic of chinese-style modernization is characterized by three critical dynamics: the quest for national revival in the face of systemic crisis; the reconstitution of political authority capable of directing long-term modernization; and the consolidation of a developmental rationality that frames modernization as a collective national project rather than a market-led transformation. 2.1 modernization as a response to historical crisis the origins of chinese-style modernization cannot be separated from the immense political and social disruptions that accompanied china’s encounter with western imperial expansion beginning in the nineteenth century. while western modernization emerged endogenously through the gradual consolidation of capitalism and state institutions, china’s modern transformation unfolded under conditions of external pressure and internal fragmentation. the collapse of traditional governance structures, the decline of imperial legitimacy, and the erosion of territorial sovereignty generated a prolonged period of national crisis commonly referred to as the “century of humiliation.” this formative experience imprinted on chinese political thought a deep awareness that modernization was not optional—it was essential for national survival. during this period, early attempts at modernization, such as the self-strengthening movement and the late qing reform initiatives, demonstrated the difficulty of adopting isolated components of western modernity without institutional coherence. reformers advocated selective borrowing of western technology and administrative methods, but these reforms lacked the political depth needed to reshape the state. as many historians note, the tension between “learning from the west” and maintaining regime continuity constrained the transformative potential of these efforts. consequently, early modernization attempts failed to reverse china’s structural decline. the failure of incremental reforms created a lasting political lesson: modernization requires institutional transformation, not partial adaptation. this insight would later become a foundational component of chinese-style modernization—modernization must be comprehensive, coordinated, and grounded in political restructuring rather than superficial institutional grafting. 2.2 the reconstruction of political authority a second crucial component of the historical logic is the reconstruction of political authority capable of directing modernization. the founding of the communist party of china (cpc) in 1921 and the subsequent revolutionary struggle fundamentally reshaped the locus of political power. the cpc’s rise marked more than a change in political leadership; it signified the emergence of a new political actor that viewed modernization as integral to national liberation and state-building. three historical developments are central here. (1) the new democratic revolution and political unification the victory of the new democratic revolution ended decades of warlord fragmentation and reestablished unified political authority. for modernization to succeed, political unity was indispensable. state fragmentation had been one of the major barriers to earlier modernization attempts; unification provided the preconditions for nationwide developmental planning. (2) the founding of the prc and the institutionalization of state capacity with the establishment of the people’s republic of china in 1949, the cpc initiated a systematic project of statebuilding aimed at consolidating political authority, restoring order, and constructing institutional capacity. land reform, administrative restructuring, and the creation of a centralized governance framework built the foundational institutions that would later support modernization. crucially, the early decades of the prc established a governance culture centered on policy mobilization and organizational coherence. scholars of political development often argue that early state-building determines the long-term developmental trajectory of a country. for china, the consolidation of institutional capacity created a durable administrative infrastructure capable of coordinating complex modernization tasks. (3) reform and opening up as a recalibration of modernization strategy the reform period beginning in 1978 marked a strategic shift from ideological mobilization toward institutional pragmatism. the leadership recognized that modernization required adaptive governance, technological advancement, and integration into global markets. yet, even as market mechanisms were introduced, modernization remained politically directed rather than market-driven. this distinguishes china’s modernization historically: reforms expanded economic dynamism without weakening central political authority. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 14 published by ideas spread 2.3 modernization as a long-term political project a third component of the historical logic is china’s understanding of modernization as a long-term political project guided by strategic planning and sustained governance effort. the historical experience of fragmentation, external threat, and institutional weakness produced an enduring belief that modernization cannot be left to spontaneous forces. it must instead be planned, coordinated, and safeguarded by political institutions. this principle manifests in three distinctive historical patterns: (1) strong planning rationality china has consistently adopted long-term planning as a means of structuring modernization. beginning with the first five-year plan in 1953 and continuing through contemporary national strategies, planning has allowed the state to coordinate industrialization, infrastructure development, and technological transformation across regions and sectors. unlike centralized planning models that rigidly restrict market forces, china’s approach has evolved into what political scientists call “strategic planning within a mixed economy.” this hybrid system enables directional state leadership while harnessing market dynamism. (2) continuity across historical eras despite major shifts in policy orientation—such as the transition from class struggle to economic development— china’s modernization has maintained continuity in its core political logic: strengthening national capacity, improving people’s livelihoods, and safeguarding sovereignty. this continuity distinguishes china’s pathway from countries whose developmental trajectories have been disrupted by political instability or regime volatility. china’s long-term institutional continuity has allowed modernization to proceed incrementally rather than cyclically. (3) integration of modernization with national identity modernization in china is framed not merely as economic growth but as part of a larger historical mission of national rejuvenation. the narrative of “rejuvenation” functions as a political and cultural anchor that binds modernization to collective purpose, generating both normative legitimacy and societal mobilization. this has strengthened the political coherence of modernization efforts by embedding them within a broader historical narrative shared across generations. 2.4 the historical logic as a foundation for contemporary governance the historical logic discussed above continues to deeply shape china’s governance model today. several implications stand out. first, the state is expected to play a central role in modernization. this expectation is historically conditioned: because earlier attempts at decentralized or partial reform had failed, the state became the primary agent of modernization. as a result, public institutions retain legitimacy as modernizing actors. second, modernization is conceived as multidimensional. economic reform, political stability, social development, cultural renewal, and ecological sustainability are treated as interdependent rather than isolated sectors. this multidimensionality flows from historical lessons regarding the risks of partial modernization. third, modernization is framed as a collective undertaking. the emphasis on national revival reflects the belief that modernization is not a private or individualistic endeavor but a societal project requiring shared goals and coordinated effort. fourth, modernization is pursued through political continuity and institutional resilience. the chinese state’s capacity to maintain long-term planning, organizational unity, and policy coordination is historically rooted and continues to shape modernization outcomes. 2.5 summary the historical logic of chinese-style modernization shows that china’s modernization is not an imitation of western industrialization but a product of its own historical trajectory. shaped by crisis, revolution, and reconstruction, china’s modernization path developed as a response to historical necessity, national vulnerability, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 15 published by ideas spread and institutional rebuilding. this historical logic provides the political foundations upon which the institutional, governance, and civilizational logics of modernization are constructed. 3. institutional logic of chinese-style modernization if the historical logic of chinese-style modernization explains why modernization became a national imperative, the institutional logic illuminates how china has been able to sustain modernization through coherent political structures, adaptive governance mechanisms, and a resilient institutional system. institutional logic refers to the embedded patterns of organization, authority, and coordination that enable a political system to translate long-term developmental goals into realizable outcomes. in the chinese context, institutional logic is expressed through the organizational capacity of the state, the institutionalized norms governing policymaking, and the mechanisms of vertical and horizontal coordination that bind the political system together. this section argues that chinese-style modernization is grounded in an institutional configuration characterized by organizational coherence, adaptive flexibility, and strategic capacity—the combination of which distinguishes china’s governance model from both classical developmental states and contemporary liberal democracies. 3.1 organizational coherence and centralized coordination a core characteristic of china’s institutional logic is organizational coherence—the ability of the political system to act in a coordinated manner across different administrative levels and policy domains. political scientists often describe this as “state capacity,” but in china it is not merely administrative efficiency; it is the product of institutional design that balances political centralization with local initiative. (1) central leadership as the strategic command center the central leadership plays a key role in defining the overall direction of modernization. through mechanisms such as five-year plans, national strategies, and major policy agendas, the central authorities articulate long-term priorities and ensure that modernization efforts remain consistent across political cycles. unlike electoral democracies, where shifting coalitions often lead to policy discontinuity, china’s institutional system embeds modernization within a durable political project, reducing policy volatility. (2) vertical management and multi-level coordination china’s governance model relies on a structured form of vertical management in which administrative levels— from central ministries to county governments—are bound together by institutionalized channels of communication, supervision, and accountability. this vertical integration enhances policy execution by enabling directives from the center to be translated into local action. unlike classical command economies, however, local governments in china retain space for experimentation and innovation. scholars often refer to this arrangement as “directed improvisation”—a system where local initiative is encouraged within centrally defined parameters. this institutional feature has been widely recognized as a source of china’s developmental dynamism. (3) horizontal coordination across policy sectors modernization requires coordination across diverse policy arenas: industrial policy, social welfare, environmental governance, and digital infrastructure. china’s institutional system supports horizontal coordination through interagency mechanisms such as leading groups, joint committees, and task forces. these bodies mitigate bureaucratic fragmentation and promote integrated policy solutions—an institutional advantage not commonly seen in many large-scale political systems. 3.2 institutionalized policy planning and strategic capacity strategic capacity—the ability to formulate, revise, and sustain long-term developmental strategies—is another defining component of chinese institutional logic. this capacity emerges from institutionalized planning mechanisms that link national strategy with administrative implementation. (1) five-year plans as institutionalized strategic instruments since the 1950s, five-year plans have played a central role in structuring national development. over time, their function has shifted from rigid production targets toward flexible strategic guidance. contemporary five-year plans incorporate industrial upgrading, technological innovation, ecological sustainability, and social governance, reflecting a broadened understanding of modernization. these planning instruments create a shared cognitive framework across the political system. they signal national priorities, allocate administrative attention, and generate policy coherence across ministries and regions. (2) scenario-based governance and anticipatory policymaking hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 16 published by ideas spread a distinctive feature of china’s strategic capacity is the use of anticipatory governance—an institutional approach that emphasizes scenario analysis, early warning mechanisms, and long-term risk assessment. this anticipatory logic has been visible in areas such as technological self-reliance, public health, energy security, and demographic management. by embedding future-oriented thinking into policymaking, china’s institutional system enhances its ability to steer modernization under conditions of global uncertainty. this contrasts with governance systems where short-term electoral incentives constrain strategic thinking. (3) policy experimentation and iterative adaptation contrary to perceptions of rigidity, china’s institutional system is characterized by widespread policy experimentation. pilot programs, trial zones, and experimental governance models allow localities to test new approaches before nationwide adoption. this iterative process reduces implementation risk while enabling institutional learning. political scientists describe this as “adaptive authoritarianism,” though the terminology remains contested. what is undeniable is that this mechanism has produced substantial institutional flexibility, contributing to the resilience and longevity of china’s modernization project. 3.3 performance-based governance and institutional incentives institutional logic also includes the incentive structures that shape official behavior. china’s governance system employs a performance-based cadre evaluation mechanism that aligns local officials’ incentives with national modernization goals. (1) cadre evaluation as an institutional mechanism the cadre evaluation system links officials’ career advancement to performance metrics in areas such as economic growth, poverty alleviation, environmental protection, and social stability. this institutional mechanism creates a strong alignment between individual incentives and national objectives, reinforcing the capacity of the state to implement modernization policies. (2) accountability mechanisms and political discipline performance incentives are complemented by accountability measures. anti-corruption campaigns, intra-party supervision, and administrative audits maintain institutional discipline and reduce the risk of local deviation. this blend of incentives and discipline helps maintain organizational coherence across a vast administrative structure. (3) meritocratic elements in elite selection although china’s political system does not follow electoral competition, its elite selection process incorporates meritocratic components. officials typically progress through administrative levels based on performance, experience, and demonstrated governance competence. this meritocratic dimension strengthens state capacity and supports the institutional foundations of modernization. 3.4 institutional resilience and crisis management capacity institutional resilience—the ability to effectively respond to shocks, crises, and disruptions—is critical to sustained modernization. china’s historical experience with crises has produced a governance system capable of rapid mobilization and adaptive problem-solving. (1) high-speed mobilization capacity china’s institutional system maintains mechanisms for rapid mobilization in response to emergencies. whether dealing with public health crises, natural disasters, or economic shocks, the state can mobilize resources quickly across administrative levels. this capacity enhances national resilience and protects modernization gains from destabilizing events. (2) institutional learning from crises crises often serve as catalysts for institutional development. china’s governance system exhibits the ability to extract lessons from crises and integrate them into institutional reform. for example, public health governance reforms after major outbreaks, improvements in disaster response, and energy security strategies all reflect a pattern of institutional learning. (3) balancing stability and adaptation a defining feature of china’s institutional logic is the balance between institutional stability and adaptive governance. stability is maintained through centralized authority and organizational continuity; adaptation is hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 17 published by ideas spread achieved through experimentation, policy revision, and institutional recalibration. this balance has allowed china’s modernization to remain both predictable and flexible—an unusual combination in comparative political development. 3.5 institutional logic as the engine of modernization the institutional logic described above constitutes the operational engine of chinese-style modernization. it translates political objectives into implementable strategies and ensures that modernization remains coherent, adaptive, and resilient. the key features of this logic include:①organizational coherence, which enables coordinated policy execution.②strategic capacity, which provides long-term direction③adaptive flexibility, which allows institutional learning④performance incentives, which reinforce modernization priorities⑤resilience mechanisms, which protect modernization against disruptions. collectively, these institutional characteristics produce a governance system capable of managing the complexity of large-scale modernization. 3.6 summary while western modernization paths often emphasize institutional differentiation and political liberalization, china’s modernization is anchored in a governance-centered institutional configuration that blends political centralization, local experimentation, strategic planning, and performance-driven incentives. this institutional logic explains how china has been able to undertake modernization at an unprecedented demographic scale, maintain long-term policy coherence, and adapt to shifting developmental challenges. in short, the institutional logic of chinese-style modernization constitutes a distinctive model of political development—one that deviates from western liberal trajectories yet demonstrates internal consistency, governance effectiveness, and institutional resilience. 4. governance logic of chinese-style modernization: people-centered development and political rationality if historical logic explains why modernization became a national necessity, and institutional logic clarifies how the state organizes and executes modernization, then governance logic reveals the normative foundations that guide modernization practice. in the chinese context, governance logic is inseparable from the principle of “putting people at the center,” a normative orientation that shapes policy priorities, administrative behavior, and the strategic goals of modernization. this section argues that the governance logic of chinese-style modernization is structured around three interrelated principles: people-centered development as a normative foundation, distributive equity as a political objective, and coordinated governance as a practical mechanism. taken together, these principles form a coherent governance logic that expands the meaning of modernization beyond economic efficiency and embeds it within a broader vision of collective well-being and political legitimacy. 4.1 people-centered development as a normative foundation one of the distinguishing features of chinese-style modernization is its explicit normative orientation toward improving the material and social well-being of the population. while many modernization models implicitly assume that economic growth will eventually translate into improved living standards, the chinese governance approach treats the welfare of the people not as an expected outcome of economic development, but as a core political objective that guides policymaking. (1) people-centeredness as political legitimacy in china’s political system, the legitimacy of the state is grounded in its ability to improve people’s lives. this logic is not merely rhetorical; it is institutionalized in policy priorities, long-term planning, and administrative accountability. people-centered governance forms a political contract between the state and society: the state provides development, stability, and improved welfare; in return, society grants political legitimacy and supports the modernization agenda. (2) a developmental understanding of human well-being people-centered modernization does not equate well-being narrowly with income or consumption. instead, it encompasses education, healthcare, social security, ecological quality, and opportunities for personal development. this multidimensional understanding is reflected in national strategies such as poverty alleviation, rural revitalization, and regional coordination. (3) governance capacity as a moral responsibility hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 18 published by ideas spread the people-centered approach imposes a moral obligation on political institutions: governance capacity must be exercised for the purpose of serving the public. this principle informs administrative culture, cadre evaluation standards, and the political discourse surrounding modernization. as a result, modernization becomes a moral as well as political project. 4.2 distributive equity as a political objective another pillar of the governance logic is the pursuit of distributive equity. in contrast to western modernization, which often deepens inequality during early industrialization and relies on redistributive welfare states for correction, chinese modernization incorporates equity into the modernization process itself. (1) equity as part of the modernization agenda rather than treating inequality as an inevitable side effect of growth, china frames fairness and shared prosperity as integral to modernization. the concept of “common prosperity” reflects this idea: modernization is not meaningful if large segments of society are left behind. (2) poverty alleviation as a governance achievement china’s nationwide poverty alleviation campaign stands as a landmark example of distributive governance. through coordinated political and administrative efforts, china lifted hundreds of millions out of extreme poverty—an achievement that demonstrates the state’s capacity to mobilize resources for distributive goals. importantly, the campaign was not merely economic; it incorporated education, healthcare, housing, and local development planning, reflecting a holistic approach to distributive equity. (3) inequality management as governance capacity modernization brings structural risks of inequality through urbanization, labor division, and technological change. china’s governance logic addresses these risks through proactive policy measures such as regional coordination, basic public welfare provision, rural revitalization, and social insurance expansion. these policies demonstrate the political importance of managing inequality as a governance function rather than a secondary economic concern. 4.3 coordinated governance and policy integration the governance logic of chinese-style modernization is characterized by a holistic approach that integrates economic, social, cultural, and ecological dimensions. this coordination is not incidental—it is rooted in a view of governance that sees society as an interdependent system requiring balanced development. (1) governance as system coordination modernization in china is guided by the principle that economic progress must be coordinated with social stability, environmental protection, and cultural development. the governance system therefore emphasizes integrated policymaking across sectors. for instance, ecological protection is embedded in economic planning; cultural development is linked to social governance; rural revitalization integrates industrial upgrading with social welfare. (2) social governance as a modernization tool china’s modernization incorporates social governance innovations such as community-level services, digital governance tools, and grid-based management systems. these innovations enhance the state’s ability to deliver services efficiently, respond to social needs, and maintain stability. the integration of technology with social governance illustrates how modernization is pursued not only through economic means but through improvements in everyday public administration. (3) the role of participation and consultation while china’s governance system is not based on electoral competition, it incorporates consultative mechanisms and participatory elements. public hearings, community-level consultations, and targeted feedback mechanisms help incorporate social input into policy design. these practices support policy responsiveness and enhance the legitimacy of governance outcomes. 4.4 governance logic and the modernization of the state–society relationship a central component of the governance logic is the evolving relationship between the state and society. chinese modernization does not seek to weaken the state; instead, it seeks to modernize the relationship between state authority and social development. (1) a developmental partnership between state and society rather than a contentious relationship characterized by zero-sum power struggles, china’s state–society relationship is framed as a partnership aimed at achieving national modernization. the state creates opportunities, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 19 published by ideas spread maintains stability, and delivers public goods; society contributes through economic participation, innovation, and cultural vitality. (2) social mobility and public confidence modernization is most sustainable when society maintains confidence in political institutions. policies aimed at expanding educational access, supporting entrepreneurship, and improving mobility conditions reinforce societal optimism and stability—two essential ingredients for modernization. (3) the state as a provider of long-term certainty one of the unique aspects of chinese governance logic is the state’s ability to provide long-term certainty. this certainty benefits both businesses and citizens: investors can plan ahead, and families can make decisions about education, housing, and careers with greater confidence. certainty, in turn, strengthens the social foundations of modernization. 4.5 governance logic as a normative and practical engine of modernization when taken together, people-centered development, distributive equity, and coordinated governance form a governance logic fundamentally different from modernization models centered on market forces or political liberalization. in the chinese model: governance is not a constraint on modernization; it is a driver. the people are not passive recipients of development; they are the purpose of modernization.equity is not a long-term aspiration; it is an operational priority.social stability is not merely political control; it is a condition for sustainable modernization. this reconceptualization challenges modernization theories that assume governance plays a secondary role. in chinese-style modernization, governance is primary, and economic growth is only one of its multiple dimensions. 4.6 summary the governance logic of chinese-style modernization embeds modernization within a normative framework centered on human well-being, social fairness, and coordinated development. it views governance not simply as administration but as an engine of national transformation. this approach explains how china has been able to balance rapid economic change with social stability, manage large-scale structural transitions, and pursue modernization in a manner distinct from western developmental trajectories. 5. civilizational logic of chinese-style modernization and its global implications beyond historical imperatives, institutional mechanisms, and governance practices, chinese-style modernization is sustained—and in many ways distinguished—by its civilizational logic. modernization in china does not emerge from a cultural vacuum, nor can it be explained solely by economic structures or political organization. instead, it is deeply embedded in china’s long civilizational heritage, which shapes conceptions of political order, social harmony, collective responsibility, and the moral role of the state. this civilizational foundation not only informs china’s internal modernization project but also influences how china positions itself in the global order. this section argues that the civilizational logic of chinese-style modernization consists of three interlocking dimensions: philosophical orientations rooted in chinese political thought, cultural norms that inform social and political behavior, and an international outlook that shapes china’s approach to global development and global governance. 5.1 philosophical orientations underpinning modernization china’s modernization is supported by a set of philosophical ideas that differ significantly from the intellectual foundations of western modernity. whereas western modernization is often grounded in liberal individualism, social contract theory, and rationalist universalism, chinese political thought emphasizes relational ethics, moral governance, and holistic conceptions of order. these philosophical orientations subtly but powerfully influence the logic of modernization. (1) holism and the concept of integrated development a defining feature of chinese civilization is its holistic worldview. this worldview perceives society, nature, and governance as interconnected elements of a single system. in modernization, this translates into the idea that economic development must be coordinated with social well-being, cultural continuity, and ecological balance. holism supports the governance emphasis on multi-dimensional coordination and long-term planning. (2) moral governance as a political principle classical chinese political thought places strong emphasis on the moral responsibilities of rulers. although contemporary china operates under a modern political system, the normative expectation that political authority hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 20 published by ideas spread should serve the people has deep cultural roots. this civilizational heritage reinforces the governance logic discussed earlier: modernization is evaluated not merely by economic metrics but by its contribution to public welfare and collective harmony. (3) harmony as a normative ideal the ideal of harmony—between individuals, social groups, and between humans and nature—has enduring influence. unlike western traditions that often frame progress as a result of conflict or competition, chinese civilization views harmony as both a social condition and normative goal. this orientation informs policy preferences for stability, consensus-building, and gradual reform rather than disruptive transformation. 5.2 cultural norms and social behavior in modernization civilizational logic is not confined to abstract philosophy; it manifests in cultural practices and social expectations that shape how modernization unfolds. these norms influence governance processes, public participation, and the state–society relationship. (1) collective orientation and social responsibility chinese culture places emphasis on collective well-being and shared responsibility. this cultural orientation underlies public readiness to participate in nationwide campaigns—from poverty alleviation to public health initiatives—and supports the governance system’s capacity to mobilize society for common goals. (2) high societal tolerance for long-term planning a population shaped by a long civilizational history tends to accept long-term political planning and phased modernization strategies. this contrasts with societies where political impatience or short electoral cycles fragment long-term agenda-setting. cultural tolerance for gradualism strengthens the viability of strategic modernization plans. (3) social trust in institutions china’s modernization also benefits from relatively high levels of trust in political institutions, especially regarding developmental policy. this trust is reinforced by historical patterns of political authority and by contemporary governance performance. social trust enhances policy compliance and facilitates collective action, making largescale modernization projects more achievable. 5.3 the civilizational logic and china’s global role civilizational logic does not operate solely domestically. it also informs china’s approach to global engagement, development cooperation, and international governance. as china modernizes, it increasingly articulates its development philosophy to the world—not as a prescriptive model but as an alternative pathway. (1) modernization without westernization china’s civilizational logic challenges the long-standing assumption that modernization inevitably requires westernization. by demonstrating that modernity can emerge within different political traditions and cultural frameworks, china contributes to a broader intellectual shift in modernization theory. this challenges the universality of western liberal frameworks and broadens the conceptual space for alternative developmental trajectories. (2) a non-hegemonic international outlook rooted in civilizational traditions emphasizing harmony and non-interference, china’s foreign policy approach frames development as cooperative rather than competitive. this perspective stands in contrast to modernization experiences that historically relied on colonialism or geopolitical dominance. china’s global development initiatives emphasize mutual benefit, respect for sovereignty, and non-imposition—principles reflective of its historical worldview. (3) south–south cooperation and the global south perspective china’s modernization experience resonates strongly with countries in the global south. many developing states seek modernization while grappling with postcolonial legacies, demographic pressures, and social inequalities— conditions very different from those of early-industrializing western states. china’s civilizational logic, institutional experiments, and governance strategies offer insights applicable to other countries seeking to modernize without adopting western institutional templates. 5.4 the civilizational logic and global governance debates as chinese-style modernization gains visibility, it initiates new debates in global governance and political theory. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 21 published by ideas spread (1) rethinking universalism in modernization theory modernization theory traditionally claimed universality based on western experiences. the chinese case disrupts this narrative by demonstrating that modernization can follow diverse institutional, cultural, and philosophical pathways. this pluralization of modernization enriches political theory and challenges outdated assumptions about political development. (2) state capacity as a civilizational asset china’s civilizational tradition of valuing strong, capable governance complicates debates about the relationship between state capacity and modernization. while western scholarship often views state strength with suspicion— equating it with authoritarianism—china demonstrates how state capacity can support equity, stability, and public welfare. this repositions state capacity as a potential asset rather than a liability. (3) normative diversity in global governance china’s civilizational logic contributes to a more diverse normative landscape in global governance. rather than promoting a singular model of political development, it supports a multipolar normative order where different political traditions, civilizational histories, and developmental priorities can coexist. 5.5 summary the civilizational logic of chinese-style modernization is not a cultural relic; it is a living framework that shapes modernization as both a domestic governance project and a global contributor. it reflects philosophical orientations, cultural norms, and international perspectives that collectively expand the meaning of modernization. in doing so, civilizational logic provides not only a distinctive foundation for china’s own modernization but also a valuable reference for global debates on development and governance. 6. conclusion chinese-style modernization represents one of the most significant phenomena in contemporary political development, not only because of the scale of its transformation but also because of its coherent internal logic. as this paper has argued, chinese-style modernization cannot be understood within traditional modernization theories rooted in western liberal political traditions. instead, it must be viewed as a political development paradigm grounded in china’s unique historical experiences, institutional structures, governance practices, and civilizational foundations. the historical logic of modernization in china reflects a century-long effort to overcome national fragmentation, restore political authority, and pursue national rejuvenation. modernization emerged as both a response to existential crisis and a conscious political project pursued through state reconstruction, institutional building, and social mobilization. this historical logic continues to shape the motivations, priorities, and strategic orientation of modernization today, giving it a depth and continuity not always present in countries that followed market-driven, externally directed paths. institutional logic further clarifies how modernization becomes practically possible. china’s institutional system— characterized by strong organizational coherence, multi-level coordination, adaptive flexibility, and meritocratic elements—provides the administrative foundation for sustained modernization. strategic planning mechanisms, policy experimentation, and performance-based governance constitute an institutional architecture capable of handling the complexity of transformation at a demographic scale unprecedented in human history. in this context, modernization is less a spontaneous process and more the result of deliberate, coordinated institutional design. the governance logic of chinese-style modernization adds a normative dimension. rather than equating modernization solely with economic efficiency or technological advancement, china situates modernization within a people-centered framework. public welfare, distributive equity, rural revitalization, and ecological sustainability form part of the modernization agenda—not afterthoughts or redistributive corrections. this governance logic positions modernization as a process through which state capacity and public well-being reinforce each other, contributing to a conception of development that integrates economic, social, and moral objectives. finally, the civilizational logic underlying chinese modernization highlights the cultural and philosophical foundations that shape china’s development path. concepts such as harmony, collective responsibility, moral governance, and holistic balance inform policy preferences and political behavior. these civilizational elements challenge western assumptions that modernization requires cultural convergence or institutional replication. instead, chinese-style modernization demonstrates that modern political development can be culturally rooted, historically shaped, and civilizationally distinct. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 22 published by ideas spread taken together, these four logics—historical, institutional, governance, and civilizational—form a coherent analytical framework for understanding the internal dynamics of chinese-style modernization. they illustrate that china’s modernization is not a departure from global modernity, but a rearticulation of modernity through a different political rationality. this has significant implications for political science. first, chinese-style modernization compels scholars to reconsider the universality of western modernization theory. the chinese case underscores the need for more pluralistic approaches to political development— approaches that recognize multiple pathways shaped by different historical conditions, institutional arrangements, and civilizational contexts. second, it highlights the importance of state capacity as an independent variable in modernization. whereas classical modernization theory often assumes that economic development precedes institutional capacity, china’s trajectory suggests the reverse: institutional capacity and political coherence can shape economic outcomes and public welfare improvements. this challenges established causal assumptions within political science. third, the chinese case expands the conceptual boundaries of governance. modernization in china is not judged solely by economic metrics but by its ability to enhance social well-being, manage inequality, protect ecological integrity, and maintain long-term stability. this multidimensional conception of governance offers new insights for global debates on how states can navigate complex developmental challenges. fourth, the chinese experience carries implications for the global south. many developing countries face structural constraints—colonial legacies, resource dependency, institutional fragility—that cannot be addressed by importing western liberal institutions. china’s modernization shows how developmental strategies rooted in local histories and political capacities may offer more viable trajectories. in conclusion, chinese-style modernization is a political development paradigm that integrates long-term historical consciousness, institutional resilience, people-centered governance, and civilizational continuity. while not universally replicable, it nevertheless enriches contemporary political theory by providing an analytically coherent and empirically grounded alternative to western-centric models of modernization. as global political and economic landscapes continue to shift, the significance of chinese-style modernization will extend beyond national boundaries, shaping debates about governance, development, and the future of modernity itself. references acemoglu, d., & robinson, j. a. 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(2024). the open political economy logic of chinese-style modernization. world economics and politics (shijie jingji yu zhengzhi), (10), 3–32, 159–160. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n3p143 143 published by ideas spread measurement and analysis of opportunity inequality in residents' income zhenghui jin1 1 school of statistics and applied mathematics, anhui university of finance and economics, china correspondence: zhenghui jin, school of statistics and applied mathematics, anhui university of finance and economics, china. received: june 6, 2025; accepted: june 26, 2025; published: june 26, 2025 abstract based on data from the china family panel studies (cfps), this study employs a parametric method to measure the degree of opportunity inequality in residents' income. it analyzes the spatial distribution characteristics across eight regions and delves into the contribution mechanisms of grouped environmental variables to income inequality. the empirical findings reveal that family environment factors consistently serve as the core driving force behind income opportunity inequality, with a persistently stable and significant contribution, underscoring the enduring impact of intergenerational transmission. regional environmental factors exhibit significant fluctuations in their contributions, which are closely synchronized with the evolution of the overall inequality index, highlighting the pivotal role of regional development disparities in shaping inequality patterns. the contribution of individually controllable factors shows a gradual upward trend, providing a buffering effect, particularly during phases of declining opportunity inequality. overall, the influence of environmental groupings on income inequality is characterized by a three-dimensional dynamic pattern of "family dominance, regional fluctuation, and individual enhancement." keywords: income inequality, opportunity inequality 1. introduction common prosperity is a crucial goal for building a modern socialist nation and represents a vital pathway for china to advance social equity and justice while enhancing the well-being of all citizens. however, despite rapid economic and social development, significant income disparities persist among chinese residents, with opportunity inequality emerging as a critical factor influencing income distribution. opportunity inequality not only directly impacts individual income levels but also perpetuates social stratification through intergenerational transmission, reducing social mobility and hindering the realization of common prosperity. the formation of opportunity inequality is complex and multifaceted, encompassing the long-term influence of family background on education and resource allocation, regional economic disparities, individual differences in ability, and social environmental factors. therefore, measuring and analyzing income opportunity inequality from the perspective of environmental groupings can clarify the specific mechanisms by which family, regional, individual, and societal factors shape income distribution, providing a scientific basis for formulating more precise and effective income distribution policies. current research on opportunity inequality mainly focuses on its measurement and impacts. romer (1993) introduced the innovative "circumstance-effort" dual framework to define opportunity inequality as income inequality driven by environmental factors. building on this foundation, several measurement methods for opportunity inequality have been developed, including the ex-ante approach (van de gaer, 1993; kranich, 1996), the ex-post approach (romer, 1993, 1998; fleurbaey, 1995), parametric methods (ferreira & gignoux, 2011), and non-parametric methods (checchi & peragine, 2010; lefranc et al., 2008). in recent years, the ex-ante parametric method has become the predominant approach in the literature. for example, scholars in china have adopted modified parametric methods to measure opportunity inequality. lei xin (2018) improved the parametric approach by considering the impacts of unobservable environmental and effort variables and addressing the correlation between these variables. li jinye (2019) utilized regression tree models for measurement, while wan xiangyu (2023) employed machine learning models based on integrated regression trees and introduced quantile regression forests to extend the analysis of opportunity inequality from income means to income distributions. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 144 published by ideas spread on the other hand, existing studies have also highlighted the impacts of opportunity inequality on household consumption expenditure, employment levels and hierarchies, mental health, and wealth inequality (zhang mingzhi, 2023; yang biyun, 2024; li qiaoge, 2025; sun sanbai, 2023). against the backdrop of common prosperity, this study revisits the measurement and analysis of opportunity inequality in residents' income, focusing on the influence of different environmental variable groupings on income inequality. the findings aim to reveal the structural causes of inequality and provide theoretical support for policy design and optimization, ultimately promoting the equitable sharing of development outcomes across society and achieving the grand vision of common prosperity. 2. research methodology 2.1 parametric measurement method for opportunity inequality this study adopts the mainstream parametric measurement method for opportunity inequality as proposed by bourguignon (2007) and ferreira and gignoux (2011) to quantify the degree of opportunity inequality in individual incomes. based on roemer's "circumstance-effort" dual theoretical framework of opportunity inequality, a mincer income equation is constructed as follows: 0ln i i ic ey   = + + (1) yi represents an individual's total income, c denotes the vector of the individual's environmental variables, ei represents the vector of the individual's effort variables, and μi captures unobservable factors such as luck. it is assumed that an individual's effort level is a linear function of their environmental variables: i ie vc= + (2) substituting equation (2) into equation (1) and simplifying yields: ln i icy = + (3) where 0 , i i iv     + == + , by estimating equation (3) to obtain fitted values and averaging all environmental variable vectors, the counterfactual income distribution is obtained: exp( )ˆ ˆ i cy  = + (4) based on the results, the theil t index and theil l index are calculated respectively: 1 ] 1 ( )( ) [ / ln( )/ n t i i i i y y n y y y = =  (5) ( ) 1 1 ln ln( ) n l i i i y yy n = −=  (6) this study uses the theil index as a measure of income inequality and, based on it, calculates the opportunity inequality index. the theil index is an indicator used to assess the degree of inequality in income or resource distribution and has two common forms: the t-shaped theil index, which is more sensitive to inequality among high-income or high-resource holders, and the l-shaped theil index, which is more sensitive to inequality among low-income or low-resource holders. by substituting the actual income distribution y and the counterfactual income distributiony into equations (5) and (6) respectively, and since the individual environmental variables have been averaged, the opportunity inequality index is obtained by subtracting the theil index of the counterfactual income distribution from that of the actual income distribution. additionally, the relative share of opportunity inequality in total income inequality can be calculated as follows: ( ) ( )t t ti i y yio = − (7) ( ) ( ) ll li i y yio = − (8) hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 145 published by ideas spread [ ( ) ( )] / ( )t t t ti ii ior y y y= − (9) [ ( ) ( )] / ( )l l l li ii ior y y y= − (10) 2.2 shapley value regression decomposition the shapley value, originating from game theory in the 1950s, is used to quantify the marginal contribution of each participant to the total payoff in a cooperative game. this method has been widely applied in economics and social sciences to achieve a fair distribution of gains or costs. in regression models, the shapley value method independently and unbiasedly quantifies the marginal contribution of explanatory variables to the dependent variable by evaluating all possible combinations of variables. in machine learning, shapley value decomposition calculates the average marginal contribution of each feature to the model’s prediction by considering all possible feature combinations, thereby providing a fair explanation of the model’s predictions. consider a cooperative game with m participants and a value function f(a). the shapley value f assigns to each participant $k$ their marginal contribution to the total payoff, defined by equation (11): { } | | ! ( | | 1)! [ ( { }) ( )] ! k a m k a m a f a k f a m    − − =   − (11) a is a subset of participants excluding participant k; |a| is the size of subset a; f(a) is the value of subset a; ( { }) ( )f a k f a − is the marginal contribution of participant k to subset a; | | ! ( | | 1)! ! a m a m  − − is the weighting factor. 3. variables 3.1 effort variables following existing research (ferreira and gignoux, 2011) and considering data completeness and availability, this study selects the following variables as effort variables influencing individual income levels: marital status, weekly working hours, social status, and education level. traditionally, the phrase “establishing a family and career” reflects the cultural importance of marriage, which is often used as a standard to evaluate whether a person is “successful.” marriage typically requires individuals to invest emotions, responsibilities, and time, which can indicate their willingness and degree of effort. working hours directly reflect an individual’s dedication to their profession; longer working hours generally imply greater effort and commitment to career development. although it is recognized that disadvantaged environments contribute to about 30% of educational opportunity inequality, effort remains the dominant factor affecting education level (yang juan and zhang lifang, 2024). under a relatively fair education examination system, the number of years of education an individual attains is usually related to the time and energy they are willing to invest in acquiring knowledge and skills. higher education levels typically require prolonged learning, testing, and practice, all of which reflect individual effort. 3.2 environmental variables environmental variables are typically those that individuals cannot change through their own efforts. drawing on the approaches of dong lixia (2025) and zhang tongjin et al. (2024), this study uses 10 environmental variables divided into four categories: regional environment variables (hukou type, province, region), personal environment variables (gender, age), family environment variables (family social status, family net assets, family size, parental education level), and social environment variables (economic development level, government support intensity). individual income is influenced by many uncontrollable factors. research on intergenerational income transmission (peng jun and zhao xiliang, 2024) shows that parents’ income levels and related factors significantly affect their children’s income. gender and age, as innate characteristics, cannot be changed but have a clear impact on income levels. family size, family social status, and family net assets influence the formation of an individual’s abilities and personality, which in turn determine income capacity in adulthood. since economically developed hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 146 published by ideas spread areas typically offer more high-paying opportunities and better resources, regional differences and economic development levels have a significant impact on income. social status is often the result of long-term effort and resource accumulation. although social status may also be influenced by family background and other external factors, personal effort plays an important role in its improvement. 3.3 regional variables according to the division standards of the eight comprehensive economic zones set by the development research center of the state council in “strategies and policies for regional coordinated development,” the regions are divided as follows: northeast region: liaoning, jilin, heilongjiang eastern coastal region: shanghai, jiangsu, zhejiang northern coastal region: beijing, tianjin, hebei, shandong southern coastal region: fujian, guangdong, hainan middle yellow river region: shaanxi, shanxi, henan, inner mongolia middle yangtze river region: hubei, hunan, jiangxi, anhui southwest region: yunnan, guizhou, sichuan, chongqing, guangxi northwest region: gansu, qinghai, ningxia, tibet, xinjiang 3.4 income variable when estimating the income determination equation, this study selects the total income reported by the individual in the past 12 months as the dependent variable. compared to total wage income or labor income alone, total income more comprehensively reflects the part of individual income influenced by environmental variables, such as investment returns from family financial assets. table 1. table of key variable definitions variable names variable definitions dependent variable lnfinc personal income level effort variables marrige marital status workhour weekly working hours eduy education level environmental variables regional environmental variables urban hukou type (household registration type) region region provcd province personal environmental variables age2 age gender gender family environmental variables asset family net assets dw family social status size family size pareduy parental education level social environmental variables lngdp economic development level (logarithm of per capita gdp) govsup government support intensity 4. data this study utilizes the five datasets released by the china family panel studies (cfps) covering the years 2014 to 2022 as its sample. the survey provides comprehensive data on individuals, families, society, and regions, which serve as a foundation for this research. the sample is restricted to individuals with economic income who have provided income data. specifically, the variables included are as follows: 4.1 income variables individual income level: the logarithm of total income over the past 12 months, as reported in the survey questionnaire by each sampled individual. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 147 published by ideas spread 4.2 effort variables marital status: a binary variable where married individuals are coded as 1 and unmarried as 0. education level: corresponds to years of schooling based on respondents’ highest education level, coded as 0 = illiterate/semi-illiterate, 6 = primary school, 9 = junior high school, 12 = high school/technical secondary school/vocational school, 15 = junior college, 16 = bachelor’s degree, 19 = master’s degree, 22 = doctoral degree. working hours: number of hours worked by the respondent in the past week. social status: ranked from 1 to 5, with 1 being lowest and 5 highest. 4.3 environmental variables age: age squared divided by 10. gender: a binary variable coded 1 for male and 0 for female. hukou type: a binary variable coded 1 for urban residents and 0 for rural residents. province: administrative region code of the people’s republic of china (gb/t2260—999). region: a binary variable generated from the province variable, dividing the sample into eight economic zones. family net assets: logarithm of family net assets. family size: number of family members. parental education level: calculated similarly to the respondent’s education level, by averaging the years of schooling of both parents. economic development level: logarithm of the local per capita gdp of the respondent’s area in the current year. government support intensity: ratio of fiscal expenditure to gdp in the given year multiplied by 100. in summary, the cfps datasets during the sample period contain 86,294 observations. after excluding samples under 22 years of age and those with missing variables, and performing a 1% winsorization, the final sample size used in this study is 31,202 observations. 5. analysis and recommendations on opportunity inequality measurement results 5.1 measurement results the income inequality results for the nation and various economic regions during the even years from 2014 to 2022, calculated using equations (5) and (6), are presented in table 2. table 2. national and regional income inequality results index 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 nationwide theil t index 0.4490 0.4889 0.4463 0.4324 0.5288 theil l index 0.4369 0.4914 0.4755 0.4693 0.4851 northeast theil t index 0.2627 0.2357 0.3551 0.3244 0.2682 theil l index 0.2802 0.2828 0.3689 0.3709 0.3036 northern coastal theil t index 0.4552 0.5181 0.5309 0.4078 0.4555 theil l index 0.4574 0.4802 0.5229 0.4617 0.4717 eastern coastal theil t index 0.4335 0.4489 0.3104 0.3377 0.6992 theil l index 0.4074 0.3960 0.3555 0.3783 0.4768 southern coastal theil t index 0.4160 0.4348 0.4398 0.4246 0.3690 theil l index 0.4412 0.4580 0.4548 0.4594 0.4192 middle yellow river theil t index 0.2974 0.3426 0.3485 0.3358 0.3739 theil l index 0.3463 0.4093 0.3943 0.3874 0.4287 index 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 middle yangtze river theil t index 0.3280 0.4541 0.3751 0.3908 0.2910 theil l index 0.3745 0.4784 0.4084 0.4206 0.3555 southwest theil t index 0.3640 0.6600 0.4492 0.5032 0.3521 theil l index 0.4259 0.6709 0.5161 0.5360 0.4293 northwest theil t index 0.7444 0.3580 0.4292 0.3054 0.5928 theil l index 0.5165 0.3862 0.4264 0.3541 0.4835 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 148 published by ideas spread the national t-shaped theil index increased from 0.4490 in 2014 to 0.5288 in 2022, showing a trend of first decreasing and then rising, indicating a slight increase in income inequality. the l-shaped theil index fluctuated slightly between 0.4369 and 0.4851 from 2014 to 2020, rising modestly to 0.4851 in 2022, suggesting a slight strengthening of inequality fluctuations nationwide, especially in interregional inequality. regional characteristics are as follows: northeast region: the t-shaped theil index decreased slightly from 0.2627 to 0.2682, with small changes, but showed significant volatility after 2016, possibly related to economic transformation and other factors. northern coastal region: the t-shaped theil index peaked at 0.5181 in 2016, then dropped to 0.4078 in 2020, potentially reflecting the effects of economic development and policy regulation. eastern coastal region: the index remained relatively stable between 2014 and 2018, then sharply increased to 0.6992 in 2022, indicating a notable rise in inequality possibly related to economic slowdown and regional imbalances. northwestern region: the index was 0.7444 in 2014, declined to 0.3054 in 2020, and rebounded to 0.5928 in 2022, showing that inequality was influenced by resource-based economies and population mobility. southern coastal and middle yellow river regions: the index mostly ranged between 0.3 and 0.4, with small fluctuations, indicating relatively balanced income distribution. using equations (7) to (10), the income opportunity inequality index and its relative share of income inequality were calculated nationally and by region, as shown in the accompanying figure. the results indicate that both the national level and most regions (northeast, eastern coastal, southern coastal, and southwest) exhibit an inverted u-shaped distribution in opportunity inequality index and its share, while the middle yangtze river and northwest regions show a w-shaped pattern. figure 1. results of national and regional opportunity inequality and its proportion from 2014 to 2022, the national high-income sensitive and low-income sensitive opportunity inequality indices generally fluctuated, without a clear unidirectional trend across years, but significant regional differences were evident. high-income regions such as the northern and eastern coastal areas had relatively high opportunity hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 149 published by ideas spread inequality levels, especially with marked fluctuations between 2014 and 2018, followed by gradual stabilization, reflecting a gradual mitigation of inequality effects brought by economic development. in contrast, economically less developed regions like the northwest and middle yellow river areas exhibited lower absolute levels but greater volatility, with opportunity inequality having a stronger explanatory power for income inequality, peaking around 2020. this indicates that opportunity inequality issues were particularly prominent in these regions during their economic development. in 2022, the proportion of the opportunity inequality index relative to the income inequality index declined significantly in multiple regions, possibly related to optimized economic policies, income distribution reforms, and structural adjustment measures. the northeast region showed a low opportunity inequality index but a relatively high share, indicating that income inequality there stems more from unequal opportunities. meanwhile, the southern coastal and southwest regions exhibited a gradually weakening explanatory power of opportunity inequality on income inequality, likely benefiting from regional economic structural adjustments and policy support. overall, the widespread downward trend in 2022 reflects the preliminary effectiveness of policy interventions in alleviating income and opportunity inequalities, although regional imbalances persist. 5.2 shapley value decomposition following established methodologies in the literature, this study employs shapley value regression decomposition to estimate the contribution rates of various environmental factors to overall income inequality. according to the classification presented in table 1, variables are categorized into four environmental groups: regional, social, family, and personal. within each environmental group, variables are processed using principal component analysis (pca) to extract the first principal component as the cointegration result. the contribution rate of each environmental group's cointegration result to overall income inequality is then calculated. figure 2. contribution rates of environmental groups to income inequality the analysis of the contribution rates of environmental factors to income inequality indicates that the family environment has consistently been the primary driver of income inequality. notably, in 2018 and 2020, its contribution rates reached 70.34% and 69.59%, respectively, corresponding to the high values of the opportunity inequality index in those years. this highlights the crucial role of family background in driving opportunity inequality. the contribution rate of the regional environment fluctuates significantly, aligning with the trend of the l-shaped theil index, demonstrating the important impact of regional disparities on income inequality. additionally, the contribution rate of personal factors was relatively high in 2022, while the opportunity inequality index declined, suggesting that improvements in individual capabilities have played a certain role in mitigating income gaps. overall, the influence of environmental factors on income inequality shows characteristics of family dominance, regional fluctuations, and a gradually strengthening role of personal factors. based on the analysis of the contribution rates of environmental factors to income inequality and their underlying drivers, the following targeted policy recommendations are proposed: hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 150 published by ideas spread given the significant impact of the family environment on income inequality, efforts should be made to enhance educational equity. this can be achieved by optimizing the regional allocation of educational resources and increasing support for remote and economically underdeveloped areas to reduce disparities in educational opportunities caused by differences in family background. in addition, education subsidies and early childhood education support policies aimed at low-income families should be implemented to alleviate the intergenerational transmission effect on income inequality. to reduce the contribution of regional environment to income inequality, further promotion of coordinated regional economic development is necessary. it is recommended to increase infrastructure and industrial support for underdeveloped regions to promote balanced economic development across regions. at the same time, mechanisms for cross-regional resource flow and distribution should be established to effectively reduce the negative effects of regional economic development disparities on income distribution. the enhancement of personal capabilities has played a positive role in narrowing income gaps, and it is advisable to deepen vocational skills training and employment promotion policies. targeted vocational training programs should be provided for low-income groups to help them integrate into high-quality employment markets. meanwhile, the entrepreneurial environment should be improved through financial support and tax incentives to create more development opportunities for small and micro enterprises and individual entrepreneurs. to reduce opportunity inequality, social mobility should be strengthened, ensuring fair employment and comprehensive social security coverage. labor market regulation should be reinforced to eliminate employment discrimination and guarantee the fair distribution of labor opportunities. by expanding the coverage of the social welfare system, the medical, elderly care, and housing conditions of low-income groups should be improved to lower structural barriers to social mobility. a dynamic monitoring mechanism should be established to track the evolving trends of income inequality and scientifically evaluate policy effectiveness. by regularly calculating the contribution rates and changing trends of each environmental factor to income inequality, precise data support for policy adjustment can be provided, ensuring the relevance and effectiveness of policies. references checchi, d., & peragine, v. (2010). inequality of opportunity in italy. the journal of economic inequality, 8(4), 429–450. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10888-009-9118-3 dong, l. (2025). wealth opportunity fairness and common prosperity: measurement and decomposition based on opportunity inequality. economic theory and economic management, 45(02), 75–95. ferreira, f. h., & gignoux, j. (2011). the measurement of inequality of opportunity: theory and an application to latin america. review of income and wealth, 57(4), 622–657. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14754991.2011.00467.x fleurbaey, m. (1955). three solutions for the compensation problem. journal of economic theory, 65(2), 505– 521. https://doi.org/10.1006/jeth.1995.1018 kranich, l. (1996). equitable opportunities: an axiomatic approach. journal of economic theory, 71(1), 131–147. https://doi.org/10.1006/jeth.1996.0112 lefranc, a., pistolesi, n., & trannoy, a. (2008). inequality of opportunities vs. inequality of outcomes: are western societies all alike? review of income and wealth, 54(4), 531–546. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14754991.2008.00289.x lei, x., jia, y., & gong, f. (2018). measurement of opportunity inequality: application and improvement of parametric measurement methods. statistical research, 35(04), 73–85. li, j., & hao, x. (2019). measurement of opportunity inequality: application and comparison of regression tree models. statistics and information forum, 34(10), 3–13. li, q., nie, p., xu, b., et al. (2025). the impact of income opportunity inequality on chinese residents' mental health. population and development, 31(01), 70–79. peng, j., & zhao, x. (2024). measurement and mechanism study of intergenerational income mobility between urban and rural areas in china. statistics and information forum, 39(07), 112–128. roemer, j. e. (1993). a pragmatic theory of responsibility for the egalitarian planner. philosophy & public affairs, 146–166. roemer, j. e. (1998). equality of opportunity. cambridge, ma and london: harvard university press. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 151 published by ideas spread https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674042872 sun, s., zhang, q., & li, r. (2023). measurement and source identification of wealth opportunity inequality in china: discussion on the path choice for common prosperity. financial research, (11), 97–114. van de gaer, d. f. g. (1993). equality of opportunity and investment in human capital (ph.d. dissertation). university of leuven. wan, x., zhang, c., & tang, l. (2024). re-estimation of income opportunity inequality of chinese residents: new findings from machine learning. quantitative economics and technical economics research, 41(01), 192– 212. wu, s., & luo, c. (2025). opportunity inequality in income gaps and its dynamic changes. journal of xiangtan university (philosophy and social sciences edition), 49(01), 64–71. yang, b., liang, z., yi, x., et al. (2024). mechanism and effects of opportunity inequality on residents’ consumption: an empirical study based on cfps data. nankai economic studies, (03), 20–40. yang, j., & zhang, l. (2024). changing trends of educational inequality in china: a perspective based on opportunity inequality. education economics review, 9(06), 3–26. yang, z., & sun, x. (2024). opportunity inequality in rural residents’ income gaps in china. journal of south china agricultural university (social science edition), 23(01), 35–47. zhang, m., bian, s., & chen, y. (2023). the impact of opportunity inequality on employment level and employment hierarchy. population journal, 45(05), 83–96. zhang, t., guo, z., & li, x. (2024). can the digital economy reduce income opportunity inequality? empirical evidence from chinese cities. journal of shanxi university of finance and economics, 46(09), 28–40. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n5p78 78 published by ideas spread critique and transcendence of digital capitalism: an analysis of the theoretical and practical path to digital socialism tian xiong1 & li wen2 1 hainan vocational university of science and technology, china 2 hebei university, china correspondence: tian xiong, hainan vocational university of science and technology, hainan haikou, 571126, china. e-mail: 1941349348@qq.com received: september 24, 2025; accepted: october 9, 2025; published: october 10, 2025 abstract the deep integration of digital technology and capital logic has given birth to digital capitalism. it reconstructs the mode of production and social relations through data monopoly, algorithm control and platform mechanism, but it also aggravates systemic crises such as labor alienation, social inequality and technological monopoly. based on marx 's political economy, this paper deeply analyzes the essence, internal contradictions, limitations and crises of digital capitalism, and reveals the essence of exploitation under the appearance of " technology empowerment " from the perspective of marxist criticism. at the same time, this paper integrates the unique experience of digital socialism attempts in european and american countries, western left-wing practice and chinese model, explores the diversified practice path of digital socialism, and provides theoretical reference and practical direction for building a new form of digital society that takes into account efficiency and fairness. keywords: digital capitalism, digital socialism, labor alienation, data sharing, marx's labor theory of value 1. introduction since the 21 st century, the deep coupling of digital technology and capital logic has spawned a digital capitalist form characterized by platform monopoly, data privatization, and algorithm control. with the characteristics of high efficiency, interconnection and intelligence, digital technology profoundly empowers social productivity and shows great 'liberation potential'. however, under the framework of capitalist production relations, this potential does not automatically lead to the universal liberation of human beings. on the contrary, the 'deep coupling' of capital logic and digital technology has spawned a more hidden and expansive capital accumulation model digital capitalism. 'digital socialism' is not a negation of digital technology, but a correction of technological alienation, aiming to reposition digital technology from a tool of capital proliferation to a force of social liberation. digital capitalism presents a complex 'duality' paradox: it is not only an 'enabler' to improve efficiency and create convenience, but also a 'controller' to aggravate exploitation and create injustice. with the help of gorgeous narratives such as 'sharing economy' and 'flexible employment', it conceals the algorithmic manipulation of the labor process, the free deprivation of data and the global technological monopoly. therefore, the profound marxist criticism of digital capitalism and the exploration of its possible transcendence path are not only the contemporary verification of classical theory, but also the urgent task of responding to the major challenges of the times and conceiving the future social form. 2. the essence and internal contradiction of digital capitalism 2.1 integration of digital technology and capital logic the essence of digital capitalism is a new form of capitalism in the evolution of the information age. it not only inherits the core characteristics of traditional capitalism, such as capital accumulation, exploitation mechanism and class antagonism, but also realizes the profound transformation of production mode and social relations with the help of digital technology. this new form of development not only further strengthens the dominant position of capitalism in the world, but also provides a new perspective and understanding framework for examining and criticizing capitalism. as a new chapter of capitalism in the information age, the core of digital capitalism lies in the close combination of digital technology and capital logic. this combination not only promotes the transformation of production methods, but also profoundly affects social relations and capital appreciation models. its remarkable feature is that digital technology has become a new factor of production, reshaping traditional hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 79 published by ideas spread production relations through digital, intelligent and platform-based means. this reshaping is not only reflected in the improvement of production efficiency, but also in its ability to become a powerful assistant for capital appreciation digital technology achieves rapid capital appreciation through ' enclosure ' primitive accumulation and exploitation of labor value, and promotes the global expansion of capital [ 1 ]. in this process, the accumulation of digital capital, the creation of digital living labor and the exploitation of surplus value by digital capital together constitute the generation mechanism of digital capitalism. however, digital capitalism is not entirely positive. while increasing the degree of socialization of production and promoting rapid economic development, it also exacerbates social inequality. at the level of ideology and political attributes, digital capitalism has constructed a new capitalist ideology with new consumerism as the core through the combination of technical means and ideology. it uses technical means to re-plan the consumer world to adapt to the logic of capital ; at the same time, algorithm and data control have become new means to cover up the essence of exploitation and strengthen capital control. 2.2 the transformation of digital labor and alienated labor from the perspective of marx 's alienated labor theory, we can deeply reveal the characteristics and essence of digital capitalism. under the framework of digital capitalism, digital labor has risen to the dominant form of labor, and its essence is the extension and deepening of capitalist production relations in the digital context. this form of labor not only inherits the exploitation logic of traditional capitalism, but also aggravates the alienation of workers with the help of digital technology. there is a close relationship between digital labor and alienated labor. on the one hand, digital labor shows a new dimension of alienated labor : at the level of labor products, digital products such as data and algorithms become the key to capital proliferation, and workers ' ownership of their results is deprived ; at the level of labor process, algorithm monitoring, automation and platformization means to extend labor time and deprive workers of their autonomy ; at the level of the nature of laborers, digital technology objectifies laborers and weakens their subjectivity ; at the level of interpersonal relationship, digital capitalism deepens interpersonal estrangement through virtual space and social networks, resulting in the alienation of social relations. on the other hand, digital capitalism has spawned new features of alienated labor. for example, emotional labor and consumer free labor transform workers ' emotions and attention into capital resources ; panoramic transparent labor achieves comprehensive monitoring of the labor process ; the separation of virtuality and reality blurs the boundary between labor and life. the essence of digital capitalism lies in the comprehensive control and exploitation of digital labor by capital. although digital technology has promoted productivity progress, its fundamental purpose is still capital accumulation. marx 's capital theory points out that the core of capitalism lies in the possession and exploitation of labor by capital, while digital capitalism uses technical means to make this exploitation logic more concealed and deepened. the relationship between digital labor and traditional alienated labor is embodied in a process of transformation : from traditional alienation to digital alienation, from material alienation to non-material alienation, from passive alienation to active alienation. 3. limitations and crises of digital capitalism 3.1 technology monopoly and social inequality the widening of the digital divide the rise of digital capitalism has significantly aggravated the phenomenon of technological monopoly and social inequality. this problem can be analyzed in depth from the two dimensions of technological control and social structure. at the level of technological control, digital capitalism has strengthened the control of capital over the means of production ( especially the control of data resources ) through the monopoly of digital platforms, forming a domestic and even global technological oligopoly. the concept of " neo-feudalism " put forward by western left-wing scholars reveals how digital technology covertly and profoundly reshapes the relationship between workers and means of production, thereby exacerbating digital monopoly[2]. digital imperialism marks a new stage in the development of capitalism. through the deep integration of digital technology, knowledge logic and cultural logic, it has significantly strengthened its monopoly position in the fields of global production, distribution, exchange, consumption and intellectual property rights ( for example, the us technology giants have established a strong monopoly advantage in the global market ). at the same time, digital labor, as a new form of exploitation, further deepens the extraction of surplus value by capital through advanced means such as algorithm monitoring and gamification management. at the level of social structure, digital capitalism has aggravated the inequality of income and wealth distribution, widened the gap between private capital income and production value, and made the problem of social inequality more serious. in addition, it also alienates people 's labor activities, labor products and emotional activities into tools for capital control and value exploitation through technical means, resulting in workers facing the dual hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 80 published by ideas spread dilemma of economic exploitation and marginalization of social status-the unemployed, low-income people, the elderly and other vulnerable groups are particularly obvious, and they are excluded from the digital dividend. 3.2 false sharing of platform capitalism the alienation of sharing economy the exploitation mechanism and internal contradiction of digital platform capitalism are multi-dimensional and complex social phenomena. its core is that the digital platform uses technical means and narrative discourse to cover up the essence of exploitation, and at the same time misleads the public with concepts such as ' sharing economy ', so as to realize the exploitation of workers and the accumulation of capital. in terms of exploitation mechanism, digital platform capitalism transforms user-generated data into privatized means of production through data exploitation and hidden labor, which not only realizes economic exploitation, but also violates the privacy and human dignity of workers. in addition, workers in the platform economy ( such as freelancers in the gig economy ) are often in a state of informal employment. their labor is transformed into the network effect of the platform, but they fail to obtain due remuneration or social security. this kind of labor alienation and unpaid labor mode weakens the bargaining power of workers and makes them fall into a low-income and unstable working environment. at the same time, the digital platform transforms the sharing economy into a new way of capital accumulation by constructing the image of the ' sharing economy ' and blurring the essence of capitalist exploitation, concealing the exploitation of workers and the unequal distribution of social resources. moreover, digital platforms further exacerbate social inequality through data monopoly : a small number of large platforms hold most of the user data, restricting market competition and leading to further social stratification. 4. marx's labor theory of value criticizes digital capitalism 4.1 the source of value creation digital labor is still the source of surplus value in criticizing digital capitalism, marx 's theory of labor value profoundly reveals the essence of labor alienation and capital proliferation, and provides a key perspective for insight into this new form of capitalism. in the era of digital capitalism, labor alienation has not disappeared due to technological progress, but presents a more hidden and more complex new form : the content and products created by workers on digital platforms are often occupied and commercialized by platforms ; the labor process is controlled by algorithms and platforms, resulting in workers losing their autonomy and creativity in the labor process. in addition, digital capitalism has also exacerbated the alienation of the class nature of workers and the alienation between people workers are objectified on the digital platform and become part of the tool ; the relationship between people is also replaced by digital coding. at the same time, although digital capitalism has changed the specific form of capital proliferation, its essence has not changed: capital still proliferates through exploitative labor, but in the digital age, this exploitation is more subtle and efficient. with the help of algorithms and data analysis, the digital platform embeds workers in the chain of capital proliferation and occupies their labor achievements and surplus value for free. in addition, the capital proliferation chain also extends to data collection, commodity circulation and other links, forming a more complex digital economic system. under digital capitalism, the antagonistic relationship between capital and labor still exists: although the digital platform ostensibly realizes the organization and sociality of production, in fact, there is still a contradiction of anarchy, which is reflected not only in the exploitation and oppression of capital on labor, but also in the resistance and struggle of laborers against capital control. marx 's labor value theory and alienation theory still have practical significance and guiding role in the era of digital capitalism. these theories not only reveal the essence of labor alienation and capital proliferation under digital capitalism, but also provide a theoretical basis for understanding the exploitation mechanism of digital capitalism. 4.2 the possibility of liberating tools the duality of technology marx pointed out in the theory of labor value that technology has a dual role in capitalist production relations: on the one hand, it becomes a tool for capital to exploit labor by improving production efficiency and reducing production costs ; on the other hand, technology also breeds the potential of individual development and may become a weapon against capital oppression. however, in the era of digital capitalism, this dual role is more complicated. digital technology not only continues the logic of capital 's exploitation of labor, but also intensifies labor alienation and capital 's control of labor through data and algorithmization. at the same time, it also continues the role of ' breeding individual development potential '. although digital technology is used by capital, its possibility as a ' weapon against capital oppression ' has not disappeared. marx 's theory suggests that the organic combination of technological governance and labor liberation, the collaborative sharing of data publicization and decentralization, and the practice of paid digital labor and the principle of justice may be an effective way to alleviate the exploitation and enslavement of workers by digital technology. the critical analysis hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 81 published by ideas spread of digital capitalism by marx 's labor theory of value provides theoretical support for understanding the possibility of digital technology as a ' tool of liberation '. based on marx 's theoretical framework, fox and other scholars have conducted in-depth research on digital labor and revealed the essence of labor alienation under digital capitalism, which not only enriches the application scope of marx 's labor theory of value, but also provides a new academic perspective for understanding digital capitalism. 5. practical path of digital socialism 5.1 digital socialism attempts in european and american countries the exploration of digital socialism in european and american countries is a multi-dimensional and intricate phenomenon of " interweaving theory and practice, " which constitutes an important evolution of western leftwing thought in the 21 st century. this exploration aims to use digital technology as the driving force of social change, and to counter the inherent limitations of digital capitalism by realizing the privatization, democratization and universalization of digital infrastructure. there are many schools of thought within digital socialism, such as "digital socialism" in the narrow sense advocated by kevin kelly, cyber communism, communicative socialism, etc. although these schools have their own characteristics, they share the common vision of "reconstructing the power structure through technical means and creating a new digital public sphere." in practical exploration, the strategic positioning and policy layout of european and american countries are significantly different: the united states focuses on strengthening global competitiveness through technological innovation, while the european union focuses more on using the digital economy to expand international influence. in terms of digital infrastructure construction, both european and american countries have invested heavily, but they also face complex problems such as privacy data leakage and increasing digital divide. in response to the drawbacks of digital capitalism in large-scale technology companies, european and american countries have adopted a series of anti-monopoly measures and limited privacy regulations to promote the healthy and sustainable development of the digital economy. however, these practical explorations have also encountered many challenges, both the practical feasibility of the utopian digital socialism model and the deep foundation of the capitalist mode of production and production relations. nevertheless, the exploration of digital socialism in european and american countries still provides valuable experience and profound enlightenment for the study of global digital socialism. these explorations not only highlight the optimistic expectations of western left-wing thought on technological change, but also reflect the theoretical and practical difficulties encountered in practice. looking forward to the future, with the continuous evolution of artificial intelligence and digital technology, the practice of digital socialism in european and american countries will be carried out in more complex scenarios, providing useful ' extra-territorial mirror ' for the construction of digital socialism in china and other countries, and jointly promoting the research and practice of global digital socialism to a new depth and breadth. 5.2 theoretical contributions of western left-wing scholars digital socialism from an international perspective is an important theoretical contribution of western left-wing scholars in the post-financial crisis era. its theoretical origin can be traced back to the great debate of socialist economic calculation in the early 20 th century. after reinterpreting marx 's theory of mechanized mass production and deepening the understanding of core concepts such as ' general intelligence ', it gradually formed a redefinition of digital power relations and a new idea of constructing digital commons. around this issue, western left-wing scholars put forward three main theoretical contexts : starting from the possibility of economic planning, starting from the reconstruction of digital power relations, and starting from the code governance system based on blockchain technology. through these three threads, scholars have a profound insight into the nature of the capitalist digital crisis and explored a new model that transcends capitalism. these theoretical contributions are not only reflected in theoretical innovations ( such as combining digital technology with socialist ideas to propose a series of new theoretical frameworks ), but also in critical thinking on the capitalist digital crisis they reveal the transformational factors contained in the crisis and provide the nonwestern world with the possibility of a new form of civilization. at the same time, some scholars also try to transform theory into practice, build new social relations through blockchain technology, and show a practiceoriented attempt. however, these theories also have limitations : the technical utopian color is too heavy, from the marxist position and other issues, resulting in insufficient theoretical feasibility, and the lack of construction of revolutionary forces. although the theory of digital socialism by western left-wing scholars is controversial, it undoubtedly provides a unique research perspective for the fight against capitalism, and also demonstrates the courage and innovative hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 82 published by ideas spread spirit of exploring new social relations. compared with traditional scientific socialism, digital socialism shows obvious differences in the logic of argumentation and the path of practice. looking forward to the future, if digital socialism can further optimize the theoretical system on the basis of adhering to the marxist class viewpoint and closely combining with the actual needs of the proletarian struggle, it is expected to provide a more practical and feasible path for global social change and contribute valuable wisdom to the construction of a more just and inclusive digital society. 5.3 unique exploration of the chinese model from an international perspective the exploration of digital socialism in the chinese model presents distinct uniqueness, and the core lies in the deep integration and innovation of digital technology and the socialist system. china emphasizes the application of digital technology to promote the transformation of social production relations, aiming at realizing the organic combination of productivity development and public ownership, so as to overcome the problems of exploitation and gap between the rich and the poor brought by digital capitalism. this model is not only reflected in the actual operation of " optimizing resource allocation and improving production efficiency through digital platforms and intelligent technologies, " but also in " insisting on protecting the rights and interests of workers and preventing digital labor from becoming a new form of exploitation, " which reflects the superiority and innovation of the socialist system in the digital age. at the theoretical level, the chinese model of digital socialism breaks through the limitations of traditional socialist theory, combines marxist historical materialism with the characteristics of the digital economy era, and proposes a new concept of " digital socialism, " which provides a new perspective for understanding the socialist development in the digital economy era. further, the chinese model of digital socialism focuses on starting from practice and exploring the development path in line with its own national conditions. through the construction of " digital china " and the reform of digital government, china has not only promoted the universalization, democratization and publicization of digital infrastructure, but also improved the governance capacity, optimized the social governance system, and effectively reduced the negative impact of technological development. at the same time, china has deeply criticized western digital capitalism and regulated the digital economy through socialist principles, avoiding problems such as technological monopoly and privacy leakage, and ensuring the healthy development of the digital economy. the chinese model of digital socialism not only provides theoretical guidance and practical path for its own development, but also provides a useful reference for global digital governance. through the construction of the digital silk road under the " belt and road " initiative, china has strengthened its cooperation with countries around the world in the field of digital economy and jointly coped with the challenges of the digital age. at the same time, china also pays attention to the integration of culture and ideology, and realizes cultural self-confidence and ideological security by constructing a system of " combining socialist core values with digital culture. " 6. conclusion as a critical transcendence of digital capitalism, digital socialism represents a more forward-looking and humanitarian vision of the future. the arrival of the digital age provides a new historical opportunity for the development of socialism : the " liberation potential " of digital technology can only be fully released under the socialist system ; socialism, only through the empowerment of digital technology, can achieve the goal of " free and comprehensive development of human beings. " in the future, the practice of digital socialism needs to further deepen theoretical innovation and explore the path in line with its own development in combination with the national conditions of various countries ; at the same time, it is necessary to strengthen international cooperation to jointly address the global challenges of digital capitalism and promote the construction of a fair, inclusive and sustainable new form of digital civilization. references [1] bao, d. (2020). capitalist application of digital technology and artificial intelligence. research on dialectics of nature, 36(07), 46–51. [2] li, q., & du, m. (2023). foreign left-wing scholars' debate on the theory of digital socialism. foreign theoretical trends, (05), 116–124. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n5p132 132 published by ideas spread remodeling place spirit under globalization —— constructing a global sense of place in urban society yi ding1 & yating wu2 1 school of marxism,chongqing jiaotong university; key research base of humanities and social sciences in chongqing, transportation culture research center, chongqing, china 2 school of marxism, chongqing jiaotong university, chongqing, china correspondence: yi ding, school of marxism,chongqing jiaotong university; key research base of humanities and social sciences in chongqing, transportation culture research center, chongqing, china. e-mail: dingyi1912@163.com received: october 13, 2025; accepted: october 21, 2025; published: october 24, 2025 abstract genius loci refers to the significance, value, uniqueness, history, culture and spiritual temperament of a place, which is where people's sense of place identity and belonging. however, in the process of the development of local culture, the spirit of place tends to be alienated into a force of confrontation. racism has appeared in history and found its "legitimacy" in it. therefore, for the urbanization development under the tide of globalization, to rebuild the spirit of place, it is necessary to adhere to the value orientation of global sense of place, and establish open and inclusive local values that are both diverse and unique. as a new spirit of place, the global sense of place plays a dialectical role in guiding the value of china's urbanization. this requires that on the one hand, we should emphasize the openness and inclusiveness of local development; on the other hand, we should also protect the uniqueness of the place. openness and inclusiveness do not mean homogenization. after all, local characteristics are one of the important sources of china's cultural confidence. keywords: genius loci, topophilia, global sense of place, urban agglomeration construction 1. introduction the spirit of place represents the unique history, culture and spiritual temperament of a place, which is usually an important basis for people to distinguish local differences. in this way,people also find their differences and exchange their cultural characteristics through communication and integration. the spirit of place and the residents living on this land are interwoven and influenced by each other. the historical accumulation from generation to generation shapes the spirit of place, and the spirit of place also marks the unique cultural brand for the people living here. people's sense of identity and belonging to a place actually comes from this unique place attribute. yifu tuan has made a comprehensive study of people's local feelings. he compares place to a "field of care". in the relationship between people and place, there is an emotional connection, which can be understood as people's attachment to their native land, or "topophilia complex". the information contained in the concept of place includes not only geographical orientation, but also value, meaning, life, nostalgia and so on. this way of understanding breaks the positivist scale of understanding the concept of place. "places can be as small as a corner of a room, or as large as the earth: the earth is our place in the universe, a simple observation fact for homesick astronauts,"says tuan. if the scale and image of place are regarded as consciousness phenomena, they will change with people's emotional and will. yi-fu tuan actually proposed a new way to understand the concept of place, that is, to connect the meaning of place with people's emotions, values and cognitive ways. in general, it puts forward the concept of place based on emotional cognition, which is the cognitive starting point for us to explore the spirit of place. 2. protecting uniqueness of place: the significance of place spirit the ancient romans believed that each independent entity had its own patron saint, including different people and places, which had their own deity accompanying them for life and giving them special essence and meaning. the concept of genius loci comes from this belief system. in the english word for spirit of place, "genius" means spirit, and "loci"means place or track. therefore, genius loci can also be extended to "the spirit of place", referring to the meaning, value, uniqueness, history, culture, and spiritual temperament of a place or location.the spirit of place is the essence of place, the fundamental basis on which one thing is distinguished from another. if we regard hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 133 published by ideas spread place as a 'thing' (whether it is manifest or not) in heidegger's way, then "spirit" is the 'die dingheit' of the place. christian norberg-schulz, a norwegian urban architect, has described the connotation of the spirit of place in detail in his book <genius loci -towards a phenomenology of architectural>. mr noberg-schulz cites a telling description by lawrence durrell of how the spirit of place plays out in everyday life: as you get to know europe slowly, tasting the wines,cheeses and characters of the different countries you begin to realize that the important determinant of any culture is after all the spirit of place.[1] the unique quality of the place is deeply rooted in the local natural environment and cultural landscape. when people think of northern europe, they often think of a scene of ice and snow or the brilliant aurora in winter. when it comes to arabia, people think of oil, deserts, camels, and the middle east. in the same way, the subject of "black forest house" would have lit up philosophers, because the image almost became synonymous with heidegger's thought.heidegger wrote a great deal of his work in a dingy cabin on fort tottenau hill, far from the noise of the city, where he could "talk" to kant and nietzsche.of course, more importantly, he himself and the cabin, the fir forest around, fresh air, the wet soil, cut down a tree axes of be in harmony for an organic whole, he claimed that he "with the building and the surrounding environment has a kind of rational and emotional intimacy, to express even think scenery can pass him, the spirit of the mountain by the sound of his voice."[2]for heidegger, his thoughts were branded with the black forest house, while for the black forest house, its "spirit of place" is reflected in its natural environment and the value, meaning and attachment heidegger gave it. according to norberg-schulz, the spirit of place means orientation and identification to the settlers in a place.the sense of direction is the premise for people to establish a sense of place identity. people should first make clear where they are and what kind of relationship they have with the environment, on which basis they can make further value judgments. the sense of direction is not simply a matter of location. it refers to a spatial environment, defined by kevin lynch's concept of "environmental image.""a good environmental image gives its possessor an important sense of emotional security" he says.[3]settlers must feel comfortable and secure in the space environment, so that they can be willing to continue living and thus have a sense of identity with the environment. but lynch and norberg-schulz focus on creating good spaces and architecture, with the "art of living" as their main consideration. marxist geographers focus on the latter, that is, sense of identity. on a practical level, even if people acquire a sense of direction and settle down in a place, they do not necessarily develop a sense of identity. part of the social group may have to live in they didn't like the environment, such as under their window has built a strong-smelling garbage disposal station, and the residents has nothing to do with it, neither the right to participate in community planning nor the ability to move, then he can only put up with such an environment and will not have a sense of identity with the living place. how much do china's migrant workers identify with the places where they work for the long term?their young children can only be left behind in the countryside, and their spouses may not be with them due to work. therefore, this social group works in cities at the cost of "breaking up families", and they have been marked with "displacement" the moment they step into the city. for them, the city is just a cold money-making machine and a place they are forced to live with in order to support their families. it is difficult for them to really settle down in the city, and there is no sense of identity. of course, to solve this problem, we must start with the construction of space environment and the geometry of power. the main contradiction is that the number of migrant workers has far exceeded the city's ability to provide them with citizen treatment. this is a systematic problem, which needs to improve the city's supporting facilities, comprehensive management level, social welfare, medical and education resource allocation, transportation security and so on. in addition, it is necessary to balance the allocation of power relations in the whole spatial structure. in order for residents to have a sense of identity with the place they belong to, structural problems of space need to be solved. only when people have a sense of direction and identity to a place, can they really get a "foothold of existence" in the place, and then they will have a further emotion -belonging. only residents who acquire a sense of belonging can be considered as real settlers, and they will become an important foundation for the formation of the "spirit of place". it's hard to imagine a "spirit of place" built on a group of people who have no sense of belonging to their place. as mr tuan puts it: "a truly rooted society may have shrines and monuments, but it is unlikely to preserve the past with museums and associations."[4]a museum is a testimony to the "spirit of place" of the past, telling the glory of a place. having a lot of museums is a symbol of local civilization, but if all the valuable gorgeous civilization is in museums, it can only shows that the civilization of this place is fading, and the "spirit of place" of this place is or has been lost. david harvey notes another form of the collapse of the "spirit of place" is the commercialisation of cultural heritage. somewhere seems full of "place spirit", all the time about its significance, but the essence is a kind of commercial advertising, local residents have long since abandoned the culture and way of life, to show that kind of cultural form, just for the sake of tourism income and to "cooperate", even participate in the "performance" is not native, it's a new person out of town trying to make a living. in this way, the tourists hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 134 published by ideas spread "delude" themselves into thinking they are in a different world, and the "performers" do their best to satisfy this illusion. it is a place where local performers bring out the lost "spirit of place" to serve their business purposes. "spirit of place" is an important embodiment of the uniqueness of place, which needs to be built on the sense of belonging of place, and the sense of belonging comes from the people who live here.norberg-schulz points out： identification and orientation are primary aspects of man's being-in-the-world.whereas identification is the basis for man's sense of belonging，orientation is the function which enables him to be that homo viator, which is prat of his nature.it is characteristic for modern man that for a long time he gave therole as a wanderer pride of place .he wanted to be "free" and conquer the world.today we start to realize that true freedom presupposes belonging , and that "dwelling" means belonging to a concrete place.[5] the spirit of place cannot be forged overnight. it cannot be formed without generations of settlers experiencing common history and culture, striving together and overcoming difficulties together, and then becoming a community with a shared future and generating similar values, sense of identity and belonging. this is a process that takes time to polish. of course, all of this is based on the premise that people can have a place to settle down. this seemingly simple requirement has become increasingly difficult to achieve in modern urban society. mobility is a necessary condition for urban development, but if a city does not have the means to "collect wind and water", it will definitely not be able to develop. the development of industry, the gathering of talents and the rise of culture are inseparable from stability and the "base" for the cultivation of civilization. residents living in modern metropolises are either unable to truly settle down, or live in crowded places with poor "environmental image". mumford elaborated on these issues in his book < history of cities>: in western culture, as cities grew in number and scale, the nature and purpose of cities were completely forgotten... the more crowded people live, the higher the returns for the property capitalist, the higher the returns for the property capitalist, the higher the capital value of the land, and so the vicious cycle continues.[6] the financialization of real estate is a big dilemma faced by contemporary urban residents, which is the inevitable result of the production of capitalist space. the traditional meaning of the city begins to fade, and all urban functions are replaced by services for capital. when the meaning of the use value of residential housing is gradually replaced by the meaning of value, then people's spiritual stage may no longer be "rooted down", but constantly capital proliferating and monetizing, which is a kind of "place spirit" hijacked by capital. so, sadly, the lofty, epic soul that the "spirit of place" once referred to no longer exists, with people either losing their sense of identity and belonging or struggling to satisfy capital's demand for surplus value.mumford once said: the metropolis, in the last stage of its development, becomes a collective trick to keep the unreasonable system going and to give to those who are actually its victims a false sense of power, wealth and happiness, that mankind has reached its zenith. but really their lives are always in danger; their wealth is vulgar and fleeting; their leisure is exceedingly monotonous and tedious; their wretched happiness is tinged with a constant foreboding of sudden violence and death.[7] in contrast, heidegger's pursuit of "root" makes people yearn for it. being in the world is the premise for us to talk about all meanings. heidegger once said: "poetry does not fly above and surmount the earth in order to escape it and hover over it. poetry is what first brings man into the earth，making him belong to it，and thus brings him into dwelling."[8]however, there is another crisis in heidegger's poetic root attachment. 3. alienation of place spirit: from nativism to exclusivism heidegger studied under husserl who is the founder of the phenomenological school. in the 1920s, heidegger published a series of works that changed the direction of phenomenological research, focusing on the discussion of existential problems, and then formed the philosophical school of existentialism. existentialism inherits the analysis method of phenomenology, but it has a great change in some analysis objects. in order to study the sense of place, it is impossible to avoid existentialism. in heidegger's opinion, the concept of place is not only a way of cognition, but also a way and state of existence. therefore, heidegger had a special liking for the "spirit of place" and even raised it to the height of local root. in kant's view, human rational perception of the world is a phenomenon of the world, the information and knowledge acquired by people are the 'synthese' of rationality and phenomena. people can only understand the world through phenomena (appearances), but the world itself is beyond the comprehension of human rationality. what we perceive is actually phenomena. for this reason, kant called his <critique of pure reason >'ordinary phenomenology'. to a certain extent, heidegger's thinking on existence is just along the development of kant's thought, and beings that appear or do not appear fascinate him. in <being and time>, heidegger gave an almost mystical definition of a certain being and its mode of existence, which he named dasein. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 135 published by ideas spread dasein is such an being that in its being it intelligently does something for this being. this point hints at the formal concept of survival. this is living, and this is what i have always been......but we must now see and comprehend these terms of being here priori in terms of this construction of being which we call' being in the world'.[9] this sentence reflects the innate construction of dasein as a kind of being, that is, being in the world (in-der-weltsein). without this way of being, the connotation of this being would be incomplete. heidegger's expression 'insein' reflects a certain spaciality of dasein, but people often misinterpret it as 'in......'. like the clothes in the closet and the water in the cup. however, this is not the connotation of 'in......', 'being in the world ' does not simply mean someone in a city, or a car in a garage, it does not simply mean the juxtaposition of those who exist. this being is a being, but it is not merely a being placed among beings. from the level of being, the difference lies in that the being negotiates with the being itself in its being... and this is to say that this in its being has always understood itself in some way, in some definite way.[10] the ordinary juxtaposition refers to the relation of existence "one is in another", such existence does not have 'the mode of existence of dasein'. therefore, the spatial relationship reflected by the 'being in the world' is not a kind of spatial superposition, but a 'dependent' and 'immediate' relationship. the state of dasein in the world does not emphasize the specific spatial orientation of the existant. although it emphasizes being in place, this place can be a broad category. heidegger believed that "being in the world" means "according to the world." 'being in the world' of dasein has been scattered and even disintegrated in some definite ways of 'in-sein'.[11]this relationship shows that although there is no such coordinates in the world, it is everywhere. this relationship with the world is by no means "parallel". for this, heidegger gives a counterexample to illustrate: although the stool is next to the wall, it is essentially the juxtaposition of two ready-made things, and there is no dependency relationship, let alone "dependence". we can use a telling metaphor from heidegger to understand the way in which dasein: we are plants whether we like to admit it or not that must have roots from the earth in order to blossom and bear fruit in the sky.[12] thus, 'in the world' is not only the premise of dasein, but also the way of dasein. according to heidegger's explanation,'in-sein' means 'i am familiar with, i am accustomed to, i take care of'. dasein has a kind of spatiality, which can be extended to a close relationship between the existence and the place. the foundation of the existence is the place, and the place is a part of the existence. the two are integrated. existentialist sense of place holds that there is some kind of root connection between man and place or between man and hometown, which is the meaning of heidegger's "rooted in the black earth". heidegger had a deep affection for his hometown, messkirch, where he grew up and where he was inspired, as he once described it: i'm at peace here. the solitude of the mountains, the silent daily life of their people, the natural friendliness of the sun and the storm and the sky, the simple paths on broad slopes covered with deep snow... this is the home of pure joy. there is no need for anything 'interesting', the rhythm of a man chopping wood in a remote forest is the work.[13] he even merged with his beloved black forest cabin, where the sparks of thought came not only from nietzsche, from kant, from his genius, but also from the mountain trees and the murmuring water, as if the great secrets of existence had been revealed to him. heidegger's existential sense of place has a strong homesickness. western scholars and white elites with similar views often equate the concept of place with homeland. in their concept, place is bounded and static, and they pursue a sense of place that is free from external intrusion, stable and even exclusive. kirkpatrick once said: the only political illusion that offers hope of redemption must be grounded in an understanding of place, rooted in it, deeply committed to it and re-sanctified it.[14] existential sense of place is potentially dangerous. when a place is faced with the flow and influence from external social relations, this "homesick" sense of place will be resistant to all kinds of xenophobia, local protectionism and narrow nationalism. the biggest negative case came from heidegger. the sense of place he insisted on had a great resonance with the racism advocated by the nazis at that time. he even regarded hitler as an entity that manifested the local spirit of germany, and the nazis also regarded heidegger as 'a real german soul'. after hitler was elected chancellor of germany, heidegger was appointed president of the university of freiburg. after taking office, heidegger put forward the proposition that the university should be aligned with the nazi party and faithfully implemented the "baden decree" aimed at eliminating the non-aryan people in the university. for this reason, he disqualified his mentor husserl (a jew) as an honorary professor; accused professor staudinger, a renowned hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 136 published by ideas spread chemist, of pacifist tendencies to the gestapo, eventually forcing the professor to resign. heidegger's sense of place also carried a clear anti-semitic bent, he wrote in a letter to a government councillor： either we restore our german spiritual life to real forces and educators from our own land, or we turn our back and allow judaization to grow.[15] heidegger's "homesick" sense of place is mixed with racism, ultimately advocating a sick "place spirit", he represents the most extreme case. at the end of the 20th century, under the impact of the wave of globalization, many white elites and scholars in the western society were anxious to regain this sense of place. although it did not cause the racial tragedy of nazi germany, it was still conservative, exclusive, static and even potentially dangerous sense of place. 4. integration of openness and locality: constructing a global sense of place as the global "compression of time and space" intensifies, the world is becoming more closely connected. the geographer janelle has made a very intuitive description of this： the time it would take to get from east coast to west coast of the united states using current media would be as follows: more than 2 years on foot; riding a horse takes eight months; four months by stagecoach or wagon; the train ride in 1910 took four days; it takes five hours to fly on the current regular plane; the fastest jet takes just over two hours.[16] in the process of people crossing space, the emergence of new commuting tools greatly reduces the time spent, which is also the phenomenon that marx paid attention to when he proposed the concept of "annihilation of space by time". however, the manifestation and influence of the global "space-time compression" are far from limited to commuting problems, it involves capital flow, cultural collision, international politics, the spatial structure of power relations and other aspects. doreen massey noticed the operation of multinational corporations and the international division of labor in the context of 'space-time compression'. driven by globalization, multinational companies set up their branches overseas to maximize cost savings and optimize resource utilization efficiency. under the condition of this international division of labor, it is bound to cause the flow of social relations at the global level, and stimulate the unbalanced distribution of power relations around the world. every corner of the world is inevitably drawn into global networks of power. birkett once described both ends of the pacific: a jumbo jet allows a korean computer consultant to be in silicon valley as if he had just walked through the door next door, and a singaporean computer consultant to be in seattle in a day. the borders of the world's largest ocean are joined as never before.[17] the 'compression of time and space' not only strengthens the closeness of global relations, but also causes a series of anxiety and panic. many people begin to lament the disappearance of local identity and the loss of "place spirit". they experience disorientation and strangeness in their own place. local streets were invaded by cultures and capital from all over the world; there are few regions where most industries are purely local; places seem to become more similar but lack internal coherence; the uniqueness of the native has been invaded... it does make a lot of people anxious... baudrillard spoke of the frenzy and giddiness of facing an imagistic and fluid world... 'the imperative,' robbins writes, 'is to salvage the centralized, bounded, consistent identity'... jameson calls for cognitive mapping in order to find his own direction in this lost age.[18]interestingly, in the 1970s, heidegger, who was deeply attached to the roots, also experienced the impact of 'time and space compression'. heidegger lamented: all distances in time and space are shrinking... everything is thrust into this sameness of distance, it's all mixed up...... what is this alarming and disturbing thing?[19] heidegger, who once showed the true meaning of existence to the sky and earth, mortals and gods, was at a loss in the face of globalization. it is not hard to see, when a static, closed place feel the challenge, it will set up an isolated "walls", in fact, today's xenophobia, narrow nationalism, anti-globalization trend is not rare, 'nostalgia' sense of place in a lot of white elite and the scholars have considerable influence. the question is whether it is necessary to treat globalisation as an inevitable threat. does static and unitary local identity really exist? thinking about these questions will help us establish a new progressive sense of place and reshape the 'spirit of place'. some white elites blamed the "inconveniences" in their places on the invasion of "others", and blamed those minorities and colored people for aggravated the deterioration of community security and changing the living environment they have been used to for years. their homes lost their 'beauty' and became increasingly strange and uncontrollable. however, this so-called "other invasion", but is for foreign implementation of colonialism in the western world had a "response", "for the country of the world's most people live, they are known as the hometown of border security has long gone, the consistency of their local culture will hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 137 published by ideas spread be threatened in a long time ago.[20] from this point of view, it is nothing new that a place's traditional identity or "spirit of place" is influenced by the outside world. at least in the colonial era, westerners have been deeply involved in social relations around the world and have appropriated a lot of resources. in view of this, if the white elites in western society continue to adhere to the "homesick" static sense of place, they are implementing double standards: on the one hand, they require the majority of third world countries to open their arms and embrace changes and accept the homogenized 'western model'; on the other hand, when these third world 'others' enter the west, they cling to conservative, xenophobic attitudes and lament the loss of identity. much localism has a mission to protect the uniqueness of place as a justification for exclusion. but if we introduce the concept of social space here, things change. since space is the product of social relations, the constantly flowing social relations must shape the characteristics of place. social networks are full of the entire spatial structure, and the social relations of a place tend to continue to extend, and then go beyond its original place, which has a great chance to encounter and interact with the social relations of other places. therefore, massey points out, the uniqueness of any place arises partly from the particularity of the interrelationships in that place and partly from the meeting of social relations (a part of juxtaposition) that juxtaposition new social effects... local identity is not derived from some internalized history, but mainly from the characteristics of interaction with the 'outside'.[21] in fact, the uniqueness of a place and its sense of identity are often the result of the interaction of local and out-oftown social relations. kilburn in london, where massey lived for many years. but this area is not the exclusive domain of the anglo-saxons or ' fish and chips' as you might imagine, in contrast, the area has a mix of irish and indian residents as well as locals, and even massey, who spent her childhood in manchester, is not a native. what kilburn presents is a gathering of diversity: newsstands under railway bridges sell irish free state newspapers... roadside post boxes and walls were emblazoned with the letters ira... celtic ballads by wolfe tones are presented at the national club... crossing the congested road from the newsstand, i remember a shop window displaying indian saris.[22] kilburn is a place where diverse cultures coexist, and it is a typical representative of cultural integration around the world in the context of globalization. throughout marcy's description of kilburn, we don't see a static and defensive sense of place. instead, people from different parts of the world live here, and cultures retain their uniqueness and live in harmony. this means that it is entirely possible to construct a sense of place that preserves the diversity of place while maintaining openness. what we find in kilburn's case is, first of all, that the uniqueness of a place comes not entirely from its internal history, but from its interaction with other parts of the world. kilburn has a different cultural structure, but over a long period of time it will develop a new and international local uniqueness. therefore, the uniqueness of a place is not necessarily an absolute opposition to the outside world, and external factors may also become a part of the uniqueness of a place. secondly, the sense of local identity is not single. indians, irish and british living in kilburn have different perceptions of the same kilburn, which is mainly related to the cultural background and lifestyle differences of different ethnic groups. there is no need to assert a unified local identity in kilburn. finally, insisting on the openness of places does not mean homogeneity and destruction. the opening up of kilburn does not destroy the diversity of local culture, but rather creates a sense of place that is both globally inclusive and local unique and diverse. the uniqueness of a place is what distinguishes different places from each other. to protect the uniqueness of each place is to protect cultural diversity. some scholars are always worried about people discussing local issues, because they always equate the concepts of local and exclusion. in fact, a sense of place and its local 'identity' can only be based on a connection between the place and the place beyond. progressive place sense recognizes this and does not view this connection as a threat.[23] to reshape the spirit of place is to establish open and inclusive local values with diversity and uniqueness. the sense of identity and belonging that people experience in such values and their living environment is the global sense of place. the global sense of place is a dialectical view of place. although it is based on the analysis of local nature, it does not regard place as an exclusive and static closed body. on the contrary, the global sense of place believes that the shaping of local characteristics is an unfinished process, whose participants are not limited to the so-called 'locals'. people from all over the world may be directly or indirectly involved in the construction of local characteristics, and thus the shaping of local characteristics is branded with the globalization. 5. conclusion based on the above analysis, now we can sort out the key points of space theories from the perspective of global sense of place, which are either the inheritance of previous space theories or the criticism of other space theories. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 138 published by ideas spread different research entry points often produce different conclusions, let's try to explore some common space theory here. firstly, the space is open. as mentioned above, this point of view is mainly to avoid demarcating clear boundaries for places, but it is also the most controversial focus of space theory, which is mainly reflected in the debate on the openness and closure of space. from the perspective of the critical political economy, david harvey analyzes the impact of the global expansion of contemporary capitalism on local areas, and his discussion of space issues mainly starts from its closure. indeed, the characteristics of spatial closure exist objectively, which can be clearly felt from the division of white and black people in the gated community in the united states, including the emergence of the racial segregation system in history and the current existence of local protectionism, which are the embodiment of this closure. interestingly, though, harvey worries about the emergence of extreme xenophobia, while at the same time seeing a positive side to the closure of space as a counter to the global expansion of capitalism. he sees cities (places) as fighting bulwarks against the onslaught of capitalism and discusses the role of such local bulwarks in <the rebellious city: from urban power to urban revolution>. ' occupy wall street 'shows us that the collective power of people in public space is still the most effective countermeasure when there is no other way," he said. different from harvey' s research perspective, massey adopted a more macro perspective than harvey when explaining spatial openness. in massey' s context, the relationship between the local and the world is interconnected and integrated in general, and this interactive relationship even includes what harvey calls antagonism, that is to say, confrontation itself is a process of interaction and integration; on the other hand, as a geographer, massey had to defend geography, and she couldn't stand the fact that it was undervalued, as she puts it in her book <for space>:an understanding of the world in terms of relationality, a world in which the local and the global really are 'mutually constituted', renders untenable these kinds of separation ......but the point is that the geography will not be simply territorial.[24] in a word, both openness and closure exist in space at the same time, and different perspectives show different characteristics. marcy discusses openness at a macro level, and she is well aware of the importance of openness and progressive sense of place for the development of a city. as she points out in< city worlds>: much of the city's energy comes from its openness to the outside: from new immigrants who arrive and join the mix and may help create new cultures; from trade links and cultural influences; from the flow of money. if a city does not deal with the intersection on which it is based, it risks stagnating and closing itself off completely.[25] secondly, space is in the process of continuous dynamic construction. marxists often emphasize the fact that capital is not a concrete thing, but a process. by inference, place has a similar characteristic. place is not a fixed address, it is a process（doreen massey）. simon's theory of "daily movement of space" also holds a similar view that place is performed by people's practical activities, and these practical activities can also be regarded as a kind of event. therefore, the result of such logical deduction is that place is the place of events. here we can point out the central topic of global sense of place, which is place as events and space as places. besides simon, there are many scholars who believe that places are always in flux because they are the result of people's daily practices. as allan pred observed, "places are never complete, but always becoming.(places are never 'finished', but always 'becoming')"[26]. anthony giddens developed the structuring theory on this basis as a supplement to simon's theory. structural theory adds some restrictions to people's practical activities, and discusses how to carry out daily life practice under these restrictions. michel de certeau proposed a way to balance freedom and limitation in practice, that is, the theory of "tactics and strategy", in which people's practice tactics must be carried out within the macroscopic strategic limitation. these theories demonstrate the dynamic construction of space, as massey said: if our dwelling house will carry on from where we left it, we cannot 'go home' in the sense that we cannot go into the country at weekends and return to nature, which has always carried on.[27] finally, space is the domain where multiple trajectories coexist. the identity and history of a place are not necessarily single. a real place cannot be composed of only one community or one nation. many cities in history have carried the collision of different civilizations. in the case of la plaza in mexico city, we can also see the implications of coexistence in diversity. the square is also home to pre-columbian aztec pyramids, spanish colonial baroque cathedrals, and international modern architecture. this is a case study that illustrates the diversity of areas and tells a different story of mexico city. however, the habit of viewing civilization through a single lens, ignoring local diversity, seems to be a tradition of colonial cultures. this is best illustrated by elkins' vivid description of british colonialism： hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 139 published by ideas spread the vast empire on which the sun never sets was held together by an imperial spirit, a cultural mission... britain brought light to the dark continent by turning the so called aborigines into 'progressive citizens'... they act as trustees for hapless 'aborigines' who, in their eyes, have not yet evolved to develop themselves or make decisions responsible for themselves.[28] in the context of today's globalization, this traditional perspective is obviously unable to adapt to the new changes in the world, the flow of space is still accelerating, and civilizations will continue to collide and merge. all in all, cities are diverse places, and it is difficult to understand them as a single entity with a single voice. not all cities are included in all networks, nor are whole cities simply included or excluded. acknowledgments this paper was supported by key research project of the humanities and social sciences research base, chongqing municipal education commission (project no.21skjd067). references [1] norberg-schulz, c. (1979). spirit of place: towards a phenomenology of architecture (p. 18). rizzoli. [2] sherratt, y. (2013). hitler's philosophers (p. 110). yale university press. [3] norberg-schulz, c. (1979). spirit of place: towards a phenomenology of architecture (p. 19). rizzoli. [4] harvey, d. (1997). justice, nature and the geography of difference (p. 302). wiley-blackwell. [5] norberg-schulz, c. (1979). spirit of place: towards a phenomenology of architecture (p. 22). rizzoli. [6] mumford, l. (1968). the city in history (p. 419). harcourt. [7] mumford, l. (1968). the city in history (p. 546). harcourt. [8] norberg-schulz, c. (1979). spirit of place: towards a phenomenology of architecture (p. 23). rizzoli. [9] heidegger, m. (2018). sein und zeit (j. chen & q. wang, trans., p. 69). the commercial press. (original work published 1927) [10] heidegger, m. (2018). sein und zeit (j. chen & q. wang, trans., p. 11). the commercial press. (original work published 1927) [11] heidegger, m. (2018). sein und zeit (j. chen & q. wang, trans., p. 74). the commercial press. (original work published 1927) [12] harvey, d. (1997). justice, nature and the geography of difference (p. 301). wiley-blackwell. [13] sherratt, y. (2013). hitler's philosophers (p. 110). yale university press. [14] harvey, d. (1997). justice, nature and the geography of difference (p. 302). wiley-blackwell. [15] sherratt, y. (2013). hitler's philosophers (p. 120). yale university press. [16] massey, d. (1985). new directions in space. in d. gregory & j. urry (eds.), social relations and spatial structures: critical human geography (pp. 9–19). palgrave. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-27935-7_2 [17] massey, d. (1994). space, place and gender (p. 148). university of minnesota press. [18] massey, d. (1994). space, place and gender (p. 162). university of minnesota press. [19] harvey, d. (1997). justice, nature and the geography of difference (pp. 299–300). wiley-blackwell. [20] massey, d. (1994). space, place and gender (p. 165). university of minnesota press. [21] massey, d. (1994). space, place and gender (pp. 168–169). university of minnesota press. [22] massey, d. (1994). space, place and gender (pp. 152–153). university of minnesota press. [23] massey, d. (1994). space, place and gender (p. 156). university of minnesota press. [24] massey, d. (2005). for space (p. 184). sage publications ltd. [25] massey, d. (1999). city worlds (p. 122). routledge. [26] cresswell, t. (2004). place: a short introduction (p. 35). wiley-blackwell. [27] massey, d. (2005). for space (p. 137). sage publications ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473919907.n15 [28] featherstone, d., & painter, j. (eds.). (2013). spatial politics: essays for doreen massey (p. 73). wileyblackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118278857 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 140 published by ideas spread copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n1p9 9 published by ideas spread research on the measurement of urban-rural integration level in sichuan province wang lingyan1 1 chongqing normal university, chongqing, china correspondence: wang lingyan, chongqing normal university, chongqing, china. received: december 17, 2024; accepted: january 13, 2025; published: january 15, 2025 abstract promoting the integrated development of urban and rural areas is of great significance for narrowing the development gap between urban and rural areas, establishing a new type of urban-rural relationship, and achieving high-quality socialist modernization. this paper focuses on sichuan province and constructs an indicator system for the degree of urban-rural integration based on four dimensions: economic integration, social integration, population integration, and spatial integration. then, using the entropy value method, it conducts a quantitative evaluation of the development status of urban-rural integration in the province from 2013 to 2022 to reveal the dynamic changes in its level of urban-rural integration. the results show that from 2013 to 2022, the overall level of urban-rural integration in sichuan province has shown an upward trend. among the dimensions of urban-rural integration, social integration and spatial integration have achieved significant results, not only showing good current integration trends but also demonstrating rapid development speeds, presenting a positive development trend. in contrast, economic integration and population integration have performed less satisfactorily, with integration levels remaining at a relatively low level and slower development speeds, urgently requiring further optimization and improvement to achieve comprehensive and balanced urban-rural integration. the results indicate that the overall level of urban-rural integration in sichuan province is currently low, with disparities in regional development, unequal distribution of public services and infrastructure, and prominent issues of semiurbanization in different areas. keywords: urban and rural integration, entropy value method, horizontal measurement 1. introduction cities and rural areas, as two important components of the integration of urban and rural development, are indivisible yet contradictory entities. in 2019, the state officially issued a clear opinion aimed at "reconstructing the new type of urban-rural relationship," firmly "advancing towards the path of integrated urban-rural development," and fully "promoting rural revitalization and the modernization of agriculture and rural areas." [1] to guide the development of urban and rural areas and usher in a new chapter of integrated urban-rural development. in promoting the integration of urban and rural areas, constructing a comprehensive evaluation system for the level of urban-rural development to quantitatively analyze the depth and breadth of urban-rural integration is crucial for guiding the implementation of the rural revitalization strategy and achieving balanced urban-rural development. 2. literature review the existing research on the integration of urban and rural areas is relatively abundant. liu minghui and qiao lu start from the evolution patterns of urban-rural relations, arguing that the integration of urban and rural areas is a powerful measure to address the imbalances and inadequacies in development, combining the theory and practice of urban-rural integration with chinas path to modernization[2] tu shengwei believes that the integration of urban and rural areas should also pay attention to the comprehensive development of people and promote the mutual complementarity and coordinated development between urban and rural departments [3] zhou jianing and other scholars believe that the integration of multiple dimensions including economy, society, population, space and ecology is the high-quality development of urban-rural integration, so they constructed an evaluation index system of urban-rural integration including these five dimensions and selected 29 indicators for measurement [4] li junjie et al. proposed that in order to promote the integrated development of urban and rural areas in ethnic minority regions, 26 indicators were selected to conduct quantitative evaluation from three dimensions: the foundation of urban-rural integration, the driving factors of urban-rural integration, and the effects of urban-rural integration, so hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 10 published by ideas spread as to accurately measure the development degree and trend of urban-rural integration in ethnic minority regions [5] ye chao and other scholars believe that the integrated development of urban and rural areas can promote the construction of socialist modernization, so they construct an index system from three dimensions of economy, society and population to measure the degree of urban-rural integration in the yangtze river delta region [6]错 误!未找到引用源。. through the sorting and summary of literature on urban-rural integration and gray prediction, urban-rural integration mainly involves the research on urban-rural theory, connotation and development level measurement, but there is little systematic study on the level of urban-rural integration in sichuan province. 3. measurement of urban-rural integration level in sichuan province urban-rural integration is a continuously evolving dynamic process whose development trend is influenced by multiple factors. to scientifically and reasonably promote urban-rural integration, it is essential to deeply understand its evolutionary patterns and identify and analyze the key factors and constraints affecting integration. this enables the government to formulate more precise and effective policies and measures, optimizing the allocation of urban-rural resources, strengthening economic ties between cities and rural areas, and facilitating the smooth flow of economic activities. consequently, this achieves coordinated development between urban and rural areas, ultimately achieving the goal of urban-rural integration. this study, based on the actual conditions of sichuan province, has pioneered the construction of an evaluation index system covering four dimensions: economy, society, population, and space. subsequently, the entropy value method was used to measure the degree of urban-rural integration in sichuan province. finally, through the measurement results, a thorough analysis of the status of urban-rural integration development in sichuan province was conducted, and on this basis, the problems and challenges faced by sichuan province in advancing urban-rural integration were identified and outlined. 3.1 data sources and indicator selection the main sources of data are the sichuan provincial statistical yearbook from 201 3 to 202 2, the china statistical yearbook, and the national bureau of statistics. based on the principles of data availability, objectivity, and operability, this study draws on relevant literature reviews to construct an evaluation index system for the integration degree of urban and rural areas in sichuan province, as shown in table 1. the goal level of the evaluation index system is the integration degree of urban and rural areas in sichuan province, the criterion level includes four dimensions of integration: economic, social, population, and spatial aspects, and the indicator level specifically comprises 19 indicators. table 1. evaluation index system of urban-rural integration in sichuan province target level the criteria layer indicator layer attribute x1urban and rural per capita gdp / (yuan/person) forward direction x2per capita consumption ratio of urban and rural households negative direction urban-rural economic integration b1 x3the ratio of per capita disposable income between urban and rural areas negative direction x4engel coefficient ratio of urban and rural residents forward direction x5binary contrast coefficient forward direction x6the ratio of beds in urban and rural medical and health institutions negative direction urban-rural social integration b2 x7urban and rural cultural and educational entertainment comparison coefficient negative direction x8urban-rural per capita health care comparison coefficient negative direction urban-rural integration a x9the ratio of the number of urban and rural residents receiving subsistence allowances negative direction x10coverage of unemployment insurance for urban and rural residents forward direction hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 11 published by ideas spread x11the ratio of nonfarm to agricultural employment forward direction urban-rural population integration b3 x12urbanization level of population forward direction x13employment disparity coefficient negative direction x14land urbanization level forward direction x15traffic network density forward direction urban-rural space integration b4 x16turnover of passenger traffic forward direction x17per capita private car ownership in urban and rural areas forward direction x18urban spatial expansion ratio forward direction x19cultivated land area ratio forward direction 3.2 research methods in the existing related literature studies, entropy value method is often used for processing, followed by principal component analysis, delphi method, and factor analysis. considering the advantages and disadvantages of various evaluation methods and combining with the actual situation of urban-rural integration development research, this paper ultimately selects the entropy value method to analyze the indicators, and the specific calculation process and results are as follows: step 1, standardize the data. in the data processing phase of the first step, this study adopts the deviation method to implement standardization operations on the data. given that the standardized values obtained by the deviation method contain 0 values, which can have a certain impact in subsequent calculations, this paper optimizes the process by adding an additional 0.001 units to the standardized values. when it is a positive indicator: 𝑋′ 𝑖𝑗𝑋′𝑖𝑗 = 𝑋𝑖𝑗−𝑚𝑖𝑛(𝑋𝑖𝑗) 𝑚𝑎𝑥(𝑋𝑖𝑗)−𝑚𝑖𝑛(𝑥𝑖𝑗) + 0.001 (2.1) when it is a negative indicator: 𝑋′ 𝑖𝑗𝑋′𝑖𝑗 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥(𝑋𝑖𝑗)−𝑋𝑖𝑗 𝑚𝑎𝑥(𝑋𝑖𝑗)−𝑚𝑖𝑛(𝑥𝑖𝑗) + 0.001 (2.2) among them, is the value after standardization; is the original value of the index; is the maximum value of the index; is the minimum value of the index. 𝑋′ 𝑖𝑗𝑋𝑖𝑗𝑀𝑎𝑥(𝑥𝑖𝑗) j 𝑀𝑖𝑛(𝑥𝑖𝑗)𝑗 the second step is to calculate the proportion of each research object under each index on the basis of standardization. 𝑗 𝑖 𝑃𝑖𝑗 = 𝑋𝑖𝑗 ∑ 𝑋𝑖𝑗 𝑚 𝑖=1 (2.3) the proportion is the constant indicating the number of subjects under the index. 𝑃𝑖𝑗𝑚 𝑗 the third step is to calculate the information entropy of each indicator, as shown in the formula 𝐸𝑗𝑘 = 1 𝑙𝑛(𝑚) 𝐸𝑗 = −𝑘 ∗ ∑ 𝑝𝑖𝑗 ∗ 𝑙𝑛( 𝑝𝑖𝑗) 𝑚 𝑖=1 (2.4) among them, is the entropy value of the first index, is a constant indicating the number of subjects under the first index, and is the proportion of the first subject under the first index. 𝐸𝑗𝑗𝑜 ≤ 𝐸𝑗 ≤ 1𝑚 j 𝑃𝑖𝑗𝑗 𝑖 step 4, calculate the difference coefficient. 𝑔𝑗 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 12 published by ideas spread 𝑔𝑗 = 1 − 𝐸𝑗 (2.5) step 5, calculate the weight value of each index. 𝑊𝑗 𝑊𝑗 = 𝑔𝑗 ∑ 𝑔𝑗 𝑛 𝑗=1 (2.6) step 6, calculate the development level of urban-rural integration in four dimensions. the degree of integration of urban-rural integration in sichuan province in four dimensions of economy, society, population and space is as follows 𝐹𝐵 𝐹𝐵=1,2,3,4, = ∑ 𝑤𝑗 ∗ 𝑥′𝑖𝑗 𝑚 𝑗=1 (2.7) step 7, calculate the comprehensive measurement function of urban-rural integration development in sichuan province. 𝐹𝐴 1 * ' m a j ijj f w x = = (2.8) using the above calculation formula, the data of 19 indicators for the level of urban-rural integration in sichuan province from 2013 to 2022 were calculated, obtaining the weights of each indicator, as shown in table 2. then, multiplying the weights by the standardized data, the integration degree of each dimension from 2013 to 2022 was obtained, and finally, the comprehensive score of sichuan provinces urban-rural integration from 2013 to 2022 was derived, as shown in table 3. 𝑊𝑗𝑊𝑗𝑋′𝑖𝑗 table 2. weight table of indicators of integrated development level between urban and rural areas in sichuan province target level the criteria layer indicator layer entropy value coefficient of variation weight x1urban and rural per capita gdp / (yuan/person) 0.915 0.085 0.060 x2per capita consumption ratio of urban and rural households 0.920 0.080 0.056 urban-rural economic integration b1 x3the ratio of per capita disposable income between urban and rural areas 0.940 0.060 0.042 x4engel coefficient ratio of urban and rural residents 0.964 0.036 0.025 x5binary contrast coefficient 0.927 0.073 0.052 x6the ratio of beds in urban and rural medical and health institutions 0.898 0.102 0.072 urban-rural social integration b2 x7urban and rural cultural, educational and entertainment comparison coefficient 0.968 0.032 0.023 x8urban-rural per capita health care comparison coefficient 0.939 0.061 0.043 urban-rural integration a x9the ratio of the number of urban and rural residents receiving subsistence allowances 0.899 0.101 0.071 x10coverage of unemployment insurance for urban and rural residents 0.880 0.120 0.085 x11the ratio of nonfarm to agricultural employment 0.933 0.067 0.047 urban-rural population integration b3 x12urbanization level of population 0.921 0.079 0.056 x13employment disparity coefficient 0.933 0.067 0.047 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 13 published by ideas spread x14land urbanization level 0.930 0.070 0.050 x15traffic network density 0.900 0.100 0.071 urban-rural space integration b4 x16turnover of passenger traffic 0.956 0.044 0.031 x17per capita private car ownership in urban and rural areas 0.934 0.066 0.047 x18urban spatial expansion ratio 0.882 0.118 0.084 x19cultivated land area ratio 0.948 0.052 0.037 table 3 criteria layers and comprehensive evaluation values of urban-rural integration in sichuan province from 2013 to 2022 a particular year urban-rural economic integration urban-rural integration urban-rural population integration urban-rural space integration overall score 2013 0.024 0.033 0.015 0.146 0.218 2014 0.061 0.059 0.030 0.172 0.321 2015 0.084 0.068 0.047 0.183 0.383 2016 0.102 0.108 0.074 0.181 0.465 2017 0.122 0.137 0.094 0.186 0.540 2018 0.133 0.201 0.117 0.193 0.644 2019 0.165 0.258 0.134 0.186 0.742 2020 0.225 0.234 0.154 0.207 0.821 2021 0.227 0.261 0.163 0.219 0.870 2022 0.222 0.264 0.150 0.217 0.854 3.3 measurement result analysis 3.3.1 analysis of the overall level of integrated urban and rural development in sichuan province the overall comprehensive trend of urban-rural integration development in sichuan province from 2013 to 2022 is upward, rising from 0.218 in 2013 to 0.854 in 2022, as shown in figure 1. specifically, from 2013 to 2021, it shows an upward trend, increasing from 0.218 to 0.870. during these years, the upward trend was quite noticeable, with the integration levels of urban-rural economies, societies, populations, and spaces continuously increasing. from 2021 to 2022, it shows a downward trend, decreasing from 0.870 to 0.854. the decline in 2021 was due to pandemic control measures, leading to a general downward trend in urban-rural economies, populations, and spaces, ultimately resulting in an overall downward trend in the level of urban-rural integration development. figure 1. trend chart of comprehensive score of urban-rural integration in sichuan province from 2013 to 2022 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 in te g ra te d a ss es sm en t v a lu e a particular year trend chart of comprehensive score of urban-rural integration in sichuan province from 2013 to 2022 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 14 published by ideas spread 3.3.2 analysis of urban and rural integration development criteria at various levels in sichuan province from 2013 to 2022, although the standard scores of various criteria of urban-rural integration development level in sichuan province fluctuated slightly from year to year, the overall trend showed a steady improvement, as shown in figure 2. the specific analysis is as follows. figure 2. trend chart of scores of various criteria layers of urban-rural integration in sichuan province from 2013 to 2022 the level of integrated urban-rural economic development. from 2013 to 2022, although sichuans urban-rural economic integration level was at a moderate level among the four benchmark grades, it generally showed a steady upward trend. according to the data, the score for urban-rural economic integration increased from 0.024 in 2013 to 0.222 in 2022. based on the original data, sichuan provinces per capita gdp also saw annual growth, increasing from 32,750 yuan in 2013 to 67,777 yuan in 2022; the per capita consumption ratio of urban-rural households decreased from 2.186 in 2013 to 1.607 in 2022; and the per capita disposable income ratio between urban and rural areas decreased from 2.652 in 2013 to 2.315 in 2022. over these 10 years, the economic development gap between urban and rural areas in sichuan province has become increasingly smaller, and the degree of urban-rural economic integration has continuously improved. the level of urban-rural social integration. from 2013 to 2022, sichuan provinces urban-rural social integration development level was at a moderate level in four benchmark aspects: economy, society, population, and space, with the largest fluctuation range. specifically, from 2013 to 2017, the growth rate of urban-rural social integration was relatively slow. however, since the implementation of the rural revitalization strategy in 2018, sichuan province has made significant progress in urban-rural social integration, with the urban-rural cultural and educational entertainment comparison coefficient and the urban-rural per capita medical care comparison coefficient continuously decreasing, and the minimum living security population and unemployment insurance coverage of urban and rural residents continuously increasing. urban-rural infrastructure and healthcare have been continuously improving, promoting the enhancement of urban-rural social integration levels. the level of integrated development between urban and rural populations in sichuan province. from 2013 to 2022, the provinces score for integrated development between urban and rural populations was relatively low among the four benchmark layers of economy, society, population, and space, and its degree of integration was the lowest compared to others. however, the overall trend shows a yearly increasing trend, steadily rising from 0.015 in 2013 to 0.150 in 2022. according to the raw data, the urbanization level of sichuan province increased from 32.5% in 2013 to 42.1% in 2022, and the employment disparity coefficient also rose from-0.211 in 2013 to 0.066 in 2022. in recent years, the flow and migration of people between urban and rural areas have not only optimized the employment structure of urban and rural residents but also improved employment issues and promoted better integration of populations between urban and rural areas. the level of integrated development between urban and rural spaces. sichuan provinces score in urban-rural space integration stood out from 2013 to 2022, not only ranking among the top in four benchmark layers—economy, society, population, and space—but also showing the smallest fluctuation, indicating a stable growth trend. the 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 in te g ra ti o n i n d ex o f ea ch c ri te ri a la y er a particular year trend chart of scores of various criteria levels in sichuan province from 2013 to 2022 economic integration social integration population integration spatial integration hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 15 published by ideas spread score steadily increased from 0.0146 in 2013 to 0.217 in 2022. according to the raw data, sichuan provinces overall land urbanization level rose from 0.042 in 2013 to 0.070 in 2022; the transportation network density increased from 0.042 in 2013 to 0.070 in 2022; and the urban spatial expansion ratio decreased from 4.554 in 2013 to 2.998 in 2022. as the land urbanization rate continues to rise and the transportation network improves, the distance between cities and rural areas has significantly shortened. these efforts have gradually reduced the differences between cities and rural areas, leading to the gradual formation of a new pattern of integrated development between urban and rural spaces. 4. problems existing in the integrated development of urban and rural areas in sichuan province 4.1 the overall level of urban-rural integration is low, and regional development varies in recent years, thanks to a series of agricultural support policies, the economic and social landscape of rural areas has been completely renewed, achieving significant progress. however, the accelerating process of urbanization acts like a double-edged sword, bringing prosperity and development to towns while also triggering large-scale migration of rural populations to cities, directly leading to the "hollowing out" dilemma in rural areas. moreover, the issue of population aging is becoming increasingly prominent in rural regions. at the same time, due to generally low levels of education and low productivity in small-scale farming, it is difficult to increase rural income relying solely on existing rural labor. although farmers income levels have shown an upward trend compared to before, the relative income when compared to urban residents has not increased significantly but has instead worsened. according to raw data, the disposable income of urban and rural residents in sichuan province indeed shows a yearly increasing trend. the per capita disposable income of urban residents was 22,228 yuan in 2013, increasing to 43,233 yuan by 2022; the per capita disposable income of rural residents was 8,381 yuan in 2013, increasing to 18,672 yuan by 2022. the data shows that the absolute numerical gap between the two remains significant. in 2022, the disposable income of urban residents was 2.31 times that of rural residents, indicating that the income disparity between urban and rural areas has not fundamentally changed. 4.2 there is still room for improvement in the integration of urban and rural areas, and there are uneven phenomena in the supply of public services and infrastructure the imbalance between urban and rural public services and infrastructure supply is a common problem in china, which is rooted in the long-term dual economic structure that has led to the long-term imbalance between urban and rural development [7] although the country has been continuously introducing new policies to promote rural development in recent years, and rural areas have made certain progress, the relative gap between urban and rural areas is still widening compared to urban development. compared to cities, sichuan province lags behind in public services such as healthcare and social security in rural areas. in terms of basic education, due to population migration and mobility, coupled with relatively backward conditions, rural areas lag behind in teacher strength and school hardware development. although the expenditure ratio on cultural and educational entertainment between urban and rural residents in sichuan province from 2013 to 2022 has narrowed, decreasing from 5.26 in 2013 to 1.88 in 2022, the expenditure amount of urban residents is still significantly higher than that of rural residents. in the field of healthcare, urban medical resources lead rural areas in terms of personnel allocation and equipment configuration. from 2013 to 2022, the per capita expenditure on medical care for both urban and rural residents has been increasing annually, but the expenditure of urban residents remains higher than that of rural residents. in 2013, the per capita expenditure on medical care for urban residents was 1019 yuan, which increased to 2343 yuan by 2022; in 2013, the per capita expenditure on medical care for rural residents was 557 yuan, which increased to 1878 yuan by 2022. despite the growth in healthcare expenditure for rural residentsfaster, but urban residents expenditure on healthcare remains high, reflecting the disparity in healthcare consumption between urban and rural areas. in terms of social security, rural residents enjoy significantly lower social security benefits compared to urban areas. in the field of infrastructure construction, there has been noticeable improvement in aspects such as farmland water conservancy, road construction, rural power grids, and water supply. however, some rural areas still lack improvements in basic rural infrastructure, such as road hardening. 4.3 the level of urban-rural integration continues to increase steadily, but the problem of semi-urbanization in different places is prominent with the rapid economic development and urbanization of sichuan province, a large number of rural residents have migrated to cities, leading to a shortage of rural labor and exacerbating employment issues. the urbanization level of sichuan provinces population increased from 32.5% in 2013 to 42.1% in 2022. although the proportion of urban population has risen, the economic and social disparities between urban and rural areas remain significant. there are still considerable gaps compared to cities in terms of infrastructure construction, public service levels, and job opportunities provided in rural areas. from 2013 to 2022, the number of employed urban residents in hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 16 published by ideas spread sichuan province continuously increased, rising from 18.28 million in 2013 to 25.08 million in 2022, while the number of employed rural residents continuously decreased, dropping from 28.06 million in 2013 to 21.98 million in 2022. the trend of one-way migration of rural residents to cities is difficult to reverse. the long-term existence of the dual urban-rural structure has led to differences in many aspects between urban and rural areas, hindering the integration of urban and rural populations. this results in rural residents facing multiple obstacles such as cultural differences and social discrimination during their integration into urban societies, making it difficult for them to truly integrate into urban communities, which can also lead to an increase in social contradictions and instability. 5. conclusions this study constructs a comprehensive evaluation index system of urban-rural integration development in sichuan province from four dimensions: urban-rural economy, society, population and space, evaluates and analyzes the degree of urban-rural integration in sichuan province from 2013 to 2022, and finally draws a conclusion that the overall degree of urban-rural integration in sichuan province is on the rise from 2013 to 2022, and the integration of various dimensions also shows a fluctuating upward trend in varying degrees. however, the overall level of urban-rural integration in sichuan province is relatively low at present. in order to further promote the development of urban-rural integration in sichuan province in the future, we need to focus on a series of problems, such as regional development differences, uneven supply of urban-rural public services and infrastructure, and prominent problems of semi urbanization in different places, so as to better promote the integration of urban and rural areas in sichuan province. reference [1] xinhua news agency. (2019). the opinions of the central committee of the communist party of china and the state council on establishing and improving the mechanism and policy system for integrated urban-rural development. bulletin of the state council of the people's republic of china, (14), 11–18. [2] liu, m., & qiao, l. (2023). urban-rural integration in the process of chinese modernization: the era's connotations, practical journey, and path selection. journal of harbin university of commerce (social sciences edition), (04), 3–11. [3] tu, s. (2020). strategic orientation and implementation path of integrated urban and rural development. macroeconomic research, (04), 103–116. [4] zhou, j., qin, f., liu, j., zhu, g., & zou, w. (2019). measurement, temporal and spatial evolution, and impact mechanism of urban-rural integration in china under multi-dimensional perspectives. china population resources and environment, 29(09), 166–176. [5] li, j., & liang, h. (2022). measurement and influencing factors of urban-rural integration in ethnic regions. journal of central university for nationalities (philosophy and social sciences edition), 49(02), 97–109. [6] ye, c., zhuang, l., & wu, p. (2021). the spatiotemporal pattern of integrated urban-rural development in the yangtze river delta region. journal of soochow university (philosophy and social sciences edition), 42(04), 43–51. [7] wu, y., & zhang, c. (2022). research on the urban-rural integration level in zhengzhou city. rural economy and science and technology, 33(24), 115–118. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n5p153 153 published by ideas spread visual narrative and semiotic analysis: unpacking the symbolic imagery in film joker and joker: folie à deux jinglei shi1 1 nanjing university, china correspondence: jinglei shi, nanjing university, nanjing, jiangsu, china. received: october 4, 2025; accepted: october 17, 2025; published: october 18, 2025 abstract this study applies charles sanders peirce’s three-element semiotic model (icon, index and symbol) as an analytical device to explore how visual elements in todd phillips’s joker (2019) and its follow-up film joker: folie à deux (2024) convey meanings. instead of focusing on plot or themes, the approach deciphers how camera compositions, colour, costume details and choreographed actions function as active signs. in the film, the bleak, worn-out cityscape acts as an icon that mirrors real-world social gaps, points to institutional neglect and conveys a sense of class rebellion. arthur fleck’s clown makeup and unpredictable dances reference traditional clown imagery, reveal his inner turmoil and trigger collective catharsis. in joker: folie à deux, vibrant neon lights and shared dance routines maintain these semiotic processes by means of evoking carnival atmosphere, signalling the unfold of madness and crafting a revolutionary narrative. through a close study of the films’ visual materials across the icon, index and symbol registers, this research shows how the construction of imagery not only shapes the character of arthur fleck but also serves as a critical statement at the marginalization of individuals, the breakdown of social order, and the consequences of systemic neglect, and uncovers layers of significance that have previously been overlooked. keywords: joker, joker: folie à deux, semiotic, peirce 1. introduction like a prism, todd phillips’ film joker refracts the fractures of contemporary society. stripped of the dazzling special effects and grand heroics typical of superhero films, it rather turns its lens on arthur fleck, a failed clown and forgotten man at the margins of gotham. against the backdrop of the metropolis’s grimy, claustrophobic streets, arthur’s maniacal laughter blends with the urban chaos, in the end tearing open a raw and bloody wound of class struggle, violence, and psychological trauma. through its visual symbols, the film portrays social injustice, the marginalization of individuals, and the spread of violence. diverging sharply from the bombastic spectacle of traditional superhero cinema, the movie adopts a gritty, character-driven technique to explore themes of societal alienation, mental health neglect, and systemic inequality. set against the bleak backdrop of 1980s gotham city which is a dystopian proxy for urban decay and class stratification, joker reviews the cyclical nature of violence and the dehumanizing effects of overdue capitalism. as the film raked in over a billion dollars worldwide, it also ignited a cultural firestorm over whether it was a “dangerous anthem for the mentally unstable” or a “searing indictment of capitalism’s deepest flaws”. semiotics, the study of signs and their communicative functions, has long been instrumental in decoding cinematic language. from a semiotic perspective, signs can be divided into linguistic signs and non-verbal signs. non-verbal signs mainly refer to various conventional or non-conventional signs and marks that use visual or auditory mediums to convey information, with the exception of verbal pronunciation and written language (i.e., linguistic signs). these non-verbal signs can clearly communicate the hidden facts and actual intentions of their characterbearing subjects (wu 2). the development of film semiotics can be traced back to early structuralist approaches, with scholars such as christian metz and roland barthes laying the basis for understanding cinema as a language of signs. over time, charles sanders peirce’s semiotic framework has been increasingly applied to film analysis, which offers a triadic model that categorizes signs based on their relationship with their referents. his contributions to semiotics have significantly shaped modern film analysis, particularly in understanding how visual and narrative elements function as signs within a cinematic text. this study is informed by charles sanders peirce’s semiotic theory, which posits a triadic relationship among the icon, index, and symbol. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 154 published by ideas spread peirce’s semiotics originates from his theory of three universal categories, which divides “phaneron”, the sum of all phenomena, into firstness, secondness, and thirdness. based on this theoretical foundation and fundamental principle, he proposed a new list of categories comprising three essential elements, along with his renowned triadic theory of signs. peirce identified three types of relationships between a sign and its referent: a relationship based on similarity, a relationship based on proximity, and a relationship based on conventionality. according to these three types of relations, peirce classified signs into three types: iconic signs, indexical signs, and symbolic signs, and he emphasized that these categories can transform into one another (peirce 558). an icon bears a visual resemblance to its object, an index signifies by causal or existential connection, and a symbol functions via convention. peirce’s framework is particularly suited to cinematic analysis as film is inherently a visual medium that employs images not only to represent reality but also to evoke emotional and ideological responses. applying peirce’s triadic model enables a systematic unpacking of how each shot, costume, color palette, and mise-en-scène operates on multiple semiotic levels, thereby revealing layers of meaning that remain latent in narrative or thematic critiques. in joker, semiotic analysis enables a deeper exploration of how visual symbols, such as arthur’s clown makeup, his dance movements, and his eventual transformation into a symbol of rebellion, contribute to the film’s thematic construction. domestic and international scholarship on joker has converged on the film’s psychological portraiture and sociopolitical critique, yet few studies offer a systematic semiotic analysis grounded in peirce’s triadic model. production designer mark friedberg emphasizes how gotham’s decaying streets and oppressive interiors shape arthur fleck’s world, observing that “gotham oppresses arthur as much as anything in the film” (friedberg 102). however, most academic accounts stop at noting these influences rather than unpacking how each image functions as a sign. much literature focuses on arthur’s mental health narrative. scholars debate whether joker offers a responsible depiction of psychiatric illness: skryabin praises its “neuropsychological study” of social neglect (skryabin 331), while nierenberg warns it risks reinforcing harmful stereotypes by conflating mental illness with violence (nierenberg 187). the film’s depiction of public health cuts is cited as a critique of neoliberal austerity (driscoll and husain 192), yet few analyses examine how visual motifs, such as arthur’s tear-streaked makeup, sterile clinic corridors, and the contrast between his clown mask and hospital gown, index his shifting identity and societal marginalization. political readings interpret the film as an allegory of class revolt. uysal’s content analysis assigns the waynes to the bourgeoisie and arthur to the dispossessed, arguing thomas wayne’s dictum “you get what you deserve” satirizes the neoliberal american dream (uysal 398). despite insightful thematic readings, these studies remain text-based and do not trace how visual elements, such as graffiti slogans or headlines on news broadcasts, operate as indices of social unrest. moreover, academic work on joker: folie à deux (2024) is not yet available. the sequel’s vivid, musical-driven style and its dialogic structure between arthur and harleen quinzel promise rich material for semiotic analysis, but existing commentary resides almost entirely in non-peer-reviewed forums. this absence of scholarly engagement underscores an opportunity for an academic study that applies peirce’s icon-index-symbol framework to both films’ visual narratives. while barthesian approaches have been applied to the joker trailer by recognizing visual cues as denotative icons and connotative signs (lubis and oisina 125), but no study employs charles sanders peirce’s distinction among icons (graphic resemblance), indices (causal connection), and symbols (conventional meaning) to analyze the films’ imagery. this lacuna is striking given the abundance of rich visuals: arthur’s red suit and painted grin could be read iconically as clown archetypes, indexically as markers of his transformation, and symbolically as emblems of anarchy. similarly, the sequel’s kaleidoscopic palette and musical interludes demand a semiotic unpacking to reveal how they encode shifting power dynamics between arthur fleck and joker. a dedicated visual-semiotic analysis is vital because it shifts the focus from narrative interpretation to the film’s materiality whose images serve as active signifiers. in joker, the recurrent motif of mirrors not only reflects arthur’s fractured identity but also symbolizes society’s refusal to acknowledge its own complicity in marginalization. similarly, folie à deux’s vibrant color palette and musical sequences encode the dialectic between ecstasy and madness, demanding a semiotic unpacking that narrative or thematic studies alone cannot provide. by applying peirce’s semiotic framework, this study will bridge existing thematic critiques with a systematic visual analysis. it will demonstrate how specific images function on multiple semiotic levels to express hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 155 published by ideas spread psychological turmoil, societal oppression, as well as the promise and peril of revolutionary identity, thereby filling a critical gap in joker scholarship. 2. semiotic structure of gotham city in joker and joker: folie à deux, gotham city and its visual construction are not mere backdrops but active “signs” in peirce’s sense, operating iconically, indexically, and symbolically. by examining production design, cinematography, and mise-en-scène through these three registers, this thesis would reveal how each film stages arthur fleck’s internal and external worlds and how the city itself transforms from oppressive terrain to a site of collective spectacle. 2.1 production design & cinematography the 2019 film joker, directed by todd phillips and shot by lawrence sher, serves as an exemplary case of how cinema functions as an iconic symbol of reality. according to charles sanders peirce’s semiotic theory, an icon is a sign that represents its object by resembling it. in this context, film as an art form inherently possesses an iconic nature because its images directly mirror reality, albeit through a mediated and stylized lens. joker amplifies this iconic function by employing hyper-realistic cinematography, raw performances, and socio-political themes that closely reflect real-world struggles. the film’s formal techniques, including cinematography, mise-en-scène, and sound design, function as indices that point to tangible social and psychological conditions without relying on symbolic abstraction. the film’s use of naturalistic lighting, and muted color grading all contribute to an aesthetic that closely resembles documentary filmmaking. the technique enhances its iconicity, making the audience perceive the fictional world of gotham as an extension of their own social reality. cinematographer lawrence sher’s use of handheld cameras and desaturated filters replicates documentary footage of urban blight, establishing a causal link between the film’s visuals and historical realities. he underscores the film’s commitment to a gritty, desaturated look and depicts a palette that situates arthur’s struggle within a palpably hostile environment. by evoking the late 1970s and early 1980s through scorsese-inspired framing and lighting contrasts, joker embeds class conflict into every frame.the depiction of gotham’s trash-strewn streets and overcrowded subway systems directly mirrors the austerity-driven decline of 1970s new york city. the cramped, yellow-lit interiors of arthur’s apartment function as an index of his psychological confinement. the camera’s tight framing and shallow depth of field mimic claustrophobic home videos of individuals living in single-room occupancy housing. the flickering fluorescent lights, a technical choice measured to replicate faulty wiring in low-income housing, create a strobe effect that visually triggers the unease associated with institutional neglect. gotham city in joker is not merely a setting but an integral component of the film’s semiotic framework. it functions as an indexical sign, a sign that points to its object through causal or existential connections, by reflecting the societal decay, economic disparity, and political unrest that define arthur fleck’s world. unlike traditional representations of gotham in earlier batman films, which often leaned into gothic or neo-noir stylization, joker’s gotham is grounded in stark realism, resembling a late-1970s or early-1980s new york city. this grounded portrayal enhances the film’s semiotic depth, as gotham becomes an indexical signifier of real-world urban struggles. one of the most striking aspects of gotham’s environment is its visual degradation. the city is characterized by dilapidated buildings, overflowing trash due to the sanitation strike, and hostile public spaces. this urban decay serves as a metaphor for societal neglect and disintegration, visually reinforcing the film’s themes of alienation and systemic failure. the visual design of gotham city (such as trash, rats, and chaotic streets) resembles the slums in reality, conveying a sense of oppression in the lower classes. gotham is depicted as a cold, inhuman steel cage. its muted grays and blues replicate the somber tones of 19th-century circus posters, where dark backdrops highlighted performers’ vivid costumes. arthur’s green hair and red smile, though distorted, retain the primary color scheme of traditional clown iconography (red, yellow, blue), as seen in works like picasso’s the frugal repast (zhang 10). the film’s lighting, such as harsh fluorescents in subway scenes, mirrors the stark spotlights of circus arenas. it reinforces the iconicity of performance spaces. the accumulation of garbage and graffiti throughout the cityscape indexes a breakdown of public services, which in turn correlates with the breakdown of arthur’s mental stability. the more gotham descends into chaos, the more arthur loses his grip on reality, demonstrating the symbiotic relationship between character and environment. the film also uses a technique of deprivation and empty spaces, weakening the city’s depth and spatial sense, while denying marginalized individuals breathing room and opportunities for upward mobility. the stark contrast between the affluent elite (represented by thomas wayne’s luxurious lifestyle) and the impoverished lower class, struggling to survive in a deteriorating city, highlights the vast socioeconomic divide. the film frequently employs hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 156 published by ideas spread claustrophobic framing, narrow alleyways, and towering buildings to evoke a sense of confinement, mirroring arthur’s growing sense of isolation. his apartment, dimly lit and suffocatingly small, reflects his psychological imprisonment, and displays a stark contrast to the open, chaotic energy of the riots in the film’s climax. the use of a narrow 1.85:1 aspect ratio visually restricts horizontal space, mirroring the constrained perspectives of marginalized communities. this format choice directly references 1970s political thrillers like taxi driver (1976), whose visual claustrophobia indexed urban alienation. the cityscape, its crumbling infrastructure, and the palpable social tension mirror real-life urban decay and economic disparity, reinforcing the film’s status as an iconic representation of systemic failures. on the symbolic level, production design elements carry established cultural codes. arthur’s apartment is furnished with peeling wallpaper, functional but worn furniture, and harsh fluorescent lights, symbolizing neglect and the cold bureaucracy of social services. in addition, the film was shot during the magic hour, just before or after sunset with the utilization of the blue natural light of high color temperature to cast a melancholic and cold atmosphere over gotham. gotham is portrayed as a towering, impersonal steel cage. by depriving the background, the depth and spatial sense of the city are weakened, depriving the marginalized of their breathing space and upward mobility. entering the residential building, the tone shifts from blue to orange, with warm colors symbolizing safety, comfort, and softness, giving a sense of home. 2.2 gotham city as a sign with triple interpretation the story is set in gotham city which functions as a triadic sign in peirce’s model. the city iconically resembles a decayed metropolis, indexically points to social realities, and symbolically embodies moral and political meanings. peirce’s iconic relationship foregrounds visual resemblance. in joker, lawrence sher’s desaturated palette and tight framing render gotham as a decayed mirror of 1970s-80s new york, with trash-strewn streets and graffitiscarred walls directly recalling urban blight. in the sequel, this iconography appears again: neon-lit alleys and brightly painted carnival sets visually echo the first film’s grit, yet through a stylized prism that resembles a lurid stage-show. through its indexical dimension, the city’s physical details point to underlying social forces. gray rats scuttling through gotham’s alleys serve as companions to arthur, their lifeless eyes and scavenging behavior index his creeping paranoia and social decay. the omnipresent trash such as crumpled flyers and discarded soda cans symbolizes the discarded emotions and failed social contracts that have accumulated around him. the overflowing trash bins and shuttered clinics index systemic neglect and austerity policies that leave arthur fleck abandoned. they visualize an external world as fractured as his inner life. in folie à deux, the same streets, now repainted in lurid pinks and greens, index a collective delirium. they mark not only a breakdown of public order but the spread of joker’s own psychosis into the masses. as a symbol, gotham carries conventional meanings that evolve between the two films. gotham symbolizes moral decay and class division. its high towers loom over the destitute, signifying the entrenched gap between wayne wealth and fleck poverty. the neon facades and musical numbers transform the city into a stage for revolutionary myth-making. gotham has become a symbol of collective catharsis and anarchy, where clown masks in windows announce an uprising against social norms. together, these three semiotic registers show how gotham shifts from an icon of urban despair, through indices of neglect and contagion, into a symbol of both revolt and shared psychosis, which lays the groundwork for arthur’s transformation into the joker and its diffusion into a mass myth. 3. visual construction of the joker persona 3.1 visual coding of costume and makeup charles sanders peirce defines iconic signs as representations that physically resemble their referents through formal or structural similarity. the clown persona visually echoing the familiar circus archetype with its own peculiar twist. for instance, arthur’s unevenly smeared makeup and exaggerated red grin resemble a classic “hobo clown”, yet the intentional asymmetry and rough edges underscore his outsider status. moving beyond mere resemblance, the makeup also functions as an index of arthur’s inner turmoil. the streaked blue triangles under his eyes point directly to tears he cannot shed, signaling emotional fracture and societal rejection. finally, the painted smile takes on symbolic weight. in the first film, it becomes shorthand for rebellion appearing on graffiti and protest signs to signify discontent and is transformed into a symbol of their shared psychosis and collective uprising. the film merges these types to create a hybrid symbol. in joker (2019), arthur fleck’s makeup and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 157 published by ideas spread exaggerated smile function as direct visual icons, replicating historical clown imagery while recontextualizing their formal traits within a modern narrative. the clown image in dc comics is difficult to trace to a single historical prototype. rather than originating solely from circus clowns and court jesters, it is a symbolic code composed of a mixture of various elements (sun 31). the clown image incorporates the witty, eloquent, and glib characteristics of european jesters, the white-faced, red-lipped appearance of circus clowns, the tragicomic “permanent smile” inspired by victor hugo’s the man who laughs, the imagery of the joker and king from playing cards, and the complex economic and political environment of the time in the united states. phillips’ film selectively borrows and recontextualizes these elements to craft a narrative steeped in semiotic complexity. for instance, arthur’s garish makeup--a cracked, blood-red grin superimposed on chalk-white skin--serves not merely as a nod to comic book aesthetics but as a visual metaphor for societal masks and fractured identity. similarly, his flamboyant purple suit, reminiscent of earlier dc adaptations (e.g., heath ledger’s joker in the dark knight), is reinterpreted as a symbol of performative rebellion against bourgeois norms. by juxtaposing these inherited motifs with original innovations, such as arthur’s compulsive laughter (a physiological condition reframed as psychological torment), the film transforms the joker from a comic book antagonist into a polysemic emblem of societal collapse. the clown archetype spans diverse cultures. in ancient egypt and rome, court jesters mediated social tensions through satire, while roman pantomimus performers used physical comedy to critique authority. during the warring states period, “pai you” employed humor to indirectly challenge power structures. in european pantomimem, the 18th-century pierrot’s white mask epitomized the plight of societal outcasts (zhang 5). arthur inherits the tradition of subversion. his transformation into the joker mirrors the historical shift of clowns from entertainers to social critics, which embodies the rage of the disenfranchised in gotham’s decaying urban landscape. table 1. type visual traits symbolic meaning film adaptation whiteface white base, refined features tragic conformity to authority arthur’s initial mask of societal compliance auguste colorful chaos, slapstick disruption of order arthur’s red suit during anarchic acts tramp/hobo tattered clothing, disheveled marginalized rebellion arthur’s final identity as a societal outcast clown images are often categorized into types such as whiteface, auguste, and tramp(or hobo). arthur’s stark white face paint directly mirrors the whiteface clown, a figure originating in 18th-century european pantomime. as noted in studies of clown typology, whiteface clowns like pierrot wore chalk-white makeup to signify theatrical neutrality, enabling exaggerated expressions to be visible to distant audiences (zhang 8). the film replicates this tradition: arthur’s featureless white base erases individual identity, echoing the whiteface’s role as a blank slate for performative extremes. the thick, uniform application of paint, a technique documented in historical clown manuals (zhang 9), emphasizes artifice over humanity, aligning with peirce’s concept of icons as formal imitations. the red smile, painted in a grotesque upward arc, replicates the auguste clown’s signature grin. auguste clowns used oversized mouths and bright colors to amplify comedic expressions (zhang 9). in joker, however, the smile’s edges extend unnaturally beyond arthur’s lips, distorting auguste’s intent into a grotesque parody. this visual exaggeration retains the icon’s formal structure (a curved line representing a smile) while altering its contextual purpose--a shift explored in later chapters. moreover, arthur’s ill-fitting suits and muted color palette directly reference the tramp (or hobo clown), a depression-era archetype characterized by patched clothing and disheveled appearance (zhang 8). the sagging sleeves and oversized trousers mirror historical photographs of tramp clowns like emmett kelly’s “weary willie”. by adopting these visual traits, the film positions arthur within a lineage of clowns whose physical disarray signifies social marginalization as a direct visual citation. joker reconfigures traditional clown iconography into a semiotic battleground. arthur’s makeup and smile are not mere aesthetic choices but multilayered signs that critique capitalism’s dehumanizing forces. as arthur slips further into the joker persona, the color of his costume shifts to mirror his psychic fracture. his signature red jacket taht is bold and unrestrained embodies the id, the anarchic force within him that rejects society’s rules and revels in unbridled impulse. beneath that jacket, a bright yellow shirt peeks out. it is almost entirely submerged by the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 158 published by ideas spread red overcoat. the yellow represents the ego, arthur’s striving, rational self, which struggles to maintain balance but is consistently overridden by darker drives. finally, the hints of teal-blue in his vest and inner layers evoke the superego, the internalized voice of conscience and social order. these cool tones cling to him only in fragmentary flashes, which suggest how codes of morality and convention are present but largely suppressed. we can spot the id asserting itself, the ego battered, and the superego reduced to a faint, flickering light. by referencing and reinventing established symbols, joker situates its protagonist within a continuum of social outcasts and dissenters. this intertextual dialogue enriches the narrative, as the costume and makeup both honor and transform the legacy of clown figures, ultimately functioning as a visual indictment of a society that both exploits and abandons its most vulnerable members. the joker is both a product of and a reaction to the sociopolitical environment, highlighting how symbols can carry the weight of cultural and political critique. arthur fleck’s visual transformation is marked by a radical reinterpretation of traditional clown iconography. his stark white makeup and exaggerated red smile evoke historical figures from european theater and traditional circus clowns, yet these familiar images are recontextualized to signal alienation and subversion. 3.2 expressive function of bodily performance indexical signs convey meaning through a causal or proximate relationship with their objects. like demonstrative pronouns or relative pronouns, they direct attention to specific objects without describing them (peirce 369). in the film body expressions are mainly used as indexical signs to indicate the psychological and social state of the protagonist. the direct causal relationship between the changes in his body and acts of violence suggests that arthur’s psychological breakdown is directly tied to the oppression of his social environment, guiding the audience’s interpretation of the character’s psyche. his physical pain is not only a narrative device but a potent index of his internal struggle. the tense posture, grimaces, and subtle bodily reactions serve as non-verbal cues that point directly to a deeper, often unspoken, emotional agony. the close-up shots that capture these physical expressions reinforce the causal link between his bodily suffering and the oppressive societal forces that have contributed to his psychological breakdown. arthur’s pathological laughter, often interpreted in isolation, is better understood as a facet of his overall bodily language. the involuntary bursts of laughter, occurring at moments of extreme distress, function as indexical signs of internal conflict. they reflecthis inner pain and dissatisfaction with society and reveal a paradoxical state where humor, usually a socially adaptive behavior, transforms into an expression of existential despair. this laughter which is disjointed, out of context, and deeply unsettling mirrors his fractured psyche and the inability to reconcile his internal suffering with external realities. the uncontrollable and sometimes inappropriate laughter of the smiling face shows his sadness, his pain, grievance, fear, and despair. the high contrast of emotional expression creates a repressed atmosphere and a strong sense of tension in the film. the origin of arthur’s manic laughter can be traced back to the severe abuse and neglect he experienced within his original family during childhood, which ingrained a deep, inherent pain in his mind and unconsciously constructed a worldview steeped in suffering and sorrow. his mother’s neglect, coupled with a reverse form of education, left young arthur utterly confused; while he was enduring immense physical and emotional torment, his mother would tell him to keep smiling and to bring happiness to everyone. to the child arthur, the outside world appeared superficially beautiful and harmonious, yet underneath it was filled with deceit and brutality. this discrepancy led to a duality in arthur’s personality: a conflict between his inner world and the external reality, basically between his “true self” and the world as it is. freud, in his book introductory lectures on psychoanalysis, proposed the theory of psychological defense mechanisms. he pointed out that these mechanisms are an individual’s way of coping with pain and anxiety (freud 548); arthur’s manic laughter is a form of counterreaction aimed at rationalizing his tragic experiences. the recurring motif of “laughter” in joker forms a complex network of indexical signs. arthur fleck’s pathological laughter initially manifests as an involuntary physiological response, likely stemming from neurological damage due to childhood traumatic brain injury (tbi). this uncontrollable laughter, occurring at socially inappropriate times, serves as an index of his psychological distress and social alienation. for instance, when arthur is dismissed from his job at the children’s hospital, his forced smile and involuntary laughter underscore the intersection of personal trauma and systemic neglect. similarly, his feigned laughter at his mother’s bedside points to the oppressive familial dynamics and the expectation to mask true emotions. most poignantly, the final scene where arthur smears blood into a smile on his face symbolizes the culmination of his transformation. this act, born from physical trauma, becomes an index of his complete descent into the joker persona, encapsulating his individual suffering and the broader societal failures that contributed to his metamorphosis. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 159 published by ideas spread freud proposed that the personality is composed of the id, ego, and superego. the id represents the desires in the unconscious and lies at the deepest level of the personality, operating according to the pleasure principle. the ego is the aspect of consciousness responsible for dealing with issues in the real world and constitutes the middle layer of the personality structure. the superego, representing the idealized self, stands at the highest level and acts as the moral self, striving for perfection. most of the unconscious content belongs to the ego, where it remains hidden. arthur was deprived of the right to grieve from an early age, so his ego has been continuously repressed. after enduring various painful encounters within a distorted and complex society, arthur finds it extremely difficult to genuinely laugh. however, many scenes in the film show him repeatedly using his fingers to pull up the corners of his mouth into a “smiling” expression. at this point, the film suggests that arthur’s smile is a form of compulsive self-expression and a manifestation of a repressed self (qiao 26). the film presents arthur frank’s loud, manic laughter in many scenes. arthur is aware that this is a mental disorder, and he needs to see a community psychologist regularly to treat his bouts of uncontrolled laughter. in the first scene, arthur is in the midst of a session with a therapist, continuously laughing. at first, the audience assumes his laughter to be one of genuine joy, and the shot lingers on him for quite some time--a process that feels almost unbearable, as if it might expel his very organs. gradually, the audience realizes that this is not a “happy” laugh, but rather one of helplessness. minutes later, arthur abruptly stops laughing, and his expression becomes serious and pained. the camera then shifts to the doctor’s inquiry, revealing that arthur suffers from an uncontrollable condition that often leads him to fitful bouts of laughter. arthur’s physical manifestations of pain and disjointed laughter not only signal personal distress but also mirror the societal neglect and alienation pervasive in his community. the incongruity between his outward appearance and the expected social comportment underscores the failure of a system that marginalizes individuals, rendering his bodily expressions as powerful indicators of both personal and collective trauma. from a comedian trying to integrate into society to ultimately becoming a rebel against it, arthur’s transformation is a complex signifier. in joker, dance sequences are both choreographed movements and powerful semiotic signs that articulate the protagonist’s internal metamorphosis. it functions as a bodily language that conveys shifts in emotional states and the gradual emergence of the joker persona, and reveals inner fluctuations and embodying the internalization process of becoming the true joker. in joker (2019), there are 4 pieces of shootings and 7 times of dances. in joker (2024), there are a total of fourteen song-and-dance segments (fantasy, hypnosis, summoning)(wu 43). through carefully composed choreography, the film transforms physical movement into an index of psychological liberation and rebellion. the initial awkward dance steps reflect arthur fleck’s struggle with social conformity and internal repression. his hesitant, stilted movements underscore the conflict between his suppressed identity and the expectations imposed by a hostile society. as the narrative unfolds, the dance evolves into a more fluid and exuberant expression which mirrors his descent into chaos and the full emergence of his anarchic alter ego. in this context, dance becomes a ritualized performance where movement itself indexes the dissolution of conventional identity. furthermore, the spatial dynamics of these dance sequences, such as the interplay between confined spaces and open, unstructured environments, serve to amplify the internal conflict. the gradual shift from rigid, controlled movements to expansive, uninhibited gestures is emblematic of arthur’s journey from isolation to a more liberated, albeit destructive, form of self-expression. every time he dances, he enters the world of himself, which is both a process of self-reflection and the result of catharsis. thus, the dance in joker is a multifaceted semiotic tool that not only charts the transformation of the character but also symbolizes the broader societal breakdown that fuels his metamorphosis. bakhtin believed that carnival is predicated on a division between two worlds or ways of life. one is the official, serious, and strictly hierarchical world of order. the other is the carnival-square way of life, in which, during folk carnival festivities, the official order is upended in favor of a utopian world of revelry. the clown’s dance undoubtedly creates a new space. in this moment, arthur is immersed in the realm of imagination. imagination is the most fundamental structure of human existence, and its basic characteristic is either “identification” or “alienation”. arthur’s imagination is marked by alienation, yet within it, he also seeks a sense of identification. iconically, his stairwell dance in joker recalls a twisted ballet with each leap and stumble visually resembling both exuberance and imbalance, capturing his rebirth in motion. at the same time, this choreography indexes a shift in power. his slumped, defeated posture gives way to confident, expansive gestures, marking the moment he sheds societal constraints. symbolically, that very dance has become the film’s ritual: it signifies arthur’s rite of passage from victim to villain, a performance that cements his new identity. in folie à deux, shared routines like synchronized spins and mirrored steps perform this triadic function again. they look like stage-musical numbers hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 160 published by ideas spread (icon), point to the spread of joker’s mania into harley’s psyche (index), and stand for their joint revolution against convention (symbol). arthur’s use of his left and right hands in different contexts is causally related to his inner personality split, with the right hand representing the “ego” and the left hand representing the “id”. the film shows the occupation of the joker personality through arthur’s actions such as writing and shooting. arthur’s left hand represents the joker personality, and writing, shooting with the left hand, and tightly pressing the right hand are signs that the joker dominates. arthur’s repeated act of firing his left-handed shots signifies the rise of his id. the first time he fires is when he has lost his job and unable to suppress the onset of his condition, which consequently incites ridicule and bullying. he shoots and kills three people in quick succession before dashing to hide in a subway station restroom. when he faces his reflection in the mirror, he begins a bizarre yet somewhat graceful dance, spreading his arms to embrace the elusive demon within his own heart. the second time he fires, he methodically and decisively kills a colleague at home who had betrayed him. the final shooting occurs during a live television broadcast to which he was invited by his idol. on the show, arthur candidly admits to having killed someone, declaring that the world is rotten and that he will execute his idol with a single shot. these successive acts of shooting gradually expose the demonized inner self, unleashing his repressed identity in a wild and unbridled catharsis. the staircase appears multiple times in the film. the staircase, one of the film’s most visually significant locations, symbolizes this transition: initially depicted as a place of struggle (as arthur ascends it in exhaustion), it later transforms into a stage for his rebirth as joker when he dances down it, fully embracing his new identity. every time arthur returns home, he has to climb a long flight of stairs. as he ascends, his back is hunched, and his steps are heavy and slow. climbing the stairs symbolizes arthur’s struggle to suppress his inner darkness, his effort to fit into society, seek approval, and move away from the metaphorical “hell”. in contrast, when arthur descends the stairs, whether after being fired from his job or on his way to the talk show the murray franklin show, his steps are light, and his expression is relaxed. the descent represents the deepening of arthur’s consciousness and the worsening of his life. 3.3 symbolic use of environmental color the environment also plays an important role as indexical signs. as the broader environmental conditions of gotham city have been examined in previous chapters, here we highlight how arthur’s bodily expressions possess symbolic inference by interfacing with his status quo in cociety. the subway system, a recurring location in the film, becomes a microcosm of this conflict. the brutal murder of the three wall street businessmen in the subway car marks a turning point in arthur’s transformation and serves as a symbolic act of class rebellion, where the oppressed retaliate against the privileged. this moment reinforces gotham’s role as an indexical sign, linking urban violence to deeper socio-economic frustrations. the transformation of arthur fleck into the joker is marked by a deliberate shift in color, reflecting his internal metamorphosis. contrasting colors like blue and yellow are adopted to create an extreme disparity in mood. at first, the main color is cyan, reflecting the character’s mood, rendering a suppressed and sad atmosphere, expressing inner depression, gloom, and despair, reflecting the social environment. after the protagonist is taken over by the joker’s main personality, the film uses more red and yellow, with colors becoming bright and lively, which reflects the liberation of the character’s inner self. as arthur’s suppressed emotions give way to anarchic passion, warmer tones (particularly reds and yellows) emerge in his costume, makeup, and even in select lighting choices. red, often associated with violence and intensity, symbolizes the eruption of repressed anger and the radical rebirth of his identity. yellow, on the other hand, introduces an element of distortion and theatricality, emphasizing the paradox between his outward appearance as a clown and the inner turmoil that drives him. yellow taxis represent the self, which blocks arthur when he decides to make a change, and arthur eventually succumbs. when arthur first mustered the courage to go on stage, the scene lighting transitioned from cyan to red. it shows arthur’s struggling, uneasy, and nervous inner world. the spotlight hit his face, and the shooting deliberately used overexposure to present the character’s white face, aiming to highlight his poor performance skills and inappropriate laughter with a malicious interrogation-style lighting. the joker’s red jacket and the crimson hues of his makeup symbolize the id--arthur’s primal drives and destructive potential--asserting dominance over reasoned restraint. during the finale’s song and dance on the court-room stage, under dim ambient light, bright red spotlights blaze down. the stark color switch indexes the joker persona taking full control, transforming violence into performance and chaos into liberated expression. the juxtaposition of red, yellow and blue creates a visual metaphor for the duality within arthur’s psyche, and displays a conflict between conformity and rebellion. this dynamic interplay resonates with psychological theories hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 161 published by ideas spread of the divided self, reinforcing the idea that these color shifts are not arbitrary but deeply embedded in both cultural history and personal transformation. additionally, through the use of color, the contrast in temperature and emotion between the fantasy world and the real world is shown. unlike reality, the fantasy world has a colorful backdrop, with distinct colors contrasting with the previously monotonous yellow and blue tones on the screen. when arthur dances with quinn in his fantasy, the stage is highly saturated, and the blue is no longer bleak. 4. the demise and mythologization of the joker 4.1 climax as semiotic apex on the stand, arthur again appears as the heavily made-up joker. the joker begins to seize control of this “trial of the century”, and both the spotlight and public opinion focus squarely on him and harley quinn. just as it seems the joker is about to sway the narrative in his favor, the arrival and testimony of the dwarf gary reawakens arthur’s dying persona. in his final statement, arthur refuses to escape punishment by claiming “split personality” and instead accepts full responsibility for his crimes. in doing so, he shatters the faith of his fanatical followers (including his lover, lee quinzel)--these so-called devotees mostly had only been using the joker as a conduit for their own evil or as redemption. the courthouse is bombed, and arthur manages to escape, but by then he is no longer seen as a divine figure. recaptured and sent back to the asylum, he is murdered by a crazed joker zealot. as the killer emits a maniacal, clown-like laugh, arthur’s life comes to an end. in the end, arthur is about to receive a visitor. before stepping out, a guard close to arthur walks by singing the 1939 song we three with the lyrics “we three, we’re all alone, living in a memory / my echo, my shadow, and me / we three, we’re not a crowd, we’re not even company” (mccartney 0:10-0:28). here, “me” represents arthur, “shadow” represents the joker, and “echo” represents the joker’s fanatical followers like that bald man. they cannot accept arthur’s unremarkable fate and demand he pay for their disappointment. in the final image, arthur lies in a pool of blood, and the same blade that pierced his abdomen tears the corners of murder’s mouth into a grotesque smile who became the next “joker”. the striking, tableau-like composition of this scene turns the joker’s demise into an icon, and makes the apex of the story’s climax. in the finale there is also an intercut stage fantasy sequence in which harley quinn shoots arthur. in fact, both harley quinn and the asylum zealot (the bald-headed killer) serve as the “echo” in the song we three. these fanatical followers of the joker, imitating the way he once killed murray, arm themselves and murder the joker in hopes of becoming the next him as well as the next idol in the spotlight. however, actually the very birth of the joker persona was meant to stand against violence, not to embody it, which is a tragic result of a cold, indifferent society and an unhappy childhood. the joker’s slaying by fellow underdogs at society’s bottom is absurd and deeply thought-provoking. in the asylum, those who once worshipped the joker ultimately become his executioners. this not only exposes the brutal reality at society’s margins but also forces us to reflect on the fact that in our time, mutual harm among the weak has become commonplace. this norm, in turn, makes us feel unsettled and uneasy. at the bottom of society, due to lack of power and scarce resources, the weak often act without restraint. in 1996, bellinger published an essay in which he gave a precise explanation of the roots of violence: “the basic root of violence is the turn of the human soul away from god in an attempt to control the process of creation and lessen the pain of anxiety. violence is a means of fortifying a particular immature formation of the ego against the possibility of the ego’s ‘death’ and ‘rebirth’ in a more mature formation” (palaver 13). to survive and for their own interests, people do not hesitate to harm one another. the joker, once a beacon of hope for those same marginalized people, ultimately could not escape this fate. his death drags the personal tragedy brought about by society to the extreme. the joker’s abandonment of his cause is more than a personal tragedy. it extinguishes the faint hope of everyone who longed for a brighter future. in the shawshank redemption, hope is the pillar that sustains the protagonist, but in joker (2024), the joker’s surrender plunges us all into despair. that fragile hope, once flickering with promise thanks to the joker’s “rebellion”, is snuffed out by his own hand, casting everyone who believed in a better tomorrow into profound darkness. ultimately, it is the other patients in the asylum who act as the executioners of the joker--not the law, not a mighty force, but seemingly helpless victims. the sorrow of this ending goes far beyond the simple tragedy of the weak killing the weak. this rebellion and disunity among the marginalized further deepen the film's reflection on the collapse of social order. the animation at the beginning of the film joker (2024) with the central motif “i” (arthur) and “my” shadow resembles the real and counterfeit monkey king. they are identical in appearance, costume and movement much like those two figures. because “i” refuses to become the joker, “i” am locked away in a cabinet by the shadow. meanwhile, the shadow takes to the stage and delights the audience. when “i” return to the once-familiar world, “i” discover that no one needs “me”. people are enthralled only by the mad joker, in other words the shadow. this hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 162 published by ideas spread animation vividly portrays the intense tug-of-war between arthur and his shadow and hints at his vacillation and struggle between being the joker and being himself. through the animation and the courtroom scene, the film stages arthur’s ultimate showdown with his joker persona. the final courtroom drama carries a clear echo of that initial sequence. according to freud’s model of the mind, the id represents the joker since it acts without regard for society, while the ego embodies rationality and suffers in its struggle to find balance; in contrast the superego takes on society’s moral standards and values. in lacan’s framework, the symbolic order describes the system of social rules and forms the individual’s link to the world. in the film, arthur is repeatedly rejected and marginalized by society, so he cannot find a place within those rules. the imaginary realm covers fantasy and the fictive self (lacan 66). the song-and-dance daydreams in the movie show arthur escaping into his own imaginary and construct an ideal world that does not exist. the real encompasses what lies beyond language and symbols. arthur’s inner suffering and the trauma of being cast aside represent that real, a kind of pain that cannot be eased through language or social rules. from this painful impasse the joker persona is born. these two personalities do not operate in isolation but are entwined and co-dependent just like the live-action joker and his shadow in the opening animation. each of them yearns for the spotlight on stage and at times they seem indistinguishable. arthur’s death transforms the joker from a mere character into the emblem of a revolutionary myth, and in doing so he comes to represent the oppression and alienation endured by the masses. 4.2 from persona to myth arthur’s death elevated this personal tragedy to a collective myth. after his death, the joker persona transcends his mortal coil and spreads through gotham’s underbelly. in both films of the series, arthur fleck is depicted as being rescued by protesters. in the first movie, he joins the crowd in cheering and dancing. the sequel places even greater emphasis on these supporters, most of whom are dressed as jokers. their attire and facial makeup closely resemble his own. the sight of countless citizens donning clown masks signifies the transition from individual symbol to collective convention, marking the metamorphosis of the tragic protagonist into a cultural icon. beyond individual transformation, the joker emerges as a potent symbol of collective discontent. his persona encapsulates the disintegration of social order, serving as an embodiment of the systemic neglect and economic disparities that permeate modern society. the joker’s chaotic image becomes a rallying signifier for those who feel alienated by a failing socio-political system. the adoption of radical visual markers by the joker not only marks his personal metamorphosis but also functions as an act of resistance. his transformation is staged as a public performance. it is a symbolic uprising against the expectations and constraints of a rigid social order. the emergence of new “jokers” within the asylum illustrates how ideology can spread like a contagion. furthermore, the young man in the psychiatric hospital who kills arthur becomes the next joker, inheriting both the violence and the tragedy. all of this serves as arthur’s legacy, transforming the “joker” into a legend. by aligning peirce’s iconic signs with gotham’s visual dystopia, the symbol of clown is transformed into a direct display of societal rupture which serves as a mask that both conceals and reveals the fractures of a broken world. rather than serving as mere comic relief, the elements about joker become cultural codes that critique societal norms and mask the pain of marginalization. in thus spoke zarathustra, nietzsche posits that humanity can only free itself from old constraints and create new meanings and selves by destroying false idols and reevaluating all values (nietzsche 121). the joker sequel returns to the joker in his most human form as arthur, as a person, and as a mental patient. it focuses on his social reality, personal struggles, and the pain caused by his dual identity. this portrayal dismantles the joker symbol from its position as an unsettling and disruptive idol and breaks it down to reveal how the joker ultimately consumes arthur and even himself. in the first joker film, the character embodies nietzsche’s proclamation that “god is dead” and his übermensch theory, completing the transformation from underclass victim to symbol of rebellion. society itself has created a god. in the sequel, director todd phillips deliberately subverts the traditional heroic narrative, ending in a muted tragedy where arthur’s death goes unremembered. this intensifies the sense of real-world powerlessness. the finale reveals mutual destruction among the oppressed. those from the bottom who once worshipped the joker kill him because they cannot tolerate their idol’s perceived betrayal. this satirizes the absurdity of blind devotion and identity politics. at its core, this is an attempt at self-redemption by the oppressed. however, the conflict between society and the individual proves irreconcilable, culminating in the complete collapse of the “joker myth”. the fallen joker becomes both a martyr and a symbol of contagion. the image of a stranger, newly painted and self‐mutilated, standing where arthur fell becomes a conventional martyr icon which represents not only the persistence of the joker myth but the cyclical nature of fanaticism. the new joker’s maniacal laughter and self‐inflicted smile underscore a sobering truth that when society venerates violence as identity, it replaces empathy with spectacle, and redemption becomes impossible. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 163 published by ideas spread 5. conclusion this research demonstrates that every element of cinematic design in joker and joker: folie à deux functions as a multilayered sign, operating simultaneously on iconic, indexical and symbolic levels. gotham’s decaying urban scenery, arthur fleck’s evolving clown persona, his bodily gestures and choreographed sequences collectively articulate themes of social alienation, systemic injustice and the contagion of violence. the sequel’s intensified colour palette and intertwined performances deepen these semiotic processes, showing how individual despair can evolve into a collective myth. through a semiotic analysis of joker, this study demonstrates how the film’s symbolic imagery serves as a powerful narrative tool, reflecting the protagonist’s psychological state and the oppressive societal forces at play. the use of icons, indices, and symbols not only deepens the audience’s understanding of arthur fleck’s transformation but also critiques broader issues such as mental health stigmatization and societal inequality. ultimately, joker illustrates how visual storytelling, when dissected through a semiotic lens, offers rich insights into the complex dynamics between individual identity, societal pressure, and violence. at its core, joker’s symbolic language serves as a metanarrative addressing the dilemmas of modernity. peirce’s theoretical framework elucidates how the film intricately orchestrates a system of signs to transform personal psychopathology into a societal critique. in this context, the fissures in the joker’s makeup are not merely cosmetic imperfections but symptoms of a collapsing symbolic order, visually manifesting the crisis of subjectivity in the post-truth era. he epitomizes an anti-hero forged by symbolic violence, ascending as a cultural totem of our times. this essay offers a systematic visual-semiotic framework for decoding films. by foregrounding mise-en-scène components such as lighting, composition, costume, gesture, and so on as lively signs, this approach reveals layers of meaning that standard narrative analysis would possibly overlook. the method is adaptable to other films or visual media where imagery becomes a primary discourse. at the same time, this undergraduate study is preliminary in scope. it specializes in visual signs and symptoms without claiming to exhaustively explain the movies’ narratives or sociopolitical contexts. future studies could build on this work through incorporating different cinematic theories or examining how target audience reception interacts with visible symbolism. overall, the visual-semiotic reading presented here demonstrates that joker’s imagery is not incidental. each sign contributes to the film’s critique of social decay and alienation. by carefully attending to visual details in joker and its sequel, this thesis shows in a modest but meaningful way how films can communicate ideas beyond words, thereby enriching our understanding of cinematic storytelling. references [1] arenas, a., camacho, j., cuesta, j. a., & fortuny, j. m. (2011). the joker effect: cooperation driven by destructive agents. journal of theoretical biology, 279(1), 113–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtbi.2011.03.017 [2] brooker, w. (2002). batman unmasked: analysing a cultural icon. australian & new zealand journal of psychiatry, 36(6), 834–835. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-1614.2002.t01-4-01121.x [3] driscoll, r., & husain, s. (2021). commentary on joker and mental health. psychology today, 189–194. [4] freud, s. (1920). general introduction to psychoanalysis. the journal of nervous and mental disease, 52(6), 548–549. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005053-192012000-00047 [5] friedberg, m. (2020). interview with production designer: the look of joker. filmmakers academy, 100–105. [6] harman, g. (1977). semiotics and the cinema: metz and wollen. quarterly review of film studies, 2(1), 15– 24. https://doi.org/10.1080/10509207709391329 [7] johansen, j. (1993). dialogic semiosis: an essay on signs and meaning. indiana university press. https://doi.org/10.2979/1512.0 [8] lacan, j. (1977). écrits: a selection (a. sheridan, trans.). w. w. norton & company. [9] lubis, a. y., & oisina, i. v. (2022). discursive symbolism in a semiotic approach on the joker movie trailer. edulite journal of english education, 19(1), 121–138. https://doi.org/10.24002/jik.v19i1.3493 [10] mccartney, p. (2021). we three. on kisses on the bottom [album]. capitol records. [11] nierenberg, a. (2021). cinema and stigma: the joker's ethical questions. bjpsych bulletin, 45(6), 185–190. [12] nietzsche, f. (1961). thus spoke zarathustra (r. j. hollingdale, trans.). penguin books. [13] palaver, w. (2012). the joker is satan. the bulletin of the colloquium on violence & religion, 41, 13–15. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 164 published by ideas spread [14] peirce, c. s. (1934). collected papers of charles sanders peirce (c. hartshorne & p. weiss, eds.). the belknap press of harvard university press. [15] qiao, x. (2021). an analysis of the protagonist's personality structure in the film joker from the perspective of freudian theory [master's thesis, guilin university of technology]. (original work published in chinese: 乔心怡: "从弗洛伊德理论视角解析电影<小丑>主人公的人格结构") [16] shepherd, s. m., delgado, r. h., sherwood, j., & paradies, y. (2017). the impact of indigenous cultural identity and cultural engagement on violent offending. bmc public health, 18(1), article 818. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-017-4603-2 [17] sher, l. (2020). interview with cinematographer. filmmakers academy, 85–95. [18] uysal, y. (2023). joker: film, working class and post-truth. cinej cinema journal, 11(2), 390–405. https://doi.org/10.5195/cinej.2023.587 [19] sun, z. (2021). a study on the symbolic construction of the joker image in dc comic adaptation films [master's thesis, qufu normal university]. (original work published in chinese: 孙正瑞: "dc漫改电影中 小丑形象的符号化建构研究") [20] wu, b. (2023). an analysis of nonverbal signs in the film joker. youthful years, (2), 41–43. (original work published in chinese: 武博文: "浅析电影<小丑>中的非言语符号") [21] zhang, r. (2023). the joys and sorrows of life [master's thesis, jingdezhen ceramic university]. (original work published in chinese: 张蓉: "生命的悲欢") copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n3p71 71 published by ideas spread impact of off-hours work-related electronic communication on work engagement among university faculty: the moderating role of boundary flexibility qing yang1, xiaohan ma1, yang li2 & lingling zhang2 1 business administration, affiliation school of management, beijing union university, china 2 human resources, school of biochemical engineering, beijing union university, china correspondence: lingling zhang, human resources, school of biochemical engineering, 100101, china. tel: 86136-9133-0749. e-mail: yangqing20021126@163.com, zwqmxk@163.com, nansanyan@163.com, zllzk2006@163.com received: may 19, 2025; accepted: may 30, 2025; published: may 31, 2025 abstract with the rapid development of information and communication technology and new office forms, non-working time and work-related electronic communication has become an essential part of people's work and life. teachers in colleges and universities also have the same phenomenon in their daily work, but different teachers have different evaluations of this work status, and there are differences in the impact of different work motives. the article explores the mechanism of the influence of non-working time and work-related electronic communication on work engagement by taking teachers in college a as the research object, and selects boundary flexibility ability as the moderating variable. the results show that non-working time and work-related e-communication have a significant negative effect on work engagement of teachers in college a. boundary elasticity ability plays a negative moderating role between non-working time and work-related e-communication and work engagement, and there is a significant difference between different work motives. the findings of the study provide theoretical basis and practical support for moderately controlling non-work time and work-related e-communication and enhancing college teachers' work engagement. keywords: higher education faculty, non-work time and work-related electronic communication, work engagement, boundary resilience capacity, work motivation 1. introduction with the rapid development of ict and new office forms (e.g., telecommuting), as well as the high expectations of organizations for employees' out-of-hours work connectivity, electronic communication has become an essential part of people's daily work and life. according to statistics, nearly 50% of employees worldwide have had or are experiencing work-related e-communication during non-work time periods (ferguson et al., 2016), and non-work time work-related e-communication has become a common phenomenon in all industries and has been on a continuous upward trend since 2002 (cheng huan et al., 2023). in recent years, this phenomenon has not only been hotly debated among employees in organizations and companies, but has also received extensive attention from academics. unlike traditional telecommuting or overtime work, work-related electronic communication during non-working hours is a non-fixed, non-compulsory and unpaid behavior (qianqiu wang, 2023), which usually affects employees in two ways. on the one hand, with the help of technological means to eliminate time and space barriers, it is convenient for members of the organization to keep in touch at any time and any place to deal with work affairs in a timely manner, which enhances the flexibility and autonomy of employees in work-life transition, and is conducive to enhancing the efficiency of teamwork as well as improving the individual's work performance (li yinfang, 2022); on the other hand, e-communication during non-work time is prone to cause the employees to have a work-nonwork on the other hand, e-communication during non-working hours is prone to cause conflicts between employees' work and non-work, making it difficult for employees to detach themselves from their work and affecting their normal life, which in turn reduces their sense of well-being and induces emotional exhaustion (ru yucheng, 2022). however, most of the current research on non-work time and work-related e-communication is based on corporate employees, and only a relatively small amount of literature focuses on college teachers. in hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 72 published by ideas spread fact, it is extremely common for college teachers to engage in work-related e-communication during non-work time, and college teachers have mixed feelings about this work status. moreover, the question of under what circumstances work-related e-communication during non-working hours can have a positive impact and under what circumstances it can have a negative impact needs to be further explored based on different work motivations. self-determination theory emphasizes that the motivation for a behavior largely determines its aftereffects (deci & ryan, 2000). based on the different nature of motivation, self-determination theory specifically divides it into two basic categories: autonomous and controlled motivation. autonomous motivation stems from an individual's intrinsic interest in and identification with a behavior, reflecting the individual's perception of the importance and value of the behavior; whereas controlled motivation stems from the stimuli of the external environment, and is more often reflected in the motivation to avoid external punishment or pursue external rewards (ohly, 2014). behavior driven by an individual's intrinsic autonomous motivation tends to better satisfy his or her basic needs and form positive aftereffects such as positive affective states and engagement (xinying lu, 2024). in contrast, when an individual's behavior is driven by external controlled motivation, it tends to pose a limitation on the individual's autonomy and diminish his or her intrinsic source of motivation, which in turn is more likely to lead to negative affect and reduce the individual's level of engagement and concentration (deci & ryan, 2000). therefore, from the perspective of both autonomous and controlled dual motivation, exploring the effects of and comparing the differences in the influence of non-work time and work-related electronic communication on work engagement among college teachers is conducive to making differentiated recommendations for college teachers under different behavioral motivations, which is of greater practical significance. this paper focuses on university a, a comprehensive university in beijing with a total of more than 2,550 faculty members and 1,547 full-time teachers (data as of september 2023). in recent years, the use of electronic communication tools such as cell phones and computers to communicate at work during non-working hours has become more common among teachers in university a. the boundaries between teachers' work and non-work are becoming more and more blurred, and the impacts on teachers are different. it is necessary to explore in depth the impacts of non-working hours and work-related electronic communication on work engagement as well as differences under different behavioral motives based on the actual situation in university a, with a view to helping a teachers in colleges and universities to continuously maintain a good state of work engagement. in view of this, this paper takes teachers in college a as the research object, analyzes the impact of non-working time and work-related electronic communication on teachers' work engagement in college a, discusses in depth the reality, impact effect and mechanism of the current work-life boundary blurring of teachers in colleges and universities, and furthermore, this study pays attention to the moderating role that boundary resilience may play in this impact path, and ultimately proposes targeted strategies and suggestions for moderately controlling nonworking time and work-related electronic communication and enhancing teachers' work engagement in colleges and universities. finally, in light of the current situation of electronic communication and work engagement of teachers in college a, this study puts forward targeted strategies and suggestions, aiming to provide theoretical basis and practical support for moderately controlling the non-work time and work-related electronic communication and enhancing the work engagement of teachers in colleges and universities. 2. rationale and research hypothesis 2.1 self-determination theory self-determination theory (sdt) is a theory of human motivation that emphasizes the central role of intrinsic motivation and basic psychological needs in individual behavior. according to self-determination theory, motivation is viewed as a continuum that covers the progression from unmotivated to controlled to autonomous motivation, and it is believed that motivations of different natures possess a greater ability to predict an individual's behavior as compared to a different number of motivations (deci & ryan, 2000). individuals' motivation can be categorized into two basic categories: autonomous and controlled motivation, and the key to distinguishing between these two types of motivation is the source of the motivation: whether it stems from external pressures or from the individual's inner true will; specifically, the measurement of controlled motivation involves external and introjected regulation, whereas the measurement of autonomous motivation encompasses identity regulation, integrative regulation, and internal regulation (deci & ryan, 2000). 2000). 2.2 theory of boundary elasticity boundary flexibility theory (bft) is a theory that explains the behavior and intentions of individuals to make role transitions. the theory suggests that flexibility ability is an individual's cognitive assessment of the characteristics of the situation in which they find themselves, particularly with regard to the assessment of the situation that affects their ability to leave their current domain role to fulfill another domain role. in research on hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 73 published by ideas spread work-family balance, it has been noted that employees tend to experience lower levels of psychological disengagement when their boundary resilience is underperforming, and that this lower state of psychological disengagement significantly exacerbates work-family conflict (ye shuang, 2022), whereas, on the contrary, employees with high boundary resilience will have a positive contribution to their individual prosperity (xu xue, 2022). 2.3 resource conservation theory conservation of resources (cor) is a theory of motivation that explains how individuals respond to environmental stresses and challenges. the theory suggests that individuals have a general tendency to conserve and maintain existing resources and to acquire new ones, so that stress responses may be triggered when individuals face actual resource losses, threats of potential losses, or mismatches between resource inputs and returns (hobfoll & stevan, 1989). in organizational behavior, resource preservation theory has been used to explain the psychological and behavioral generating motivations of employees, such as work engagement, job satisfaction, and organization-member relations (liao hwa hwa et al., 2022). related studies have also shown that stress caused by the lack of work resources is one of the important factors affecting employees' time encroachment behaviors (he, yujie & yu, jing, 2020). 2.4 out-of-hours work-related electronic communication and work inputs as a form of online labor, work-related electronic communication during non-work time brings a significant sense of relative exploitation to employees due to its occupation of private time and consumption of physical and mental resources, which not only makes employees physically and mentally exhausted, but also prevents them from achieving psychological disengagement (yuan xiaoya, 2021). "work engagement" represents the psychological connection between employees and their work roles and involves their full commitment of physical, emotional, and cognitive resources at work (christian et al., 2011). while work-related electronic communication during nonwork hours has facilitated the efficient exchange and sharing of resources to some extent, at the same time, it has expanded work boundaries and gradually infiltrated work into family life, making it difficult for individuals to achieve effective relaxation and relief at both the physical and psychological levels, which negatively affects sleep quality and limits participation in leisure and recreational activities (lanaj et al., 2011). lanaj et al.,2014), which can increase workload and produce negative perceptions of work experience, thus reducing engagement in work (zhao yue et al.,2024). breaking the state of psychological disengagement has been found to increase fatigue or anxiety, reduce resource reserves, and have a negative effect on the next day's work engagement (wanjin et al., 2023).a college teachers' work engagement is also affected by this continuous work engagement, which may have a negative impact on work performance. based on this, this paper proposes the following hypothesis h1: non-work time and work-related electronic communication is detrimental to teachers' work engagement in a university. 2.5 the moderating role of the elastic capacity of the boundary in the study of the moderating role of boundary flexibility, foreign scholars mathews et al. (2010) found that the higher the boundary flexibility, the easier it is for people to cope with the psychological needs related to the transition between the work and family domains. individuals with higher boundary resilience ability will significantly enhance their perceptions of the support of boundary strategies and imply that individuals can effectively narrow or expand the boundary between family and work to flexibly cope with and meet the needs of family or work (ye shuang, 2022). existing research points out that boundary flexibility ability plays an important moderating role in stressors and stress responses, arguing that for individuals with more limited boundary flexibility ability, when faced with nontraditional or unconventional work tasks, it is often difficult to achieve smooth role transitions between the work and family domains, resulting in the blurring of the boundaries between work and family, which exacerbates the conflict between the two (jie xu, 2018). teachers in university a generally have high boundary resilience ability, and have more excellent role switching ability when encountering work-related electronic communication during non-working hours, and are able to switch between work and family flexibly with ease, effectively alleviating potential conflicts between work and family, and demonstrating high work-family balance ability, which enables them to be more dedicated to their work. based on this, this paper proposes the following hypotheses: h2: the stronger the boundary resilience capacity, the stronger the role of work-related electronic communication during non-work time as a hindrance to work engagement. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 74 published by ideas spread figure 1. research model 3. research design and measurement of variables 3.1 selection of research subjects the research focus of this paper centers on the group of teachers engaged in teaching and research types in university a. university a is a comprehensive university in beijing, which has a higher percentage of teaching and research type teachers compared to other types of teachers. the survey utilized a combination of electronic and paper questionnaires to pre-interview the working and living conditions of teachers in university a and conduct a small-scale questionnaire-based survey. in the formal stage of the survey, both electronic and paper questionnaires were used for distribution in order to cover the target population more widely. further screening of the questionnaires eliminated invalid questionnaires that were incompletely filled out or had obvious logical errors. the questionnaire survey totaled 200 questionnaires, 12 invalid questionnaires were screened out, and 188 valid questionnaires were received, with a recovery rate of about 94%. according to the analyzed survey data, the largest share of female teachers in college a is 70.21%. as for the marital status, the proportion of married and childbearing teachers is the highest, reaching 71.28%. the specific sample distribution is shown in table 1. table 1. distribution of the survey data sample category sample distribution percentage (%) category sample distribution percentage (%) gender male 29.79 teaching experience ≤1 year 4.26 female 70.21 1~5 years 15.96 (a person's) age ≤30 years old 7.45 6 to 10 years 11.70 31~35 years old 15.96 11-20 years 30.85 36~ 45 years old 21.28 ≥21 years 37.23 46-55 years old 44.67 type of position teaching-oriented 28.73 ≥56 years old 10.64 research-oriented 14.89 education level bachelor's degree 7.45 teaching and research 56.38 master's degree 38.3 type of instruction public course 28.72 doctoral degree 54.25 specialized subject 48.94 professional title junior 5.32 both 22.34 intermediate 52.13 marital status unmarried 11.70 associate senior 30.85 married without children 17.02 full senior 11.70 married with children 71.28 3.2 measurement of variables in this paper, the four variables of non-work time and work-related electronic communication, work engagement, boundary flexibility, and autonomous and controlled motivation were measured by means of well-established domestic and international scales, all using the likert five-point scale, with scores ranging from "strongly hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 75 published by ideas spread disagree" to "strongly agree" on a scale of 1-5, with higher scores indicating that the descriptions of the items are more consistent with the actual situation. "the higher the score, the more consistent the description of the situation is with the actual situation. the higher the score, the more frequent the communication was in the nonworking time and work-related electronic communication scale. 1. for the measurement of work-related electronic communication during non-working hours, this paper adopts the scale developed by the research of hongyu ma and other scholars (2016), which includes the question "how often do people related to my work contact me through the above communication tools during non-working hours because of work-related matters?" and other three question items. 2. for the measurement of work engagement, this paper adopts the nine-item work engagement scale developed by schaufeli et al. (2002), which consists of nine items such as "i feel strong and energized when i work". 3. for the measurement of boundary resilience ability, this paper chooses the work-family boundary resilience scale, which was revised and widely used by scholars such as ma hongyu (2016), as a research tool and focuses on two key dimensions for in-depth analysis, namely, the work resilience ability dimension and the family resilience ability dimension, such as: "i am able to leave halfway through my work when i have something at home that needs to be taken care of. ", "i am able to work late without compromising the fulfillment of my family duties if my work requires it" and "i am willing to put aside my family duties when i receive a work assignment at home".court affairs to get the job done," etc. 4. measurement of autonomous and controlled motivation, the scale in this paper is taken from grant et al. (2011) and includes twelve items such as "i do not want to fail because my job is a very important part of my life", "i do this job mainly to get a salary. " and twelve other question items. 4. empirical analysis 4.1 reliability test the results of the reliability test of all the scales are shown in table 2, the cronbach's α value of the non-working time and work-related e-communication scale is 0.917, the cronbach's α value of the work engagement scale is 0.760, and the cronbach's α value of the boundary flexibility capacity is 0.839, which is greater than 0.7, and the scales used in this paper have good reliabilities and can be used for further research and analysis. table 2. results of confidence test variant number of questions cronbach's alpha out-of-hours work-related electronic communication 3 0.917 devote one's energies to work 9 0.760 boundary resilience 8 0.839 the results of the validity test of all the scales are shown in table 3, the kmo values of the non-working time and work-related e-communication scale, the work input scale, and the boundary flexibility ability are all greater than 0.7. in addition, after the bartlett's spherical test, the significance of the non-working time and work-related e-communication and work input scale is 0.001, and that of the boundary flexibility ability scale is 0.000, all of which are less than 0.05, indicating that the scales used in this paper all have good validity in measuring the relevant variables. table 3. validity test results variant kmo value barthelle's spherical value (number of) degrees of freedom (physics) signific ance out-of-hours work-related electronic communication 0.742 206.140 3 0.001 devote one's energies to work 0.763 176.258 36 0.001 boundary resilience 0.824 438.898 28 0.000 4.2 correlation analysis correlation analysis as a statistical analysis tool aims to explore the potential association between two or more random variables. in this study, the correlation analysis of non-working time with work-related e-communication, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 76 published by ideas spread work engagement, and boundary resilience ability was conducted with the help of spss27.0, and the results are shown in table 5, which shows that there is a significant negative correlation between non-working time with work-related e-communication and individual's work engagement of teachers in a university (r=-0.420, p<0.01). meanwhile, there was a significant positive correlation between non-work time and work-related e-communication and an individual's boundary resilience ability (r=0.321, p<0.01). the findings of the correlation analysis provided some support for the subsequent hypothesis testing. table 4. results of correlation analysis variant out-of-hours work-related electronic communication devote one's energies to work boundary resilience out-of-hours work-related electronic communication 1 devote one's energies to work -0.420** 1 boundary resilience 0.321** 0.029 1 note. * denotes p < 0.05, ** denotes p < 0.01 4.3 regression analysis in this paper, with the help of spss 27.0 software, we analyze the direct impact of non-working time and workrelated e-communication on work input and further explore the moderating role of boundary elasticity capacity between the two, and the regression results are shown in table 5, according to model 1, the regression coefficients of non-working time and work-related e-communication of teachers in college a on work input are negative and at a high level of significance (β = -0.258, and p < 0.01), indicating that non-working time and work-related ecommunication has a significant negative effect on work engagement of teachers in university a. h1 is verified. in order to reduce the influence of multicollinearity on the results of regression analysis, the variables involved in the interaction term were centered before testing the moderating effect. from model 2 in table 5, boundary resilience ability was found to play a positive moderating role (β = 0.141, p < 0.05) in the facilitation effect of work-related electronic communication on work engagement during non-work time, and h2 was verified. table 5. results of regression analysis variant devote one's energies to work model 1 model 2 out-of-hours work-related electronic communication -0.258*** (0.056) -0.230*** (0.061) boundary resilience 0.049 (0.084) out-of-hours and work-related electronic communication× boundary resilience capabilities 0.141** (0.060) distinguishing between the sexes -0.041 (0.124) -0.013 (0.126) (a person's) age 0.153* (0.091) 0.147 (0.089) educational attainment -0.050 (0.093) -0.028 (0.091) length of teaching experience -0.223** (0.082) -0.201** (0.080) f 5.824*** 5.529*** adjusted r² 0.206 0.254 note. * indicates significant at the 0.1 level, ** indicates significant at the 0.05 level, *** indicates significant at the 0.01 level; values in parentheses represent standard errors. in order to be able to more intuitively show the moderating effect of boundary elasticity capacity on the relationship between non-working time and work-related e-communication and work input, this paper plots the moderating hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 77 published by ideas spread effect as described in the previous section. as shown in figure 2, the solid and dashed lines represent low boundary elasticity capacity and high boundary elasticity capacity, respectively, and the slopes of the two lines are both negative, indicating that the relationship between non-work time and work-related e-communication and work input is negative. the results in the figure show that the slope is smaller when the boundary elasticity capacity is at a high level, and at this time the negative impact of non-work time and work-related e-communication on work input is smaller than when the boundary elasticity capacity is low. this shows that the boundary elasticity capacity has a negative moderating effect in the relationship between non-working time and work-related e-communication and work input, which reduces the negative impact of non-working time and work-related e-communication on work input. figure 2. moderating effect of boundary resilience capacity on non-work time and work-related electronic communication and work engagement 4.4 heterogeneity analysis this paper analyzes heterogeneity from the perspective of different levels of autonomous and controlled motivation. specifically, taking the mean value of autonomous and controlled motivation as the division point, autonomous motivation is divided into low autonomous motivation and high autonomous motivation, and controlled motivation is divided into low controlled motivation and high controlled motivation. the results, as shown in table 6, under high levels of autonomous motivation, the negative effect of non-working time and workrelated electronic communication on work engagement is weakened, and the moderating effect of boundary elasticity competence is more significant; while under high controlled motivation, the negative effect of nonworking time and work-related electronic communication on work engagement is deeper, but the negative moderating effect of boundary elasticity competence can be manifested only under low levels of controlled motivation. table 6. results of heterogeneous analysis variant devote one's energies to work low autonomous motivation highly autonomous motivation low-control motives highly controlled motivation out-of-hours work-related electronic communication -0.314** (0.108) -0.203** (0.064) -0.183** (0.068) -0.302** (0.111) boundary resilience 0.049 (0.093) -0.046 (0.136) 0.058 (0.095) -0.018 (0.149) out-of-hours work-related electronic communication x boundary resilience capability 0.076 (0.061) 0.297** (0.108) 0.155** (0.065) 0.092 (0.110) distinguishing between the sexes -0.031 (0.163) 0.102 (0.179) -0.090 (0.165) -0.084 (0.208) hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 3; 2025 78 published by ideas spread (a person's) age 0.205* (0.104) -0.055 (0.136) 0.243** (0.094) -0.098 (0.177) educational attainment -0.019 (0.117) 0.074 (0.128) -0.161 (0.109) 0.113 (0.149) length of teaching experience -0.225** (0.092) -0.079 (0.122) -0.286*** (0.082) -0.023 (0.165) f 4.061** 3.490** 5.354*** 2.123* adjusted r² 0.333 0.262 0.393 0.149 note. *, **, *** denote significant at the 0.1, 0.05, and 0.01 levels, respectively; values in parentheses are standard errors. 5. conclusions and implications of the study 5.1 conclusions of the study this paper takes teachers in college a as the research object, using descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, regression analysis and other methods, on the basis of grasping the status quo of non-working time and workrelated electronic communication and work input of teachers in college a, revealing the role relationship between non-working time and work-related electronic communication and work input and the moderating role of boundary flexibility ability from different levels of autonomous motivation and controlled motivation heterogeneity analysis was conducted. the results of empirical analysis show that non-work time and work-related e-communication are negatively correlated with work engagement, and boundary elasticity ability plays a negative moderating role between non-work time and work-related e-communication and work engagement among teachers in university a. the results of heterogeneity analysis show that high level teachers are more likely to have a negative relationship between non-work time and work-related e-communication. the results of heterogeneity analysis show that college a teachers with a high level of autonomous motivation can effectively mitigate the negative impact of nonwork time and work-related e-communication on work engagement, and the moderating effect of boundary elasticity will be more significant; whereas college a teachers with a high level of controlled motivation will exacerbate the negative impact of non-work time and work-related e-communication on work engagement, and boundary elasticity will be more significant only in the case of a low level of controlled motivation. the negative moderating effect of boundary resilience of hei a teachers with high levels of controlled motivation is only manifested at low levels of controlled motivation. 5.2 implications of the study hei a should tighten control over the duration of teachers' non-work time and work-related electronic communication, for example, by specifying the maximum time required for teachers to engage in non-work time and work-related electronic communication and to complete related work on a daily basis; hei a should take a number of measures to increase teachers' autonomous motivation, reduce controlled motivation, develop more flexible and personalized work and rest time schedules, and reorganize the work pattern; and hei a should be keenly aware that management strategies that overly require teachers to maintain constant work contact during non-work time are not a long-term solution. recognize that management strategies that overly require teachers to be in constant contact with their work during non-working hours are not sustainable and may not be effective in contributing to teachers' long-term performance. a colleges and universities should pay more attention to teachers' mental health and implement targeted measures, such as training in psychological disengagement strategies, to enhance teachers' ability to regulate their mental health, so that they can restore their physical and mental resources in time to show a higher level of commitment to their work. colleges and universities can also conduct regular mental health surveys and organize lectures for teachers to teach them about mental health and methods of self-regulation. a colleges and universities should strengthen humanistic care for teachers and advocate happy work and happy life. for example, university a can implement a humanized management model, understand teachers' needs, care about their work and living conditions, and provide necessary family-friendly support policies. it should also moderately improve teachers' welfare benefits, such as housing, children's schooling, medical insurance, health care and hardship assistance, to alleviate teachers' worries and role conflict pressure, so that they can devote themselves to their work and family roles in a positive and happy mood, and enhance their family life performance. references ferguson, m., carlson, d., boswell, w., et al. 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(2009). interaction effects: centering, variance inflation factor, and interpretation issues. multiple linear regression viewpoints, 35(1), 6–11. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). qing yang1, xiaohan ma1, yang li2 & lingling zhang2 1 business administration, affiliation school of management, beijing union university, china 2 human resources, school of biochemical engineering, beijing union university, china correspondence: lingling zhang, human resources, school of biochemical engineering, 100101, china. tel: 86-136-9133-0749. e-mail: yangqing20021126@163.com, zwqmxk@163.com, nansanyan@163.com, zllzk2006@163.com received: may 19, 2025; accepted: may 30, 2025; published: may 31, 2025 abstract with the rapid development of information and communication technology and new office forms, non-working time and work-related electronic communication has become an essential part of people's work and life. teachers in colleges and universities also ... keywords: higher education faculty, non-work time and work-related electronic communication, work engagement, boundary resilience capacity, work motivation 1. introduction with the rapid development of ict and new office forms (e.g., telecommuting), as well as the high expectations of organizations for employees' out-of-hours work connectivity, electronic communication has become an essential part of people's daily work... unlike traditional telecommuting or overtime work, work-related electronic communication during non-working hours is a non-fixed, non-compulsory and unpaid behavior (qianqiu wang, 2023), which usually affects employees in two ways. on the one hand, wi... self-determination theory emphasizes that the motivation for a behavior largely determines its aftereffects (deci & ryan, 2000). based on the different nature of motivation, self-determination theory specifically divides it into two basic categories: ... this paper focuses on university a, a comprehensive university in beijing with a total of more than 2,550 faculty members and 1,547 full-time teachers (data as of september 2023). in recent years, the use of electronic communication tools such as cell... in view of this, this paper takes teachers in college a as the research object, analyzes the impact of non-working time and work-related electronic communication on teachers' work engagement in college a, discusses in depth the reality, impact effect ... 2. rationale and research hypothesis 2.1 self-determination theory self-determination theory (sdt) is a theory of human motivation that emphasizes the central role of intrinsic motivation and basic psychological needs in individual behavior. according to self-determination theory, motivation is viewed as a continuum ... 2.2 theory of boundary elasticity boundary flexibility theory (bft) is a theory that explains the behavior and intentions of individuals to make role transitions. the theory suggests that flexibility ability is an individual's cognitive assessment of the characteristics of the situati... 2.3 resource conservation theory conservation of resources (cor) is a theory of motivation that explains how individuals respond to environmental stresses and challenges. the theory suggests that individuals have a general tendency to conserve and maintain existing resources and to a... 2.4 out-of-hours work-related electronic communication and work inputs as a form of online labor, work-related electronic communication during non-work time brings a significant sense of relative exploitation to employees due to its occupation of private time and consumption of physical and mental resources, which not on... h1: non-work time and work-related electronic communication is detrimental to teachers' work engagement in a university. 2.5 the moderating role of the elastic capacity of the boundary in the study of the moderating role of boundary flexibility, foreign scholars mathews et al. (2010) found that the higher the boundary flexibility, the easier it is for people to cope with the psychological needs related to the transition between the ... teachers in university a generally have high boundary resilience ability, and have more excellent role switching ability when encountering work-related electronic communication during non-working hours, and are able to switch between work and family f... h2: the stronger the boundary resilience capacity, the stronger the role of work-related electronic communication during non-work time as a hindrance to work engagement. figure 1. research model 3. research design and measurement of variables 3.1 selection of research subjects the research focus of this paper centers on the group of teachers engaged in teaching and research types in university a. university a is a comprehensive university in beijing, which has a higher percentage of teaching and research type teachers compa... according to the analyzed survey data, the largest share of female teachers in college a is 70.21%. as for the marital status, the proportion of married and childbearing teachers is the highest, reaching 71.28%. the specific sample distribution is sho... table 1. distribution of the survey data sample 3.2 measurement of variables in this paper, the four variables of non-work time and work-related electronic communication, work engagement, boundary flexibility, and autonomous and controlled motivation were measured by means of well-established domestic and international scales,... 1. for the measurement of work-related electronic communication during non-working hours, this paper adopts the scale developed by the research of hongyu ma and other scholars (2016), which includes the question "how often do people related to my work... 2. for the measurement of work engagement, this paper adopts the nine-item work engagement scale developed by schaufeli et al. (2002), which consists of nine items such as "i feel strong and energized when i work". 3. for the measurement of boundary resilience ability, this paper chooses the work-family boundary resilience scale, which was revised and widely used by scholars such as ma hongyu (2016), as a research tool and focuses on two key dimensions for in-de... 4. measurement of autonomous and controlled motivation, the scale in this paper is taken from grant et al. (2011) and includes twelve items such as "i do not want to fail because my job is a very important part of my life", "i do this job mainly to ge... 4. empirical analysis 4.1 reliability test the results of the reliability test of all the scales are shown in table 2, the cronbach's α value of the non-working time and work-related e-communication scale is 0.917, the cronbach's α value of the work engagement scale is 0.760, and the cronbach'... table 2. results of confidence test the results of the validity test of all the scales are shown in table 3, the kmo values of the non-working time and work-related e-communication scale, the work input scale, and the boundary flexibility ability are all greater than 0.7. in addition, a... table 3. validity test results 4.2 correlation analysis correlation analysis as a statistical analysis tool aims to explore the potential association between two or more random variables. in this study, the correlation analysis of non-working time with work-related e-communication, work engagement, and bou... table 4. results of correlation analysis 4.3 regression analysis in this paper, with the help of spss 27.0 software, we analyze the direct impact of non-working time and work-related e-communication on work input and further explore the moderating role of boundary elasticity capacity between the two, and the regres... in order to reduce the influence of multicollinearity on the results of regression analysis, the variables involved in the interaction term were centered before testing the moderating effect. from model 2 in table 5, boundary resilience ability was fo... table 5. results of regression analysis note. * indicates significant at the 0.1 level, ** indicates significant at the 0.05 level, *** indicates significant at the 0.01 level; values in parentheses represent standard errors. in order to be able to more intuitively show the moderating effect of boundary elasticity capacity on the relationship between non-working time and work-related e-communication and work input, this paper plots the moderating effect as described in the... figure 2. moderating effect of boundary resilience capacity on non-work time and work-related electronic communication and work engagement 4.4 heterogeneity analysis this paper analyzes heterogeneity from the perspective of different levels of autonomous and controlled motivation. specifically, taking the mean value of autonomous and controlled motivation as the division point, autonomous motivation is divided int... table 6. results of heterogeneous analysis 5. conclusions and implications of the study 5.1 conclusions of the study 5.2 implications of the study references copyrights humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n1p66 66 published by ideas spread journalistic ethical practices across borders: framing analysis and ethical reflection on china daily's coverage of the mu5735 air crash leiya tian1 1 college of business and media, lanzhou university of finance and economics, lanzhou, china correspondence: leiya tian, college of business and media, lanzhou university of finance and economics, lanzhou, 730000, china. tel:86-181-9423-7469. e-mail: 18194237469at163.com received: january 18, 2025; accepted: february 12, 2025; published: february 13, 2025 abstract air crash reporting is one of the types of disaster news, which should follow the ethical guidelines of journalism. under the theoretical perspective of zang guoren's three levels of news frame analysis, china daily's news about the mu5735 air disaster presents the unique frame of china's mainstream foreign propaganda media in reporting china's sudden disaster events with various thematic frames and effective textual applications. using frame analysis and case study analysis as research methods, the study explores the characteristics and ethical performance of china daily's frames of reporting on the mu5735 air disaster. the study finds that china daily's coverage of the disaster demonstrated the media's distinctive value stance and basically adhered to the ethical principles of journalism in disaster reporting, while at the same time there was a lack of constructive discourse. keywords: disaster reporting, journalism ethics, framework analysis 1. introduction at 14:38 on 21 march 2022, the boeing 737 flight mu5735 of china eastern airlines crashed in wuzhou city, guangxi province, killing all the 123 passengers and 9 crew members on board, and this sudden public disaster accident triggered the attention of a wide range of domestic and foreign audiences. due to the complex causes, complicated terminology, and long investigation period, the news coverage of the crash is a long-lasting battle that requires both timeliness and accuracy, and should adhere to the relevant principles of journalistic ethics from the beginning to the end. as an authoritative foreign propaganda media in china, china daily, in its coverage of the mu5735 crash, strictly followed the ethical principles of disaster reporting, and at the same time, it has a unique journalistic discourse that is different from that of china's domestic media. 2. overview and research questions 2.1 framing theory and journalistic framing research framing theory began with the study of human cognition and communication behaviour. in his book framing analysis, sociologist goffman (1974) defined framing as a cognitive structure of people's perception of the external world, which provided a theoretical and methodological basis for the study of news framing. scholar van dijk (1987) has proposed that the news media is not a descriptor or neutral coordinator of the real picture of social events, but is itself a cognitive frame builder of ideology.in the 1990s, frame theory was introduced into china's news and communication research, and scholars chen yang (2007) believe that the news frame is the principle or guideline constructed by the news media in the process of selecting and dealing with news events, and that selection and reorganisation are the most important factors in constructing news frames. selection and reorganisation are the most important strategies for constructing news frames. framing analysis is an interpretivist research paradigm, and text-focused framing analysis is the core area of news framing research. studies on news frame analysis methods include the critical discourse analysis of van dijk and fairclough, the discursive structure analysis of pan zhongdang and kocic, the "interpretive package" analysis of gamson, and the three-level frame analysis of zang guoren. [1] zang guo-ren, a taiwanese scholar, advocates three levels of news discourse frameworks: the high-level framework is a general statement of the main idea of the event; the middle-level framework includes the main event, previous events, history, results, effects, attribution, and evaluation; and the low-level framework is the news discourse, i.e., the use of linguistic symbols and rhetorical styles. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 67 published by ideas spread zang guoren's frame analysis theory adds a high-level analytical framework of the macroscopic theme of the event on the basis of van dijk's model of news discourse analysis at the middle and micro levels. scholar liu xuan (2022) used zang guoren's framework of news analysis as a model to elaborate the thematic model of people's daily's report on china's traditional culture; liu mingzheng (2021) also used the theory to analyse the framework of xinjing daily's news about crime; han hong (2016) combined quantitative content analysis to dismantle the framework of bbc's china-related news at various levels of reporting, including high-level issues, mid-level schematic structure, and low-level textual application. in the bbc's china-related news, including high-level issues, middle-level graphic structure and low-level text application. this framework is a clear and hierarchical analysis model, which is more in line with china's inductive textual parsing habits. 2.2 mu5735 air crash reporting study previous studies of mainstream media coverage of the mu5735 air disaster have focused on reflecting on the constructive utility of the domestic media in resolving the disaster (dang jun and ma junshu, 2023), focusing on value corrections to the logic of disaster news production (gong xinqiong, 2022), changing the core function of disaster reporting from dispassionate objectivity to emotional comfort in the era of new media (qian yanyan and ge xianlin, 2022) and the ethical dilemmas that existed in the reporting, such as intrusive grief (tang bing and tang yuanqing, 2022), and so on. and ethical dilemmas such as the intrusion of grief (tang bing and tang yuanqing,2022). the domestic media's coverage of mu5735 included dynamic follow-up of the disaster, tracking of the cause of the accident, and easing of public panic, etc. therefore, related studies on the reporting of the incident mainly focused on the practical functions of the news media. in contrast, chinese foreign media for overseas audiences are committed to constructing the image of china as a great power based on humanism at the macro level, and the construction of macro issues, the sorting of events at the meso level, and the use of micro words and phrases in the coverage of the air disaster can all highlight chinese culture's care for the fate of the individuals involved in the disaster, its cognitive mode and emotional attitude toward the disaster, and the responsibility and commitment of the chinese government, but studies of chinese foreign media coverage of disasters in china have mainly focused on the practical functions of the news media. however, there is a gap in the research on chinese foreign media's coverage of disasters in china. 2.3 research questions as an authoritative window for china's foreign propaganda, china daily is a model for the study of china's international news reporting framework. by synthesising the discursive and textual frameworks of china daily's coverage of the mu5735 crash, the study attempts to answer the following questions: first, the overall discursive characteristics of china daily's coverage of the crash; second, what ethical principles of journalism have been embodied by china daily in its practice of reporting the disaster, and what is the room for optimisation. 3. research design 3.1 media selection founded in 1995, china daily is the earliest national english-language website in china, and has become a national comprehensive media website and the most influential english-language portal in china. as one of china's authoritative media for foreign propaganda, china daily combines nationalism with global communication vision, and is tasked with the mission of telling china's story well to the international community. [2] china daily not only plays an important role in constructing china's international image in the context of grand political and economic issues, but also excels in digging out the deep-rooted stories of people in the smallest details of chinese society, and integrating diversified and innovative means to systematically tell china's solutions and experiences. for the study of the international reporting framework and text presentation of specific events in china, china daily is of representative significance. 3.2 sample acquisition and analysis the lexisnexis database (global information news section) was searched for reports involving the keyword mu5735 in the china daily news feeds, and a total of 42 valid samples were obtained. the study retained only the reports focusing on the mu5735 incident as the main topic, and excluded the reports focusing on other topics with incidental references to the incident, as well as the reports with no clear topic, so that a total of 37 valid samples were finally selected. after reading the samples one by one, it was verified that the headlines of the samples were able to capture the core theme of the news, and could be used as the unit of analysis for the highlevel frames. the middle-level and low-level frames were analysed by integrating the words, sentences and paragraphs of the disassembled news articles in the samples. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 68 published by ideas spread 4. framing analysis of china daily's coverage of the mu5735 incident 4.1 high level: reporting on the main framework the high-level news frame refers to the main idea and intention of the event, usually in the form of a headline. for sudden public disasters, china daily media should take the responsibility of disseminating official discourse, tracking the disaster, caring for the victims and their families, investigating the cause of the accident, and forming the media memory of the event. [3] according to the order of sample size, china daily's reports on the mu5735 crash can be categorised as "cause of the accident", "official response", and "rescue situation", "family members of the victims" and "media memory", and the samples under each frame are arranged in the chronological order of news release. 4.1.1 accident attribution framework: identifying the causes of accidents the causes of air accidents are complex and involve specialised vocabulary in the aviation field, and thus cannot be accurately condensed in news headlines, which are often presented as summaries, such as "causes under investigation". the accident attribution framework accounts for the highest proportion of the research sample, including searching and analysing black box data and accountability of the boeing 737 model. the black box, short for aircraft flight data recorder, enables investigators to investigate the cause of the crash through the flight data recorded by the black box, which is the focus of the frame. the boeing 737, the company responsible for the crash, is also the focus of china daily's coverage. this sample of thematic frames spanned a wide range of stories, and the media continued to track the causes of the crash long after the fervour of the incident had died down, directing international audiences to the incident over the long term. table 1. sample matrix of the thematic framework "accident attribution" m1.1: assistance prepared for investigation m1.2: authorities continue search for second black box after plane crash m1.3: crashed aircraft's black box found m1.4: damaged black boxes being analyzed m1.6: search for answers continues a year after fatal plane crash m1.7: more time needed to determine cause of air crash m1.8: no abnormalities yet discovered in mu5735 investigation m1.9: fight crash investigation to continue m1.10: investigation work continues for mu5735 as 'black boxes' are analyzed m1.11: probe into flight mu5735 crash still undergoing 4.1.2 official response framework: outreach effectiveness as official releases are the main way for the public to obtain breaking news information, the timeliness and appropriateness of official responses have a direct bearing on the government's image and credibility. taking news headlines as the sample unit, the official responses cited in the china daily report include the chinese government, boeing, china eastern airlines, and the china daily media itself. the official responses in the sample are mainly framed by the chinese government, reflecting the core function of china daily as a mainstream foreign propaganda media in china. china daily followed the progress of the rescue operation and transmitted the responses to overseas in a timely manner, demonstrating that the chinese government attaches great importance to the progress of the rescue operation, the situation at the scene, and the aviation safety issues arising from the disaster. table 2. sample matrix of "official response" thematic frames official response to the subject sample news headlines the government of china m2.1: chinese officials provide updates on plane crash m2.2: data unit on second flight recorder in good shape, officials say m2.3: coming up: news conference on rescue work after mu5735 crash m2.4: cpc calls for national work safety probe m2.5: china continues in-depth investigation of wuzhou aircraft crash m2.6: regulator calls for complete flight safety other subjects m2.7: boeing vows full support after crash in s china m2.8: pilots in good health, experienced: airline hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 69 published by ideas spread m2.9: fact check on viral posts about plane crash m2.10: expert: black boxes take time to study 4.1.3 rescue situation framework: news-based the concept of "news orientation" stresses the importance of informing the public in a timely manner about the original circumstances of an event, based on the general principles of truthfulness, objectivity and timeliness of information. the function of information is to eliminate uncertainty. [4] china daily dispatched reporters to the front line to obtain on-site information, integrated information resources from various channels to set the issue of the incident for the whole world, and based on this, followed up the rescue and casualty situation of the crash in real time, grasped the scale of the disaster scene appropriately, and responded in time to the most important concerns of domestic and foreign audiences. table 3. sample matrix for the thematic framework "rescue situation" m3.1: plane carrying 132 crashes m3.2: no survivors of crash found m3.3: rescue, recovery efforts continue in airline crash m3.4: rescue and investigation work continue at crash site m3.5: searchers find debris, crew items, some remains in center of crash site m3.6: personal belongings of plane crash victims found m3.7: identity of 120 people onboard the crashed plane confirmed m3.8: search for plane crash survivors suspended by heavy rain 4.1.4 the framework for the families of the victims: a demonstration of humanistic concern the families of the victims are the most affected by the disaster, and the comfort and compensation of the families is a manifestation of the humanistic concern of the society, and the care for the families of the victims is a manifestation of the humanistic spirit of journalism as a "humanistic science". china daily's report on the families of the victims of the mu5735 plane crash was neutral and objective, with no overtly emotive text used to create an atmosphere of sympathy. instead, it used the words of experts to calmly analyse what kind of assistance the families of the victims needed in terms of financial compensation or psychological counselling, and guided various sectors in solving the practical problems faced by the families. table 4. sample matrix of thematic frames for "families of the victims" m4.1: family members of crash victims accommodated, given assistance: airline m4.2: support provided for families following fatal crash m4.3: compensation process launched for families of crash victims m4.4: counseling provided to families of flight accident victims 4.1.5 media memory frames: constructing collective memory the mass media is the bearer and constructor of collective memory. in the long period after the disaster, the media retraced the course of the disaster in a reminiscent mode, constructed the audience's collective memory of the disaster, and reflected deeply on the safety issues derived from the disaster. [5] at the later stage of the accident, i.e., after the search and rescue work had ended and public opinion had subsided, china daily reported the silent ceremony for the crash, the memories of the rescuers, and the call for aviation safety in plain language, and endeavoured to construct a global collective memory of the mu5735 crash. table 5. sample matrix of thematic frames for "media memory" m5.1: mourns victims of plane crash m5.2: emphasis must be on safety first at all times m5.3: diary records painstaking rescue efforts after air crash m5.4: mourning ceremony held for crash victims in china hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 70 published by ideas spread 4.2 medium level: structural framework for reporting according to zang guoren, the same elements of news events will have different meanings when they are arranged and reorganised in the dimensions of time progression and importance. the medium-level structure consists of the following elements: main event, previous event, history, outcome, impact, attribution and evaluation. prior events, history, outcomes are the time series before and after the occurrence of the main event, and attribution and assessment are the cause judgement of the main event. [6] the structural framework of china daily's mid-level report on the mu5735 incident can be analysed in terms of textual interpretation and integration of prior events, outcomes, impacts, attribution and assessment. 4.2.1 prior events and history prior events and history are events that have a direct correlation or causality with the events that preceded them. china daily reported on 23 march that in 2020 there were 17 accidents involving boeing 737s worldwide, two of which resulted in fatalities. under the support of public opinion's "heat-sensitive effect", the china eastern airlines crash disaster will surely cause the international boeing 737 company to be deeply accountable. citing similar disasters in "previous incidents" with the boeing 737, china daily emphasised the seriousness of the accident while urging boeing to push ahead with safety reforms for the aircraft. 4.2.2 results and impacts outcomes and impacts, i.e., the relevant consequences of an event, are divided into short-term and long-term effects. in addition to the negative impact of the disaster itself, news of a disaster is also likely to cause general public anxiety, further aggravating public opinion in a "risk society" where the diversity of risks is increasing and uncertainty is pronounced. china daily has attempted to defuse social anxiety about flight safety by repeatedly making safety-related statements, such as "flight safety will affect social stability and concern thousands of families", in an effort to draw the attention of all sectors of society to the issue of aviation safety and to strengthen civil aviation security to ensure flight safety. 4.2.3 attribution and assessment owing to the complexity and length of the investigation process, no detailed information on the cause of the accident has yet been released. the china daily devoted the most space to samples of the investigation into the cause of the crash, mainly covering the specific investigative work of the investigators into the cause of the accident, such as on-site investigation, data verification, personnel interviews, experimental analyses, and dismantling and analyses of the black box data, which is essentially presenting the rigorous and responsible investigative attitude of the chinese officials towards the incident. 4.3 low level: micro-discourse frameworks the concept of low-level frame, i.e. the sentence-making of news text, is close to the microstructure of the discourse proposed by van dijk in the study of news discourse. in the comparative study of chinese and foreign news texts, scholars believe that china's news discourse presents a straightforward and direct style of media tendency, while western media texts tend to indirectly and implicitly side-step the media's position. [7] the study selects the micro-discourse framework of china daily, which is different from that of the domestic media, and analyses the characteristics of the media in the low-level discourse. 4.3.1 china's image-building discourse maintaining china's international image is the responsibility of china's mainstream foreign propaganda media, and it is also an important feature that distinguishes their news frames from those of the domestic media. the china daily mentioned three times that the accident had ended the national flight safety record of 11 years without a fatal accident in mainland china, and reported continuously on the process of rescue and rehabilitation work directed by state leaders, as well as on the actual situation in which members of the police and the armed police force, the civil aviation administration of china, the ministry of emergency management and other parties had rushed to the scene of the accident to assist in the rescue effort. these words highlight the absolute importance that chinese officials attach to the issue of aviation safety, demonstrate the nationalistic spirit of all sectors of chinese society, and realistically and objectively portray a positive international image of china. [8] 4.3.2 people's security discourse "people's safety" is a core component of china's overall national outlook, and it is also an ethical principle that should be emphasised above all else in disaster reporting. china daily has repeatedly quoted state leaders, the head of the civil aviation administration of china and other subjects, stressing that china's aviation industry must hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 71 published by ideas spread adhere to the principle of putting people's lives and safety first, and calling for the strengthening of professional training for flight crews and pilots, thus demonstrating china's resolute attitude to safeguarding people's safety. 4.3.3 storied folk discourse a newsletter published by the people's daily on 31 march quoted the "rescue diary" of a firefighter in guangxi, which recounted the firefighter's arduous and unforgettable rescue process in the accident and vividly described the psychological process and emotional state of the character. the newsletter does not depict the gruesome situation at the accident site, but tells in simple words how the rescuers "put in a hundred times more effort and tried their best" to participate in the rescue. compared with official documents and announcements, the storytelling from the public is more vivid and persuasive. 5. conclusions: ethical reflections on the coverage of the air crash journalism ethics is a universal principle that journalists have been following for a long time in their information dissemination activities, and it is also a social norm that has been formed in the practice of journalism society to regulate mutual relations. disaster news is the subject of ethical journalism, the first publisher of the latest disaster news, and an important intermediary and carrier of disaster and relief information. china daily's coverage of the mu5735 disaster is basically in line with journalistic ethics, but there is still room for optimisation. journalism ethics includes the principles of life first, least harm, and moderation. the study found that china daily's adherence to the ethical principles of disaster journalism is reflected in the following aspects: firstly, the report always stresses the importance of people's life safety and the safety of civil aviation flights in china, and calls for the organisation of a nationwide flight safety audit to ensure people's life safety. secondly, in the framework of the report about the families of the victims, china daily seldom involves words describing the grief and emotions of the families, which may lead to the problem of "intrusive grief", but only analyses objectively that the families of the victims should receive economic and psychological assistance, and calls on the relevant departments to set up a psychological counselling institution in the local area to alleviate the psychological harm caused by the accident to the families of the victims. thirdly, the report does not depict the victims' families as being in need of financial and psychological assistance. thirdly, the report does not contain any sensationalist remarks such as depicting the tragic situation at the disaster site, but rather reports on the accident scene in a calm and solemn manner, with appropriate and reasonable wordings in the description of details, in line with the principle of moderation in journalistic ethics. constructive news discourse means that on the basis of presenting facts, news discourse should actively provide positive emotions and solutions, so as to make the whole public opinion field realise positive presentation and objective discussion. [9] in disaster reporting, news discourse should clearly answer the questions of "why" and "what to do", avoid vague and uncertain expressions, and give readers a stable and positive psychological implication. however, china daily's coverage of the incident was mostly confined to the official press conference and the attitude and actions of the chinese leaders towards the accident, without informing the audience of specific ways to avoid safety risks and constructive discourse leading to positive actions. journalism ethics not only comes from the subjective moral judgement of journalists, but also from the value deduction process in the practice of news production, and the news text can intuitively reflect the results of this deduction process. the study of news ethics in news discourse can also introduce the time dimension to analyse whether news texts reflect different ethical principles in different periods of time during the disaster. references [1] li, s., & yang, h. (2023). what is newsworthy about covid-19? a corpus linguistic analysis of news values in reports by china daily and the new york times. humanities and social sciences communications, 10(1). [2] xiao, w. (2015). journalism framing theory. renmin university of china press. [3] guan, y. (2023). discourse analysis of news reports on air accidents (master's thesis). ningxia university. [4] yang, b., & li, h. (2018). news "drift" and the way to cope with it. journalist, 2018(10), 19-28. https://doi.org/10.16057/j.cnki.31-1171/g2.2018.10.006 [5] shen, m. (2019). research on post-disaster reporting from the perspective of media memory (master's thesis). shandong university. [6] zang, g. (1999). news media and sources: a discussion of media frames and the construction of truth. taipei: taiwan sanmin bureau. [7] ouyang, m., liu, y., & dong, j. (year). textual citation and lexical allegory: a frame analysis of the chinese, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 1; 2025 72 published by ideas spread french and american coverage of mo yan's award. [publication details missing] [8] jing, h., shuwen, w., & jiahuang, c., et al. (2023). research on conceptual metaphors of sense of national community in china daily english reports. world journal of educational research, 10(3). [9] tang, b., & tang, y. (2022). the dilemma and countermeasures of "intrusive grief" in disaster reporting— taking the reporting of 3-21 china eastern airlines mu5735 aircraft flight accident as an example. young reporters, 2022(11), 41-44. https://doi.org/10.15997/j.cnki.qnjz.2022.11.021 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n6p24 24 published by ideas spread the role of digital transformation in the occupational well-being of online technology workers: an integrated theoretical perspective xiao han1 & ke huang1 1 school of business, qingdao university, china correspondence: xiao han, school of business, qingdao university, qingdao, china. e-mail: xiaohan@qdu.edu.cn received: november 20, 2025; accepted: december 4, 2025; published: december 5, 2025 abstract with the rapid development and integration of new technologies in the context of the digital economy, the work patterns and skill requirements of online technology workers have undergone fundamental changes, exerting a complex and far-reaching impact on their occupational well-being. this paper takes online technology workers as the research object and uses self-determination theory (sdt) and conservation of resources theory (cor) as an integrated framework to analyze the internal mechanisms by which digital technology transformation affects their well-being through a dual path of "empowerment" and "challenge." the study finds that, on the one hand, digital technology empowers workers by improving work efficiency, expanding capability boundaries, and optimizing collaboration abilities, thereby enhancing their well-being; on the other hand, the iteration of digital technology also triggers challenges such as skills obsolescence anxiety, blurred work-life boundaries, and perceived algorithmic control, thus weakening their well-being. additionally, multi-level characteristics will moderate this influence process. this research provides theoretical basis and practical insights for improving the occupational well-being of online technology workers in the digital age. keywords: digital transformation, online technology workers, occupational well-being, self-determination theory, conservation of resources theory 1. introduction driven by the swift evolution of digital technology and profound changes in the global economy, the gig economy, as an emerging economic paradigm, is reshaping the labor market and work patterns with unprecedented depth and breadth (flinchbaugh et al., 2020). in this transformation, online technology workers, as a professional group highly reliant on digital platforms for knowledge creation and technological innovation, have become the core human capital driving the development of the digital economy. this new work model not only provides flexibility and efficiency for businesses and individuals but also creates employment opportunities for tech talent globally that transcend geographical limitations (wu & huang, 2024). technological evolution has always been a double-edged sword. with the continuous development of digital technology, online technology workers, while enjoying its numerous conveniences, also face big challenges. on the one hand, digital technology has given online technology workers a completely new way of working, greatly improving work efficiency and liberating them from repetitive or mechanical labor, allowing them to focus more on core value-added activities (hui et al., 2024). for example, by using ai-assisted programming and data analysis and processing tools, workers can complete tasks more efficiently, driving rapid project progress, which greatly optimizes workflows and improves individual and team productivity. on the other hand, the rapid iteration of digital technology has also brought challenges. the fast pace of skill updates has triggered widespread anxiety about obsolescence and job insecurity (mcguinness et al., 2023). a 2024 survey titled "state of developer wellness" (developer nation, 2024) reported that 83% of developers experienced burnout at some stage in their careers. with the rapid development of technologies such as artificial intelligence and big data, traditional technical skills may become obsolete in a short period of time. online technology workers must constantly invest significant time and energy in re-education and skill updates to remain competitive. this pressure of skill updates not only affects workers' career development but also negatively impacts their mental health, increasing uncertainty and anxiety at work. at the same time, while the introduction of algorithm management systems optimizes processes, it may also erode the work autonomy and sense of control of online technology workers through precise task hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 25 published by ideas spread allocation, continuous performance monitoring and automated decision-making, thereby threatening their intrinsic work motivation (liu & yin, 2024). occupational well-being, as an individual's positive perception and emotional evaluation of the quality and meaning of their work, is an important indicator for measuring occupational health and sustainable development (wright & cropanzano, 2004). for online technology workers, a group of highly skilled individuals whose workstations are digital interfaces and whose main output is knowledge products, occupational well-being is not only related to their personal well-being but also directly affects their innovation efficiency, work quality, and career persistence (tarafdar et al., 2024). when the level of well-being is high, they are more likely to proactively share and propose breakthrough solutions at work, continuously releasing cognitive resources; conversely, they are more likely to reduce work quality and frequently change jobs, which may lead to the loss of core knowledge within the company. however, existing research on technology and occupational well-being has significant limitations: first, most studies focus on macro-level organizational performance or meso-level process changes, paying insufficient attention to the psychological experiences of micro-level individuals, especially highly skilled online technology workers, under continuous technological shocks (liu et al.); secondly, the research perspective is relatively singular, mostly emphasizing the enabling effect of technology or criticizing its negative consequences, lacking an integrated theoretical framework to explain its coexisting "bright side" and "dark side" (manfreda & mijač, 2024; gao et al., 2025); thirdly, there is a lack of in-depth mechanistic analysis on the special characteristics of online technology workers, such as their emphasis on a sense of technical mastery and the constraints imposed by platform algorithms (mattern et al., 2024). to fill the aforementioned research gaps, this study focuses on the core group of online technology workers, attempting to move beyond a single theoretical perspective and construct a systematic analytical framework by integrating self-determination theory (sdt) and conservation of resources theory (cor). sdt theory reveals that the pursuit of three basic psychological needs—autonomy, competence, and relatedness—is the root of intrinsic motivation and well-being (ryan & deci, 2000), while cor theory explains the dynamic process by which individuals strive to acquire valuable resources (such as time, energy, and skills) and experience stress due to resource depletion or threats (hobfoll, 2001). digital technology operates on both levels simultaneously: it can act as an enabler of key resource and need fulfilment, but it can also become a source of challenges leading to resource depletion and demand obstacles. based on this, this study constructs an integrated model of "technological change psychological mechanisms occupational well-being" to analyze how digital technology change has different impacts on the well-being of online technology workers through the dual paths of "empowerment" and "challenge". also, this study proposes strategies to promote the well-being of online technology workers in the process of digital technology change from the individual and organizational levels. 2. theoretical basis 2.1 self-determination theory self-determination theory (sdt), proposed by ryan and deci (2000), is a macro-level theory about human motivation and personality development. its core assumption is that individuals possess three innate, fundamental psychological needs crucial for mental health and well-being: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. autonomy refers to an individual's desire to experience a sense of will and choice in their actions, feeling that their behavior stems from personal will rather than external pressure. in the work context, this manifests as a sense of control over the content, methods, and goals of their work (deci & ryan, 2000). competence refers to an individual's desire to feel capable in their interactions with the environment, effectively addressing challenges and achieving expected results. for online technology workers, mastering and skillfully applying new technologies to solve complex problems is a key way to satisfy this sense of competence. relatedness refers to an individual's desire to establish close emotional connections with others, feeling cared for and accepted, and belonging to a group. even in remote work, maintaining meaningful connections with team members, colleagues, or users is an important source of occupational well-being for online technology workers (van den broeck et al., 2016). sdt theory posits that when the external environment supports the satisfaction of these three basic needs, an individual's intrinsic motivation, physical and mental vitality, and occupational well-being reach their optimal state; conversely, if the environment hinders the satisfaction of these needs, it leads to decreased motivation, increased alienation, and decreased well-being (ryan & deci, 2018). therefore, sdt theory provides a core psychological mechanism explanation for how digital technology change affects the occupational well-being of online technology workers by influencing basic psychological needs. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 26 published by ideas spread 2.2 conservation of resources theory proposed by hobfoll (1989), conservation of resources theory (cor) is primarily used to explain the psychological and behavioural responses of individuals when facing stress. the core idea of cor theory is that individuals have a tendency to strive to acquire, retain, and protect the resources they value. these resources include material resources, conditional resources, personal resources, and energy resources. according to conservation of resources theory, psychological stress arises when individuals face the threat of resource loss or fail to obtain the expected return after investing resources (hobfoll, 2001). applying this theory to the context of this study, digital technology itself can be viewed as an important instrumental resource, helping online technology workers complete tasks more efficiently and create new value. however, the process of learning and adapting to new technologies requires a significant investment of time, energy, and cognitive resources (ahmed et al., 2022). if technological iteration is too rapid, leading to a rapid devaluation of existing skills, or if the platform's algorithmic management system over-monitors and depletes psychological energy, it can trigger stress and burnout, thereby impairing occupational well-being (röttgen et al., 2024). cor theory provides a powerful theoretical perspective for understanding how digital technology, while acting as a channel for resource gain, can also become a source of resource depletion and ultimately affect occupational well-being. 2.3 theory integration sdt theory and cor theory are not mutually exclusive; they jointly provide complementary perspectives for understanding the impact of digital technologies on the occupational well-being of online technology workers. applying sdt theory alone may be overly optimistic, underestimating the systematic constraints and depletion in digital work environments. conversely, applying cor theory alone may be overly pessimistic, overlooking individual agency and intrinsic motivation in pursuing meaning and growth. therefore, a more explanatory analytical framework requires dynamically integrating both theories: the impact of digital technologies on online technology workers' well-being is achieved through a dual-pathway process—it shapes the quality of well-being by influencing the satisfaction of basic psychological needs (sdt), while also setting the energy baseline of wellbeing by triggering resource gains (cor). meanwhile, resources in cor theory can be viewed as enabling factors for need satisfaction in sdt theory. adequate resources create space for individuals to pursue autonomy, competence, and relatedness; conversely, resource scarcity limits the possibility of need satisfaction. 3. mechanism analysis the impact of digital technology change on the occupational well-being of online technology workers is not linear, but rather a complex mechanism achieved through two coexisting and intertwined paths of empowerment and challenge. meanwhile, characteristics at individual, organizational, and platform levels will moderate this influence process. the theoretical framework in this paper is shown in figure 1. figure 1. theoretical framework hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 27 published by ideas spread 3.1 the positive impact of digital transformation on occupational well-being first, digital technology directly enhances the occupational well-being of online technology workers by significantly improving work efficiency. intelligent code assistants, cloud-based ides, and automated testing tools are continuously advancing. these technologies effectively reduce tedious repetitive tasks and debugging time, saving developers considerable energy. this change allows online technology workers to invest more time and cognitive resources in creative and strategic core tasks, rather than mechanical operational tasks (waterman et al., 2024). digital technologies reduce low-value consumption, achieve resource gains as proposed by cor theory, and simultaneously create a supportive environment that better satisfies workers' autonomy and competence needs in sdt theory. this also frees up individual cognitive resources, enhancing the sense of meaning in work (pap et al., 2022). therefore, with the reduction of repetitive tasks, online technology workers can enjoy efficient work while also gaining deeper psychological satisfaction and occupational well-being. secondly, digital technologies like generative ai have significantly lowered entry barriers in the technical field. this helps online tech workers break through traditional skill boundaries and expand their capabilities (manresa et al., 2025). generative ai enables workers to transcend traditional skill barriers, extending their reach and influence across a wider variety of tasks. furthermore, technology communities, online course platforms, and aidriven personalized learning recommendation systems provide convenient learning channels for online technology workers, enabling them to continuously keep up with the latest technological advancements and alleviating the pressure of knowledge updates. according to sdt theory, these changes enhance individuals' sense of growth and professional achievement while effectively satisfying the psychological need for competence in the workplace, thereby improving occupational well-being (tian et al., 2024). finally, the emergence of technologies such as cloud computing, real-time collaborative documents, and virtual offices has optimized the level of collaboration in remote teams, further promoting the well-being of online technology workers. these digital tools enhance information synchronization and knowledge sharing among team members by simulating elements of face-to-face interaction (such as real-time editing, video conferencing, and instant messaging) (fang et al., 2021). team members can thus collaborate efficiently while building emotional connections and trust, enhancing belonging and fulfilling relationships. sdt theory posits that the satisfaction of relatedness needs is essential to individuals' psychological health and positive work experiences. when individuals feel supported and recognized by their team, their job satisfaction and occupational well-being are significantly improved (rubin et al., 2019). in summary, digital technologies improve work efficiency, expand capability boundaries, and optimize team collaboration, thereby satisfying the multiple psychological needs of online technology workers and significantly boosting their occupational well-being. the widespread application of these digital technologies is creating a more efficient, flexible, and meaningful work environment for online technology workers. 3.2 the negative impacts of digital transformation on occupational well-being first, the rapid development of digital technologies shortens the lifecycle of skills. currently popular technological frameworks and tools may soon be replaced by newer technologies, leading online technology workers to face skill obsolescence anxiety and continuous learning pressure (caselli et al., 2022). in the context of rapid technological updates, online technology workers often need to master new skills and tools in a short period, forcing them to continuously invest significant time and energy to keep pace with industry developments (krutova et al., 2022). however, according to cor theory, when these investments of time and energy fail to translate into job security or economic rewards, an individual's psychological resources are depleted, leading to negative emotions such as burnout and anxiety, severely impacting occupational well-being. secondly, while remote work and asynchronous collaboration offer flexibility and geographical independence, they also blur the boundaries between work and life, increasing the psychological burden on workers. frequent notifications, cross-time zone meetings, and the requirement to be on call at all times have created a "always-on" culture (duan et al., 2023). this requires workers to remain constantly online and responsive to work demands, making it difficult for individuals to fully detach from work and even hindering effective rest outside of work hours. according to sdt theory, the long-term blurring of work-life boundaries not only depletes energy resources but also prevents individuals from fulfilling their needs for autonomy and relationships, thus threatening occupational well-being. furthermore, with the rise of platform-based work methods, many work platforms have begun using algorithms for task allocation, process monitoring, and performance evaluation, thereby depriving workers of their autonomy at work (möhlmann et al., 2021). this algorithm-dependent management model pursues efficiency and quantifiable output, but it neglects the emotional and cognitive needs of knowledge workers. digital tools and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 28 published by ideas spread algorithmic systems transform complex intellectual labor into a series of quantifiable indicators, significantly weakening workers' creativity and autonomy (savolainen & ruckenstein, 2024). this erosion of work autonomy directly challenges the core elements of sdt theory and triggers emotional resource depletion caused by continuously coping with loss of control, as identified by cor theory. when work becomes the execution of algorithmic rules, workers' intrinsic motivation and work passion diminish accordingly, ultimately undermining occupational well-being. in conclusion, while the rapid development of digital technology has brought numerous conveniences and innovations to online technology workers, it has also been accompanied by a series of psychological pressures and challenges. the rapid iteration of technology, the blurring of work-life boundaries, and algorithm-driven management methods have all profoundly impacted the well-being of online technology workers. in coping with these challenges, online technology workers often face a loss of psychological resources and a decline in occupational well-being. 3.3 moderating factors of the influence pathways the strength of digital technology's impact on occupational well-being is moderated by multi-level factors, encompassing three dimensions: individual, organizational, and platform levels. at the individual level, digital literacy and psychological resilience are key moderating variables. higher digital literacy enables online technology workers to utilize technological tools more proactively and efficiently, maximizing technology's potential to enhance occupational well-being while reducing the sense of competence frustration caused by barriers in technology use (cetindamar et al., 2021). meanwhile, understanding algorithmic logic can alleviate the uncertainty and pressure from algorithmic black boxes, protecting cognitive resources. individuals with strong psychological resilience, when facing the pressure of technological iteration and algorithmic control, are less susceptible to psychological resource depletion, can better maintain intrinsic motivation, and buffer the negative effects of the occupational well-being challenge pathway (aydın et al., 2023). at the organizational level, leadership style and organizational support constitute important buffers. transformational leadership, through creating vision, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration, helps online technology workers find meaning and control amid digital technology changes, thereby satisfying their autonomy and relatedness needs and enhancing their perception of occupational well-being (oliveira et al., 2025). organizational support provides crucial external resource replenishment for online technology workers coping with challenges, directly mitigating the decline in occupational well-being caused by learning pressure and resource depletion (altamimi & hilmi, 2023). at the platform level, algorithmic fairness and technology affordance are fundamental moderators. algorithmic fairness can greatly reduce autonomy deprivation and emotional exhaustion resulting from the sense of loss of control among online technology workers, thereby moderating the impact of digital transformation on occupational well-being (zhang et al., 2022). technology affordance determines whether it serves as a rigid control tool or an empowering partner that online technology workers can flexibly utilize. this directly affects whether digital technology primarily leads to resource depletion or promotes competence satisfaction, ultimately moderating its impact on occupational well-being. (gibbs & navick, 2023). 4. conclusions and implications 4.1 research conclusions this study explores the impact of digital transformation on the occupational well-being of online technology workers against the backdrop of the digital revolution in work patterns. the research indicates that this impact is not a simple linear promotion or inhibition, but a complex process interwoven with two paths: technology empowerment and technology challenge. while digital technology enhances well-being by improving work efficiency, expanding capability boundaries, and optimizing collaboration abilities to meet workers' needs for autonomy, competence, and relationships; it also reduces occupational well-being by triggering skills anxiety, blurring work boundaries, and bringing algorithmic control, through depleting their psychological resources and hindering the fulfilment of basic needs. at the same time, factors at multiple levels, including digital literacy and psychological resilience at the individual level, leadership style and organizational support at the organizational level, as well as algorithmic fairness and technology affordance at the platform level, can moderate the impact of digital transformation on occupational well-being of online technology workers. the main theoretical contributions of this study are: first, it expands the research focus from a broad group of gig workers or general knowledge workers to the more contemporary online technology workers, deepening the understanding of the psychological experiences of highly skilled personnel in the context of digital transformation. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 29 published by ideas spread second, it breaks through the single perspective of the mutually exclusive impact of digital technology by integrating theories to construct a double-edged sword model, systematically revealing how digital transformation affects occupational well-being through both empowering and challenging forces, while also identifying the key moderators in this influence process. 4.2 practical implications based on the above mechanism analysis, this study proposes the following practical implications for different stakeholders: for individual online technology workers, first, implement of strategic technology adaptation. proactively select and learn technical tools that can empower their professional depth rather than simply replace them, consciously manage the boundaries of technology use; second, reshape professional identity. in the ai era, redefine one's core value, transforming from "implementer" to "problem definer," "architect designer," and "human-machine collaboration planner," constructing a more resilient and forward-looking professional identity; third, build a continuous learning system. internalize learning as a way of working, focusing on underlying thinking and core principles rather than blindly pursuing them, to improve the efficiency and sustainability of skill adaptability. for enterprises and platform organizations, first, design a "human-centered" technology work system. when introducing efficiency tools and algorithm management systems, a "human-centered" evaluation must be conducted. it is crucial to protect the autonomy of online technology workers by preserving sufficient options for work methods, process control, and participation in results evaluation. this is becoming a regulatory focus internationally. for instance, the eu platform work directive mandates human oversight of algorithmic management and transparency, offering companies a clear compliance framework. second, it is essential to cultivate a supportive learning culture and a psychologically safe environment. this includes providing systematic skills training resources closely integrated with career development paths, encouraging trial and error and knowledge sharing, alleviating employees' learning anxiety and fear of failure, and creating an organizational atmosphere that meets their competence and relationship needs. third, it is vital to implement a technology strategy of "intelligent enhancement" rather than "simple replacement." this involves clearly defining the auxiliary role of technologies such as ai, emphasizing human-machine collaboration, and ensuring that online technology workers feel that digital technology can amplify their intelligence rather than threaten their positions. this concept aligns closely with the global consensus on developing ai responsibly and ensuring technology serves humanity. 4.3 research limitations and future prospects as a theoretical study, this research has certain limitations. first, the core constructs and relationships in the theoretical framework need to be tested and revised through empirical research. future research could develop scales specifically for online technology workers, collect data through multi-wave questionnaires, and employ structural equation modeling (sem) or regression analysis to empirically test the theoretical pathway. additionally, work autonomy and job crafting could be incorporated into the testing framework as mediating variables. second, this study has not yet empirically explored some important moderating variables. future research could incorporate individual-level factors and organizational-level factors to more meticulously characterize the differences in influencing mechanisms under various conditions. finally, research methods could be further diversified. in addition to quantitative research, in-depth case studies can help researchers better capture the complex psychological states of online technology workers during digital transformation, thereby enriching and deepening the theoretical implications. acknowledgments funding: this research was supported by the shandong provincial natural science foundation, grant number zr2020qg037. references [1] ahmed, w., hizam, s. m., & sentosa, i. 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(2024). gig work and gig workers: an integrative review and agenda for future research. journal of organizational behavior, 45(2), 183–208. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2775 [37] zhang, a., boltz, a., wang, c. w., & lee, m. k. (2022). algorithmic management reimagined for workers and by workers: centering worker well-being in gig work. in proceedings of the 2022 chi conference on human factors in computing systems (pp. 1–20). acm. https://doi.org/10.1145/3491102.3501866 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 32 published by ideas spread this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n5p30 30 published by ideas spread the root causes of political polarization: role of the youth alvin li1 1 great neck south high school, us correspondence: alvin li, great neck south high school, great neck, ny, 11020, us received: august 31, 2025; accepted: september 12, 2025; published: september 13, 2025 abstract this study aims to determine the main factor causing polarization within the united states by interviewing the youth population—hearing their perspective and their experience on politics. through comprehensive literature analysis and evaluation of current scholarly arguments on the main cause of political polarization, i found that there is no single factor that causes polarization, but through a combination of all factors. additionally, this paper shares the ideas and viewpoints of adolescents (ages 16-19) on current politics, which offers a glimpse of potential problems that the government should consider fixing. polarization is currently on the rise and has broached major debates among researchers and also concerns among adolescents. keywords: political polarization, adolescents, youth, root cause, politics, concern, divergence 1. introduction us society is deemed to have greatly polarized in recent decades, with a drift to political extremes (both to the right and to the left) and a hollowing out of the political middle. this trend is concerning for a variety of reasons, including partisan protests, policy swings, and bias formation. because of this, scholars have been interested in researching its root causes and possible remedies. in essence, is political polarization truly on the rise? if so, where and why? within that perspective, a key question that has great implications for the future of this trend is about patterns of polarization among youth. the purpose of this research is to investigate the root causes of political polarization and the role of youths — through presenting insight of their perspectives and experiences on modern politics. the significance of this study is to examine how youth are affected by political polarization, as they represent our last hope for patching cracks of political division. we use theoretical review of the existing literature to test hypotheses about the relative contributions of economic, social and political influences to this trend. furthermore, this paper takes in the opinions of 17 adolescents with a mean age of 17.24 on their perception of politics and what known factors have influenced their opinion. the paper is structured as follows: first, i critically review the definitions, dimensions and trends of polarization. then, i explore the potential role of four sets of factors. finally, i conclude with an analysis of the relative manifestation of this phenomenon among youth. 2. conceptual background polarization is defined as the growing divergence of ideologies formed between opposing societies—characterized by deeply conflicting opinions and distrust. it contains multiple dimensions, including economic, cultural, and social. in modern politics, government-elected officials aim to address these three dimensions within the scope of their political stance (left-leaning or right-leaning). the republican parties (right-leaning) generally uphold traditional values, whereas in democratic parties (left-leaning) open themselves up for change. because these party alignments often correlate with individual values and beliefs, many have associated these alignments with their identities. thus, a crystallization of difference between these two sides can fuel the debate and partisan behavior, and indeed at times: violence—including immigration crackdowns, “no kings” protests, and the 125 protesters in the united states capitol attack on january 6th. 3. trends and background from the time our founding fathers created the us constitution, it was deemed to be a single entity and the original constitution didn’t mention political parties. in fact, washington’s farewell address stated that parties could present a threat to us democracy[1]. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 31 published by ideas spread arguably, the us doesn’t even need political parties. an article from carnegie and ap news noted that although americans may disagree with one another, their opinions converge on major issues [2] [3]. because parties must differentiate themselves during political competitions, this tends to exacerbate perceived points of conflict in their proposed agendas. while the us can form a consensus on many issues, the widening divide between parties threatens the possibility of future agreement. polarization could be explained as recent political competitions have fueled more hostile language during political rallies, which may push this divergence. in the 2024 election of trump vs harris, news outlets note there has been increased normalization of personal attacks, identity questioning, and aggressive rhetoric contributing to a deeply polarized atmosphere between the two candidates[4]. as bipartisan cooperation becomes increasingly rare, this political discourse fuels distrust from the americans and questions the government’s accountability. elected officials have been reported to have been stalked, firebombed, shot, and killed not because of who they are, but what they believe and represent[5]. in order to understand what led to the violent behavior of individuals that led to such discourse, it is important to understand what has happened in the past centuries that led to the actions of these individuals. 3.1 the late 19th century going back into history, the 19th century marked the beginning of growing separation between parties. when abraham lincoln was elected president on november 6th, 1860, the nation was thrust into turmoil. many southern states feared that his ideology of abolishing slavery would present a threat to southern states’ traditional way of life as they mainly relied on agricultural labor for living. because the northern states had industries that were more developed, they didn’t rely on agriculture to support their life. indirectly, lincoln’s stance on slavery was embedded within the broader ideology of the party itself. starting december of that year, southern states started seceding from the union. the start of the civil war marked the first growing divergence of party alignment between the north and south. this fueled the separation of parties for the decades to come. 3.2 the mid-20th century politicians often mention how the start of the civil rights movement in the 1960s marked the beginning of a pivotal contribution to polarization. during this time, individuals noted that race, cultural background, and geographic factors aligned with the sides of differing parties. there was a clear split between the values of each party. the democratic party was increasingly associated with progressivism, whereas the republican party was associated with conservative values in opposition to radical change. this growing divergence highlights the significance of demographics and background on ideological shift. to measure the extent how much ideologies shifted, poole and rosenthal developed dw-nominate (dynamic weighted nominal three-step estimation) scores to evaluate congressional voting patterns along a spectrum. the 1960s marked the first significant dwnominate score divide between parties, showing that there was little to no ideological overlap between the two parties, and that there was growing conflict over legislation at the time. opinion polls showed that feelings toward one’s own party identification remained positive and steady over the past 40 years, whereas ratings for the rivalry showed a stronger dislike in 2020 compared to 1980. figure 1. comparison of own-party and rival-party feelings. data: the anes guide of public opinion and electoral behavior hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 32 published by ideas spread additionally, the election of ronald reagan in the 1980s marked a turning point in the rise of modern conservatism. compared to the democratic policies during the great depression on the new deal and great society through which fdr and lbj expanded large-scale social programs, reagan ran on ideas of small government, tax cuts, and decreasing spending of the federal government (reaganomics). this shows an ideological departure away from interventionist policies of earlier democratic leadership. 3.3 the 21st century the last 40 years saw a substantial increase in party identification and social identification with americans increasingly diverging along ideological lines. this may have coincided with the rise of technological advancements and the creation of new outlet platforms from the places individuals get their news source as that would have presented differing storytelling methods of the same situation[6]. in addition to this, the prc (pew research center) notes a great trend in polarization over the past 50 years. according to this study, democrats have shifted left by 0.06 points along with republicans towards the right at 0.28 points for the representatives in the senate. this correlation is also found among members of the house. there has been a widening ideological gap between these two parties since the early 1970s, with noting that the number of moderate democrats/republicans in congress has sharply decreased. many sources online have mentioned that southern democrats have been increasing and turned to become more liberal where the southern republicans have shown increased conservatism[7]. figure 2, 3 left and right ideology scores for house and senate conclude that republicans have moved further right and democrats further left. data: pew research center while it is true that polarization in congress doesn’t directly mean the proportionate polarization is among civilians, however, their influence on the public must not be underestimated. asisonline notes that senior officials have often faced criticism for decisions aligned too closely with partisan interests[8]. aside from the reason that individuals may specifically target senior officials as they are more vulnerable, sources have suggested that particular characteristics they hold may make them a target. compared to younger generations, senior officials may occasionally show a greater tendency towards reluctance to adapt, which may question the credibility of their term, even if their actions may not have infringed the law. consequently, some individuals may align this issue with conservatism and right-sidedness. in parents, this can be seen through the desire to take control of their child as they become more independent, with politicians, the duality between aging and having a leadership role then solidifies that sense of stubbornness in office among those senior officials[9]. the claim that congressional polarization aligns with public polarization is supported by other sources as well. recent surveys confirmed that the percentage of americans who identify as political moderates is at an all-time low, with most people knowing that they stand on the extremes[10]. additionally, studies note that americans who identify as politically moderate have hit a record low of 34%, among republicans 77% identify as conservatives, and among democrats 55% identify as liberal[11]. these studies show that congressional debates most likely have a significant impact on the general public. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 33 published by ideas spread figure 4. graph based on gw nominate scores from 1860 to 2024, matching key historical events in vertical lines, and average polarization index (for both parties) in blue. data: voteview it is helpful to note that in the earlier years, the values held by the republican and democratic parties aren't the same as they are in the present, which accounts for the great scale variation in years before 1960. since the start of the civil rights act issued after the 1960s, polarization has largely shifted and continues on today. the evidence for polarization within the united states can be proven by multiple studies. according to listen first project, surveys have recorded 87% of individuals feeling tired of political division, 87% say that it presents a threat to america, and 81% are concerned about the political divisions within our country. 4. theories understanding the main causes of polarization requires an in-depth analysis of the economic, demographic, cultural, and political influences. scholars have long debated which of these factors serves as the primary driver, however, evidence suggests there is no single factor that can fully explain this phenomenon. instead, polarization is influenced by multiple transcending factors across categories, with each subtopic contributing a part to the political affiliation and behavior. while some of these factors do take on a greater influence than others, it can’t be given sole credit. in this section, we will discuss scholars’ research, major theories across each category, and explain each study’s strengths and weaknesses. 4.1 economic 4.1.1 job & educational polarization educational inequality often corresponds to income inequality (mentioned in a later subsection)–incomes tend to increase with education; however, in recent years–where machinery and technological advancements have replaced most human jobs including manufacturing, clergy and administration roles – the members of the middleclass have been hollowed out, with their share of income becoming growingly imbalanced[12]. as high-skilled, high-wage jobs stay relevant to society, those from low-skilled, low-wage jobs are facing high risks of displacement. the wealth gap increases the separation among individuals. from there, individuals who have experienced job replacement unite under the same cause because the perceived link between economic hardship and political choices isn’t uncommon. on the demand side of why voters choose populists, benczes and szabo, from corvinus university of budapest and central european university, suggest the rise of populist power comes from the concern of individuals about potential economic hardships, including globalization through trade stocks, large influx of immigration, and the financial crisis of 2008. these shocks heighten the awareness of civilians and raise doubt about the mainstream parties that function within the united states. in addition to this, the study further states that populist parties often centralize their campaign strategies through the incorporation of topics regarding the members of the “elites” and “outsiders” as scapegoats for the potential harm that may happen within the us. once in office, populist parties hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 34 published by ideas spread promise the economic recovery of the nation through expansionary fiscal and monetary policies, but fail to realize that these policies would only have short-term boosts and long-term crises. through uniting the struggle of common civilians against elite individuals, the populist party rises through an emotional common ground. as a result of this perception, the formation of the populist party steps falls outside the realm of common practice. as the populist parties exist on both sides of political rallies, criticism would indeed only further separate democrats and republicans. 4.1.2 income inequality another plausible economic cause of polarization is income inequality. there has been a widely accepted claim that income inequality may have caused the polarization of political parties; however, there has not been enough evidence to generalize this polarization beyond the state level legislatures[13]. the study further improves on the statistical findings of how income inequality leads to political polarization, as previous scholars have not been able to identify the causal relationships between the two subjects. the study showed a positive relationship between how inequality not only pushes democratic parties to the left, but simultaneously causes the opposition to shift to the right. although the study uses shor-mccarty ideology scores, one of the most widely accepted scores of measurements for comparing state legislature ideology scale, it can be argued that the data collected with state legislatures can not be assumed beyond that basis. in addition, the data included in the research ends in 2013, failing to integrate recent trends in polarization, including the years of covid, hate-speech rallies, and the capitol attack. a recent study supports the claim that income inequality contributes to political polarization, using data from the thirty years of world values survey across 100 countries to explain the relationship[14]. the study explains that when the wealth gap widens between individuals, they feel a strong feeling of disconnect including viewing themselves as the “winner” or the “loser”. this in turn, increases the political divide between party groups as assumed that gaining/losing money has a greater effect on people’s satisfaction levels. additionally, the study states that the economic status of individuals pushes them into an “us vs them” mentality that is increasingly popular. moreover, inequality that separates the middle-class majority from the elite minorities, asks questions regarding if more money returns greater power or more people. indeed, this study seeks to improve on previous research linking income inequality to polarization, which often lacked supporting evidence. however, this research heavily relies on data that is collected through the world values survey which is mainly on self-reported attitudes across various cultures that contain vulnerability in its reliability. the analysis of multi-continental examples may fail to address each issue within countries individually. the survey data taken from europe in sync with the united states may not be accurate to address the us specifically. let us consider the reasons why economic values may not be the root cause of political polarization. in 2009, professor cassie mogilner from marketing and behavioral decision making conducted three separate studies among us adults, low-income individuals, and in a university cafe about the relationship between money, time and happiness. 318 us adults (ages 18-75 with an average of 35) were randomly assigned to think about the topic of time, money, and neutral concepts by completing a series of scrambled-word tasks. they were primed (within one of those three topics) to read and create sentences relating to the topic that they were assigned to. after priming, participants were shown a list of everyday activities, including socializing, commuting, working, etc., and were asked to rate how likely they were going to do this activity in the next 24 hours, along with how happy each activity made them feel. participants who were primed with time-related words showed greater satisfaction performing socializing activities (correlated to high happiness), and those who were primed with money-related words showed satisfaction in working. in another study among 76 low-income individuals, the same result was concluded. participants were primed in the same way as in the previous study, and participants self-reported happiness one week later. when focused on time, individuals value experiences, relationships, and moments. whereas in money, they value material gain, productivity, and economic benefits. from this study, mogilner concluded that subtle mindset shifts can change how people plan their day, and that social activities are linked to greater happiness–even among low-income individuals[15]. therefore, while economic inequality may shape how people classify themselves politically, it is not necessarily material wealth or poverty alone that drives political behavior, but how people perceive the value of their time and relationships. because happiness is more likely derived from time than from money, affiliations of certain economic decisions are most likely not the core cause of polarization in the us, but rather some form of emotional connection. although some may view economic promises made during political rallies as a factor intertwined with their emotion, however, it is proven to be false. there is a larger tangibility between the emotional influence on voting and over economic policies that politicians offer. it should be noted that although economic decisions may act as a prominent factor shaping political decisions and separation, it’s not a leading one. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 35 published by ideas spread 4.2 demographic explanations 4.2.1 population shifts and distribution statistical findings suggest that a region’s demographic makeup could play an influential role in polarization within the united states. when there is a significant change in the population volume of particular racial or ethnic groups, political leaders often seize their chance of winning or switching sides on their beliefs. politicians often highlight particular traits in majority populations and mention policies satisfying these populations. from this, the minority population within those regions may feel alienated and perceive their interest as disregarded. in addition to this, different racial and ethnic groups hold distinct views on a variety of topics. often, these views have defining contrasts. the increase in minority representation in congress that doesn’t uphold traditional values fuels controversial debates. indeed, demographic explanations for political polarization are well supported. in february of 2020, levi boxell–a student from stanford university institute for research in social science–constructed seven measures of polarization and found a convincing correlation between political polarization within the united states to demographic changes. boxell uses regression models to estimate each demographic group’s propensity for polarization using american national election studies (anes) data from 1984-2016. key findings presented a 34% increase in polarization between these years, attributed to demographic factors alone. the strongest driver factors were education, religion, and age, while other ones, including income, gender, and race, had little to no effect. boxell’s study had some limitations, though. it was assumed the polarization index for all years after 1984 was fixed at the same level, which may not have been the finest year for data collection, as it was before major changes in infrastructure, media, and political discourse. assuming the 1984 data as the basis of which other years were compared may present misleading results that may have overly attributed population shifts as the main component for polarization. indeed there are qualifications, but this still provides a strong suit of potential causes of polarization. the fixed-data comparison approach allowed him to gain a baseline understanding of what to expect for the years to come, and what could potentially fuel change in future years. ⅓ times increase through population shifts undoubtedly suggests although there could be flaws within the data collection, there is a prominent factor. the framework offers a rigorous way of presenting polarization and offers a strong argument for demographic changes to be the cause of division [16]. 4.2.2 generational divides when taking into account individuals’ values and traits in political rallies, it is important to note their characteristic and personal background as well. researchers ahlfeldt et al. analyzed generational gaps using postelection survey data of 300 swiss referendums over the course of four decades (1981-2017). using an unconstrained panel rank regression approach, the methodology allowed them to separately distinguish age with other cohort influences of political attitudes. the study found that aging increased their sense of conservatism because – one, when policies change, they are unable to garner future benefits as their age is the limitation; two, prioritizing and preserving policies that they currently have before radical change[17]. the study explained that it wasn’t just the “status-quo bias” that caused these individuals to feel this way, but because of their life horizons and need for comfort. indeed, others may argue that this may be attributed to constant environmental policies issued by the government in switzerland that have presented some short-term drawbacks for the elderly and can’t be attributed to the us, however, statistical data from prri (public religion research institute) shows similar polarization measures. gen z adults (under 30) show a 28% lower chance of identifying themselves as conservative[18]. indeed, later populations present more left-leaning ideologies compared to elders that feel more conservative feelings over time. 4.2.3 educational accessibility education has long since been a strong argument for political polarization, not only because of higher and lower educational attainments, but higher education presents more knowledge on aspects of parties that individuals could debate about. at last, no single party is perfect. educators often lean on more progressive sides and promote social change as they aim at globalization through classes of social justice, equity, and inclusion [19]. without the appropriate provisions to these academic resources, viewpoints from the opposing party may be limited to follow logistics, typically not much in depth. voting can be a sign of education and intellectual capability. a study by nicholas janetos from the penn institute for economic research explains that educated individuals vote off the basis that they have a better understanding of who the more qualified candidate is[20]. from this, people with lower-education want to also demonstrate this capability through voting. so no, participation in politics doesn’t require educational background, but good participation does. the access to education swings the views of politics to the left or right. within “the diploma divide” article in michigan state university, researchers show that white voters without a college degree were significantly more likely to vote republican, while those educated voted democratic[21]. although there is no hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 36 published by ideas spread effort to criticize either political stances, this claim has been backed up by numerous other studies. pew research finds that among white voters without a bachelor's degree, individuals vote republican by a 63% to 33% majority. for those with a degree, the split is more closely aligned with 47% (republican) to 51% (democratic)[22]. this shows that individuals can make more conscious decisions through their access to education. in the recent election, hostile and sexist attitudes measured in national polls showed a tangible effect on voter support. compared to those who may have received education regarding the important role of women and ideas of feminism, such correlation wouldn’t appear. the survey found those with lower levels of sexist attitudes were much more likely to support harris, while those with strongly hostile views towards women overwhelmingly supported trump. researchers concluded that hostile sexism played a greater role in shaping the electorate in 2024 than in previous cycles, particularly after harris became the democratic nominee[23]. as seen, education plays an influential role in voting behavior, and a consequence of demographic alignment to party stance. like mentioned before, access to education correlates with job placement as well. those of higherpaying jobs would most likely vote for policies with lower taxation on the elites, while those with lower-paying jobs may do the exact opposite. demographic factors that group americans within certain traits is a reason for separation[22]. 4.3 cultural explanations 4.3.1 impact of social media the rise of social media has had a significant contribution to polarization as well. dating to times back before social media, the rise of technological advancement like news networks and tv platforms hold strong arguments for this to be the main cause of polarization (comparison of figure 1 and technological advancement is below). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 37 published by ideas spread figure 4, 5. comparison of rise of televisions vs gw nominate (polarization) scores. data: sweeney, taken from the history of television from the cs website built by cornell students, as of 1967 there were 98% of individuals who have tvs in their household. this new technology provided a new means of communication through broadcasting events (including politics). the 1960s sparked the beginning of growing divergence of government structure in the us. indeed, the exponential growth of tv ownership doesn’t match the trend line of linear growth of gw nominate scores, however, such lines don’t require the same geographic shape to support each other. tv production acts as the structural enabler of polarization. television brought politics home in a way that newspapers never did, the more exposure towards ideologies faced by parties have fueled the steady growth of divergence. tv didn’t make us more divergent, but rather, more vulnerable to divergence as we are exposed to more bias: the same way other technologies do. in recent years, as technological advancements and social media become personalized, we see a positive correlation between it and polarization. figure 6. number of users on social media from 2004-2008. directly taken: statista and tnw, taken from our world in data hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 38 published by ideas spread our world in data explores the number of active users per year on various social media platforms and reports that almost all most-top 10 platforms (of the most popular online) have increased their user base compared to previous years[24]. this could be explained by the operation mode of these platforms. the action of scrolling, stated by the national library of medicine, releases small doses of dopamine in the brain[25]. in result, this can be habitforming due to the variable and uncertain nature of online rewards. satisfaction earned from messages, likes, and posts are only a couple examples of this phenomenon. studies from university of minnesota twin cities notes dopamine is the main driver of all human decisions[26]. for actions that require the same amount of effort, we make decisions that provide more satisfaction. in more advanced methods of calculating user-interest for them to stay on the app longer, algorithms like fyp (for you pages) on social media promote tend to emphasize values that the user already shares. through reemphasizing the claims of the user and what the user wants to hear, social media makes their users hooked. this is a problem, however, especially in the world of politics. through getting their claims re-emphasized, individuals are more stubborn to what they believe in and have a disinterest in hearing the opposing opinion. additionally, in order to attract attention, fyps promote content that focuses on partisan behavior. alarming protests or claims stick out from the platform and get promoted as some may find it interesting to watch. in fact, politicians may use this partisan behavior to fuel their campaign. there has been a marked increase in the mentioning and use of partisan language and behavior in political speeches over the past few decades [27]. that being said, those who watch those content would hear their claims more often, then ultimately, side with their stance—known as the infamous echo chamber—separating people. social media isn’t the only source of media that present misinformation and fuel partisanship. even the most credible journals and newspapers do the same. figure 7. level of bias from news/tv outlets. directly taken: allsides media allsides media explores the left and right-hand bias from news networks and aims to present stories told from unbiased perspectives. ultimately, it’s almost like we don’t know “what is real” anymore [28]. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 39 published by ideas spread 4.3.2 identity classification identification of race, gender, and religion have the potential to connect self-qualities to political affiliation. in recent years, we’ve incorporated our personal values and background in choosing political parties to vote based on identity. political parties are now part of who we are. in recent years, political affiliation has evolved from being a mere preference to a core aspect of personal identity and self-expression[2][29][30]. research shows that race is the most significant predictor of party identification. the background of where individuals came from has much to do what values they align themselves with[22]. for example, those belonging within the ethnic minority mainly vote democratic including hispanic, asian, and black. those that vote republican, on the other hand, consist of mainly whites. figure 8. comparison of racial background vs party choice. data: pew research center the chart above tracks the party identification among racial ethnic groups. the vertical axis represents the estimated percentage of the total group population that supports either party and trend line connecting years from 1994 to 2023. among racial groups, voting patterns of race and party alignment have become rather consistent over time. from 1994 to 2023 for all four ethnic groups, we can see a difference of 12% democratic shift for asians; 5% republican shift for hispanics; 4% republican shift for blacks; and 55% consistent republican vote for whites[22]. decisions to act a particular way or to perform a certain action related to personal political belief (such as protests, riots, violence, and chaos) is shown to be influenced by in-group and out-group dynamics[2]. the social identity theory shows that people’s behaviors are shaped by interpersonal interaction (one on one) and intergroup interaction (identification with a large group of people and the interaction between other groups). 4.4 political explanations 4.4.1 political corruption the rise of social elites taking control within government policies has recently outraged many americans. this divide is exacerbated by the economic status among individuals. in the latest 2024 election, musk (a multibillionaire entrepreneur) donated approximately $75 million to a pro-trump political action committee (american pac) and has reportedly spent over $270 million supporting trump and other republican candidates during the election cycle. additionally, on march 20th, 2025, musk awarded wisconsin voters who signed the petition “in opposition to activist judges”, or rather, in support of the republican party $100[31]. when trump took office in hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 40 published by ideas spread january of 2025, he thanked musk for his efforts to help him win the election. in exchange, trump created the department of government efficiency (doge) to give musk influence, which caused public outcry. musk stepping into politics aside from his prior image as a tech innovator drew concern about his expertise [32][33]. this perceived political corruption eroded public trust and also reshaped public debates on tv and online, a crime of increasing influence of social media. take the watergate scandal, for example. in hopes of renewing his presidency, richard nixon (republican) allegedly hired burglars to break into the watergate office complex where important campaign strategies by the dnc (democratic national committee) resided. later, when taperecordings were found in the oval office about his conversation of the plan, nixon eventually resigned in the face of impeachment. from the starting to the end of nixon’s presidency, public trust within the government dropped from 62% in 1968 to 36% in 1974[34]. figure 9. trust within the us government. data: pew research center 4.4.2 hottest debates the connection between disagreement and opinion has long been a strong factor in shaping the tenor of political debates and polarization. the issue is whether people can calmly debate hot topics such as, gender identity, immigration, gun rights, healthcare reform, and taxation just to name a few. because these arguments often form the structure of people’s fundamental way of life, many argue that the differing opinions among them have caused parties to diverge. indeed, the differences between democratic and republican party values are clear, however, individuals may not agree with every value of their party. the individuals that fall under this grey are, however, have decreased overtime as influenced by economic, demographic, and cultural factors mentioned, causing this polarization to take place. polarization happens not because individuals share and agree with all values that a particular party holds, but rather, because they value some ideologies over others. core values including the rights to develop a democracy under the original constitution seems to still be in common agreement no matter the political party. there is a small variance between how democratic and republican parties believe when it comes to the bill of rights including right to vote at 91% agreement, the freedom of speech at 90% agreement, and right to privacy at 88% agreement[3]. granted, saying that americans actually share the same values on major debates may sound far-fetched, but there are some nuances that stand out. when it comes to gun policy, the majority of republicans and democrats support background checks for all gun sales[35]. when talking about healthcare, the majority supports lowering prescription drug prices and protecting people with pre-existing conditions[36]. although americans may disagree on the language of climate change, many americans support investment in clean energy[37]. these are all examples of agreements of americans from a cross-party basis. so then, why does america still feel separated? well, due to the factors concerning media, politicians, and the interest of individuals, the differences between parties are emphasized. it is possible for americans to unite, we just have to stop highlighting our differences. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 41 published by ideas spread 5. impact of the youth 5.1 main causes of divergence in addressing the level of polarization among the united states, i tested the views among a small sample of youth. the survey was conducted at random for individuals willing to answer questions regarding politics within the us where they answered questions regarding how polarized the nation feels along with their personal opinions. additionally, 3 people demonstrated willingness to have a conversation 1 on 1 regarding politics, and share their perspective beyond the survey. in the general survey with a sample size of 17, the mean age of individuals was calculated at 17.24 while all age groups fell under the 16-19 age bracket. in addressing “how polarized do you think us is today?” 85.4% of responses said either very polarized, or extremely polarized and 100% of the surveyed responses said polarization level from moderately polarized up. figure 9. percentage of youth that believe the us is polarized and to what extent polarized this information indicates that polarization is not strictly confined in demographic age groups but can also be felt to permeate into younger generations. this is why demographic factors have been suggested not to be one of the main causes of polarization. additionally, youth adolescents responded with a 58.8% agreement on the country feeling “extremely divided”. in studying the correlation between the cause of polarization and specific entities that would make youth populations feel this way, i asked ways that get their news information. unsurprisingly to the study of the main cause of polarization, social media and news/tv were mentioned at 82.4% and 76.5% respectively. figure 10. percentage of youth that select factors relating to how they obtain political news hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 42 published by ideas spread this finding reveals cultural explanations to be a significant contributor towards feelings of polarization. in a separate question, 54% of our surveyed teenagers mentioned how media coverage is the first thing that comes to mind when polarization is mentioned. among the youth population, we started living our lives in the digital age of computers and smart phones. therefore, it would not be uncommon for us to feel this rivalry feeling (in fact, separation can be more pronounced within the youth population) among debates regarding politics as we expose ourselves to social media and televisions. 5.2 cross-party marriage although it might seem early, we asked our participants about the chances they would marry their partner if they were from a different political party. when addressing cross-party marriage, interesting statistics came up. granted, individuals may argue the reliability of a survey among adolescents from a sample size of 17 could present inaccurate data collection, but our statistics suggest not. in comparison to a survey conducted among adults by facing history in 2019, we saw significant similarities. figure 11, 12. percentage of youth that do not mind marriage and party affiliation; percentage of parents that do mind marriage and party affiliation. source: facing history (12) hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 43 published by ideas spread when considering the opposite percentage of individuals that would be happy or have no opinion on such matters, a side by side comparison between parent marriage preference and youth marriage preference differ minimally. figure 13. comparison of the percentages of youth/parents that are fine with opposite party marriage speaking of cross-party marriage, it turns out, we aren’t significantly separated by our political beliefs even if we might feel like it. indeed, in current cases like the marriage of kellyanne conway (senior advisor of donald trump) and george conway (a conservative who often criticize trump) eventually broke up, however, in cases of the marriage james carville (democrat) and marty matalin (republican), who have been married from 1993 onward, can’t be explained by party rivalry feelings. although it is true that democratic and republican parties hold separate ideas, we can still work together. one of our interviews said: “i think leftists tend to be more angry at conservative beliefs. we saw this with what occurred at tesla dealerships during musk’s time with the trump administration, the assassination attempts at trump, and more. though i think that there are discrepancies, we all still live in a country where opposing beliefs can still live in harmony” indeed we could work together to build on a better nation, there is a twist. among the youth population, we can still see discrimination of party alignment to what we think of the individual. “i sometimes unconsciously change my attitude when i hear someone is affiliated with some party that i support…or don’t” says another interviewer. 64.6% surveyed individuals agreed that their view also changed when hearing someone is aligned with a party. as of now, it almost seems like the us is separated by nature. 6. conclusion throughout the past 40 years, the us has increasingly polarized into the left-leaning and the right-leaning parties. the evidence presented in this research makes it clear that polarization is not a waning, but lived reality across generations. polarization is not only happening to congress, but to the general american public as well. through the experiences described by our youth groups and literary analysis of scholar papers polarization is felt everywhere within the us. the cause of this separation is fueled by a mix of demographic, cultural, and political factors that influence an individual's party alignment. when putting all these factors into consideration, we have seen a significant contribution of polarization by the cultural explanation: the rise of social media, advancement in technology, and background classification. this result is also present among the youth population. through a survey with a sample size of 17 teenagers ranging from the ages 16-19 and interviews conducted from particular participants willing to share their experience, culture explanation is the most justified. indeed this is true, however, it should be noted that there is no single factor that contributes to the polarization of the us as a whole. this study conducted among hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 44 published by ideas spread the youth population shows the significant divergence that is happening to the us now and in the future. from this study, it should be our first priority in fixing polarization problems with social media first as it is the most prominent. the feeling of divergence between the parties in the us has to come to a central consensus. indeed the concern for our future should be painted with color, but at the same time, we can fix this rather easily, it just takes time. americans share the same general values that align with each other and it actually isn’t as separate as we think it is. we have to learn how to work together and build a stronger nation no matter our political affiliation. if adolescents today can see beyond party labels and engage in cultural collaboration, then the future of america is 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(2016, july 19). american political speech is increasingly partisan, stanford research shows. stanford report. retrieved august 29, 2025, from https://news.stanford.edu/stories/2016/07/americanpolitical-speech-increasingly-partisan-stanford-research-shows. [28]pazzanese, c. (2020, june 3). when we can't even agree on what is real. the harvard gazette. retrieved august 29, 2025, from https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2020/06/study-finds-political-bias-skewsperceptions-of-verifiable-fact/. [29]zajnal, z. (2023, october 10). how did we get here: understanding the demographic sources of america's party divisions (shaping the democracy of tomorrow). protect democracy. https://protectdemocracy.org/work/understanding-the-demographic-sources-of-americas-party-divisions/. [30]ward, a. (2024, april 11). understanding and addressing social polarization between distinct groups in america: can we bridge the gap? democratic erosion consortium. retrieved august 29, 2025, from https://democratic-erosion.org/2024/04/11/understanding-and-addressing-social-polarization-betweendistinct-groups-in-america-can-we-bridge-the-gap/. [31]schleifer, t. (2025, march 20). musk offers $100 to wisconsin voters, bringing back a controversial tactic. the new york times. retrieved august 29, 2025, from https://www.nytimes.com/2025/03/20/us/politics/elon-musk-wisconsin-petition.html. [32]basu, z. (2025, june 5). musk goes nuclear: "without me, trump would have lost the election." axios. retrieved august 29, 2025.https://www.axios.com/2025/06/05/elon-musk-trump-election-bill. [33]gangitano, a. (2025, june 5). musk says trump would have lost election without him. the hill. retrieved hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 46 published by ideas spread august 29, 2025, from https://thehill.com/homenews/administration/5335049-elon-musk-criticizes-trump/. [34]pew research center. (2024, june 24). public trust in government: 1958-2024. retrieved august 29, 2025, from https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2024/06/24/public-trust-in-government-1958-2024/. [35]everytown research & policy. (2024, may 10). update background check laws. https://everytownresearch.org/report/update-background-check-laws/. [36]rosenthal, e. (2021, november 16). public opinion is unified on lowering prescription drug prices — why are democrats settling for less? los angeles times. retrieved august 29, 2025, from https://www.latimes.com/opinion/story/2021-11-16/public-opinion-prescription-drug-prices. [37]solar energy industries association. (2024, september 10). new poll reveals overwhelming support for federal clean energy incentives. https://seia.org/news/new-poll-reveals-overwhelming-support-for-federalclean-energy-incentives/. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p192 192 published by ideas spread key technologies for the digitization of cultural relics and their application in digital museums ping li1,2, yanqun liu1 & kun zhou2 1 shandong university, china 2 shandong museum, china correspondence: ping li, shandong university, shandong museum, jinan, shandong, china. received: august 14, 2025; accepted: august 21, 2025; published: august 22, 2025 abstract cultural relics embody a nation's memory as well as the codes of civilization. as fragile and non-renewable items, they demand novel methods of protection. digitalization technology is used on cultural heritage, particularly high precision 3d reconstruction of digitization and multilateral data fusion techniques, has opened up new paths to permanently preserving and revitalizing cultural heritage. this journal intends to systematically review the primary technologies of the digitization processes for cultural relics, evaluate their concrete application models and the key bottlenecks facing the construction of digital museums and then the feasible paths of implementation. the ultimate aim is to produce further cultural dissemination and educational credit for the cultural relic digital resources in contemporary society. keywords: digitalization of cultural relics, digital museums, revitalization of cultural heritage 1. introduction under the threatening dual hindrance of time erosion and spatial damages, a lot of valuable cultural relics are at risk of antiquating, and the contained culture, inherent artistic qualities are difficult to disseminate far and wide. traditional preservation means have limitations, while technology has made rapid advances in digital dispositions and this has been a strong positive impetus in the world of cultural heritage. the digitization of cultural relics is more than a replacement for physical preservation, it is positioning to create selective, interactive and infinitely replicable digital twins. it is futurist analogy consisting of many complicated components, like data retrieval, processing, managing, and innovating; but is most essentially transformational allowing cultural relics to dig into the rampant hidden potential in closed acquisitions or glass displays. digital twins can eventually be seen and studied in another unconventional realm of cultural inheritance. 2. core technologies and processes for cultural relic digitization 2.1 high-precision 3d data acquisition technology high-precision 3d data acquisition is the first step in creating a digital model of cultural relics. use of specialized equipment helps record the geometric forms and surface characteristics of relics with accuracy. structured light scanners or laser scanning devices project specific light patterns or laser beams onto the relic, and sensors read the information about how the light is altered in terms of deformation of the pattern or reflection off of the relic. these variations are sensed by the equipment and documented and transformed into a collection of points in space to describe the surface contour of the relic. the operators are able to systematically adjust the location and angle of equipment to ensure that the light covers all details remitted from the target area's features involving complexity of the texture or interior structure of the relic. an array of high-resolution reference cameras records a multi-angled image set covering all sides of the relic simultaneously, ensuring true color and texture information. after the equipment completes the initial positioning, it automatically executes the scanning program, generating raw point cloud data containing millions of spatial points and a large number of corresponding images. when the scanned data is imported into the workstation, specialized software automatically aligns and fuses the point cloud and images to construct a 3d model that combines precise geometric shapes with realistic visual appearance, laying the foundation for subsequent work.[1] 2.2 texture information fidelity processing restoring realistic surface textures is a critical stage after 3d high precision construction is completed. operators will use professional high-resolution digital cameras in a controlled lighting environment to capture thousands of hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 193 published by ideas spread multiple overlapping photographs of cultural relic from various directional perspectives and rotational angles. the angle and distance from which every shot was made with the camera must be calculated exactly; the entire surface of the cultural relic must be covered. the equipment is equipped with a colour management module that monitors in real time changes in ambient light and automatically corrects colour shifts that occur due to ambient light shifts. during the shooting process, operators need to observe the surface gloss features of the cultural relics repeatedly and manually change the angle or intensity of the lighting source so that the details in the highlighted areas or s/ b characteristics are not lost, nor consistent textures become lost in shadows. when the image sequence is imported into the workstation, the dedicated mapping software automatically identifies the model area corresponding to each photo. the intelligent algorithm analyzes the overlapping parts of adjacent images, accurately integrates color differences, and eliminates stitching artifacts. based on the geometric structure of the model, the software seamlessly maps the optimized images onto the three-dimensional surface, generating texture maps with accurate colors, clear details, and natural transitions. the final output digital model not only has precise morphology but also exhibits a surface texture, color, and subtle historical traces that are highly faithful to the original cultural relic state. 2.3 lightweight model construction although high-precision 3d models are rich in detail, their massive data volume makes it difficult to run smoothly on ordinary devices. engineers use professional modeling software to intelligently simplify the original model. the software algorithm accurately identifies and removes redundant triangular facets on the surface of the object that do not affect the visual contour, while retaining key feature structures. the high-resolution texture mapping on the model surface is re-optimized and processed. compression tools convert large-sized images into small files suitable for network transmission, while applying color compression technology to maintain texture clarity and color accuracy.[2] during processing, it’s important to preview the display effects of the model on different devices multiple times and make real-time adjustments to the simplification level to make sure there are no broken surfaces or blobbed out details while loading on mobile devices and web pages. the final output lightweight model, which preserves the primary shape and the surface visual characteristics of the cultural relic, is greatly reduced in data volume and can be efficiently applied in online display platforms, mobile applications, and virtual reality scenes to fulfill the public's need for instant access to digital cultural relics anytime and anywhere. 2.4 multi-modal data fusion management faced with diverse and heterogeneous data such as 3d point clouds generated by scanners, high-definition images captured by cameras, historical documents, and inspection reports,the technical team of archaeological institutions or institutions of cultural relics and museums must establish a logically rigorous database architecture to achieve unified management. staff members assign unique digital identifiers to each artifact, and the database automatically aligns and binds the 3d model with the corresponding surface texture based on spatial coordinates. at the same time, it associates repair records, research literature, and other materials with specific structural layers of the model through keyword tagging. the built-in retrieval module of the system supports users to quickly locate the target artifact by date, material, or decorative pattern characteristics, and retrieve all associated multidimensional data with one click. this structured integration model enables fragmented information to form an organic knowledge network, providing a complete data chain support for subsequent research and display. 3. key bottlenecks in digital museum construction 3.1 insufficient precision in complex cultural relic digitization when faced with the complex hollow forms of bronze vessels or the light cracks on ceramic vessels, existing scanning apparatus has great difficulty in fully detecting the geometric characteristics of hidden locations. this is primarily true when artifacts are comprised of deep holes or overlapping structures that result in blind areas, which laser beams are unable to access, resulting in gaps in the point cloud data. without ability to point cloud values from additional angles through the operator's supplementary scanning, the surface characteristics of some of the special material reflections still caused distortion and distortion to scannot be avoided in the rag retrieval of collected data. the current technical developments represent a major challenge for high-precision reconstruction of the full shape of such complex artifacts. 3.2 high costs hindering widespread adoption the procurement costs of high-end 3d scanners and professional-grade cameras often reach tens of thousands of dollars, making it difficult for grassroots museums to afford the core equipment renewal needs within their budgets. the technical team of archaeological institutions or institutions of cultural relics and museums require continuous hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 194 published by ideas spread investment to maintain equipment calibration and software upgrades, and the daily operational and maintenance expenses for high-precision scanning consumables and dedicated storage servers further exacerbate financial pressure. professional engineers need to customize acquisition plans based on the characteristics of different cultural relics, and the digitization process for a single cultural relic often takes several weeks of work, with labor costs accounting for a significant proportion of total expenditure. the storage of massive amounts of data and the rental costs of cloud computing resources continue to accumulate as the number of cultural relics grows. limited institutional budgets force a large number of precious cultural relics to remain outside the digitization process for extended periods, urgently requiring the exploration of sustainable cost control solutions. 3.3 lack of depth in interactive experiences most of the interactive functions provided by digital museums only allow for basic operation on the model such as rotation and zooming, making it impossible for visitors to gain deeper insights into the internal structure, craftsmanship details, etc. most of the commentary systems developed by technical teams pick a linear path through experience lacking the studying ability to dynamically generate personalized content addressing visitors' interest points. current devices possess a single feedback mode for user behavior without multi-sense response mechanism, while basic touchscreen operations only stimulate fixed graphic descriptions without deeper learning potentialweakening the sense of immersion of historical situations. usually, systems are unable to detect the cognitive level of the user, although it is quite common for systems to display a variation of standardized information of the same depth for users of different levels of knowledge, meaning both a professional researcher and a somewhat average individual could have a similar superficial reading. aspects that point towards a hyperreal feel in the virtual environment, rely on the recreation of a macro level of experience reflecting history as opposed to the contextualization, that is social importance, and even definition, of how culture artifacts are 'used,' is very limited in a digital museum context; this makes it difficult for the visitor to relate the object to its intrinsic functional and symbolic meaning in cultural context through interaction.[3] 3.4 fragmented interpretation of historical information the 3d models of cultural relics, archaeological site images, and historical documents stored on digital platforms are scattered across independent database modules. when viewers look up a shang or zhou dynasty bronze tripod, the interface only displays basic dimensions and excavation site information. the casting process analysis report and videos of ritual scene reconstructions from the same period need to be manually retrieved across systems. the association rules established by the technical team are limited to material classification and chronological labels. the evolution of the beast-face pattern on this bronze tripod cannot be automatically linked to the pattern lineage of similar artifacts unearthed from other tombs. when viewers try to understand the trade system of the maritime silk road in the tang dynasty, the fragmented information provided by the platform includes scattered chemical testing data of ceramic fragments, port site distribution maps, and clothing characteristics of hu merchants' figurines, lacking a dynamic narrative framework that connects these elements to present the trade routes, kiln production, and the fusion of exotic cultures. this fragmented information supply makes it difficult to fully present stories of cultural evolution, such as the dissemination path of engraving techniques on celadon porcelain from the yaozhou kiln in the northern song dynasty and the import chain of cobalt materials for blue and white porcelain in the yuan dynasty. viewers' cognition remains at the level of isolated cultural relics and cannot construct a comprehensive picture of cultural dissemination. 4. practical pathways for key technologies to empower digital museums 4.1 construction of cultural relic digital resource repositories based on a standard of consistency, the technical team of archaeological institutions or institutions of cultural relics and museums standardizes the way to processing the stored cultural relics. when the stored high precision 3d models are created after scanning, the high precision data is kept with key features for further use and lightweight kick parameters are retained. the data administrator will use a color calibration tool to adjust the texture mapping that can produce similar colors in the same object based on different lighting conditions. for the digitalization outcome of a portioned ceramic piece fragmented design, the user has to annotate within the platform the original stitching relationship. the database framework is designed as a multi-tiered system, with the raw point clouds and high-resolution images located at the first tier; lightweight models are located at the second tier, where datasets can be rapidly invoked; and at the top tier, repair records, archaeological reports, and multimedia commentary resources are differentiated and associated. the platform developers create discrete knowledge nodes for each cultural relic, and the spatiotemporal coordinates tether all the mineral composition detection data of the bronze vessels, and all video of the bronze vessels casting process, to the 3d models of the bronze vessels. the data from the ming dynasty paintings and calligraphy makes visible the ways that the inscription and seal data are hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 195 published by ideas spread cut from high-resolution partial images adjacent to their locations beside the picture. the system establishes permissions at numerous levels allowing researchers to view the original detection data, educators to invoke streamlined models fit for teaching, and the public to access basic models and guided authoring through the interface. the resource library, updated regularly, is in the process of onboarding cross-institutional digital assets, creating a living knowledge network of how artifacts evolve and their technoscientific genealogy.[4] 4.2 immersive virtual exhibition hall applications in many demonstrative practice case of digitalization of cultural relics in china,the technical team of archaeological institutions or institutions of cultural relics and museums has created a 3d scene of the architectural complex of the west market in chang'an during the tang dynasty, using archaeological research results. the models of the shop signs, and street props researched by historians have been made interactive objects in the virtual 3d space. participants can wear vr headsets and have the ability to walk on the stone pavement and interact with the ceramic figures of foreign merchants on each side. hardware engineers installed an array of motion capture cameras in the physical exhibition hall, which allows participants to engage with the digital holographic projection of a bronze vessel fixed in the exhibit case by gesturing in the air. when the object is rotated, the surface of the projection identifies the casting seams with the pattern of taotie (a mythical creature). the system developers created a layered anatomy feature for the han dynasty silk paintings where viewers can slide their fingers with manipulation to peel off one paint layer at a time to discover the line drawings underneath. a simultaneously played animation of the weaving process demonstrates the mechanism of how paint and silk threads are combined. the cloud server processes multi-user interaction data in real time. when visitors gather in front of the virtual dunhuang grottoes, the system automatically triggers changes in the lighting and shadows of the murals from different perspectives. the exclamations collected by microphones are processed by algorithms and transformed into ambient sound effects echoing inside the grottoes. the mobile adaptation module compresses large scene data, allowing visitors to scan the qr code in the exhibition hall with their mobile phones to use ar function to overlay the king of war ding on their own dining table to view the details of the inscriptions. regularly updated themed virtual exhibitions break through the limitations of physical exhibitions, allowing visitors to enter the special exhibition space online at any time to participate in curator-led nighttime salon activities. 4.3 construction of cultural relic knowledge graphs data engineers clean and integrate artifact description texts from archaeological reports and museum collection archives, converting professional terminology such as bronze casting techniques and ceramic glaze formulas into standardized entity labels for input into the graph system. algorithms automatically identify the spatial correlation between the unearthed epitaph records of tang dynasty sea beast grape mirrors and the silk road route maps of the same period, creating multidimensional attribute nodes for each artifact that include time coordinates, geographical coordinates, and craft schools. knowledge modelers configure rules based on the functional classification system of bronze ritual vessels, and the system automatically establishes semantic connections between the combinations of shang and zhou dynasty bronze vessels and ritual vessels in sacrificial scenes. when a viewer diagrams a bronze gu, at that moment, the graph moves to other combinations of wine vessels and ritual positions in a simultaneous manner. to create a structure as software developers do, structured data interfaces are opened. and, for instance, after researchers upload reports from new kiln site exploration, the graph can directly auto-match the song-era iron-bearing celadon shards with sources of a distinct kiln characteristic to update the spatiotemporal network of dynamics in a paths of artifact dissemination. the front-end designers take the relationships from the graph and interpret those into distinct visual dynamic context diagrams. now as a viewer, you might find themselves in the graph and click on the jingdezhen kiln node and see an interactive timeline of the cobalt-based blue and white porcelain import route from the yuan dynasty, with artisan registration management system and patterns taking shapes that have transformed over time and space. once passed through academic review, the public editing module allows enthusiasts to annotate special patterns onto a lacquerware piece, and knowledge from user-added folk usage records are connected to the knowledge network after data cleaning to become an ever-growing opportunity for civilizational cognition.[5] 4.4 audience co-creation experience design in recent years,the digital technical team of cultural relics in china has developed a digital tool for assembling cultural relic fragments. when visitors assemble fragments of yuan dynasty blue and white porcelain plates online, the system compares them in real-time with data from complete vessels in the museum collection. each correctly matched set of decorative patterns automatically unlocks the story of the pattern's extraterritorial dissemination. the virtual curation module configured by the education specialist opens up some 3d models of tang dynasty pottery figurines. visitors can drag the figurines to different living scenes to create their own music and dance hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 196 published by ideas spread display schemes. the system records high-frequency combinations and automatically generates recommendations for popular theme exhibitions. technical staff have embedded annotation functions in the digital mural interface. visitors can circle and select the flying ribbons of the dunhuang flying apsaras and add personal interpretations of dance poses to name them. once the back-end has reviewed and approved annotation compliance, compliant annotations will be shown as public comments. the system architect built a user creation library. visitors upload hand-drawn sketches of the song dynasty tea ware usage scenes, and the drawings are digitized and attached to models of tea cups stored by the museum to create a digital exhibition wall of living history. after opera enthusiasts matched vocal segments recorded from kun opera performances to 3d models of ming dynasty costumes, immersive historically-based short dramas were automatically generated that displayed auxiliary subtitles. this open platform regularly publishes design challenges for bronze ornamentations, and after screening, the recreation schemes of the taotie pattern by visitors are shown as animated light effect sculptures on a holographic projector in the physical exhibition hall for a curated audience. the names of visitors who were selected as participants are permanently recorded in the digital exhibition contribution wall to provide a continuously encouraging co-creation ecosystem. 5. conclusion digital technology for cultural relics, and the application of that technology for digital museums, are augmenting the way the general public engages with and understands cultural heritage. it is an issue that not only breaks through the spatial limitations resulting from the conservation and exhibited space as we have physical cultural relics, but also reconstructs and transforms static historical remains into culturally dynamic stories through digital pumping avenues where virtual exhibition halls can be immersive, knowledge graphs of structured knowledge, and co-creating cognitive experiences. there are still bottlenecks, such as acquisition high-precision, cost-control and deeply interactive engagement that need to be consistently worked on, but also the development of digital resource libraries and searching specific to new application models that are enhanced through technology, have given cultural relics a new life through doing this. ultimately, as cultural relics continue to gain traction through the digitization of these momentums followed by technology, we will importantly see the depth of our technology innovation rise with humanistic interpretation, allowing public cognition deepened and a memory that transcends time and space is no longer image-utilizing a point of reference, and can be one way an history scholar would see it, a potential bridge linking past and future of human civilization. acknowledgements this article is an phased achievement of the 2025 shandong provincial humanities and social sciences research project “theory and pathway research on immersive display and experience in museums under high-quality development of digital cultural tourism”; an phased achievement of the 2023 shandong youth cultural heritage and museology talent training fund project” theoretical research and demonstrative practice on the protection and utilization system of shandong movable revolutionary relics”. references [1] cheng, c. f., yen, y. n., & yang, w. b. (2013). value priority concept on digital technology for disaster prevention and management of cultural properties: a case study of dihua street in taiwan. in 2013 digital heritage international congress (digitalheritage). https://doi.org/10.1109/digitalheritage.2013.6744730 [2] zhou, j., & liu, x. (2024). digitization of cultural relics: augmented reality display of ru ware. in international conference on human-computer interaction (pp. 415-425). springer nature switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-61950-2_45 [3] hu, c., wang, y., xia, g., feng, j., yang, j., shi, y., & chen, g. (2024). correction: the generation method of orthophoto expansion map of arched dome mural based on three-dimensional fine color model. npj heritage science, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-024-01542-5 [4] wang, w., & zhao, h. (2023). 3d reconstruction of movable cultural relics based on salient region optimization. the journal of china universities of posts and telecommunications, 30(5), 11-31. [5] fuchs, t. o. j., böhnel, m., kretzer, c., & zabler, s. (2023). ten+ years of experience in digitization of cultural heritage by means of industrial x-ray computed tomography: a summary. research and review j. of nondestructive testing, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.58286/28090 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 197 published by ideas spread this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v7n1p20 20 published by ideas spread one direction andrew azzopardi1, gottfried catania2 & paulann grech3 1 dean, faculty for social wellbeing, university of malta, malta 2 deputy dean, faculty for social wellbeing, university of malta, malta 3 associate professor, faculty of health sciences, malta correspondence: paulann grech, faculty of health sciences, university of malta, malta. e-mail: andrew.azzopardi@um.edu.mt, gottfried.catania@um.edu.mt, paulann.grech@um.edu.mt received: january 25, 2024; accepted: february 17, 2024; published: february 21, 2024 abstract this paper draws on the data from the study commissioned by the faculty for social wellbeing (university of malta) in 2023 called ‘the perceived effect of traffic on our wellbeing amongst the maltese population’. it seeks to navigate around the seeming impact of traffic on the populace, in terms of social wellbeing. in this paper, we will be revealing that there are no two ways around this phenomenon. what we will be referring to as the ‘trafficisation’ in our communities is having a major impact on our standard of living. in other words, the commodification of our communities, and car ownership as one of the indicators, is starting to leave an indelible mark on the livability and quality of life of its citizens. the liminality of progress and economic affluence in relation to our quality of life is the tension that will be debated in this epistemological-driven piece of work. the paper will attempt to confer the research question that livability and improved quality of life depend on re-negotiating a lifestyle which is not carcentric. keywords: traffic, quality of life, wellbeing, frustration, challenges 1. introduction without a measure of doubt, traffic in malta has a significant impact on our lives and the livability of our communities. the liminality sees two contrasting realities: one that states that having a car and a busy life are indicators of quality of life, and on the other hand it is, as the data collected in recently published research by the faculty for social wellbeing shows, a complex and multifarious situation. this is compounded by another study that the faculty commissioned in 2020 which looked at a number of mitigating factors that impact our lifestyle, traffic being listed among them. andrew azzopardi, dean of the university’s faculty for social wellbeing, who commissioned the survey, is quoted in the times of malta (6/12/20): “…that even though public transportation is also an indicator of a growing economy but there is increasing evidence that is creating uneasiness and distress in our communities and simply improving our infrastructure is not good enough.” in fact, in the opinion survey commissioned by the same faculty, the following was reported: participants were asked about how problematic they consider traffic to be…the majority of respondents (38.8%) consider traffic to be a very big problem, whilst only 12.3% said that they do not consider traffic to be a problem. …traffic was considered more problematic for participants who were female, aged between 36-45, persons with a primary level of education, respondents with four or more children, and those residing in the northern district. owning a car can simply have a utilitarian reason but has also developed into a commodity that for some or more may indicate socioeconomic status this is further compounded by the brand, model, and level of luxury. for others, owning the economy model or the environmental models are status symbols in their own right. in other words, the acuity of car ownership as a status symbol can mean different things to different individuals. what is true however is that the car has become a protagonist in our communities. in this regard, gartman (2004) has made reference to john urry’s work. the latter has helped us to understand how we have come to think about cars, the role they have in our communities and the way we steer the way we live. he suggests that: hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 21 published by ideas spread sociologists abandon their idea of the car as a thing, a simple object of production and consumption, and look at it as a system of interlocking social and technical practices that has reconfigured civil society (gartman 2004, p.149). this kafkaesque social condition brought about by ‘traffic’ is reminiscent of a confusing, illogical almost absurd situation conveniently buried under a heap of bureaucracy. the state seems to be in oblivion snared by an almost open secret that there is no hope of resolution and only minimal and minor knee-jerk reactions are taken to deal with this matter. in the faculty for social wellbeing unity gazzetta, dr gottfried catania (2023, p.20) states: infrastructural issues related to the situation are complex and difficult to address – the rapid increase in population and related increase in number of cars on the road these past few years, as well as the roadworks being carried out all over the island in the hope of improving the situation but impacting traffic flow in the meantime, have definitely taken their toll on the deteriorating traffic situation. the inconsistency of the public transport system, even though it has been made free of charge for all maltese citizens, means that few drivers consider this as a viable option to using their private cars. as a result, we might need to look elsewhere in order to find effective solutions for the problems caused or aggravated by ever-increasing traffic. catania’s statement links to perfection to what the graph with the question, ‘how problematic is traffic?’ taken from a study in 2020 and quoted in the times of malta (calleja, 2020) illustrates, and how the sample (made up of 600 people surveyed) ‘spoke’ about the impact of traffic on their lifestyle. 38.8% and 13.8% view traffic as problematic or very problematic and only 12.3% and 11.4% say that it is ‘not that bad’. this is further mitigated by the fact that the use of the private car is on the increase. as expected, this has led to a number of problems in the community, namely environmental, social and economic. the increase in the use of vehicles, especially private cars has led to the contribution to toxic and damaging substances in our atmosphere: the number of motorised vehicles in the world grew from about 75 million to about 675 million between 1950 and 1990. around 80% of these vehicles were primarily used for personal transportation, i.e., cars and motorcycles. the amount of passenger-kilometres by private car per capita increased by 90% (from 4,620 to 8,710 kms) in western europe between 1970 and 1990. (linda, p. 27, 2003) the major debates that will be addressed in this paper will deliberate on how traffic is impacting the way we feel as we go about in life. it is also a paper that will elicit the serious sway it is putting on our temperament and other emotions. through the study, which is a qualitative random sampled study, literature review and engagement with our own reflections, we will establish the gradations of how traffic is conditioning our quality of life and standard of living. figure 1. how problematic is traffic? the notion the authors are proposing here of ‘trafficisation’ will come to refer to a system that terms our excessive use of cars and the ensuing traffic congestion as a process of profit generation. it is an exploitation of a fundamental hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 22 published by ideas spread need, which we will be talking about, of community networks and that instead of connecting people, cars have led to disconnecting them. figure 1 immediately lays out the challenges that are being perceived by people when it comes to traffic and how this is impacting their social wellbeing. in fact, 52.6% compared to 23.7% feel that traffic is problematic. according to a eurobarometer survey by the european commission (2013), european citizens are concerned about the negative effects of urban mobility, and the majority are sceptical about the likelihood of mobility improvements in their cities. congestion (76%), air quality (81%), and accidents (73%) are regarded as significant issues by the majority. a minority (24%) hold the view that the situation will improve, while the majority (35%) anticipate that it will either remain unchanged or deteriorate (37%). we cannot shy away from public debate where the prevalent conversation is that it takes forever to go from one point to another but not only, there seems to be a perceived increase of road rage and a general feeling that our roads are not safe enough. fuller (2013) says: on this view, commercialisation is an emergent feature of our natural propensity to trade, from which the division of labour arises, and complex societies form as a long-term consequence. the process involves many specific interactions in which people decide to make qualitatively different things functionally equivalent in particular exchanges. a unit of currency, or money, also emerges from this process, understood as an efficient mechanism for enabling anyone to trade anything, anywhere and at any time. once that level of efficiency is established and it covers a sufficiently large proportion of social life, we can speak of “commercialisation. (p.7) 2. theoretical underpinnings despite the importance and urgency of the problem, we have a poor theoretical understanding of the parameters controlling urban car use and congestion. (verbavatz and barthelemy (2019, p.1) there are a number of theories that lend themselves to this discourse and will be interlaced in the debate we will be engaging with in this paper, namely, environmental psychology theories; social capital theory, equity theory and sustainable development theory. environmental psychology theories essentially suggest that the physical environment will directly impact the psychological wellbeing of a person (moser & uzzell, 2003) and traffic, being such an important variable will lead, in the outcomes of the data we collected, to a negative impact on people in a number of ways. noise and traffic congestion, to mention just two factors, are seen as consequences that impact the human mind thus causing uneasiness, anxiety and also stress. this will be illustrated further down by a psychiatrist leaning on this matter. gillford (2014) clearly states that traffic congestion has a number of mental and psychological effects and also leads to what he refers to as a drop in the performance of people and heightened aggressive behaviour. environmental psychological theories are central in the shaping of our communities and this is emphasised by the way we relate with each other including what is referred to as spatial cognition (frith, 2008). the mental and psychiatric impact of traffic congestion was further reinforced by prof. anton grech, chairman of the mental health services in malta, who noticed a spike in anxiety in his clinics due to the traffic situation being experienced in malta (newbook, 2021). in other words, what happens in the community actually shapes people even through ways we might not choose. another theory which informs this debate is social capital theory. in the context of traffic and its impact, one of the major concerns is that it reduces the time for social interaction and aptitude towards social inclusion which we know are composites of happy living especially in pack animals like human beings who tend to form communities (schleidt and shalter, 2003). this is deeply entrenched in evolutionary history and has been a key factor in survival. whether it is tribes, cities, families (extended or nuclear), communities of practice or other forms of social units, the notion of belonging is typical, central and decisive. the need for companionship and social interaction (varying from one person to another) is of essence. we have managed to deal with complexities in social interactions and create an ecosystem that ensures our survival but one asks whether traffic and its fallout are threatening this equilibrium. it seems like a lot for one factor to create this instability but when we see the data that is emanating, it is an issue that does drop a dark veil on us (alexander, 1990). this issue is further compounded by findings we will illustrate in this paper further on. social capital theory, best illustrated by the work of pierre bourdieu and expanded by the seminal work of robert putnam’s (2000), ‘bowling alone: the collapse and revival of american community’, illustrate the value of social networking and the trust that is developed amongst communities (vide the work of margaret ledwith, a scholar, social justice and community activist) within the notion of social connectedness. he comes up with the notion of “connections among hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 23 published by ideas spread individuals”. traffic as experienced by people and illustrated by alcantara de vasconellos (2004) will illustrate that it is interfering in these relationships: the way people use streets has been analysed by traditional traffic engineering techniques and their practical, operational branch: traffic management. a large body of knowledge has been developed, used by traffic engineers all over the world, that utilizes quantitative techniques based on street capacity, vehicle dimensions and human physical characteristics to decide how street space will be distributed among the users. implicit is the idea that this technical division is neutral and allocates equal benefits to everybody. (p.3) equity theory coined by john stacy adams (1963) also illustrates that when contextualising traffic, the unequalness imposed by the infrastructure, namely effective or absent public transportation (linda, 2003), will lead to a drop in the livability of communities and social wellbeing. in his work, he suggested that individuals strive hard to achieve an appreciation of equity. in developing the theory of inequity, which is based upon festinger's (1957) theory of cognitive dissonance and is, therefore, a special case of it, we shall describe major variables involved in an employee-employer exchange, before we proceed to define inequity formally. having defined it, we shall analyze its effects. finally, such evidence as is available will be presented in support of the theory. throughout we shall emphasize some of the simpler aspects of inequity and try to refrain from speculating about many of the engaging, often complex, relationships between inequity and other phenomena, and about what might be termed "higher order" inequities. (stacy adams, 1963, p.422) it is an established and generally agreed position that the use of a private vehicle provides a number of advantages as contrasted with the unpredictability of the public transport services (linda, 2003). needless to say, livability is made up of a number of notions namely access to national health services, affordable housing, opportunities where to spend free and leisure time, security within the neighbourhoods and communities, inclusiveness, job opportunities, community access and support networks, just to mention a few. these urban decisions are fundamental to ensure quality of life (azzopardi, 2011). when seen from a wider lens, traffic management manifests a clear connection between one point and another, and is a fundamental nodal in the interphase with the community. donald appleyard, a world-renowned urban planner, was a pioneer in connecting urban design, and traffic management with people’s sense of social wellbeing. in his seminal work, "livable streets: protected neighborhoods?" appleyard states that streets should create an environment which is not excessively noisy. inhabitants who live close to streets have the right to maintain a good quality of life including commuting from one point to another, sleeping well, having good air quality and avoiding other inconveniences normally entreated by traffic mismanagement. the sustainable development theory (sdt) builds around these above-mentioned theories. the sdt seems to suggest that the way our urban life develops should cater for today without bargaining for tomorrow. this, in traffic congestion practices, has major implications, especially in terms of lifestyles and social wellbeing. in their article, "resilience thinking: integrating resilience, adaptability and transformability." folke et al. (2010) state that we need to ensure that we have systems in place to be able to react to the social transformations and address the complexity of change that is happening in our organic societies. another important report was the brundtland report, known as 'our common future' produced and published by the world commission on environment and development (wced) (1987). this report is considered an influential document to this day and speaks about living standards, motor vehicles and environmental policies all akin to this paper – vide these articles: 5. living standards that go beyond the basic minimum are sustainable only if consumption standards everywhere have regard for long-term sustainability. yet many of us live beyond the world's ecological means, for instance in our patterns of energy use. perceived needs are socially and culturally determined, and sustainable development requires the promotion of values that encourage consumption standards that are within the bounds of the ecological possible and to which all can reasonably aspire. the key notions of environmental psychology theory dictate how members of the community are deeply predisposed by the environment, namely the physical but not exclusively. sustainable practices, to give an example, help nationalise values and beliefs and interpose environmental behaviours. this syncs well with sustainability even within other perspectives, as delineated in sustainable development theory, namely, economic growth. traffic is starting to become an obstacle to this and the complex interactions and feedback loops need broader systemic action and adaptive management. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 24 published by ideas spread the brundtland report (1987) goes on to state: 20. motor vehicles greatly influence environmental conditions in the cities of the industrial world. a recent slowdown in the growth rate of vehicle numbers, stricter emission standards for new vehicles, the distribution of lead-free gasoline, improvements in fuel efficiency, improved traffic management policies, and landscaping have all helped reduce the impacts of urban traffic. and, 48. the concept of sustainable development provides a framework for the integration of environment policies and development strategies the term 'development' being used here in its broadest sense….the pursuit of sustainable development requires changes in the domestic and international policies of every nation. 3. methodology in this paper, we will be engaging primarily with data collected from a 2023 survey which sought to research the perceived effect of traffic on wellbeing. the survey was carried out through telephone interviews with a sample size of 400 individuals and was collected amongst the maltese population. the age of the respondents was that of 18 years of age and above, to reflect the people who are eligible to drive. a likert scale was adapted as a means of gauging preferences. the people interviewed had to be residents of malta and were captured through a randomised system. data capture included demographics, and responses were clustered according to the official districts used by the national statistics office. it had a 95% confidence interval: +/4.9% and the sample was stratified based on gender, districts and age. the data was collected during february 2023 and the company commissioned to collect this data was sagalytics (refer to sagalytics final report, 2023). the questions were designed mainly by dr gottfried catania and supported by the expertise of the research support officer, annabel cuff and prof. andrew azzopardi. the areas dealt with were; whether you own a car; whether thinking about traffic increases ‘my’ anxiety; whether ‘i’ worry when ‘i’ hear about the frequency of serious road accidents happening; whether ‘i’ am afraid of arriving late to important appointments if ‘i’ get stuck in traffic; whether ‘i’ would prefer to not use my car if public transport was more reliable; and finally whether ‘i’ waste a lot of time in traffic which could be put to better use. the process of data collection was first processed through the faculty research ethics committee. at the beginning of the study, an information letter was provided to potential participants, in which they were informed that their participation and responses will remain anonymous. they were also informed about their right to withdraw from the study up till the end of the telephone call, since after that it would not be possible to delete the anonymous data. participants were also provided with the research team’s contact details. the following three figures illustrated as figure 2: age distribution of respondents; figure 3: gender distribution of respondents; and figure 4: district distribution of respondents, give us an overarching insight into the sample and population which were being investigated. the age distribution is commensurate to the data and the sample is almost equivalent to the percentage representation of the population and the same applies to gender distribution and district distribution making this sample respectable and representative. figure 2. age distribution hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 25 published by ideas spread figure 3. gender distribution figure 4. district dstribution the ontological discourse that side-steps this work juggles with three main notions; existence, property and community connections. the ontology in this paper will help us process how the nature of existence goes hand in hand with making the right choices, or at least some choices. it is clear and in abundance in this paper that the state is in cahoots with the neoliberal tugging “estimating automobile demand is of paramount importance for policy makers, as such demand has significant effects on our economy and the environment we live in” (saliba, 2019, p.3) which begs the questions: how would we define quality of life? what is the relationship between the struggles we contend with and the price we need to pay? how do we define individual needs in relation to communitarian urgencies? how does ontology interplay with ethical behaviours, communitarian needs and sustainability? (lauer, 2019). in this paper we are looking at how social systems made up of individuals, groups of people and institutions are all impacted by this phenomenon. so, conceptualising the processes and trying to understand how all of these progressions merge and evolve will give us a better understanding of how to resolve this impasse. naturally, and as one would expect, the beliefs, the cultural hegemonies, the values and the norms of a society are at the heart of these transformations. so, ontology provides for the understanding of the nature of reality and its interconnectedness. this interconnectedness, as played out in the sustainable development theory concedes that we cannot look at the problem in isolation but we need to converge the social, economic and environmental dimensions and merge the data that comes out of these facets. this will lead us to a balanced and integrated approach to ensure long-term sustainability. together with interconnectedness are long-term implications to meet future needs as this problem of ‘trafficisation’ has serious repercussions on the future of communities. compounded with this, the epistemological debate steers us towards dealing with trying to comprehend how knowledge is assimilated and warranted. important questions that feature in our epistemology that will help us understand the foundational elements in this work are; how would we contextualise knowledge as a response to hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 26 published by ideas spread the traffic problem? where do our beliefs feature in such a theme? are there limitations in how to respond to this dilemma of progress versus sustainability? and how will our language unpack these notions? this understanding helps us relate to knowledge and it also plays a major role in shaping our analysis. the data collated for this paper helps influence and direct social scientific knowledge and raises a number of important questions to ensure that the critical approaches provide valid data. in fact, this paper handles data, theoretical underpinning and other research, and also provides for critical thinking. epistemology in its essence affords a critical lens. findings and discussion (data extracted from the original report of the study by sagalytics, 2023) what is very significant and almost taken for granted, is that in the 2023 study we are basing this paper on, 81.9% of the respondents (who were above 18 years of age) said they owned a car. in an article in the times of malta (borg, 2023), it was stated that: a total of 32 new vehicles were added to malta’s streets each day throughout 2022, as the total stock of vehicles rose to 424,904, an increase of almost 12,000 over the previous year. just over 303,000, about 74.7% of vehicles on the road, are private passenger cars according to official statistics published on wednesday by the national statistics office. a further 12.2%, or 39,500, are motorcycles, e-bikes or pedelecs. separate data for e-bikes and pedelecs was not published, however, the number of ebikes on the road is described as “negligible”. (times of malta, 2023). the disconcerting outcomes from this reported data is similar to that cited in the rye and hrelja (2020) study: they are remarkably similar, the main differences being the much higher car use in british and two swedish cities, higher car ownership in the smaller and particularly german cities, higher levels of cycling (replacing walking) in the dutch cities and the higher rates of unemployment in the swedish cities. (note that mode share is for trips to work in british cities, but for all trips in others). (p.7) figure 5 clearly indicates that we have a very limited road network when one compares it to the size of the islands and the number of cars and other vehicles which are dotting our streets. the data presented in this table is extremely significant, showing the extent of the problem we have in malta with almost 3,000 kilometres of road of which 87% are paved and the rest are not. compounded with this, we have an area of 316 km2 and a population hitting way over half a million. transport malta, which has a mission “to promote and develop the transport sector in malta by means of proper regulation and by promotion and development of related services, businesses and other interests both locally and internationally” provided this figure (figure 5.) it confirms the intense and almost verging on the exaggerated network we have. figure 5. road lengths taken from the times of malta (2023), figure 6 indicates that a far greater percentage increase in motorcycles/ebikes as compared to cars, occurred during this time period. could this be interpreted as a way in which vehicle owners are trying to mitigate the negative effects of traffic? the reality is that with the numbers indicated in the table, it is increasingly difficult to make decisions which do not impact directly on peoples’ hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 27 published by ideas spread lifestyles. with the amount of vehicles on the street, we cannot have changes without drastically impacting the way we have organised our communities so far. figure 6. increase in vehicles on the road 2019-2022 cars motor-cycles & ebikes all vehicles 2019 293,711 29,034 397,508 2020 297,266 31,163 402,427 2021 301,046 34,661 413,019 2022 303,257 39,468 424,904 although the data includes e-bikes, the number of e-bikes on the road is described as "negligible". source: nso get the data created with datawrapper eurostat (2023) noted that passenger vehicles registered in the eu have increased by 7% since 2017. the quantity of passenger cars registered in the european union (eu) approached 253 million in 2022, reflecting a growth of 7.0% in comparison to the previous year, 2017. during the five-year span from december 2017 to december 2022, a number of member states experienced a substantial increase in the quantity of passenger cars that were officially registered. romania experienced the most substantial growth during this time frame, at 31%. this was followed by lithuania at 22%, hungary at 18%, estonia at 17%, croatia and slovakia at 15% each, portugal, cyprus, and the czech republic at 14% each, and latvia at 12%. in this context, to our research question whether thinking about traffic increases anxiety, our study clearly illustrates that 47.7% of the respondents stated that they ‘strongly agree’ and 14.7% agree that ‘thinking about traffic increases their anxiety’, as seen in figure 7. figure 7. thinking about traffic increases my anxiety research shows that the experience of driving or being a passenger in a car or other vehicle in heavy traffic triggers a melange of symptoms ranging from cold sweats to high heart rates, from muscle tension to irritability and a general sense of anxiety. collision or the fear of having one, missed appointments and arriving late at work all lead to increased anxiety and its possible consequences. in fact, kenardy et. al. (2018) report the consequences of crashing and consequent injury: our results also support the need for early recognition and treatment of psychological problems to prevent persistent or new psychological diagnoses. given the comorbidity of psychological diagnoses in this sample and participants’ movements between diagnostic categories over time, the development and testing of a comprehensive trans-diagnostic approach in this population may be beneficial. (p. 178) our research further shows that respondents worry when they hear about the frequency of serious road accidents happening, with 64% stating that they ‘strongly agree’ and 15.6% “agree” with this statement (refer to figure 8). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 28 published by ideas spread figure 8. i worry when i hear about the frequency of serious road accidents happening this happens for a number of reasons namely because the unpredictability of accidents and the resulting injuries, are reasons why people get tense, but respondents also potentially worry about the repercussions this has on their tight schedule. this disruption in daily routines has a major impact on people. apart from that, accidents might trigger traumatic experiences. figure 9. i am afraid of arriving late toimportant appointments if i get stuck in traffic figure 10. i would prefer to not use my car if public transport was more reliable the times of malta (calleja, 2022) reports that there were “800 traffic accidents involving death or injuries in past three years”, with accidents and fatalities on the rise: hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 29 published by ideas spread there were 323 accidents in 2021 that included nine fatalities and 314 injuries. the extent of the injuries was not specified. as for this year, between january and august, there were 16 fatalities and 235 injuries. in another two cases, the magisterial inquiry still needed to determine if the cause of death was a result of the traffic accident. according to media reports, there have been another four traffic fatalities since august. using one’s personal car is not only comfortable (for example, due to the ability to carry heavy loads, listen to music and regulate temperatures) but also gives people a sense of control. in some cases, it is also efficient and most of the country is accessible to cars. the truth is that we have urbanised our communities around the car and with a public transportation system which is not always efficient or accessible, combined with hectic lifestyles, it makes it rather difficult to use public transport effectively. in rye and hrelja (2020): urban transport, since world war two if not before [1-5], has been planned with a focus on the private car, and in most cities and countries this focus is still the norm in planning practices. (p. 1) rye and hrelja (2020) state that we need to develop policy actions to make our communities more livable and sustainable, and this can happen by minimising the use of cars an action being dealt with at eu policy level for example through its fossil fuel free by 2030. in the paper by verbavatz and barthelemy (2019) ‘critical factors for mitigating car traffic in cities’, the authors state: mitigating the traffic (and its effect such as co2 emissions) can then be obtained by reducing the urbanized area size or, more realistically, by improving either the public transport density or its access. in particular, increasing the population density is a good idea only if it also increases the fraction of individuals having access to public transport. (p.1) and furthermore: this approach illustrates how a combination of statistical physics, economical ingredients and empirical validation can lead to a robust understanding of systems as complex as cities. our analysis shows that trafficrelated quantities are governed by three factors: access to mass rapid transit, congestion effects and the urban area size. (p. 6). this combines well with the data that is summarised in figure 9 which illustrates that from the respondents we had, 49.1% stated that they ‘strongly agree’ and 19.7% agree that they ‘waste a lot of time in traffic which could be put to better use’. according to a eurobarometer survey, approximately 60% of eu citizens consider congestion to be one of the major concerns related to mobility. research suggests that a 10 % decrease in mobility time can boost productivity by 2.9 % this can rise to up to 30% in highly congested regions. notably, road mobility inefficiencies and road congestion cost the eu approximately €110 billion per year, which amounts to over 1 % of the eu’s gdp (european court of auditors, 2019). furthermore, figure 10 presents the psychological impact of spending time in traffic and how it affects the mood of the person using the car. this is very much in line with what rye and hrelja (2020) state – that from studies in the major cities, the main issue or rather the challenge is skirting on how the car has become pivotal in the social and economic dynamic of the city. that said the ‘car’ is also a key factor in creating an environmental long-lasting impact on the community. having improved mobility is of the essence to ensure improved quality of life and social wellbeing. figure 11. i waste a lot of time in traffic which could be put to better use hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 30 published by ideas spread figure 12. the time i spend in traffic has an effect on my mood for the rest of the day as illustrated in figure 12, respondents do not think that there is an easy solution to what we are now accepting to be ‘problems caused by cars’ and as per figure 11, there is a strong concern about the impact on the climate. this is similar to what fotel (2005) pointed out, that: in summary, sociologists increasingly recognize that mobility has become a contributing factor of social stratification. in cities and local neighbourhoods, the mobility welfare nexus is found in the dominance of car traffic, and it changes and challenges urban planning and civil society. (p.734) in fact, we found that 32.8% in this study claimed that they ‘strongly agree’ and 20.5% agree that ‘they do not think there is an easy solution to the problems caused by the number of cars on the road’. through social capital theory, we can be looking at internal and external proportions linked closely with selection, hence the choices we take on as a community. social capital theory varies according to the context in question and helps produce exceptional actions for board effectiveness (kim, 2008). fotel (2005) continues: passing cars bring life into some neighbourhoods but can just as easily initiate deterioration in local living conditions and increase urban segregation. qualities and facilities in local neighbourhoods are important to everybody, but mostly to those not capable of moving if processes of neighbourhood deprivation begin. daily life, especially in p. knudsens gade, is marked by noise and pollution, limited use of the dwelling, curtailed mobility, and reduced outdoor activities, as well as insecurity and risk-minimizing strategies. as a consequence, the percentage of out-moves is high and processes of neighbourhood deprivation have accelerated during the last decades. (p.745) the nexus between the available space we have and the flow of traffic is an essential element in how our local communities are being negatively impacted by urbanisation. urbanisation is making it increasingly difficult for communities to function because traffic is starting to leave an indelible mark on the community. an editorial in the news portal malta independent, ‘staggering traffic’ published last year states in no uncertain terms that there is ‘no way to tackle malta’s traffic problems without inconveniencing people’. now this is an important issue to factor into the debate. are people ready to carry some pain before the gain? are we ready to have bus lanes so that public transport becomes more efficient and timelier? in the data gathered by the faculty for social wellbeing, as per figure 13, 46.5% ‘strongly agree’ and 21.8 ‘agree’ that ‘being stuck in traffic increases their anger’. this comes about through delays when stuck in an endless line of cars and other vehicles. in such a context, we lose control over our immediate surroundings and needless to say, road rage turns into more than a thought, apart from the obvious discomforts. an article on the news portal malta today titled ‘man released on bail over xemxija road rage incident’ refers to this: a 21-year-old man from dingli has been released on bail following his arraignment in connection with a road rage incident in xemxija yesterday which left two nearby residents injured, one of them grievously. … [he] was accused of attacking a man and a woman, grievously injuring the woman and slightly hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 31 published by ideas spread injuring the man, following a traffic accident in xemxija yesterday morning. … the fight is understood to have broken out because the victim’s car had allegedly hit the accused's vehicle's wing mirror. malta today (2023) this is further compounded by data presented by pfeiffer, pueschel and seifert (2005), which further emphasises and internationalises the problems that traffic brings in terms of road rage. in fact, in this study ‘aggressive behaviour in traffic is [seen as] a widespread phenomenon’ (p.42). in a study in canada, circa 50% of those who responded to the study were ‘shouted at, cursed at or had rude gestures directed at them’ – this is probably a much lower figure than what is experienced on the roads in malta on a daily basis. figure 13. i worry about the amount of emissions in the atmosphere due to the traffic does not only generate anger as we have seen in figure 13 but also, as per figure 14, leads to tiredness and the potential implications this has on productivity with 60.3% strongly agreeing and 16.5% agreeing that ‘traffic tires them out’. figure 14. i do not think there is an easy solution to the problems caused by the number of cars on the road this data keeps having even more significance as 44.4% of those participating in the study state that they ‘strongly agree’ and 17.9% ‘agree’ that ‘sometimes they prefer not to go out, due to the thought of traffic/parking difficulties’ (fig 17). it is the popular narrative that such tensions create in the citizens this sense of discomfort and uneasiness. (gifford, 2014; bourdieu, 1984). 78.0% said that they ‘strongly agree’ and 11.1% that they agree that ‘they feel that traffic has increased considerably in the last two or three years’. pfeiffer et al. (2005) state that this is pretty much affecting all or most of the community: “violent assaults are less common, but because of the possible consequences [they still] pose a serious problem (p45). this is in line with what we see in figure 15. the emotional impulse traffic creates leaves a dent in our performance during the day. it creates anxiety as people rush around to take their children to school and after that, drive to their hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 32 published by ideas spread next destination, which is often their workplace. after school, they drive around taking their children to extracurricular activities. this has also brought about a major impact on our road network especially knowing well enough that our only main mass transport system is the bus which leaves a lot to be desired. there is, as yet, no indication that we will have a tram system operating and complementing our national bus transport network. (appleyard, 1980; azzopardi, 2011). figure 15. being stuck in traffic increases my anger figure 16 also raises another important notion, that of a sense of exhaustion. apart from the obvious fact that an increase in driving leads to an increase in fatigue, the fact that driving in malta happens in short spurts within a resounding warm climate tends to add to this sense of tiredness. in fact, as seen in this figure, 89.3% of the respondents claimed that they ‘agree’ that ‘traffic tires them out’. this is an incredibly worrying statistic. (balzan, 2023; azzopardi et al., 2012; de vasconcellos, 2004). figure 16. traffic tires me out the local findings related to the impact of traffic on mental wellbeing echo those reported in a systematic review by conceição et al. (2023), in which the evidence regarding delays and congestion demonstrated detrimental effects in a variety of mental health and wellbeing evaluations. consistently, these effects were noted in relation to traffic density and low velocity, both of which are anticipated to occur in urban regions, during periods of high population density, and peak hours. it is noteworthy that research has also documented stress-induced biological signals that support the adverse consequences associated with perceived travel duration, waiting time, and time pressure. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 33 published by ideas spread figure 17. i sometimes prefer not to go out, due to the thought of traffic/parking difficulties 4. implications and recommendations traffic congestion is a complex and multidisciplinary issue with implications for urban transportation planning and policymaking, psychology and transportation engineering amongst others. perspectives from these various disciplines can provide a holistic view towards this issue and potential solutions. primarily, urban planning plays a crucial role in addressing traffic congestion. it involves the strategic design and development of urban spaces to accommodate the needs of the population while minimizing traffic bottlenecks. urban planners strive to create efficient transportation networks that include public transit, pedestrian pathways, and cycling lanes to reduce reliance on personal vehicles. key strategies which could be considered, include the following: transit-oriented development (tod): encouraging high-density developments near transit hubs to increase public transit use. land use planning: strategically placing amenities and jobs to reduce travel distances and promote alternative (non-motorized) transportation modes. smart growth: focusing on sustainable urban development that encourages compact, walkable cities with a diverse range of transportation options. adequate parking facilities: the need to ensure that there are adequate parking facilities in busy areas. from a psychological perspective, understanding the factors behind commuting choices can inform strategies to encourage the use of alternative transportation modes. factors such as perceived convenience, cost, travel time, and comfort level with different transportation modes influence these decisions. as a result, psychological interventions can be planned and implemented, such as: behavioural change programs: encouraging carpooling, public transit use, or telecommuting through incentives and awareness campaigns. cognitive strategies: addressing psychological barriers to public transit use, such as social stigma or safety concerns, through targeted information campaigns. stress reduction: implementing measures to make commuting less stressful, thereby making alternative transportation options more appealing. referring to a transportation engineering perspective, scientific approaches to address congestion issues can be applied by enhancing the physical infrastructure and traffic control systems. key approaches include: intelligent transportation systems (its): these employ advanced technology to enhance traffic flow by utilising real-time traffic management systems, adaptive signal control, and congestion pricing. infrastructure expansion and modification: enhancing traffic capacity and efficiency by expanding roadways, constructing additional transportation routes, and establishing exclusive lanes for buses and bicycles. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 34 published by ideas spread traffic flow analysis: the examination of traffic patterns in order to identify areas of congestion and implement specific interventions, such as the redesign of crossings or the enhancement of signage. the findings of this study have also identified the need for further research in this area. primarily, there is a dire need for mixed methods research in order to further understand the depth of the issue. using additional means of data gathering that go beyond telephone surveys, is recommended. there is also a need of impact assessments that can quantify the effect of interventions and a focus on key performance indicators in policy making. ultimately, effectively addressing traffic congestion requires an integrated approach to develop comprehensive strategies that not only mitigate congestion but also contribute to the creation of more livable, sustainable, and efficient urban environments. 5. limitations of the study telephone surveys are linked to certain limitations, particularly the fact that respondents often become weary of being on the phone, and may answer the questions posed without any reflection, just to conclude the survey as quickly as possible. moreover, telephone surveys are prone to a substantial risk of coverage error, leading to an inaccurate sample and biased estimations when utilising survey data. this bias arises when survey data is collected exclusively from those who have access to telephony services. consequently, the survey data will not accurately reflect the total population and this can result in erroneous outcomes. in cases where the participants cannot speak the same language as the interviewer, potentially valuable data may be omitted from the survey, leading to subcommuniteis being under-represented. 6. conclusion as this paper has shown, there are grave instances whereby the mental health of the people in traffic is being affected and this might lead to repercussions on our quality of life. if we want to take this argument forward, we believe we need to do the following. first and foremost, read the data which is being produced, an illustration of which was presented in this paper. secondly, we need to decolonise ourselves from life patterns that have really and truly driven us up the wall. thirdly, we need to take a good look at our mass transportation and come up with a model which is not only free (which it already is) but flexible enough to meet the quickly changing dynamics in our organic communities. in his paper ’three ages of the automobile: the cultural logics of the car’, gartman (2004) states: the development of the laws of the market over the last century has forced humans into the realm of consumption to satisfy their needs for identity, autonomy and individuality. and the ultimate expression of this compensatory consumption has been the automobile, the individualized means of mobility that has become synonymous with freedom. this automotive folly will end not through some inevitable, objective development of the system but only through the actions of humans to reclaim their fate from their own machines. (p.193). the implications of this work are varied, namely that traffic is becoming an act of labour which is causing so much distress, creating a great deal of climate-related problems and leaving an impact, mostly a negative one, on the livability of our communities. this is encapsulated in the environmental psychological theory which deems that the relationship between the environment and the individual produces a reaction. a lack of a good fit (for example pollution, crowding and limited privacy) generates discomforts. traffic, as seen in this paper creates emotions of anger and anxiety and this is perpetuated by feelings of tiredness and lassitude. in this paper we try to address this composite issue by recommending that we rethink our transportation design, take in cognisance the array of expertise that is looking at alternative means of travelling, changes in life style patterns and re-calibration of employment practices. this is not just about optimising traffic flows but about making serious and alternative designs in how our communities are designed. acknowledgments credits go to dr vincent marmara who collected the data on behalf of sagalytics and annabel cuff, research support officer for her advice. the collection of data was processed through the faculty research ethics committee at the university of malta. references agius, m. 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(1986). valletta and the system of human settlements in the maltese islands. ekistics, 53(316/317), 8995. jstor 43620704. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 37 published by ideas spread this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p172 172 published by ideas spread how digital media reconstructs cultural identity: an analysis based on the inheritors of horqin embroidery rensaihan wu1 1 school of mongolian studies, inner mongolia university, mongolia correspondence: rensaihan wu, school of mongolian studies, inner mongolia university, mongolia. received: august 8, 2025; accepted: august 19, 2025; published: august 20, 2025 abstract against the backdrop of the parallel development of intangible cultural heritage (ich) protection and digital dissemination, this study takes the national-level ich of horqin embroidery as a case to focus on the mechanisms through which digital media reconstructs the cultural identity of the mongol ethnic group. from a journalism and communication studies perspective, this research conducts an empirical analysis based on in-depth interviews with 12 horqin embroidery inheritors and related groups across different generations. it reveals the dynamic pathways by which exposure to digital information shapes cultural identity through the activation of collective memory and the modulation of nostalgic sentiments. the study finds that the use of digital media exhibits significant generational differentiation: the youth are primarily characterized by visual consumption and reflective nostalgia, whereas the middle-aged and elderly groups rely on traditional craftsmanship and restorative nostalgia to maintain cultural authenticity. digital platforms reconfigure the value judgment system for women through a tripartite mechanism of "skill mediatization, evaluation standardization, and subject transformation." the ritualized practice of collective memory becomes a living carrier for cultural identity. at the same time, the construction of a "mimetic community of inheritors" balances the conflict between commercial logic and cultural preservation. this study introduces the concept of the "mimetic community of inheritors" for the first time to explain how digital media reconstructs the field of cultural transmission through virtual communities. it also proposes strategies such as a "deep dissemination" mechanism and intergenerational collaborative workshops, offering methodological references for the digital protection of ich. this research fills a gap in micro-empirical studies on ich transmission in the digital era. it provides a communicological perspective that sheds light on pathways for the creative transformation of fine traditional chinese culture. keywords: digital information exposure, cultural identity, collective memory, nostalgia, horqin embroidery 1. introduction intangible cultural heritage (ich) is a vital component of fine traditional chinese culture and a living testament to the continuous inheritance of chinese civilization. in 2021, horqin embroidery (as part of mongol embroidery— tüsheet wang banner embroidery) from the inner mongolia autonomous region was included in the fifth batch of the national representative ich projects list (expanded) with the approval of the state council [1]. throughout its long history of survival and development, horqin embroidery has continuously absorbed and preserved the essence and characteristics of its ethnic culture, becoming an important member of the chinese embroidery family. as a traditional culture unique to the mongol people, horqin embroidery embodies historical memory, cultural genes, and aesthetic concepts. should it be lost, it would lead to a rupture in cultural memory, weaken the identity of the younger generation, diminish the diversity of chinese art, and erode the cohesion of the grassland cultural community, potentially even hindering the evolution of civilization itself. consequently, in recent years, the inner mongolia autonomous region has passed proposals such as the "recommendation on aiding rural revitalization with ich" [2] and the "proposal on the industrial development of mongol embroidery"[3], implementing measures like embroidery training workshops and strengthened copyright protection to advance the preservation of horqin embroidery. currently, domestic academia has conducted extensive and fruitful research on the four famous chinese embroideries: su, xiang, shu, and yue embroidery. however, research on lesser-known minority embroideries, such as mongol embroidery, remains relatively scarce. specifically concerning horqin embroidery, existing studies primarily focus on analyzing the characteristics of its patterns and motifs, its historical evolutionary hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 173 published by ideas spread trajectory, its application on carriers like garments and books, and its inherent cultural value. scholars such as luo binyu et al. have analyzed the patterns of mongol embroidery, systematically examining its history, pattern features, craft techniques, symbolic meanings, and compositional forms to extract elements, integrate them with modern fashion design concepts, and use fabric re-creation techniques for innovative ethnic clothing design [4]. wang shangnan, focusing on the inheritance and protection of mongol attire in the horqin region, has employed multidisciplinary research methods to provide a detailed exegesis on the cultural background, form, and features of this attire [5]. however, existing research often offers only general discussions on the developmental status, evolutionary history, or patterns of horqin embroidery. it seldom addresses the ethnic culture symbolized by the embroidery and fails to analyze it in conjunction with its inheritors. this overlooks the profound psychological and emotional impacts of horqin embroidery on the cultural identity, collective memory, and even nostalgic sentiments of the mongol ethnic group, and lacks further investigation into the specific mechanisms and pathways of this influence. furthermore, from a disciplinary perspective, research on horqin embroidery is predominantly concentrated in artistic fields like art and design, and applied disciplines such as handicraft and light industries. research in other related fields, such as journalism and communication studies, is comparatively weak, leaving significant room for further inquiry. within the domain of communication studies, research on ich embroidery is mostly review-based, lacking verification through empirical data, and rarely exploring the psychological perceptions and emotional evolution of the ich inheritors of horqin embroidery. the psychological perceptions and emotional evolution of horqin embroidery inheritors positively affect its transmission in multiple aspects, including skill continuity, cultural identity, innovative drive, and social connections. firstly, this process strengthens the inheritors' cultural identity. as their understanding of horqin embroidery deepens, inheritors develop a strong sense of cultural belonging. this not only leads them to cherish and love this ich more but also inspires a sense of responsibility and mission to pass it on, motivating them to proactively learn the skills and transmit them to the next generation. secondly, their emotional evolution enhances their motivation for innovation. during the inheritance process, inheritors develop a profound emotional connection to the embroidery, prompting them to consider how to adapt it to modern society while preserving its traditional essence. they begin to experiment with new design concepts, materials, and technologies, creating works that possess both conventional charm and contemporary aesthetic appeal. lastly, these psychological perceptions and emotional shifts strengthen the connections between inheritors and various sectors of society. while existing studies have made certain contributions in the fields of collective memory, nostalgia, and cultural identity, they exhibit significant limitations in disciplinary perspective and research approach. research on cultural identity has largely remained at the macro-level analysis of communication mechanisms within traditional media environments, lacking sufficient empirical exploration of how digital information micro-reconstructs ethnic identity and activates collective memory. this has led to a lag in the localized application of communication theory in the field of ich protection, leaving practical pathways without solid academic support. although research on collective memory has touched upon its construction process, it has overlooked the dynamic reshaping role of cultural media in transforming the agency of the memory subjects, excessively relying on macro-ritual analysis while lacking micro-level investigation into specific cultural practices and the subjective needs of the groups involved. an insufficient integration of qualitative and quantitative research has constrained the depth of its conclusions. research on nostalgia has often been confined to macro-theoretical frameworks, failing to delve into the mechanisms of emotional construction for specific groups in the digital context, nor has it fully revealed the interactive relationship between nostalgia and cultural identity and its practical value in ich protection. this systemic gap indicates that existing research has failed to capture the complexity of cultural transmission in the digital age, making it difficult to respond to the real-world demand for the creative transformation of traditional culture. therefore, this study employs the in-depth interview method to analyze the pathways through which digital information shapes the cultural identity of horqin embroidery inheritors, thereby filling the micro-empirical void and offering methodological insights for the inheritance and innovation of fine traditional chinese culture in the digital space. 2. literature review 2.1 cultural identity of the mongol people existing researchers, when examining cultural identity, define it as a process wherein individuals and groups, through discernment and selection in social interaction, psychologically and behaviorally affiliate themselves and others with a specific collective. the cultural identity in this study refers to the identity of the mongol ethnic group, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 174 published by ideas spread using horqin embroidery as the medium to investigate the psychological dynamics of its inheritors and related individuals. domestic research on mongol cultural identity has primarily focused on two areas: its theoretical value, including its intrinsic structure and meaning, and its practical value in various academic fields. existing studies have explored the structure and connotation of cultural identity, indicating that ethnic cultural identity is a socio-psychological process through which individuals acquire, maintain, and innovate their own ethnic culture, and is a necessary phenomenon in cultural change and integration [6]. in the field of ethnic minority studies, scholar tan chunyue investigated the cultural identity of mongol students in the context of the genghis khan sacrificial rites, clarifying the relationship between cultural identity, cultural identity education, and the rites themselves. the study argues that the genghis khan rites constitute an educational activity possessing the educational connotation and function of cultural identity [7]. zhang baocheng studied the ethnic and national identity of the barga mongols in hulunbuir, providing effective measures for achieving harmony and unity between "ethnic identity" and "national identity" among various ethnic groups [8]. however, from a communicological perspective, a significant research gap exists: existing scholarship has largely focused on macro-level descriptions of mongol cultural transmission mechanisms within traditional media environments. in contrast, empirical research at the micro-level—specifically on how digital information reconstructs ethnic identity and activates collective memory—remains insufficient. this disciplinary limitation has not only led to a lag in the localized application of communication theory in the field of ich protection but has also left the practical pathways for mongol cultural transmission in the digital age without a solid theoretical underpinning. therefore, this study, situated at the intersection of communication studies and ethnology, employs in-depth interviews to analyze the mechanisms by which digital information shapes the cultural identity of horqin embroidery inheritors. this approach aims not only to fill the empirical gap in the study of mongol cultural transmission but also to offer methodological insights for the creative transformation of fine traditional chinese culture in the digital space. 2.2 the shaping of collective memory through horqin embroidery in the early 20th century, maurice halbwachs, in on collective memory, first proposed that collective memory is the process and result of shared pasts among members of a specific social group. it is a social construct that expanded the study of memory from a predominantly individual perspective to a collective one. collective memory is based on specific groups and is gradually constructed through historical accumulation, with its construction process aimed at strengthening group cohesion [9]. the concept of the "collective" in this paper encompasses the various actors engaged in the practice of horqin embroidery, including its inheritors and other related mongol individuals. the transmission of mongol collective memory relies on carriers such as ritualistic performance and cultural landscapes, which constitute cultural spaces containing social relations, power, and cultural-symbolic metaphors. horqin embroidery is a crucial cultural medium in the construction of mongol collective memory, and its narrative content, forms, and practices are continuously reshaped through the agency of memory subjects. firstly, in research concerning the theoretical summary and interpretation of collective memory, some scholars have pointed to future directions. scholar chen zhenhua noted that the popularization of network technology has altered the construction mechanisms of collective memory, thus future research in this area needs to emphasize quantitative methods using big data to serve the practical construction of collective memory [10]. in terms of the practical application of collective memory theory, particularly in studies of ethnic minorities, scholar jiang jiaxin used fieldwork to explore the construction of collective memory through the yi torch festival rituals, thereby analyzing the process by which collective memory forms ethnic identity[11]. regarding research on collective memory construction in specific group events, scholar chen beibei examined the construction pathways of collective memory of the covid-19 pandemic through two lines of inquiry—commemorative rituals and bodily practices—to construct a collective memory of the pandemic to strengthen the life consciousness of social members [12]. while existing research offers insightful observations, it also has shortcomings. firstly, although the process of collective memory construction is mentioned, there is little focus on the dynamic reshaping of cultural media (such as horqin embroidery) through the agency of memory subjects. secondly, studies on the collective memory of ethnic minorities often focus on macro-level rituals, lacking in-depth analysis of the micro-level factors that influence it. furthermore, when analyzing specific cultural practices, there is a lack of multi-dimensional, multilevel, in-depth preliminary interviews, which limits the depth and breadth of the research conclusions. this study uses horqin embroidery as a point of entry to analyze its process as a cultural medium for the construction of the inheritors' collective memory. by examining the narrative content, forms, and reshaping of hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 175 published by ideas spread embroidery patterns and artistic practices, it reveals the dynamic influence of a cultural medium on the construction of collective memory. the research focuses on information exposure and the cultural-symbolic metaphors of embroidery in this process, analyzing the roles and interactions of different groups (inheritors, individuals with deep engagement) in memory construction to reveal the impact of information exposure on the formation and dissemination of collective memory. concurrently, it employs in-depth interviews to conduct a multi-dimensional analysis of the embroidery's cultural practice, collecting and analyzing multi-source data to obtain comprehensive and profound research conclusions. 2.3 the nostalgic sentiments of horqin embroidery inheritors nostalgia is a common emotional experience of modernity and a frequent cultural phenomenon in human social life. through nostalgia, people achieve emotional resonance, evoke collective memory, and are thereby prompted to compare the differences between the present and the past, reshaping various emotional experiences of both. in this study, nostalgia is defined as a complex emotional experience originating from the recollection and reconstruction of past experiences, cultural memories, and identity by individuals or groups. in the digital age, this emotion is activated, shared, and disseminated through media technologies, becoming a crucial link connecting individual and collective memory, as well as real and virtual spaces. nostalgia is not merely a simple reminiscence of good times past but a constructive process of cultural identity, involving individuals' interaction, sharing, and re-creation on digital platforms, thereby forming an emotional community with contemporary characteristics and cultural connotations. the scope of domestic research on nostalgia has continuously expanded across various disciplines, with studies primarily falling into two categories: the mechanisms of nostalgia's construction and its outcomes, and the practice and application of media in nostalgia. on one hand, the focus is on the construction mechanisms and results of nostalgia. pointing to future directions, scholars ji li and xia yuqing, adopting a postmodern perspective on nostalgia theory, have indicated that the spiritual predicaments of individuals in modern society create a need to experience and express nostalgia, which various digital platforms then leverage to produce and consume nostalgic emotions and scenes [13]. meanwhile, other studies, using lefebvre's spatial theory as a theoretical lens and nostalgia as a point of entry, have analyzed the relationship between nostalgia and space. they explore the production of nostalgia within the three spatial dimensions—the perceived, the conceived, and the lived—to interpret the contemporary significance of the nostalgic wave in the social media era [14]. furthermore, other scholars have focused on the practice and application of media in nostalgia. this has yielded significant research outcomes. scholar liu yusi has pointed out that research on technological nostalgia should shift from a "matter of fact" to a "matter of concern" perspective, promoting its role in constructing a common future for humanity in the spatio-temporal dimension [15]. scholar wang run has situated media and nostalgia research within the broader category of media memory studies, tracing the origin of the "nostalgia" concept, its emotional representations, and its social reproduction process, thereby expanding the paradigm of media memory research [16]. scholars deng xiujun and li yaying selected the cassette tape affinity group on the douban platform as their research subject, employing netnography to investigate the operational mechanism of the group's technological nostalgia from the perspective of the interaction between technological nostalgia and media memory [17]. existing research has focused chiefly on general nostalgic phenomena, lacking in-depth study of specific groups in the context of digital information exposure. although some scholars have proposed theoretical frameworks for the construction of nostalgia, these often remain at the macro-level and are not integrated with specific cultural practices, leading to a disconnect between theory and practice. moreover, existing research has paid little attention to the influence of nostalgia on the cultural identity of specific groups. in the context of ich protection and transmission, exploring this influence mechanism and its pathways is of greater practical necessity. this study focuses on the inheritors of horqin embroidery to explore the impact of digital information exposure on their nostalgic sentiments and how this emotion, in turn, affects mongol cultural identity. the research combines nostalgia theory with the practice of horqin embroidery to reveal the mechanisms of nostalgia construction and the formation process of cultural identity in the context of digital information exposure. concurrently, it emphasizes the specific pathways and mechanisms through which nostalgia, mediated by digital information exposure, influences mongol cultural identity, thereby providing theoretical support for the protection and transmission of intangible cultural heritage. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 176 published by ideas spread 2.4 research questions 1. how does exposure to digital media information affect the mongol inheritors of horqin embroidery? what role does digital information play in contemporary mongol cultural identity, collective memory, and nostalgia? 2. how does the digital dissemination of horqin embroidery activate the ethnic group's collective memory and influence cultural identity? 3. how does nostalgia coexist with the commercialization of horqin embroidery in the digital age and influence ethnic identity? in the process of digital dissemination, how does nostalgia connect traditional craftsmanship with modern society and balance the contradictions between commercialization and emotional alienation? 3. methodology and research design 3.1 research focus and participants horqin embroidery is a renowned school of mongol embroidery, distinguished by its unique style from the horqin region of eastern inner mongolia. since the yuan dynasty, it has been hailed as a "treasure of the ethnic culture." embroidery has traditionally been an essential skill for girls on the grasslands. in the horqin region, folk embroidery is not merely a hobby for women. still, it has often become their profession, representing a key component of the collective memory of the mongol ethnic group. this paper, employing the method of in-depth interviews, engages with 12 embroiderers and other individuals involved with horqin embroidery to explore its influence on the developmental process of mongol cultural identity and the pathways of collective memory construction. this study focuses on mainstream social media applications (such as wechat, tiktok, and kuaishou), aiming to investigate the impact of digital information on the cultural identity of horqin embroidery inheritors during the cultural transmission process. a strategy combining purposive sampling and snowball sampling was employed. a recruitment notice was posted on wechat moments from january to february 2025, which led to the initial screening and selection of five eligible horqin embroidery inheritors. subsequently, through referrals from these interviewees, the sample was expanded to include nine professional practitioners. the final sample consisted of 12 participants, comprising three university students (ages 18-23), four new-generation middle-aged inheritors (ages 35-50), and five older-generation inheritors (ages 55-75). all participants met the following criteria: (1) possessed knowledge of and had in-depth contact with horqin embroidery; (2) were themselves inheritors of horqin embroidery or had family members who were, thus possessing a foundational understanding of it; (3) had experience encountering content related to horqin embroidery on social media platforms; and (4) were able to articulate their personal experiences with horqin embroidery clearly. in-depth interviews were conducted via three different modalities. for the three younger participants, face-to-face interviews were conducted and recorded in their entirety, averaging approximately 20 minutes each. for the nine professional practitioners, wechat voice calls and text messages were used, with each session averaging approximately 40 minutes. all interviews were structured around three core dimensions: the first part covered demographic information, including the participant's name, age, profession, and the nature of their connection to and experiences with horqin embroidery. the second part explored the participants' engagement with ich-related information through digital media. the third part delved into the participants' experiences and perceived differences regarding cultural identity, collective memory, and nostalgic sentiments before and after engaging with digital content about horqin embroidery, as well as their views on and interpretations of related online behaviors and the psychological changes they observed in themselves. informed consent was obtained before each interview, clearly outlining the scope of data use and the terms of privacy protection. given that the primary language for most horqin embroidery inheritors is mongolian, the interviews were translated, resulting in approximately 18,000 chinese characters of transcribed text. after data collection was complete, the researcher conducted a meticulous reading and analysis of the translated transcripts, extracting core topics and key concepts discussed by the participants. this was followed by phenomenological analysis, conceptual refinement, and theoretical induction. through this rigorous process of analysis and discussion, the core findings of the study were formulated. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 177 published by ideas spread table 1. basic information of interviewees id gender age frequency of digital exposure information platforms content preferences interview duration interview method s1 female 49 low wechat channels embroidery techniques for garments; application of traditional patterns to new products; embroidery methods. 1h 15min wechat voice, text s2 female 70 low kuaishou, wechat embroidery patterns. 1h 30min wechat voice, text s3 female 46 low wechat moments embroidery patterns. 20min wechat voice, text s4 female 40 high kuaishou, douyin clothing styles, embroidery patterns. 55min wechat voice, text s5 female 72 high wechat displays of embroidered works. 57min wechat voice, text s6 female 66 high douyin, kuaishou, wechat channels traditional horqin embroidery patterns; interviews with inheritors. 36min wechat voice, text s7 female 38 high douyin, wechat channels all content related to horqin embroidery. 32min wechat voice, text s8 female 68 low wechat channels application of traditional/old patterns to new products; embroidery methods. 36min wechat voice, text s9 female 74 low kuaishou application of traditional/old patterns to new products; embroidery methods. 34min wechat voice, text s10 female 22 low douyin, xiaohongshu outfit transitions; influencer posts (fashion/dance) featuring the embroidery. 20min wechat voice call s11 female 23 low douyin, xiaohongshu outfit transitions; influencer posts (fashion/dance) featuring the embroidery. 20min wechat voice call s12 female 28 low douyin, xiaohongshu outfit transitions; influencer posts (fashion/dance) featuring the embroidery. 20min wechat voice call 4. findings 4.1 intergenerational differences and group differentiation in digital information exposure social media platforms play a crucial role in the public's access to information. currently, horqin embroidery is subject to a significant phenomenon of age stratification, wherein different age cohorts exhibit distinct preferences for information acquisition channels, leading to notable intergenerational differentiation. the youth cohort (ages 19-40) primarily uses douyin and xiaohongshu as their primary information channels (e.g., s10, s11, s12). their focus is on highly visual content, such as "outfit transition videos" and "videos from 'facevalue' dance influencers" wearing horqin embroidery. they engage in a form of symbolic consumption, treating the embroidery as a "cultural signifier" (as s10 noted, her motivation was to "wear a mongol robe to display cultural confidence"). the "15-second logic" of short-video platforms simplifies complex pattern histories into hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 178 published by ideas spread mere tags, causing young creators to easily fall into the trap of "symbolic collage" [18]. the "short, simple, and fast" nature of these videos has a significant negative impact on university students. to garner traffic, some short videos fabricate false information and promote utilitarian values. under the sway of the logic of capital, this can mislead their value judgments, leading to tendencies of historical nihilism and a vulgarization of moral and aesthetic standards [19]. furthermore, the platforms' alienating algorithmic recommendation mechanisms exacerbate the trend towards "visual spectacle," deviating from the core purpose of cultural interpretation. through personalized services, they also intensify the "information cocoon" effect, trapping individuals in an "echo chamber" [20], which leads to a decline in the quality of information in the public sphere and an erosion of traditional ethics. "i feel that wearing horqin embroidery garments is also a form of inheritance." (s10) the middle-aged and elderly cohort (ages 46 and above) relies on wechat channels and kuaishou for passive information reception, preferring content such as "traditional patterns" and "embroidery technique tutorials." for them, digital tools serve merely as an ancillary medium, and their frequency of use is lower than that of the younger group. simultaneously, a conflict exists between traditional cultural transmission and modern consumerism. younger entrepreneurs, represented by s4, pursue a commercialized approach to transmitting traditional culture by developing a market and transforming traditional handicrafts into commodities. this approach has met with resistance from the older generation. for instance, s3, a master artisan, refuses to accept bulk orders, believing that commercial transactions dissolve the spiritual core of the traditional craft. this difference in values between the two generations highlights the dilemma of balancing cultural preservation with commercial development. regarding familial transmission, the post-2000s generation's interest in traditional embroidery often remains at a superficial, observational level, lacking the motivation to learn. "i don’t like nor am i good at sharing my work on douyin or kuaishou." (s2) furthermore, there are significant differences in usage scenarios and behavioral patterns among the research participants. for example, high-frequency users will proactively search for clothing styles and pattern innovations, utilizing livestream e-commerce to achieve a dual cycle of "heritage transmission and economic benefit." lowfrequency users, however, use digital tools merely as a channel for "'skill tutorials'," with the core of their cultural transmission still depending on offline communities. 4.2 the compound impact of digital exposure on cultural identity: the three dimensions of "cognitive reconstruction—affective connection—behavioral transformation" the motivation for young people to disseminate content stems from immediate interactive feedback mechanisms. through comments and co-creation, they gain emotional resonance and value validation. in a cycle of "affective experience leading to identity formation," a symbiosis of individual and collective memory is achieved. consequently, wechat groups and livestream rooms on wechat channels can form a "mimetic community of inheritors" (as s5 stated, "the online community keeps me going"), providing inheritors with a sense of belonging and motivation. one scholar [21] once used the metaphor of an "emotional takeaway factory" to describe the emotion production mechanism of livestreaming platforms, pointing out that hosts transform private-sphere emotions into quantifiable "emotional commodities" through continuous affective interaction. although the new generation of inheritors relies on livestreaming platforms, their core objective is not to sell physical goods but to fulfill their mission of cultural transmission through the digital performance of embroidery skills. audience "rewards" represent a form of identificatory consumption of cultural symbols, while the inheritors, through "digital performances" such as demonstrating stitches and explaining patterns, transform the cultural codes embedded in the embroidery—such as mongol culture and gender ethics—into perceptible emotional value. this practice supplements the theory of emotional labor. whereas traditional emotional labor exchanges emotional exhaustion for economic returns, the emotional investment of embroidery inheritors constitutes the core of cultural reproduction. they construct "para-kinship relationships" in their livestream rooms, using digital media to reconfigure the transmission field of horqin embroidery as a form of female cultural capital. the audience's imagined perception of the inheritors as "nimble-fingered and quick-witted" from watching the embroidery process is, in reality, a symbolic continuation of traditional gender values in the digital space. affective interaction becomes the medium connecting individual memory with collective identity, driving the transformation of the inheritors' identity from "skill holders" to "cultural mediators." "i often use wechat channels to share videos of our training classes and our finished embroidery work. in the comments section, many peers give us support and encouragement. this is very inspiring and motivates me more to do what i want to do." (s7) hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 179 published by ideas spread behavioral transformation is manifested in a shift from "survival skill" to "cultural consumption." in contemporary society, the younger mongol generation wears mongol robes featuring distinctive horqin embroidery on essential occasions such as graduation seasons and wedding ceremonies. this not only reflects their pride in and identification with their ethnic culture but also demonstrates a proactive attitude towards inheriting and promoting it. the youth cohort integrates traditional embroidery with modern contexts, enabling the transformation of the mongol robe from a "utilitarian function" to an "identity symbol." in contrast, the middle-aged and elderly generation continues to regard "marriage customs" and "survival skills" as the core contexts for transmission, steadfastly upholding the status of the traditional culture. 4.3 the multidimensional reconstruction of female value in horqin embroidery driven by digital media: marital suitability, spiritual expression, and aesthetic innovation in the traditional context, embroidery served as the primary criterion for judging a mongol woman's marital suitability. a bride would visibly demonstrate the quality of her craftsmanship by gifting hand-embroidered items, such as tobacco pouches, boots, and purses. the quantity and aesthetic quality of these shoes and boots were directly correlated with her perceived "diligence" and "dexterity." if a woman couldn't embroider, she would even be looked down upon, be called uncultured, and be labeled 'a woman who puts all ten fingers in her mouth' (a mongolian proverb for a lazy and incompetent woman). (s2) at a wedding, the more beautiful shoes and boots the bride presented, the more she would be considered nimblefingered, quick-witted, and diligent. (s2) exposure to digital information reshapes this value system through the following pathways. first is the mediatized transformation of skill display. short-video platforms have become a "digital dowry" for the new generation of women to showcase their embroidery skills. by livestreaming their embroidery process and posting details of finished products, they transcend the spatio-temporal limitations of traditional material carriers (the wedding gifts), thereby converting their skills into "social capital." second is the algorithmization of value judgment standards. data metrics such as "likes" and "shares" have become implicit criteria for evaluation. the younger generation tends to judge skill level based on "traffic and popularity" rather than on the oral evaluations of their elders. digital platforms have become a visualized field for expressing the richness of a woman's inner world. embroidery was once the "implicit spiritual world" of mongol women, where the richness of their thoughts was indirectly conveyed through stitches and patterns. digital media makes this inner world explicit. this is manifested, on one hand, in the transformation of the narrative subject's identity, as women shift from being "skill executors" to "cultural narrators." on the other hand, online community interaction allows women to break through the closed nature of familial transmission, constructing an "embroidery sisterhood community" where they can share skills and transmit values. i often share my finished embroidery and the process on wechat channels. this is very encouraging and gives me more motivation to pursue my goals. (s6) when a customer posts a picture on their wechat moments wearing a mongol robe i made, i'll give them a 'like'. their posts on moments and douyin have also indirectly brought me many new customers. digital technology is driving the diversification and redefinition of female aesthetic standards. traditional aesthetics centered on "technical mastery" and the "traditionality of patterns." digital information exposure has propelled an aesthetic transformation. first, tools empower innovative design. social media lowers the threshold for innovation, allowing women to fuse traditional patterns with modern elements, forming a hybrid style of "traditional dna + contemporary expression." digital information exposure is not simply "disrupting" or "saving" horqin embroidery; rather, it is reconstructing the value judgment system for women and injecting new vitality into mongol cultural identity. i often look at the new styles of mongol robes from popular online shops on douyin, and then i combine those ideas with horqin embroidery to create new designs. (s4) 4.4 the intergenerational transmission of nostalgia and the ritualized practice of collective memory nostalgia, acting as a generational medium for cultural memory, exhibits a dual aspect in the transmission of intangible cultural heritage: it is both restorative and reflective. it not only sustains the middle-aged and elderly cohort's commitment to cultural authenticity but also catalyzes the younger generation's innovative deconstruction of tradition. together, these two forms constitute the dynamic tension in the contemporary continuity of traditional craftsmanship. restorative nostalgia is manifested in the "anxiety over authenticity" felt by the middle-aged and elderly group. they repair and reproduce traditional styles to maintain cultural continuity. however, due to social hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 180 published by ideas spread upheavals like the "cultural revolution," the older generation's precious embroidered items were lost, creating a "hiatus in memory". this form of nostalgia is thus both a search for past cultural memory and a defense of present cultural identity. in contrast, through reflective nostalgia, the youth cohort engages in "innovative deconstruction," reinterpreting and dismantling traditional culture through modern elements like co-branded products and "outfit transition" videos, thereby transforming the craft of embroidery into a "consumable cultural ip." my embroidered works must be passed down to my children and grandchildren; this is our family's memory. (s3) i enjoy watching the mongol robe transition videos that have become so popular recently. this shows the contemporary mongol youth's willingness to inherit their traditional culture and their sense of cultural identity. (s11) horqin mongol embroidery, as a carrier of collective memory, possesses a transmission mechanism that "connects time and space with needle and thread, and reconstructs identity through ritual." its ritualized practice can be categorized into three types of contexts: life-cycle events, traditional festivals, and daily contact. first, in life-cycle events, embroidery functions as a symbolic code for life's rituals. in horqin marriage customs, for example, embroidery serves as a metaphor for a contract. the bride embroiders a keepsake for the groom, and this connection between "object-symbol-ritual" transforms the marital contract into cultural memory. in terms of traditional festivals, the horqin embroidery costume showcases at the opening ceremony of the nadam fair construct a "visual memory community." the embroidery conveys the spirit of the grasslands, and through these garments, the audience reinforces their ethnic and cultural identity. during the spring festival fire sacrifice, hanging embroidered hana (wall tapestries) perpetuates memory, providing a space for affective connection and symbolic regeneration. in daily contact, micro-contexts such as embroidery training workshops facilitate collective creation and the incubation of memory. at the khabur embroidery workshop, the embroiderers sing folk songs together before class, creating a "sound-and-needle" synchronization that merges auditory memory with manual skill. i have participated in many kinds of events—traditional mongol costume performance competitions, nadam, spring festival sacrifices, league-city festival galas—and horqin embroidery is always present. (s6) when our embroidery training class starts, the teachers sing horqin folk songs. the embroiderers express their reverence for nature and their passion for life through song, and through this outpouring of inner emotion, they find artistic inspiration. (s7) beyond this, the system of patterns and colors in horqin embroidery can be considered a "living code" of mongol nomadic culture. different patterns and colors symbolize distinct cultural connotations, creating a unique field of collective memory for the mongol people. table 2. symbolic meanings and usage scenarios of horqin embroidery patterns id pattern symbolic meaning main usage scenarios 1 plant and floral patterns auspiciousness, wealth, elegance, purity (like a lotus rising unstained from the mud); love for the homeland and a longing for a beautiful life. mongol garments (on areas like horseshoe cuffs and the large front flap), boots, bowl bags, purses, saddlebags (dalian), etc. 2 animal patterns symbolizes the totem worship of the horqin mongol people and their reverence for nature. mongol garments, boots, bowl bags, purses, saddlebags, etc. 3 meander/fret pattern symbolizes strength and fortitude. traditional garments, yurt decorations. 4 swastika pattern symbolizes the rotation of the sun and the cycle of the four seasons. mongol garments. 5 cloud pattern symbolizes the firmament and reverence for nature; signifies good fortune, auspiciousness, and the continuity of life. female garments, mongol garments. 6 horn pattern symbolizes the thriving of the five domestic animals and a bountiful pastoral harvest; signifies strength and prosperity. traditional garments, festival performances, modern applications. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 181 published by ideas spread table 3. colors and symbolic meanings in horqin embroidery id embroidery color symbolic meaning 1 white purity, sincerity, beauty. 2 blue wisdom, majesty, freedom; symbolizes the blue sky and the sea. 3 yellow symbol of power. 4 red, pink prosperity, love, beauty, health; symbolizes the blazing sun and flames. 5 black majesty, strength, simplicity. 6 green simplicity, purity, harvest; symbolizes nature and the eternal heaven (tengri). the ritualized practice of horqin mongol embroidery demonstrates the vitality of intangible cultural heritage. it acts as both a "vessel of cultural memory" and a "workshop for memory production." through a multitude of contexts, it integrates individual experiences into the network of collective memory, thereby promoting the continuity and innovation of that memory and preventing the cultural heritage from falling into the predicament of "museumification." 6. conclusion and discussion this study employed an interdisciplinary research approach, integrating communication theory with the practice of intangible cultural heritage (ich) protection to examine horqin embroidery as a representative case. through content analysis, in-depth interviews, and participant observation, three core contradictions were identified: the fragmentation of communication formats, a rupture between inheritance and dissemination, and the alienation of the cultural value assessment system. first, within the operational mechanisms of short-video platforms, there is a mismatch between algorithmic recommendation logic and the needs of cultural dissemination. mainstream platforms allocate traffic based on "completion rate + interaction volume," compelling ich inheritors to alter their communication methods and adopt fragmented formats such as "15-second quick tutorials." while this may enhance short-term dissemination effects, it does so at the expense of the completeness and depth of the traditional culture, causing the ich to lose its original context and systematic nature. second, while the high efficiency of short-video and new media platforms can positively impact the development and dissemination of horqin embroidery if utilized properly, there is a rupture in the skill structure of creators. the inheritors often struggle to perform "cultural decoding and media encoding," resulting in content that remains at the level of "visual spectacle." finally, in the era of the internet and new media, the cultural value assessment system is undergoing a process of alienation and reconstruction. when discussing the value of horqin embroidery, we must confront the challenge of establishing evaluation criteria that respect the essence of the traditional craft, especially when operating under the dominance of the logic of capital and the attention economy. as the rule of "traffic equals value" prevails, the "temporal value" of the craft is dissolved and its "craftsmanship wisdom" is simplified, leading to a flattening of cultural understanding and an erosion of the spiritual core and historical depth of the traditional craft. the digital dissemination of intangible cultural heritage must balance "traffic-driven appeal" with "cultural guardianship." through a four-dimensional, coordinated approach involving policy guidance, content innovation, platform empowerment, and educational support, a "deep short-video" model should be constructed, encouraging the creation of thematic mini-documentaries. "intergenerational inheritor workshops" should be established to create online and offline communication mechanisms, regularly organizing collaborative creation sessions between older-generation inheritors and young entrepreneurs. this will help construct a communication ecosystem that is "in-depth, empathetic, and principled." only when dissemination returns to the cultural essence can it awaken a sense of cultural identity among the youth, create sustainable livelihoods for the inheritors, and achieve a win-win outcome for both "living heritage" and "digital dissemination." references [1] china intangible cultural heritage network. (n.d.). list of national representative projects of intangible cultural heritage. retrieved from https://www.ihchina.cn/project_details/23738 [2] department of culture and tourism of inner mongolia autonomous region. 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[21] dong, c. y., & ye, z. (2021). being a live streamer: a digital ethnography of relational labor. chinese journal of journalism & communication, 43(12), 6–28. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v7n3p128 128 published by ideas spread the "aesthetics of reality" in abbas’s films chang siyuan1 1 northwest university, xi'an, shaanxi, china correspondence: chang siyuan, northwest university, xi'an, shaanxi, china. e-mail: 1120594606atqq.com received: november 22, 2024; accepted: december 26, 2024; published: december 27, 2024 abstract the french film theorist andré bazin introduced the concept of the "aesthetics of reality," which is reflected in a focus on direct realism, an emphasis on the authenticity of film segments, and the promotion of non-performative acting. the "aesthetics of reality" both summarized the creative approach of italian neorealism and influenced the subsequent development of the french new wave, documentary cinema, and film production across different countries and regions. this theory opened new paths in both theoretical and practical realms. it also profoundly influenced iranian director abbas kiarostami’s filmmaking. abbas, through his unique poetic audiovisual language and philosophically rich narrative structure, offers a new interpretation of the concept of the "aesthetics of reality." keywords: aesthetics of reality, documentary-style structure, long takes, non-professional actors 1. introduction andré bazin's "aesthetics of reality" has had a profound influence on film theory and practice. in subsequent film movements such as the french new wave, cinéma vérité, and direct cinema, we can observe the impact of bazin's film theory. the "myth of the complete film" forms the foundation of his "aesthetics of reality." he argued that cinema was born from a myth, and this myth is the myth of the complete film[1]. "the myth of complete realism is also the myth of reproducing the world in its original form, where no traces of the artist's arbitrary manipulation are visible, and the image is no longer subject to the irreversible passage of time." for bazin, the advent of photography was not merely a result of scientific and technological advancement but originated from "a fundamental human psychological need—one that seeks to defy time." photography, as bazin saw it, was the way to fulfill this human need, and his film theory, starting with the "mummy complex," built the myth of the "complete film." looking at abbas's filmography, one could say that his works practice bazin's theory of the "complete film myth." however, abbas’s filmmaking does not merely follow bazin's theory "as a blueprint." instead, he brings his own understanding and interpretation to it. abbas's films are not simply about copying or reproducing reality; they emphasize truth. in his autobiography, abbas mentions that cinema does not need to represent literal truth; rather, it can become apparent and refined through intervention and interference. therefore, he believes that film is not an exact imitation of life but a display of it, a display achieved through documentary-style frameworks, long takes, and performances by non-professional actors[2]. as a result, abbas's cinematic language is rich and creatively meaningful. he uses the audiovisual language, which most easily creates "illusions," to emphasize reality, and this is one of the charms of his films. abbas's films are filled with deep empathy for ordinary people, focusing on children and common citizens in iran, observing their daily lives with calm and objectivity, uncovering profound emotional worlds. in terms of presentation, abbas adopts a documentary-style framework, making the visuals feel closer to reality. he uses long takes and depth-offield shots, emphasizing the recording of the complete space-time and reducing human intervention, granting the audience the right to think actively while watching. by using non-professional actors and capturing their improvised performances, he follows the rhythm of real life and its themes, showcasing his "aesthetics of reality" and taking the concept of "aesthetics of reality" to new heights, while maintaining its essential principles. 2. unique "documentary-style" framework in his book the taste of cherry: abbas on cinema, abbas states, "cinema is nothing but a lie. it never depicts reality as it actually is. a documentary, according to my understanding of the term, is where the filmmaker does not intrude even an inch into what they are witnessing. they are simply recording. a true documentary does not exist because reality is not sufficient to construct an entire film." the documentary techniques and concepts hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 129 published by ideas spread appearing in iranian cinema constitute one of its defining features. the works of contemporary directors such as mohsen makhmalbaf’s long live cinema, majid majidi’s the children of heaven, and many of abbas kiarostami's films all reflect this documentary characteristic. this feature's formation is partly due to the deep islamic cultural background in the director's country and also based on the creative realities within that culture, as well as the personal style and unique pursuits of iranian filmmakers. abbas, as one of iran's most renowned directors, creates films with a distinct personal style, infused with the exotic cultural essence of islam. his works stand out for their understated yet unique poetic and philosophical content[3]. abbas tends to explore the boundaries of "reality." this boundary is not limited to life itself but is more often presented in visual works. his filmmaking does not follow conventional narrative structures; it often blurs the lines between reality and fiction. this is evident in his unconventional narrative methods and unique documentary techniques, which challenge both filmmakers and audiences. unlike the intense emotional output of "montage" filmmaking, abbas's films encourage viewers to engage in self-reflection during viewing, to confront their biases, and actively question their preconceived notions. in the taste of cherry, for example, the protagonist mr. badi's motive for suicide is never clearly explained, and the audience must use their imagination to explore the story behind it[4]. this design reflects abbas's creative philosophy: during the viewing process, the audience must actively engage their imagination to give meaning to ambiguous events, rather than simply becoming "subordinates" to the director. this method aligns closely with documentary filmmaking, reflecting abbas's exploration of "reality" and the core of his "aesthetics of reality." abbas's aesthetics of reality is about seeing reality through a reflective approach. documentary-style filmmaking techniques, when used by other directors, may become a tool to create a sense of "realism." in abbas's films, however, documentary techniques have a dual meaning. the first meaning is the use of documentary-style angles to represent a sense of reality, which is similar to the purpose in many films. documentaries present reality through the most objective lens, unembellished events, and randomly captured moments of life. when a film adopts a documentary-style technique, the audience unconsciously tends to accept the film's authenticity, a psychological effect of "psychological recognition." the second level of meaning in abbas's documentary-style structure is to break down the boundary between the audience and the screen. in close-up, abbas deliberately blurs the lines between reality and fiction, making the two indistinguishable. he employs a non-linear structure, disrupting the coherence of the narrative, weakening dramatic conflict, and making the film appear "loose" yet closely tied to real life. this approach gives the audience a unique perspective to observe the film and prompts further reflection. it allows viewers to independently analyze the characters, trace the storyline, and actively reconstruct the plot. in this sense, the audience is not merely a passive viewer but becomes a "participant" in the film. of course, this participation does not mean involvement in the conception or production of the film but rather in reinterpreting the story based on personal understanding, as the saying goes, "a thousand viewers may have a thousand interpretations of hamlet." abbas's "cinematic experiment" is not limited to this, as evidenced by the ending of the taste of cherry. the "behind-the-scenes documentary" format at the end of the film breaks the "boundary" between fiction and reality and adds depth to the work, providing more space for the audience to interpret the film. the fading out at the end signals the conclusion of the narrative, but unexpectedly, the dv-shot footage of the director and production team appears, extending the film’s duration. this form undoubtedly stimulates the audience to step out of the immersive experience, allowing them to see the "fictional" nature of the film. abbas uses this method to explain the transition between fiction and documentary, thereby connecting the audience with the screen[5]. abbas’s reasoning behind this is to respect the audience and make them aware that they are watching a film. this is the unique aspect of his "aesthetics of reality." he believes that each audience member should have space for imagination and actively form their own viewpoints. this is the truest form of "realism," one that is built on the viewer’s perspective, breaking the traditional relationship between narrative and the screen[6]. 3. the "long take" style of abbas the theory of long takes was first proposed by french film theorist andré bazin, who believed that the essence of photography lies in its objectivity. the camera, as the sole intermediary between the original object and its reproduced form, objectively recreates external images without human interference. in his view, cinema advances this objectivity in the dimension of time, building upon static photography. compared to montage techniques, long takes are closer to reality as they present content without selection, offering a comprehensive portrayal of the objective world. the complete depiction of time and space in long takes preserves the ambiguity and multivalence of reality, granting the audience a more active role by allowing them the freedom to think and choose during the viewing process[7]. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 130 published by ideas spread in alignment with bazin's philosophy, abbas's use of long takes similarly emphasizes the temporal and spatial completeness of the image, reflecting his pursuit of cinematic integrity. this stands in contrast to directors like kenji mizoguchi, who used long takes to create temporal and spatial dissonance. abbas often employs extreme long shots and wide shots in his films. by minimizing close-ups, he allows the audience to view the complete subject directly. close-ups, which exclude other elements of reality, limit the audience’s experience. abbas’s approach ensures that all elements remain present in the frame, enabling viewers to focus and interpret freely within the long take. this objectivity is further accentuated by combining long takes with deep-focus shots. deep-focus shots are frequently paired with long takes in abbas's films. long takes are closely associated with realism, a concept initially systematized by andré bazin in the myth of total cinema. bazin articulated three principles related to realism: long takes, deep-focus shots, and certain compositional strategies. while abbas incorporates long takes and deep-focus shots, his interpretation diverges from bazin’s. abbas’s view of realism aligns with phenomenological approaches—seeking to restore the essence of things. the realism crafted through long and deep-focus shots in his films often challenges and critiques conventional notions, creating a new conceptual framework[8]. in abbas’s films, the connection between long takes and deep-focus shots is integral. he prefers using deep-focus long takes to depict the real world, imbuing them with a unique aesthetic character. abbas’s long takes are characterized by an absence of stylistic embellishments, emphasizing their raw and unfiltered nature. in through the olive trees, for instance, most scenes are filmed from fixed vantage points, but abbas opens the film with a three-minute moving long take. this take, shot from within a car, follows the vehicle as it traverses a village devastated by an earthquake. the foreground consists of the car’s windows, while the background features the ever-changing scenery of the village. this deep-focus long take resembles documentary filmmaking techniques, offering no fixed content to the audience and instead evoking a sense of "searching." the ending of through the olive trees further demonstrates abbas’s mastery of the long take. as the protagonist, taher, chases a girl through lush greenery, the audience can only make out two tiny moving figures—these are the film’s two main characters. yet the audience’s attention remains drawn to these two points, a testament to abbas’s skillful use of deep-focus long takes. the gradual convergence of the two points not only stirs the audience’s emotions but also underscores the film’s core idea: the pursuit of genuine love in a vast world. abbas’s fluid use of long takes brings the film’s imagery closer to life, reflecting his "aesthetics of reality" and illustrating how his cinematic philosophy, much like his long takes, flows continuously[9]. 4. naturalistic non-professional performances the use of non-professional actors in cinema can be traced back to the italian neorealist movement, exemplified by roberto rossellini’s rome, open city, which cast an ordinary café worker in a leading role. prior to this period, professional actors dominated film performances, especially under hollywood's studio system, where actors underwent rigorous training to master a standardized set of techniques. this often resulted in a uniform style of acting. however, the inclusion of untrained individuals on screen brought an unpolished authenticity and natural emotional expression, allowing audiences to see relatable figures reminiscent of their neighbors or friends. this approach heightened the sense of realism in films, drawing viewers closer to the narrative. the use of nonprofessional actors became central to both the aesthetic theory and practical execution of italian neorealism, perfectly illustrating bazin’s advocated "aesthetics of reality." in abbas’s films, he consistently selects non-professional actors whose real-life experiences closely align with the characters they portray. abbas builds genuine relationships with these actors, maintaining close communication and engaging with them on a heartfelt level[10]. he believes that communicating with professional actors requires a formal, commanding approach, whereas interactions with ordinary people demand a more emotional connection. "it’s not about instructing them," abbas asserts, "but about being interdependent with them." while this may appear actor-centric, it is a deliberate choice aimed at achieving an authentic effect that aligns with his "aesthetics of reality." abbas’s focus on genuine emotional expression leads him to favor non-professional actors for their purity and lack of performative experience. their untrained state allows raw emotions to be more easily captured on camera, embodying the unique temperament of "non-professional performance." such performances reflect a raw, unstructured authenticity, with body language naturally mirroring human behavior in social and natural contexts. the absence of performative artifice fosters profound resonance with audiences[11]. for instance, in where is the friend’s home?, the performances of two young actors, babak ahmadpour (as ahmad) and ahmad ahmadpour (as mohammadreza), leave a lasting impression. ahmad’s anxious reaction upon realizing he has mistakenly taken his classmate’s notebook and his determined solo journey after failing to get hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 131 published by ideas spread help from his family are portrayed with natural, unembellished expressions and actions. similarly, in the documentary homework, abbas himself and a group of schoolchildren are featured, with the film capturing raw and unfiltered reactions to questions about their homework, exploring educational and societal issues. in closeup, mohsen makhmalbaf, a renowned iranian director, plays himself, further blurring the line between fiction and reality. these organic performances exude an intimacy unattainable by professional actors, forming the cornerstone of abbas’s cinematic aesthetic and embodying the essence of his "aesthetics of reality." 5. conclusion abbas once remarked, "in my entire life, i’ve watched fewer than fifty films, and i’ve never watched the same film twice. this way, i’m not influenced by any filmmaker." this philosophy reflects the independence that characterizes his work. through documentary-style frameworks, unique long takes, and naturalistic nonprofessional performances, abbas’s films consistently strive for the greatest fidelity to reality, showcasing his distinct "aesthetics of reality." jean-luc godard, a leading figure of the french new wave, once offered high praise, stating, "cinema begins with griffith and ends with abbas." bazin’s theoretical contributions marked a milestone in the history of film theory, summarizing the realism of cinema, while abbas provided its finest practical manifestation. his "aesthetics of reality" is evident in his approach to actors, camera movement, synchronous sound, storytelling, and the relationship between films and their audiences. references [1] yi, q. (2008). walking between image and reality: the film concepts of abbas kiarostami. film review, 2008(08). [2] kiarostami, a. (2017). the taste of cherries: abbas talks about cinema (btr, trans.). citic press. [3] yang, y. (ed.). (2017). film theory reader. beijing: beijing united publishing corporation. [4] bazin, a. (2005). what is cinema? (c. junyan, trans.). beijing film publishing house. [5] gao, l., & ren, x. (2009). mirror of the east: documentary realism from iranian new cinema to china’s new generation. sichuan publishing group bashu bookhouse. [6] wang, j., & jiang, h. (2024). close-ups of landscapes: tracing 'abbas' in wanma caidan's films. journal of three gorges university (humanities and social sciences edition), 46(2), 84-90. [7] zhu, j. (2023). ethical narratives in iranian family-themed cinema (doctoral dissertation). wuhan university. [8] gong, j. (2022). the landscape of 'movement': on the landscapes and 'close-ups' in abbas's films—focusing on 'the village trilogy'. contemporary film, 2022(3), 9. [9] shi, x. (2022). the visual aesthetic features of iranian director abbas kiarostami's films. audiovisual, 2022(3), 105-109. [10] wei, k. (2023). research on the realist aesthetics in abbas kiarostami's films (doctoral dissertation). hunan university of technology. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v5n3p26 26 published by ideas spread a mixed methods study on child marriage in the gambia adriana kaplan1, beatriz escaño2, júlia perarnau2, segga sanyang3 & salieu j kandeh3 1 department of social and cultural anthropology, universitat autònoma de barcelona, spain 2 wassu-uab foundation, spain 3 wassu gambia kafo, the gambia correspondence: beatriz escaño, wassu-uab foundation, spain. received: november 8, 2022; accepted: november 28, 2022; published: december 12, 2022 abstract child marriage is a human rights violation that is often rooted in strong gender inequalities (unicef, 2022). this article presents the results of a mixed methods study conducted in the gambia, deepening understanding of why the practice remains widespread throughout the country and in west and central africa, which have one of the highest levels of child marriage in the world. the study explores the arguments and factors that come into play to defend or take a position against child marriage, establishing for this the differences between knowledge, attitudes and practices and taking into account different variables such as age, gender, ethnicity and region of residence. keywords: the gambia, child marriage, knowledge, attitudes, practices 1. theoretical framework child marriage is defined as a union in which at least one of the contracting parties or both are under 18 years of age (unicef, 2020). internationally, they are linked to forced marriages, since it is considered that minors are not yet able to express their free consent and have consequences for the development of children. the practice of child marriage occurs throughout the world and is affected by gender inequalities since it is five times more common in girls than in boys (unfpa-unicef, 2020). its origins differ between cultures and geographical locations, so there is a variability of causes depending on local contexts. the inability to generalise about the phenomenon, implies that the approach must be based on the particularities that each region presents, to break down the distinctions that exist between communities and adopt effective strategies (unfpa-unicef, 2020; schaffnit et al., 2021). however, several common elements enable the continuity of the practice and its perpetuation. child marriage carries with it health and social consequences for women and girls, including early pregnancies and complications during childbirth and postpartum, which also affect newborns. (bicchieri et al., 2014). different studies point to its relationship with domestic violence (abera et al., 2020; lowe et al., 2020). this is because girls can find themselves in a situation of greater vulnerability due to the age difference between the spouses, limiting their capacity for decision and consent. studies such as those by raj et al. (2010) show how girls who marry in their childhood or adolescence have a greater risk of suffering violence in the sphere of the couple in adulthood, as well as suffering sexual abuse. likewise, this practice often implies isolation from the community (lowe et al., 2021). 1.1 geographical distribution globally, 21% of women are married before the age of 18 and an estimated 650 million girls and women alive today were married as children, while 12 million girls under the age of 18 are married each year (unicef, 2020). a quarter of these girls live in sub-saharan african countries and of the 20 countries with the highest rate of early marriage, 18 are in the african continent (unicef, 2015). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 27 published by ideas spread map 1. distribution of child marriage under 18 years of age source: girls not brides, data extracted from unicef global databases 2020. retrieved from https://atlas.girlsnotbrides.org/map/?_ga=2.165973886.1546238170.1620299943-1756649377.1616512983 in west and central africa, the prevalence of child marriage varies between countries. in some, such as senegal, there has been a decline in the practice, while in others there is no evidence of its reduction, for example, in angola, burkina faso or cape verd. from a broader perspective, 4 out of 10 young women are married as children in this region and it constitutes one of the areas with the highest levels of child marriage in the world (unicef, 2017). map 2. child marriage in africa under 18 years of age source: afri-dev.info (2015). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 28 published by ideas spread these countries, in addition to having a high prevalence, have a slower rate of decline than other areas of the world (lowe et al., 2019; jouhki & stark, 2017). this implies that, in population growth projections, the forecast of married girls in the region will increase from 6.4 million in 2015 to 7.1 by 2030 (lowe et al., 2019). 1.2 marriage in gambian society in order to offer a broader qualitative analysis of the gambian context, supported by fieldwork in space and time, the doctoral thesis of dr. adriana kaplan “from senegambia to catalonia. processes of acculturation and social integration” (1998). this research allows the data to be contextualised, systematised, given meaning and to know the relationship between different social and cultural aspects. population and social structure in the gambia currently, the population of the gambia has a total of 2,486,937 people, with a density of 246 inhabitants per km2 (world bank, 2021). this population is made up of different ethnic groups, among which 36% is mandinka; 22% fula; 14% wolof; 11% djola; 8% serehule; 9% others (world bank, 2020). in addition, the most professed religions in the country are: islam (90% of the total population), christianism (9%) and animism (1%). in the gambia, as in other african societies, there are traditional value systems and codes of behaviour, which alongside with the old social stratification, have been maintained despite political, economic, religious, cultural and colonial pressures; both in rural and urban areas. the social organisation of the different ethnic groups that inhabit the senegambia region follows a well-defined hierarchy in terms of age, sex and class (kaplan, 1998). social structures in the gambia are based on community life, which continues to be of great importance, since belonging to the family comes first, followed by attachment to the community and the feeling of strength and protection. this means that the activity of all individuals in the community responds to a type of responsibility within social and political structures. it is for this reason that human activities related to the life cycle of each person often take place in spheres that are outside state and individual control. “this structure allows individuals a feeling of security and self-confidence that is developed based on strong kinship ties. they always know what their role is within society and the role of each of its components.” (kaplan, 1998: 31). family composition and structure the different ethnic groups that inhabit the senegambia region form extended families that have a polygynous marriage regime. to understand the importance of this kinship structure, reference must be made to the establishment of marriage ties, since marriage is "an institution that orders reproduction and establishes paternity, while establishing alliances" (san román & gonzález echevarría, 1981; cited in kaplan, 1998). as already mentioned, the weight of the community has precedence over individual activities, so in the case of personal relationships the same premise is followed, because in these societies what gains strength is marriage understood as institutional alliances between families, where the foundations of the social networks are sustained by kinship relationships. therefore, the different ethnic groups that inhabit the area continue to maintain themselves as strongly inbred groups in the establishment of marriage ties. cross-cousin marriages are very frequent, especially in mandinka, fula and serahule groups, with the aim of continuing kinship networks and maintaining the proximity of offspring and investing in one's own family (kaplan, 1998). these alliances tend to occur more frequently in rural areas, where it is understood as an agreement between relatives and in which the preferences or personal choices of the future spouses do not intervene, and they are often agreements made since childhood. marriage agreements are sealed at the time of commitment through the bride price. in communities where economic transactions are involved in the marriage process, dowry or bride price negotiations can become a strategy for supporting poor families (centre for human rights, 2018). but this price "should not be understood as the purchase of the woman itself, but as a guarantee that grants the husband and his group the rights over the reproduction of the wife” (kaplan, 1998: 40). this amount is compensatory for the transfer of an active member with reproductive capacity from one family to another. the kinship system in the gambia is patrilineal and with virilocal residence, so the children that the woman will have will become part of the father's patrilineage. marriage, then, allows the circulation of active members and enables the establishment of new alliances through future sons and daughters. for this reason, in polygamous societies, the bride price is higher. regarding polygamous marriages, importance is given to the woman who is first to marry, as she plays a specific role and has some rights over other women. the co-wives must obey the first wife and it is the responsibility of the husband to be equitable with each wife and resolve possible conflicts that arise between them. this is his job as a good husband following the scriptures of the koran, since it is stipulated that a man can marry up to four wives, if he can offer the same treatment and pension to each of them. the successive marriages to the first can be hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 29 published by ideas spread a more personal choice of the man and it is not so necessary that the social rules are followed. this greater freedom (also given because a more adult man is more economically independent) often means that the last woman he takes as his wife is usually the man's favourite, among other things because she is also usually younger than the previous ones. since 2016, marriage has been prohibited in the gambia below the age of 18 for both men and women, and variables such as ethnic origin, religious practices and the schooling of girls are allowing the age of first marriage to be delayed in women; while in men it is other issues such as the economic order and migrations that cause delay, and in urban areas, economic difficulties related to employment and housing (kaplan, 1998). education and schooling in the gambia there are two types of education, the koranic school (madrassa) and the formal schooling, which is public and not compulsory. over the last decades, this last one has been spreading, especially in the most urban areas and replacing traditional koranic schools. modern schools provide a type of egalitarian education that allows access to girls with no age limit, while in koranic schools they generally have to leave education as soon as the first menstruation appears, since, during the menstrual period, called kosoo, they become impure and cannot touch the holy quran. (kaplan, 1998:65) on the other hand, it is important to understand that the education of sons and daughters is a great economic effort for parents, so it can cause significant absenteeism and school dropout. in the gambia, most of the population either have no formal education or have attained only some primary education. specifically, 65% of females and 60% of males aged 6 and over have either no education (39% and 35%, respectively) or only some primary education (27% and 26%, respectively) (dhs 2019-2020). as the percentage of women who have not received education is higher than men, it also has to do with the preference for the schooling of sons instead of daughters. in addition, they will have more difficulties to reach higher grades, since, if they become pregnant before marriage, they tend to drop out of school, on the one hand, as a reproach for their behaviour and on the other, to not set a bad example for the other classmates. sexuality and fertility in the gambia being a virgin until marriage continues to be a very important social attribute on which the responsibility for this to happen falls on the mothers. virginity is seen as an honour for mothers, since it translates as knowing how to educate and care for their daughters according to established standards, as expected of them. this attribute can even make the price of the bride vary, since if they are not a virgin, this price can be reduced; in addition, the father can impose, as punishment on the mother for her negligence in the care of the girl, that she returns the money invested in the daughter's studies. because of this, premarital sex can be more of a disgrace to the mother than to the daughter (kaplan, 1998). three fundamental axes explain the meaning that sexual relations with their wives have for men: children, need and pleasure. “children mean wealth because they also generate wealth, and a man gains consideration within the group to the extent that he is supported by a large offspring.” (kaplan, 1998: 153). in other words, what is expected of women is that they will have many children, be good protectors and selfless mothers. on the other hand, sexual relations have other connotations for women within marriage, which would be: pleasing the husband and the importance of conceiving children that can only be done through this physical contact. in the gambia, the average fertility rate is 4.4 children/woman. in urban areas it is 3.9 and in rural areas it is 5.9 (dhs 2019-2020). it is important to take these data into account, since in africa, a large number of children guarantees the continuity of the community. infant mortality is very high (under-5 mortality rates are 56 per 1,000 live births) and it is not known how many will survive to become adult carers when their parents are elderly. 1.3 child marriage in the gambia in 2016, a national strategic child protection plan was launched in the gambia that centralized the issue of child marriage as a problem to be addressed due to the high rates presented (lowe et al., 2019). before that year, the children’s act prohibited child marriage, but was subject to the provisions of any common law, meaning that a minor could marry if it was argued that the marriage was based on custom. for this reason, in 2016 the legal age for marriage was raised to 18 years so that it is now a crime punishable by up to 20 years in prison, both for the parents and the spouse of the minor (unicef, 2016; cited in jouhki & stark, 2017). however, despite efforts to decrease the prevalence of the practice through legislation, it continues to be common in the territory, as it remains among the 41 countries in the world where the rate of child marriage is 30% or more (unfpa-unicef, 2018). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 30 published by ideas spread there is currently a downward trend of the practice in the gambia, as historically 58% of 40-49-year-olds were married before the age of 18, while today only 36% of women between 20 and 24 years of age have been married underage. however, the difficulty of obtaining data is an issue, as how these unions are recorded poses major challenges in measuring the impact and enforcement of marriage laws in the gambia. the lack of adequate procedures for the registration of births and marriages, as well as access to them, is a major impediment to making effective the prohibition of child marriage. another issue is articulated in the religious interpretation made by local islamic communities, which can allow this type of union. islamic sharia does not specify an exact minimum age for marriage. in the gambia, this is the main tradition that governs family law, most of the population is governed by this code (center for human rights, 2018). in this way, child marriages often take the form of traditional or customary unions, which are registered less frequently than other forms of marriage. other factors that explain such a high rate in the country include the legislative frameworks and the inconsistencies that can occur in the context of legal pluralism, where civil legislation and customary or religious law are applied simultaneously. on the other hand, many women and adolescents of fertile age in rural areas of the country have recently obtained birth certificates based on a rough estimate of their age. in these cases, it has been observed that, as women know that marriage before 18 is illegal, to obtain their maternity cards they declare they are above this age, when in fact they are younger (lowe et al., 2019). this is especially problematic in the poorest rural areas (where religious marriages are not registered) and with the lowest level of education, as these factors (economic and educational) also vary depending on the place of residence, since there are large differences between rural and urban areas. child marriages are more common in rural gambia. in contrast, women living in urban tend to marry after the age of 18. an example of this is the women of kuntaur (a rural town in the country), who marry on average at 17 years of age, four years earlier than the women of the capital, banjul, who marry at an average age of 21. along these lines, poverty is one of the main causes of child marriage and is, in turn, a factor that worsens the consequences of marrying at an early age. thus, it is intertwined with other elements that harm the educational level of women and the obstacles encountered in accessing the world of work, generating a vicious circle of poverty and precariousness (lowe et al., 2019). in difficult financial situations, the costs of school often require families to weigh the cost-benefit ratio of education against other options to help their daughters have a future. the hidden cost of education is understood as an indirect cause of child marriage when families cannot afford a daughter’s education and do not see other livelihood alternatives (jouhki & stark, 2017). this leads to girls leaving school early and explains why child marriage rates are higher in countries with lower levels of education. on the other hand, studies such as those by lowe et al. (2019) demonstrate how prevalence is often associated also with the ethnic groups present in the gambia, built on different cultural values and social norms, which affects the practices carried out by each group (kaplan et al., 2013). for example, according to the same study by lowe et al. (2019), mandinka and wolof women are more likely to marry before the age of 18 than women from the fula ethnic group. along these lines, the study by mobolaji et al. (2020) conducted in nigeria, finds that the prevalence of child marriage differs considerably among girls aged 15 to 19 depending on the different ethnic groups in the country. all the factors exposed above cannot be understood without intersecting the gender inequalities generated by the differentiated roles that are granted in patriarchal societies. being forced to marry causes physical and psychological trauma for women as a consequence of the loss of part of their childhood and adolescence, early pigeonholing in domestic gender roles, and forced sexual relations to which they may be subjected. in addition, it constitutes a phenomenon that, for the most part, occurs with large age gaps between girls or young women and adult men (unicef, 2015). 1.4 continuity and change factors recently, efforts have been intensified to end child marriage and try to transform the roots that sustain the practice (schaffnit et al., 2021) and, in this regard, education is a central factor in delaying the first marriage among adolescent women (jouhki & stark, 2017). as mentioned, the decline rates of child marriage in the gambia are significant and, although the reason for this decline is still uncertain, it could be due to the increased enrolment of girls in school in recent years, as it has been shown that women with secondary education or higher, marry on average at 22.2 years compared to 17.3 for women with no education (lowe et al., 2019). the existence of legislation prohibiting child marriage does not in itself guarantee that the practice will end. legislation is not usually accompanied by the necessary policies and programmes to support social transformation. consequently, the implementation of laws must be based on community participation for the transformation of the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 31 published by ideas spread social and gender norms that drive it. in this context, jouhki and stark (2017) explore the effect of legal changes on child marriages in the gambia and suggest that legislation is not enough to reduce child marriage rates for girls under 18 years of age. in addition, there are other reasons why it is difficult to prosecute those responsible for such links through formal legal procedures. refusing to marry can lead to a conflict of loyalties towards their families, since, although there is no consent of the young women to the marriage, they must do so anyway. the concern about social rejection and the possibility of being left without their support network if they decided to confront each other, has a great emotional impact as a consequence. for this reason, many of them do not want to initiate legal proceedings against their relatives, so as not to damage or break family ties (fundación wassu-uab, 2021), causing reports of child marriage to be reduced. in the cases in which a complaint is filed and it reaches the courts, these usually do not progress due to the social pressure exerted on the girl to withdraw the complaint (center for human rights, 2018). impacts on the economic dimension can also be included since there are cases where the payment of the dowry or the return of the bride price is claimed. on the other hand, studies such as those by lowe et al. (2019) warn that to reduce the practice, especially in rural gambia, future programmes should focus on dismantling beliefs surrounding premarital sex, by providing adequate information and using correct family planning. for this reason, committing to the diversity of experiences of child marriage is key to addressing the problem more effectively and coherently with the reality of the communities. this implies considering the possibility of divergences between the narratives promoted by international organizations and the populations targeted by the interventions. likewise, the authors suggest that more nuances should be included in the representations of the practice, recognising the fluidity of the concept and that the capacity for female agency and autonomy can exist outside the legal limits of adulthood. in this regard, horii (2020) warns that most of the time the agency capacity of girls is talked about, but only about not getting married. consequently, the current child marriage framework of international organisations overlooks the complexity of children’s capability. on the other hand, the category of child marriage can also make it difficult to understand local realities, approaching it from a westernised perspective and ignoring the voices of the girls and boys involved. 2. methodology this article offers a detailed look at a complex phenomenon: child marriages in the gambia, based on a mixed methods that has allowed the collection of quantitative data, as well as qualitative information, following a triangulation model with the anthropological and ethnographic bibliography, which has allowed the construction of the social context in which the practice takes place. the quantitative part consisted of collecting information through a knowledge, attitudes and practices (kap) questionnaire, while the more qualitative aspects were gathered in four focus groups, which allowed the in-depth collection of the opinions of young people and teachers, of rural and urban areas and the ethnographic field work. 2.1 kap survey this survey on child marriage was conducted in all the administrative regions of the gambia between june and september of 2021. the training team of wassu gambia kafo administered the survey, which was piloted before the final version with 50 kaps, administered in north bank west, north bank east, lower river region, central river region, and upper river region (10 in each region). the survey was further developed with regards to the recommendations from the pre-test, together with the transnational team in spain. the structure of the survey has five main parts: socio-demographic data, knowledge, attitudes, practices, and the relationship between child marriage and fgm. in total, 32 questions guaranteed to gather the information needed to assess the disposition of the gambian population regarding child marriage. participants were selected based on availability and regional health directorates, as well as village heads, helped to reach the communities. there were no criteria for ethnic selection. the study population is 400 out of which 200 are male and 200 are female, with ages ranging from under 18 to over 65. data collection included djolas, fulas, mandinkas, serahules, serers and wolofs. it was done in all the regions of the country: 50 kap surveys were done in north bank east, 50 in north bank west, 50 kaps in lower river region, 50 kaps in central river region, 50 kaps in upper river region, 75 kaps in west coast region 1 and 2 and 75 kap surveys in greater banjul area. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 32 published by ideas spread age, gender, ethnic group and region of residence were the four criteria chosen to analyse the results of the survey and, in the article, the outcomes follow the same structure, except for the territorial factor, which is represented on an interactive map. table 1 and 2. number of respondents per age group and number of responders per ethnic group interactive map a map has been designed as an interactive online tool, available internationally and with the possibility of being updated periodically. it offers a visual representation of the distribution of the results of six questions selected from the set of the kap survey. these questions have been selected following criteria of relevance, as well as considering that they are easily captured on the map. the users of the resource will be able to navigate through the different questions, observing the main territorial differences existing in the gambia, concerning child marriage. on the other hand, the map includes a directory of entities that work or have worked on the issue in the gambian context. this section aims to give visibility to the main social actors, promoting networking and the generation of synergies. for its elaboration, the wassu gambia kafo training team has carried out seven in-depth interviews that have allowed us to know the opinion and local knowledge of the services, projects, actions and available resources, linked to the prevention and care of child marriage. moreover, it will avoid duplication of actions and commitment to complement each other between entities and actions in the same area of intervention. https://matrimoniosforzados.fundacionwassu.com/child-marriage-in-gambia-do-you-think-it-is-right-to-force-agirl-or-woman-into-marriage/ 2.2 focus group four focus groups were held to explore in depth child marriage and analyse qualitatively the discussions about child marriage, and were implemented from december 2021 to may 2022. the number of people that participated in each group was eight, with four men and four women in every focus group discussion, with a total of 32 participants. the ages vary between 18 and 38 years old. with regards to the ethnic groups, these are the ones represented in the sample: fulas, mandinkas, wolof, djola, serer and balanta. as for the areas where they were held: a focus group of youth in an urban area, another of teachers in an urban area; one of youth in a rural area and another of teachers also in a rural area. although gender equity was achieved in the attendance of the same number of men and women in each focus group, it was not possible for participation to be homogeneous among the participants, so the interventions of men are more numerous than those of women. 3. results of the knowledge, attitudes, and practices (kap) survey the analysis of the answers obtained during the kap surveys has been carried out taking into account the variables of age, gender and ethnicity. 3.1 age the distribution of the answers by age group reveals a clear trend: in general, younger participants are more against the practice of child marriage compared with older participants. for example, the trends in the opinion about the practice are highly illustrative: although most respondents from all age groups reflected that child marriage is a harmful practice, the percentage considering child marriage as a good practice increased from under 18 to 65 years from 0% to 36%. (graph 1). age group number under 18 years 5 18 and 25 years 93 26 and 35 years 124 36 and 45 years 107 46 and 65 years 62 over 65 years 8 na 1 total 400 ethnic group number djola 39 fula 86 mandinka 128 serahule 33 serer 28 wolof 75 other 11 total 400 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 33 published by ideas spread graph 1. what is your opinion about child marriage? distribution by age this opinion was confirmed by judgment about families who practice child marriage. as they were older participants, they tended to answer less often that they are violating girls’ rights and limiting the girls’ future development. similarly, older responders more frequently answered that these families are practicing a good tradition and are doing what is expected of them (graph 2). graph 2. what do you think of families who practice child marriage? distribution by age when asked about the negative consequences, 100% of respondents under 18 recognise the negative consequences of child marriage, the proportion was 82% in 26-35 years respondents and 36% in 46-65 years. the negative consequences perceived are also different, because the concerns change depending on the life stage. in terms of reproductive health, labour complications and tears was the most common answer (25-27%) chosen across all age groups, excluding responders under 18 years, among who school dropout was chosen with the most occurrence (33%). the youth's perception of child marriage as a neglectful practice was opposite to that of the elders. while all of the respondents under 18 considered that it is a violation of human rights, this answer decreased as participants were older, with most 46-over 65 participants (65-63%) considering that it is not (graph 3). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 34 published by ideas spread graph 3. do you think child marriage is a violation of human rights? distribution by age group when consulted about the strategies to end child marriage, young respondents (under 18-25) consider that conducting sensitizations is helpful (5-45%). however, older participants (46-over 65) stated that no law can stop child marriage (47-46%). this population group is less willing to think that child marriage will be someday eliminated in the gambia, with only 31% of the population aged 46-65 accepting that possibility. to find out the impact of the activities carried out aimed at ending the practice of child marriage, there seems to be a change in the strategies followed in sensitization and training programmes. those carried out in schools have increased more recently. the highest frequency of participants reporting training/sensitization during school education was observed by respondents in the 18–25 year group (62%) and decreased with increasing age. the opposite trend can be observed with training/sensitization during work career, which is more commonly seen in the age groups between 36 and 45 years old (79%). under 18 years responders more easily assumed that child marriage sensitizations had an impact (100%), but the older responders were (from 25 to 65) they were less likely to consider that these organisations had an impact and were more likely to answer they did not. then again, the understanding of consent seems to be different between generations. the older participants were, more likely they were to report that girls usually consent to the marriage (60% 46-65 years old and 63% over 65 years old) while younger respondents thought girls do not usually consent (100% under 18 years old and 75% 1825 years old) (graph 4). finally, the predisposition to continue with the practice with their daughters followed the same pattern. none of the under 18 responders reported they would marry off their daughter, 67% of 36–45-year respondents chose the same answer, while the majority of 46-over 65 years (63%) reported they would do it (graph 5). graph 4. do girls usually consent to the marriage? distribution by age group graph 5. if you have or were to have a daughter, would you marry her off as a child? distribution by age group hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 35 published by ideas spread knowledge of the law prohibiting the practice follow the same pattern. there seems to be less awareness of it regarding child marriage the older participants were, with 80% of under 18 responders stating there is a law banning child marriage, and only 38% of over 65 responders chose the same answer. only 35% (46 and 65 years) and 38% (over 65) of the participants would accept a law banning child marriage in the gambia (graph 6). graph 6. would you support any law banning child marriage? distribution by age group this way, the intention to continue with the practice was expressed following the same tendency. the older responders were, they answered that child marriage should continue more often (under 18: 0%; over 65: 63%). between 84% and 66% of responders aged 18-45 years considered that child marriage should not continue, while most participants (67%) aged 46-65 and 63% over 65 years, responded that child marriage should continue. the reasons to perpetuate child marriage also show important differences. more 18-25 years respondents argued that the practice should continue because it allows women to have more children (14%) while over 65 years participants responded with greater regularity that it should continue because is part of tradition (33%) and protects the family honour (42%). as explained in the “marriage in the gambian society” section, the social expectations of wives are that they should become prolific procreators, since children mean wealth, and having many children guarantees the continuity of the community. on the other hand, virginity continues to be a very important attribute and it is the responsibility of the mothers to protect their daughters’ virginity until marriage. it is also an honour for the mothers, since it means that they have cared for and educated their daughters in accordance with established social norms, and have been able to exercise the control and surveillance that is expected of them (kaplan, 1998). 3.2 gender when making comparisons between genders, in general women seem to have a position more against the practice of child marriage than men, but still, most men surveyed seem to be against it as well. when talking about the reasons behind girls marrying under 18 years, the most common answer in both men (21%) and women (29%) was “to avoid pregnancy”. it is understood to guarantee virginity and avoid possible premarital relationships and teenage pregnancies outside of marriage. nevertheless, it is interesting to observe that more women than men have responded this, while more men (19%) than women (14%) chose “to avoid premarital sex”, the first option being the fear of women to have a pregnancy out of marriage (taking into account the social judgement that this implies), and the second one the control of men over girls’ sexuality preserving their virginity. the second most answered option in women (18%) was that religion plays a role in the early marriage of girls (graph 7). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 36 published by ideas spread graph 7. why are some girls married off under 18 years of age? results divided by gender despite the last graph showing there were more women than men that chose religion as a reason for girls marrying early, when asked directly about islam, respondents of both genders considered that it is islamic to marry early at similar frequencies (31% men and 30% women). otherwise, a higher proportion of women (34%) selected that early marriage is not compulsory according to islam and it does not mention child marriage. on the other hand, most male respondents (34%) considered that marriage should be based on consent (graph 8), contrasting with a lower percentage of women that chose this option (25%), a fact that can be interpreted as a possible submission of these, who accept that marriage is often carried out without their consent, as this is what is expected from them. graph 8. does islam say anything about child marriage? distribution by gender even though the fact that in the previous question a higher percentage of men defended marriage should be based on consent, 30% of male respondents thought it is right to force a girl or a woman into marriage. in addition, most women (92%) did not consider it this way. the explanations to defend the practice have also differences between genders; in this case, most men (34%) thought child marriage should continue because it is part of the tradition, being this option the less answered by women (18%). it is also interesting to see a dissimilarity in one option, where women (22%) considered child marriage should continue because it allows them to have more children. this may come from the belief that the early age of marriage is also related to the perception of reproductive health, the later women marry, the more years of fertility will be lost (graph 9). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 37 published by ideas spread graph 9. if yes, why? distribution by gender. (follow up of –do you think it is right to force a girl or a woman into marriage) opinions about the consequences of child marriage were similar for men and women surveyed, they both thought they are negative, although more women (76%) than men (68%) responded this way. regarding these consequences, labour complications and tears were the most answered option; apart from that, differences were observed between men and women, while a significantly higher proportion of men (22%) chose psychological trauma, a higher proportion of women (10%) selected poverty as negative repercussions of child marriage (graph 10). graph 10. if yes, which ones? distribution by gender. (follow up of -does child marriage have negative consequences?) to end child marriage in the gambia, the percentage of men (29%) thinking that law/legislation forcing girls’ education is the best way, is higher than the frequency of women (20%). the most remarkable difference was that 33% 34% 33% 1% 30% 18% 30% 22% 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% it protects the family honour it is part of tradition it is part of religion it allows a woman to have more children do you think it is right to force a girl or woman into marriage? man woman hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 38 published by ideas spread the percentage of women (48%) choosing that conducting sensitizations is the best way to end the practice was significantly higher than the percentage of men choosing the same option (31%) (graph 11). graph 11. what do you think is the best way to end child marriage in the gambia? distribution by gender lastly, ending or continuing child marriage also depends on the decision the families make. around this aspect, the father and both mother and father are the most selected options by both men and women (39% 35% and 54% 39% respectively). in addition, a significantly higher proportion of women thought that the entire family (12%) and the groom (8%) had the final decision for a young girl under 18 to be married, compared with men (2% and 0% respectively) (graph 12). graph 12. who takes the final decision for a young girl under 18 to get married? distribution by gender 3.3 ethnicity continuing with the same structure of the two previous variables (age and gender), the opinion about child marriage also varies depending on the ethnic group. it is observed that 85% of participants from djola ethnic group considered that child marriage is a harmful practice, while other ethnicities stated the same with lower frequencies (from 62% to 75%) (graph 13). it is shown that the ethnic groups with a higher number of anwers thinking that child marriage is a good practice are serahule (25%), mandinka (21%) and fula (23%). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 39 published by ideas spread graph 13. what is your opinion about child marriage? distribution by ethnic group when asked “why are some girls married off under 18 years?” all ethnicities detected “to avoid pregnancy” as the main reason. despite that, serahule participants chose “religion” at a higher frequency (22%) compared to other ethnic groups and “economic gains” at a lower frequency (7%). serahules (41%), fulas (38%), and mandinkas (32%) considered that it is islamic to marry early, while djolas had the lower proportion on that question (16%). on the other hand, a lower proportion of serahules (23%) compared with other ethnic groups believed that early marriage is not compulsory according to islam, while a higher proportion of wolof (13%) and serer (12%) affirmed that islam does not mention child marriage. following this trend, 46% of serahules and 42% of fulas believed that child marriage should continue, contrasting with 87% of djolas that thought that the practice should not continue. additionally, more serers (55%), fulas (44%), and mandinkas (35%) thought that child marriage is not a violation of human rights compared with respondents from other ethnic groups. this pattern was followed also in the consideration of possible negative consequences of child marriage, as a higher proportion of djola participants (90%) considered that case, followed by wolofs (80%), serers (71%), mandinkas (69%), fula (63%) and, finally, serahules with the lower frequency (55%). this unawareness could be due to the low participation rates in any kind of activity (training or sensitization) related to child marriage. in this regard, djolas showed a higher percentage of people stating that they have attended one, compared to surveyed individuals from any other ethnic group. concerning which is the best way to end child marriage in the gambia, over 30% of respondents in each ethinc group (except serahules with a 29%) considered that conducting sensitizations is the strategy to follow to end child marriage, with serers (47%) and djolas (44%) the ones to be more convinced about this. talking about the law as another strategy to end the practice, some ethnicities were more reluctant, above all serahules (27%) and fulas (22%), opining that no law can stop child marriage. this seems to be reflected in the support that the different groups would give to any law banning child marriage, as the majority of djolas (87%), wolofs (75%), and serers (71%) would support a law prohibiting the practice, while more serahules (46%) and fulas (43%) than other ethnic groups would not support such a law (graph 14). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 40 published by ideas spread graph 14. would you support any law banning child marriage? distribution by ethnic group as in the rest of the results obtained by measuring the ethnic group variable, it has been seen that fulas and serahules are the groups with more favourable opinions towards the practice and djolas and wolofs would be in a position more against it. this trend continues to be confirmed when they were asked about the prospects of continuing this practice in the future. a higher proportion of fula (48%) and serahule (46%) did not think that child marriage will be eliminated from the gambia compared with other ethnicities, while djola and wolof respondents answered affirmatively at the highest frequencies (77% and 71% respectively) (graph 15). graph 15. do you think child marriage will ever be eliminated in the gambia? distribution by ethnic group finally, when consulted about their own decisions in a pretended future, serahules (46%) and fulas (37%) reported more commonly that they would marry off their child, while djolas chose this answer at the lowest frequencies (10%) followed by wolofs (21%) (graph 16). these results demonstrate the need for programmes aimed at ending child marriage to be adapted to the specificities of each ethnic group and to have a special impact on those who continue to have an opinion in favour of the practice. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 41 published by ideas spread graph 16. if you have or would have a daughter, would you marry her off as a child? distribution by ethnic group 4. focus group discussion results the main reasons mentioned in the focus groups discussions can be gathered in three main groups: sexuality and fertility, sociocultural reasons, and the economic burden. regarding the issues related to sexuality and fertility, the idea of honour is very present in the need of controlling girls’ sexuality. pregnancies out of wedlock are shameful for all the family members, so it is important to ensure it will not happen. “what happens is, if the girl is always going out to meet boys she may end up being pregnant which brings a lot of shame to her parents and the family. we have seen girls at grade 8 and grade 9 getting pregnant in this community. so, to avoid that, parents will marry off their children to avoid them going through that shame”. (woman, 27 years old, focus group of youth in an urban area). while pregnancies are undesirable outside the marriage, fertility is highly significant in the life of all women. in this regard, social pressure to have children is one of the reasons that fosters child marriage, because parents want their daughters to make the most of their full fertile span. “they will marry her off with the intention of her having children early in order for them to help her.” (man, 19 years old, focus group with youth in a rural area). sociocultural reasons, in which peer influence and following family traditions have also been considered an important factor, convincing girls that the best option is to marry early and have children early on because their relatives and peers are doing the same thing. “peer pressure can also be another reason why child marriage is happening. if all your friends are married in the community, community members will always tell you to go and get married because all your friends are married with their children. sometimes your married friends will tell you to go and get married in order for you to be on the same footing as them. this can make you change your mind to go into marriage.” (man, 25 years old, focus group of youth in a rural area). marriage means a status change in gambian society, and it is an important institution that protects family honour. many girls accept marriages because they cannot confront their adults, in a gerontocratic society where elders are the leaders of the community. “it is difficult to refuse to the marriage because your parents are the ones that arrange the marriage and they will threaten you with their words. you will end up agreeing to the marriage because you will not want to be disowned by your parents.” (woman, 22 years old, focus group of youths in a rural area). besides, the punishment in cases in which the woman or the man does not obey is the social rejection of the individual and their offspring in the family group, as a kind of ostracism. “my husband was asked to marry her cousin who is a child, but my husband refused to get married to that girl because he said he regards her as a sister, not a wife. the family was putting a lot of pressure on him to marry the girl, but he refused, so when he said he was going to marry someone else, the family hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 42 published by ideas spread said they were not going to be part of it. since that time, he and his family have not had that relationship because he married outside the family. my husband is a fula and, even when i gave birth, his family refused to come to my naming ceremony.” (woman, 24 years old, focus group of youths in an urban area). the economic burden is a point to be considered in the case of child marriages. for example, some poor families can consider it as a solution for their daughters to have a better quality of life. as already mentioned, in situations of economic difficulty, and with the costs derived from the care of the daughters, early marriage becomes one of the best options to ensure future subsistence. “for me, i think the socio-economic factor is also a reason why child marriage happens because some people will send their daughter off for marriage because they are poor, and they expect something from the family the girl is married to.” (man, 33 years old, focus group of youths in an urban area). the economic reasons are not only those driven by poverty and need. child marriage can also be considered as an option to ensure a better future for their children, to access a lifestyle offering financial security, or maybe just as a safer way to assure it. “one of the factors could also bethe search for greener pastures, like let’s assume you have a girl who is very tender in age and sees a guy who is way older but financially successful and stable. despite the fact that the child is not from a poor family background, she still needs a greener environment to be in. so that can also be a contributing factor.” (man, 27 years old, focus group of teachers in an urban area). “other factor that can also lead to child marriage can also be the safety of the female child. to some parents, giving the child away can be safer than keeping her in the compound without knowing whether the child is going in the right path or in the wrong path. so for her to be given away maybe safer than keeping her in the compound.” (woman, 28 years old, focus group of teachers in urban). other reasons can be cited, such as using child marriage as a strategy to maintain family wealth and keep it under control. this is consistent with the objective of endogamous family unions, to perpetuate kinship networks, maintain the proximity of children and invest in the family itself. “when i was at junior school, i had a friend who was forced to get married. [...] it was a way of holding him back. like most of the family members were abroad. he is a sarahuli too. very wealthy, they had a lot of things they wanted to make secure. one way that they could secure these properties was to marry the boy for him to settle here and secure the properties. yeah… it was a strategy that was there to secure or maintain their family wealth. that is why he was pushed into marriage.” (man, 27 years old, focus group of teachers in an urban area). in the focus groups that were held in the rural context, other economic motivations appeared. for example, there may be men who pay for the education of a girl, and then in payment of that debt, the girl is obliged to marry him. “yes, it is common in the rural area, some men will sponsor a girl from primary to junior secondary and then they will request her hand in marriage.” (woman, 22 years old, focus group of youth in a rural area). other factors associated with child marriage were identified during focus group discussions, that also vary depending on the place of residence. as has been seen, child marriages are more common in rural gambia, so there are also differences in the motivation for practicing child marriage whether it is in rural or urban areas. 4.1 differences between rural and urban areas tradition greater diversity in terms of origins, families, and points of view is more prevalent in urban areas with higher population densities. the plurality of opinions and attitudes can give greater flexibility regarding traditional norms. “yes, once you take on a new tradition, you will always underrate the one you were living with. when someone is born and brought up in rural areas, the elders train them with the traditions here but when the same person travels to kombo, they change. the people in the rural area are the same people that are living in kombo, but we’ll all agree that the traditions in kombo and the rural area are different. the reason for this is, the generation we are living in, people assume that they are more aware and take on board a new tradition. the tradition of the white people and their lifestyle, if someone lives in the rural areas, they don’t accept that.” (man, 37 years old, focus group of teachers in a rural area). rethinking traditional norms also includes values that guarantee a better future for children. in rural areas, the belief that marriage offers better opportunities than other alternatives (such as having a complete education) seems to be more prevalent. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 43 published by ideas spread “most of our parents in this area do not see the value of education and this makes it hard for so many young girls because most of their parents see marriage more important than allowing them to finish school.” (man, 29 years old, focus group of youth in a rural area). education during the focus groups it could be seen that education also plays a very important role in the prevention of child marriage. on one hand, it is considered that in urban contexts, access to education is easier and there are more options to choose from. “both in western and islamic education because there are more dairas (islamic schools) in kombo than in the rural areas. the number of quranic schools in kombo are more than those in the provinces here. in short, the main contribution factor is education. kombo is more developed in terms of education than here in the rural area. and then the mentality that has been talked about became different, and the level of awareness too. there are plenty of western schools there, plenty of arabic schools, plenty of quranic memorization centers. this is what i think.” (man, 38 years old, focus group of teachers in a rural area). on the other hand, it is considered that in urban contexts, access to education is easier and therefore children have more opportunities to complete their education and not be exposed to marriage at such an early age. “there are two key points here; tradition and education, because if you look closely, i would say up to 90% of those going to school in kombo will complete their education. when a child is starting grade 1 at 7 years of age, upon completion of the 12th grade, they will be 19 years old, meaning that many children will escape child marriage. the level of exposure is higher in kombo than here and parents in kombo are more likely to be open to their children. good family discussions in combination with education will of course help children.” (man, 38 years old, focus group of teachers in a rural area). therefore, in the urban environment people are better informed and more aware of the harmful consequences for children in practices such as child marriage. meanwhile, in rural areas there is a greater lack of knowledge about the dangers of the practice. “most parents in urban areas are aware of the consequences of child marriage and wouldn’t want to expose their daughters to them. but parents in rural areas have little or no knowledge about the negative consequences of child marriage. it will be easier for a parent in the rural areas to marry off their child than a parent in the urban areas. child marriage is practiced more in the rural areas than the urban areas.” (man, 25 years old, focus group of youth in a rural area). awareness of the law the social pressure exerted by the family if the child refuses a marriage can be experienced differently depending on whether it is a rural or an urban context. the difference lies in the level of awareness of child marriage as a harmful practice and the possibility to refuse this type of union. “awareness also plays and important role in the practice of child marriage, a child in the urban areas is aware about the authorities and can refuse to be married off as a child but a child in a rural environment has no idea about the authorities involved in it and, also, they cannot say no to their parents if they want to marry them off.” (man, 25 years old, focus group of youth in a rural area). in rural areas, due to the belief that marriage is a family problem and, as such, is managed privately, it becomes harder to seek help if the children need it. “there is a belief in the community that no situation should reach the authorities; all situations should be settled within the family, village and the community.” (woman, 22 years old, focus group of youth in a rural area). there are also difficulties in finding life alternatives outside marriage. as a result of the deprotection children experience when they are rejected by their own families for refusing a marriage, they start to question whether it is worse to suffer this process or endure the marriage they would find themselves in. “in the rural area when a child refuses to get married, they will be disowned and sent out from the house and they will have nowhere to go which might be the reason for the child accepting that marriage. but in the case of urban areas the child might have somewhere to go.” (woman, 18 years old, focus group of youth in a rural area). on the other hand, in urban areas, there is more knowledge about the laws that prohibit child marriage and the complaint against parents is a repeated punitive route during the focus groups. however, the participants also hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 44 published by ideas spread talked about the fear caused by making the decision to report to the authorities, since the confrontation with the families can also be expressed through maximum vulnerability and lack of protection for the children. “so, i asked the headmaster what we were going to do, whether to take the legal route or report it to the police. the child said: “no, if you do that, my father will kill me when i arrive home.” the child was afraid of the father, so i told the headmaster that we should leave it to them.” (man, 32 years old, focus group of teachers in an urban area). in some cases, this fear may extend to the entire family, due to the possible repercussions of confronting someone with more power within the community. “the girl’s family was also afraid to report the matter to the police because everyone is running from what the man is going to do to them.” (man, 35 years old, focus group of youth in an urban area). 4.2 teachers and youth, two different perspectives as seen throughout the study, the educational sector is key in preventing child marriages. for this reason, we wanted to hold focus groups with teachers, considering them the main agents in the transmission of knowledge and the empowerment of the new generations and with students, to find out their opinion on the subject, as well as to be able to reflect on the changes that should be made in the current syllabus to improve the prevention of child and forced marriages. the results of the focus groups do not present great differences of opinion between the two groups, a fact that we can value positively, since it means that there is good communication and coordination between teachers and their students, and that mutual expectations are adequately met. in this section, we want to reinforce the opinions of both on three issues that we consider relevant in the educational field: the problem of school dropout, sex education given and received, and the identification of key agents in the prevention of child marriages. professors and students offer us two different perspectives that do not oppose or contradict each other, but rather offer nuances to the same reality, enabling a holistic understanding of the phenomenon. school dropout as we have already seen, school dropout is one of the main consequences of child marriage, while education can be a reason to put off marriage until the girl has finished the last grade. teachers defend the importance of a good education as well as knowing how to motivate students, especially girls, to choose this path. young people agree on the value of education and on the fact that marriage means dropping out of school, since they have family obligations to take care of. a bad performance in school or lack of interest of the girls can be a motivation for parents to decide to marry her, especially in rural areas: “she didn’t want to go to school. a year later, i heard from her little sister that she was married. when i asked why, she said, “she doesn’t want to go to school so it is better to marry”. (man, 38 years old, focus group of teachers in a rural area). in the urban context, teachers affirm that some schools nowadays are allowing married and pregnant girls to attend class, in order to reduce the dropout rates. “i think it is a mix. in the provinces where i am from, you will see a pregnant girl will be going to school. she only stops the school for the period of the pregnancy. possibly one year or so. after that, they want to come back and continue with school but some of them, because they are as they are, would change schools. they move from one school to another provided they can pay for their tuition.” (man, 37 years old, focus group of teachers in an urban area). on the other hand, the perception of youth is that marriage and pregnancy lead the girls and the boys to leaving school because they find themselves in another social stage and must face responsibilities like feeding the family. “you will realise that the boy forced to get married is not even ready yet or he is still at school so at that moment if they get married with one child their education is over because they will be thinking of how to feed their family.” (man, 24 years old, focus group of youth in an urban area). being educated, in this context, is not a right anymore, but a privilege. “i am the only lucky child in my family that went to school; the rest of them all got married before they were 18 years old.” (woman, 24 years old, focus group of youth in an urban area). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 45 published by ideas spread sex education however, going to school is not the only form of receiving information, as the family plays a great role in the education and transmission of community values. in this regard, sexual education is an unresolved issue that needs to be discussed and addressed. teachers and youth agree that the social taboo on sexuality must be broken. the former choose to include the topics in the curriculum of some subjects, while claiming the importance of being able to raise awareness among parents and the community in general. for their part, youth stress the importance of being able to deal with these issues within families, in a safe and trusting space. teachers explain that they introduce it in the curriculum of natural sciences, although some might face problems with some students or families that do not seem to think it is right to talk about sex in class. “i was once reported by a student to the school principal that i was teaching the children about sex. i told the principal that, as a teacher, it was my responsibility to make sure that the children understand it. it is my job and my area of specialisation. i believe teaching them without telling them these things can have a great impact on my career. schools advances with age. the older they grow, the more advanced their lessons. if they learn later in tertiary institutions that i was not doing much, it will affect me. i had sharp words with the principal. later when a supervision team from the ministry came there, and started asking the students about related areas, they came back to the principal commending the students for responding well in that area. the principal later thanked me for doing that.” (woman, 27 years old, focus group of teachers in an urban area). that is why one urban teacher maintains that issues related to puberty and sex education need to be treated transversally from primary school level, in order to avoid shame and the consequences of ignorance: “my suggestion is, before the children go to senior school, the foundation needs to be set at primary school level which will make it easy at the secondary level. even issues related to teenage pregnancy might be resolved along the way. if you see some of these girls, they are getting pregnant, and it is because they are not aware. when they get the knowledge at that early age, it will make it easy to teach it there. on the contrary, if you start talking about it [at secondary school], they will not fully participate because it appears to them that whoever talks about it has started having sex. (man, 32 years old, focus group of teachers in an urban area). community values regarding family honour foster the silence and taboo about sex, which is translated into distance and lack of communication inside the families, especially between parents and their sons and daughters. “in fact, here when a child reaches a certain age, all discussions are cut off between the parent and the child. all this is as a result of lack of communication.” (man, 38 years old, focus group of teachers in a rural area). teachers in both rural and urban contexts claim that it is very important to involve parents in these kinds of conversations and educate them about the importance of talking with children in simple terms, so that they can properly understand the importance of the topic and the measure they should take into consideration to be safe. “another way in which it can be minimised is that parents to be encouraged to have dialogue with their children. in some schools, problems are many, so much that students’ individual issues cannot be addressed by the teacher but rather as a parent, when you talk with your family and discuss certain things. even if not detailed, just letting them know x is this and y is that, and their sexual health, whatever. even when a girl goes out, she will remember how to keep herself safe. i believe a child’s first teacher is the parent. that is where they should get the foundation and learn some of the things. when they get to school, it makes it easier to deal with such sensitive issues. i believe that it is a collective responsibility.” (man, 27 years old, focus group of teachers in an urban area). younger people also claim the importance of breaking the taboo and start talking about sex more naturally. when boys and girls are in puberty, they develop sexual interest and if they are not correctly guided with information, they will experiment with it recklessly. “another point i want to raise is sex education because it is something we don’t discuss in the community. it is forbidden to use the word sex, but this is something that should be discussed within the family setting and both the female and the male child should know about it, they don’t know that is why they are involved in it.” (man, 24 years old, focus group of youth in an urban area). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 46 published by ideas spread as seen in the last section, it might seem that the urban context is more aware of this problem, but it is not really true as, in rural the context, younger people also recognise that families should address sexual education, in a confidential and safe space in which parents try to understand their sons and daughters’ position. “now parents don’t want to take up their responsibilities as parents to sit with their children and talk about issues related to sexual education and other important issues directly affecting children today. i believe teenage pregnancies, and child marriages, are happening because parents don’t sit down with their children to talk and educate them on those issues.” (man, 25 years old, focus group of youth in a rural area). key agents in the prevention of child marriage in order to reduce child marriages, the taboo regarding sex must finish, through the involvement of different social actors. in the focus groups with teachers, they explained different cases in which their students had asked them for help to get out of situations of forced marriage or on issues related to sexuality, since they are people with whom they have direct contact, and this allows them to establish a trustworthy relationship. on the other hand, the youth who participate in the two focus groups are activists who disseminate information to the girls and boys, and normalise talking about topics such as puberty and sex. “i personally organise community outreaches on sexual and reproductive issues. i do this because i believe it is a responsibility to share with people what we know that will help them. what we can do is to share with people the information we have starting from our homes, village level and our peers.” (man, 25 years old, focus group of youth in a rural area). awareness-raising is a must to achieve a real social change, and that should come from the communities themselves. teachers are also a key social player in the prevention of harmful traditional practices. first of all, they are the ones educating and empowering the future generations, so they can prevent child marriage by offering them information about their rights. they also have a good status in the communities, so they can sensitize parents and other family members alike, fostering their engagement in the education of their sons and daughters. “when the teachers are empowered with the knowledge and skills required in helping in the prevention of child marriage, they can help do more sensitizations. schoolchildren put a lot of trust in teachers up to a point, because when they say something and not something else, the teacher is considered right. the teachers can also serve as community mobilizers because most of them live within the community”. (man, 32 years old, focus group of teachers in a rural area). in the short term, teachers have daily contact with their students, which allows them to build a trusting relationship with them. in this regard, a teacher can be the confidant a girl needs to explain their problems. for example, one of the participants in the focus group of teachers in urban explained a case where a girl confessed to him that her father wanted to marry her to a friend of his. finally, the marriage did not go ahead, and the girl is still going to school, in grade 11. “the girl was very intelligent; she was sharp and smart. one day, she came in and said to me: «mr bah, i want to see you during the break. i have something bothering me, i want to see you and explain it to you. i don’t know how you can help me.» i asked her what it was, and she said: «my father said he was going to give me to his friend for me to get married to him.» […] i asked if she accepted it, but she said no. (man, 32 years old, focus group of teachers in an urban area). in the worst situations, teachers can intercede between the girl and the family, helping their students in trying to stop the marriage. one of the participants in the focus group of teachers explain her case, as she was at risk of child marriage when she was young. “i was forced to marry when i was 15 years old. they brought and shared the kola nuts. but i thank my teachers, mr. jammeh and mr. sanyang, who saved me.” (woman, 31 years old, focus group of teachers in an urban area). 5. conclusions to put an end to child marriages, it is essential to continue developing studies that allow us to understand the phenomenon and improve actions to prevent it. the approach should be based on the particularities and reasons the practice presents, to adopt effective strategies. as we have seen, age follows a clear pattern, most young people are against this practice compared to older people. in recent years, training and awareness programmes for the young population in school environments have increased. this increase in education at an early age demonstrates its impact when we look at the fact that it is the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 47 published by ideas spread youngest who relate practices such as child marriage to harmful traditional practices. in addition, education emerges as one of the pillars on which emphasis is placed to ending child marriage. different studies show that the longer the girls' studies are, the later they will marry, and the better job and economic opportunities they will have. the last years of the covid pandemic have also reduced drastically the access to education, revealing great concern around the communities. access to education, depending on the place of residence, confirms the great differences between rural and urban areas. given that child marriages are more common in rural areas, a potential strategy to encourage the abandonment of the practice arose during the focus groups. the way would be to spread the message of awareness and sensitization on harmful traditional practices amid the members of their communities, carried out by those who have studied in urban areas. this, in turn, would encourage an active participation of the civil population as agents of change within their communities themselves. the knowledge of the laws also have a different impact depending on the age. following this trend, the older a person is, the less familiar they are with the law; this, added to the fact that it is believed that the law is not applied adequately, which can lead to mistrust of it. this, in turn, reflects that the laws that prohibit child marriages are insufficient to eliminate the practice unless they are accompanied by sensitization and education on this issue. differences in the support for the law shown among the various ethnic groups should also be considered, as there is a tendency in the answers, it can be equated with the percentage of participants who answered that child marriage should continue (46% of serahules and 42% of fulas) is still very high. therefore, adapting awareness campaigns according to ethnic group is fundamental, to have a deeper diffusion on those groups who still support child marriage. even though young people show a predisposition to oppose the practice, there are still major concerns about them confronting their elders in making these decisions, which affect the entire family and may cause conflict. girls face an internal duel if they do not want to marry at an early age: follow the family tradition and continue the footsteps of their mothers or face social rejection. on some occasions, this strong gerontocratic component can be an obstacle in raising awareness among the youngest groups, since despite being effective with them, this impact does not cross the generational barrier and accentuates the arguments that "people nowadays are practicing the cultures of the west”. it would therefore be essential to generate spaces for dialogue between the generations that allow knowledge to be shared and break the taboo on these issues. these dialogue spaces could be created through affective-sexual education, as training on this topic is presented as a crucial strategy. concerns about premarital sex and teenage pregnancies are key in the motivations to carry out child marriage, observed throughout the results of the kap surveys and in the testimonies of the focus group. that is why implementing curricularly sexual and reproduction health and human rights programmes that keep families informed about the different options is necessary to initiate an open discussion about sexuality between parents and their children. also, teachers could possibly perform this role as affective-sexual educators. their position allows them to be trusted by students and to be able to talk about sensitive issues. they can be confidants to whom they can go in order to explain difficult cases or situations. references abera, m., nega, a., tefera, y., & gelegay, a. a. (2020). early marriage and women’s empowerment: the case of child-brides in amhara national regional state. bmc international health and human rights. 20:30. bicchieri, c., jiang, t., & lindemans, j. (2014) a social norms perspective on child marriage: the general framework. behaivoral ethics lab: university of pennsylvania, usa. center for human rights. (2018). a report on child marriage in africa. stefisyn, karen & painting, kate (eds.) university of pretoria. fundación wassu-uab. (2021). para dialogar con conocimiento: un estudio sobre los matrimonios forzados en españa. bellaterra: fundació wassu-uab. horii, h. (2020). walking a thin line: taking children’s decision to marry seriously? sage journals. norwegian centre for child research, 27(2):254-270. johansson, n. (2015). child marriage: the underlying reasons and possible solutions. linneaus university, faculty of social sciences, department of social studies. jouhki, j., & stark, l. (2017). causes and motives of early marriage in the gambia and tanzania. is new legislation enough? poverty and development working papers. university of jyväskylä, finland. kaplan, a. (1998). de senegambia a cataluña: procesos de aculturación e integración social. x premio de hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 5, no. 3; 2022 48 published by ideas spread investigación en ciencias sociales dr rogeli duocastella, fundación la caixa, barcelona. kaplan, a., cham, b., njie, l., seixas, a., blanco s., & utzet m. (2013). "female genital mutilation/cutting: the secret world of women as seen by men". obstetrics and gynecology international, vol. 2013, article id 643780. lowe, h., kenny, l., hassan, r., loraine, j., njoroge, p., apenem dagadu, n., hossain, m., & cislaghi, b. (2021). if she gets married when she is young, she will give birth to many kids”: a qualitative study of child marriage practices amongst nomadic pastoralist communities in kenya. culture, health & sexuality. lowe, m., joof, m., & mendez rojas, b. (2019). social and cultural factors perpetuating early marriage in rural gambia: an exploratory mixed methods study. f1000 research, 8: 1949. mobolaji, j., fatusi, a., & adedini, s. (2020). ethnicity, religious affiliation and girl-child marriage: a crosssectional study of nationally representative sample of female adolescents in nigeria. bmc public health, 20:583. raj, a., saggurti, n., lawrence, d., balaiah, d., & silverman, j. g. (2010). association between adolescent marriage and marital violence among young adult women in india. international journal of gynecology and obstetrics: the official organ of the international federation of gynecology and obstetrics, 110(1), 35-39. schaffnit, s. b., urassa, m., wamoyi, j., dardoumpa, m., & lawson, d. w. (2021). “i have never seen something like that”: discrepances between lived experiences and the global health concept of child marriage in northen tanzania. plos one, 16(4). unicef. (2015). child marriage, adolescent pregnancy and family formation in west and central africa. unicef. (2017). achieving a future without child marriage. focus on west and central africa. unicef. (2022). child marriage threatens the lives, well-being and futures of girls around the world. unfpa-unicef. (2018). girls not brides. child marriage in west and central africa. the global partnership to end child marriage. unfpa-unicef. (2020). global programme to end child marriage phase i report (2016-2019). world vision. (2014). exploring the links: female genital mutilation/cutting and early marriage. author list: adriana kaplan marcusán: chair of knowledge transfer, department of social and cultural anthropology, building b faculty of arts and humanities, universitat autònoma de barcelona, 08193 – bellaterra (cerdanyola del vallès), spain. e-mail: adriana.kaplan@uab.cat; tel: +34-93-581-1239; https://www.uab.cat/web/1263801907341.html beatriz escaño valentí: fundación wassu-uab, l’àgora (edifici r), plaça cívica campus universitat autònoma de barcelona 08193 bellaterra (cerdanyola del vallès), spain. e-mail: beatriz.escano@uab.cat; tel: +34-673294-118. https://www.uab.cat/fundacio-wassu/ júlia perarnau moles: fundación wassu-uab, l’àgora (edifici r), plaça cívica campus universitat autònoma de barcelona 08193 bellaterra (cerdanyola del vallès), spain. e-mail: julia.perarnau@uab.cat; tel: +34-673294-118. https://www.uab.cat/fundacio-wassu/ segga sanyang: wassu gambia kafo, kololi new road, kanifing municipality, po box 4533 bakau, the gambia. e-mail: segga.wgk@gmail.com; tel: +220-733-7583 salieu j. kandeh: wassu gambia kafo, kololi new road, kanifing municipality, po box 4533 bakau, the gambia. e-mail: salieu.wgk@gmail.com; tel: +220-733-7583 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v7n3p23 23 published by ideas spread a comparative analysis of twelve research paradigms across six knowledge acquisitions and twelve sources of knowledge: a philosophical discourse a.r.y. toronata tambun1, gatot yudoko1 & leo aldianto1 1 school of business & management, institut teknologi bandung, indonesia correspondence: a.r.y. toronata tambun, school of business & management, bandung 40132, indonesia. tel: 62-22-253-1923. e-mail: toronata_tambun@sbm-itb.ac.id received: november 12, 2024; accepted: november 25, 2024; published: december 26, 2024 author note a.r.y. toronata tambun is the corresponding author. correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to a.r.y. toronata tambun, school of business & management, institut teknologi bandung, indonesia. email: toronata_tambun@sbm-itb.ac.id. this research was self-funded, and the authors declare no conflict of interest. abstract this study investigates whether a single research paradigm can dominate knowledge acquisition across empirical and interpretive domains or if a multi-paradigm approach is essential for achieving a holistic understanding. twelve paradigms, including positivism, pragmatism, hermeneutics, and feminism, were evaluated across six domains: science, philosophy, history, art, religion, and culture. the methodology employed comparative analysis, factor analysis, sensitivity testing, and inter-rater reliability assessment to quantify paradigm performance. the findings confirm positivism's strength in empirical fields like science and philosophy but reveal its limitations in addressing ethical, cultural, and interpretive dimensions, where paradigms like hermeneutics and feminism excel. pragmatism and critical realism bridge empirical rigor with interpretive depth, offering integrative solutions for interdisciplinary challenges. by applying statistical tools within a philosophical inquiry, this research highlights the necessity of humility and open-mindedness in selecting paradigms to address complex questions. the study concludes that no single paradigm suffices across all domains, advocating for a multi-paradigm approach to foster collaboration, inclusivity, and a more comprehensive understanding of knowledge production. these insights have implications for interdisciplinary research, education, and policymaking, emphasizing the importance of integrating diverse epistemological perspectives. keywords: positivism, pragmatism, hermeneutics, feminism, critical realism, multi-paradigm approach, empirical knowledge, interpretive depth, humility, open-mindedness, statistical analysis 1. introduction the acquisition of knowledge is central to various academic disciplines, with each paradigm offering a unique pathway to understanding the world. positivism has long dominated scientific inquiry through its emphasis on empirical observation and data-driven methods. however, paradigms such as pragmatism, hermeneutics, and critical theory extend beyond empirical evidence, providing valuable perspectives on interpretation, meaningmaking, and social critique. no single paradigm fully captures the complexities of human knowledge. each has strengths and limitations, particularly when applied to diverse domains like science, philosophy, history, art, religion, and culture. these fields require approaches that range from empirical rigor to ethical and interpretive depth. therefore, a multi-paradigm approach may be necessary to achieve a holistic understanding of knowledge acquisition. this study investigates the performance of twelve paradigms across six domains to evaluate whether a single paradigm can dominate knowledge acquisition or if a combination is essential for comprehensive understanding. by examining the strengths and limitations of each paradigm, the research addresses the following key question: can one paradigm dominate all aspects of knowledge acquisition, or is a multi-paradigm approach essential for addressing complex domains? the findings aim to underscore the importance of multi-paradigm thinking in tackling the intricacies of interdisciplinary knowledge and integrating empirical and interpretive paradigms to provide a broader understanding of how knowledge is acquired, interpreted, and applied. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 24 published by ideas spread 1.1 research motivation one key motivation for this research stems from the prevalent tendency to undervalue non-empirical methods of knowledge acquisition. empirical approaches, such as positivism, are often viewed as more 'scientific,' leading to a disregard for the interpretive and ethical dimensions that are crucial for understanding social and cultural phenomena. this bias not only marginalizes alternative paradigms but also limits the scope of inquiry in fields that require a deeper, more nuanced understanding. additionally, many researchers exhibit a lack of discipline in maintaining consistency within their chosen paradigms. rather than fully exploring and refining their methodologies, there is a tendency to shift between different modes of knowledge acquisition, often without fully understanding the implications. this superficial approach can lead to a diluted understanding, where breadth is prioritized over depth—resulting in a 'jack of all trades, master of none' scenario. the purpose of this research is to challenge the assumption that empiricism is inherently superior and to demonstrate the value of a multi-paradigm approach. by integrating empirical methods with interpretive frameworks, this study seeks to illustrate that each paradigm offers unique contributions to a more comprehensive understanding of complex, interdisciplinary knowledge. 1.2 research question how do different research paradigms contribute to knowledge acquisition across empirical and interpretive domains, and to what extent do paradigms like feminism and hermeneutics complement positivism in providing a holistic understanding of culture, religion, and science? 1.3 literature review while science offers a structured, empirical method for acquiring knowledge, it is only one among several approaches. philosophical reflection draws from thinkers like kant, using reasoning and ethics to explore abstract questions (creswell & plano clark, 2018; saunders et al., 2023). historical analysis reconstructs past events through document interpretation, adding context that empirical data alone can't provide (ibarra & mormann, 2006). artistic interpretation, explored by newer works in creative cognition, reveals aspects of human experience that transcend scientific observation (gaut, 2020). religious or spiritual experience, discussed by contemporary scholars like swinburne, offers existential understanding through faith and revelation (swinburne, 2004). cultural practices, explored by modern anthropology, embed knowledge within community life through rituals and traditions (bernard, 2011). each of these methods enriches the broader spectrum of human knowledge. in contemporary epistemology, several recognized methods of acquiring knowledge extend beyond empiricism: rationalism, skepticism, intuition, and tradition. rationalism emphasizes reasoning and logic (bryman, 2012), while skepticism questions the certainty of knowledge (johansson, 2016). intuitionism values insight beyond empirical evidence (haack, 2018), and tradition relies on cultural continuity for knowledge (bryman, 2012; johansson, 2016). other important sources include memory and authority, which maintain accumulated knowledge across generations. empiricism remains dominant in academia, particularly in natural sciences and quantitative social sciences, where observation and measurable outcomes are highly valued. however, recognition of its limitations in fields requiring deeper social and cultural insights, like sociology and anthropology, has led to the increased adoption of mixed method approaches that integrate interpretivism and constructivism (bryman, 2012; mertens, 2005). while many view positivism as the most "scientific" approach due to its focus on observable, measurable data, critics argue that its widespread application to fields like philosophy, art, and social sciences can oversimplify complex human experiences (guba & lincoln, 1994; mertens, 2005). positivism is foundational in empirical research, focusing on observation, experimentation, and measurable outcomes (e. a. sharp et al., 2011). pragmatism, on the other hand, bridges empirical and interpretive methods by emphasizing practical outcomes, proving useful in diverse fields like public policy and education (morgan, 2014). interpretivism explores subjective experiences and social constructs, making it key in sociology and cultural studies (schwartz-shea & yanow, 2012). constructivism emphasizes that knowledge is co-created through interaction, particularly in understanding educational processes (kim, 2024). hermeneutics deepens understanding in fields like religion and ethics by focusing on interpretation (gadamer, 1989). critical theory and feminism critique power structures and address social inequalities (mertens, 2005). phenomenology captures lived experiences, offering insights into subjective realities (schwandt, 2000). critical realism balances empirical data with social structures, making it relevant in fields like public health (bhaskar et al., 2017). postmodernism and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 25 published by ideas spread post-positivism challenge established truths and embrace complexity in knowledge (guba & lincoln, 1994; e. a. sharp et al., 2011). this research investigates whether the scientific method can be effectively applied across six ways of acquiring knowledge and twelve sources, questioning whether positivism, as traditionally perceived, is truly as universally powerful as often assumed. 2. methodology 2.1 research design the study applies a comparative analysis of twelve paradigms: positivism (l. sharp et al., 2011), pragmatism (morgan, 2014), postmodernism (guba & lincoln, 1994), hermeneutics (gadamer, 1989), critical theory (mertens, 2005), constructivism (piaget, 1977; vygotsky, 1978), realism (bhaskar, 1975), interpretivism (schwartz-shea & yanow, 2012), critical realism (bhaskar et al., 2017), phenomenology (schwandt, 2000), feminism (mertens, 2005), and post-positivism (guba & lincoln, 1994). these paradigms are evaluated in six domains: science (creswell & plano clark, 2018; saunders et al., 2023), philosophy (johansson, 2016), history/tradition (ibarra & mormann, 2006), art/creative interpretation (gaut, 2020), religion (swinburne, 2004), and culture (bernard, 2011). the methodology employs a comparative evaluation across multiple domains, informed by relevant literature, to assess the feasibility of a multi-paradigm approach for comprehensive knowledge acquisition. 5.2 scoring system each paradigm was scored on its contribution to the six knowledge domains, using a scale from 0 to 3. a score of 0 indicated no or minimal contribution, 1 signified minimal contribution, 2 reflected moderate contribution, and 3 represented strong contribution. the evaluation incorporated both theoretical foundations and practical applications, providing a balanced view of each paradigm's relevance across the domains. 2.3 quantification process each paradigm's performance across the six domains—science, philosophy, history/tradition, art, religion, and culture—was quantified using the established scoring system. this process aimed to assess both the theoretical and practical contributions of each paradigm within these domains. it considered the paradigm’s philosophical foundations, its methodological approaches, and its ability to address the unique challenges, questions, and objectives relevant to each domain. the systematic scoring provided an accurate representation of each paradigm’s strengths and limitations across various fields of knowledge. 2.4 factor analysis factor analysis was conducted to explore the relationships between the twelve paradigms and the six knowledge domains. the goal was to determine whether specific paradigms aligned more strongly with empirical or interpretive knowledge and how much variance in paradigm contributions could be explained by these factors. factor 1, representing empirical knowledge, captured paradigms like positivism and pragmatism, which dominated fields such as science and philosophy. factor 2, representing interpretive knowledge, highlighted paradigms like feminism, hermeneutics, and critical theory, which were particularly relevant in interpretive fields such as culture, religion, and art. as a well-established statistical method, factor analysis simplifies complex data by identifying relationships between variables, in this case, paradigms and knowledge domains. it groups correlated paradigms to reveal the primary factors driving variance. the process began with the calculation of a correlation matrix to identify patterns between paradigms' contributions to various domains. factor extraction followed, isolating two dominant factors: empirical and interpretive knowledge. factor loadings quantified how strongly each paradigm correlated with these two dimensions. for detailed methodology, see appendix a. 2.5 inter-rater reliability (validity testing) an inter-rater reliability analysis was conducted using simulated ratings from three evaluators, each assessing the 12 paradigms across six knowledge domains. the aim was to measure the consistency of the evaluators' ratings and identify variability in their assessments. fleiss' kappa was employed to measure the level of agreement among three evaluators who rated the contributions of various paradigms across six knowledge domains—science, philosophy, history, art, religion, and culture. unlike cohen's kappa, which is suitable for two raters, fleiss' kappa extends this analysis to multiple raters, offering a robust metric for evaluating inter-rater reliability in studies with more than two evaluators. the methodology is provided in appendix a. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 26 published by ideas spread 2.6 sensitivity analysis a sensitivity analysis was conducted to test how variations in domain weightings would affect the overall performance of each paradigm. the weightings of different domains were adjusted to determine whether the rankings remained stable across different scenarios, revealing which paradigms were more sensitive to domainspecific weightings. the further elaboration of sensitive analysis is provided in appendix a. 3. findings 3.1 descriptive the twelve paradigms were analyzed based on their performance across six knowledge domains: science, philosophy, history/tradition, art, religion, and culture. see table 1 for the ranking among them. below is a detailed examination of each paradigm’s strengths and limitations across the domains: positivism (total score: 100): positivism excelled in empirical domains like science and philosophy, emphasizing objective data and measurable outcomes. however, its limitations in interpretive fields such as art, religion, and culture, where subjective experiences and creativity matter, highlight its narrower focus on empirical data. (see table 2) pragmatism (total score: 181): pragmatism performed well across multiple domains, particularly in science, philosophy, and culture, due to its adaptability and focus on practical solutions. however, it may lack the deeper interpretive nuance needed in fields that require more ethical or subjective reflection, such as religion and art. (see table 3) hermeneutics (total score: 172): hermeneutics provided deep insights in art, religion, and culture, excelling in contexts that require ethical reflection and subjective analysis. it struggled in more empirical fields like science, where objectivity and measurable data are essential. (see table 4) postmodernism (total score: 129): postmodernism thrived in challenging established narratives, especially in philosophy and art, promoting critical reflection and creativity. however, its rejection of objective truth limits its effectiveness in empirical fields like science. (see table 5) critical realism (total score: 147): critical realism offers a balance between empirical evidence and interpretive analysis. it performed well in science and philosophy, while also recognizing the role of subjective experiences, making it useful for interdisciplinary research. (see table 6) constructivism (total score: 139): constructivism is effective in domains like culture and history, where knowledge is seen as socially constructed. however, its focus on subjective experience limits its applicability in empirical domains like science. (see table 7) critical theory (total score: 159): critical theory is particularly strong in addressing power and inequality in history, culture, and tradition. its focus on social critique, however, limits its application in empirical fields like science. (see table 8) interpretivism (total score: 155): interpretivism offers deep insights into subjective aspects of human experience, making it valuable in religion and art. however, its lack of empirical grounding limits its use in domains requiring objective data, like science. (see table 9) phenomenology (total score: 125): phenomenology excelled in exploring human experiences in art and religion, providing deep insights into subjective perspectives. however, its lack of focus on empirical data limits its suitability in domains like science. (see table 10) feminism (total score: 170): feminism highlighted power dynamics and social justice, offering valuable perspectives in culture and philosophy. however, while it excels in ethical reflection, it may lack the empirical focus required in science or technical fields. (see table 11) realism (total score: 125): realism emphasizes objective reality, making it effective in fields like science and philosophy that require practical outcomes. however, its focus on objective truth limits its applicability in more interpretive domains like art and religion. (see table 12) post-positivism (total score: 119): post-positivism builds on positivism, accepting that while objective knowledge is possible, it is open to revision. it is particularly strong in science and philosophy but lacks the interpretive depth needed in more subjective fields like art and religion. (see table 13) from the detailed examination of each paradigm’s strengths and limitations across the six knowledge domains, it becomes evident that some paradigms offer more versatility and broader applicability than others. to provide a hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 27 published by ideas spread clearer perspective, the following ranking is based on the total scores accumulated by each paradigm, reflecting their performance across the domains of science, philosophy, history, art, religion, and culture. see table 14 for the summary of paradigms. a comparative view of the paradigms’ contributions across all six domains, highlighting their strengths and limitations in relation to one another. the comparative radar chart (figure 1) illustrates the performance of the three most prominent paradigms across six knowledge domains. positivism excels in science, while pragmatism and critical theory offer more balanced contributions across multiple domains, particularly in fields that require both practical and interpretive insights. however, these findings are not yet conclusive, as validity and sensitivity analyses are still required for further verification. similarly, the table presented as table 15 is a hypothetical model designed to conceptually illustrate each paradigm’s engagement with the twelve sources of knowledge (see figure 3). the values reflect assumptions made by the researcher for illustrative purposes only and do not represent empirical data. this model aims to provide a preliminary visualization and should not be interpreted as a verified or exhaustive account of paradigmatic differences. for a more empirically grounded model, further evaluations from multiple assessors could be integrated, though this falls outside the scope of the current study. 3.2 factor analysis the factor analysis confirmed that no single paradigm could adequately address all domains of knowledge acquisition, especially where ethical, social, and cultural interpretation were concerned. the result is illustrated by factor loading plots (figure 2) showing how paradigms grouped around the two main factors. the factor analysis confirmed that no single paradigm could adequately address all knowledge domains, particularly where ethical, social, and cultural interpretations were crucial. 3.3 validity findings the results of fleiss' kappa (table 16 and table 17) reveal varying levels of agreement among the evaluators across six knowledge domains, reflecting the influence of their philosophical orientations on paradigm assessments. in the science domain, evaluators demonstrated slight disagreement (kappa = -0.026), suggesting that the evaluators' distinct philosophical perspectives—ranging from empirical positivism to interpretive paradigms—led to conflicting assessments. the slight disagreement highlights the tension between empirical rigor and the evaluators who may value interpretive, more context-driven insights. this finding suggests that empirical domains, though grounded in observable data, still face challenges when approached by evaluators with differing epistemological orientations. in philosophy, the kappa value of 0.014 points to minimal agreement among the evaluators. this likely reflects the inherently interpretive and often subjective nature of philosophical inquiry, where different evaluators might prioritize theoretical frameworks differently. the evaluators' philosophical orientations, rooted in both empirical and interpretive traditions, might have created a wide range of interpretations, complicating efforts to align their judgments. history, with a kappa value of 0.045, displayed similarly low levels of agreement. the evaluators likely struggled to reconcile the dual demands of empirical evidence and interpretive depth that characterize historical analysis. the low agreement in this domain underscores the challenge of evaluating paradigms that intersect both factual and narrative-based methodologies. in contrast, the art domain showed slightly better alignment among evaluators (kappa = 0.189). though still low, this value suggests that evaluators were more capable of finding common ground, likely because art demands a degree of subjective interpretation, which may allow for broader interpretive flexibility. however, even in this interpretive domain, achieving consensus remains difficult due to the evaluators' varied perspectives on how paradigms should engage with creativity and expression. moderate agreement was found in the religion domain (kappa = 0.257). the slightly higher consensus here may reflect a more unified approach to evaluating paradigms relevant to religious studies, where evaluators could have shared a common interpretive framework. despite their philosophical differences, evaluators appeared to converge on certain aspects of religious knowledge, where interpretive depth and ethical reflection are critical. the last domain, culture, stood out with substantial agreement (kappa = 0.689). this suggests that cultural paradigms, which often engage deeply with interpretive methods, were understood more consistently across evaluators. the shared assumptions about cultural frameworks and the emphasis on social and contextual understanding likely contributed to this higher level of agreement. this finding emphasizes that, in domains where interpretive paradigms dominate, evaluators with diverse philosophical backgrounds can still find common ground. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 28 published by ideas spread 3.4 sensitivity analysis and paradigm performance the sensitivity analysis reveals how paradigm rankings shift when different knowledge domains are prioritized. to explore the robustness of the paradigm rankings across different knowledge domains, a sensitivity analysis was conducted. this analysis aimed to assess how shifting the emphasis among domains (e.g., empirical vs. interpretive knowledge) affects the final paradigm rankings. 3.4.1 weighting the study applied different weight assumptions to prioritize various knowledge domains: science, philosophy, history, art, religion, and culture. in the empirical focus scenario, science and philosophy were prioritized with a weight of 0.4 each, while history, art, religion, and culture were each assigned a weight of 0.05. this setup evaluated how paradigms such as positivism and critical realism, which emphasize empirical knowledge, performed when objective, data-driven inquiry was prioritized. the interpretive focus scenario shifted emphasis to art, religion, and culture, where paradigms like hermeneutics, feminism, and interpretivism excel. art was weighted at 0.3, religion at 0.25, and culture at 0.25, while science and philosophy were each assigned a weight of 0.05, and history at 0.1. this allowed the study to assess how interpretive paradigms performed in domains requiring subjective analysis and ethical critique. in the balanced focus scenario, equal weighting (0.166) was applied to all six domains, ensuring an unbiased evaluation of paradigms like pragmatism and critical theory, which integrate both empirical and interpretive strengths. this balanced approach revealed each paradigm's overall performance without prioritizing any single domain. 3.4.2 sensitivity testing each scenario was run through a sensitivity analysis to measure how shifts in the emphasis on specific knowledge domains affect the paradigm rankings. this analysis ensured that the final results were not disproportionately influenced by one domain or evaluative perspective. by adjusting the weightings across different scenarios, the study reveals which paradigms are more resilient to changes in focus and which are more domain sensitive. the results from these weighting scenarios allowed for a more comprehensive understanding of how paradigms perform under varying contexts, ensuring that the conclusions drawn are robust and reflective of diverse forms of knowledge acquisition. the paradigm sensitivity rankings have been calculated based on three scenarios (table 18). in the empirical focus, higher weights were assigned to science and philosophy, reflecting the emphasis on empirical data and logical reasoning. the interpretive focus prioritized art, religion, and culture, domains where subjective interpretation and ethical considerations are more prevalent. the balanced focus applied equal weights across all six domains, ensuring a more neutral evaluation. these rankings illustrate how different paradigms perform depending on the focus. for example, paradigms like hermeneutics and feminism rank highly when the emphasis is on interpretive domains, while pragmatism shows stronger performance when empirical fields are prioritized. this demonstrates the adaptability of certain paradigms based on the domain-specific weighting. 3.4.3 impact on ranking hermeneutics and feminism both performed exceptionally well under the interpretive focus, with scores of 2.75 and 2.8, respectively, reflecting their strengths in subjective, culturally driven domains. both paradigms also maintained strong, though slightly lower, scores in the balanced focus, with hermeneutics scoring 2.324 and feminism also at 2.324. pragmatism, on the other hand, performed best in the empirical focus (2.75), demonstrating its applicability in scientific and objective domains, though it scored lower in the interpretive focus (1.85). in the balanced focus, pragmatism remained strong with a score of 2.158, highlighting its versatility across different contexts. notably, critical theory achieved the highest score in the balanced focus (1.992), demonstrating its consistent performance across both empirical and interpretive fields. a key finding from the research highlights the limitations of positivism across different knowledge domains. while positivism dominates in the empirical focus with a score of 2.1, it still performs lower than pragmatism in this domain, which scores 2.75. this suggests that even within its core strength—empirical, science-based inquiry—positivism may not always be the most effective paradigm. moreover, positivism's significant underperformance in the interpretive focus (0.6) reveals its lack of versatility in subjective and culturally driven contexts such as art, religion, and culture. this underscores a critical conclusion from the research: while positivism excels in empirical domains, it cannot singularly address the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 29 published by ideas spread complexities of knowledge acquisition, further reinforcing the need for a multi-paradigm approach that includes paradigms like pragmatism and hermeneutics to achieve a more holistic understanding across both empirical and interpretive fields. the analysis aimed to identify which paradigms were the most versatile across the three focus areas: empirical focus, interpretive focus, and balanced focus (see table 19). versatility was measured by calculating the total differences in performance across these areas. paradigms with the smallest total differences exhibited consistent performance regardless of the context, making them the most versatile. in contrast, paradigms with larger differences were considered less versatile, indicating significant variability in their performance depending on the focus. the results indicate that certain paradigms demonstrated a high level of versatility, performing consistently across empirical, interpretive, and balanced domains. critical theory, with a total difference of 0.01, emerged as the most versatile paradigm. its nearly uniform performance across all focus areas suggests broad applicability in different contexts, making it a robust paradigm for both empirical and interpretive knowledge acquisition. phenomenology, with a total difference of 0.15, also demonstrated considerable versatility. the minimal variation in its performance across the three focus areas highlights its balanced approach to empirical and interpretive domains, making it adaptable and widely applicable. critical realism, with a total difference of 0.37, similarly showed significant versatility. its consistent performance across different focuses highlights its capacity to integrate empirical rigor with interpretive understanding. these paradigms, performing consistently across the empirical, interpretive, and balanced focuses, suggest that they are well-suited for a variety of knowledge acquisition contexts. their versatility allows them to adapt to both objective, science-based fields and more subjective, culturally driven domains. on the other hand, some paradigms exhibited greater variability across the focus areas, making them less versatile. postmodernism, with a total difference of 3.34, showed the greatest variability between focuses, particularly between empirical and interpretive domains. this suggests it is less adaptable to empirical knowledge contexts. positivism, with a total difference of 3.04, also exhibited substantial variability, especially between empirical focus and interpretive focus. its performance was weaker in interpretive and balanced contexts, underscoring the highly specialized nature of positivism, which is better suited for empirical domains but less adaptable to interpretive or balanced approaches. feminism and hermeneutics also demonstrated noticeable variability, with total differences of 2.8 and 2.0, respectively. while these paradigms performed strongly in interpretive domains, they were less effective in empirical contexts, highlighting their limitations outside of culturally driven or ethically focused areas. 4. discussion this research evaluated twelve paradigms across six knowledge domains—science, philosophy, history, art, religion, and culture. the central question was whether one paradigm could dominate knowledge acquisition or if a multi-paradigm approach is necessary. this chapter interprets the findings to address these objectives. 4.1 key paradigms in practice: empirical, interpretive, and integrative strengths the findings reveal that the twelve paradigms evaluated across six domains exhibit distinct strengths in empirical, interpretive, and integrative approaches. this sub-chapter synthesizes these insights, organizing paradigms by their core contributions. 4.1.1 empirical strengths positivism stands out for its empirical rigor, excelling in domains like science and philosophy, where observation, logical reasoning, and measurable outcomes are paramount. its ability to produce clear, quantifiable results has driven scientific progress and technological development. however, its limitations emerge in fields like sociology and anthropology, which prioritize understanding social systems and cultural dynamics. positivism captures behavioral patterns through statistical data but often overlooks nuanced social structures, power dynamics, and cultural contexts. for example, in anthropology, its focus on empirical data fails to account for the rich narratives and traditions that inform human actions and beliefs. in interdisciplinary research, such as public health, positivism measures disease prevalence and treatment outcomes effectively but struggles to address cultural barriers to healthcare access or the impact of social stigmas on patient behavior. these limitations underscore the need to complement positivism with interpretive paradigms to achieve a more comprehensive understanding (see figure 4). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 30 published by ideas spread 4.1.2 interpretive strengths interpretive paradigms prioritize meaning, context, and human experience, making them essential in subjective domains like art, religion, and culture. hermeneutics excels in exploring cultural narratives and human experiences, offering depth where empirical paradigms fall short. it emphasizes ethical reflection and subjective analysis, essential for constructing meaning in diverse social systems. hermeneutics is increasingly relevant in modern contexts like ethics and digital humanities. for example, it facilitates the interpretation of moral dilemmas in artificial intelligence and bioethics while enabling nuanced analyses of large digital datasets. by addressing such complex phenomena, hermeneutics proves indispensable in contexts requiring interpretive depth (see figure 6). feminism contributes significantly to domains like culture and religion by addressing power dynamics and social justice. it focuses on amplifying marginalized voices and challenging established knowledge systems. feminism introduces critical ethical dimensions that complement empirical paradigms, offering a broader perspective on human interactions. its emphasis on social critique and ethical reflection provides unique insights into societal inequalities and justice, essential for ethical decision-making (see figure 7). interpretivism is vital for understanding socially constructed realities. it focuses on interpreting human experiences and cultural meanings, enriching qualitative research and cultural studies. its strength lies in capturing the nuances of social phenomena, particularly in subjective fields. however, interpretivism requires complementary empirical paradigms for robust interdisciplinary applications (see figure 9). constructivism further supports the interpretive dimension by exploring how knowledge is shaped through human interaction and social contexts. by examining the construction of collective realities, it provides insights into cultural narratives and shared meanings. like interpretivism, constructivism excels in context-driven fields but benefits from empirical paradigms in data-intensive applications (see figure 10). 4.1.3 integrative strengths paradigms like pragmatism and critical realism bridge empirical and interpretive approaches, offering versatility and balance across domains. pragmatism stands out for its adaptability, enabling seamless integration of empirical evidence and interpretive insights. its versatility makes it particularly effective in fast-evolving fields like technology, public policy, and healthcare. pragmatism translates theoretical findings into actionable outcomes by balancing technical feasibility with contextual relevance. for instance, it fosters innovation in technology by combining empirical rigor with human-centered design. in public policy, pragmatism reconciles empirical findings with social considerations, resulting in evidence-based yet culturally sensitive policies (see figure 5). critical realism provides a balanced perspective by integrating empirical data with insights into underlying social structures. it is particularly effective in interdisciplinary contexts like environmental studies and public health. in environmental studies, critical realism combines data collection with critiques of socio-political influences on policy. similarly, in public health, it examines how social inequalities shape health outcomes while maintaining empirical rigor. this dual capability makes critical realism indispensable for addressing complex, real-world challenges (see figure 8). 4.2 sensitivity analysis and domain-specific strengths the sensitivity analysis reveals that paradigm performance varies depending on the domain emphasized, directly influencing research and policy decisions. empirical fields such as science and philosophy prioritize measurable evidence, favoring paradigms like positivism. in contrast, subjective domains like art, religion, and culture benefit from hermeneutics and feminism, which emphasize interpretation and social critique. in practice, this variability has significant implications. for instance, in environmental studies or public health, relying solely on empirical paradigms may yield scientifically valid data but fail to address broader social or ethical considerations. paradigms like critical realism, which integrate empirical rigor with social critique, offer more comprehensive solutions by addressing both data and underlying societal structures. likewise, in ethics and culture, empirical methods alone risk overlooking essential human experiences and power dynamics. feminism and interpretivism provide tools to understand societal impacts and amplify marginalized voices, critical for ethical decision-making and cultural analysis. the sensitivity analysis highlights the need for a multi-paradigm approach, balancing empirical and interpretive paradigms to ensure both measurable data and deeper cultural, social, and ethical dimensions are considered, resulting in more effective and inclusive outcomes. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 31 published by ideas spread 4.3 evaluator agreement and philosophical orientations: fleiss' kappa findings the fleiss' kappa results provide valuable insights into how philosophical orientations influence paradigm assessments across domains. low levels of agreement in empirical fields like science and philosophy highlight the challenges of reconciling divergent approaches. evaluators with empirical, positivist leanings prioritized observable data and measurable outcomes, while those with interpretivist perspectives focused on contextual interpretation and meaning. this divergence underscores the inherent difficulty in achieving consensus when evaluators approach knowledge acquisition from different epistemological frameworks. in contrast, the moderate agreement observed in the religion domain reflects a more nuanced interaction. while evaluators shared some common interpretive frameworks, particularly for ethical and spiritual questions, differences in philosophical approaches to metaphysical or existential issues persisted. this demonstrates the complexity of applying empirical rigor to domains that demand interpretive depth. the culture domain, with substantial agreement (kappa=0.689), presents a stark contrast. here, shared interpretive assumptions about cultural frameworks allowed for greater consensus, indicating that evaluators from diverse epistemological backgrounds can align more easily in domains where social and contextual understanding are central. this highlights the potential for common ground when paradigms emphasize societal structures and narratives. these findings reinforce the broader argument that no single paradigm can dominate knowledge acquisition across all domains. variations in agreement levels between empirical and interpretive fields reveal the distinct strengths of different paradigms and the need for an integrated, multi-paradigm approach. while philosophical disagreements are likely to persist in domains requiring empirical rigor, interpretive contexts like culture demonstrate the possibility of alignment, emphasizing the importance of context in paradigm evaluation. ultimately, the fleiss' kappa findings emphasize the need for interdisciplinary approaches that balance empirical evidence with ethical, cultural, and contextual considerations. by fostering dialogue and bridging philosophical divides, researchers can achieve a more comprehensive understanding of complex, interdisciplinary challenges. 4.4 synthesis of multi-paradigm approaches: the role of science and humility this study demonstrates that no single paradigm can fully address the complexities of knowledge acquisition. while positivism provides empirical rigor and remains indispensable for validating observable phenomena in fields like science and philosophy, its limitations become evident in contexts requiring subjective interpretation or ethical reflection. paradigms like pragmatism and critical realism bridge these gaps by linking theory with practice and offering both empirical and interpretive insights. meanwhile, hermeneutics, feminism, and interpretivism enrich understanding in subjective domains like culture and religion by addressing power dynamics, ethical considerations, and human experiences. science, celebrated for its empirical rigor and transformative impact, has played a cornerstone role in knowledge acquisition, from roger bacon's foundational work in the 13th century to francis bacon's refinements during the enlightenment. the scientific method, emphasizing observation, experimentation, and logic, laid the groundwork for positivism, which prioritizes empirical observation and measurable phenomena. however, as this study underscores, science is only one part of a broader system of knowledge acquisition that also includes philosophy, history, art, religion, and culture. fields such as environmental studies, public health, and ethics illustrate the limitations of relying solely on empirical methods. while science provides essential data-driven insights, it often requires complementing paradigms to address deeper social, cultural, and ethical dimensions. for example, environmental policies must incorporate socio-political critiques to ensure sustainability, while public health interventions demand an understanding of cultural barriers and social inequalities. similarly, debates on privacy, ai ethics, and digital identity highlight the need for hermeneutics and critical realism to explore cultural and ethical implications beyond measurable data. this recognition of science’s place within a larger, interconnected system of paradigms calls for humility. no single discipline or approach holds a monopoly on truth. while empirical methods like positivism bring precision, interpretive paradigms such as philosophical reflection and cultural analysis add depth and context. together, these approaches enrich our understanding of complex interdisciplinary challenges, ensuring a more holistic framework for knowledge acquisition. humility in research is not merely a philosophical ideal but a practical necessity. it demands openness to critique, collaboration across disciplines, and acknowledgment of the value of diverse perspectives. intuition, autoethnography, artistic interpretation, and other interpretive methods offer complementary insights into human hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 32 published by ideas spread experiences that cannot be reduced to measurable phenomena. by embracing humility, researchers foster intellectual growth and contribute to a more inclusive, comprehensive view of knowledge. the integration of empirical rigor with ethical and cultural considerations underscores the value of a multiparadigm framework. by respecting the strengths of each paradigm, this approach ensures that knowledge acquisition is both scientifically precise and socially relevant, enabling richer and more collaborative processes across disciplines. 4.5 practical applications of a multi-paradigm approach the findings highlight the importance of integrating multiple paradigms to address complex, interdisciplinary challenges. this principle is exemplified by ongoing research on entrepreneurial ecosystem development in indonesia, employing a combination of autoethnography, system dynamics, and mixed method approaches to generate actionable insights. although still in progress, preliminary findings demonstrate the effectiveness of this multi-paradigm framework in addressing real-world problems. the research investigates how early childhood exposure, family culture, and national values shape entrepreneurial tendencies. early findings from autoethnography reveal the influence of "sparkling moments" in childhood on long-term mental models, capturing nuanced cultural and familial factors that drive entrepreneurial aspirations in the indonesian context. these qualitative insights are translated into dynamic models using causal loop diagrams (clds), which identify systemic barriers and leverage points in the entrepreneurial ecosystem. pragmatism guides the development of culturally sensitive accelerator programs, combining measurable performance metrics with interpretive analyses to ensure relevance and rigor. the methodologies and insights from this research offer a roadmap for applying a multi-paradigm approach across other domains. in public health, autoethnography can uncover cultural barriers, such as vaccine hesitancy, while system dynamics models simulate the impact of interventions on population health outcomes. in education, understanding family culture’s influence on entrepreneurial tendencies can inform curricula that balance standardized outcomes with fostering creativity and self-efficacy. similarly, in environmental studies, integrating empirical climate data with community narratives can lead to culturally inclusive and sustainable policy solutions. this approach demonstrates how combining quantitative data with interpretive frameworks produces policies that are not only effective but also contextually sensitive. by bridging empirical rigor with interpretive depth, this multi-paradigm framework underscores its potential to address interdisciplinary challenges. its application in entrepreneurial development highlights its broader relevance to public health, education, and environmental studies, ensuring both scientific precision and cultural sensitivity. for further details, see the author’s ongoing doctoral research on autoethnography and system dynamics in entrepreneurship development (toronata tambun et al., 2024). 4.6 philosophical reflections on paradigmatic integration the findings highlight the necessity of integrating multiple paradigms to address the complexities of knowledge acquisition across diverse domains. bridging empirical and interpretive methodologies creates a comprehensive framework for interdisciplinary research. this multi-paradigm approach advances both theoretical understanding and practical applications, enabling researchers to tackle interdisciplinary challenges with greater precision and inclusivity. by adopting this framework, the nature of knowledge production in academia is redefined to embrace diversity and holistic insight. 4.6.1 critical realism as a bridging paradigm critical realism exemplifies the potential of paradigmatic integration by combining empirical rigor with interpretive depth. it captures observable phenomena while probing the underlying social structures that influence them. for example, in public health research, critical realism not only quantifies disease spread but also explores how social inequities and cultural practices shape health outcomes. this dual focus makes it essential for addressing complex issues that require both measurable data and a deeper understanding of systemic dynamics. 4.6.2 pragmatism as a framework for interdisciplinary collaboration pragmatism complements critical realism by prioritizing practical outcomes over theoretical divides. it facilitates interdisciplinary collaboration by focusing on actionable solutions, enabling empirical and interpretive researchers to align their efforts. for instance, in policymaking, pragmatism reconciles the precision of empirical methods with the contextual insights of interpretive paradigms, producing policies that are both effective and culturally relevant. this adaptability positions pragmatism as a meta-framework for integrating diverse paradigms in realworld problem-solving. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 33 published by ideas spread 4.6.3 epistemological implications of multi-paradigm approaches a multi-paradigm approach challenges the traditional dominance of empirical methods by emphasizing the value of contextuality and multiplicity in knowledge production. it moves beyond the positivist pursuit of universal truths, advocating for a pluralistic understanding that includes cultural narratives, ethical considerations, and marginalized perspectives. integrating paradigms such as hermeneutics, feminism, and pragmatism enriches the scope of inquiry, democratizing the academic discourse and allowing for a more inclusive production of knowledge. 4.6.4 the role of humility in knowledge production adopting a multi-paradigm approach requires humility—acknowledging that no single paradigm can fully encapsulate the complexities of human experience. humility fosters openness to critique, interdisciplinary collaboration, and recognition of diverse perspectives. for example, integrating autoethnography with system dynamics, as demonstrated in the author’s ongoing research, reflects this mindset by valuing both personal narratives and systemic analyses in understanding entrepreneurial ecosystems. by embracing humility, researchers foster intellectual growth, interdisciplinary collaboration, and a broader, more inclusive understanding of knowledge. 5. conclusion this study addresses the research question by demonstrating that no single paradigm can fully dominate knowledge acquisition across all domains. positivism, while essential in empirical fields such as science and philosophy, is limited in areas that require subjective interpretation and ethical reflection, like culture, religion, and art. the research shows that interpretive paradigms, such as hermeneutics and feminism, are indispensable for understanding human experiences, cultural narratives, and social justice issues, which positivism alone cannot fully capture. pragmatism's versatility is highlighted as it successfully bridges empirical and interpretive approaches, offering practical applications in fields like public policy and technology. critical realism also proves essential in balancing empirical evidence with social critique, making it effective in interdisciplinary research where both data and societal structures must be considered. the analysis confirms that no single paradigm can dominate knowledge acquisition across all domains. positivism provides empirical rigor but faces limitations in subjective and ethical fields. pragmatism bridges theory and practice, while hermeneutics adds interpretive depth. feminism and critical realism contribute valuable ethical and social perspectives, particularly in fields like culture and religion. the findings confirm that a multi-paradigm approach is necessary to provide a holistic understanding of knowledge acquisition. empirical rigor, while vital, must be complemented by paradigms that address ethical, cultural, and interpretive dimensions. thus, the study directly answers the research question by establishing that integrating multiple paradigms, such as positivism, pragmatism, hermeneutics, feminism, and critical realism, ensures a more comprehensive framework for understanding knowledge across diverse domains. 6. recommendations 6.1 align paradigms with research objectives researchers must clearly define their objectives and align these with appropriate paradigms. recognizing that no single paradigm provides a universal solution, the selection process requires deliberate sense-making through deep engagement with the literature. this involves critically analyzing and synthesizing insights from extensive references rather than relying on superficial keyword searches. such rigorous exploration ensures paradigms are theoretically sound and contextually aligned with the research’s goals. embracing humility in this process fosters intellectual openness, bridging empirical rigor with interpretive depth and enabling interdisciplinary collaboration. this mindset nurtures continuous learning and ensures research is both methodologically robust and ethically grounded. 6.2 integrate ontology, epistemology, and axiology a strong understanding of ontological, epistemological, and axiological foundations is essential for meaningful research. ontology shapes views on reality, epistemology governs how knowledge is constructed, and axiology guides the values underpinning the research. value-driven research moves beyond procedural checklists, ensuring inquiry is purposeful and ethically relevant. humility supports this integration by encouraging openness to critique and alternative perspectives, enriching the philosophical underpinnings of research and fostering greater interdisciplinarity, adaptability, and innovation. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 34 published by ideas spread 6.3 foster institutional support for diverse approaches academic institutions must create an environment that values intellectual openness and methodological diversity. progress often emerges from the interaction of differing paradigms and perspectives, making it essential to avoid rigid adherence to specific approaches. institutions should actively promote interdisciplinary collaboration and provide resources that encourage researchers to explore diverse paradigms. educators play a pivotal role in cultivating curiosity and adaptability in students, preparing them to navigate interdisciplinary challenges with both humility and intellectual rigor. in policymaking, humility ensures decisions are informed not only by data but also by ethical, social, and cultural considerations, leading to more compassionate and impactful outcomes. references bernard, h. r. (2011). research methods in anthropology: qualitative and quantitative approaches. altamira press. bhaskar, r. (1975). a realist theory of science. leeds books. bhaskar, r., danermark, b., & price, l. (2017). critical realism and social science. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315177298-5 bryman, a. (2012). social research methods (4th ed.). oxford university press. creswell, j. w., & plano clark, v. l. (2018). designing and conducting mixed methods research (3rd ed.). sage publications, inc. gadamer, h. g. (1989). truth and method. continuum. gaut, b. (2020). a philosophy of art: the metaphysical foundations. cambridge university press. guba, e. g., & lincoln, y. s. (1994). competing paradigms in qualitative research. in handbook of qualitative research (pp. 105-117). sage. haack, s. (2018). evidence matters: science, proof, and truth in the law. cambridge university press. ibarra, a., & mormann, t. (2006). scientific theories as intervening representations. theoria an international journal for theory history and foundations of science. https://doi.org/10.1387/theoria.551 johansson, l. g. (2016). philosophy of science for scientists. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-26551-3 kim, y. (2024). application of social constructivism in medical education. korean medical education review. https://doi.org/10.17496/kmer.23.044 mertens, d. m. (2005). research and evaluation in education and psychology: integrating diversity with quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods. sage publications. morgan, d. l. (2014). pragmatism as a paradigm for social research. qualitative inquiry, 20(8), 1045-1053. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077800413513733 piaget, j. (1977). the development of thought: equilibration of cognitive structures. viking. saunders, m. n., lewis, p., & thornhill, a. (2023). reseach methods for business students (9th ed.). pearson education limited. schwandt, t. a. (2000). the sage dictionary of qualitative inquiry. sage publications, inc. schwartz-shea, p., & yanow, d. (2012). interpretive research design: concepts and processes (illustrated). taylor & francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203854907 sharp, e. a., aguirre, g., & kick, e. l. (2011). positivist and post-positivist approaches to interdisciplinary research: a critical review. theory and practice in interdisciplinary research, 7(1), 12-26. sharp, l., mcdonald, a., sim, p., knamiller, c., sefton, c. j., & wong, s. (2011). positivism, post‐positivism and domestic water demand: interrelating science across the paradigmatic divide. in transactions of the institute of british geographers https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5661.2011.00435.x swinburne, r. (2004). the existence of god. oxford university press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199271672.001.0001 toronata tambun, a. r. y., yudoko, g., & aldianto, l. (2024). qual-quant-quant/qual-qual mixed method: autoethnography in building system dynamics’ causal loop diagram [manuscript submitted for publication]. international journal of multiple research approaches. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 35 published by ideas spread vygotsky, l. (1978). mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. harvard university press. appendix a detailed explanations of statistical methods factor analysis definition: factor analysis identifies underlying relationships among variables by reducing them into common factors. it simplifies complex data and shows how paradigms align across domains. objective: in this study, factor analysis reveals patterns in the contributions of different paradigms to empirical and interpretive domains. process: 1. correlation matrix: relationships between paradigms and their performance across domains were analyzed. 2. factor extraction: factors representing empirical (factor 1) and interpretive knowledge (factor 2) were identified. 3. factor loadings: each paradigm's alignment with empirical and interpretive knowledge was quantified (as illustrated in the provided factor loading plot). result: figure 2: the plot shows how paradigms are distributed along two axes—empirical knowledge (factor 1) and interpretive knowledge (factor 2). in this case hermeneutics and postmodernism rank high in interpretive knowledge but low in empirical knowledge. positivism excels in empirical knowledge but ranks low in interpretive dimensions. this distribution underscores the specialization of paradigms in addressing different knowledge domains. fleiss' kappa definition: fleiss' kappa quantifies agreement among multiple evaluators. it evaluates how consistently paradigms were rated across knowledge domains. objective: to measure the philosophical alignment or disagreement among evaluators about paradigm contributions. process: 1. evaluator ratings: each paradigm was rated by multiple evaluators for its performance across six domains. 2. kappa calculation: scores range from -1 (complete disagreement) to 1 (perfect agreement). 3. levels of agreement: agreement levels indicate evaluator alignment. result: table 17: fleiss' kappa result. here substantial agreement in culture suggests common understanding of its interpretive nature, meanwhile, slight disagreement in science reflects evaluators' differing philosophical approaches to empirical paradigms. sensitivity analysis definition: sensitivity analysis evaluates how paradigm rankings change under varying assumptions about domain importance. objective: to test paradigm robustness when emphasis shifts between empirical, interpretive, or balanced domains. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 36 published by ideas spread process: 1. assign weights: three scenarios were considered: • empirical focus: higher weights for science and philosophy. • interpretive focus: higher weights for art, religion, and culture. • balanced focus: equal weights across all domains. 2. recalculate rankings: paradigms were re-ranked based on weighted contributions. result: table 18: paradigms’ sensitivity test rankings. hermeneutics and feminism perform well in interpretive contexts, underscoring their relevance to subjective domains like art and culture. positivism dominates in empirical contexts but performs poorly in interpretive domains. pragmatism remains versatile, balancing contributions across all contexts. table table 1. paradigm ranking paradigm total score pragmatism 181 hermeneutics 172 feminism 170 critical theory 159 interpretivism 155 critical realism 147 constructivism 139 postmodernism 129 realism 125 phenomenology 125 post-positivism 119 positivism 100 table 2. knowledge acquisition matrix positivism paradigm hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 37 published by ideas spread table 3. knowledge acquisition matrix pragmatism paradigm table 4. knowledge acquisition hermeneutics paradigm hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 38 published by ideas spread table 5. knowledge acquisition post modernism paradigm table 6. knowledge acquisition critical realism paradigm hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 39 published by ideas spread table 7. knowledge acquisition constructivism paradigm table 8. knowledge acquisition critical theory paradigm hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 40 published by ideas spread table 9. knowledge acquisition interpretivism paradigm table 10. knowledge acquisition phenomenology paradigm hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 41 published by ideas spread table 11. knowledge acquisition feminism paradigm table 12. knowledge acquisition realism paradigm hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 42 published by ideas spread table 13. knowledge acquisition post positivism paradigm table 14. paradigm – descriptive paradigm total score strengths limitations positivism 100 excels in empirical domains like science and philosophy. struggles in interpretive fields like art, religion, and culture. pragmatism 181 strong in practical, adaptable solutions across multiple domains. lacks depth in fields requiring ethical or subjective reflection. hermeneutics 172 deep insights in art, religion, and culture; excels in interpretation. less effective in empirical fields like science. postmodernism 129 challenges conventional ideas, strong in philosophy and art. rejection of objective truth limits application in science. critical realism 147 balanced approach; integrates empirical and interpretive strengths. lacks the empirical rigor of positivism in some domains. constructivism 139 strong in culture and history, emphasizes socially constructed knowledge. less applicable in empirical fields like science. phenomenology 125 excels in exploring human experiences in art and religion. lacks focus on empirical data, limiting use in science. feminism 170 highlights power dynamics and social justice, strong in culture and philosophy. lacks empirical focus required in science or technical fields. critical theory 159 effective in deconstructing power structures, strong in history and culture. less applicable in empirical fields like science. interpretivism 155 deep insights into subjective experiences, strong in religion and art. lacks empirical grounding, limiting its use in science. realism 125 emphasizes objective reality, effective in science and philosophy. limited applicability in interpretive fields like art and religion. post-positivism 119 builds on positivism, allowing for empirical exploration with openness to revision. lacks depth in subjective fields like art and religion. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 43 published by ideas spread table 15. paradigm sources of knowledge hypothetical table p o si ti v is m p ra g m a ti sm h er m en eu ti c s p o st m o d e rn is m c ri ti ca l r e a li sm c o n st ru ct iv is m c ri ti ca l t h eo ry in te rp re ti vi sm p h en o m e n o lo g y f e m in is m r ea li sm p o st p o si ti v is m empiricism 24 22 18 19 20 21 18 22 23 17 20 22 empirical skepticism 20 21 17 20 22 20 19 21 22 19 18 23 skepticism 22 23 22 18 19 22 23 18 20 20 22 21 rationalism 24 24 20 17 18 23 20 23 19 21 21 20 fallibilism 18 20 15 22 21 19 22 20 21 18 19 19 belief and doubt 20 22 19 18 20 18 17 19 18 22 17 22 intuition 16 23 24 21 19 22 21 22 19 23 24 18 tradition 22 21 21 23 22 20 19 18 23 20 23 21 memory 20 24 22 20 21 24 20 21 20 21 18 23 consensus 24 23 18 19 23 21 18 23 22 19 21 20 authority 22 20 16 17 18 23 20 20 21 23 20 18 kant's reconciliation 24 24 23 24 24 19 23 22 18 18 22 24 table 16. evaluator rating table 17. fleiss’ kappa result domain fleiss' kappa level of agreement science -0.026 slight disagreement philosophy 0.014 very low agreement history 0.045 very low agreement art 0.189 low agreement religion 0.257 moderate agreement culture 0.689 substantial agreement hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 44 published by ideas spread table 18. paradigms’ sensitivity test ranking paradigm empirical focus interpretive focus balanced focus hermeneutics 1.75 2.75 2.324 feminism 1.4 2.8 2.324 pragmatism 2.75 1.85 2.158 critical theory 2 2 1.992 interpretivism 1.3 2.45 1.992 postmodernism 0.95 2.65 1.992 critical realism 1.95 1.7 1.826 phenomenology 1.95 1.75 1.826 realism 2.25 1.25 1.66 constructivism 1.85 1.35 1.494 post-positivism 1.85 1.35 1.494 positivism 2.1 0.6 1.162 table 19. paradigm versatility ranking paradigm difference (empirical vs interpretive) difference (empirical vs balanced) difference (interpretive vs balanced) total difference postmodernism 1.7 1.042 0.658 3.4 positivism 1.5 0.938 0.562 3 feminism 1.4 0.924 0.476 2.8 interpretivism 1.15 0.692 0.458 2.3 hermeneutics 1 0.574 0.426 2 realism 1 0.59 0.41 2 pragmatism 0.9 0.592 0.308 1.8 constructivism 0.5 0.356 0.144 1 post-positivism 0.5 0.356 0.144 1 critical realism 0.25 0.124 0.126 0.5 phenomenology 0.2 0.124 0.076 0.4 critical theory 0 0.008 0.008 0.016 figures figure 1. comparative radar chart: positivism vs pragmatism & critical theory hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 45 published by ideas spread figure 2. factor loading plot figure 4. positivism performance across knowledge domain hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 46 published by ideas spread figure 3. paradigm's engagement with 12 sources of knowledge hypothetical model hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 47 published by ideas spread figure 5. pragmatism performance across knowledge domain figure 6. hermeneutics performance across knowledge domain hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 48 published by ideas spread figure 7. feminism performance across knowledge domain figure 8. critical realism performance across knowledge domain hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 49 published by ideas spread figure 9. interpretivism performance across knowledge domain figure 10. constructivism performance across knowledge domain copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n6p43 43 published by ideas spread conceptual characteristics and constituent elements of a multimedia publishing and dissemination system yingli hu1 & bin ran1 1 shang'hai university of science and technology, china correspondence: yingli hu, shang'hai university of science and technology, shang'hai, china. received: november 24, 2025; accepted: december 13, 2025; published: december 15, 2025 abstract the high-speed, low-latency, large-capacity 5g transmission information environment and the innovation and development of digital technology have promoted the construction of an all-media publishing and communication system. system development needs to integrate internal and external motivations to support the conceptual characteristics and constituent elements of the all-media publishing and communication system. this article uses literature analysis to explore the conceptual characteristics and components of the all-media publishing and communication system, and analyzes its application in the modern new publishing field in conjunction with the "implementation opinions on promoting the deep integrated development of publishing (2022)". first, this article introduces the endogenous driving force of the all-media publishing and communication system, including the dynamic development of "all media" and the support of the core elements of the "four full media". secondly, the defining characteristics of the all-media publishing and communication system are explained, which involve aspects such as the comprehensive integration of media, the richness and diversity of communication content, and the breadth of communication channels. finally, this article also analyzes the components of the all-media publishing and communication system, including technology platforms, content production, user services, etc. keywords: omni-media, omni-media publishing, conceptual characteristics, components 1. introduction the "guiding opinions on promoting the integrated development of traditional media and emerging media" issued on august 18, 2014, as the central government's first guiding document on media integration [1], has had a forward-looking guiding influence on the publishing field. the opinions have promoted traditional publishing institutions to begin to strengthen the integration with new media, try to conduct cross-border cooperation with other industries, develop diversified products and services, and actively explore new paths for digital transformation. immediately afterwards, the general office of the central committee of the communist party of china and the general office of the state council issued the "guiding opinions on promoting the integrated development of traditional publishing and emerging publishing (2015)" to promote traditional publishing to actively embrace the upgrade of digital technology and extend its publishing influence to cyberspace with the help of the internet. the all-media publishing and communication system has been continuously enriched in the process of deep integration of publishing. until october 16, 2022, general secretary xi jinping specifically emphasized in the report of the 20th national congress of the communist party of china to strengthen the construction of the all-media communication system, promote the formation of a good network ecology, improve the social governance structure, and establish a social governance system of co-construction, co-governance, and sharing. these all provide valuable guidelines for the all-media publishing and communication system. with the continuous development of digital technology, profound changes have taken place in the way of information dissemination. in order to better adapt to market demand, publishing companies must rely on the all-media publishing and communication system to meet the needs of different users. therefore, it is of great practical significance to study the conceptual characteristics and constituent elements of the all-media publishing and communication system. 2. the basic driving force of the all-media publishing and communication system 2.1 endogenous power: the development and support of “omnimedia” 2.1.1 “omni-media” development momentum support the concept of "omnimedia" can be traced back to the united states at the end of the 20th century. its initial application was in the field of life services [2], mainly because of the need to adapt to new market demands and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 44 published by ideas spread changes in consumer behavior, and to seek market economic benefits. the lifestyle services industry relies on diversified communication channels to establish brand image, improve service quality, enhance user experience, and strengthen communication and interaction with users to win consumers' trust and loyalty in corporate service quality and brand reputation, and further expand the market's operating sales proportion. martha stewart living omnimedia housekeeping company was founded in october 1999. its main idea is to provide information consulting services to consumers who are mainly housewives. it has magazines, books, newspaper columns, tv programs, radio programs, websites and other media. it promotes and disseminates its housekeeping services and products through such an "omnimedia"[3], increasing users' stickiness and loyalty to its brand. in the 21st century, with the gradual deepening of the "three-network integration" (telecommunication network, radio and television network, internet) work in the united states, britain, japan and other countries, "omnimedia" in the academic and commercial fields has increasingly become the focus of major industries, media and scholars, and china is also actively participating in this popular research trend in academic and commercial circles. in september 2006 and november 2007, the "national outline plan for cultural development during the eleventh five-year plan period" and the "eleventh five-year development plan for the news and publishing industry" introduced the concept of "omnimedia" into the field of news communication in the form of official documents for the first time, proposing the development of "omnimedia resource service platform", "omnimedia operation and management technology support platform", "omnimedia application integration platform" and other construction projects. however, from 1999 to 2007, due to constraints in media technology, information technology, network technology, etc., the concept of "omnimedia" was mentioned more often in the industry, but it also had certain limitations. "omni media" is still in the expansion period, and it only thinks about expanding new media forms. it does not pay attention to the combination of traditional and new media in "omni media", but pays more attention to the simple superposition of various media. the year 2008 is said to be a huge turning point for omnimedia research. the research on "omnimedia" in the field of news communication has gradually deepened and attracted widespread attention from media industry players. many media practitioners have proposed "omnimedia strategy" or "omnimedia positioning". with the rise of new media having a huge impact on traditional media, in march 2008, yantai daily media group actively embraced new media, promoted the integrated development of traditional media and new media, realized the integration of content, channels, platforms and other aspects, and officially established the first all-media news center in china. we have actively explored the path and model of all-media development, not only established an all-media editing center to cooperate with new media platforms, but also published content through a variety of media and channels, which has improved the content quality and communication effect of the newspaper, and the brand's popularity and influence have also continued to expand. since then, the omnimedia innovation strategy has been widely adopted by news organizations across the country as an innovative model for news media organization and production processes, and is closely intertwined with discourses such as "media convergence," "media convergence," and "deep convergence." when it comes to defining the concept of "omnimedia", different scholars have put forward the concept of "letting a hundred flowers bloom" from different perspectives. in 2009, peng lan proposed the concept of "omnimedia" from the perspective of media operations. "omnimedia" describes a comprehensive business operation model and strategy, that is, using various media tools and platforms to build a huge reporting system. from a macro perspective, reports are no longer limited to a single landing point, form or platform, but are spread across multiple landing points and forms on multiple platforms. scholar zhou yang believes from the perspective of media form that the concept of "omnimedia" originates from the application level of the media industry and is a "cross-media" phenomenon resulting from media integration [4]; some scholars also believe from the perspective of media integration that omnimedia is a new communication method that uses a variety of expression techniques to threedimensionally present communication content and combines various communication technologies. in xi jinping's "1.25" speech in 2019, he gave a detailed explanation of "all media" (all-process media, holographic media, allemployee media, and all-effect media) in detail for the first time and proposed the concept of building an "allmedia communication pattern" for the first time. since then, "omnimedia" has gradually evolved into a comprehensive concept that covers the purpose, effect, content and form of communication to describe the information system of modern society. in summarizing the definition of the concept of "omnimedia" by relevant scholars, this article is more inclined to the perspective of media form integration. it believes that the concept of "omnimedia" is backed by the deep integration of media and the in-depth development of media technology. it focuses more on the overall integration of media forms, channels, and functions in the three aspects of "full", "broad" and "deep". it not only emphasizes its integration, but also emphasizes the inclusiveness of new media forms under the development trend of media integration. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 45 published by ideas spread 2.1.2 supported by the core elements of “four omnimedia” the "four all medias" were first proposed by general secretary xi jinping at the 12th collective study session of the political bureau of the cpc central committee on january 25, 2019. when discussing the all-media communication system, general secretary xi jinping pointed out that “the continuous development of all-media has given rise to all-process media, holographic media, all-member media and all-effect media. information is available all the time and everywhere, forming a public opinion ecology that coexists with the media landscape. communication methods have undergone profound changes. news and public opinion work is also facing new challenges. we should deeply analyze the challenges and opportunities brought by the all-media era, scientifically understand the laws of media integration, and promote media integration to continue to deepen.” [5] he emphasized that promoting the integrated development of media and creating omnimedia are issues that need to be solved urgently before us. "full-process media" mainly focuses on the time and space dimension, emphasizing that multi-media can fully track, fully participate in and influence the communication content in the process of disseminating information content. in the process of dissemination, it pays attention to the two-way communication between traditional media forms such as newspapers, magazines, radio, and television, and emerging media forms such as the internet, social media, and mobile applications. in the field of publishing, it is more reflected in the full-process integrated linkage of publishing production links, communication links, and application links. it focuses on the three-dimensional development, unified layout and planning of new publications and integrated media publications, and innovates new publishing operation models to enhance the correlation and interactivity between various integrated media products [6]. it breaks the publishing barriers of time and space, breaks through the limitations of a single work and communication channel, promotes the transformation of the communication model from "single" to "pluralistic", and attempts to use a new publishing form to integrate publications to enhance the cultural communication and economic benefits of publishing. at the sixth world artificial intelligence conference in july this year, citic publishing house launched a nearly 700,000-word "blood and rust" classic science fiction series published in cooperation with ai. ai undertook text translation, image generation, marketing material generation and other tasks, improving the text translation speed of foreign-published works, shortening the publishing schedule, enhancing the visual impact of the work's interpretation, and creating artistic science fiction scenes. "holographic media" mainly focuses on the method dimension, emphasizing the diversification of media information sources and information presentation forms based on digital technology in the context of the 5g era of high speed, ubiquitous network, low power consumption, low latency, and everything is connected. utilize various forms and styles of technical means, including the cross-synthesis of text, pictures, sounds, images and other information, to provide a richer, more three-dimensional and more comprehensive information experience. for example, immersive reporting and presentation can be achieved through technologies such as ar and vr, which expands digital experience scenarios and satisfies users’ empathetic experience during human-computer interaction. in the update and development of the content expression level of publications, it is emphasized that technology empowers the multiple three-dimensional forms of publishing products, and three-dimensional innovative thinking is used in the expression forms of publishing products to make publishing products personalized, digitally intelligent, and diversified, such as interactive holographic projection textbooks, holographic projection books, etc., and turning physical publications into three-dimensional books, allowing readers to get a more realistic and three-dimensional reading experience, and a more vivid and vivid learning experience. "all-employee media" mainly refers to the subject dimension, which means that all types of social subjects, including professional media people, self-media people, etc., can participate in the communication process, building an internet content production pattern of "ugc (mass content production) + pgc (professional content production) + pugc (professional team production) + ucc (crowdfunding and crowdsourcing production) + mgc (machine-produced content)". in the field of publishing, it emphasizes the diverse interaction of subjects in publishing processes, operations, distribution, etc. it is no longer limited to professional institutions and personnel composition, but the participation of all people, and everyone can become a booster in the publishing process. driven by the innovation and development of digital technology, crowdfunding publishing, new publishing models such as self-publishing lower the threshold for publishing, bypass traditional publishing institutions, support creators or publishing institutions to complete publishing projects, allow authors to establish direct contact with readers, and enrich the entire process from creation to publication of the author's editing, design, printing and sales of works. for example, some crowdfunding websites such as kickstarter and indiegogo provide a platform for creators to showcase and raise funds. many independent authors and small publishing organizations have successfully completed publishing projects through these platforms; amazon's kindle direct publishing (kdp) is hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 46 published by ideas spread a well-known self-publishing platform, and many authors have successfully published their works through this platform. "fully effective media" mainly refers to the use of various media forms to achieve more comprehensive, more intuitive, more convenient and more efficient communication effects from the perspective of effectiveness. for example, communication efficiency can be improved through mobile, focus, fragmentation and other methods. in terms of deep integration of publishing, we emphasize the principle of "content construction as the foundation" in the all-media communication system, strengthen the output of high-quality publication content and services, and realize the publishing industry to become a "full-effect industry" that serves society and users in the deep integration stage. this not only realizes the cultural communication value of publishing itself, but also extends the economic value of the publishing industry to a certain extent. use big data, cloud computing and other digital technologies to drive intelligent publishing, so that publishing products can achieve accurate and efficient dissemination speed based on identifying massive user consumption profiles and reading habits. through the data analysis process from "focusing" to "gathering", we can meet the public's personalized customization needs and enhance the reading experience. for example, the 5g rich media laboratory launched by xinhuanet takes advantage of the fast transmission speed and low latency of the 5g network, and uses cutting-edge technologies such as 3d, xr, and ai, combined with information and data visualization from satellites, maps, drones, and other space images and communication services, to creatively develop a series of innovative "rich media" news and realize the rapid transmission and presentation of multimedia content such as high-definition video, vr/ar, and holographic projection. the laboratory also uses artificial intelligence technology to intelligently analyze and process multimedia content, improving the content dissemination effect and user experience. 2.2 external push: the promotion and construction of “communication power” 2.2.1 strengthen the construction of content resources and lay a solid foundation for building communication capabilities content resource construction is the basic and central task of strengthening all-media publishing and communication. good content quality has always been the focus of brand slogans for publishing organizations. to achieve a healthy and benign development trend in the publishing industry, we must avoid falling into the trap of homogeneous competition. based on our own internal content resource structure and based on the diverse needs of the market, we must create differentiated positioning of endogenous resources and fully tap the potential core value of content information resources. first, we must formulate a content resource strategic plan: optimize the content resource structure, promote the collection and integration of internal content resources, and create differentiated and unique content value; strengthen the content resource creation ability, promote the digital development of content forms, use digital technology to drive the upgrade of publication content expression forms, establish a cooperative and win-win content resource ecosystem, and enrich the types of publishing products and expand the types of application products through the integration of external content resources and the construction of the industrial ecological chain. secondly, we must build a complete content resource evaluation system: on the basis of promoting the unification of intelligent content evaluation indicators and evaluation standards, we must also open up communication channels between clear evaluation processes and effective feedback mechanisms. with the changes in the publishing market and the development of technology, we must continue to improve and optimize the evaluation system to form an intelligent all-media content review, evaluation and distribution mechanism. finally, we need to pay attention to the copyright protection and management of content resources: to build a good copyright environment, the government should introduce and improve relevant laws and regulations to clarify copyright rights and responsibilities; publishing institutions should establish a complete rights protection mechanism, use professional institutions or lawyer teams to severely crack down on infringements, and use legal means to safeguard publishing rights and interests. on the basis of protecting the legality and stability of content, copyright cooperation mechanisms can also be established with other institutions or platforms to jointly safeguard the legitimate rights and interests of copyright. publishing institutions should also strengthen advanced technical means such as digital copyright management information systems to improve the operability and efficiency of copyright protection; in addition, publishing institutions are encouraged to strengthen supervision and selfdiscipline mechanisms within the industry, and enhance the copyright awareness and literacy of consumers, publishing institutions and practitioners through copyright education. 2.2.2 combining digital technology capabilities to reshape the cognitive framework of communication capabilities hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 47 published by ideas spread digital technology has penetrated into the "four complete" publishing framework. the deep integration of 5g, big data, artificial intelligence, ar, vr and other technologies with publishing products, users, and platform businesses is the only way for the publishing industry to transform and upgrade in the new development stage. new technology empowers the publishing industry and promotes continuous upgrading and iteration of publishing processes, publishing formats, and publishing business models. at the level of publishing products, digital technology enhances users' multi-dimensional immersive experience from an all-media perspective; it uses digital technologies such as "5g+vr+ar" to create intelligent production terminals for publishing products and build a comprehensive all-media space field; it uses big data to mine, analyze, and count users' real-time information and visualize the data to meet users' needs for diversified publishing content and promote changes in publishing forms. publishing models with open value and high shareability, such as oa publishing and preprint publishing, have been widely discussed in the academic community. application at the user level focuses on the sublimation of users' experience and satisfaction with publishing products and services. "mgc" collaborates with new production models such as "ugc" and "pgc" to create an immersive consumer end to strengthen in-depth interaction with users, expand users' immersive experience scenarios for publishing products, and allow passive users to gradually transform into active creators with "omnimedia thinking" during the communication process [7]. the deep integration of digital technology in publishing platform business is mainly reflected in the use of 5g technology to explore platform construction paths for digital intelligence empowerment. the ubiquity of data has led to the formation of various industrial clusters in the media industry. while using digital technology to automate the publishing production process and improve production efficiency and product quality, publishing institutions should actively realize cooperation across media platforms and industries, extend the industrial chain, and build a platform ecosystem of "platform + content + terminal + application" to achieve synergy, complementation, and circulation. 2.2.3 optimize innovative management mechanisms and empower the institutional foundation of communication capabilities based on the "all-media communication" system, to improve the communication timeliness of publishing products, it is necessary to deepen the internal management mechanism of the enterprise, including organizational structure, management model, talent training, brand culture, reward and punishment mechanism. through platform reengineering and process optimization, we can move from a single production process that serves one media to a set of production processes that serve all-media products, users and scenarios. adjust the internal organizational structure of the enterprise, establish a cross-department and cross-field collaborative innovation team, strengthen internal communication and cooperation, break down departmental barriers, and improve organizational efficiency and innovation capabilities. for example, the "central kitchen" model has achieved good results in shortening the publication cycle, increasing the speed of dissemination, and integrating content resources. by establishing an appropriate fault-tolerant reward and punishment mechanism and regularly carrying out new knowledge training, exchanges and practical activities in related industries, we encourage the creativity of employees within the organization, slowly cultivate their "omnimedia concept", and improve the entire team. to build a team of high-quality and professional "integrated publishing talents" based on the organization's innovative capabilities and cultural atmosphere, that is, on the basis of familiarity with publishing-related policies and regulations, mastering the two major areas of traditional book publishing processes and new publication processes, and proficiently using digital technology to coordinate the workload of various departments and efficiently operating talents [8]; establish a complete publishing enterprise supervision mechanism and publication quality management mechanism, regularly conduct innovative assessments of the enterprise itself and publications based on market trends and industry dynamics, and timely adjust innovation strategies and management measures. 3. conceptual characteristics of all-media publishing and communication system 3.1 deep internal and external development, consistency of means and goals general secretary xi jinping proposed for the first time at the 12th collective study session of the political bureau of the cpc central committee on january 25, 2019: "we must coordinate and handle the relationship between traditional media and emerging media, central media and local media, mainstream media and commercial platforms, mass media and professional media, and form an all-media communication system with intensive resources, reasonable structure, differentiated development, and collaborative and efficient coordination." this is actually a scientific explanation and definition of the components, functions, attributes, and characteristics of the all-media communication system.later, at the fourth plenary session of the 19th cpc central committee in november 2019, it was again proposed to “establish an all-media communication system based on content hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 48 published by ideas spread construction, supported by advanced technology, and guaranteed by innovative management.” the construction of the all-media communication system was thus considered under the modernization of the national governance system and governance capabilities [9]. first of all, the construction of the all-media publishing and communication system mainly focuses on the three aspects of "content construction as the foundation", "advanced technology as the support" and "innovation management as the guarantee" as the core means of system construction. the corresponding goal to be achieved is an all-media publishing and communication system with "intensive resources, reasonable structure, differentiated development, collaborative and efficient".in terms of content construction, publishing organizations still regard content as king as the foundation of construction to achieve the goal of resource intensification: seize "long-tail resources", tap the brand value derived from them, and form the function of cross-generational cultural communication [10]. at the same time, they integrate existing resources to create high-quality publishing products with brand culture and ip characteristics, which are the core strength of stabilizing the inherent readership group.by exploring and absorbing new resources, we renovate the content resource reserves of publishing organizations and lay the foundation for occupying market competitive shares. secondly, the all-media publishing and communication system is supported by advanced technology and uses digital technology to empower publishing products, main functions, and operating channels to achieve differentiated development of publishing organizations. publishing organizations follow the new trends of mobility, digital intelligence, and customization, and use blockchain and big data technology to build digital copyright protection platforms to promote publishing organizations to present unique content with unique copyrights. strengthen cooperation with technology companies, and use advanced technical means to improve the quality of products and services. for example, cooperate with artificial intelligence companies to develop functions such as intelligent editing and intelligent typesetting, and enrich publishing methods and presentation forms. finally, the all-media publishing and communication system is guaranteed by innovative management to realize the rationalization of the internal structure of the publishing organization and the synergy and efficiency of external cross-industry and cross-media cooperation.by optimizing the internal organizational structure and clarifying departmental functions and scope of authority, we can achieve integration and connectivity among various departments within the company; by creating a product matrix, we can form a unique ip culture and adjust and innovate the brand structure; we can actively attract integrated talents with omni-media thinking to improve the aging status of the company's organizational personnel structure.coordinate the relationship between traditional publishing institutions and emerging publishing institutions, build an interface between digital platform development and physical enterprises, and form a publishing ecological integration circle based on the concept of open sharing. 3.2 four full media extensions, integration of structure and function the all-media communication and publishing communication system breaks through the boundaries of time, space, subject, and product dimensions with the help of "four omnimedia". through the adjustment of industrial structure layout, it achieves the special effects of integrated and interoperable functions, catalyzes the qualitative change of integration, and amplifies the integrated effectiveness of publishing institutions. xi jinping emphasized that to promote the integrated development of media, it is necessary to adhere to the integrated development strategy of "integration" and ensure that various media resources and production elements can be effectively integrated by optimizing processes and redesigning platforms, so that information content, technology applications, platform terminals and management methods can be fully integrated. full-process media, full-staff media, holographic media, and full-effect media have expanded the new subjects, new formats, and new consumption of publishing innovation to some extent in the full-media publishing and communication system. by broadening the coverage and tracking of the entire process of information dissemination by publishing institutions, we can better grasp the context of information dissemination and ensure the accuracy and timeliness of information; by utilizing the diversified information presentation methods of holographic media, we can provide users with richer and more three-dimensional information. information experience, while realizing cross-platform information dissemination and in-depth interaction; the omni-media publishing and communication system uses all-person media to enable users to act as new subjects of production innovation, connecting real-time communication and sharing between information publishers and audiences, making information dissemination more democratic and open; full-effect media focuses on the dissemination effect of information and the optimization of user experience, aiming to improve the efficiency and accuracy of information transmission, and enhance the value and influence of information dissemination. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 49 published by ideas spread through the functional integration of the above four aspects, the all-media publishing and communication system can form an information communication ecosystem with a complete structure and complete functions. in this ecosystem, information is no longer transmitted and presented at a single point, but transformed into a multi-point, radial transmission method. information flow can receive timely feedback in the ecosystem, forming a complete closed ecosystem of all-media publishing and communication systems. this integrated structure and function helps improve the efficiency and influence of information dissemination and better meet the needs of users. 3.3 choice awareness improvement, positioning and value extensibility in the process of promoting the integrated development of traditional publishing and emerging publishing to promoting the in-depth integrated development of publishing, the development positioning and key goals and tasks of the all-media publishing and communication system are also constantly being sublimated. whether it is the refinement of development strategic planning or the extension of the development direction, the all-media publishing and communication system relies on national strategic planning to actively create a new publishing and communication system in the era of integrated media. in terms of positioning, the all-media publishing and communication system adheres to the "integration" concept of "integration into one", the concept of "from physical combination to chemical reaction", the new development concept and the copyright concept [11], strengthens the content construction of publishing integrated development, makes full use of technical support, strengthens the talent team for publishing integrated development, creates key projects for publishing integrated development, and further seeks value extension based on the deep integrated development of publishing. in response to the technological impact brought by the digital revolution, the all-media publishing and communication system will propose the construction of new publishing institutions at the strategic level, positioning them as the backbone of creating a new publishing ecological pattern; in terms of value pursuit, major publishing institutions, under the construction of the all-media publishing and communication system, will not only pursue economic benefits, but more importantly, cultural exchanges of major corporate brands, break the monopoly barriers of new enterprises in market competition, improve the dialogue model between traditional publishing and emerging publishing, amplify the social benefits of publishing as a cultural exchange and communication, and promote a comprehensive and coordinated publishing integrated development pattern. 4. components of an all-media publishing and communication system 4.1 reshape user identity to present multiple value subjects in the mobile internet society where user roles are reshaped, cognitive values are deconstructed, and media functions are expanded, publishing institutions have united with multiple entities to form a matrix of forces that runs vertically and horizontally. the deep integration of publishing has become a new infrastructure for social operation and comprehensive governance, and is more adaptable to the huge changes in the current deep integration of media. with the transformation of the media landscape, the traditional "leading audience type" has been replaced by the "audience leading type" [12]. the communication channels not only rely on the "one-to-multipoint" communication of traditional entities such as journals and publishing institutions, but also rely more on the "multipoint-to-multipoint" user divergent communication. at the same time, with the lowering of the threshold for publishing and production, the activity and participation of creators of published works has increased, and the diversification of publishing and creative subjects has been promoted, so that published works also show a state of production in full bloom; under the all-media publishing and communication system, users share, interact and exchange experiences based on online communities, and gradually form individual needs and value co-creation among different user subjects under the community-based sense of ownership and identity. therefore, in the process of building an all-media publishing and communication system, we pay attention to protecting the legitimate rights and interests of users and the setting of personalized rights and interests, ensuring that the privacy and legitimate rights and interests of users are not infringed, and maximizing the full respect and maintenance of the rights and interests of each user. 4.2 content data integration to achieve accurate and efficient transmission data and content are the two core elements of the all-media communication system. data is the basis for accurate communication and personalized recommendations, while content is the key to improving user retention. in allmedia communication, it is necessary to fully explore and utilize data resources, while also ensuring the exposure, attractiveness and influence of the content. deepen the integration and innovation of publishing, promote the research and development of high-quality digital publishing projects, launch well-made digital publishing products, give full play to the basic role of converged publishing in network information services, theme publicity reports, and national reading, and enhance the core competitiveness of the industry; in the development of publishing content, based on ip hot spots, tap resources broadly and deeply, process content rationally, produce hierarchical hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 50 published by ideas spread content, extend the publishing cultural industry chain, create high-quality projects in key areas of publishing, and meet the new expectations of the people's spiritual and cultural life. for example: since october 2021, the average print run of "sanlian life weekly" has increased by nearly 30% compared with the beginning of the year, almost reaching the previous peak of the weekly. it adopts the model of "combination of promotion and sales, combination of offline and online, combination of current issue sales and back issue sales", persists in deepening content, expands subscription channels, and achieves "double increase" in paper magazine distribution and traffic. in addition, combined with its audio reading "sanlian zhongdu" app, it implements secondary processing and secondary supply of content products, gradually forming independent ip, and winning huge sales profits [13]. 4.3 innovate corporate governance and build an in-depth cooperation model traditional media have been at the core of the market for a long time. it is difficult for major publishing companies to break through the barriers to development and cooperation under the competition for market economic interests. there are also no clear departmental rules and relevant task requirements within the company. the boundaries between various departments are blurred and they shirk responsibilities. as a result, the internal and external management systems of publishing companies are too loose and cannot improve the overall management efficiency and effectiveness [14]. in the all-media publishing and communication system, as a new main body that promotes the deep integration of publishing, enterprises not only break the shackles of traditional paper books in terms of form carriers, but also move towards the development of audio, video, games, etc., and also break out of the content category in the industrial ecology, showing the characteristics of diversified business formats, mainly in advertising, copyright sales, online services and offline user activities, etc., gradually extending to the fields of culture, creativity and copyright, creating a diverse integrated publishing industry chain. by adopting corporate macro-management and market control strategies, major new publishing entities are committed to breaking the traditional online and offline constraints, making comprehensive use of various resources and channels, constantly exploring and innovating new ways of integrated development, and integrating various resources and industrial chains in the publishing industry to expand business areas and increase market share, aiming to achieve a win-win situation for all parties involved, thereby improving the overall competitiveness of publishing companies. 4.4 platform terminal collaboration creates multi-threaded presentation effects platform terminals play an important role in the presentation and dissemination of publishing content in the allmedia publishing and communication system. as the types and functions of platform terminals continue to be enriched and developed, the innovation of publishing content is promoted, the channels and scope of publishing communication are expanded, and multimedia content such as augmented reality, virtual reality, audio, and video are used to increase the attractiveness and value of publications and the participation and activity of readers. to create multi-threaded communication effects, publishing companies need to clarify their positioning and goals on each platform terminal, formulate a unified platform terminal strategic plan, and optimize the user experience of publishing products based on the characteristics of different platform terminals. through real-time monitoring and analysis of user behavior and feedback of each terminal, with high-quality content as the core, multi-media, multiform, multi-dimensional heterogeneous network transmission and diverse terminal presentation can be achieved through the cooperation of multiple platform terminals [15]. in addition, publishing companies can also use technical means to achieve interconnection and interoperability between multiple terminals, such as account interoperability, data synchronization and other functions, to improve the efficiency of user switching and transfer between different terminals. 5. conclusion the report of the 20th national congress of the communist party of china proposed to accelerate the construction of digital china and outline the goals and vision for the integrated development of publishing; strengthen the construction of the all-media communication system and further clarify the direction and path for promoting the deep integration of publishing. in general, the all-media publishing and communication system is a comprehensive system involving many elements. under the guidance and guidance of the all-media publishing and communication system, the in-depth integration of publishing not only achieves in-depth development in many aspects such as content, technology, channels, and talents, but also helps to achieve the intensification, collaboration, and efficient integration of publishing, thereby building a closely related and mutually complementary "new publishing and communication system." in view of the construction and research hotspots of the all-media publishing and communication system, we should think more about how the deep integration of publishing can develop from "addition integration deep integration" in the all-media space field? and how to promote new publishing in the context of the times, adapt to market demand, innovate publishing business and models, and improve publishing efficiency and quality? in the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 51 published by ideas spread future, with the continuous advancement of technology and the expansion of application fields, the all-media publishing and communication system will continue to innovate and develop, providing the public with richer and more diverse information content and services. references [1] wang, c., & zhang, q. (2023). networked journalism: the core of the construction of an all-media communication system. journalism, (08), 24–32. [2] li, r. (2021). new directions for all-media communication research in the 5g era. academic forum, 44(02). [3] duan, p. (2020). research on the current situation of the construction of all-media communication system under the background of intelligence. china television, (05). [4] chen, w., zhang, j., & zeng, j. (2022). construction, implementation path and ecological management strategy of the all-media communication system in the 5g era. china radio and television journal, (01). [5] song, j. (2020). the connotation of the all-media communication system and the trend of media integration. young journalists, (27), 12–13. [6] li, p., & lai, y. (2023). research on thematic publishing operations under the concept of “four omnimedia”. publishing science, 31(05), 71–75. [7] liu, w., & li, r. (2021). new directions for all-media communication research in the 5g era. academic forum, 44(02), 117–132. [8] qin, d. (2019). brief analysis of talent team construction in the context of integrated publishing. publishing reference, (06), 62–64, 67. [9] hu, z., & li, q. (2022). ten years of convergence: review and prospects of media convergence process from 2012 to 2022. modern audiovisual, (09). [10] chen, j. (2023). research on the deep integration and development of publishing under the all-media communication system. china publishing, (03), 5–11. [11] zhang, x., & zhang, l. (2023). construction and analysis of the publishing in-depth integrated development indicator system from the perspective of the all-media communication system—what is the "depth" of the in-depth integrated development of publishing. technology and publishing, (11), 144–157. [12] jiang, y. (2014). analysis of the development path of journal publishing in the all-media era. news knowledge, (01), 67–69. [13] li, j. (2022). fundamental principles for the deep integration development of publishing. editors' friends, (06), 5–10. [14] hu, x. (2014). a brief analysis of the difficulties and countermeasures of all-media publishing in my country. china newspaper industry, (10), 53–54. [15] jin, q., & ma, y. (2021). research on digital publishing operation model under the background of all media. editorial journal, (02), 115–12. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n6p1 1 published by ideas spread from "watching films" to "performing films": the ritualistic communication and identity construction of social media "movie viewing reports" jianing wang1 1 university of exeter, uk correspondence: jianing wang, school of education-university of exeter (st-luke's campus) -heavitree road, exeter, devon, uk. received: october 24, 2025; accepted: november 10, 2025; published: november 11, 2025 abstract in recent years, social media platforms, through features like "movie viewing reports," have shifted film consumption from private viewing to public performance. however, users' display of viewing behavior is not merely a simple recording and sharing. based on digital ethnography on douban and xiaohongshu platforms and in-depth interviews with 16 users, this study finds that "performing films" involves users' strategic construction of self-identity based on platform templates and algorithmic rules. it reveals a paradox of cultural capital in the digital age: cultural distinction originates from individual enthusiasm for pursuing unique taste, yet it must be realized and confirmed by embedding it within the platform's preset visual order, interactive conventions, and algorithmic scripts. the findings of this study contribute to a further understanding of flexible identity performance strategies and how users negotiate individual expression and collective identity within algorithmically mediated ritualistic practices. keywords: performative viewing, algorithmic taste, media rituals, visibility capital, platform society 1. introduction empowered by web 3.0 technologies, film consumption is undergoing a profound transformation from a singular viewing act to a composite cultural practice. the latest data from the china internet network information center (cnnic) shows that in 2023, the scale of online audio-visual users in china reached 1.04 billion, with 68.5% of users sharing their viewing records via social platforms [1]. since its launch in 2016, the participation rate for douban's annual movie report function has increased by an average of 23% annually, resulting in 4.3 million personalized reports in 2023 [2]. concurrently, the page views for the "movie nine-square grid" topic on xiaohongshu exceeded 1.8 billion, and the use of douyin's "movie report" special effects surpassed 700 million times [3]. these phenomena signal the shift from private viewing to public performance, forming a threedimensional practice of "viewing-quantification-performance," evolving movie viewing reports into digital rituals that combine identity performance, social interaction, and cultural capital accumulation. existing research primarily follows two paths: first, audience analysis within film studies [4], which focuses on viewers' interpretive strategies for texts; second, media use studies in communication [5], exploring the social context of viewing behavior. although recent studies have begun to pay attention to the impact of digital media on film culture [6], significant limitations remain: first, a focus on film explanations on short video platforms while neglecting systematic investigation of viewing reports; second, a lack of analysis of the shaping role of platform technical architectures; third, a failure to reveal the complex relationship between datafied performance and identity construction. as van dijck [7] stated, current research still lacks sufficient understanding of "how platforms mediate cultural practices." based on this, this study introduces three theoretical perspectives—dramaturgical theory, cultural capital theory, and the ritual view of communication—and proposes the concept of "performing films," referring to the practice where users transform viewing behavior into public performance through datafied means. the study aims to answer the following questions: how do movie viewing reports construct cultural capital through specific symbolic practices? what kind of complicit relationship exists between platform algorithms and user performance behavior? what impact does this datafied performance practice have on contemporary youth's identity construction? by reviewing core concepts such as "cultural capital [8]", "media rituals [9]", and "digital performance [10]", this hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 2 published by ideas spread study proposes a "performative viewing" theoretical perspective to systematically analyze the internal mechanisms and power relations behind the shift of viewing practices from private consumption to public performance in the social media era. it provides a new theoretical lens for understanding how digital platforms mediate cultural consumption and reshape identity, while also offering empirical evidence for grasping the new modes of cultural capital accumulation and their social distinction functions in the digital age. 2. materials and methods 2.1 film viewing performance from a dramaturgical perspective goffman's dramaturgical theory views social interaction as a theatrical performance, where the "front stage" is the space where individuals manage impressions [11]. this theory provides a suitable framework for analyzing users' strategic performance in film viewing on social media. first, the platform itself constitutes a "perpetual theater" [12], where users' sharing of viewing data becomes a front-stage performance. second, the visualization and standardization templates of viewing reports (e.g., douban annual charts, xiaohongshu nine-square grids) provide users with ready-made "performance scripts." at the same time, functions like likes and comments construct the "actor-audience" interaction mechanism [13]. digital media expands the explanatory dimensions of dramaturgical theory [14]. social media users often construct idealized identities by curating content [15]. the uniqueness of viewing reports lies in: firstly, creating an "illusion of data authenticity," making manipulable statistics appear as objective records; secondly, achieving "visualization of cultural capital," conveying aesthetic taste through curated lists; thirdly, forming "algorithmic complicity," where platforms subtly guide the direction of performance through recommendation systems hinting at the preferences of the "ideal viewer." existing research mostly focuses on the ritualistic nature of cinema viewing [16], paying insufficient attention to "post-viewing" performance practices in digital environments. this study finds that users construct a "digital front stage" through douban viewing time statistics, xiaohongshu nine-square grids, and other means, and utilize functions like "visible only to me" to conceal inconsistent records, thereby completing role crafting. platform algorithms (e.g., "guess you like") and social cues (e.g., "friends are watching") jointly create the "theatrical effect" of performance. this study advances the digital extension of dramaturgical theory in two aspects: first, pointing out that the digital front stage is highly editable, allowing users to adjust content at any time; second, revealing algorithms as a new type of "audience" that participates in and shapes performance through data feedback. furthermore, quantified viewing data becomes a "digital business card" that users repeatedly refine, demonstrating a turn towards precision and design in performative behavior. these findings not only enhance the explanatory power of dramaturgical theory in the platform society but also open new paths for exploring social performance mediated by algorithms. 2.2 the visual transformation of cultural capital bourdieu, in distinction, proposed cultural capital theory, arguing that differences in artistic appreciation are essentially symbolic mappings of social space [17]. this theory provides a key framework for this study, with its explanatory power mainly manifested in three aspects: first, users' curatorial behaviors in viewing reports (such as selected film lists, art film tags) are a form of "taste performance," aligning with the logic of cultural distinction emphasized by bourdieu. second, platform badge systems (e.g., douban's "senior cinephile") and labeling systems transform abstract cultural capital into visible data symbols, creating new paths for capital accumulation. finally, interaction data, such as likes and favorites among users, form a quantifiable capital exchange mechanism, allowing for the precise measurement of the "symbolic struggle" proposed by bourdieu [18]. existing research mostly focuses on the classification of cultural capital forms, intergenerational transmission, and its digital turn. scholars like lareau et al. categorize cultural capital into embodied, objectified, and institutionalized forms, but have not foreseen its transformation in the digital age. with the development of the digital era, scholars like hanquinet and savage have begun to focus on digital cultural practices, but mostly concentrate on traditional art forms, such as music and fine arts [19], with limited attention paid to film as an art form. in summary, existing research lacks focus on platform mediation, failing to explain how algorithmic recommendations reconstruct the accumulation paths of cultural capital; it also neglects the visual presentation of cultural capital on data interfaces (e.g., viewing statistics), lacking a quantitative dimension; furthermore, exploration of intergenerational differences is shallow, without systematic comparison of digital capital display strategies across age groups. based on this, this study constructs a "platform cultural capital" framework, proposing a three-dimensional model of "algorithmic mediation data visualization intergenerational strategies," which extends bourdieu's theory to hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 3 published by ideas spread the context of platform society and reveals the interplay of intergenerational capital in the algorithmic age. this framework fills the gaps in existing theories and provides a new paradigm for interpreting digital cultural stratification. when viewing reports become datafied class "passports," cultural distinction becomes more concealed and precise under algorithmic governance. 2.3 communication practice as ritual james carey's ritual view of communication breaks through the linear model of the traditional "transmission view," understanding communication as a symbolic process through which reality is produced, maintained, and transformed [20]. against the backdrop of the rise of the platform society [21], the theoretical connotations of the ritual view have undergone three transformations: in terms of the subject dimension, users shift from passive participants to active performers, completing the identity transition from ritual adherents to co-constructors by editing report templates. in the spatiotemporal dimension, ritual scenes shift from fixed time and space to fluid fields of time and space. for example, douban's "annual report season" constructs "mediatized time nodes" [22] through countdown posters, etc., (granting synchronic meaning to individual behaviors). in the power dimension, platforms encode commercial logic into cultural rituals through automatically generated functions, such as "annual top ten" [23], thereby forming an algorithm-driven, ritualized process. in the practice of viewing reports, the ritual view reveals how individual behaviors are transformed into collective cultural practices through symbolic performance. users publishing data using standardized templates participate in a "cultural performance" [24] centered on identity and belonging. couldry points out that digital platforms create new ritual spaces [25]. this study further finds that platform templates constitute the "standardized scripts" of rituals, while algorithms establish the "sacred standards" of evaluation through lists such as the "annual top100." interactions such as likes and favorites among users form a cycle of emotional energy [26], constituting a key link in the interaction ritual chain. existing research mainly develops along three directions: platform mechanisms (e.g., the gamification design of weibo's "movie medals"), user behavior (e.g., young people achieving taste distinction through "reports and reviews" [27]), and cultural critique (e.g., the "mcdonaldization of aesthetics" resulting from the datafication of film taste [28]). however, there are significant shortcomings: first, a lack of diachronic investigation of "annual reports" as periodic rituals; second, neglect of comparative research across platforms and intergenerational differences. based on this, this study innovatively proposes an "algorithmic ritualization" analytical framework, focusing on examining the differences in ritual practices among users of different platforms and generations, revealing how platforms transform commercial surveillance into user-willingly-participated cultural practices through interface design. it also pays attention to the subversive effect of "anti-report" subcultures (e.g., intentionally generating vulgar film lists) on ritual authority, thereby expanding the dimension of resistance in the ritual view and deepening the understanding of the evolution of communication rituals in the platform society. 3. methodological design 3.1 implementation of digital ethnography this study adopts a qualitative research approach, combining digital ethnography and in-depth interviews to form a strategy of triangulation. digital ethnography is used to capture public performance behaviors in natural settings, while in-depth interviews delve into users' subjective motivations and strategic considerations, providing a comprehensive understanding of the complex cultural phenomenon of "performative viewing" from both practical and meaningful perspectives. 3.1.1 platform selection and rationale this study selects douban and xiaohongshu as research platforms, primarily based on their platform attributes and functional representativeness. douban is based on a "books, films, music" community, where users emphasize aesthetic taste and in-depth film reviews; xiaohongshu, with its positioning of "marking my life," features more visual and consumption-oriented content. the significant differences in user demographics between the two platforms provide an effective comparative perspective for the study. in terms of functionality, both platforms have mature mechanisms for generating and sharing viewing reports (e.g., douban annual reports, xiaohongshu movie nine-square grid templates) and have formed active sharing communities with high data accessibility. the research focuses on the original performance practices of individual users, excluding marketing accounts, institutional accounts, and commercial promotional content. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 4 published by ideas spread the specific observation scope includes douban's "movie marking addiction" group, annual chart topic areas, and user content containing the hashtag #my annual movie report#, as well as popular posts and related topics on xiaohongshu obtained through keyword searches such as "movie viewing report” and "movie nine-square grid." 3.1.2 observation period and data collection the observation period for this study spanned from november 2024 to february 2025, encompassing the peak period when platforms release their annual viewing reports and users intensively share them, thereby effectively capturing ritualized communication practices within "mediatized time nodes." using purposive sampling, a total of 300 user-generated posts (150 from douban and 150 from xiaohongshu) were collected as analysis samples, covering visual texts (report screenshots, cover designs), written texts (captions, film list comments, comments), and interaction data (likes, favorites, reposts). 3.1.3 data analysis methods the collected data will be imported into qualitative data analysis software (e.g., nvivo) for directed content analysis and multimodal analysis. the coding scheme will be constructed around the research questions, including: visual symbol coding (e.g., aesthetic style of reports, layout order, etc.), textual strategy coding (e.g., curatorial logic of film lists, self-labeling, etc.), and interaction ritual coding (e.g., interaction patterns in comments, community terminology, etc.). 3.2 in-depth interview design to compensate for the limitations of ethnography in directly accessing user motivations and perceptions, this study supplements ethnography with semi-structured in-depth interviews to explore the inner world and life experiences of individual users in depth. 3.2.1 sampling method and interviewees a combination of purposive sampling and snowball sampling was used to recruit information-rich respondents. the core criterion for selecting respondents was: active users who had proactively published movie viewing reports on the douban or xiaohongshu platforms. ultimately, 16 users were successfully interviewed until theoretical saturation was reached. table 1. basic information of interviewees (n=16) number platform age gender occupation self-identity labels annual viewing volume report publishing frequency interview duration interview method d01 douban 29 female publishing house editor art film lover, auteur cinema 150+ annual report, monthly records 45min wechat d02 douban 33 male internet programmer scifi/fantasy fan, tech geek 80-100 annual report 50min wechat d03 douban 25 female postgraduate student hidden gem excavator, european cinema 200+ annual report, daily marking 45min tencent meeting d04 douban 31 male director independent film supporter, realist 120+ annual report, long review with images 40min tencent meeting d05 douban 27 female museum curatorial assistant visual aesthetics enthusiast, regular at 100-120 annual report, film festivals 60min wechat hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 5 published by ideas spread number platform age gender occupation self-identity labels annual viewing volume report publishing frequency interview duration interview method jiangsuzhejiangshanghai film festivals d06 douban 26 male university teacher classical film lover 100-120 annual report, film festivals 45min wechat x01 xiaohongshu 22 female undergraduate student atmosphere film lover, korean film fan 50-70 annual report, ninesquare grid 80min wechat x02 xiaohongshu 26 female graphic designer visualcentric, composition matters most 60-80 quarterly nine-square grid 50min tencent meeting x03 xiaohongshu 30 male brand marketing manager social sharing enthusiast, trend follower 40-60 annual report 55min phone x04 xiaohongshu 24 female new media operator romance film expert, cp fan 100+ monthly favorite list 50min wechat x05 xiaohongshu 28 female primary school teacher animation film specialist, healing type 90-110 annual report, ninesquare grid 45min wechat x06 xiaohongshu 26 female phd student healing type 110+ annual report 55 wechat m01 dual platform 35 male university junior faculty cinephile culture, crossplatform sharer 180+ annual report (both platforms) 50 tencent meeting m02 dual platform 23 female undergraduate student aspiring filmmaker 250+ all reports 50 phone m03 dual platform 32 male freelance writer queer cinema, horror films 130+ annual report, themed lists 45 tencent meeting m04 dual platform 29 male internet worker crossplatform sharer 100+ annual report, themed lists 50 wechat 3.2.2 interview guide and core dimensions the interview primarily revolved around core dimensions, including the production process and motivation, perception of platform algorithms, identity construction and capital accumulation, community belonging and distinction, and views on "anti-reports," while also collecting demographic information. the guide remained open, allowing new topics to emerge and be promptly supplemented and refined. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 6 published by ideas spread 3.2.3 interview implementation and ethics interviews were conducted via tencent meeting, wechat voice calls, or phone calls, with an average duration of approximately 40-60 minutes. they were recorded with consent and transcribed verbatim. the research followed ethical norms. before the interview, respondents were briefed in detail on the purpose, privacy protection measures, and data usage, and signed informed consent forms. all respondent information was anonymized (using codes instead of names). 4. findings 4.1 the three layers of ritualized production carey's ritual view evolves into an operational, hierarchical symbolic production practice in the platform society. this study finds that the ritualized production of viewing reports is not homogeneous but presents three layers from surface to depth, collectively constructing the cultural sacredness of the performance. the first layer is the sense of ritual in visual order (i.e., front-stage performance). platform-standardized viewing templates constitute the "front stage" in goffman's theory, providing users with "scripts" that require no professional knowledge. most users (e.g., x02, x05) create within the framework, conveying a signal of "careful preparation" through a unified visual order (e.g., neat layout, coordinated color scheme), declaring their qualification to participate in the ritual. the second layer is personalized micro-manipulations within the template (i.e., identity anchors). while adhering to the ritual script, users anchor their unique identities through meticulous micro-manipulations. they choose cover images representing personal aesthetics (d03: "i would pick the most niche but perfectly composed movie poster as the cover"), adjust the order of the film list to create a narrative (d01: "i put the year's best at the end, like telling a story"), or use specific community jargon in their captions. this is an effort to strive for individual meaning within the common ritual through "constrained creativity." the third layer is the curatorial aesthetics of "imperfection" (i.e., capital flaunting). the highest level of ritual production manifests as a carefully designed "imperfection." veteran users (e.g., d04) intentionally avoid popular blockbusters recommended by algorithms, instead opting for obscure films that are often difficult to find resources for. by demonstrating the ability to access scarce cultural resources, they transform intangible capital into visible symbols, occupy a higher status in the ritual, and realize what bourdieu termed "distinction." 4.2 the gradient display of cultural capital users' performance strategies show gradient differences based on their stock of cultural capital, and the platform's datafication mechanisms reinforce this visibility. novice users engage in quantitative capital flaunting. the performance strategies of novice users (e.g., x01, x03) focus on the visible numbers themselves, such as annual total viewings, check-in days, and viewing hours. they tend to fully publish all data charts generated by the platform, with their core motivation being to gain initial community recognition through quantified achievements (e.g., x03: "seeing that i watched over 200 hours felt quite accomplished, wanted to show it off"). their cultural capital has not yet been internalized into a stable aesthetic system. intermediate users engage in taste and knowledge performance. intermediate users (e.g., d02, d05, x04) focus on "curation," demonstrating their knowledge system and aesthetic judgment through thematic categorization of film lists (e.g., "annual healing list," "feminist film special"), in-depth short reviews, and authoritative film source labels, relying on recognition within specific cultural circles to accumulate capital (d05: "i look forward to someone commenting 'the host has great taste'"). expert users engage in the construction of cultural authority. top users (e.g., d01, d04, m02) often act as "opinion leaders." their reports often appear as long articles or videos, critiquing platform algorithms or popular tastes (d04: "my report is meant to counter big data recommendations, to show everyone what truly good films are"). by deconstructing the ritual itself, they establish cultural authority. their form of capital is closest to what bourdieu called "institutionalized cultural capital," i.e., possessing the power to define what constitutes "legitimate culture." 4.3 identity performance under algorithmic complicity there exists a "complicity" between user performance and platform algorithms. the algorithm acts as a "director," providing and reinforcing the performance script. users' awareness and utilization strategies of algorithms show hierarchical differences. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 7 published by ideas spread table 2. differences in users' perception of and coping strategies towards platform algorithms user type perception of algorithm typical coping strategies interviewees novice as"administrator"or "referee" compliance and conformity: tend to watch and mark popular films recommended by the algorithm to obtain "good-looking" data. x01, x03 intermediate as"curation partner" or "resource library" selection and utilization: actively use the algorithm to search for specific genres, but critically filter its recommendations, using them as material for selfcuration. d02, x04 expert as"an opponent to dialogue with or even contest" domestication and resistance: intentionally rate niche films disliked by the algorithm highly to "train" it; or use anti-algorithm strategies (e.g., deliberately rating commercial films low) to assert taste and perform symbolic resistance. d04, m02 respondent d02's candid statement summarizes this complicity: "i know it wants me to mark more, interact more, but i need it to help me remember what i've watched. we're using each other." 4.4 the ritualized discipline of platform time platforms transform linear physical time into culturally significant ritual time through "mediatized time nodes," imposing ritualized discipline on user behavior. users are highly sensitive to the "annual report time window." m01 described: "as soon as late december arrives, i start anticipating and refreshing douban, checking if the annual report is out. it's like a year-end ritual; without it, the year doesn't feel properly concluded." platforms reinforce temporal discipline through technical means, such as countdown posters and splash screen animations, thereby incorporating users into a unified rhythm. this discipline produces a dual effect. on one hand, it creates a shared ritual moment for the community, enhancing the sense of belonging (x05: "that day, my moments were flooded with reports; it felt like everyone was attending the same party"). on the other hand, it completes the capital cycle. through the annual summary, platforms successfully datafy and commodify users' year-long cultural consumption behaviors, laying the groundwork for the next year's algorithmic recommendations and traffic distribution, thus completing the closed loop of ritual reproduction and capital reproduction. 5. discussion through the analysis of social media movie viewing reports, this study reveals how the traditional private consumption behavior of "watching films" transforms into a complex, public cultural practice of "performing films" in the platform society. this study will further delve into its underlying mechanisms, internal contradictions, and theoretical implications. 5.1 the ritual functions of viewing reports viewing reports is far from a simple data summary; their core lies in performing powerful ritual functions, becoming an important medium for maintaining digital community relationships. first, time marking and collective memory. over 80% of interviewees synchronized the act of publishing reports with the transition to the new year, participating in "mediatized time rituals" (couldry & hepp, 2017). through technical means, such as countdowns and splash screen animations, platforms transform greenwich mean time into culturally significant "douban time" or "xiaohongshu time." users shape digital collective memory through synchronized publishing. as d05 stated: "it's like bidding farewell to the old and ushering in the new in the digital age. not posting one feels like the year isn't complete." second, community access and the cultural capital "visa." viewing reports has become a visible credential of cultural capital, acting as "entry permits" for digital communities. for instance, posts on xiaohongshu seeking "movie buddies" often require applicants to "attach an annual report screenshot." this indicates that the film's ratings and aesthetic tendencies within the reports become a reliable basis for strangers to establish trust and make social judgments quickly. it functions like a cultural passport, where the "visas" (markings of highbrow/niche films, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 8 published by ideas spread specific genre preferences) determine whether a user can gain entry into a particular community of taste. this fully demonstrates that bourdieu's theory of distinction operates more concretely and visibly in the digital age. 5.2 the tension between platform power and user agency the performative practice of viewing reports constitutes a dynamic field of continuous negotiation between platform power and user agency. platforms exercise "architectural power" through their technical frameworks and the temporal discipline of report cycles. this power does not command directly but shapes the boundaries of possible user behavior by setting the available options. however, users demonstrate considerable agency within this architecture, generating three core tensions. first, the tension between scripting and improvisation: users simultaneously utilize the platform's standardized "script" while contesting dominance through personalized micro-manipulations, anti-algorithmic curation, and other forms of "improvisational performance." second, the paradox of data colonization and meaning replenishment: the platform systematically transforms user emotions and tastes into extractable data, effecting a form of "data colonization"; users, in turn, actively infuse this process with emotional value and social meaning, willingly participating in exchange for symbolic rewards, resulting in an unstable collusion between capital logic and the search for meaning. third, the contradiction between internalized discipline and the pursuit of autonomy: platform rules are often internalized by users as their own logic of action, yet their anxiety regarding "authenticity" simultaneously drives a constant quest for aesthetic self-determination. user agency does not exist outside power but is precisely manifested through ongoing navigation and negotiation with power structures. this tension profoundly reveals the complexity of the subject's condition within the platform society. 5.3 the contradictions of identity construction user identity construction is fraught with inherent contradictions and tensions, reflecting the complex dilemmas of self-presentation in the platform society. first, the interplay between authenticity and performativity. over half of the interviewees admitted to modifying their reports based on anticipated feedback from others, such as "inflating the rating of a popular film to gain more likes" or "concealing viewing records they deemed 'unrefined'." this reveals a fundamental conflict between the platform's incentive structures and users' authentic expression. users desire community recognition (and cultural capital accumulation) through performance, yet fear that this performance deviates from the "true self," generating a form of "self-alienation under the algorithmic gaze." second, the contradiction between strategic vulnerability and sophisticated identity management. to mitigate the tension above, users develop a refined set of identity management strategies. among these, "strategic vulnerability" is particularly emblematic. as one respondent (m03) aptly stated: "intentionally inserting a film like tiny times into an art film list to show 'vulnerability' makes one seem both interesting and unpretentious." this art of impression management involves proactively exposing a harmless "flaw" to mask a larger performativity, thereby crafting a persona of "authentic expertise" and navigating goffman's front stage with finesse. 5.4 theoretical contributions this study bridges cultural sociology and platform studies by proposing two core concepts. the first is algorithmic taste performance. this concept integrates bourdieu's concept of "taste" with goffman's notion of "performance" within the algorithmic context, positing that contemporary cultural taste is not entirely endogenous to the individual but is co-constructed through ongoing interaction with platform algorithms. the "script" for user performance is heavily guided by algorithmic recommendations, popularity charts, and template designs; conversely, algorithmic judgments are built upon massive datasets of user performance. therefore, "performative viewing" is a form of taste performance complicit with algorithms, revealing that the operational mechanism of cultural capital accumulation has profoundly shifted from traditional social fields to the algorithmically mediated platform field. the second is visibility capital. under the dominance of the platform's visual logic, cultural capital must become visible to be recognized and converted. traditional, deeply embodied cultural capital must be rendered into visible, objectified forms—such as data, charts, and nine-square grids—to participate in social distinction effectively. consequently, this study proposes "visibility capital"—defined as the capacity to externalize and display internalized cultural capital through platform-approved visual formats to garner attention, recognition, and social currency—as a crucial new form of cultural capital. it is both an extension of traditional cultural capital in the digital age and a result of its operational rules being reconfigured by platform logic. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 9 published by ideas spread 5.5 practical implications the findings of this study also offer important implications for platform design, user practice, and educators. for platform designers, there is a critical need to guard against the risk of aesthetic homogenization driven by algorithmic recommendations and templatization. they should consider how technical features—such as supporting "recommendation-free" reporting channels, enabling more flexible personalized editing, and promoting more niche content—can nurture rather than tame user taste, thereby assuming the social responsibility of cultural "curators" rather than "domesticators." for users, it is advisable to cultivate a reflexive awareness of media use. users can proactively establish periods of "non-display viewing"—consciously detaching from the instrumental mindset of "watching films for the sake of posting reports" and engaging in consumption devoid of performative intent, purely for pleasure. safeguarding this aesthetic autonomy is a vital strategy for resisting the excessive encroachment of platform logic and preserving the authenticity of cultural consumption. for educators, "algorithmic taste" can be incorporated into media literacy education, fostering the next generation's capacity for critical reflection on platform culture. 6. conclusion through the analysis of social media movie viewing reports, this study reveals how the traditional private consumption behavior of "watching films" transforms into a complex, public cultural practice of "performing films" within the platform society. the research finds that viewing reports is a form of ritualized production achieved through multiple strategies, including adherence to visual order, personalized micro-manipulations, and anti-algorithmic curation. users' performance strategies exhibit a gradient differentiation—from "quantitative display" to "authority construction"—based on their cultural capital stock. a complicit relationship exists between users and algorithms, ranging from compliance and utilization to resistance. meanwhile, platforms successfully implement ritualized discipline over user behavior by creating "mediatized time nodes." theoretically, the key contribution of this study lies in integrating dramaturgical theory and cultural capital theory within the algorithmic context, proposing the core concept of algorithmic taste performance. this reveals that contemporary cultural taste is neither wholly endogenous to the individual nor imposed by platforms, but is coconstructed through the continuous interaction between user performance and algorithmic recommendation. each user’s act of marking, rating, and curating serves simultaneously as impression management based on personal aesthetics and as a data source for training and feeding back into the algorithm, thereby collectively shaping dynamic, quantifiable taste boundaries. furthermore, the visual logic of the platform society establishes a core rule: cultural capital must become visible to be recognized and validated as effective capital. based on this, the study proposes visibility capital, arguing that embodied cultural cultivation must be externalized and displayed through platform-approved visual forms (such as data, charts, and nine-square grids) to effectively participate in social distinction and identity construction. this deeply reconstructs the traditional rules of cultural capital accumulation and display. although this study has limitations, including its focus on specific platforms and its primarily qualitative methodology, it provides a significant perspective for understanding identity construction in the digital age. viewing reports is not merely a new form of cultural consumption but also a micro-political field. they both perpetuate the traditional logic of cultural distinction and accurately reflect the new power relations within algorithmic society, as well as the complex state of human-computer interaction. a deep understanding of this phenomenon not only aids in grasping the evolution of contemporary film culture but also provides a crucial theoretical entry point and practical reference for rethinking technologically mediated self-identity. references [1] the 52nd statistical report on china's internet development. (2023). china internet network information center. retrieved from http://www.cnnic.cn (archived on 2023) [2] douban. (2023). 2023 annual movie charts. retrieved from https://movie.douban.com/annual/2023 (archived on 2023) [3] questmobile. (2023). china mobile internet annual report 2023. retrieved from https://www.questmobile.com.cn/research/report-new (archived on 2023) [4] bordwell, d., & thompson, k. (2004). film art: an introduction (pp. 477–479). mcgraw-hill. [5] staiger, j. (2000). perverse spectators: the practices of film reception. new york university press. [6] chen, x. g., & zhang, m. h. (2021). towards a new aesthetics of film reception in the digital technology era: hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 6; 2025 10 published by ideas spread on the new changes of film viewing experience under new media and technologies. hund. sch. arts, 37(6), 105–113. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1003-9104.2021.06.015 [7] van dijck, j. (2013). the culture of connectivity: a critical history of social media. oxford university press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199970773.001.0001 [8] bourdieu, p. (2018). distinction: a social critique of the judgement of taste. in inequality (pp. 287–318). routledge. [9] couldry, n. (2005). media rituals: beyond functionalism. routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203986608 [10] goffman, e. (2002). the presentation of self in everyday life. anchor books. [11] goffman, e. (1959). the presentation of self in everyday life. doubleday. [12] hogan, b. (2010). the presentation of self in the age of social media: distinguishing performances and exhibitions online. bulletin of science, technology & society, 30(6), 377–386. https://doi.org/10.1177/0270467610385893 [13] bullingham, l., & vasconcelos, a. c. (2013). 'the presentation of self in the online world': goffman and the study of online identities. journal of information science, 39(1), 101–112. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165551512470051 [14] marwick, a. e., & boyd, d. (2011). i tweet honestly, i tweet passionately: twitter users, context collapse, and the imagined audience. new media & society, 13(1), 114–133. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444810365313 [15] zhao, x., lampe, c., & ellison, n. b. (2016). the social media ecology: user perceptions, strategies and challenges. in proceedings of the 2016 chi conference on human factors in computing systems (pp. 89– 100). association for computing machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/2858036.2858333 [16] austin, t. (2002). hollywood hype and audiences: selling and watching popular film in the 1990s. manchester university press. [17] hanquinet, l., & savage, m. (eds.). (2016). routledge international handbook of the sociology of art and culture. routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203740248 [18] carey, j. w. (1989). communication as culture: essays on media and society. routledge. [19] van dijck, j., poell, t., & de waal, m. (2018). the platform society: public values in a connective world. oxford university press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190889760.001.0001 [20] couldry, n., & hepp, a. (2018). the mediated construction of reality. john wiley & sons. [21] nieborg, d. b., & poell, t. (2018). the platformization of cultural production: theorizing the contingent cultural commodity. new media & society, 20(11), 4275–4292. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818769694 [22] schechner, r. (1985). between theater & anthropology. university of pennsylvania press. https://doi.org/10.9783/9780812200928 [23] couldry, n. (2005). media rituals: a critical approach. routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203986608 [24] collins, r. (2014). interaction ritual chains and collective effervescence. in collective emotions (pp. 299– 311). oxford university press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199659180.003.0020 [25] ritzer, g. (2021). the mcdonaldization of society. in in the mind's eye (pp. 143–152). routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003235750-15 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n5p111 111 published by ideas spread unreliable narration against a reliable historical backdrop: on the anti‑authoritarian literary reconfiguration of history in mo yan's fiction haolin huang1 1 school of foreign languages, chengdu university of traditional chinese medicine, china correspondence: haolin huang, school of foreign languages, chengdu university of traditional chinese medicine, chengdu, sichuan, 611137, china. e-mail: yexune1023@gmail.com received: october 6, 2025; accepted: october 17, 2025; published: october 18, 2025 abstract overseas scholarship on mo yan has often proceeded from narratology and postmodern theory, while domestic scholarship has tended to foreground his representations of local history. yet few studies systematically integrate these two strands. against this background, the present article examines how, upon "reliable historical anchors," mo yan deploys multi‑dimensional strategies of unreliable narration to construct a literary reconfiguration of history and thereby achieve cultural critique. through close reading, the paper analyzes three representative works—red sorghum, life and death are wearing me out, and frog—from the perspectives of narratology, historiographic metafiction, and historical‑cultural studies. the paper shows how china's modern and contemporary social transformations and local memories are absorbed and rewritten in mo yan's fiction, and the paper clarifies the cultural‑critical intents embedded therein. the study identifies how this "literary reconfiguration of history" is built and articulates three anti‑authoritarian implications: challenging orthodox historical discourse, resisting the unification of collective memory, and reflecting on the violence and alienation within modernization. keywords: mo yan, reliable historical anchors, literary reconfiguration of history 1. introduction history has long occupied a central place in modern and contemporary chinese literature. from the may fourth era, when historical writing carried the tasks of enlightenment and national narration, through the early prc period, when literature served state narration and congealed into a standardized grand narrative, and finally to the post‑1978 decades, when literary attention shifted toward individual experience and local memory amid cultural pluralization, history ceased to be a single, unassailable "sum of facts" and instead became a cultural arena open to reconstruction, questioning, and rewriting. within a postmodern horizon, concepts such as historiographic metafiction [1], unreliable narration [2,3], and magical realism entered the purview of chinese literary studies. mo yan's writing is bound to rural memory and local archives. however, exaggeration, metamorphosis, and polyphonic narration persistently question orthodox historical discourse [4], placing personal and local experience outside the state‑centered narrative and thereby fostering a multi‑centric and contestable mode of history writing [5]. methodologically, existing scholarship on mo yan exhibits a certain bifurcation. overseas studies—often grounded in western narratology and postmodern criticism, as in shelley wing chan's a subversive voice in china: the fictional world of mo yan—spotlight textual narrative features and argue that mo yan challenges mainstream discourse and orthodox history through language, narrative structure, and characterization, projecting a "subversive voice" [6]. by contrast, chinese‑language scholarship is rooted in specific socio‑historical contexts, attending to how mo yan reimagines local experience and rural history and probing the tensions between his texts and state narratives or collective memory. zhang qinghua, for example, shows that in works such as red sorghum, big breasts and wide hips, and sandalwood death, mo yan adopts neo‑historicist strategies to reinterpret and fictionalize grand history, foregrounding folk memory and individual experience [7]; chen xiaoming emphasizes that mo yan's fiction is deeply grounded in the locality of gaomi northeast township while simultaneously exhibiting "border‑crossing" tendencies, generating complex tensions between local/global and realist/fantastical modes [8]. in short, overseas scholarship tends to emphasize form and theory, whereas domestic scholarship emphasizes the representation of historical experience. drawing on both, this article proceeds along a chain of hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 112 published by ideas spread "narrative strategy → historical discourse → cultural critique," integrating the workings of unreliable narration with the cultural meanings of historical rewritings. accordingly, this study combines literary‑theoretical and cultural‑historical approaches to analyze how mo yan rewrites history through narrative strategies and enacts cultural critique within texts anchored in actual history. three questions guide the analysis: in the specific texts (red sorghum, life and death are wearing me out, frog), which strategies generate unreliable narration, and with what features? while retaining historical referents, how do these strategies undermine or reconfigure the authority of orthodox historical discourse? what forms of cultural critique does mo yan's "literary reconfiguration of history" assert? answering these questions, the article aims to offer a new entry point into the dialogue between contemporary chinese literature and postmodern narratology. the exposition proceeds as follows: close readings → identification and typology of unreliable strategies, contextualized interpretation of interventions in official historical discourse → synthesis of cultural‑critical implications. 2. literature review 2.1 studies of mo yan's narrative techniques existing narratological research primarily centers on formal features in mo yan's fiction: multiple narrators and shifting focalizations, non‑linear temporality, questions of narrator reliability, and stylistic hybridity (dialect, slang, and poeticization) [4,9-11]. much of this work remains at formal description and aesthetic reading; while it often notes a grotesque or "ugly" aesthetic [12], it seldom connects these narrative forms and features systematically to the problem of how literature reconstructs history. 2.2 studies of mo yan and history chinese‑language scholarship on mo yan and history is abundant, including praise for his rural epic and satirical readings of his engagement with state narratives. two lines generally run in parallel: one treats mo yan as a bearer of local/folk memory, analyzing how his texts preserve local histories marginalized by official historiography [7]; the other, from political‑cultural angles, explores his ethical reflections on violence and state policies within modernization [13]. however, most of these studies remain at the level of thematic or ideological criticism and seldom take narrative techniques as a key tool for intervening in and reconstructing history for systematic argumentation. 2.3 studies of mo yan and magical realism there has long been a debate about the classification of "magical realism". some studies place mo yan within the global tradition of magical realism (latin american magical realism), highlighting how his surreal elements and fantastical narratives disrupt the stability of reality [14]; others emphasize his roots in chinese folk narratives, arguing that the so-called "magic" is more a recreation of local culture [15]. the "magical" elements placed in different contexts all lead to the disruption of narrative reliability, but discussions on the relationship between "magicalness" and "unreliability" are relatively rare. the above literature review indicates that existing research has laid a foundation for understanding the form and theme of mo yan's narrative, but there is a significant gap the lack of a systematic analysis that directly links narrative form (especially unreliable narrative) with historical discourse power and cultural criticism. this study aims to fill this gap by following the chain of "strategy → function → cultural implications". 3. the multi‑dimensional construction of unreliable narration 3.1 constructing historical reality: the referential frame of unreliability in unreliable narration, historical reality is not negated; rather, it operates as a referential frame that allows readers to register the tension between narration and fact. embedding real‑historical elements furnishes the fiction with anchors—place‑names, events, social‑historical coordinates, and cultural details—producing a palpable sense of cultural verisimilitude [16]. these "anchors" ensure that when narration departs from the real, readers can perceive its contrast with "real history." for example: "in the sorghum field, blood splashed onto the leaves like raindrops [17]." (red sorghum) the surrounding war‑scene imagery provides a clear historical referent, yet the poetic exaggeration ("like raindrops") makes reality and symbolism coexist: concrete battlefield images cohabit with metaphorical affect. this points to a recurrent practice in mo yan's fiction—treating "truth" as a point of reference rather than a single truth. while readers accept the anchor, they are simultaneously guided to perceive the artistry of narration and to question the supposed objectivity and neutrality of historical presentation. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 113 published by ideas spread 3.2 the unreliability of narrative perspective the unreliability of narrative perspective manifests itself in the narrator's limitations and subjectivity, especially in cases of multiple retellings and indirect narration, where information inevitably becomes distorted in transmission and the narrative chain generates deviations [4,9]. in frog, the "i" is not a direct witness but reconstructs events through the aunt's letters, memories, and rumors; such indirectness produces distance and uncertainty between fact and narration [10]. in life and death are wearing me out, the landlord ximen nao, executed at the outset, continues to observe human affairs through successive animal reincarnations; his voice thus oscillates between that of an insider and an outsider. in red sorghum, the narrative shifts constantly between "i", the grandparents, and local legends, forming a polyphonic structure that undermines the authority of any single perspective. for example: "in her letter, my aunt wrote that she could no longer remember many things clearly, but that cry she would never forget [18]." (frog) this sentence juxtaposes ruptured memory and affective intensity: the explicit admission that memory is not absolute truth renders the information indirect and incomplete [4], whereas "that cry i will never forget" functions as an affective anchor. as a result, history is assembled from subjective fragments, and the upshot is a narrative with multiple possibilities—one that includes undeniable experiential elements but abandons the objective representation associated with orthodox historiography. with such multiple and indirect perspectives, readers remain in a state of verification and doubt, and history appears as an open, contestable structure. 3.3 the unreliability of language the unreliability of language is manifested in exaggeration, fantasy, and the mixture of multiple styles. this is not only an aesthetic strategy but also a resistance to the official monolithic narrative language. mo yan often employs such language strategies to resist official discourse [11]. in "life and death are wearing me out", the narration of the landlord's six reincarnations is presented through animalized language, revealing satire and absurdity. for instance, when depicting the scene of collective labor from the perspective of a cow, the exaggerated physical sensations and emotional judgments undermine the objectivity of realism; in "red sorghum clan", the descriptions of the sorghum fields and bloody battles are both concrete and exaggerated, and the language blends dialects, colloquialisms and poetic expressions, making the narrative emotional rather than neutral [11]. for example: "from among the sorghum stalks there seemed to come moans of pain; among the heap of corpses something seemed to writhe. my father wanted to call out to my grandfather to look at those villagers who hadn't quite died. he raised his face and saw my grandfather's verdigris‑stained bronze mask of a face, stripped of human expression, and he pushed the words back down his throat [17]." (red sorghum) this passage of text is marked by a notable unreliability in its language. firstly, the use of vague terms like "seems" and "as if" throws the narrative into an uncertain state, leaving readers unable to determine whether the moaning and squirming are real occurrences or merely the narrator's subjective perception. the metaphor of the grandfather's face as a cold and hard object and the amplification of psychological details, such as "pressing the words down into the throat," into visible emotional symbols, enhance the visual impact and make the language tend towards symbolism and exaggeration. such vague, exaggerated, and symbolic language weakens objectivity and achieves the construction of instability and unreliability within a highly emotional narrative. 3.4 the unreliability of temporal structure nonlinear temporality is a crucial device in literature for undermining narrative certainty. mo yan frequently employs nonlinear narration, using temporal leaps, flashbacks, and blurring to disrupt chronological sequence and render history as the intertwined product of narration and memory [4]. in red sorghum, wartime and postwar episodes alternate continuously, with the same event at times recalled by different characters at different moments, their conflicting details further destabilizing reliability. "life and death are wearing me out" disrupts the chronological progression with a cyclical structure, allowing half a century of history to repeat itself in multiple "reincarnations". for example: "naturally, i know: i am lan jiefang. blue‑face was my father, yingchun my mother. hence, you were once a donkey in our family? yes, i was once a donkey in your family. i was born on the morning of january 1, 1950, while you, lan jiefang, were born that evening. we are both children of a new era [19]." (life and death are wearing me out) hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 114 published by ideas spread the contradiction created by this passage lies in the dual confusion of identity and temporal structure. lan jiefang's life as a "normal person" followed a linear timeline: born in 1950, he gradually experienced the changes of the times and lived on to the present, his life journey aligning with the grand historical narrative. while lan qianshui, as a reincarnated being, has been reborn repeatedly in past eras, now he has been reborn as a newborn baby while carrying the memories of his previous lives. his existence makes historical time present the characteristics of recurrence, superposition, and dislocation. the two have completely different temporal logics: one is a linear historical process moving forward, and the other is a cyclical narrative that repeats itself. the text demonstrates a strategy of overlapping the certainty of linear history with the cyclical nature of time, and placing narrative time in a state of confusion and fragmentation. the complex and interwoven temporal structure reflects the narrator's perception that history cannot be revisited, making history a product of subjective reconstruction. through such a temporal structure, it questions and reconstructs history. 4. the cultural‑critical intents of the literary reconfiguration of history 4.1 resisting the unification of collective memory by "unification of collective memory," i refer to the production, under specific power structures, of a single interpretive frame and value system for historical events through official narration, education, and mass media [20]. such memory stresses national subjectivity and legitimacy and tends toward narratives of linear progress and collective sacrifice, compressing or erasing individual experience, local difference, and historical multiplicity [20]. through polyphony and multiple perspectives, mo yan breaks this unitary frame. in red sorghum, the war of resistance is represented as entwined love, private vendettas, and violence; in frog, state policy appears riven with contradictions when refracted through personal memory. history thus becomes a multi‑centered, open structure, as local experience and private memory are inserted into the micronarrative [5]. in literary form, this resists the unification of collective memory and weakens the power's monopoly over historical interpretation, thereby realizing an anti‑authoritarian intent. 4.2 questioning the authority of orthodox historical discourse by "authority of orthodox historical discourse," i mean the power to interpret history and to establish a single path of understanding in mainstream historiography and public discourse—a power that claims "truthfulness" and "neutrality," and is typically controlled by the state, elite historians, or institutionalized scholarly discourse. mo yan often deliberately exposes narrative acts themselves; through meta‑narrative techniques, he makes narration an object of discussion, foregrounding the fact that the "real" is an effect of selection and construction [10]. this aligns with hutcheon's theory of historiographic metafiction: in literature, history is not an absolute fact but a constructive discourse shaped by narrative structures, linguistic strategies, and ideology [1]. in life and death are wearing me out, the story unfolds in first person from a landlord executed and then reincarnated as a cow, and the narrator—human or animal—recounts history in an emotive, value‑laden tone. readers are led to question the provenance and credibility of the "facts." the narrator's direct addresses to readers and moments of self‑doubt further undermine the authority of historical narration, deflating the myth of objectivity and opening a plural, contestable space. literature thus intervenes in and reconstructs historical discourse, challenging power‑laden narratives. 4.3 reflecting on the narrative of modernization in the chinese context, the "process of modernization" is usually depicted as a linear narrative of development, moving from backwardness to advancement and from chaos to order. however, this grand narrative often obscures the deprivation of individual lives, the violent reshaping of social structures, and the rupture of cultural traditions during the process of modernization [16]. mo yan reveals the other side of the modernization process. in "life and death are wearing me out", the six reincarnations of the landlord symbolize the discipline and alienation of individuals in the process of institutional change; in "frog", the aunt is both a policy executor and a victim of ethical and psychological trauma. these narratives satirize the simplistic value of "modernization = progress". jiang chun's proposition of the concept of "square narrative discourse" indicates that the confessions of the lowerclass characters in mo yan's narratives are not merely the outpouring of personal emotions, but also a collective expression of disappointment and doubt towards social reform [21]. through the literary rewriting of history, mo yan supplements the modernization narrative with neglected memories of suffering and resistance, embodying profound reflective and critical qualities. however, mo yan's cultural criticism is not entirely beyond reproach. in deconstructing the delusions and power dynamics inherent in grand narratives, his textual approach consistently employs radicalized narrative strategies— hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 115 published by ideas spread including magical realist plot constructions, hyperbolic linguistic devices, and disorientingly complex temporal structures. this literary treatment, while highlighting the challenge to authoritative discourse, may also weaken the realistic orientation of the criticism, causing readers to be more immersed in the visual impact brought by the words and neglect the depth of its social criticism. meanwhile, mo yan's works, while possessing profound critical undertones, seldom propose constructive alternatives. consequently, alongside their rebellious spirit lies a certain nihilistic quality, which constitutes an inevitable limitation of their cultural critique. 5. conclusion employing unreliable narration within authentic historical contexts, mo yan transforms grand narratives into individualized, localized, and richly symbolic "literatized history" through multi-perspective storytelling, hybridized language, and non-linear temporality. it not only reveals its unique construction at the level of historical narration, but also demonstrates its profound intention of cultural criticism. theoretically, mo yan's narrative practice has verified the feasibility and critical power of unreliable narration and metafiction of history in contemporary chinese literature. culturally, this anti-authoritative history provides readers with a diverse space for historical imagination, making history an open rather than a closed text. this study, by taking "unreliable narration" as the analytical entry point, not only deepens the understanding of the narrative strategies in mo yan's works but also provides a path for integrating narratological theoretical research with historical and cultural studies in the research of contemporary chinese literature. simultaneously, this study contributes theoretically to incorporating chinese texts into the global discourse on narrative theory by elucidating the localized manifestations of postmodern narrative techniques across diverse cultural contexts. culturally, it facilitates the exploration of how literary forms intervene in public memory and historical discourse, thereby offering novel pathways for interpreting the "personal experiences" and "local narratives" of contemporary chinese authors. limitations remain. the corpus here focuses on three novels and does not cover mo yan's short fiction, novellas, or drama; moreover, the theoretical framework could be expanded. future research should enlarge the corpus and draw on a broader spectrum of narratological approaches—including indigenous narrative theory—so as to present more fully the complexity of mo yan's narration and its critical engagement with cultural history. references [1] hutcheon, l. (1988). a poetics of postmodernism: history, theory, fiction. routledge. [2] booth, w. c. (1961). the rhetoric of fiction. university of chicago press. [3] phelan, j. (2005). living to tell about it: a rhetoric and ethics of character narration. cornell university press. [4] dawson, p., & mäkelä, m. (eds.). (2022). the routledge companion to narrative theory. routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003100157 [5] zhang, y. (2022). reconfiguring history through literature: cultural memory and mo yan's historical play our jing ke. modern chinese literature and culture, 34(1), 97–127. https://doi.org/10.3366/mclc.2022.0006 [6] chan, s. w. (2010). a subversive voice in china: the fictional world of mo yan. cambria press. [7] zhang, q. (2005). mo yan and the new historicist literary trend: with red sorghum family, big breasts and wide hips, and sandalwood death as cases. journal of hainan normal university (social sciences), (02), 35–42. [8] chen, x. (2013). "locality" and border-crossing: the traits and significance of mo yan's fiction. contemporary writers review, (01), 35–54. [9] zhao, y. (2023). a polyphonic narrative in mo yan's red sorghum family. world literature studies, 11(4), 268–272. https://doi.org/10.12677/wls.2023.114047 [10] phelan, j. (2023). fictionality, the zone of generic fiction, and the allure of unreliable narration. in the routledge handbook of fiction and belief. routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003119456-8 [11] li, y. (2023). on the creation of narrative styles in chinese fiction of the 1990s. journal of henan normal university (philosophy and social sciences edition), 50(2), 100–106. [12] song, b. (2018). mo yan's reception in china and a reflection on the ugly/vulgar/grotesque in his novels. clcweb: comparative literature and culture, 20(5), article 6. https://doi.org/10.7771/1481-4374.3338 [13] pirazzoli, m. (2023). redefining anthropos and life: a political reading of mo yan’s life and death are wearing me out. comparative literature, 75(2), 191–209. https://doi.org/10.1080/00111619.2021.2006596 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 116 published by ideas spread [14] li, k. (2025). the refraction of magical realism: on the misreading and interpretation of "magical realism" in china. studies in linguistics and literature, 9(3), 37–55. https://doi.org/10.22158/sll.v9n3p37 [15] holgate, b. (2020). east asian magical realism. in c. warnes (ed.), magical realism and literature (pp. 182– 197). cambridge university press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108551601.014 [16] chen, l. (2023). the local politics of literature and the heterogeneous writing of magical narratives by contemporary chinese authors. inner mongolia social sciences, 44(02), 153–160. [17] mo yan. (1993). red sorghum: a novel of china (h. goldblatt, trans.). viking. [18] mo yan. (2015). frog (h. goldblatt, trans.). penguin press. [19] mo yan. (2008). life and death are wearing me out (h. goldblatt, trans.). arcade publishing. [20] cordonnier, a., majerus, b., & pires, a. (2022). collective memory: an hourglass between the collective and the individual. memory, mind & media, 1, e10. https://doi.org/10.1017/mem.2022.10 [21] jiang, c. (2020). on the "square-ization" of discourse in mo yan's novels. chinese literary studies, 2, 143– 149. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p198 198 published by ideas spread capacity building of china's international communication: narrative transition of civilization and construction of international image musen wang1 & longying li1 1 wuyi university, china correspondence: musen wang, wuyi university, jiangmen, guangdong province, 529000, china. received: august 14, 2025; accepted: august 22, 2025; published: august 23, 2025 abstract amidst unprecedented global changes, china's international communication is experiencing systemic transformation. it has made three major leaps: from one-way propaganda to immersive experiences, from single entities to multi-stakeholder collaboration, and from symbolic expression to value resonance. it promotes a "fourdimensional capabilities" innovation mechanism, including cultural appeal, image affinity, persuasive discourse, and public opinion guidance. this serves the strategic goals of enhancing discourse power, optimizing the public opinion environment, and fostering community recognition. further progress is needed in talent development, regional coordination, content innovation, and technological integration. the essence of international communication is the transformation of civilizational narratives and the construction of china's global image. future development should focus on enhancing cultural transcoder capabilities, deepening emotional investment, and building value consensus, facilitating a transition from "debater" to "proponent "and contributing chinese wisdom to a global community with a shared future. keywords: international communication, paradigm transformation, coordination mechanism, civilization narrativ 1. introduction the profound restructuring of the global information landscape and china's growing prominence on the world stage have positioned international communication capacity building as a pivotal strategic lever for shaping national identity, enhancing global discourse power, and promoting cultural exchange. in recent years, china's international communication has undergone significant transformations in concepts, entities, content, and methodologies, demonstrating clear evolutionary patterns and systemic coordination. international communication has transitioned from traditional media-dominated linear models to algorithm-driven ecosystems characterized by diverse participation and digital-real integration. as both an ancient civilization and emerging global power, china's international communication now extends beyond mere information dissemination to encompass deeper competition for narrative dominance in cultural narratives. the report from the 20th national congress of the communist party of china explicitly states: "strengthen international communication capacity building, comprehensively enhance communication effectiveness, and establish international discourse power commensurate with china's comprehensive national strength and global standing." guided by this objective, china's international communication system is undergoing a systematic upgrade from "communication capability" to "communication efficacy," with its core mission being to achieve global, regional, and audience-specific articulation of chinese stories and concepts through contemporary reinterpretation of cultural narratives, ultimately advancing the vision of building a community with a shared future for mankind. this study employs a "paradigm-capability-challenge-pathway" analytical framework based on policy documents, platform data, and case studies from 2023 to 2025, systematically mapping the evolution trajectory and future direction of china's international communication efforts. 2. paradigm transformation of international communication: three transitions drive deep changes china's international communication practice is undergoing a comprehensive reconstruction from concept to method, subject to content, which is embodied in the "three leaps". this transformation is not only the innovation of technology and form, but also the deep change of communication philosophy and value logic. 2.1 from one-way propaganda to immersive experience: the fundamental reconstruction of communication paradigm hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 199 published by ideas spread the traditional publicity model, which focuses on information output, is shifting to experiential communication that centers on deep audience participation and emotional resonance. the underlying logic lies in the fact that a real, three-dimensional and comprehensive image of china needs to be constructed through personal experience and interactive perception. policy initiatives continue to empower experiential communication. for instance, the ongoing optimization and expansion of transit visa-free policies have facilitated international visitors 'deeper engagement with chinese social culture. as of july 2025, china has implemented a 240-hour transit visa-free policy for 55 countries, covering major economies in europe, north america, and asia-pacific. according to the china tourism academy's "china inbound tourism development report 2024-2025", "china inbound tourism" became an international buzzword in 2024, welcoming 131.9 million inbound tourists – a 61% year-on-year increase that recovered over 90% of prepandemic levels (2019) and significantly surpassed 2023's recovery figures. over 70% of travelers participated in cultural activities during their stay, including museum visits, intangible cultural heritage workshops, and urban strolls, which substantially enhanced their emotional connection to china. in practice, cultural institutions actively adopt immersive narratives. in 2025, the palace museum, boe technology group, and tencent jointly hosted the " 'pattern' to carry dao—— palace museum immersive digital experience exhibition" at suzhou bay digital art museum. the exhibition, themed around "patterns," utilized immersive rendering and image search technologies to extract ancient architectural, ceramic, and textile embroidery motifs from the palace museum. through digital innovation, it presented cultural connotations and contemporary artistic interpretations, offering international visitors a cross-temporal immersive art experience. the sanxingdui archaeological site became a model of cultural-tourism integration by creating immersive vr/ar experiences. during the 2024 national day holiday, activities like the "discover sanxingdui" sacrificial pit excavation vr experience and cultural market attracted 165,390 visitors, marking a 21.36% year-on-year increase. these practices not only revolutionized cultural communication methods but also validated the core tenet of embodied cognition theory—— that cognitive construction relies on body-environment interaction, with cultural understanding arising from experiential learning rather than passive indoctrination. this "policy-practice" transformation echoes the core requirement of "shaping a credible, lovable and respectable image of china", marking the shift from "i speak, you listen" to "empathy and experience" in communication concepts, pursuing emotional penetration and identity transformation, so as to further dissolve prejudice and build trust. 2.2 from solo to chorus: ecological change of communication subjects the global communication landscape is transitioning from an official-dominated "solo" model to a collaborative "chorus" of diverse voices. civilian forces, particularly independent media creators and ordinary citizens, are demonstrating remarkable communicative vitality and unique value. this transformation stems from technological empowerment enabling individualized dissemination, coupled with audiences' growing detachment from "official narratives" and their increasing affinity for "peer narratives" and "outsider perspectives". in the realm of short videos, content created and shared by international individuals in china continues to attract global attention through authentic observations, forming a significant cultural communication hub.tiktok videos tagged with the hashtag "#china travel" have reached nearly 90,000 posts with total views approaching 1 billion, covering diverse themes from daily life to technological innovation and social culture. vivid scenes like "exploring changsha's street snacks," "experiencing hotel robot services," and "heartwarming moments on guangzhou's streets" have resonated widely among overseas audiences through their authentic, relatable storytelling. for instance, british traveler elise's vlog documenting her visit to yuelu academy and tasting changsha cuisine received enthusiastic responses, while british couple taz and libby's video about chinese hotel robot delivery services went viral for its humor and charm. these personal perspectives showcase china's digital lifestyle, friendly atmosphere, and cultural blend of tradition and modernity, serving as vital windows for international audiences to understand contemporary china. this phenomenon not only demonstrates the powerful influence of short video platforms as cultural media but also highlights the crucial role of firsthand experiences and immersive interactions in fostering cultural understanding. global online influencers have conducted on-site visits to china for creative projects, with their firsthand experiences effectively dispelling negative stereotypes long cultivated by western media. in 2024, german tiktokblogger "baozi in china" robert adolf explored guizhou province, sharing insights into jia bang terraces, the miao ethnic group's drum festival, as well as grassroots cultural phenomena like "village super league" and "village ba". these videos sparked overseas audiences' keen interest in china's rural development, with comment sections frequently featuring praises such as "unexpectedly authentic china" and "genuine chinese perspectives". hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 200 published by ideas spread such practices demonstrate that content driven by real-world experiences can more effectively convey the vibrant grassroots culture and modern progress of china, fostering cross-cultural understanding. the policy actively guides and leverages grassroots creative forces to integrate them into the international communication system. the "14th five-year plan for international communication" explicitly proposes building a diversified foreign publicity matrix, emphasizing precise communication strategies of "personalized approaches for each individual and tailored policies for each region." relevant departments open resources and provide collaboration channels for grassroots creators. for example, the 2024 international short video competition collected 4,452 entries from over 60 countries and regions worldwide, with total views exceeding 2 billion on platforms such as tiktok, kuaishou, twitter, tiktok, and youtube. this new ecosystem of collaborative communication between authorities and the public is becoming increasingly mature. not only does this ecosystem amplify the volume of communication, but it also achieves a "roundabout approach" in building trust—— when information comes from "insiders" or "third parties," its persuasiveness far surpasses that of direct official statements. 2.3 from symbolic piling to value resonance: the deep evolution of communication content the production of international communication content is moving beyond the simple accumulation of traditional symbols such as the great wall, pandas, and qipao to explore in-depth narratives that resonate with universal human values. this evolution unfolds along two directions: the modern expression of traditional culture and contemporary china's global narrative. on one hand, traditional cultural symbols are being revitalized through modern technology and creative expression. chinese games have successfully created globally influential cultural products by combining classical literary treasures with cutting-edge technologies. in august 2024, the phenomenal domestic action rpg "black myth: wukong" was released worldwide. featuring stunning visuals crafted with unreal engine 5, rich chinese cultural elements, and profound mythological philosophy, it received widespread acclaim from global players (96% positive rating on steam) and won multiple awards including the 2024 tga game of the year. its global sales performance was strong, reaching 20 million copies on september 20,2024, and surpassing 22 million copies by april 23,2025, with overseas sales accounting for about 30%. the game has become an important window for global players to understand chinese literature, art, and thought—— overseas players showed great enthusiasm for the chinese mythological system and cultural elements showcased in the game, actively seeking out materials related to "journey to the west" and sharing cross-cultural reading experiences. the deep eastern aesthetics and the cultural core of "bearing responsibility and resisting fate" embodied by the "tianmingren" concept resonated emotionally with global players, with related derivative videos gaining significant attention. the success of "black myth: wukong" has explored innovative pathways for chinese culture to "go global." on the other hand, "people's livelihood narratives" demonstrate remarkable cross-cultural resonance. by focusing on the daily lives, career struggles, and community solidarity of ordinary chinese citizens, these documentarystyle works resonate globally through their universal human warmth and authentic emotional storytelling. in 2023, viral short videos documenting chengdu universiade volunteers serving athletes in multiple languages garnered over 5 million views each, with keywords like "professionalism," "friendliness," and "youthfulness" dominating social media discussions. these vivid portrayals showcased china's younger generation's openness and vitality. similarly, environmental governance documentaries like national geographic's "green miracle: china's kubuqi desert" have gained international recognition. the film chronicling desert tree-planting efforts reached audiences across 160+ countries and regions, highlighting ordinary people's enduring commitment to environmental transformation. this transcends ideological divides to create profound humanistic connections that inspire global admiration and shared emotional resonance. in practice, communication strategies increasingly emphasize regional segmentation by conducting precise analysis of cultural psychology and information preferences across different regions, enabling customized content production and channel distribution. for the southeast asian market, focus is placed on shared concerns like the "lancang-mekong cooperation" and "traditional medicine sharing"; for african audiences, development narratives such as "china-africa production capacity cooperation" and "skills enhancement programs" are prioritized; while for western knowledge communities, dialogues are predominantly centered on cutting-edge fields like "ai governance" and "climate response technologies". a notable example is the short video creation and dissemination workshop for developing countries, organized by china's ministry of commerce and hosted by yunnan international economic and technical exchange center, which has consistently attracted participants from panama, cambodia, south africa, tanzania, and other nations. media professionals from these countries noted that china's advancements in aerospace, agriculture, and ecological conservation serve as vital windows for hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 201 published by ideas spread mutual understanding. this audience-specific narrative refinement effectively enhances communication precision and explores value commonalities in cross-civilization dialogue. 3. the coordination mechanism of four-dimensional capacity building: system support for communication effectiveness the transformation of china's international communication paradigm requires robust capability systems. currently, the development of international communication capabilities focuses on the coordinated advancement of "fourdimensional competencies": cultural appeal, image affinity, persuasive discourse, and public opinion guidance. these four dimensions mutually reinforce each other through systematic synergy, collectively forming the core competitiveness in global communication. 3.1 innovative expression of cultural appeal: carrier renewal and value exploration enhancing the contemporary appeal and cultural resonance of chinese heritage hinges on revitalizing its profound values through innovative platforms. digital technologies now offer groundbreaking pathways for cultural preservation. the dunhuang academy's "digital patron" initiative employs vr and ar to create immersive virtual cave explorations at the mogao caves, allowing users to experience the artistic brilliance of murals while tracking participants' contributions through blockchain. the intelligent animated film *ne zha: the rise of the demon child* has emerged as a flagship example of chinese cultural outreach in 2025. building upon its predecessor *ne zha: the rise of the demon child*, this sequel masterfully blends ne zha's defiant spirit— "my fate is determined by my own will, not heaven's decree" —with themes of familial redemption. utilizing cutting-edge 3d animation, it crafts an eastern visual spectacle that resonates with modern audiences. after its global streaming debut, the film sparked international fascination through ne zha's narrative, sparking cross-cultural discussions about chinese mythology. the film and television industry has increasingly become a vital platform for projecting national identity and shared values. the sci-fi blockbuster "the wandering earth 2" has sparked global discussions through its grand narrative, stunning visuals, and profound vision of a human community with a shared future. the film achieved remarkable worldwide success: grossing $5 million in north america, boasting a 78% fresh rating on rotten tomatoes, and earning a 7.8 rating on imdb. its portrayal of the "mountain moving project" – embodying collectivism and self-sacrifice – ignited ethical debates on platforms like reddit regarding "eastern solutions versus western individual heroism", generating over 50,000 posts that objectively advanced international dialogues about chinese values. these examples demonstrate that cultural influence thrives through innovation rooted in tradition and expression born from creativity, transforming culture from museum exhibits into everyday life and propelling it forward from history to the future. 3.2 hierarchical strategy of image affinity: precise positioning and emotional connection to shape a friendly image of china, it is necessary to implement refined and segmented communication strategies, and adopt differentiated narrative frameworks and communication channels for audiences with different regions, groups and cultural backgrounds. to developing countries in the global south, china emphasizes sharing development experiences and showcasing mutually beneficial cooperation outcomes. take the mombasa-nairobi railway as an example: constructed with chinese assistance under chinese standards, it became kenya's first new railway since independence, hailed as the nation's "century project" and "flagship initiative". the documentary *my railway, my dream——chronicles of china's construction of the mombasa-nairobi railway* aired on kenyan national television, attracting over 6.5 million viewers on its premiere day. through firsthand accounts from more than a dozen locals, the documentary narrates the railway's construction journey and demonstrates the china-africa win-win cooperation philosophy. for developed countries in the global north, china focuses on establishing professional dialogues and trust through advanced topics like technology and environmental protection. the sino-european joint research project "china-europe green hydrogen partnership" in carbon neutrality achieved collaborative results published in *nature* energy in 2024, recognized by the european commission as a flagship cooperation case, effectively countering some "china environmental threat theory" noise. in targeting the global gen z audience, china's international cultural dissemination increasingly emphasizes aligning with their aesthetic preferences and digital social habits. cultural content like "kucha dance" that blends traditional heritage with modern flair, showcased on social media platforms such as instagram reels and tiktok, has garnered over 100 million views and 20 million interactions worldwide. in 2024, china's ministry of foreign affairs launched the "global youth china tour" initiative, inviting young leaders from multiple countries to visit china in depth. participants spontaneously became secondary nodes for "china's narrative" dissemination. the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 202 published by ideas spread essence of this tiered strategy lies in "one country, one policy" and "one group, one approach," using language that resonates with target audiences to discuss topics they care about, ultimately achieving emotional connection and engagement. 3.3 grammar optimization of discourse persuasiveness: conceptual translation and theoretical support enhancing the persuasiveness of international discourse hinges on building a robust communication framework and refining expression strategies. chinese diplomatic language now prioritizes constructive and inclusive phrasing – such as "resolving differences" and "building broad consensus" – replacing traditional confrontational rhetoric. the international interpretation of china's political concepts increasingly emphasizes cultural adaptation and contextual alignment to enhance cross-cultural communication precision and acceptance. for instance, the chinese reform metaphor "crossing the river by feeling the stones" is easily understood in sinophone countries like vietnam and laos due to cultural proximity, while western interpretations often adopt expressions such as "policy pilot zones" or "gradual reforms" that better align with their political and academic discourse systems. official standardized translations support this approach, aiming to reduce ambiguities and establish authoritative interpretations. systemic concepts like "whole-process people's democracy" are typically explained through concrete case studies. these practices demonstrate that effective global communication requires not only precise terminology translation but also authentic narratives and contextual adaptation to lower the threshold for conceptual understanding, thereby fostering global recognition and resonance with chinese ideas. the construction of discourse systems requires solid academic foundations. in recent years, core concepts such as "the multi-ethnic unity pattern of the chinese nation" and "a community with a shared future for mankind" have been systematically incorporated into domestic university curricula and disseminated through international courses and academic exchange programs. for instance, the ministry of education's 2025 initiative to promote "multilingual digital global dissemination of excellent chinese culture courses" aims to develop multilingual digital courses promoting chinese culture as public cultural products for global dissemination, serving both domestic educators and international chinese language education. at the academic level, chinese scholars are exploring knowledge production pathways for political science conceptual systems. research indicates that contemporary chinese political science concepts have emerged through empirical observations, traditional cultural exploration, and unique knowledge production processes in official policy documents. a preliminary conceptual framework integrating state theory, party theory, government theory, governance theory, and democratic theory has been established to achieve systematic political science knowledge production. these curriculum developments and academic research provide crucial theoretical foundations and talent reserves for internationalizing and academicizing key concepts, thereby facilitating the construction and dissemination of china's academic discourse system. 3.4 algorithmic adaptation of public opinion guidance: ecological reconstruction and trust empowerment in the algorithm-driven social media era, effectively guiding international public opinion requires deep integration into platform rules and strategic innovation. the construction of communication matrices increasingly exhibits "decentralized" characteristics. official institutions are gradually transitioning to behind-the-scenes "content supporters," focusing on providing high-quality materials, data, and essential dissemination support for grassroots creators. practice shows that content created by grassroots creators based on authentic experiences often triggers higher user engagement on overseas platforms due to its personal perspective and down-to-earth appeal. for instance, china global television network (cgtn) collaborated with overseas promotional partner yidian tianxia. through refined social media operations, they achieved 4 billion cross-channel exposures, reduced channel traffic costs by 38%, gained over 2.36 million new facebook page followers, increased social media interaction rates by 19%, and expanded promotion channels to more than 20 languages. such collaborations aim to precisely reach target audiences. the synergy between official and grassroots efforts, multi-level decentralized communication networks, and empowering grassroots creative forces represent viable pathways to enhance international communication effectiveness. to address international concerns, enhancing transparency and credibility in major projects and sensitive issues through technological innovation has become an effective practice in international communication. in the field of cross-border infrastructure, the china-kyrgyzstan-uzbekistan international multimodal transport has pioneered digital applications. in march 2023, the first digital "china-kyrgyzstan-uzbekistan" multimodal freight train departed from lanzhou new area. this train leverages the lanzhou new area's multimodal transport information platform and integrates jd technology's capabilities to achieve an innovative "consolidation and distribution" model. the "digital train" is supported by a multimodal transport digital foundation and blockchain technology, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 203 published by ideas spread enabling intelligent recommendations for optimal "time-route-price" transportation solutions while allowing realtime tracking of cargo status, transport routes, and progress. such practices improve logistics efficiency and enhance the timeliness and transparency of next-generation international freight trains through technological means. regarding global issues like environmental monitoring, china's scientific data sharing services also play a significant role. for instance, the national marine science data sharing service platform offers multiple models including online public access, conditional sharing, and offline services. since its online portal system launched in may 2018, it has averaged approximately 20,000 monthly visits and provided sharing services to over 20 countries including the united states, germany, japan, and south korea. these objective and professional datasharing services support global users in understanding and researching marine environments, promoting international scientific exchange and cooperation. 4. three-dimensional objectives and structural challenges of communication capacity building the capacity building of china's international communication serves multiple strategic goals such as enhancing discourse power, optimizing the public opinion environment, and identifying a community with a shared future. in fact, its realization process requires both innovative approaches and a realistic recognition of structural challenges. 4.1 discourse power matching: multi-dimensional path and power imbalance to enhance china's international discourse power commensurate with its comprehensive national strength, sustained efforts must be made across multiple dimensions including institutional and symbolic power. at the institutional level, china actively promotes reforms and improvements in the international rule-making system. for instance, under the un framework, it advocates for digital governance regulations. the 2024 global initiative on ai governance received joint signatures from over 140 countries, incorporating principles like "humancentered approach" and "ai for good" into regulatory frameworks of multiple nations, thereby strengthening developing countries' representation and voice in global ai governance. on the symbolic front, significant progress has been made in promoting chinese cultural symbols' international recognition. the spring festival, as a vital traditional cultural symbol of china, continues to gain global influence. by the end of 2020, nearly 200 countries and regions had embraced the festival as a national or partial public holiday. through active participation in formulating global governance rules and advancing the international recognition of cultural symbols, china has established an effective pathway to enhance its global discourse power. however, china still faces significant challenges in shaping the international agenda. according to data from similarweb, a digital market intelligence firm, traffic on major english-language news websites remains highly concentrated among european and american media outlets, which maintain substantial influence in global discourse. despite china's ongoing efforts to promote international cooperation and share development achievements—such as establishing over 3,000 collaborative projects under the "belt and road" framework and systematically releasing the "belt and road green development outlook report" emphasizing sustainable growth—the narrative framing of china-related issues in international public discourse still frequently exhibits imbalances. this imbalance in discourse power reflects deep-seated structural disparities—— china has yet to establish globally influential news clusters, widely adopted academic rating systems, or culturally recognized evaluation standards. consequently, china's issue communication sometimes remains susceptible to preconceived frameworks by external parties. to enhance international communication effectiveness, it is essential not only to sustain solid cooperative outcomes but also to deepen efforts in building an autonomous discourse system and influencing international rating standards. 4.2 system construction of favorable environment: emotional capital and institutional cost to cultivate a favorable international public opinion environment, the key lies in accumulating "emotional capital" and reducing the "institutional costs" of cooperation, with major international cooperation projects serving as core vehicles. take the china-laos railway as an example: this project not only represents a significant infrastructure connectivity initiative between china and laos but also serves as a vital bond for mutual understanding between the two peoples. during construction, chinese enterprises prioritized community engagement. in banhan village, builders helped pave roads that villagers affectionately called "friendship road" and "happiness road." the railway's operation has improved living standards along its route, with some villagers earning income through participation and gaining deeper understanding of china. as lao deputy prime minister gi chhao noted in august 2025, the china-laos railway stands as a landmark achievement of pragmatic cooperation. since its launch, it has boosted regional economic collaboration and accelerated development along the route, transporting 10.07 million passengers and over 12.6 million tons of cargo in the first half of 2025. these efforts deepen bilateral friendship and create a more positive atmosphere for cooperation. similarly, china's medical aid programs and livelihood hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 204 published by ideas spread projects in other countries have garnered goodwill by addressing local challenges. these practices demonstrate that pragmatic cooperation focused on shared development and improved livelihoods serves as an effective approach to accumulating positive sentiment, reducing collaboration costs, and fostering a favorable international public opinion environment. 4.3 value resonance of the community with a shared future: pragmatic cooperation and cognitive gap the foundation for advancing the international recognition of the vision to build a community with a shared future for mankind lies in deepening practical cooperation across various fields and making its tangible benefits clearly visible. in the public health sector, china and asean have continuously strengthened collaboration through initiatives like professional training programs to enhance regional response capabilities. in november 2023, the china-asean public health science and technology cooperation center organized a specialized training session on zoonotic disease prevention, inviting participants from cambodia, laos, myanmar, thailand, vietnam, and other countries. such cooperation aims to collectively improve the detection and response capabilities for emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases, reflecting the deepening of regional public health collaboration. in the technological domain, china actively promotes cooperation and sharing in aerospace technology. during the china-central asia summit in may 2023, china pledged to open its beidou navigation satellite system (bds) civilian services to central asian countries, providing high-precision positioning, navigation, and timing support. these capabilities will be applied to agricultural modernization, disaster prevention and mitigation, environmental monitoring, and other livelihood sectors, boosting local socioeconomic development. this marks concrete steps toward building a "digital silk road" and a "technical community". by addressing common challenges and meeting developmental needs, these practices transform grand visions into tangible, mutually beneficial cooperation, laying a solid foundation for conceptual alignment. however, there remains a significant divide in the understanding and acceptance of the "community with a shared future" concept among western developed countries. according to 2025 pew research center data, only 32% of people in 10 high-income european and american countries—including canada, france, and germany— understand this concept. most interviewees equate it with "chinese-style globalization" or a "geopolitical tool," reflecting deep-seated value differences and cognitive gaps—— tensions between western individualism and chinese collectivist philosophy, as well as strategic suspicions about china's intentions. bridging this divide requires narrative approaches and practical solutions that find the greatest common ground between civilizations and systems. for instance, emphasizing "the right to coexist as humanity" on climate change; highlighting "the universality of technological ethics" in ai governance; and showcasing the universal value of "life first" in pandemic cooperation. only by transforming grand concepts into tangible, perceptible, and beneficial cooperative outcomes can we gradually dispel misunderstandings and build consensus. 5. the direction and optimization path of improving international communication ability in recent years, china has achieved remarkable progress in international communication capabilities as its comprehensive national strength continues to grow and global engagement deepens. from overseas implementation of large-scale infrastructure projects to the global popularity of cultural symbols, from technology exports to governance experience sharing, the international visibility of china's narratives has steadily increased. however, given the three-dimensional strategic goals and structural challenges in building china's discourse power, optimizing public opinion environments, and fostering a shared future for humanity, it is imperative to adopt systematic and targeted strategies to break through existing constraints. this will drive the transformation of international communication from "scale expansion" to "efficiency enhancement". 5.1 talent upgrading strategy: build a multi-skilled communication team talent is the cornerstone for implementing all strategies. we must launch a specialized "international communication officer" training program to cultivate a versatile talent pool with language proficiency (especially in rare non-major languages), cross-cultural communication skills, expertise in specialized fields like technology, environmental protection, and cultural tourism, as well as exceptional digital literacy (including content creation, data analysis, and platform algorithm mastery). 5.2 regional coordination and linkage: drawing a panoramic map of national image to address regional disparities, we must vigorously promote collaboration between eastern and western regions to build a "national image communication community". the core lies in establishing a sustainable cooperation mechanism between developed eastern areas and resource-rich western regions. in terms of content, joint efforts should focus on producing high-quality comparative and thematic works, such as the collaborative documentary *from lujiazui to mogao grottoes: china's dialogue across time* and the short video series *shenzhen ai hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 205 published by ideas spread meets sanxingdui's mysterious symbols*, skillfully bridging modernity in the east with historical narratives in the west. regarding channels, we should facilitate partnerships between central foreign publicity platforms like cgtn and people's daily overseas edition with provincial international communication centers in sichuan, shaanxi, and yunnan to establish content aggregation channels, share overseas media resources, and achieve coordinated content distribution. for talent development, we need to explore an "eastern talents supporting western regions" initiative, regularly dispatching core teams from eastern media organizations and planning agencies to assist local communities in story discovery and staff training, while leveraging rich cultural expertise from western regions as content support. 5.3 content innovation incentive: fund in-depth narrative and multiple themes establish a national "contemporary china narrative innovation fund" with an initial scale of 1-2 billion yuan to fundamentally transform the thematic structure and narrative depth of content production. the fund should prioritize funding, rewarding, and overseas promotion of high-value themes including cutting-edge scientific innovation, achievements in ecological civilization construction, vibrant rural revitalization practices, social governance innovations, and diverse youth culture. simultaneously, form an advisory panel composed of seasoned foreign media professionals, sinologists, and cultural scholars to conduct pre-assessment of major project topics, scripts, and narrative techniques. this panel will provide "cultural translation" consultation to ensure chinese stories are told in ways that resonate globally, effectively enhancing content acceptance and emotional resonance. 5.4 technology base integration: create barrier-free digital experience to completely break down digital barriers, it requires top-level design and strong implementation to create a usercentered accessible digital environment. the primary task is to comprehensively integrate and upgrade the "changyou china" one-stop international version app or mini-program. drawing on successful local experiences like shanghai's "one code tour," we should elevate it to a national platform that integrates essential functions for visiting china, including visa consultation, flight/hotel bookings, transportation (high-speed rail, subway, buses), scenic spot reservations, multilingual guides, electronic payments, emergency assistance, and multilingual customer service—truly realizing "one platform, one entry point, seamless travel across china." simultaneously, we must vigorously promote payment convenience by requiring major payment institutions to increase acceptance coverage of foreign card payments at merchants from the current level to over 80%. service points should also be established at major entry ports to provide temporary digital identity registration and payment solutions for shortterm visitors. this approach aims to eliminate the "digital divide" at its root, enabling international tourists to seamlessly integrate into china's digital lifestyle and personally experience its efficiency and convenience. ultimately, this will shape a genuine, multifaceted, and comprehensive modern image of china. 6. conclusion: towards a new paradigm of civilizational dialogue the contemporary transformation of china's international communication fundamentally represents a profound paradigm shift in civilizational narratives. as global audiences resonate with sun wukong's destiny in "black myth: monkey king", international travelers share authentic experiences through spontaneous short videos (#realchinamoments), and youths worldwide marvel at ancient chinese art through the "digital dunhuang" exhibition—— these phenomena collectively signal a fundamental transformation: china is evolving from a passive responder to an active communicator in global discourse, transitioning from a "debater" to a "voice-maker" that provides ideas, defines agendas, and contributes solutions. this evolution is rooted in the deep integration of communication strategies and practices that embody the vision of shaping a "credible, lovable, and respectable" image of china. going forward, the breakthrough development of china's international communication capacity will depend on the continuous forging of three core capabilities: cultural transcoding power: we specialize in creatively transforming the essence of chinese civilization—such as dunhuang art and confucian philosophy—into contemporary cultural symbols and value expressions that resonate with global digital natives. for instance, we developed the "metaverse palace museum" where users can participate in artifact restoration through vr gear, or adapted *the analects* dialogues into ai-powered interactive games that help players grasp the concepts of "ren" (benevolence) and "li" (propriety) through immersive scenarios. the key to transcoding lies not in simplification, but in profound symbolic innovation and contextual adaptation. emotional savings capacity: cherish and sustain the deep interpersonal connections forged through sincere interactions, community collaboration, and attentive care. each cataract patient cured, each local engineer trained, and every community suggestion adopted serve as units of emotional currency. establish a "social impact hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 206 published by ideas spread assessment system for international cooperation projects" that incorporates emotional capital accumulation as a key performance indicator (kpi), steering projects from an "engineering-focused" approach to a "people-oriented" direction. common value convergence: while preserving its developmental path and cultural identity, china adopts a constructive approach to bridge the gap between its core values like "right to development" and "right to survival" and other civilizations' fundamental concerns. this involves identifying, building, and continuously expanding shared value foundations that can be understood and accepted by all nations. for instance, in ai governance, it emphasizes "technology for good" over "technological hegemony"; regarding climate change, it highlights "our shared home planet" rather than "burden-sharing responsibility"; during global pandemic response, it champions "life first" instead of "institutional superiority". only by achieving this common ground can the vision of a community with a shared future transcend political rhetoric and become a tangible human consensus. only by deepening these three capabilities can china transcend traditional geopolitical communication frameworks and establish a new paradigm of international communication. this paradigm, guided by the principles of civilizational equality and mutual learning, as well as shared human welfare, will elevate china's global standing and national image. it will contribute china's irreplaceable strength and wisdom to addressing global trust deficits, advancing reforms in global governance, and promoting the building of a community with a shared future for mankind. 7. acknowledgments funding: the 2024 guangdong provincial education science planning project "teaching research on 'new productivity' in the 'introduction to socialism with chinese characteristics for a new era' course" (2024gxjk036); and the 2024 general research project of the ministry of education's ideological and political theory course teachers' research program "exploring the logical mechanisms and practical pathways of chinese modernization theory in teaching 'introduction to socialism with chinese characteristics for a new era' " (2024jdszk068). references [1] hu, z., & li, j. (2024). china's international communication capacity building: conceptual innovation and practical pathways. modern communication (journal of communication university of china), 46(1), 1–10. [2] shi, a., & tong, t. (2025). international communication in the platform society: challenges and transformations. journal of journalism and communication studies, 32(2), 45–62, 127. [3] fang, l. (2025). knowledge production in the conceptual system of contemporary chinese political science. political science research, (2), 109–122, 178. [4] china daily website. (n.d.). "black myth: monkey king" sells globally, chinese mythology captivates overseas player. retrieved august 15, 2025, from http://ent.chinadaily.com.cn/202508/10/content_67890123.html [5] nye, j. s. (2004). soft power: the means to success in world politics. publicaffairs. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v7n1p1 1 published by ideas spread developing community identity in a rapidly changing community annabel cuff1, andrew azzopardi2, olga formosa1 & paulann grech3 1 research support officer ii, faculty for social wellbeing, room 117, ground floor, humanities b, university of malta, msida msd 2080 2 dean, faculty for social wellbeing, room 117, ground floor, humanities b, university of malta, msida msd 2080 3 associate professor, faculty of health sciences, university of malta, malta correspondence: paulann grech, faculty of health sciences, university of malta, malta. e-mail: annabel.cuff um.edu.mt, andrew.azzopardi um.edu.mt, olga.formosa um.edu.mt, paulanngrech gmail.com received: january 23, 2024; accepted: february 6, 2024; published: february 7, 2024 abstract the significance of a sense of community is widely acknowledged in the literature. communities bring their members networks of connections that can shape aspects of their behaviour, social interactions and identities. however, development and modernity are challenging the roles of communities, with weaker social bonds and less neighbourly behaviours on the rise. in a young community known for its terraced family homes, as well as its villa area, recent changes in construction permits are bringing rapid changes, not only to its aesthetics, but also to the density and nature of its residents. this paper, which is based upon a study of the community of iklin, examined the impact that recent changes are having through the views of the residents via a questionnaire, interviews and a focus group. using the iklin study as a model for a mid-sized town or village in malta, this paper examines which factors contribute to a sense of community cohesion and identity. this discussion posits that, like iklin’s residents, when faced with an ever-changing community of inhabitants that do not feel like they belong, the inhabitants of our towns and villages, will value green spaces as amongst the most sought-after factors within communities, along with a desire for shared spaces and activities. a craving for a sense of community remains present, coexisting with an appreciation for a level of anonymity and distance that is also valued by many. keywords: community identity, community cohesion, access to green spaces, desire for shared spaces and activities, place attachment 1. introduction in 2021 the faculty for social wellbeing at the university of malta, commissioned by the local council of iklin, carried out a community profiling project on iklin, which is a relatively young town in the maltese islands. the issue that led to this research concerned this town’s identity and cohesion. although the earlier iklin generations and their descendants have resided in the town for longer periods, the second generation of inhabitants who were raised there frequently rely on neighbourhood ties for services such as education due to the lack of internal resources and services in a town that is still in its developmental phase. this has resulted in the establishment of local relationships remaining more tenuous and progressing at a slowed pace. as the town expanded and establishments such as a church and grocery store appeared in iklin, the local populace encountered novel obstacles arising from an abrupt surge in construction activities within the vicinity. when the original inhabitants were in their infancy and just beginning to form a sense of community, they were confronted with a sudden influx of new inhabitants and alterations to the environment they once cherished. in this view, the local council wished to evaluate the different identity groups and stakeholders that constitute the community in order to get insight into the community's issues, challenges, and assets. this paper’s discussion is informed by the data provided by residents, local councillors, business people and stakeholders, living or operating in iklin, which will form a springboard for the broader discussion examined in this paper. based on the study findings, this paper will examine the following research questions: 1. what factors do residents perceive to contribute or hinder community cohesion and sense of belonging? 2. to what extent, and in what ways do these factors impact the community’s sense of cohesion? hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 2 published by ideas spread further to this introduction, this paper’s discussion will review the context, as well as a selection of perspectives and findings of the iklin research study, to inform the larger discussion. this paper will examine what factors residents and stakeholders perceive as conveying a sense of belonging in modern urban conurbations, in the face of an ever-changing landscape. the discussion will proceed with an exploration of the concepts that inform the framework of the paper, a description of the research design that yielded the findings discussed in this paper; followed by the presentation and discussion of findings. 2. context a fruitful urban environment sets the stage for a sense of belonging and a shared sense of community. researchers agree that traditional neighbourhoods acquire their distinctiveness through natural organisation into districts, streets, and open spaces (oktay, 2002). conversely, contemporary urban projects are creating a contrasting scenery of similar buildings and designs, resulting in a decrease in available public areas. the relatively recent township of iklin, situated at the intersection of the older, long-established towns of naxxar, lija and birkirkara, is typical of a modern development that has not yet morphed into a fully-fledged town (bonanno, 1981). it is also under pressure from the demands of present-day population expansion and the resultant needs for increased construction coupled with limited space for expansion. consequently, iklin is experiencing a swift increase in population density, leading to a rapid transformation of its urban environment (buttigieg, 2013). in a freshly established town that sprang from neighbouring areas, the effects of these developments on the town’s identity and the well-being of its citizens can have far-reaching consequences. the concept of community identity shall be explored in detail in the following section. 2.1 community identity obst & white (2005) describe community identity as “a set of people with some kind of shared element, which can vary from a situation, such as living in a particular place, to some kind of interest, beliefs or values” (p.127). community identity is that collective sense of affinity that characterises and distinguishes that particular group of people from other groups (ratanakosol et al., 2016). communities offer their members a platform of opportunities that can impact various parts of their experience, such as social connections, and identities (brown et al., 2003; devine-wright, 2009), and provide chances for significant interactions (easterbrook & vignoles, 2015). community offers a wide range of characteristics that influence the identities and social connections of its inhabitants, and subsequently, dictate their behaviour within that area (devine-wright, 2009; dixon & durrheim, 2000). the location of birth and length of time living in a certain area play a role in forming a sense of connection to that place (casakin et al., 2015; hui et al, 2012). however, these factors are not the only ones that contribute to the establishment of community identity (cuba & hummon, 1993; feldman, 1990; ng, 1998). for example, casakin et al. (2015) discovered that there were similar patterns between individuals feeling connected to and emotionally invested in specific places. these connections are present among both natives and individuals who moved to a community later on in their life, despite the fact that the development of identity is gradual and intricate (hernández et al., 2007; hidalgo & hernández, 2001; vidal et al., 2012). deener (2010) stated that for individuals who are not native residents, developing a strong connection to a community is most effectively achieved by actively participating in regular events and celebrations with other local people. this involvement fosters a sense of belonging. place attachment promotes civic engagement, benefiting both individuals and the broader community (brown et al., 2004a; kyle et al., 2004). shao et al. (2017) discovered four factors that contribute to community identity: environmental/structural characteristics, which may change periodically; backgrounds and heritage; functionality, referring to the town's success to meet the needs of various activities; and connections among its members, which foster unity across different races, ethnicities, and social classes. the visual characteristics of a locality, such as its shape, contribute to its distinct identity (lewicka, 2011; manahasa & manahasa, 2020; swanwick, 2009). the identity of a location is formed by a reciprocal interaction between the physical attributes that shape the collective personality of its residents, and the expression of their wants and self-interpretations within the urban environment (haapala, 2003). community identity is not only shaped by the distinctive visual or social characteristics of a place, but also by its ability to enhance the mental and emotional well-being of its residents (carmona et al, 2003; council of europe, 2000; jacobs, 1961). nevertheless, the swift progress of contemporary urbanisation and industrialization is diminishing these communal bonds (bradshaw, 2008). oktay (2002) emphasises the need to cultivate an awareness of public spaces in rapidly developing urban areas, particularly where population densities are rising. this is because the quality, design, and architecture of urban spaces are vital in shaping the identity of a place (bonaiuto et al., 1999; madanipour, 1996). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 3 published by ideas spread when a community fosters a sense of purpose and belonging among its members, it can lead to favourable psychological outcomes (haslam et al., 2009), as well as an elevated level of altruism and engagement in society (grey & stevenson, 2019; wang et al., 2020; yang et al., 2020). community participation refers to the voluntary engagement of individuals in community affairs and group activities (xin, 2020). it fosters a sense of community, subjective well-being, and promotes community development (christens, 2012; christens et al., 2016). the presence of a strong community identity can be crucial under challenging situations, like the covid-19 pandemic (gillespie et al., 2016; kwok et al., 2020). the significance of community identity in the welfare of its citizens and populations should not be overlooked especially in relation to community cohesion, which shall be explored as follows. 2.2 community cohesion a cohesive community is characterised by the interaction between its constituent groups (clarke et al., 2007; wetherell et al., 2007). cohesive societies possess a significant amount of what sociologists, like putnam (2000), define as 'bridging social capital'. this refers to the presence of links between different groups, in addition to the associations within each individual group. community attachment is a psychosocial phenomenon that involves meaningful and active social relationships. it is characterised by feelings of satisfaction with one's local area. florida (2002) argues that in recent years, there has been a growing preference for weak social connections instead of robust community and family networks. homeowners are increasingly opting for privacy and personal space, over social connections with neighbours (blackshaw, 2010). tam (2007) suggests that one reason for this is the decrease in engagement in collective activities beyond work, leading to a decline in involvement in activities that unite individuals around common interests. furthermore, significant societal and economic transformations, along with substantial technical progress, have altered the configuration of human surroundings, and therefore, the locations we live in, frequent, and cherish (vidal et al., 2012). rorty (2007) proposed substituting and instituting the notion of community through alternative cultural practices. this would establish a collective basis for the postmodern society by presenting an alternative viewpoint on community and the intricacies of cultural politics. the influence of modernity is clearly evident in malta, particularly in our swiftly evolving urban areas, characterised by the proliferation of construction projects and the growth and variety of residential communities. the presence of immigrants in an established area has a significant effect on the social connections within the community, thereby diminishing the sense of trust and selflessness that contribute to the unity of the neighbourhood (putnam, 2007; 2001). however, the diversification of residential areas also presents opportunities for good interaction, which in turn, increases levels of trust and unity (laurence, 2009; savelkoul et al., 2015; sturgis et al., 2014). in general, individuals living in neighbourhoods undergoing diversification may encounter a range of outcomes, both advantageous and disadvantageous, contingent upon the nature and progression of social interactions. establishing connections between older residents and more recent ones is crucial in minimising social isolation and lower levels of trust among neighbours (stolle & harell, 2013). in addition, considering the attributes of new individuals while evaluating a town's identity might result in the development of constructive interactions within the group (haslam et al., 2003; reicher et al., 2006). local governments have the ability to exert a significant impact in fostering possibilities for community engagement. despite their active involvement, local authorities have seen diminishing levels of trust from their citizens in recent years, primarily due to limited resources and governing authority (kersting & vetter, 2003; lidström et al., 2016; schaap & daemen, 2012). community identity and cohesion were two areas of interest in the study that shall be presented in this paper. prior to delving into the study method and findings, basic information about iklin shall be provided so as to set the context. 2.3 the community of iklin iklin, established in 1964, is located in a central area of malta, bordered by major towns including naxxar, san ġwann, and birkirkara. it is located in close proximity to important landmarks, such as the national hospital, mater dei hospital, the university and several business establishments (bonanno, 1981). the construction of iklin's first house took place in 1954, making it the sole structure in the area for the subsequent 15 years. however, in the 1960s and 1970s, the development of opulent villas began in the top section of the region. during the late 1970s and 1980s, additional advancements were made, notably in the lower region of the valley. one of the actions taken was the building of a bypass, which involved replacing a large amount of fertile land (malta local government, n.d.). despite experiencing significant growth since its establishment, iklin still lacks many of the amenities commonly found in other cities and villages. the town does not possess any educational establishments and instead depends on schools located in nearby towns (bonnici, 2009; iklin scout group, n.d.). this holds significance that extends hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 4 published by ideas spread beyond education, as schools not only provide education to the children of a community, but also serve as a crucial factor in uniting local families and promoting social unity (engel, 2013). the parish church of iklin, along with its pastoral centre, offers regular mass services and social activities (quddies, 2020). however, unlike some other maltese localities, iklin does not organise its own annual feast dedicated to the local patron saint. this event, which fosters community cohesion and brings the community together, is held in various localities in malta. the region is home to various businesses and coffee shops, however the coffee shops' opening hours mostly accommodate the offices and stores in the vicinity. consequently, after regular working hours, residents must venture beyond their immediate area to fulfil their needs. according to the national statistics office (nso) in 2022, iklin had a population of 3,399 in 2021. in the 1960s and 1970s, the construction of high-end villas began in the region referred to as upper iklin. further development took place in the latter end of the seventies and during the eighties. iklin's footprint has been altered by recent modifications in construction legislation. the ongoing construction projects in the town are altering its aesthetic character and attracting a significant number of new people, resulting in rapid shifts within the community. this occurrence is widespread throughout a substantial part of malta. historically, towns and villages were established in close proximity to a central church that oversaw the town square, which served as the focal point of the community (agius, 2018; boissevain, 1986). later, contemporary growth occurred on the outskirts of existing regions and typically followed a pattern of circular roads and intersecting streets, which were convenient for car travel but lacked distinctiveness (boissevain, 1986). the emergence of these new urban areas has significantly influenced the characteristics of these towns. in the past decade, these towns have faced additional challenges due to a substantial increase in population and the substitution of typical two-story houses with taller buildings (saliba, 1998). these modifications have an impact on the utilisation of space in residential areas, hence influencing the individuality and social unity of these towns, as observed in iklin and other places. 3. methods the research that guided this paper’s debate adopted a mixed-methods methodology. this comprised a three-fold data-gathering approach via questionnaire, interviews and focus group, through which this study sought to explore the trends, experiences and perceptions of major figures and citizens within this town. quantitative data was collected via a questionnaire that was designed specifically to meet the objectives of the study, and which was distributed among residents. the questionnaire investigated resident demographics, participants’ civic and social participation in their community, and the meanings they attributed to this. the questionnaire was distributed via email through the local council, and was promoted on the local council’s social media channels. additionally hard copies were also available from the local council offices and via the parish, and it was also publicised during mass. a total of 231 valid responses were received. qualitative data was collected via interviews and a focus group. 15 interviews were held with residents and stakeholders, from formal and informal community groups, aiming to get insight into the community's identity and interest groups, as well as to uncover any pertinent issues and difficulties affecting the community. in addition, a focus group comprising residents and stakeholders was also held with 6 attendees. this was aimed at understanding the community from the views of its participants. data gathered through interviews and focus groups was pseudonymised, and throughout the research, provisions were made for encrypted data handling and storage. data was analysed using excel and word. the qualitative data was analysed following guidance by braun & clarke (2006) to extract codes and themes and the main results shall be presented in the subsequent section. 4. findings quantitative questionnaire data (data extracted from the original report of the study by azzopardi & formosa, 2022) 4.1 demographic findings 231 replies were received to the resident questionnaires. although not a representative sample, the reply rate was satisfactory and allowed the research team to examine trends among inhabitants. the preliminary report of the census of population and housing held in 2021, places the current population of iklin at 9318 in 2021, with an almost equal number of males as females (nso, 2022). the gender split among respondents was also virtually equal, with 51% female participants, and 49% male participants. the largest age group amongst participants was 61 to 80-year-olds (37%), none of whom had been brought up in the community of iklin, although the majority had lived there for more than 8 years. this was followed by 31 to 40-year-olds (18%), 76% of whom were brought up in the community itself (figure 1 refers). the majority of respondents were of maltese nationality, while three hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 5 published by ideas spread participants (i.e. 1.3%), stated that they were from russia, italy and belarus respectively. feedback from the interviews conveyed that a community of non-maltese nationals is also present in iklin, however these groups were not captured in the data. meanwhile the national statistics office preliminary report on the 2021 population census (nso, 2021) places the number of foreign-born persons living in iklin at just under 12%. nso 2021 also states that in 2011, just under 2% of the population of iklin were foreigners, further testifying to the rapid changes that this township is going through. figure 1. age group distribution of questionnaire participants* in the main, residents of this area are educated, and in employment. participant level of education was relatively evenly spread between postgraduate level of education (25.5%), secondary level of education (24%), postsecondary/ vocational level of education (23%), and tertiary level of education (22.5%). only 4% had a primary level of education, while 1% had a doctoral level of education. (figure 2 refers). the majority of respondents were either in employment (45%) or retired i.e. past employees (26%), while 10% were self-employed. figure 3 refers. figure 2. levels of education across questionnaire participants* hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 6 published by ideas spread figure 3. employment status across questionnaire participants* 46% of respondents reside in a household with children, followed by couples living together with no children (35%). 6% were from households caring for another family member, while 5% were individual occupants. figure 4 refers. figure 4. household status of questionnaire participants* since religion is a powerful connector, residents were also asked about their religion. 85% of participants were roman catholics, 10% reported that they did not practice a religion or were non-believers, and 3% were christian, but not catholic, such as orthodox, protestant, etc. less than 1% of participants reported being from: muslim, buddhist or humanist (non-religious), while less than 1% did not state their religious affiliation. 4.2 civic participation and social spaces the questionnaire also examined patterns of civic participation among residents, and their attitudes towards social activities within their community. the majority (54%) of respondents did not participate in any civic activities, although 38% stated that they participate in activities related to the church, while 12% reported that they participated in civic activities organised by local government. given that iklin is divided into a number of rather different areas, each with their own diverse building characteristics and corresponding concerns, participants were asked what area they lived in. figure 5 below, illustrates the areas that constitute the locality. the majority (52%) live in area 5 – one of the more densely population areas of this community, where most of the town’s businesses are located. 28% live in area 6, i.e. an hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 7 published by ideas spread area housing a number of commercial stores, and which is also densely populated. the remaining participants live in the central or upper parts of the locality where larger residences such as villas are located, with less commercial buildings. none of the participants live in area 2, which is mostly rural land. since, as shown above, longevity of residence in a locality is correlated with a sense of belonging (casakin et al., 2015; hui et al, 2012), length or residence was also explored. over three quarters of participants (77%) reported having resided in the community for eight years or longer, 14% had resided there for 3-8 years, while 9% had lived in the locality there for less than three years. none were living in iklin temporarily. figure 6 refers. 84% of participants were born and bred in iklin. all of these were of maltese nationality and had spent their entire life living in iklin. amongst these, 38% were between 19-30 years old, 27% were aged 31-40, and 22% fell within the 41-50 age range. among the native iklin residents, 5% were aged 51-60, while only 8% were below 18 years of age. figure 7 refers. a number of reasons were given for choosing to live in iklin. the most frequently cited reasons were its centrality, and a liking for its characteristics – as it was previously seen as clean, quiet and peaceful, however these comments were also accompanied by expressions of dismay for the changing character of iklin. proximity to family, accessible property prices (in the past), and the fact that services could easily be accessed in nearby towns were also mentioned as reasons for choosing the locality. figure 8 refers. figure 5. distribution of participants according to the map presented to questionnaire participants to indicate which area they reside in* figure 6. length of period of residency in iklin as reported by questionnaire participants* 7% 0% 11% 2% 52% 28% hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 8 published by ideas spread figure 7. age group distribution of questionnaire participants who were brought up in the community of iklin* figure 8. reasons for living in iklin as expressed by questionnaire participants in order of frequency of reason* 4.3 levels of satisfaction when asked how satisfied they were with where they live and also with their life in general, the majority of respondents stated that they were overall satisfied with both their place of residence (iklin) and with life in general, although life satisfaction scores were higher than locality satisfaction scores. table 1 refers. table 1. distribution of respondents’ self-evaluation of their level of satisfaction with living in their locality and with their life in general* participant levels of satisfaction with their locality vs life in general attitude satisfaction with chosen locality of residence % satisfaction with life in general % positive attitude (most satisfied + satisfied) 56.5% 64.5% neutral attitude (neither satisfied nor dissatisfied) 27% 22.5% negative attitude (least satisfied + dissatisfied) 16.5% 13% total 100% 100 % hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 9 published by ideas spread despite high place of residence and life satisfaction, relatively low civic participation indicates that a lack of sense of community is present among residents of iklin. in order to examine what changes residents may wish to see in their chosen locality of residence, they were asked to select what amenities or features they wish to see more of in future. by far the most resounding response was that residents wished for more access to green spaces. almost 90% of participants replied that they wish to see more green areas in their locality, which was followed by almost 70% who stated that they wished for more open spaces. this suggests that the low civic participation is driven by a lack of common open spaces where residents can interact and get to know each other in informal non-structured activities. additionally, 35% expressed a desire for an outdoor gym and 28% reported wanting more amenities and outdoor spaces for children. 24% said that they would like to have more cafes in the area, while a further 24% requested better public transport, and 21% expressed a wish for more services for youths. figure 9 refers. figure 9. what iklin residents would like to see more of according to questionnaire responses* although not representative of the general population, the quantitative data captured by the questionnaire reveals patterns about the residents of iklin. similar to the gender split within the general population, residents were pretty equally divided between male and female respondents, the largest age group was that of 61 to 80-year-olds, followed by 31 to 40-year-olds, and residents are mainly of maltese nationality (98.7%). the majority are roman catholics (85%). the questionnaire also revealed that most residents live in family groups or couples (46% living in a household with children and 35% living as couples with no children), and that in the main they are educated, and employed or retired. the extent of residents’ civic participation is however relatively low, indicating a lack of community cohesion despite high levels of satisfaction with their locality and their life in general. the questionnaire data hinted at a lack of community spirit among residents of iklin. although most of the questionnaire respondents (84%) were native inhabitants, the town was often referred to as one that lacks a collective identity. despite high self-reported levels of satisfaction with their chosen locality of residence, and high life satisfaction rating, low civic participation indicates that the factors that contribute to community cohesion are lacking. these indications were examined more closely via the qualitative data captured through the focus groups and interviews, during which residents and stakeholders expressed their views, experiences and voiced their concerns and desires for their locality. this data shall be presented as follows. participants’ perspectives – findings from the focus groups and interviews with residents and stakeholders (themes extracted from the original report of the study by azzopardi & formosa, 2022) the interviews and focus groups engaged with residents to explore their views and experiences of community identity and cohesion. thematic examination of the data revealed four themes that residents and stakeholders green areas 87% public spaces 69% outdoor gym & amenities for children 35% & 28% cafés 24% public transport & services for youth 24% & 21% hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 10 published by ideas spread considered to be at the root of this sense of lack of community identity: a lack of shared activities and shared spaces; family ties outside the community; a division into areas or districts having different urban organisations and reflecting different lifestyles; the rapidly changing nature of the township to accommodate a new, more densely packed way of living. these shall be explored in the forthcoming sections. 4.4 lack of shared spaces and activities across both the interviews and the focus group a common theme was the lack of shared activities and lack of shared public spaces. by far the greatest lament was a lack of access to green spaces. “we don’t have enough trees. [...] there’s a considerable lack”. (participant 5) [we would like to see] “green spaces, because they bring people together. picnic areas, places to walk out dogs, where to have a seat in the sun” (participant 4) several participants described how the area was originally largely rural in nature, and how streets used to be fronted by gardens but that now the whole town is being built up. they expressed their dissatisfaction with the current lack of available spots for walking, children's play areas, meeting places for young people, and spaces for families to assemble for recreational and social activities. “we were so proud of our road, the whole road had long front gardens with the houses behind. now at the gardens are being built up. next door there is a wall so instead of being able to enjoy the view, it is all built up. my neighbours have moved out. i hope the property won’t be bought up by a contractor who will turn it into a condo. from here to the bottom, all the properties have been built up, all the way to the street.” (participant 17) “i would like to see iklin full of trees, everywhere green, with more places for people to go out and where they can have a place for entertainment, like gardens. and i’d like that we have at least one place not like a bar but where people can meet, like a social club”. (participant 10) this echoes findings from the questionnaire, where the overwhelming majority listed having more green spaces as one of their most sought-after desires for their town. several participants felt that the lack of spaces to mingle was impacting stress levels and mental wellbeing, on top of exposure to noise and air pollution. additionally, a number of of community features that are staples in other towns and villages in malta and gozo are either lacking in iklin or very limited. often, enterprising community leaders and residents work very hard to expand nascent organisations; however, they face the hurdles of lack of community interest and competition from larger competitors in neighbouring towns. for example, iklin does not really hold a local festa. this is a major civic event, deeply embedded in maltese culture, and is a notable opportunity for socialising. the traditional maltese village festa is a celebration of the local patron saint, organised by the parish (malta.com, 2019). iklin does not have a festa in the traditional sense, with marching brass bands, fireworks, street food vendors and town-wide celebrations. iklin’s festa, was described by participants as a humble, indoor celebration. moreover, although there was consensus that this event can help with community cohesion, participants were undecided about the need for a traditional type of festa and, a number seemed to be quite satisfied with the status quo, or even preferred to do without. "festa is non-existent. festas bring even kids together. it’s an excuse for kids to go out. you get to know people, even adults" (participant 4) likewise, although iklin does have a small football club and scouts group, both face a lack of potential members due to the small population of iklin, and competition from other larger football clubs in neighbouring areas. in fact, participation figures for both entities, are below the expected figure for the size of the community, both in terms of young participants, as well as adult volunteers. “we thought that there would be far more intertest in children’s football, especially since there are a number of young families in the area. we expected that more children from iklin would participate, but in fact this is nto the case, because we only have about 10 children out of a group of about 102-130. we only have a small number of participants from iklin.” (participant 2) the parish serves as the primary catalyst of the town's collective endeavours, accommodating various age demographics. for example, the parish-run żgħażagħ azzjoni kattolika (catholic action youth) known as żak, is geared towards youth and currently serves about 60 youngsters. remarkably, in a town where residents consistently perceive a lack of community spirit, participants believed that this group fostered a sense of community specifically for young people. the group 60 plus, which is run by elderly volunteers, organises weekly social gatherings, mass, light snacks, and other initiatives, and currently caters for about 25-30 people. this is hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 11 published by ideas spread currently the only ongoing initiative catering for elderly town citizens. participants expressed how more activities aimed at the elderly were needed, as these would help reduce loneliness and create connections. “the catholic action youth group] brings people together. it tries to give youth circumstances and exposure, as much as possible, and there is appreciation for youth. […] the youngsters feel more like they are part of the community”. (participant 5) “[through the catholic action youth group], it has become more of a community, from the perspective of a parish”. (participant 5) moreover, participants reported that the town does not have public spaces for residents to gather, and several stated that the small playground in the village centre was not enough. “it doesn’t have a village core […] you can’t go to a square, even balzan has this, and attard, and there’s the community there. here there is a little church, but it’s kind of between 2 roads. it lacks a heart.” (participant 9) “there aren’t areas for entertainment. not even gardens, for example, clubs, shops where you can go for a coffee or something, we don’t have this ... i think for older people, so that they can meet up for example after mass and go for a coffee, it would help.” (participant 14) although the local government organises cultural and social events, as does the parish church, these were also considered by many as not being sufficient or adequate to bring residents together, highlighting the need for these to be developed further. several respondents said that they would appreciate it if more activities such as exhibitions and talks were to be organised. as evidenced by their statements, the residents do wish for more spaces and activities that would bring them together. however, interestingly, some participants did express a contrary opinion by opting to appreciate the privacy and relative anonymity that the town provides. “here people are independent, everyone takes care of their own affairs, like. ‘hello’ and ‘goodbye’, you speak, maybe you see someone, say a few words and that’s it. like there is no need for a lot of confidences. you come and go into you house” (participant 6) buys & bow (2002) found that high levels of trust among inhabitants increase social capital and community cohesion, but also that high levels of privacy can serve to reduce social bonding and place attachment within communities. the authors argue that a lack of community cohesion can result when neighbours place more value on their privacy than on shared experiences. 4.5 ties outside the locality another theme that emerged from the data was its connection with neighbouring localities. a number of respondents explained the deficiency in community identity as being brought about by the fact that many families still have connections to family, friends and services in other localities. the central location of iklin in malta is a great advantage to residents; however it comes at an uncomfortable price. while several participants identified the town’s centrality as being one of the main reasons for their choice of residence, they also pointed out that the town is well-serviced by the adjacent localities and amenities such as san anton gardens, and that this easy availability drives them outside their community to satisfy several needs. yet conversely, this also creates a lack of demand for these services or amenities within their community, with the result that potential connections are lost. some participants expressed a desire for more in-house facilities, particularly among older residents, who hoped to see more services such as butchers, greengrocers, hairdressers and others. however, residents generally tended to prioritise having open, green and public spaces, which they place above having services directly in-town. “and this is one of the difficulties we face in iklin. a lot of things – if it’s a bank, we don’t have a bank, i have to go elsewhere. now we don’t even have a butcher, you have to go elsewhere to buy your meat. there are things that are missing” (participant 5) the town’s centrality also has a major drawback, echoed unfailingly by all participants: traffic. particularly among older people, this aspect seems to significantly affect their quality of life. participants frequently expressed concerns over noise and air pollution, emphasising both health concerns and immediate problems such as reckless driving and continuous traffic congestion. 4.6 division into distinct districts participants also mentioned that the community of iklin is made up of very distinct areas, each with its own characteristics, which in turn affects the lifestyle of the residents. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 12 published by ideas spread “i see iklin divided into 3 or 4 different parts…there is the part by the church, that’s by itself, there is the part near jb, that’s isolated from the rest. and there is upper iklin, also set apart. so the community is already more divided that other localities”. (participant 10) “there are different strata of people who live in iklin. […] even, their way of living. […] the difference between the people from up there and those that live in the area around the church can be felt…”. (participant 2) the upper portion of iklin is primarily comprised of expansive villas featuring driveways, high walls demarcating residences, and potentially reduced neighbourly interaction. in contrast, the lower portion of iklin features residential buildings that may be more compact and that experience congested parking concerns, abundant commercial activity, and the rapid development of apartment blocks. inhabitants tended to differentiate between three types of zones: the 'villa' zone (located in the upper portion of the town), the 'church' zone (located in the heart of iklin), which is more domestic, and the commercial zone (located in the lower portion of the city). each of these regions possesses unique attributes. participants residing in the central and lower regions, characterised by dense commercial activity and close proximity to major roads, frequently highlight concerns pertaining to traffic congestion, debris, parking, and road maintenance, in addition to the resulting effects on the market value of their properties. to a lesser extent, residents of the central region shared some of these, and were unconcerned by any underlying disparities that existed between the regions. conversely, inhabitants residing in the upper region, although still profoundly appalled by the evolving character of the town, experienced comparatively lesser repercussions from concerns such as the changes induced by extensive construction. nevertheless, the mere perception of separate regions failed to foster community unity or a shared sense of identity. 4.7 a changing urban landscape in addition to all the factors listed above, several participants also mentioned that, like several other areas in malta, iklin is experiencing rapid changes. changes in construction permits have enabled a denser urban development (debono, 2022), so that in iklin, as elsewhere, new construction practices have changed the character of the town, particularly with the erection of buildings that are higher than the traditional two-storeys. “when i moved here, all the buildings were the same height … there was a very pretty aspect. the bottom part of iklin was made up of terraced houses, there was a certain uniformity, so in the streetscape and skyscape there as a certain tranquillity, a serenity, a peace, with the back gardens, it was very pretty. then suddenly, the terraced houses were demolished, unfortunately, and blocks of flats are being put up in their place” (participant 2) “the beautiful houses that made l-iklin, i don’t know, in the 80’s and 90’s one after the other, they just go down” (participant 1) additionally, this has resulted in a surge in the number of inhabitants, giving rise to a community dynamic characterised by individuals whose levels of affiliation with the locality vary. a number of participants stated that the town's original topography consisted almost exclusively of terraced dwellings embellished with private gardens. they also noted that the region had a number of pristine rural areas until recently. several people lamented the absence of urban planning and believed that the town was progressively eroding the distinctiveness and aesthetic that were once associated with the area. the widespread and rapid changes also brought a sequence of other transformations. new developments have exacerbated the already strained parking situation, while also impacting the town’s sense of community. similarly, the changing town composition and population increase, have given rise to issues such as litter and further pressure on the infrastructure. in the following section, these findings shall be explained against a backdrop of extant literature. 5. discussion the importance of having a sense of community is one that features extensively in the literature. as seen from the review of literature, place attachment and aesthetics are drivers of community identity (kyle et al., 2004; manahasa & manahasa, 2020), fostering community cohesion through functionality and connection (shao et al., 2017). changes in urban development, planning and density are bringing new challenges to our towns and villages and to the preservation of community identities. the case study of iklin sheds light on the values to which residents attach significance, and what connectors they perceive as leading to a functional community, as opposed to merely living in a locality. the study of iklin revealed several areas of importance – these shall be discussed in this section and exemplar quotes shall be included, which have been extracted from the original report of the study by azzopardi & formosa hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 13 published by ideas spread (2022). primarily the findings showed that the most sought-after value was a request for green spaces. the prominent desire for green spaces was consistent and to such a degree that any decrease in the limited, available greenery is immediately noted, such as the pruning or cutting down of trees. another significant request was for more public spaces and places of leisure, where residents could relax, entertain themselves, and interact. “... or a small picnic area, four benches, so that our lings can get some air, because there were four trees, they uprooted them and paved everything over” (participant 17) residents felt that the fast pace of recent developments was depriving them of open spaces, greenery and shared areas. this is compounded by an accompanying absence of home-grown celebrations, which leaves them feeling unconnected to their locality. a sensitivity to residents’ needs, and effort to include space for shared activity is vital, particularly given the fast pace of current development in the maltese islands, in order to preserve and strengthen the social bonds of the locality. the example of iklin also shows that when residents are forced, by necessity or convenience, to seek services and amenities outside their town of residence, they miss out on the chance to create meaningful connections within their community. a further factor that impacts community cohesion and sustains the setting up of boundaries between people, is variance in typology within localities. when residents perceive different areas as having different values, distinct from the main or more densely populated area, it becomes more challenging to maintain feelings of concord. this could intensify the lack of integration instigated by a lack of common spaces in which to interact, and by the large-scale seeking of services outside the locality of residence. these views are significant in view of the fact that although in iklin, satisfaction with place of residence and life in general was found to be high, participation in civic life was wanting. the experience in iklin shows that inhabiting common spaces and activities with others in one’s locality prompts the creation of networks within the community, which research shows is vital to mental as well as physical wellbeing (hodges & gore, 2019; ortiz-ospina & roser, 2020). on the other hand, however, the iklin study also highlighted that privacy and anonymity are also valued features of modern life. although initially the two may seem to be contradictory, the dichotomy of private house and public shared space can certainly coexist since they inhabit different spheres of life. the australian government (2010) defines territorial privacy as limiting intrusion into the home or other areas, including public areas. buys and bow (2002) add that in the context of communities, privacy means granting selected access to one’s self. this idea of granting controlled access and setting boundaries upon outside intrusion into the private sphere of one’s life, fits well with the experiences described by iklin’s residents. rather than desiring to not have contact with neighbours, persons living in iklin expressed a clear wish for more shared public spaces where they can interact with their neighbours. thus, instead of wishing to reduce trust and social capital, they rather aspire to have designated spaces, where the urban infrastructure can lead to safe interactions with neighbours. hence, the sense of community and togetherness among a population of people is influenced not only by external circumstances, but also by a considerable number of internal elements. creating a feeling of togetherness among a group of varied persons can be difficult if the members of that community lack common interests. mere proximity in a neighbourhood is insufficient to develop a meaningful relationship. it is crucial to consider common experiences and ideals. furthermore, although many inhabitants crave a sense of community, they also strongly prioritise the importance of privacy and personal space which clearly clashes with the strong push for urban development, not just in this specific community but all over the maltese archipelago. the effectiveness of cultivating a sense of community in this particular situation may rely on innovative and original methods of understanding and delineating the qualities and characteristics that form that community. the establishment of a novel community notion can be accomplished by employing alternative cultural activities that incorporate traditional initiatives and re-evaluating them in the context of contemporary circumstances. for instance, online tools can adapt to the rapid changes in society and digital environments, allowing for the formation of community ties in a virtual setting. this may be particularly attractive to younger individuals and organisations who want a more secluded approach. additional innovative options could involve the implementation of roof or vertical gardens on newly constructed buildings, which could be used to hold discussions and events. whilst traditional activities such as the village festa, may be one way of enhancing the community identity and cohesion, this may not necessarily be aligned with what the residents want, as per the mixed feelings about this event that emerged from the findings of the study. hence, contemporary and diverse activities that cater for different age groups and constituents need to be considered and planned carefully to avoid overwhelming the residents. these may be ways of facilitating community interaction whilst ensuring that the residents’ highlighted need for privacy is not threatened, as that would have a negative impact on any initiative for interaction. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 14 published by ideas spread in the end, communities, whether geographical, virtual or otherwise, provide opportunities for connection. these interactions, especially given the rising rates of loneliness and mental health challenges, are vital for individuals' quality of life. 5.1 recommendations throughout this paper, several recommendations have already been provided within each area of discussion. additionally, as guided by the community cohesion and participation framework by involve (2024), other initiatives may be considered, such as the need of: charting the area of the locality in a comprehensive manner in order to ensure that no group in the community is unintentionally excluded from the scheduled activities. this is particularly important in relation to groups whose perspectives may be presently being marginalised in decision-making processes, such as non-maltese residents, commuters who are unable to attend events during the day, young people and newcomers. integration of input from the community into policy cycles and establishing mechanisms for public participation in policy consultations and community planning. identification of the formal and informal networks, including residents' associations, faith groups, parent groups, sports organisations, and community activists, that are present in the area. importantly, any interactions or overlaps amongst these entities need to be considered, as well as the identification of ways of facilitating the interaction between diverse networks and organisations. identification of catalyst-figures in the community, referring to individuals who play a pivotal role in uniting people. the networks, expertise, and experiences of these individuals may be a great asset in enhancing community cohesion. increased awareness of where individuals are currently engaging in social interactions within the community and subsequently considering how these social hubs could serve as connecting points for community organisations seeking to collaborate with residents or as locations to bring community members together. additionally, the findings of this study shed light on the need for future research in this area. primarily, there is a dire need for action research to design, implement and evaluate techniques and activities that could enhance the community identity and cohesion of this particular town. using pragmatic and enjoyable research methods such as the world cafe may be an effective way of bringing residents together whilst eliciting recommendations for improving their town and its identity. finally, this study has shown how important it is to explore residents' perceptions of a community's identity and cohesion, as well as the impact on their quality of life. it would also be beneficial if this study is replicated across other communities since it is an effective way of getting in touch with what people need and want to lead a satisfactory life within their area of residence. 5.2 limitations of the research design despite best efforts, the questionnaire response rate was not high enough to be statistically representative of the community of iklin. however, although the questionnaire data cannot statistically be deemed to represent all of the township’s population, it reveals trends among them. additionally, although the questionnaire was open to participation by all of the community’s residents, participation was on a voluntary basis, therefore was dependent on individual choice. furthermore, the selection of interview and focus group members was mostly based on initial consultations with the local government and parish church of the town. in order to ensure representation of different sectors within the community, such as from local business, small enterprises and community groups, efforts were made to reach out to such entities, however unfortunately these did not result in increased participation. the views represented may therefore not be wholly representative, or inclusive of all sectors of the community. thus, despite every attempt to ensure representation of a wide variety of community players and stakeholders, harder-to-reach groups may not be entirely represented. 6. conclusions informed by the findings of a case study of iklin, this discussion argues that among the values that residents hold most dear are access to green spaces, common areas for shared activities, dedication of planning attention to urban cohesion, and integration of older typologies in urban planning. a consequence of the construction of the apartment blocks that replace the more traditional terraced houses of the past, is a changing of the layout and character of the locality, together with changing demographics. the rapid influx of new residents may bring difficulties but it also offers opportunities. despite the quantitative data showing that residents enjoy a high place of residence and life satisfaction, relatively low civic participation indicates that a lack of sense of community is present among hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 1; 2024 15 published by ideas spread residents of iklin. initiatives such as cultural events may enhance community cohesion and create opportunities for regular socialising amongst the older and newer residents. this paper recommends that future urban developments keep the keen demand for green spaces at the heart of any changes to the urban fabric, as well as prioritising the creation of spaces for leisure which would allow residents to meet and interact. creating scenarios for resident interaction would help preserve community identity and assist cohesion notwithstanding demographic changes in the locality. additionally, engaging residents and local government in planning, and giving local government greater jurisdiction over new developments or town extensions would encourage civic participation, as well as increasing the likelihood of preserving community cohesion. consideration also needs to be given to the presence of basic services and amenities within the community, as otherwise localities remain little more than a collection of dwellings that do not offer residents much beyond a roof over their head. this paper has examined how diverse factors may make the residents of malta’s towns and villages feel integrated with or estranged from their communities. given that human beings are social animals that seek to create bonds with their environments and communities, preserving and strengthening these bonds and imparting a sense of belonging, would make our towns cohesive and fruitful environments that go beyond being mere conglomerations of dwellings. acknowledgements this paper was produced following a research project carried out by the faculty for social wellbeing at the university of malta and commissioned by the iklin local government. special acknowledgement goes to the iklin local council and council members dr dorian sciberras, mayor; mrs yvonne bartolo, deputy mayor; councillors ms bernice farrugia, mr emanuel zammit and mr godwin catania; and executive secretary mr etienne montfort. the authors would also like to thank all the residents of iklin and the stakeholders who took part in the research. *note: these figures were obtained from the research report of this study, available from https://localgovernmentdivision.gov.mt/ and 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(2013). family and kinship in east london. routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203802342 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n5p96 96 published by ideas spread research on the english translation of traditional chinese medicine idioms and allusions from the perspective of cross-cultural communication huang yan1 1 faculty of chinese medicine science guangxi university of chinese medicine, china correspondence: huang yan, faculty of chinese medicine science guangxi university of chinese medicine, nanning, guangxi, china. received: october 4, 2025; accepted: october 15, 2025; published: october 16, 2025 abstract this research, based on cross-cultural communication, explores and studies the english translation of idioms and allusions in traditional chinese medicine. these idioms and allusions in traditional chinese medicine have profound cultural connotations. due to the international language and cultural gap, their english translation faces many difficulties. this article meticulously sorts out the cultural connotations of traditional chinese medicine idioms and allusions as well as the translation difficulties they encounter during the translation process. it also proposes numerous different translation strategies, such as literal translation with annotations, free translation with image substitution, and transliteration with supplementary explanations, hoping to achieve the goal of crosscultural dissemination and understanding of traditional chinese medicine through appropriate translation strategies. keywords: idioms and allusions in traditional chinese medicine, english translation, cross-cultural communication, translation strategy 1. introduction idioms and allusions are precious components of traditional chinese medicine culture and an important way to endow it with cultural color when introducing the treatment concepts and methods of traditional chinese medicine. however, when traditional chinese medicine idioms and allusions are disseminated to the outside world, it is somewhat difficult to truly express the culture within them. the theory of cross-cultural communication can help us better understand the idioms and allusions in traditional chinese medicine and their culture, and attach importance to the influence of cultural and language environments on the translation. the purpose of writing this article is to master the cultural meanings of traditional chinese medicine idioms and stories, identify the difficulties in their translation, explore how to optimize the translation of traditional chinese medicine idioms and allusions by using cross-cultural communication methods, and ensure the important value of traditional chinese medicine idioms and allusions. 2. cross-cultural communication theory and its application in translation studies the most significant function of cross-cultural communication theory in the research of translating idioms and allusions in traditional chinese medicine lies in resolving the relationship among language, culture and context, and assisting translators in effectively and accurately translating the cultural elements of the source language. translation is not only the transformation at the lexical level, but also the transmission between cultures. by drawing on the theory of cross-cultural communication, translators can understand the historical and cultural context, philosophical thinking and cultural meanings contained in traditional chinese medical idioms, and formulate effective strategies based on this understanding and perception to deal with misinterpretations caused by cultural differences[1]. for instance, when encountering the traditional chinese medical idiom "imbalance of yin and yang", translators need to apply the theory of cross-cultural communication to grasp the accuracy of the connotation of traditional chinese medical techniques. the theory of cross-cultural communication emphasizes the role of context, suggesting that translators adapt translation methods according to cultural differences, so that readers of the target language can not only understand the meaning of the text but also appreciate its rich cultural connotations. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 97 published by ideas spread 3. cultural connotations of tcm idioms and allusions 3.1 origins and classification of tcm idioms and allusions the vast majority of idioms and allusions in traditional chinese medicine originate from ancient chinese medical books, taoist and confucian traditions, folk tales and historical allusions. some of these idioms and allusions originate from ancient chinese medical books such as the "huangdi neijing" and "shanghan lun", and they are the direct sources of basic theoretical concepts and expressions of traditional chinese medicine terms, as well as important materials for chinese medical idioms and allusions[2]. meanwhile, some idioms and allusions have been deeply influenced by the theories of yin-yang and five elements, as well as the theories of qi, blood and meridians in taoism, making the holistic concept and syndrome differentiation and treatment in traditional chinese medicine more humanistic. chinese idiom stories can roughly be divided into idioms related to disease diagnosis and treatment. for instance, "strengthening the body's resistance and eliminating pathogenic factors" reflects the fundamental concepts of traditional chinese medicine. and idioms related to the recognition ability of traditional chinese medicine, such as "four diagnostic methods combined", which reflects the diagnosis and treatment process that traditional chinese medicine goes through when diagnosing and treating diseases. there are also many idioms in the form of metaphor and symbolism used to express the thinking of traditional chinese medicine, such as "harmony of qi and blood", which is the thinking and law of the harmonious unity of traditional chinese medicine and nature. 3.2 cultural characteristics of tcm idioms and allusions the core cultural characteristics of traditional chinese idioms and allusions lie in their profound theoretical speculation and unique language style. firstly, traditional chinese idioms and allusions widely reflect the "yinyang and five elements" theory and the holistic view of traditional chinese medicine, emphasizing the harmony between humans and nature, as well as between the body and the environment. for instance, most idioms such as "tonifying both qi and blood" and "imbalance of yin and yang" reflect the holistic and dialectical thinking of traditional chinese medicine. traditional chinese idioms and allusions often contain analogical symbols and have strong visual appeal and descriptive power. for instance, in traditional chinese medicine idioms and allusions, the phrase "medicine cures the illness" not only imparts basic knowledge of traditional chinese medicine but also implies the precision of treating the disease and dispensing drugs during the treatment process. finally, the idioms and allusions of traditional chinese medicine are integrated into the ethical and cultural thoughts of ancient china, such as the confucian concepts of "benevolence and harmony" and the taoist idea of "governing by non-action". the combination of the two forms a unique language system of traditional chinese medicine[3]. 3.3 cross-cultural communication value of tcm idioms and allusions chinese idioms and allusions are the core content of the dissemination of chinese medical culture, the soul of chinese medical theory, and a cultural treasure trove that showcases traditional chinese philosophy, views on nature, and wisdom about life. through the dissemination of chinese idioms and allusions, western countries can understand the theories of syndrome differentiation in traditional chinese medicine, such as the harmony of yin and yang and the balance of qi and blood[4]. this will provide another perspective for health concepts from different cultures, which is of great help in enhancing the understanding and acceptance of traditional chinese medicine by all mankind. chinese idioms and allusions often use vivid and highly meaningful metaphors to explain complex theoretical knowledge of traditional chinese medicine, and thus have a relatively high acceptance rate across cultures. 4. major difficulties in the english translation of tcm idioms and allusions 4.1 the dual barriers of technical terms and cultural allusions from the perspective of translation, the english translation of traditional chinese medicine idioms and allusions should confront two major challenges the exclusivity of language and the complexity of culture. first of all, the language of traditional chinese medicine is complex and specialized, and many words cannot be interpreted with corresponding words in english. for instance, terms like "qi", "yin and yang", and "pulse" can be expressed by translators using some cognates or explanations, but this might sever their inherent connotations. meanwhile, traditional chinese idioms carry profound cultural and historical connotations. their imagery often originates from chinese philosophy, records of the grand historian, folk customs and allusions, etc., which also increases the difficulty of cross-cultural understanding. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 98 published by ideas spread 4.2 ambiguity and polysemy in cross-cultural transmission there are problems of cultural ambiguity and polysemy in the cross-cultural dissemination of traditional chinese medicine idioms and allusions. many terms and related stories in traditional chinese medicine have clear and definite meanings in the chinese cultural context, but there may be multiple interpretations and understandings in english and other languages. for instance, "qi and blood imbalance" in china refers to the normal imbalance of yin and yang within the body. however, during the translation process, due to differences in language composition and culture, external readers may be easily misled and interpret it merely as physical discomfort symptoms, thus losing its deeper philosophical connotations of traditional chinese medicine. for instance, some terms in traditional chinese medicine carry different meanings for a single concept. the specific meaning of polysemous words can only be determined based on the context. 4.3 the dilemma of foreignization and domestication in metaphorical images in the process of translating chinese idioms and allusions into english, the problem of the alienation and domestication of metaphorical images is obvious. there are often many metaphorical elements in traditional chinese medicine vocabulary. for instance, the phrases "seeing the sun through the clouds" or "curing the illness with the medicine" in "acupuncture" are all metaphors based on china's natural conditions, philosophical thoughts and cultural symbols. such metaphorical symbols are difficult to be directly interpreted in the cultural background and context of foreign countries. adopting the means of alienation can preserve the cultural characteristics in the original text, but it also has the disadvantage of causing comprehension obstacles for the target reading group. the adoption of domestication is conducive to the acceptance of the text by the target reading group, but it also means the loss of some cultural information in the source language. 5. translation strategies and approaches to tcm idioms and allusions 5.1 literal translation with annotation: addressing the dual barriers of technical terms and cultural allusions annotation literal translation is a combination of direct translation and annotation. it conveys the meaning of words through literal translation and, through appendices, enables readers to understand the cultural and medical knowledge corresponding to the translated words, ensuring the accuracy of the word translation and the readers' comprehension. this kind of annotation in translation is not merely a simple annotation of a certain word, but an interpretation of the cultural background, historical basis and the extension of philosophical thinking in the original literature. for example, for the translation of "imbalance of yin and yang", use the literal translation method "imbalance of yin and yang", and add "' imbalance of yin and yang 'is a basic principle of traditional chinese medicine, referring to the state of imbalance of yin and yang in the human body, which often leads to the occurrence of diseases." annotations to evaluate the effectiveness of literal annotation in translation, the efficiency of information transmission can be measured by the following mathematical formula: i= s+c t (1) here, i represents the efficiency of information transmission, s is the accuracy of literal translation of terms, c is the quality of cultural and medical annotations, and t is the degree of information loss during the translation process. according to this formula, the efficiency of information transmission is influenced by the literal translation of terms and the quality of annotations, and is inversely proportional to the time consumption or information loss during the translation process. in practical applications, the effect of literal translation of annotations can be further quantified as: i= (1-p)s+pc t (2) here, p represents the proportion of annotations in translation. the optimal information transmission efficiency can be achieved by adjusting the ratio of annotations to literal translations. the translation effect is most ideal when the proportion of annotations is 30%. assuming the accuracy of literal translation is 0.8, the quality of annotations is 0.9, and the information loss during the translation process is 0.1, the formula is used to calculate and obtain: this result indicates that the literal translation method of annotations has a significant advantage in the efficiency of information transmission and can effectively improve the accuracy of terms and the transmission of cultural connotations. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 99 published by ideas spread 5.2 free translation with image substitution: coping with ambiguity and polysemy in cross-cultural transmission image substitution translation is an effective translation strategy to address the issues of uncertainty and diversity in cross-cultural communication and is applicable to the translation of traditional chinese idioms and allusions. when the source language culture, traditional chinese medicine theories and concepts, etc. cannot find a completely corresponding translation in the target language, image substitution translation will adopt the same or similar and visualized expression methods in the target language to prevent cultural confusion and meaning loss. for example, for traditional chinese medicine terms such as "insufficiency of qi and blood", if they are directly restated, it is difficult for the target language readers to understand their deep meaning during the reading process. at this time, they can be transformed into "insufficient vitality" by using the method of image substitution to convey the main content of the source language. this way, it can not only ensure the understandability of the target language readers, but also avoid the discomfort caused by overly mechanical paraphrasing during the reading process, making the translation more fluent and understandable. to quantify the translation effect of image substitution for free translation, a calculation model of information transmission efficiency can be utilized to evaluate the effectiveness of different translation strategies. the formula is as follows: i= w1a+w2b+w3c w4d (3) among them, i represents the efficiency of information transmission, reflecting the degree of effective information transmission during the translation process; a represents the literal translation accuracy of the term or idiom; b represents the acceptance of the target culture, which measures the degree to which the target language users understand the cultural elements of the source language. c represents the vividness of image substitution expression, reflecting whether image substitution can effectively convey the emotions and images in the source language. d stands for information loss, which measures the information lost due to cultural differences during the translation process. w1,w2,w3 and w4 are weighting coefficients, representing the relative importance of each factor in information transmission. through this formula, the impact of different translation strategies on the efficiency of information transmission can be evaluated, and then the effectiveness of image substitution for free translation in actual translation can be determined. to further optimize the translation effect, adjusting the proportion of image substitution can also enhance the efficiency of information transmission. through the following optimization formula, the translation effects in different proportions of image substitution free translation can be calculated: iopt= (1-p)w1a+pw2b+w3c w4d (4) among them, p represents the proportion of image substitution, with a value range from 0 to 1. in actual translation, assuming the accuracy of literal translation is 0.8, cultural adaptability is 0.75, the vividness of image substitution is 0.85, information loss is 0.2, and the proportion of image substitution is 0.5, then: iopt= (1-0.5)×0.8+0.5×0.75+0.85 0.2 iopt= 0.4+0.375+0.85 0.2 = 1.625 0.2 =8.125 (5) this result indicates that when the proportion of image substitution is 50%, the information transmission efficiency of translation is 8.125, demonstrating the powerful advantages of image substitution free translation, especially its effectiveness in resolving ambiguity and polysemy in cross-cultural communication. 5.3 transliteration with supplementary explanation: solving the dilemma of foreignization and domestication in metaphorical images annotated transliteration is an effective means adopted to address the predicament of alienation and domestication of metaphorical images in traditional chinese idioms and allusions. it transliterates the original words and phrases to retain their cultural and phonetic specificity, and adds annotations to enable the target group to understand the deep cultural implications behind the original words. especially in the translation of traditional chinese medicine terms, when encountering cultural factors that are difficult to convert directly, annotated transliteration can play a role in preserving cultural uniqueness to the greatest extent, avoiding excessive transplantation and localization. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 100 published by ideas spread for example, the english name of "si zhen he can" is "si zhen he can", and it has been explained. “a diagnostic method in traditional chinese medicine that involves the four diagnostic methods—inspection, "auscultation, inquiry, and palpation to form a comprehensive diagnosis." in this way, readers of the target language not only know the pronunciation of this idiom, but also understand its connotation. at the same time, i have also fully understood the cultural background knowledge. for instance, the term "meridian" can be directly translated into the english word "jing luo" and annotated: “the system of channels in traditional chinese medicine through which qi and blood flow, "believed to connect all parts of the body." this approach not only retains the original cultural implications of the word but also clarifies its specific meaning in traditional chinese medicine to the readers. the comparison of the application effects of transliteration strategies in the translation of traditional chinese medicine idioms and allusions is shown in table 1. table 1. provides a comparison of the application effects of transliteration strategies in the translation of traditional chinese medicine idioms and allusions translation strategy degree of understanding (%) cultural adaptability (%) ambiguity (%) polysemy (%) translation effect index explanatory transliteration 85 92 8 12 9.2 literal translation 65 55 25 30 4.0 free translation 75 80 18 20 6.4 as can be seen from table 1, in terms of the judgment of comprehension ability and cultural matching degree, the evaluation obtained by the method of phonetic translation with explanations is very high. the comprehension ability for the target audience is 85%, and the cultural matching degree is 92%, thus enabling readers to have a deeper contact with the academic information of traditional chinese medicine in the original text. at the same time, the annotation of transliteration effectively reduces ambiguity and polysemy, with scores of 8% and 12% respectively. it can be seen that this translation method has significant advantages in the translation of traditional chinese medicine idioms and allusions, and can effectively convey more textual information related to traditional chinese medicine. 6. conclusion from the perspective of cross-cultural communication, the english translation of traditional chinese medicine idioms and allusions should choose appropriate translation techniques to ensure the transmissibility of cultural sources. for instance, literal translation of annotations, figurative substitution of free translation, and transliteration with explanations can resolve cultural and language barriers existing in the translation process in different situations. from the perspective of the interpretation of the meanings and cultural implications of the vocabulary with the characteristics of traditional chinese medicine, these methods can to a certain extent clear the language and cultural barriers between countries, allowing readers' understanding to further approach the core concepts and practical levels of traditional chinese medicine. acknowledgments project: 2023 guangxi basic research ability improvement project for young and middleaged university teachers — a study on the english translation of tcm idioms and allusions from the perspec tive of intercultural communication (no. 2023ky1733) references [1] li, q. (2024). a study on translation strategies for tcm terminology based on knowledge translation theory. studies in english language teaching, 12(3). [2] he, h. (2024). a study on the multimodal discourse construction of traditional chinese medicine classics crosscultural communication: the case of “china in the classics—compendium of materia medica.” research and commentary on humanities and arts, 2(7). [3] song, c. (2024). a study on the application of chinese medicine and tea business' english translation based on schema theory. advances in humanities research, 6(1). [4] zhang, y., & zhang, y. (2024). introduction and dissemination studies of contemporary german translations of traditional chinese medicine classics. journal of humanities, arts and social science, 8(4). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 101 published by ideas spread copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n5p67 67 published by ideas spread foreign social media influencers and the reconstruction of china’s national image: a case study of “ishowspeed’s china tour” qianyuan liu1 1 school of communication, yunnan normal university, china correspondence: qianyuan liu, school of communication, yunnan normal university, kunming, yunnan, 650500, china. received: september 4, 2025; accepted: september 21, 2025; published: september 22, 2025 abstract the current landscape of international communication is profoundly influenced by social media. the china travel journey of internet celebrities from various sectors has also injected vitality into international communication. this study investigates the pivotal role of foreign social media influencers in this process, examining how they reconstruct perceptions of china for international audiences. through an in-depth qualitative case study of the phenomenon-level event, “ishowspeed’s china tour”, the findings reveal that unscripted, first-person narratives produced by influencers effectively challenge entrenched stereotypes in western media and generate positive affective responses among global audiences. moreover, driven by both the visa-free policy and social media communication, china’s national image is presented to the world in a clearer manner. however, vigilance should be exercised against the performative or excessively flattering discourse practices of some self-media, and a critical mindset is required when hot events in international communication. overall, the research contributes to the literature on digital diplomacy and international public opinion by offering new insights into how non-state actors reshape national image construction in the age of social media. keywords: international communication, national image, social media, internet influencers 1. introduction in the digital era, social media has deeply integrated into the global communication ecosystem, and the power structure of information dissemination and the pattern of international communication are undergoing profound changes. tech giants such as tiktok and youtube not only foster ecosystems that bring together media enterprises, influencers, and audiences[1], but also transform the dynamics of diplomatic interaction and cross-cultural engagement. according to the “2024 global digital marketing insights report”, the number of global social media users has exceeded five billion mark, with an annual user growth rate still easily surpassing 5%. among other factors, user-generated content and the rise of generation z audience are also gradually changing the landscape of international communication. it can be seen from this that digital technologies and communication subjects are becoming important forces shaping the dissemination of international public opinion. for decades, western mainstream media has often framed china through selective reporting and stereotypical narratives, constructing a mediated image filtered through political and cultural bias. therefore, in this context, internet celebrities, also referred to as social media influencers[2], play a significant role in enabling foreign audiences to gain a more authentic understanding of china’s development. the information disseminated by such actors on social media platforms can reshape public perceptions, while these platforms themselves are gradually evolving into new arenas for international public opinion contestation. in this case, “the ishowspeed’s china tour” was a phenomenon-level social media event in 2025, providing a unique case for studying national image dissemination in the era of social media. ishowspeed has already broadcast seven sessions in shanghai, beijing, the shaolinmonk, chengdu, chongqing, shenzhen, and hong kong. this event not only sparked global discussions about chinese culture, allowing overseas audiences to see a more authentic image of china, but also exposed the opportunities and challenges brought about by cross-cultural communication. 2. theoretical framework: decoding china-opinion leaders as cultural intermediaries in the encoding/decoding process to analytically decipher the phenomenon of foreign influencers reshaping china’s image, this study is guided by an integrated theoretical framework combining stuart hall’s seminal encoding/decoding model, reconceptualized hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 68 published by ideas spread for the social media age. hall argued that meaning is not simply transmitted from sender to receiver but is constructed through the processes of encoding and decoding. he also emphasized that culture is diverse and positive, and it can be freely understood, recreated and combined[3]. a message is encoded by its producer with a preferred meaning. the audience, in turn, decodes this message based on their own socio-cultural backgrounds, lived experiences, and positional frameworks. hall identified three hypothetical decoding positions: the dominanthegemonic position, the negotiated position and the oppositional position. in the traditional context of international communication, the encoding of external publicity discourse has largely followed a one-dimensional model. with limited access to alternative sources of information, global audiences were often confined to passively receiving the narratives presented in international reporting. however, the rise of social media has significantly democratized the encoding process, breaking the monopoly over narrative construction and opening new spaces for both negotiated and oppositional interpretations. within this environment, foreign influencers emerge as cultural intermediaries who occupy a unique position in china’s international communication. by narrating their personal experiences in china, they encode content that resonates with specific audience communities. audiences, in turn, engage with these narratives through a negotiated mode of interpretation, thereby amplifying the effectiveness of communication. this theoretical framework thus provides a productive basis for analyzing how foreign influencers, exemplified by ishowspeed, contribute to the reconstruction of china’s national image in the age of social media. while hall’s model provides a valuable starting point, its application in the current media environment requires further refinement. the growth of social media has created conditions in which foreign influencers increasingly function as para-diplomatic actors, whose activities blur the line between entertainment and international communication. unlike official publicity, which often suffers from perceptions of bias, influencer-driven narratives rely on authenticity as their central communicative resource. the informality of live streaming, the use of first-person narration, and the emphasis on everyday experiences all contribute to a sense of immediacy and credibility that official channels frequently lack. 3. analysis of the “foreign influencers in external communication” phenomenon whether through chinese influencers going abroad or foreign influencers coming into china, “internet celebrities’ external publicity” has already become a new consensus and platform for strengthening and improving china’s international communication efforts[4]. with the rapid development of the internet and the widespread adoption of social media, channels of cultural exchange between nations are becoming increasingly diversified. against this backdrop, internet celebrities, by virtue of their special identities and unique perspectives, employ social media platforms to produce and share china-related content. a review of the phenomenon reveals that this group can generally be divided into three categories, whose communicative influence and effectiveness often surpass the traditional communication system shaped by governments and mainstream media. the first category consists of key opinion leaders cultivated by central media outlets such as china global television network (cgtn), including prominent anchors and journalists. the second category includes representatives of self-media such as “li ziqi”, who gained popularity overseas through cultural tourism-related videos. the third category comprises foreign vloggers who document chinese stories and livestream their experiences in china. this third group is particularly significant: by leveraging overseas social media platforms such as youtube and facebook, they enable foreign audiences to develop renewed perceptions of chinese symbols, turning online interactions into offline experiences and cultural exchanges. this process shifts international audiences’ understanding of china from a mediated, virtual environment toward tangible experiences of “china travel.” consequently, this third category of influencers plays a pivotal role-not only filling the absence of the “other” in international communication but also helping to overcome the tendency of traditional publicity to become a one-sided, selfreferential narrative. 4. an analysis of the dissemination practice of “the ishowspeed’s china tour” at present, numerous international celebrities are undertaking varying degrees of exploration in china. adopting an inclusive and open stance, chinese stakeholders leverage such “intermediary actors” to propel china-inflected cultural products to go global. in media practice, the american gaming influencer popularly known as “ishowspeed” and an increasing number of internet personalities have become involved in international communication. as non-state actors, they enact an identity reconfiguration-from first-hand participants to cultural translators-thereby engaging in the entire process of influencer-based public diplomacy. moreover, stuart hall’s encoding/decoding model provides a productive framework for analyzing the communicative logic of ishowspeed’s china tour, a landmark social media event in 2025 that attracted global attention. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 69 published by ideas spread 4.1 subject identity: the image construction of “ishowspeed” on social media ishowspeed (real name darren watkins jr.), a 20-year-old global top-tier influencer with over 42.7 million (data as of july 25, 2025) subscribers on youtube, has become one of the most recognizable internet celebrities worldwide. as a renowned gaming streamer, he has cultivated a powerful self-symbol through his almost frenetic live broadcasts and exaggerated body language. his barking imitations when losing a game or his exaggerated shock when pranked-behaviors that chinese fans have dubbed him “hyperthyroidism bro”-have been widely circulated via tiktok short videos, quickly evolving into meme-based communication. by breaking down the polished personas typical of conventional influencers, he attracts young audiences with a raw vitality. although his image is controversial-often criticized as deliberately performative and attention seeking-it nevertheless embodies the communicative logic of “authenticity as traffic.” his unofficial, non-state identity reduces audience resistance, shifting the mode of reception away from adversarial decoding of one-way propaganda, and instead turning him into an inadvertent messenger of china’s national image. from the perspective of hall’s encoding and decoding theory, any message must first be “encoded” before entering the sphere of mass communication. as online key opinion leaders, they demonstrate social skills that are both humanized and individualized[5]. in this context, “ishowspeed” extends the connotations of chinese culture through a negotiated reading, whereby audiences simultaneously recognize the distinctiveness of chinese culture while maintaining identification with the influencer as an individual. 4.2 narratives of the other: “de-filtered” communication breaking western stereotypes of china western media outlets such as cnn and bbc, through selective reporting, specific narrative framings, and deliberate differentiation, have long constructed a simulacrum of china as underdeveloped. in this mediated environment, foreign audiences, through a gradual process of implicit influence, have come to internalize stereotypical perceptions of china’s national image. moreover, public opinion surveys conducted by certain wellknown companies have increasingly aligned with the diplomatic needs of western governments. as a prominent foreign influencer, “ishowspeed” occupies a distinctive cultural position and an unofficially empowered intermediary role in the “other-construction” of chinese stories. in this process, he emerges as a new opinion leader, producing original high-quality content that resonates with overseas audiences and thereby exerts measurable influence[6]. during his recent tour of china, the author conducted a detailed observation of related youtube videos and the interactive messages therein. it was found that in cities visited during this trip—including shanghai, beijing, chongqing, chengdu, shenzhen, and hong kong-the total number of comments on long-form videos exceeded 120,000. this figure accounts only for comments recorded beneath long-form videos, while the volume of interactive engagement during live streams was far greater and difficult to quantify precisely. moreover, the powerful communicative effect generated by “de-filtered,” unedited, one-take narratives is selfevident. such forms not only circumvent the filters of differentiated reporting employed by western media institutions, but also inject a sense of ease and informality into the grand narratives of international communication—for instance, through scenes of singing in the streets, practicing martial arts at the shaolin temple, or cars driving across water, it was everyday-oriented: rather than highlighting political or economic achievements, his narratives focused on ordinary interactions with people and places, thereby rendering china visible in intimate, relatable ways. these performances reconstruct foreign audiences’ “exotic imagination” of china. on youtube, overseas users left comments such as: “chinese people are very polite and friendly, truly a civilized nation—may god bless the chinese people.” such statements constitute secondary interpretations of the video content. the topic of “real china” thus once again sparked heated online debate. some viewers noted that “ishowspeed shattered, with his livestream camera, the billions of dollars of smear propaganda the united states has waged against china for decades,” while others asserted that his trip was “perhaps the most effective publicity campaign in china’s history-china has truly been underestimated, which is incredible.” another user replied, “in fact, china has always been like this, only most people did not know.” these audience comments clearly highlight problems that have long existed in china’s external communication-namely, messages that are “spoken but not heard” or “circulated but not amplified.” such dilemmas have only begun to be gradually overcome in recent years. 4.3 underlying logic: the implementation of the visa-free transit policy guided by chinese government top-level design, china has continuously optimized its 72/144-hour visa-free transit policy, which has become a critical factor in the evolving landscape of international communication. with further policy relaxation, a new 244-hour visa-free transit arrangement has been introduced, leading to a significant increase in inbound foreign visitors. according to the national immigration administration, in the first half of 2024, the number of foreign entries reached 14.635 million, a year-on-year increase of 152.7 percent, with visafree entries accounting for 58 percent. china’s circle of “visa-free friends” continues to expand, as more countries hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 70 published by ideas spread formally enter the “visa-free era.” during their stays in china, many of these foreign tourists spontaneously create, share, and livestream content via platforms such as tiktok and youtube, thereby facilitating the global circulation of cultural products rich in chinese characteristics. thus, china’s image is re-articulated through affective and embodied narratives that challenge dominant western framings, the immediate feedback and emotional exchanges embedded in this communication process imbue otherwise abstract messages with greater appeal and resonance. according to tiktok statistics for 2024, the hashtag “china travel” has accumulated more than 700 million views. it is evident that the synergy between the visa-free policy and social media dissemination has substantially unleashed the vitality of grassroots influencer communication. leveraging the viral, fission-like nature of social media, the process shifts from passive to active communication. this dynamic is not only a key measure for enhancing national soft power but also opens new avenues for constructing a more authentic, multidimensional, and comprehensive national image. in conclusion, the underlying logic of ishowspeed’s china tour lies not only in favorable visa policies, but also in the interplay of algorithmic amplification, audience demand for authenticity, and market-driven incentives. together, these factors constitute a multilayered mechanism that explains why influencer-based communication has become a powerful supplement to traditional state-led publicity. beyond the institutional support provided by visa facilitation, the communication dynamics surrounding ishowspeed’s china tour also rested on a set of deeper structural conditions. one of the most decisive is the algorithmic environment of platforms such as tiktok and youtube. their recommendation systems are designed to reward content that generates strong interaction and cross-cultural curiosity, which meant that livestreams and short videos featuring a foreign celebrity in china were systematically amplified and pushed toward wider global audiences. a second layer of logic lies in the appeal of authenticity. viewers tend to respond more readily to unscripted encounters—street conversations, casual performances, or improvised reactions—than to official statements or statistical achievements. these everyday scenes do not present china as an abstract political or economic entity but as a lived environment, accessible and relatable. in doing so, they help offset the “propaganda fatigue” often associated with traditional publicity. 5. discussion in the context of increasingly frequent cross-cultural exchanges, numerous foreign bloggers have expressed on chinese online platforms their high praise for china, often describing it as “perfect” and “fulfilling”. however, for those who live on this land, their recognition of the nation’s prosperity and strength does not arise from such mirrored perspectives of the other, but from embodied experiences within their lived environment. for this reason, such statements alone are insufficient to reflect the true effectiveness of international communication. by contrast, when foreign bloggers communicate on overseas platforms to foreign audiences, conveying the message that “china is perfect and desirable”, this constitutes an exceptionally effective mode of exogenous-to-endogenous image construction of china. it breaks through traditional paradigms of international communication, moving away from grand policy-driven narratives and abstract statistical enumerations. instead, it offers a more objective, third-party perspective that presents an attractive image of china to global audiences, thereby transcending the domestically oriented mindset that has often shaped china’s external communication efforts. although china’s international communication has achieved visible progress in recent years, with many foreign influencers engaging with china and helping chinese stories reach global audiences, some problems still deserve careful consideration. a notable issue is the phenomenon often described as the “flattery trap” in western selfmedia coverage of the so-called “china fever”. on the surface, these platforms appear to celebrate china’s economic achievements, cultural attractiveness, and technological progress. yet, behind this flattering discourse there may exist less benign intentions, seeking to cast doubt on china’s development path, national image, and international position. for this reason, the public should maintain a balanced attitude: while appreciating positive attention from foreign influencers, it is also important to remain cautious about excessive flattery and avoid developing a sense of complacency or superiority[7]. therefore, critical awareness and clear boundaries are necessary in order to strengthen china’s international communication capacity while resisting potentially harmful narratives. 6. conclusions and implications in contrast to the negative framings and selective filters frequently employed by western mainstream media, the narratives disseminated by foreign influencers tend to construct an “idealized” vision of china. this representation spans diverse dimensions, including the efficiency of infrastructure development, the orderly functioning of social life, the abundance of cultural experiences, and the dynamism of commercial activity. collectively, these depictions contribute to reshaping the global audience’s cognitive framework of china. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 71 published by ideas spread by placing hall’s theory in dialogue with contemporary scholarship on digital diplomacy and online authenticity, this study proposes a framework that better reflects the communicative logic of the current era. it highlights how foreign influencers, exemplified by ishowspeed, can generate negotiated readings that are amplified through participatory and affective practices, thereby altering the international visibility and credibility of china’s image in ways. this event, transcending mere entertainment, evolved into a significant socio-cultural moment that sparked global conversations about modern china. the case of ishowspeed’s china tour illustrates the relative effectiveness of such “third-party mediated communication” when compared with traditional, state-driven, oneway external propaganda. rather than a self-referential narrative, these influencers embody what chinese communication scholars term “borrowing boats to go abroad”, leveraging unofficial voices to enhance the credibility and authenticity of china’s global image. empirical evidence reinforces this observation. according to brand finance’s global soft power index 2024[8], china has surpassed both japan and germany to rank third worldwide, behind only the united states and the united kingdom. this shift underscores a potential “overtaking on the curve” moment in china’s international communication trajectory. against this backdrop, favorable policy reforms, sustained economic growth, and a more inclusive cultural environment are creating conditions that attract an increasing number of foreign influencers to document and disseminate their lived experiences in china. the unique identity of “foreign internet celebrities” as “overseas propagandists”[9], through a combination of embodied immersion and digitally mediated amplification, they can facilitate the gradual dismantling of entrenched stereotypes. ultimately, this case illustrates the evolving dynamics of international communication in the social media era. this study regards foreign influencers as para-diplomatic actors who re-encode national image through affective authenticity rather than state-driven messaging. in doing so, such practices pave the way for constructing a national image that is more credible, attractive, and respectable in the eyes of global audiences. references [1] whyke, t. w., chen, z. t., & lopez-mugica, j. (2022). an analysis of cultural dissemination and national image construction in chinese influencer li ziqi’s vlogs and its impact on international viewer perceptions on youtube. the journal of chinese sociology, 9(1), 14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40711-022-00173-2 [2] hu, y., & xu, h. (2020). how social media influencers’ social capital assets change business model. journalism and mass communication, (8), 48-56. [3] li, y. (2004). research of ernie stuart hall’s media theory. journal of the graduate school of chinese academy of social sciences, (6), 64-67, 142. [4] ji, d., & zhu, h. (2022). internet celebrity external publicity: the innovation paradox of china’s international communication. international communications, (2), 54-58. [5] chen, x., & wang, r. (2023). evaluation · construction · transcendence: a study of international communication efficiency of chinese stories on social media. modern communication (journal of communication university of china), 45(11), 55-65. [6] zhao, y., liao, j., & dou, s. (2024). chinese image built by others: effects of western social media influencers on cognition, emotion and behavior of overseas audiences: a research of audience comments based on youtube vide. journal of journalism and communication review, 77(2), 93-105. [7] wang, g., gao, w., & li, h. (2018). feature analysis, spreading effect and governance countermeasures of foreign online celebrities: ten foreign online celebrities on sina weibo as an example: a study of international communication efficiency of chinese stories on social media. journal of intelligence, 37(12), 93-98, 117. [8] brand finance. (2024). global soft power index 2024: usa and uk ranked top nation brands, china takes third place, overtaking japan and germany. https://brandfinance.com/press-releases/brand-finances-globalsoft-power-index-2024-usa-and-uk-ranked-top-nation-brands-china-takes-third-place-overtaking-japan-andgermany [9] peng, h., & li, h. (2024). national portrait and international narrative: a study of the outsider perspective of influencers on social media. media observation, (6), 92-101. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 72 published by ideas spread license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n5p83 83 published by ideas spread research on the pathways to enhance vocational decision-making ability of college students in local universities from the perspective of resilience shen liqin1, zhou mengyao1, huang yukai1, ding luxuan1 & shi wangting1 1 college of teacher education, quzhou university, china correspondence: shen liqin, college of teacher education, quzhou university, quzhou, zhejiang, 324003, china. received: october 3, 2025; accepted: october 15, 2025; published: october 16, 2025 funding: this project is supported by the quzhou university college student innovation and entrepreneurship training program project (project no.: q25x041). abstract with the continuous increase in the number of college graduates in china, university students are facing challenges such as low employment rates and poor employment quality. this not only places excessive employment pressure on students but also leads to widespread mental health issues such as anxiety and confusion. phenomena like "delayed employment" and "slow employment" are becoming increasingly prevalent, particularly among students from local universities. to deeply analyze the impact pathways and mediating effects among employment pressure, psychological resilience, and career decision-making of students in local universities, this study distributed 160 questionnaires at a local institution. the results revealed that employment pressure significantly negatively predicts career decision-making ability; employment pressure significantly negatively predicts psychological resilience; psychological resilience significantly positively influences career decision-making; and psychological resilience plays a partial mediating role between employment pressure and career decision-making. based on these findings, this study proposes corresponding recommendations to provide theoretical foundations and practical guidance for the employment of students in local universities. keywords: psychological resilience, employment in local universities, career decision-making ability, college student career planning 1. introduction with the continuous increase in the number of college graduates, the mismatch between talent supply and labor market demand has led to increasingly severe employment challenges for university students. according to data from the ministry of education (2024) [1], the number of college graduates in china reached 11.79 million in 2024. however, data from zhaopin.com (2024) [2] indicates that the employment rate for college graduates was only 55.5%, meaning nearly half of the graduates face the dilemma of "unemployment upon graduation." behind the low employment rate lies the hidden crisis of poor employment quality. employment quality is reflected not only in whether graduates find a job but also in their job adaptation and career expectations, which directly affects their employment satisfaction. a survey of 311 undergraduate graduates majoring in public administration by zeng lijing, guo han, zheng yongping, and yang guoyong (2023) [3] found that only 32.8% reported being "very satisfied/satisfied" with their jobs. low employment satisfaction is not an isolated phenomenon but is widespread among college students. a survey of 526 college graduates who had been working for over six months by yu chen (2022) [4] revealed that 32.5% were dissatisfied with their current jobs, and 7.4% were very dissatisfied, indicating that overall employment satisfaction among graduates is not ideal. notably, amid the dual challenges of low employment rates and poor employment quality, students from local universities face even more pronounced employment pressure. a survey on the employment-related psychological difficulties among fresh graduates from local universities found that over 50% reported experiencing anxiety, confusion, fear of difficulty, and low self-esteem. he liang, zhou min, and ma jianjing (2020) [5] surveyed 8,274 graduates from changsha university of science & technology's class of 2020: 42.10% felt the employment situation was not optimistic, 28.57% felt considerable employment pressure and were confused about their future, and 3.48% were unsure if hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 84 published by ideas spread they could secure employment successfully. a survey of 450 students at weinan normal university by wang dajiang and guo dan (2018) [6] showed that 80% felt pressure regarding their employment prospects. an analysis of reasons for rejection by employers revealed that "insufficient qualifications/certificates" was the top reason (40%), followed by "lack of capability" (30%). a survey of 336 graduates from the school of art and design, guangzhou panyu polytechnic, by liu fang, duan na, and lin chaoyang (2023) [7] indicated that 51.46% felt considerable pressure. pan ming and lu yijia (2006) [8] also pointed out significant differences in employment pressure among graduates based on institutional hierarchy, scale, and type. graduates from mid-tier local undergraduate universities experienced higher employment pressure than those from key universities and higher vocational colleges. the difficulties in securing employment and low satisfaction essentially reflect insufficient career decision-making ability among college students. wu fang (2008) [9] indicated a significant positive correlation between employability and employment quality, meaning students with stronger career decisionmaking ability tend to achieve higher employment quality. therefore, the career decision-making ability of college students directly affects their employment quality. previous research confirms that the lack of career decisionmaking ability among college students is a direct result of the high-pressure employment environment. a zhaopin.com (2024) [2] survey found that 36.2% of graduates cited "feeling too confused to know what kind of job to choose" as the primary reason for unsuccessful job hunting, far exceeding reasons like "lack of skills" or "low educational background." this exposes graduates' difficulties in career choice, indicating a current deficiency in career decision-making ability. li xiying (2006) [10] found that students who had not received career guidance experienced greater decision-making difficulties than those who had, meaning students lacking career education feel more helpless and confused when facing career decisions. zheng yuehui (2019) [11] noted that over 70% of students felt helpless, confused, and lacked career planning education during career decision-making. since 2012, china's macroeconomy has entered a phase of slowing growth and quality improvement. the annual gdp growth rate fell below 8% for the first time in 2012 and gradually decreased to 5.0% in 2024 (national bureau of statistics, 2025) [12][13]. this economic slowdown has pressured job creation in the labor market. cai fang (2022) [14], comparing the gap between official new employment data and net employment increase, pointed out that urban employment actually decreased by 1.64 million jobs in 2019 alone. this undoubtedly intensifies the competitive pressure on new graduates, who face not only fewer job opportunities but also the challenge of meeting higher entry thresholds posed by emerging industries. research by li jiagen (2019) [15] suggested a negative correlation between college students' employment pressure and their career decision-making ability, meaning that in highpressure environments, students find it harder to make rational career decisions, ultimately forming a vicious cycle of "high employment pressure weak career decision-making ability." high employment pressure not only reduces career decision-making ability but also exposes students' vulnerability when facing complex career choices. this phenomenon is more severe among local university students, manifesting as increased trends of "delayed employment" and "slow employment." a survey of 1,804 graduates from the classes of 2022 and 2023 at hunan city university by li gui, huang zhi, and li you (2023) [16] showed that 26.49% of the 2022 graduates chose "delayed employment"; 27% were preparing to start their own businesses or had not found work. among the 2023 graduates, 34% were not in a hurry to sign employment contracts; about 12.57% had not found suitable positions and were forced into "delayed employment." mao lingyuan (2021) [17] stated that the employment rate for local universities in recent years was about 80%, with relatively poor employment quality. a survey of 292 graduates from the class of 2021 at local universities by ai guojin, yan qin, and hu dan (2023) [18] found that 12% belonged to the "slow employment" group. this phenomenon reflects the 普遍 difficulties local university students face in career planning and decision-making (yang qiqi, shen yan, shen xiangying, 2020) [19]. according to zheng yuehui (2019) [11], over half of the local university students in inner mongolia were unclear about their post-graduation career direction; 72.75% could not develop clear, suitable career plans due to lack of university-provided employment guidance and were unable to analyze the external employment environment and their own direction accurately. chen xinyu (2023) [20] noted that, on average, one in ten undergraduate students from local universities in guilin city failed to secure employment. among 622 valid questionnaires, only 10 respondents reported never experiencing career decision-making difficulties. the survey of 8,274 graduates from changsha university of science & technology's class of 2020 by he liang, zhou min, and ma jianjing (2020) [5] also showed that 44.70% of students could not effectively make preparations and plans related to employment and career choice. based on the above research, local university students are facing the dual challenges of low employment rates and poor employment quality, leading them to endure employment pressure far exceeding that of other groups. under such high pressure, students generally lack adequate career decision-making ability, forming a vicious cycle of "high employment pressure low career decision-making ability." the key to breaking this cycle lies in enhancing students' intrinsic positive capacity to cope effectively and make reasonable decisions in high-pressure environments. psychological resilience is precisely the process through which individuals achieve hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 85 published by ideas spread psychological balance through self-adjustment when facing adversity. in recent years, it has often been validated as a positive mediating factor in studies examining individuals facing various stressful situations. for instance, in academic stress, resilience has been proven to have a direct positive impact on students' academic pressure (bai yan, 2024) [21]; regarding burnout, resilience can indirectly moderate the impact of mental health on burnout, helping individuals cope positively with various stressful events (yang rui, li jianmin, wang yulong, li hongmei, xue chengjing, 2023) [22]. based on research from various scholars, the application of psychological resilience in the context of employment pressure has corresponding theoretical support. particularly when college students face negative threats, resilience can provide immediate ameliorative effects. lin xinxin, zhou kailiang, chen xianjian, li haizhe, chen xiaochun, xu hui (2021) [23] and luo tingting, lu junxiao (2022) [24] also mentioned related viewpoints, suggesting that resilience can help college students effectively cope with employment pressure, become more self-disciplined and adaptable to stress, and make decisions beneficial to themselves. therefore, leveraging psychological resilience to mitigate the negative impact of employment pressure on career decision-making might yield similarly positive effects among local university students. however, research specifically targeting this group is relatively scarce, and the relationships between employment pressure, psychological resilience, and career decision-making ability require further verification. thus, it is necessary to deeply explore the impact of employment pressure on psychological resilience, employment pressure on career decision-making ability, and psychological resilience on career decision-making ability among local university students. analyzing the mediating role of resilience in the relationship between employment pressure and career decision-making can help break the vicious cycle of high employment pressure and low career decision-making ability faced by these students, providing theoretical basis and practical guidance for their employment counseling. 2. theoretical background 2.1 employment pressure stress is a cognitive appraisal process arising from the dynamic interaction between an individual and their environment, not solely determined by external events themselves. it exists in various aspects of an individual's life and manifests differently across situations. employment pressure is the stress experienced by individuals within the employment context and constitutes a significant branch of stress. scholars have defined employment pressure differently. zhou dongbin, luo jiawen, lin weiying (2005) [25], focusing on the recipients of employment pressure, defined it as the physiological and psychological reactions occurring when college students face an employment situation where external threats exceed their coping abilities. liu chunlei (2010) [26], from a psychological perspective, viewed employment pressure as the stress arising when facing career choices, a phenomenon of psychological tension resulting from the interaction of many internal/external variables and personal factors within the employment context. qiu huiyan, dai binrong (2014) [27] emphasized perception and psychological experience, considering employment pressure as a psychological feeling generated by an individual's perception of internal and external stimuli related to employment factors. although scholars differ in their specific definitions, there is general consensus that employment pressure is a complex and dynamic process involving psychological and physiological reactions resulting from the combined effect of external and internal factors. employment pressure among college students has become a widespread social phenomenon. surveys by scholars such as liu jie (2004) [28] and sun yiwen (2023) [29] have found that employment pressure is a longterm challenge for this group. with increasingly fierce employment competition, the continuous rise in university graduates, and uncertainties in career development, college students face difficulties in career choice after graduation, forcing them to endure significant psychological and physiological pressure from the employment environment. this phenomenon does not occur偶然 but results from the interaction of multiple factors. from a social environment perspective, employment pressure is influenced by economic conditions and the supply and demand in the job market. from the perspective of family expectations, some pressure stems from family expectations regarding career choices. from an individual perspective, employment pressure is influenced by internal psychological factors such as self-awareness, motivation, and psychological resilience. sustained employment pressure negatively impacts the psychological resilience of college students. research by gao yuanshan, yang yanfei, yu xiaoyu et al. (2024) [30] and qi qiqi (2023) [31] shows that employment pressure can negatively predict psychological resilience. when employment pressure is high, an individual's psychological resilience decreases, leading to lower resilience in coping with adversity, and feelings of anxiety, depression, and even despair, making it difficult to maintain a positive mindset and the ability to face challenges. according to research by wu shiyun, zhang jing, liu yong (2015) [32],恶性 employment competition pressure can also induce other negative psychological states such as inferiority and avoidance. these negative states not only increase an individual's sensitivity to employment pressure but may also create a vicious cycle, further affecting hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 86 published by ideas spread mental health. simultaneously, employment pressure affects the rationality of career decision-making among college students. research by wang xiang, li haitao (2024) [33] found a negative correlation between employment pressure and career decision-making. excessive anxiety and tension during career decision-making can interfere with rational thinking, leading to ambiguous and impulsive decisions. han huiping (2023) [34] argued that excessive employment pressure strengthens conformity in job seeking and leads to unclear selfperception, causing students to 倾向 prioritize material and utilitarian factors during career decision-making, making it difficult to make rational choices. 2.2 psychological resilience psychological resilience, also referred to as resiliency or mental elasticity, lacks a unified definition but has three classic perspectives: process-oriented, outcome-oriented, and trait-oriented definitions. the process-oriented definition views resilience as a dynamic process of continuous interaction between the individual and the environment, involving ongoing self-adjustment (kathleen, 2004) [35]. the trait-oriented definition considers resilience an inherent psychological quality or ability (connor & davidson, 2003) [36]. the outcome-oriented definition sees it as a behavioral result, reflecting good adaptive ability gained after overcoming difficulties (masten, 2001) [37]. compared to outcome and trait definitions, the process-oriented definition is more integrative, and chinese scholars tend to view psychological resilience as dynamic. yu xiaonan, zhang jianxin (2005) [38] defined psychological resilience as effective coping and adaptation when facing loss, difficulties, or adversity. liao wenna, luo xianghan, kong fanxu (2023) [39] viewed it as the ability to recover from negative experiences and flexibly adapt to the external environment. tian xiao (2024) [40] considered it the outcome where an individual maintains a positive mindset to face difficulties, strives continuously, overcomes obstacles, and achieves healthy psychological development and good adaptation. in essence, these perspectives emphasize that psychological resilience enables individuals to achieve psychological balance through self-adjustment and adaptation when facing challenges. psychological resilience is not only an individual's psychological capacity to cope with difficulties but also influences the rationality of career decision-making. numerous studies indicate a significant positive correlation between psychological resilience and career decision-making. higher levels of resilience are associated with stronger adaptive abilities when facing adversity, leading to more scientific and rational career decisions. zhang jiamei's (2020) [41] survey results indicated that psychological resilience can effectively mitigate the negative impact of emotions on career decision-making. students with high resilience can quickly adjust their emotions when encountering adversity, proactively cope with difficulties, make decisions aligned with their needs, and avoid emotional decision-making. pan ling, chen lixia, zhong tiantian (2021) [42] emphasized that the adjustment and reflection inherent in resilience during difficulties can make career decisionmaking more scientific. specifically, higher resilience correlates with better problem-solving abilities; through continuous reflection and adjustment, students optimize their career decisions, thereby reducing decision-making difficulties. yang liheng, mu quanshang, gu zhen (2014) [43] pointed out that psychological resilience not only promotes proactive actions during the decision-making process but also facilitates long-term career development. students with higher resilience typically exhibit greater motivation and courage to face challenges, prompting them to actively participate in career planning activities, seek out occupational information (e.g., qualifications, salary, working conditions), engage in vocational training and social practice, and develop clear career plans, thereby making more scientific decisions and laying the foundation for achieving long-term career goals. beyond directly enhancing decision-making rationality, psychological resilience can act as a key mediating factor, validated in many stress models. studies by wang zhao (2023) [44] and zhou zheng, ning ning (2020) [45] both indicate that occupational stress influences behavioral outcomes through psychological resilience, which plays an important role in the stress pathway. similarly, the mediating role of resilience has been repeatedly verified in studies on academic stress (bai yan, 2024) [21] and occupational burnout (yang rui, li jianmin, wang yulong, li hongmei, xue chengjing, 2023) [22]. therefore, psychological resilience can be seen as an important positive psychological mediator (gao yuanshan, yang yanfei, yu xiaoyu, 2024) [30], helping individuals mobilize inner resources when facing external pressure, fostering more positive appraisal, reducing the impact of negative emotions during decision-making, enhancing self-confidence, and promoting adaptation to adversity, thereby improving the科学性 of career decisions and increasing the likelihood of successful and satisfactory employment outcomes (huang guangsheng, ren xinwei, 2025) [46]. this study, based on the process-oriented definition, views psychological resilience not as a fixed trait but as something that can be enhanced through learning and cultivation. when facing pressure and setbacks, resilience can effectively alleviate negative emotions, enhance an individual's adaptive capacity and recovery, thus enabling better coping with life's challenges and difficulties (chen qixiu, peng wenbo, 2022) [47]. this regulatory factor can mitigate employment pressure through its universality and positivity, reducing the impact of employment pressure on individual career decision-making, offering a new perspective on the career decision-making dilemma of local university students. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 87 published by ideas spread 2.3 career decision-making the theoretical foundation of career decision-making can be traced back to frank parsons' (1909) [48] "choosing a vocation," which proposed that career choice is a rational matching process where individuals achieve a precise fit between personal traits and job requirements through "scientific methods," emphasizing the consideration of both internal and external factors. jepsen (1974) [49] enriched this view and first proposed "career decisionmaking," regarding it as a complex cognitive process where individuals analyze and integrate information about themselves and occupations, consider alternative career prospects, choose a suitable option, and publicly commit. he recognized career decision-making as not only a rational matching process but also an information processing and analysis activity. building on this, huang bin (2011) [50] and wang yilin (2023) [51] viewed career decisionmaking as the process of searching for occupational information, weighing pros and cons, and making a career choice to achieve maximum value based on personal needs and external environmental factors, after establishing a clear career direction. career decision-making exerts varying degrees of influence on self-actualization, job satisfaction, career development, psychological mood, and occupational burnout. on the positive side, guo zongyi (2022) [52] pointed out that college students with self-actualization tendencies engage in reflection on career planning during the decision-making process, enhance their employability, and consequently obtain work that realizes self-value. this view highlights the importance of career decision-making for individual career planning and its role in laying the foundation for self-actualization. yang hui's (2020) [53] research found that improving the career decision-making ability of young people significantly enhances their job satisfaction and further boosts proactivity in career development, indicating the impact of decision-making ability on job satisfaction. xia yanjun (2021) [54] noted that correct career decisions not only promote personal career development but also contribute to social harmony and stability, showing the societal impact of career decisions. however, weak career decisionmaking ability can also lead to negative consequences. zhang ning's (2022) [55] research found that students with weak decision-making ability often exhibit procrastination, preventing them from executing planned goals on time, leading to guilt, self-blame, and other negative emotions. individuals with insufficient decision-making ability might also make involuntary career choices or gather incomplete occupational information, leading to career decision regret. yue xingyu, wang lingfeng, yang yuqing (2023) [56] found a significant positive correlation between career decision regret and occupational burnout among kindergarten teachers, meaning regret can exacerbate burnout. therefore, insufficient career decision-making ability not only affects individuals' negative psychological emotions but also adversely impacts their career development. 3. research methodology 3.1 research model this study establishes a tri-factor model involving employment pressure, psychological resilience, and career decision-making ability, as illustrated in figure 1. firstly, based on the research by lu lijun & chen yulan (2017) [57], employment pressure can influence psychological resilience. secondly, studies by liu hongxia & ye juan (2023) [58] conclude that employment pressure also affects career decision-making ability. finally, an investigation by gao jun & sui guorong (2018) [59] found that psychological resilience positively promotes career decision-making ability. figure 1. research model hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 88 published by ideas spread 3.2 research instruments all measurement tools in this study utilized a 5-point likert scale, with response options ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree." the factor structure and reliability coefficients are presented in table 1. the measurement of employment pressure employed the scale developed by juhee (2013) [60], comprising 11 items. all items used reverse scoring, including statements such as: "i am confident about finding employment through competition," "i am actively working to improve my academic performance in preparation for job seeking," and "i am actively exploring career directions after graduation and feel hopeful." the scale demonstrated a cronbach's α of 0.946. psychological resilience was measured using the instrument from park's (2016) study [61], which consists of 20 items. a higher score indicates a higher level of psychological resilience. the overall cronbach's α coefficient was 0.957.the instrument consists of three distinct factors: 1. positive orientation towards the future (6 items, cronbach's α = 0.927), including items such as: "i believe good things will happen in the future," "i feel the future is bright," and "i am hopeful about my future." 2. individual emotion regulation ability (7 items, cronbach's α = 0.903), including items such as: "i can manage my emotions effectively," "i can remain calm in difficult situations," and "i do not get easily annoyed." 3. diversity of interests (7 items, cronbach's α = 0.902), including items such as: "i enjoy challenging myself with various experiences," "i like novel or unique things," and "i am interested in and concerned about a wide range of topics."career decision-making was assessed using the scale developed by googhwa (2023) [62], which consists of 10 items. sample items include: "i feel confident and certain about my future career choices," "i have multiple fields of interest and am actively considering which one to choose," and "i have clarified my direction and feel satisfied with my choice." the scale demonstrated high internal consistency, with a cronbach's α coefficient of 0.942. table 1. factor composition and reliability of research instruments factor item number of items cronbach α employment pressure 1*,2*,3*,4*,5*,6*,7*,8*,9*,10*11* 10 0.946 psychological resilience positive orientation toward the future 3,6,10,14,15，17 6 20 0.927 0.957 individual emotional regulation ability 2,5,7,9,11,13,19 7 0.903 diversity of interests 1,4,8,12,16,18,20 7 0.902 career decision-making ability 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11 10 0.942 *reverse-scored items 3.3 data collection this study investigates the mechanism through which employment pressure and psychological resilience influence career decision-making ability. the survey targeted undergraduate students from local universities. given the advantages of online questionnaires—lower collection costs, convenience, and speed—this study utilized an online questionnaire distributed and collected via the questionnaire star platform to students at a university in quzhou city, zhejiang province. the data collection period lasted for two months, from march 19 to may 17, 2025. a total of 160 valid questionnaires were finally collected and used for analysis in this study.the analytical procedure was as follows: first, the reliability of the data was assessed using spss 26.0. second, correlation analyses were conducted among employment pressure, psychological resilience, and career decision-making ability. third, regression analyses were performed to examine the relationships between employment pressure, psychological resilience, and career decision-making ability. furthermore, a mediation analysis was conducted to test the mediating effect of psychological resilience between employment pressure and career decision-making ability. finally, corresponding strategies were proposed based on the research findings. 3.4 research subjects regarding the demographic characteristics of the participants, 66 (41.2%) were male and 94 (58.8%) were female. in terms of academic year, 74 (46.3%) were lower-year students and 86 (53.7%) were upper-year students. regarding major type, 93 (58.1%) were from humanities and social sciences, and 67 (41.9%) were from natural sciences. concerning family location, 28 (17.5%) were from provincial capital cities, 44 (27.5%) were from hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 89 published by ideas spread prefecture-level city urban areas, and 88 (55.0%) were from counties or towns. details are shown in table 2: distribution of research subjects. table 2. distribution of research subjects component number of people ratio gender male 66 41.3 female 94 58.8 grade lower grades (freshman and sophomore years) 74 45.0 upper grades (junior and senior years) 88 55.0 major type humanities and social sciences 93 58.1 natural sciences 67 41.9 family location provincial capital city 28 17.5 prefecture-level city proper 44 27.5 county seats and other towns 88 55.0 total 160 100% 4. results 4.1 correlation analysis among the main variables—employment pressure, psychological resilience, and career decision-making ability— the following correlations were observed. employment pressure showed a significant negative correlation with psychological resilience (r = -0.683), positive orientation towards the future (r = -0.672), individual emotion regulation ability (r = -0.610), and diversity of interests (r = -0.581). furthermore, employment pressure was negatively correlated with career decision-making ability (r = -0.419).in contrast, psychological resilience demonstrated a significant positive correlation with career decision-making ability (r = 0.433). its sub-dimensions also showed positive correlations: positive orientation towards the future (r = 0.413), individual emotion regulation ability (r = 0.420), and diversity of interests (r = 0.351) were all positively correlated with career decision-making ability. detailed data are presented in table 3. table 3. correlation analysis among variables component 1 2 3 4 5 6 1employment pressure 1 2psychological resilience -0.683** 1 3positive orientation toward the future -0.672** 0.914** 1 4individual emotional regulation ability -0.610** 0.914** 0.747** 1 5diversity of interests -0.581** 0.910** 0.733** 0.770** 1 6career decisionmaking ability -0.419** 0.433** 0.413** 0.420** 0.351** 1 *p≤.05，**p≤.01 4.2 direct effects to examine the impact of employment pressure on career decision-making, a multiple regression analysis was employed. as shown in table 4, employment pressure was set as the independent variable, and career decisionmaking as the dependent variable. the overall regression model was significant, f=33.631 (p<0.05), with β=0.419 and t=-5.799 (p<0.05), indicating a significant negative (-) effect on career decision-making. the explanatory power of this regression model was approximately 17.5%, suggesting that employment pressure can negatively influence career decision-making.secondly, regarding the impact of employment pressure on psychological resilience, the overall regression was significant, f=137.953 (p<0.05), with β=-0.683 and t=-11.745 (p<0.05), showing a significant negative (-) effect. the explanatory power of the regression model was approximately 46.6%, indicating that employment pressure can reduce psychological resilience.finally, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 90 published by ideas spread concerning the impact of psychological resilience on career decision-making, the overall regression was significant, f=36.407 (p<0.05), with β=0.433 and t=6.034 (p<0.05), demonstrating a significant positive (+) effect. the explanatory power of the regression model was approximately 18.7%, suggesting that psychological resilience can enhance career decision-making.for the sub-dimensions, positive orientation towards the future, individual emotion regulation ability, and diversity of interests were set as independent variables, with career decisionmaking remaining the dependent variable. in the impact of positive orientation towards the future on career decision-making, the overall regression was significant, f=32.400 (p<0.05), with β=0.413 and t=5.692 (p<0.05), indicating a significant positive influencing factor. the explanatory power of the regression model was approximately 17.0%. for the impact of individual emotion regulation ability on career decision-making, the overall regression was significant, f=33.779 (p<0.05), with β=0.420 and t=5.812 (p<0.05), showing a significant positive influencing factor. the explanatory power of the regression model was approximately 17.6%. regarding the impact of diversity of interests on career decision-making, the overall regression was significant, f=22.211 (p<0.05), with β=0.351 and t=4.713 (p<0.05), indicating a significant positive (+) influencing factor. the explanatory power of the regression model was approximately 12.3%. this demonstrates that all three dimensions of psychological resilience can positively influence career decision-making. table 4 regression analysis of employment pressure on psychological resilience dependent variable independent variable b β t p r2 f vif career decision-making employment pressure -0.472 -0.419 -5.799 0.000 0.175 33.631 1 psychological resilience employment pressure -0.644 -0.683 -11.745 0.000 0.466 137.953 1 career decision-making psychological resilience 0.517 0.433 6.034 0.000 0.187 36.407 1 positive orientation toward the future 0.412 0.413 5.692 0.000 0.170 32.400 1 individual emotional regulation ability 0.485 0.420 5.812 0.000 0.176 33.778 1 diversity of interests 0.396 0.351 4.713 0.000 0.123 22.211 1 4.3 indirect effects to examine whether psychological resilience plays a mediating role between employment pressure and career decision-making, this study employed a stepwise regression analysis. as shown in table 5, in step 2, only the effect of employment pressure on career decision-making was considered. the β value was -0.419, and the model's explanatory power was 17.5%. this indicates that employment pressure can predict college students' career decision-making to a certain extent.subsequently, in step 3, both employment pressure and psychological resilience were included as predictor variables to examine their combined effect on career decision-making. at this stage, the β value for employment pressure changed to -0.231, showing a decrease compared to step 2, while the β value for psychological resilience was significant. this change indicates that after introducing psychological resilience into the model, the direct influence of employment pressure on career decision-making weakened, yet both variables maintained a significant predictive effect on career decision-making. therefore, it can be concluded that psychological resilience plays a partial mediating role between employment pressure and career decisionmaking. table 5. analysis of mediating effects stage dependent variable independent variable b s.e β r² f p vif 1 career decisionmaking employment pressure 0.472 0.081 0.419 0.175 33.631 0.000 1 2 psychological resilience employment pressure 0.644 0.055 0.683 0.466 137.953 0.000 1 3 career decisionmaking employment pressure 0.260 0.109 0.231 0.216 21.606 0.000 1.873 psychological resilience 0.328 0.115 0.275 1.873 further calculation reveals that the indirect effect size of psychological resilience is β = -0.188 (βa = -0.683, βb = 0.275). as shown in table 6, combining the direct effect (β = -0.231) and the indirect effect (β = -0.188) yields a total effect size of -0.419. finally, based on the proportion of effects calculation, the mediating path through hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 91 published by ideas spread psychological resilience accounts for 44.83% of the total influence of employment pressure on career decisionmaking. table 6. mediating effect sizes and proportions effect effect size proportion total effect -0.419 100% direct effect -0.231 55.17% mediating effect -0.188 44.83% 5. conclusion this study examined the relationship between employment pressure and career decision-making ability, as well as the mediating role of psychological resilience. the results show that employment pressure significantly and negatively predicts both career decision-making ability and psychological resilience, while psychological resilience significantly and positively influences career decision-making. employment pressure significantly and negatively predicts career decision-making ability, consistent with the findings of ma xuhong & gao xinghui (2025) [63] and liu hongxia & ye juan (2023) [58]. specifically, the higher the level of employment pressure perceived by university students, the lower their level of career decisionmaking ability. this may be because undergraduates are currently in a context of high graduate unemployment and low job availability, generally lacking sufficient social experience and internships, while at the same time being eager to become independent from their parents and desperately seeking a job that can sustain them. consequently, they focus more on immediate survival needs than on long-term career development or personal interests, leading to short-sighted career decisions. this phenomenon is even more pronounced among students from local (non-elite) universities, who often face intense competition with graduates from key universities and endure additional social pressure regarding their institution’s ranking, academic background, and perceived personal competence. these comparative pressures further intensify their employment stress and erode selfconfidence, blurring their self-perception of ability. thoughts such as “good job opportunities have nothing to do with me” emerge, prompting them to withdraw from competition voluntarily, weakening the initiative in career decision-making and further lowering their career decision-making ability. employment pressure also significantly and negatively predicts psychological resilience. as employment pressure rises, individual psychological resilience tends to decline, a result consistent with previous research (qi qiqin, 2023) [31]. in a high employment-pressure environment, new graduates frequently encounter job-search setbacks; negative emotional experiences accumulate beyond the normal psychological tolerance range, fostering thoughts such as “effort is useless.” prolonged negativity gradually consumes self-efficacy, and numerous studies have found a significant positive correlation between self-efficacy and psychological resilience (wang guanzhong & wu guanghong, 2025) [64]; yuan jingle, 2019) [65]. therefore, when facing employment pressure, university students’ psychological resilience declines along with their self-efficacy. meanwhile, the results indicate that psychological resilience significantly and positively affects career decisionmaking ability. its sub-factors—individual emotional regulation, future positive orientation, and interest diversity—all exert significant positive effects, with emotional regulation exerting the relatively strongest influence. individuals with higher psychological resilience can make career decisions more rationally and effectively under employment pressure. they possess stronger emotional-regulation skills, a more positive future orientation, and broader interests, which reduce the impact of employment pressure and lead to more effective decisions. because job hunting is inherently uncertain and rejection-prone, it easily triggers anxiety, frustration, and self-doubt. when failure occurs, emotional-regulation ability helps individuals recover from negative emotions more quickly, maintaining initiative and motivation to seek new opportunities. successfully coping with failure through emotional regulation also strengthens confidence in one’s own career decision-making ability. by contrast, future positive orientation mainly provides hope, and interest diversity expands the range of career choices; both are helpful but less direct and immediate than emotional regulation. in the mediation test, the effect of employment pressure on career decision-making was reduced after psychological resilience was introduced (β = –0.419 → β = –0.231), indicating partial mediation. this shows that enhancing psychological resilience can still buffer the impact of employment pressure, reducing avoidance and impulsiveness in career decision-making. however, as an internal psychological resource, psychological resilience hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 92 published by ideas spread is itself eroded by increasing employment pressure. therefore, reducing employment pressure remains an important prerequisite for psychological resilience to function stably. based on the above findings, this study proposes recommendations from three perspectives: students, teaching faculty, and university support. at the student level, undergraduates should take the initiative to participate in short-term internships, volunteer services, project practices, and other activities to accumulate varied experiential capital. through direct exposure to future occupations they can identify vocational interests and strengths, form a clear and positive future orientation, enhance confidence in their future careers, raise their psychological resilience, and promote sound career decisions. concurrently, students should actively learn and apply tools such as swot analysis to conduct comprehensive and objective self-assessments, clarifying their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats within the current employment context. by aligning abilities and interests with opportunities, they can determine career directions, proactively confront challenges, compensate for weaknesses through skill acquisition or further study, and adopt a positive mindset toward employment pressure, thereby reducing impulsive decisions driven by anxiety, low self-confidence, or confusion. at the teaching level, instructors should build high-quality career-guidance courses. course design should integrate typical employment problems relevant to different majors, using case analysis, scenario simulation, reflective learning, and other diversified pedagogies. teachers should also teach practical methods and techniques to cultivate psychological resilience, allowing students to experience employment pressure in class, guiding them to reflect on, summarize, and practice coping strategies, maintain an optimistic attitude, improve emotionalregulation skills, and ultimately enhance psychological resilience and make reasonable career decisions. at the university-support level, institutions can invite outstanding alumni who have followed diverse career paths to give talks or panel discussions, sharing employment experiences and career challenges to provide students with a fuller spectrum of vocational possibilities. alumni who have overcome employment adversity are especially valuable, offering relatable role models and boosting students’ confidence in facing future career dilemmas. in addition, universities should respond to national calls by strengthening industry–education integration and university–enterprise cooperation, establishing training bases that supply more practicum opportunities, enabling students to accumulate real-work experience, enhance psychological resilience, and refine career decision-making. by constructing a three-factor model of employment pressure, psychological resilience, and career decisionmaking, this study verifies the influence pathways among them, quantifies the mediating mechanism of psychological resilience, highlights its value in the career decision-making process of local-university students, and provides three directions—emotional regulation, future positive orientation, and interest diversity—for cultivating psychological resilience, thereby enriching the theoretical basis of career-development research for local-university students. however, the study has limitations such as a single-region sample: all respondents came from one university, which may limit generalizability across regions and institutional tiers. future research should expand sample size and include local universities of different regions and levels to enhance external validity. the study also relies solely on questionnaires; 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(2019). research on the relationship among self-efficacy, psychological resilience and social adaptability of nursing higher-vocational students [master's thesis, shenzhen university]. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n5p55 55 published by ideas spread a research on the online expression practices of college students under the background of new media empowerment: taking the college campus wall on wechat as an example meihua cheng1 & ziqing liao1 1 school of publishing, university of shanghai for science and technology, china correspondence: meihua cheng, school of publishing, university of shanghai for science and technology. email: lhhl129@163.com received: august 4, 2025; accepted: september 18, 2025; published: september 19, 2025 abstract new media empowerment has enhanced college students' self-awareness and endowed them with more discursive power. they can utilize new media to express themselves and speak freely. however, in real situations, this is not necessarily the case. when engaging in online expression, college students also encounter numerous obstacles. this has caused them to gradually transition from "active expression" at the beginning to "silent screen-watching", thus plunging into a deeper sense of loss and solitude. meanwhile, they have explored a series of self-regulation methods and have not abandoned their efforts to resist. nevertheless, merely relying on these measures is insufficient if we hope to help restore the gradually weakening voices of college students in online expression. it requires the combined efforts of various parties, including individuals' courage to face challenges, the guidance of online communities, and the regulation of the government. only in this way can we maintain the harmony and stability of the online expression environment and truly enable college students to fully showcase themselves and express bravely in the tide of new media empowerment. keywords: new media empowerment, online expression, online violence, the undergraduate population 1. introduction in an era where new media technologies are reshaping the communication landscape, individuals are granted greater autonomy in interpreting information and are provided with platforms and spaces to exercise their selfdetermination. this has led to an active engagement in online expression. from the era of universal blogging to the visual extravaganza of the short-video era, successive technological advancements have continuously lowered the barriers to communication, transforming the metaphor of "everyone has a microphone" into a tangible reality. among the diverse groups participating in online expression, college students, as "digital natives," have had their self-awareness significantly awakened by new media. they exhibit a strong eagerness and willingness to freely articulate their viewpoints, publicly voice their demands, and unreservedly express their emotions online, thereby emerging as a prominent presence in the digital realm. however, a paradoxical phenomenon has emerged in recent times: college students seemingly demonstrate a decreasing inclination to express themselves online. their voices are gradually fading into obscurity, presenting a real-world challenge to the optimistic narrative of new media empowerment. against this backdrop, this paper aims to conduct an in-depth observation and analysis of this phenomenon, using the university wechat campus wall as a case study. the study will explore the motivations, real-world manifestations, underlying obstacles, and potential solutions regarding college students' online expression within the context of new media empowerment. by putting forward corresponding recommendations and considerations, this research endeavors to comprehensively understand the characteristics of contemporary college students' online expression practices and to decipher the intricate psychological and emotional mechanisms that underlie them. such insights are of crucial importance for fostering a harmonious and stable online communication environment. 2. literature review 2.1 the subjectivity of the audience and empowerment of new media the concept of subjectivity has its roots in the realm of philosophy, which pertains to the value and significance of an individual's existence. it is manifested as an individual's self awareness characterized by freedom and self hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 56 published by ideas spread discipline. the definition of subjectivity has a long standing history. from descartes' "cogito, ergo sum" (2000) [1] to hegel's "substance is subject" (1979) [2], and further to marx's "the activity of sensuous man" (1995) [3], humanity has been continuously exploring and debating the issue of human subjectivity. although human subjectivity represents an inherent dynamic attribute of the individual, its realization is contingent upon discursive expression and social interaction. the introduction of the concept of subjectivity into the field of communication thus facilitates a more accurate understanding and grasp of the psychological and behavioral characteristics of the audience. literally, the terms "audience" and "subjectivity" might seem like a pair of contradictory concepts. historically, constrained by the functional limitations of mass communication, there has been an overemphasis on the passive role of the audience as mere recipients, overlooking their potential to act as active communicators, demonstrating agency and initiative (2019) [4]. with the development of new communication technologies, an increasing number of scholars have started to focus on the subjective nature of the audience. as negroponte noted in being digital, "the once called mass media are evolving into personalized two way communication. information is no longer 'pushed' to consumers; rather, people will 'pull' the information they desire and engage in information creation" (2007) [5]. the emergence of the new media communication context has significantly enhanced the subjectivity of the audience. everyone can now become a disseminator of online information, enjoy the freedom to select online content, and critique it, which epitomizes a form of "empowerment". empowerment (also referred to as "capacity building" or "enabling") is one of the classic theoretical frameworks in the social sciences. originating in the united states during the 1970s, barbara solomon first introduced the concept of empowerment based on her research on racial discrimination. she defined it as a process of "assisting socially disadvantaged groups in countering unfair treatment and enhancing their rights and capabilities" (1976) [6]. different from traditional notions, new media empowerment stimulates individual potential on a broader scale. new media empowerment can be defined as "the relatively stronger social activity capabilities bestowed upon social members during the rapid ascent of new media. relying on various new media platforms, individuals' autonomous rights across various domains of social life are further expanded" (2016) [7]. through the use of new media, individuals can activate their rights consciousness and develop the ability to consciously leverage new media technologies to expand the exercise of their rights, thereby improving their own circumstances in new media practices (2019) [8], and fully showcasing the subjectivity of the audience.technologically, the advancements in new media technology have significantly lowered the barriers for individuals to access and utilize the internet. people are no longer dependent on mass media to express themselves independently. the application of technology accentuates and reinforces the empowerment function in users' interactive behaviors such as "selection", "dissemination", and "creation", rendering the entire empowerment process more tangible. socially, new media has maximally mobilized individuals and their relational resource networks, fundamentally altering the power dynamics and rules of the game (2024) [9]. new media provides the audience with power elements such as resources, participation platforms, and discursive spaces, thereby establishing a communication environment conducive to the realization of power. more significantly, new media empowerment implies that the audience, who were previously in a disadvantaged position in the communication landscape, can deconstruct and transform existing power relations through participation, expression, and action, thus promoting a more equitable and just distribution of communication power. in particular, in the context of participation, expression, and action, new media empowerment has effectively transformed "communication for the weak" into "communication by the weak". 2.2 public engagement and online expression currently, the cyberspace shaped by the profound development of information technology is not merely a digital information flowing space in a technical sense but also a cultural interaction space (2018) [10]. cyberspace has extended the public space both in time and space, thereby creating a new arena for public participation. in particular, the development of new media technologies has provided ample space and freedom for online expression behaviors, facilitating the online public participation of the audience and even enabling ordinary users to emerge as significant forces in certain public events or activities. consequently, scholars' research on the topic of online expression initially revolves around the perspective of public participation. scholars first noted the positive impact of online expression on public participation. for instance, in feminist movements and during the covid 19 pandemic, the enthusiasm and influence of netizens' expressions were evident. they posited that online expression can better serve public participation, thus emphasizing the importance of safeguarding the freedom of online expression. however, upon further investigation, scholars also began to recognize that phenomena such as information monopolies, asymmetries in discursive capabilities, and digital capitalism within cyberspace are continuously creating new power divides, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 57 published by ideas spread giving rise to anti public elements and contributing to the real world paradox of public participation in cyberspace (2022) [11]. through these studies, scholars have critically examined the online expression environment and the freedom of online expression. furthermore, it is of great significance to expand to more micro level research perspectives starting from the macro perspective of public participation. research in this area can be broadly categorized into three directions: analyzing the characteristics of online expression, exploring the influencing factors of online expression, and investigating the guiding mechanisms of online expression. regarding the analysis of the characteristics of online expression, some scholars argue that the online discourse expression patterns of contemporary youth are more distinguishable, bearing distinct group characteristics. their expressions are characterized by rich emotional undertones, prominent symbolic representations, and unique growth contexts (2022) [12]. other scholars, through the study of the "fan circle" phenomenon, have found that fan groups perceive online expression as more authentic and liberating compared to real world expressions. however, it is also more confrontational and filled with animosity (2024) [13]. some scholars have pointed out that negative interpretations and extreme language seem to have become common in college students' online lives. moreover, they lack a clear understanding of the impact of their online words and actions on others, as well as the extent and duration of such impacts, which may potentially lead to extreme cases of cyberbullying (2022) [14]. in exploring the influencing factors of online expression, some scholars, drawing on the spiral of silence theory, have discovered that in different dimensions reflecting the "perception of the opinion climate," discrepancies with the opinions of mainstream media and parental views have a significant positive influence on college students' online opinion expressions (2014) [15]. additionally, some scholars have found that college students' online opinion expressions are significantly influenced by social capital. specifically, the higher the bridging social capital, the stronger the inclination of college students to publicly express their opinions online; conversely, the higher the bonding social capital, the weaker this inclination (2014) [16]. in the exploration of the guiding mechanisms of online expression, scholars assert that in the face of the objective reality of college students expressing their opinions through diverse online media, it is essential to establish a corresponding guiding mechanism for college students' online opinion expressions to effectively manage such expressions (2017) [17]. some scholars have also directed their attention to the governance of college students' cyber violent activities. they emphasize the need for all parties to collaborate and implement a series of measures for educational guidance, effectively harnessing the positive aspects of online expression and minimizing the impact of online hostility and violent incidents on college students (2019) [18]. overall, young people, especially college students, as the primary users of internet platforms, show a relatively high level of concern for online expression, making them a highly representative subject of research. nevertheless, previous studies have certain limitations. firstly, when examining college students' online expression behaviors, scholars tend to focus on the seemingly increasingly prominent negative aspects on the surface, while paying insufficient attention to other multi dimensional expressions underlying these behaviors. secondly, regarding the phenomenon of cyber violence, research often concentrates on the characteristics and governance of cyber violence with college students as the perpetrators, while overlooking the psychological responses of college students as the victims. therefore, this study aims to fill these research gaps. by addressing the following three research questions, it endeavors to expand the scope of research on college students' online expression, thereby facilitating a more comprehensive and detailed understanding and grasp of contemporary college students' online expression behaviors: what are the actual manifestations and motivations of college students' online expression in the context of new media empowerment? what are the obstacles to college students' online expression under the backdrop of new media empowerment? how do college students adapt and resist in the face of these obstacles to online expression? 3. research design this research adopts the methods of semi structured interviews and questionnaire surveys to explore the online expression practices of contemporary college students within the context of new media empowerment. in terms of subject selection, this study initially focuses on the college student population. there are two main reasons for this. firstly, college students constitute a substantial and significant group of internet users, and they are also an actively expressive group empowered by new media. secondly, the college stage is a crucial period hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 58 published by ideas spread during which young people gradually establish their worldviews, values, and life outlooks. thus, investigating and analyzing the online expression practices of college students holds substantial practical significance for guiding them to form correct perspectives in these aspects. furthermore, this study further specifies the research subjects as the wechat campus wall communities of college students. wechat is the most commonly used social media platform among college students. the campus walls, independently created by college students on wechat, have emerged as a distinctive new media landscape on university campuses. beyond the regular dissemination of student submissions and the provision of services such as aggregating, integrating, and publishing information related to help requests and consultations for on campus students, the process of information dissemination on the campus walls connects a greater number of college students with shared areas of interest. they engage in enthusiastic discussions and exchanges in the comment sections, transforming the campus walls into a common forum style new media gathering venue for college students. consequently, the wechat campus wall communities of college students vividly represent the online expression practices of this demographic. operationally, this research combines convenience sampling and purposive sampling techniques to recruit users of wechat college campus wall communities for interviews. regarding the inclusion criteria for respondents, all participants are required to be current undergraduate or postgraduate students, and they must also have relevant experiences within these communities, such as personally submitting posts, spending time browsing submissions, posting comments, and responding to others' comments. eventually, 27 eligible respondents were selected for semi structured interviews. this study distributes questionnaires through a combination of offline and online approaches. offline component: from september to october 2024, in public spaces such as libraries, teaching buildings, and cafeterias of shanghai based universities, a stratified random sampling method was employed. eligible students were invited on site to complete paper based questionnaires. online component: questionnaires were disseminated via official accounts of college campus walls, as well as platforms like xiaohongshu and weibo. during the questionnaire screening phase, all respondents were required to recall their specific experiences of using the wechat college campus wall within the past year. respondents who did not meet the usage criteria or were unable to articulate specific usage scenarios were excluded. in total, 300 questionnaires were retrieved. after a rigorous validity screening process, 273 valid samples were retained. these samples encompass undergraduates (accounting for 65%) and postgraduates (accounting for 45%). figure 1. word cloud of associated vocabulary related to "online expression" hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 59 published by ideas spread 4. from active expression to silent "screen peeping": dual facets of a wall under the anonymous mechanism in the questionnaire survey, each participant filled out three associative words related to "online expression". after excluding invalid responses such as popular internet catchphrases and personal names, and consolidating duplicate responses, a total of 331 associative words were ultimately obtained. the words with relatively high frequency among them were selected to create a word cloud, as shown in the figure below (figure 1). among these words, "keyboard warrior" had the highest frequency. the proportion of related terms such as "troll" and "jumping on the bandwagon" was also substantial. meanwhile, positive terms like "freedom" and "diversity" also emerged. moreover, there were instances where antonyms like "open" and "not open" appeared concurrently. from this, it can be inferred that for college students, the current online expression environment exhibits an obvious "dual sided" characteristic. based on rogers' innovation diffusion theory, the empowerment of new media can be conceptualized as a communication process. at different stages of this communication process, diverse individuals assume distinct roles and exert varying influences. these individuals encompass "innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards"(2002) [19]. among them, the college student group undoubtedly serves as early adopters and facilitators of new media technologies and services. they not only reap the benefits of new media empowerment but also expedite its advancement. the development of new media extends beyond mere superficial technological innovation; it also propels the awakening of people's self-awareness, brings about transformations in interpersonal relationships, and enhances discourse power. all these factors exert a profound impact on people's self-expression and identity formation, particularly so for college students who are avid users of new media. firstly, new media empowerment enables college students to engage in more proactive self-expression. in reallife settings, college students are burdened with the responsibilities and obligations inherent in their real identities, as well as the expectations of others. they are constrained by social roles, class identities, gender norms, and other identity attributes. for example, the identity of a postgraduate, on one hand, implies the status of being a student. on the other hand, in traditional perceptions, society attaches numerous value judgments to this identity, integrating qualities such as "erudition" and "excellence in both character and academic performance" into its connotation. although these appraisals are laudatory, to a certain extent, they resemble restrictive barriers, imposing a palpable sense of "burden" on college students. new media, however, constructs a novel social context. for instance, on the campus wall, there exists a type of contribution known as the "self-promotion post". as the name suggests, it allows individuals to showcase themselves, whether it be their appearance, singing prowess, dancing skills, etc. for college students, this provides an opportunity to shed the various pretenses of reality and break free from the shackles of identity, enabling them to pursue and mold a new, idealized, and flawless version of the "self"(1993) [20]. "getting more attention and recognition on the campus wall than in reality, and it's easier to make new friends. i'm not very bold to show myself in reality, but i'm more relaxed on the wall." (interviewee 2) secondly, new media empowerment facilitates college students' creative and reconstructive expression. through the empowerment of new media, individuals can promptly access information and voice their opinions. these expressions, disseminated through new media channels, converge and may even give rise to online public opinions with far-reaching social implications. for example, the occurrence of numerous public events on the internet is a direct outcome of the influence of new media empowerment on the audience's expression practices. college students are no exception. new media offers college students a plethora of channels for social engagement. bolstered by new media empowerment, college students can attain identity experiences that are either unattainable or challenging to acquire in real life. they exhibit a greater eagerness to participate in social affairs through various new media platforms such as forums, weibo, and wechat, expressing their viewpoints and fulfilling their aspiration to highlight a new group identity and reconstruct a new sense of identity. "for some hot topics, i can see many people actively submitting posts and enthusiastically joining discussions in the comment section. i think this reflects college students' sense of responsibility towards society." (interviewee 22) consequently, through the interaction on the wechat campus wall, college students can, on one hand, actively infuse boundless imagination into online virtual interactions, thereby obtaining understanding, recognition, and emotional compensation that are elusive in real-life interactions. on the other hand, the wechat campus wall has evolved into a platform where college students can showcase and construct their identities. in group interactions, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 60 published by ideas spread they gain novel identity experiences, shape and reconstruct new identity perceptions, and create unique online expression forms exclusive to the college student community. it should be noted, however, that these are predicated on the "anonymous mechanism" of the campus wall. "all comments are made in the name of the campus wall, so it's very 'safe'." (interviewee 10) the "anonymous mechanism" implies that when individuals enter the digital realm, they can ostensibly emancipate themselves from the so-called "physical constraints"(2019) [21]. as a result, within the virtual space forged by new media, people subconsciously perceive a dissociation between the consequences of their actions and their real-world selves, thereby experiencing a sense of liberation from the burden of responsibility(2016) [22]. this, in turn, provides college students with enhanced psychological security. when the fear stemming from reality diminishes, they become more emboldened to showcase diverse aspects of themselves, express their values and stances, and even articulate their views on sensitive issues with composure. nevertheless, this has led to a situation where the campus wall, despite fostering a vibrant and enthusiastic community atmosphere, has also witnessed the emergence of numerous inappropriate behaviors and even chaos. under the psychological influence of the new media anonymous mechanism, while individuals become more audacious in revealing their true emotions, it also implies a higher likelihood of losing control over excessive emotions. this results in a decline in the ability and motivation to regulate one's own behavior, thereby triggering malicious expressions and aggressive behaviors that are relatively rare in the real world. consequently, under the empowerment effect of the new media anonymous mechanism, the campus wall not only exhibits a characteristic of free expression of opinions but also further manifests a diversity of expression styles. some college students opt to freely vent their emotions, while others tend to maintain rational discourse. a significant number of interviewees indicate that they choose to "lurk without commenting", thus giving rise to the unique expression style of "screen-watching". "if i post something and get a backlash, it will really affect my mood. of course, i'm afraid of being scolded. to be on the safe side, it's better not to say anything." (interviewee 3) silent "screen-watching" is a consequence of cyberbullying. when expressing their opinions, individuals tend to observe the prevailing opinion climate. if they perceive their views as belonging to the minority, they often choose to remain silent to avoid isolation(2013) [23]. this ultimately gives rise to a scenario where "one side voices its opinions vociferously while the other side remains silent", thereby forming the "spiral of silence". in real life, silence is manifested as refraining from speaking, while in the online context, it takes the form of "screenwatching". when the vocal side exhibits certain extreme biases, this phenomenon of "daring to be indignant but not daring to speak out" further underscores the underlying violent behavior. this is because individuals must consider the potential consequences of not choosing to remain silent, such as being subjected to "human flesh search", "social ostracism", or even the extension of online condemnation to the offline realm, which may escalate into real-world violence. 5. from "pseudo-solidarity for mutual support" to "collective solitude": barriers to college students' online expression 5.1 spurious "solidarity for mutual succor" ulrich beck, a german sociologist, posited that with the progression of science and technology and the impetus of industrialization, humanity has transitioned into a novel risk society. the past life experiences, technological instruments, and institutional frameworks are no longer adequate for us to forestall, evade, and address the perils of novel social risks. contemporary individuals are, in essence, "dwelling on the volcano of civilization. (2004) [24]" for the college student demographic, in the current risk society, they are burdened with pressures emanating from multiple fronts, including academic pursuits, career prospects, interpersonal dynamics, intense competition, and future decision-making. the omnipresent sense of insecurity and uncertainty pervades their lives, compelling them to seek outlets to extricate themselves from the weight of reality. new media has cultivated an expression environment that is thoroughly open, emotionally charged, and fragmented. here, social needs that remain unfulfilled and unacknowledged in real life can be explored within the digital realm. "on the campus wall, i can say things that i want to say but can't in real life. if i don't get along well with my roommates, i can anonymously tease them online. i can't really go to their faces and scold them. also, when i see someone on the wall posting a picture of someone going to the cafeteria in slippers (without showing their face) hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 61 published by ideas spread and saying such people are disgusting, i strongly agreed in the comment section. but in real life, i can't go to their faces and point my finger at them and scold them." (interviewee 19) grounding in the anonymity mechanism, the campus wall serves as a platform that facilitates the transformation of real-life reticence into online condemnation. it has evolved into a forum-like congregation point. through a diverse array of posts, college students can identify kindred spirits who share their perspectives. by expressing unanimous comments, they can forge a cohesive group and amplify their collective voice to safeguard the group's interests. in the physical world, social bonds are typically forged through geographical proximity and kinship. in the digital landscape, however, shared interests emerge as the primary cohesive force. within this process, not only do the hitherto silent individuals find emotional catharsis, but those who join the chorus also experience a sense of solace reminiscent of "finding comfort in unity." interest-based communities formed around hobbies, or online spheres shaped by shared values, emotional aspirations, and cultural experiences, endow college students with a distinct sense of belonging and kindle anticipations for positive emotional encounters. 5.2 the intrinsic "collective solitude" however, the emotional experiences derived from these interest based groups or online communities do not necessarily align with the expectations of college students. "self contained indulgence" does not necessarily equate to "non confrontational isolation"; instead, it often leads to a more pronounced form of "self isolation". firstly, as members of a community, individuals tend to prioritize receiving and internalizing the voices within their own community, thereby creating an "echo chamber" effect. in such an environment, individuals are inclined to conform their viewpoints to those of the group. this, in turn, often results in a dearth of diverse perspectives within the group, hindering the ability to conduct objective and unbiased analyses. secondly, when information acquisition is predominantly guided by personal interests and needs, individuals are likely to become entrapped in an "information cocoon". inhabiting an information cocoon, individuals experience a reduction in opportunities for interaction with the external world and a gradual erosion of the inclination to engage in such exchanges. consequently, the characteristics of homogeneity within the group and heterogeneity between groups become increasingly pronounced. driven by this "internet balkanization" phenomenon, group members are more prone to conflicts of varying magnitudes with diverse value systems. subsequently, the continuous repetition of homogeneous opinions leads to a narrowing of the group's perspective. in an attempt to gain group acceptance, members may develop extreme ideologies or even exhibit extreme exclusionary behaviors, thereby contributing to group polarization and potentially escalating into cyberbullying. moreover, the emotionally charged nature of group behavior further exacerbates aggressive tendencies. the campus wall serves as a sort of "public stage". contemporary college students typically possess a strong sense of self awareness and a pronounced drive for self actualization. they initially aim to achieve a certain degree of "self presentation" through active participation in contributions and discussions on the campus wall, seeking validation from the group. however, they frequently encounter issues such as excessive nitpicking, over interpretation, unwarranted moralizing, and hasty judgment in the comment sections of the campus wall. even sincere attempts at clarification and explanation are often misconstrued as evasive maneuvers or deliberate misinformation, attracting even more virulent negativity. as a result, contrary to their initial aspirations, they are compelled to acknowledge that "finding solace in unity" is merely an illusory perception. in reality, they are ensnared in a deeper sense of isolation. despite the belief that the internet provides a platform for expressing genuine emotions, they find that few are willing to listen or offer support. instead, they are inundated with unbridled emotional outbursts and a lack of regard for others' feelings. this realization intensifies their sense of disappointment and isolation, highlighting the existence of an insurmountable emotional divide. following the fleeting excitement of this "pseudo unity for comfort", they are, in fact, thrust into a state of deeper emptiness and isolation. the online communities established through the internet fail to foster the kind of intimate connections they once yearned for. as turkle aptly noted, "online social interaction is, at its core, a form of superficial socialization, offering primarily fragmented and tenuous connections. when we become overly reliant on this form of interaction, we gradually drift away from the rich and complex relationships in the real world, giving rise to a novel form of isolation. (2014) [25]" hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 62 published by ideas spread 6. from overt demonstration to covert reversion: the self regulation and struggle of college students' online expression 6.1 shift the expressive manner and conduct spontaneous self – presentation when faced with obstacles in the process of expression, college students instinctively opt to shift to alternative forms of expression. the campus wall does not monopolize the means of expressing campus life experiences (interviewee 27). instead, numerous alternative avenues exist for students to pursue emotional experiences that elude them within their immediate social circles. the exponential growth of artificial intelligence (ai) technology has transcended the conventional relationship between humans and tools. an increasing number of college students now engage with ai on levels that encompass emotional support, social companionship, and even emotional fulfillment(2024) [26]. "open the ai software, input a specific 'personality', and you can generate the lover you want. it's very interesting. there are even dedicated ai boyfriend/girlfriend apps." (interviewee 16) the sense of isolation experienced by college students during online expression endeavors triggers an innate desire for companionship. while the emotional connections forged within online communities may fall short of expectations, the virtual companionship offered by "cyber lovers" provides a seemingly "perfect" and "reliable" emotional outlet. this form of interaction not only offers a channel for emotional release but also mitigates feelings of emptiness among students. the transition to different modes of expression serves as a mechanism for emotional regulation and self adjustment. it enables students to process negative emotions and may foster self reflection and personal growth. simultaneously, online platforms serve as mediums for self presentation, a phenomenon deeply ingrained in college students' enthusiasm for online expression. the digital landscape extends beyond a single "front stage"; when one platform proves inadequate, numerous others are available for continued self expression. among these, the moments feature on social media platforms has emerged as a prime "showcase" for self presentation. in contrast to other public platforms, moments offers college students enhanced visibility and agency in their pursuit of an ideal self image. through the strategic use of text, images, and videos, students effectively curate and present themselves to their social network. "i like to use moments as a 'message board'. after all, moments is for friends to see, they can understand your views. even if they have different opinions, the communication is very gentle." (interviewee 23) "moments carries the part of me that wants to be seen and remembered by others. on the one hand, i can get likes and comments from everyone, and on the other hand, i enjoy it myself." (interviewee 12) as a pivotal avenue for self expression, moments offers college students a means to secure positive emotional support, alleviate anxiety associated with external criticism, and construct an idealized self image. these outcomes align with students' aspirations for positive engagement in the digital realm(2025) [27]. beyond digital platforms, participation in events such as concerts and music festivals provides another avenue for self expression. activities such as vigorously waving glow sticks, swaying in rhythm with the crowd, and cheering unabashedly facilitate the release of stress and the redirection of negative emotions. these forms of self expression enable students to reframe negative experiences as transient or external, thereby fostering resilience in the face of adversity. by reclaiming a sense of joy and control, students cultivate a positive mindset, empowering them to confront challenges with optimism and hope. this process not only bolsters their confidence but also reinforces a proactive approach to navigating life's complexities. 6.2 seek "nostalgic" experiences and resort to invisible expression for college students, the anticipation that new media platforms would offer superior avenues for expression has regrettably not been fulfilled. the sentiment expressed as "one single statement leading to a lifelong sense of introversion" reflects their profound disappointment, not merely with the platforms themselves but with the entire new media technological landscape. this disillusionment has given rise to a strong undercurrent of nostalgia, compelling them to yearn for a return to a past replete with cherished experiences. "i would invite my roommates to visit the botanical garden or go hiking. since i lived in the countryside when i was a child, whenever i feel depressed, i want to return to the carefree childhood and embrace nature." (interviewee 26) nostalgia, as an emotional construct, has permeated modern society, serving as a coping mechanism in the face of contemporary challenges. when confronted with the complexities of the present, individuals often find solace in hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 63 published by ideas spread the memories and longings associated with the past(2025) [28]. through engaging in nostalgic behaviors, they seek to evoke emotional resonances, rekindling a sense of inner peace and well being. in the context of college students' online expression experiences, the obstacles encountered have triggered a profound sense of nostalgia, prompting them to delve into their pasts in search of spiritual sustenance. this nostalgic inclination not only aids in navigating present difficulties but also functions as a psychological therapeutic mechanism, offering a relatively gentle means of seeking solace. if self regulation can be construed as a mild form of self healing in response to the challenges of online expression, then resistance in the face of injustice assumes an equally important role. intriguingly, college students' resistance to the barriers of online expression often takes on a covert nature. "+1", "same", when one wants to express an opinion but has some concerns, they can say this. you can see many people following this pattern in the comment section, but when they come together, they still seem quite powerful. (interviewee 24) caught in a dichotomy between the yearning for unbridled expression and the imperative to safeguard their identities from the perils of online violence, college students don the metaphorical "cloak of invisibility." this seemingly paradoxical behavior, while reflecting the internal conflict within their psyche, represents a pragmatic strategy for navigating the treacherous waters of the digital realm. it serves as a potent weapon in their arsenal against online violence, enabling them to extricate themselves from the shackles of online expression dilemmas. through this form of resistance, they are able to draw upon the strength necessary to confront the realities of the present and embrace the uncertainties of the future, a pursuit far more substantial and impactful than succumbing to escapist fantasies. 7. conclusion the empowerment of new media has emerged as a prevalent social phenomenon, with its manifestation among college students being particularly notable. endowed with a relatively high level of knowledge, active intellectual faculties, and a keen sensitivity to new phenomena, college students have emerged as a highly dynamic group in online expression within the digital realm. nonetheless, an issue that demands our attention is that despite having the means to voice their opinions in the online space, the voices of college students are growing increasingly subdued. their presence in online discourse is gradually fading, a trend that not only hinders the positive development of college students within the digital sphere but also undermines the creation of a healthy, harmonious, and vibrant online ecosystem. to effectively address this concern and assist college students in reclaiming their rightful influence in online communication, it is essential to mobilize the efforts of multiple stakeholders. by fostering a collaborative approach, we can generate a powerful, concerted force. this comprehensive endeavor should involve constructing a multi-dimensional support framework that addresses the various aspects of this complex issue. 7.1 the self shaping of college students: realizing the metamorphosis of self growth from the perspective of college students themselves, the crucial aspect lies in actively confronting challenges and attaining self growth. as a significant demographic in the realm of online expression, college students inherently exhibit positive attributes and a vibrant, forward looking demeanor. when confronted with impediments in online expression, such as cyber violence, the neglect or misinterpretation of their viewpoints, college students should eschew a passive and evasive stance. instead, they should proactively engage in self regulation, seeking appropriate channels to alleviate feelings of isolation and stress. acknowledging difficulties is fundamental to circumventing a self defeating cycle of self negation. only by adopting a positive mindset can they confront these challenges with greater courage and resolve, refusing to yield to adversity. furthermore, college students should perceive these challenges as invaluable opportunities for personal development. by consistently reflecting on their experiences and refining their communication skills, they can navigate the landscape of online expression with enhanced confidence and poise, articulating their perspectives in a more sophisticated and assertive manner. 7.2 community guidance: fostering an inclusive environment for expression online communities, serving as a pivotal arena for college students' online expression, bear the weighty responsibility of cultivating a conducive environment for such expression. on one hand, it is imperative to steadfastly uphold and propagate positive values while actively steering the discourse towards harmonious discussions. online communities can offer a diverse array of communication hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 64 published by ideas spread platforms for college students. this can be achieved through initiatives such as organizing distinctive cultural events and establishing dedicated community forums, which not only enhance the management and standardization of group members but also encourage multifaceted expressions. by respecting diverse viewpoints, these communities can mitigate the emergence of confrontational sentiments and guide members to engage in rational deliberations. through the formulation of explicit community guidelines and the appointment of discussion moderators, the likelihood of extreme or exclusive inclinations can be minimized. this, in turn, fosters an open and inclusive discussion climate, invigorates the group's vitality, and emboldens college students to express themselves with confidence and enthusiasm within a positive and salubrious milieu. on the other hand, meticulous attention should be paid to optimizing the micro-level design to forestall the advent of cyberbullying. online community platforms should leverage cutting-edge algorithmic technologies to enhance the vetting of group members and the screening of content. the establishment of a scientific content assessment framework enables the timely identification and handling of information that may precipitate cyberbullying. strengthening the platform's anti-cyberbullying functionality, such as implementing a rapid reporting mechanism and issuing alerts for sensitive terms, can effectively disrupt the dissemination of cyberbullying. additionally, the provision of personalized post-cyberbullying counseling mechanisms, offering psychological support and legal assistance to affected college students, along with the refinement of private messaging privacy features to safeguard users' personal information, collectively contribute to creating a secure and nurturing online expression environment for college students. 7.3 led by the government: standardizing the ecosystem of online expression the government assumes a leading role in internet governance. firstly, it is essential to continuously strengthen internet information legislation and govern the internet in accordance with the law. although china has promulgated a series of internet-related laws and regulations, there remains a dearth of high-level specialized legislation targeting cyber violence. the complexity and perniciousness of cyber violence have become increasingly evident, and the existing legal framework falls short in meeting the practical governance requirements in certain aspects. consequently, efforts should be expedited to refine relevant laws and regulations for preventing and addressing cyber violence. this involves clearly defining the concept of cyber violence, establishing identification criteria, and prescribing punitive measures. by promoting multi-faceted comprehensive governance, integrating legal, administrative, and technological means, the internet ecosystem can be enhanced, offering a robust legal safeguard for college students' online expression. this ensures that the right to express in the digital realm is effectively protected by law for college students. secondly, there is a need to systematically promote the real-name system for some users at the front end, thereby standardizing their online expression behaviors. the anonymity mechanism prevalent in the digital space has, to a certain extent, contributed to the proliferation of irrational online expressions and cyber violence. although china has implemented an internet real-name system where real names are voluntary at the front end but mandatory at the back end, its regulatory impact on the vast majority of netizens remains limited. appropriate real-name promotion strategies can be formulated based on the unique characteristics of different online communities and user demographics. in collaboration with public security departments, the real-name system at the front end can be gradually rolled out. this system serves as a deterrent to online users, making them aware that engaging in cyber violence will incur real-world sanctions. as a result, users will be more likely to self-regulate their actions, reducing the occurrence of irrational online expressions and fostering a more civilized and orderly online environment for college students. thirdly, emphasis should be placed on education and guidance to cultivate the self-awareness of the online community. on one hand, through diverse channels such as school education, community outreach, and online courses, regular publicity and educational campaigns should be conducted on topics including laws related to cyber violence prevention and the associated hazards. this aims to enhance the legal literacy and digital proficiency of internet users. by making college students aware of the legal implications and social ramifications of cyber violence, their self-protection and sense of responsibility can be fortified. on the other hand, the handling of cyber violence cases should be regularly publicized. using real-life cases as a cautionary measure, online users can be made to recognize the gravity of cyber violence through in-depth case analyses. this approach fosters an understanding of the importance of adhering to online rules and guides users in establishing correct online values. by jointly constructing a healthy internet ecosystem, concerns among college students regarding online expression can be alleviated, and their confidence can be restored. by integrating the efforts of college students themselves, online communities, and the government, coordinating supervision, regulation, and governance of the online environment, negative voices in the digital landscape can be hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 65 published by ideas spread effectively curbed. this creates a vast space for the dissemination of positive and healthy content, thereby purifying and optimizing the online environment. only in this way can college students fully showcase their vitality and creativity in the era of new media empowerment, expressing themselves with clarity, significance, and impact. this will propel the development of the online space towards a more positive, healthy, and orderly direction, transforming it into a crucial platform for college students to thrive, exchange ideas, and disseminate positive values. references [1] descartes, r. (2000). discourse on the method. the commercial press. [2] hegel, g. w. f. (1979). the phenomenology of spirit, part i. the commercial press. [3] marx, & engels. (1995). selected works of marx and engels, volume i. the people's publishing house. [4] meng, w. (2019). the subjectivity of the audience in internet communication. the young journalists, (33), 1112. [5] xia, h. (2007). the development and significance of the subjectivity of online audiences. social sciences in gansu, (4). [6] black, s. b. (1976). empowerment: social work in oppressed communities. columbia university press. [7] jiang, h. (2016). reflections on the developmental positioning of higher continuing education in the context of media empowerment. studies in continuing education, (2), 4-6. [8] zhao, a., & zuo, l. (2019). the dualism of college students' identity construction within the context of selfmedia empowerment. research on contemporary youth, (2), 91-97. [9] cai, q., & nie, h. (2024). can social capital overcome the isolation dilemma? a research on the new media empowerment of rare disease communities. research in journalism and communication, (8), 96-111, 128. [10] cui, z. (2018). the philosophical dimensions of cyberspace: from technology and interests to ethics. china fortune publishing house. [11] yan, g., & he, z. (2022). publicity and anti-publicity: the paradoxes and resolutions of public participation in cyberspace. theory and reforms, (6), 133-146, 161. [12] wang, n. (2022). the discourse expression paradigm of contemporary youth in cyberspace: generation, functions, and guidance. studies in ideological education, (12), 82-87. [13] zhu, r., & li, w. (2024). a comparative research on the expressions in the online and real-world public opinion fields within the "fan circle" phenomenon. contemporary communications, (6), 62-68. [14] liang, s., & cao, d. (2022). "social death": emerging trends of youth cyberbullying and governance pathways. the frontline of social sciences, (4), 234-240. [15] zhou, b., & lv, s. (2014). an empirical investigation into college students' online opinion expression and its influencing factors: with "the spiral of silence" and "opinion climate perception" at the core. contemporary communications, (5), 34-38. [16] yu, x., & wang, y. (2014). a study on the influential factors of college students' public opinion expression in the context of social networks. research on chinese youth, (10), 97-104, 96. [17] qin, y., & xu, l. (2017). an analytical exploration of the construction of a guidance mechanism for college students' online opinion expression in the new media era. studies in ideological education, (2), 88-91. [18] rogers, e. m. (2002). the diffusion of innovations (4th ed.). central compilation & translation press. [19] rheingold, h. (1993). the virtual community: finding connection in a computerized world. addison-wesley longman publishing. [20] liang, c. (2019). research on new media empowerment and citizen expression [doctoral dissertation, chongqing university]. [21] yu, g., & ma, h. (2016). the new power paradigm in the internet era: "relational empowerment"— reconfiguration of social relations and transformation of the power structure in the context of "connecting everything". the international journalism community, 38(10), 6-27. [22] noelle-neumann, e. (2013). the spiral of silence: public opinion – the social skin of ourselves. the publishing house of peking university. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 66 published by ideas spread [23] beck, u. (2004). risk society. yilin press. [24] turkel, s. (2014). alone together: why we expect more from technology and less from each other. zhejiang people's publishing house. [25] cui, x. (2024). "cyber lovers": research on emotional communication in human-machine interaction within the interactive ritual chain. the research of new media, 10(19), 7-11. [26] liang, d. (2025). "raw life" vs. "fancy-finished moments on social media": a psychological capital perspective on youth social performance. research on chinese youth, (2), 87-94, 77. [27] ji, l., & xia, y. (2025). activation and sharing: research on the emotional production of nostalgia within the framework of spatial theory. news enthusiast, (3), 38-42. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n5p117 117 published by ideas spread solitude and the online disinhibition effect: the dual liberation mechanism of social media commenting behavior based on role theory zhang yutong1 1 nanjing normal university, china correspondence: zhang yutong, nanjing normal university, nanjing 210097, china. e-mail: 2637615355@qq.com received: october 9, 2025; accepted: october 17, 2025; published: october 18, 2025 abstract using role theory as an analytical framework and considering the characteristics of china's social media ecosystem, this study explores the synergistic mechanism of physical solitude and the online disinhibition effect on users' commenting behavior. the research finds that solitude weakens the immediate constraints of real-world social norms by providing a private physical space, while the online disinhibition effect (centered on anonymity and the absence of non-verbal cues) further reduces psychological inhibition. together, they facilitate the user's transition from a "front-stage role" to a "back-stage role." this dual liberation mechanism significantly diminishes selfmonitoring and moral constraints, leading to reduced responsibility and moral disengagement, thereby promoting high-freedom commenting behaviors (such as polarized expression or deep self-disclosure). the study emphasizes the need for a dialectical view of this mechanism, providing a theoretical basis for the governance of chinese social media platforms. keywords: solitude, online disinhibition effect, role theory, social media comments 1. introduction the comment sections of chinese social media platforms (e.g., weibo, douyin, xiaohongshu) have become significant spaces for diverse discourse. data shows that 72% of users participate in comments while in a solitary state at night[1], and device usage during solitude significantly affects psychological states: low-functioning introverts (characterized by lower identity development and higher loneliness) engage with social media 77% more frequently than high-functioning introverts. in this context, online discourse often contrasts sharply with real-world behavior: heated debates on weibo hot searches, playful banter in douyin videos, and critical commentary on xiaohongshu "product placement" posts all reflect the combined influence of physical isolation (solitude) and the networked environment (anonymity). this article uses role theory to explore the mechanisms through which solitude and the online disinhibition effect contribute to the liberation of commenting behaviors in social media platforms. 2. theoretical basis 2.1 the role of solitude in the physical environment previous research defines solitude as a state of social detachment, often marked by decreased social inhibition and increased freedom of choice in mental and physical activities, offering a more open experience[2]. this study specifically emphasizes solitude's marginal and spatial isolation aspect. recent research by thomas et al. (2021), building on turkle's (2011) distinction between physical solitude and psychological solitude, categorizes solitude into device-assisted solitude and pure solitude[1][3]. in this study, solitude aligns with "deviceassisted solitude," where individuals are physically alone but use personal electronic devices to engage in social media activities. domestic scholars also highlight that when individuals overly focus on interpersonal relationships, they have fewer opportunities for self-awareness, blurring the line between solitude and social engagement[4][5]. according to turkle, solitude---free from social constraints---allows individuals to experience relaxation and freedom, reducing self-monitoring tendencies[3]. this reduction in self-monitoring makes users more likely to express opinions in solitude that they would hesitate to share in real-life situations due to social evaluation concerns.[6] hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 118 published by ideas spread building on these distinctions, this study operationally defines solitude as the condition in which an individual is physically isolated from others and perceives themselves to be free from direct supervision or intervention by others. in the context of social media, this manifests when an individual engages with social media while alone, using a device. 2.2 the role of the online disinhibition effect the online disinhibition effect is an essential psychological mechanism that explains increased self-disclosure and altered behavior in online spaces. simply speaking, people may do things online that they would not do in faceto-face occasions, which has been named as the “online disinhibition effect”. according to the opposite behavioral outcomes , suler (2004) classified online disinhibition as benign disinhibition and toxic disinhibition [7]. benign disinhibition involves the sharing of private emotions, fears, and desires, promoting self-exploration and interpersonal connection. conversely, toxic disinhibition manifests in aggressive and harmful behaviors such as verbal attacks or cyberbullying. suler identifies six key factors that contribute to this effect: dissociative anonymity, invisibility, asynchronicity, solipsistic introjection, dissociative imagination, and the minimization of status and authority. in online spaces, the lack of real-time social feedback, coupled with anonymity and the absence of eye contact[8], significantly reduces self-regulation, allowing individuals to exhibit behaviors that would typically be constrained in face-to-face interactions. the lack of eye contact, in particular, plays a significant role in enhancing toxic disinhibition, as it removes the immediate feedback that would otherwise regulate behavior. solitude provides an additional layer of isolation, as it allows users to avoid non-verbal communication and the constraints that accompany face-to-face interactions, further facilitating uninhibited online behavior. plus , considering that time spent alone can be linked to the time people spent online and on social media , the physical state of being alone may lead to an increase in the amount of time people spend browsing social media platforms ,which could be associated with greater online disinhibitionand in turn with higher levels of online self-disclosure, trolling, and cyber-bullying and lower levels of social connectedness and flourishing.[8] 2.3 role theory role theory explains the generation and transformation of social behaviors through the lens of social roles. this framework, often illustrated through theatrical analogies, posits that individuals occupy various roles, each with its corresponding expectations and behaviors. in the context of social media, these roles differ from those in reallife settings, influencing the ways individuals interact and express themselves. for example, a professional might engage more casually and expressively on social media than in formal settings. biddle (1986) integrated several perspectives on role theory[9], including the symbolic interactionist view, which emphasizes the active reconstruction of roles through situational interpretation[10], and the cognitive perspective, which examines how perceptions of expectations shape behavior[11]. some chinese scholars have also pointed out that role theory holds guiding significance for the development of family relationships in real-life contexts [12].this study draws on these perspectives to understand how users transition from normative roles (front-stage) to selfdirected roles (back-stage) through the online disinhibition effect[13]. based on the perspective of role theory, physical solitude implies an absence of social supervision [14], weakening the normative expectations associated with real-world social positions and triggering a role distance effect [15], thereby providing users with psychological space for role experimentation. secondly, the online disinhibition effect diminishes the anticipated social rewards and punishments for role behaviors through mechanisms such as dissociative anonymity and minimization of authority [7]. in this context, users are guided not by normative expectations but by internalized preferences-driven self-presentation [9], resulting in the formation of a 'virtual role self'. 3. interpretation from the role theory perspective: the dual liberation mechanism of social media commenting behavior from the perspective of role theory, the dual liberation mechanism in social media commenting behavior is primarily reflected in how solitude and the online disinhibition effect influence the user's role and behavior. this process involves a transition from a "front-stage role," where social norms and external expectations are dominant, to a "back-stage role," where self-driven behaviors take precedence[16]. physical solitude unbinds users from the social constraints associated with their real-world roles, allowing them to engage more freely in social media activities. the lack of supervision and psychological relaxation experienced in solitude diminishes self-monitoring and encourages users to break free from social role expectations. for instance, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 119 published by ideas spread a typically reserved individual may feel more comfortable expressing radical opinions about an industry topic when alone. the online disinhibition effect further reinforces this liberation. it shifts the user from a position-based role to a self-projected role, where cognitive restructuring occurs through moral disengagement[17]. accompanied by cognitive restructuring involving moral disengagement [18], users attribute their back-stage behaviors to the permissive online environment (e.g., "the platform allows anonymity"), rather than personal accountability. additionally, solitary users are more likely to engage in asynchronous commenting, where delayed feedback weakens the constraints associated with their front-stage role, promoting self-expression and role redefinition[7]. the combination of solitude and online disinhibition results in a dual state of "physical invisibility + online anonymity," creating an environment where users can engage in behaviors that are significantly different from those exhibited in real life, thus enabling a certain degree of "liberation" from their real-world roles. 4. other factors influencing social media commenting behavior 4.1 individual differences suler (2004) suggests that individual personality traits influence the degree of disinhibition experienced in online spaces[7]. for example, extroverted individuals are more likely to engage actively on social media, posting frequent comments to satisfy their social needs[19][20]. in contrast, neurotic individuals may use social media to express negative emotions, often triggering aggressive responses[21]. additionally, users with lower levels of selfmonitoring are more likely to engage in impulsive commenting behavior, disregarding social norms in favor of expressing their inner thoughts[22]. furthermore, research suggests that psychological function, rather than personality traits alone, predicts social media use. low-functioning introverts, who experience higher loneliness, tend to use social media more frequently than high-functioning introverts[1]. additionally, whether a person behaves civilly online is not only related to their inherent personality but is closely connected to their capacity for empathy and their ability to effectively manage their emotions as well. individuals who struggle with handling negative emotions are more likely to indulge in unrestrained words and actions under the "protection" offered by the online environment (syrjämäki et al., 2024).[23][24] 4.2 non-verbal communication: the lack of eye contact eye-contact, or gazing, is recognized as a direct, significant part of communication and a meaningful psychological factor in non-verbal communication , playing a critical role in real-world interactions by conveying emotional and social information. it is a condition that affects one’s personal feelings during interpersonal interactions. it has been found that eye contact is central to interpersonal communication, serving to transfer information, moderate interactions, reveal emotions, and express intimacy; it assists in achieving social control as well(grumet, 1983; kleinke, 1986; webbink, 1986)[25][26][27].the absence of eye contact in online interactions reduces the constraints on behavior. research by lapidot-lefler (2012) showed that the absence of eye contact, coupled with anonymity, significantly increases aggressive behavior and toxic comments in online spaces, associated with an increase in self-reported incidents of explicit conflicts and threat levels, as well as overall negative online disinhibition behavior scores.[8] 5. dialectical analysis of the dual liberation mechanism the dual liberation mechanism of social media commenting behavior has both positive and negative aspects. on the positive side, it promotes diverse forms of expression, enhancing the dissemination of information and enabling users to share unique insights and experiences. this fosters a richer, more dynamic online environment and allows users, particularly introverts, to express themselves more freely. however, the mechanism also has negative consequences. the lack of supervision and moral disengagement can lead to online chaos, including aggressive commentary and cyberbullying. furthermore, the absence of eye contact and anonymity can exacerbate role conflicts and contribute to moral disengagement, undermining social norms and contributing to the spread of malicious content[9].such role conflicts may require negotiation mechanisms as described by hall (1972) [28]. 6. discussion based on role theory, this study elucidates a dual liberation mechanism that governs social media commenting behavior, which is synergistically constituted by the user's state of physical solitude and the psychological online disinhibition effect. the research finds that solitude weakens the immediate constraints of real-world social norms by providing a private physical space free from direct supervision, while the online disinhibition effect (centered hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 120 published by ideas spread on factors such as anonymity and the lack of non-verbal cues) further reduces psychological inhibitions. together, they facilitate the user's transition from a "front-stage role" to a "back-stage role." this dual liberation significantly diminishes self-monitoring and moral constraints, leading to reduced responsibility and moral disengagement, thereby promoting high-freedom commenting behaviors. 6.1 theoretical contributions and practical implications the primary theoretical contribution of this study lies in integrating role theory with the online disinhibition effect to propose a new framework for explaining social media commenting behavior. previous research has either focused on the characteristics of the online environment [7][8] or explored the psychological impacts of solitude. this study, however, reveals how the physical context (solitude) and online psychology (disinhibition) produce synergistic effects by influencing the role-playing process. in particular, the study emphasizes the crucial role of the absence of non-verbal cues (such as eye contact) in the disinhibition effect [8][25][26], providing a more refined perspective for understanding the micro-mechanisms of online role transition. furthermore, introducing the mechanism of moral disengagement [18] into the model explains how users rationalize their behaviors after entering the "back-stage role," deepening the understanding of the internal logic behind behavior generation. on a practical level, this study offers important implications for the governance of social media platforms. the dialectical nature of the dual liberation mechanism requires governance strategies to move beyond simplistic "blocking" approaches. on one hand, the mechanism's positive value in promoting expressive diversity and individual self-exploration should be recognized. on the other hand, to address its negative effects, platforms could consider using technical design (e.g., introducing prompts that enhance social presence in specific high-conflict situations) and community cultivation (e.g., strengthening community norms and empathetic guidance) to gently reshape the environmental atmosphere of the "back-stage," guiding users towards more responsible selfpresentation [24]. 6.2 research limitations and future directions this study has several limitations. first, methodologically, it primarily adopts theoretical deduction and literature review, lacking direct empirical data testing. future research could employ quantitative methods (such as surveys) or experimental methods (such as manipulating states of solitude and different features of the online environment) to validate and refine the proposed dual liberation model. second, although this study considered the influence of personality traits, it did not comprehensively cover other potentially important individual difference variables, such as emotion regulation ability [24] or certain pathological traits [23], which may interact with the dual liberation mechanism. on the theoretical front, future research could further explore the application of structural role theory [29] and, using social network analysis (sna), investigate the relationship between the roles users play in comment networks and their positions within the network structure. furthermore, with advancements in cognitive neuroscience, techniques such as electroencephalography (eeg) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fmri) hold promise for revealing the neural substrates of how the disinhibition effect (especially in the context of solitude and lack of eye contact) influences moral decision-making and emotional responses. finally, social media technology itself is evolving rapidly, and user behavior patterns are constantly adapting. therefore, employing longitudinal tracking and adaptive research frameworks to continuously monitor how technological changes and socio-environmental dynamics moderate the dual liberation mechanism is crucial for comprehensively understanding and effectively guiding the future development of social media commenting behavior. 7. conclusion in conclusion, solitude and the disinhibition effect jointly constitute a dual liberation mechanism that governs social media commenting behavior. from the standpoint of role theory, their interaction reshapes users’ role performance and expressive behaviors in digital environments. additionally, individual differences and the absence of direct eye contact significantly modulate this process, influencing the tone and nature of online comments. this dual liberation mechanism exerts both constructive and detrimental effects, that is while it promotes expressive diversity and democratizes participation, it can also foster disorder and polarization within online discourse. the present study thus offers a theoretical framework for comprehending the psychological and social foundations of commenting behavior on social media. future research should aim to refine this theoretical model and undertake empirical validations, providing a more rigorous scientific basis for social media governance and the management of online discourse ecosystems. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 121 published by ideas spread references [1] thomas, v., balzer carr, b., azmitia, m., & whittaker, s. 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(1976). social structure from multiple networks. i. blockmodels of roles and positions. american journal of sociology, 81(4), 730–780. https://doi.org/10.1086/226141 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v7n3p86 86 published by ideas spread conflict and fusion between graffiti mural and public space hai yibin1 1 school of fine arts and design, lingnan normal university, china correspondence: hai yibin, school of fine arts and design, lingnan normal university, zhanjiang, guangdong, china. e-mail: 406659132/at/qq.com received: october 22, 2024; accepted: december 15, 2024; published: december 16, 2024 abstract public space plays a crucial role in the development of graffiti mural arts, and the integration of graffiti murals into public spaces is inevitable. the publicity of murals often conflicts with the expressive nature of graffiti artists. graffiti artists struggle to find a sense of belonging in public space unless their artistic ideas are elevated to the mainstream or public will. however, once these artistic ideas align with the mainstream, graffiti murals may lose some of their original rebellious spirit. this paper primarily discusses this issue and attempts to find feasible solutions. keywords: graffiti mural, public space, publicity, conflict 1. introduction graffiti murals, as a unique form of urban art, have become an important topic in contemporary cultural studies due to their emergence and development in public spaces. this paper aims to explore the interaction between graffiti murals and urban public spaces, as well as how this interaction influences the essence and social function of graffiti art. the rise of graffiti murals, closely linked with youth culture, and their visual and cultural impact on urban public spaces, form the core of this analysis. by examining the public nature of graffiti murals, this paper seeks to reveal their position and role in modern urban culture. the rebellious spirit and visual impact of graffiti murals make them an undeniable presence in urban public spaces. the "publicity" aspect of this art form not only defines its interaction with the urban environment but also determines its significance in social and cultural contexts. once graffiti murals are removed from public spaces, their artistic and cultural value may be weakened, and they may even lose their original core spirit. this paper will explore how graffiti murals can coexist harmoniously with public spaces while maintaining their artistic integrity. since the 1970s, the influence of graffiti murals has gradually expanded worldwide and has been increasingly accepted by the mainstream art world. however, as some graffiti artists' works have become commercialized and entered the art market, the original street art form faces the challenges of commercialization and mainstream integration. this paper will analyze the impact of this transition on the artistic spirit of graffiti murals and explore how to preserve and promote their originality and public nature under the pressures of commercialization and mainstream acceptance. this study will adopt an interdisciplinary research approach, combining the theoretical frameworks of art sociology, urban aesthetics, and cultural studies to explore the relationship between graffiti murals and public space. through a systematic analysis of the historical development, social impact, and interaction with public space, this paper aims to provide a new perspective on the role of graffiti murals in contemporary urban culture and offer theoretical support for related policy development [1]. 2. the "publicity" of public space and the conflict with graffiti murals 2.1 the power structure and discourse in public space in contemporary cities, the management of public space involves complex issues of power structure and discourse. public spaces are not only places for residents' daily lives but also carry political, cultural, and economic significance, often representing the power and normative control of the state or city. the design and use of public spaces are typically controlled by the government and urban planners, reflecting the interests and values of the mainstream groups in society. however, graffiti murals, as a form of non-traditional art, break through this power structure and challenge the existing management order. graffiti artists, who generally do not have official authorization, create graffiti murals on public walls to express individual or collective emotions, demands, and ideas. this act itself is a form of protest against traditional public space management [2]. particularly in the early days of graffiti art, it often carried a critical stance toward the current social conditions and became a tool for hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 87 published by ideas spread marginalized groups to voice their opposition to the power structure. graffiti works in public spaces are often visually striking, and their presence directly challenges urban planners and managers' control over space, transforming these spaces from merely functional areas to art zones filled with expression and rebellion. moreover, the "publicity" of graffiti murals is particularly prominent. unlike fine art displayed in galleries, graffiti works occupy urban public space, becoming a form of grassroots artistic expression. graffiti murals are typically marked by immediacy and a sense of the present moment. rather than being disseminated through commercial channels like markets and auctions, these works engage directly with every passerby in public space. such an art form is often a symbol of social rebellion, with its content frequently addressing issues like social injustice, political corruption, and class division. graffiti murals use visual language to critique society, especially when these works appear in socially marginalized or neglected spaces, their critique becomes even more pronounced. this artistic charm and social significance of graffiti murals are what enable them to exert their influence most effectively in public spaces. graffiti is not merely a simple image or mark; it is a dynamic social symbol that carries an individual's reflection and questioning of collective norms, power, and societal standards. in this context, the "publicity" of graffiti murals becomes especially important as it offers the public an open space for expressing ideas and emotions, becoming part of the struggle for discourse in public space [3]. 2.2 the contradiction and conflict between graffiti and public space management the emergence and development of graffiti murals have long been in clear opposition and conflict with public space management. traditional urban managers often regard graffiti as an illegal activity, believing that its presence not only occupies public space but also disrupts the original urban landscape and the standardization of public facilities. as part of the city, public spaces carry multiple functions in urban management and citizens' daily lives, so their management must adhere to certain rules and order. however, graffiti murals are often unapproved and appear on walls, buildings, and other public areas. this act of unauthorized creation clearly violates the norms of urban management, causing visual chaos and even being seen as a challenge to public order [4].however, as graffiti art gradually gains acceptance and recognition in mainstream culture, especially during its transition from street culture to the art market, its artistic value and social influence have begun to be reassessed. in many cities, managers have begun to realize that graffiti murals are not merely acts of destruction but contain rich artistic forms and social value. graffiti works are often highly creative, reflecting the artist's unique perspective and reflections on social phenomena. furthermore, the presence of graffiti murals can enhance the diversity of urban spaces and cultural atmosphere, enriching the city's artistic landscape. as a result, graffiti murals have gradually been liberated from the label of illegal acts, becoming a form of creation recognized by both the art world and certain segments of the population. to reconcile the contradiction between graffiti murals and public space management, many cities have started to adopt a series of flexible management measures. for example, establishing legal graffiti zones has become a method used by some urban managers to resolve conflicts. these legal graffiti zones are often located in less prominent areas, such as abandoned buildings or the outskirts of the city, ensuring they do not affect the core urban landscape while providing graffiti artists with a space for free creative expression. in these designated areas, graffiti artists can create art without worrying about legal consequences, thus avoiding the tense situation typical of traditional public space management. moreover, the establishment of legal graffiti zones has introduced new artistic elements into the urban landscape. many graffiti works are visually striking, with vibrant colors and unique shapes, adding vitality and personality to the city's otherwise monotonous scenery. these graffiti pieces not only possess artistic value but also social relevance, becoming an integral part of urban culture. through this approach, urban managers have not only resolved the conflict between graffiti and public space management but also provided citizens with more cultural and artistic experiences. overall, the contradiction and conflict between graffiti and public space management are not insurmountable. over time, an increasing number of cities have chosen to foster harmonious coexistence between graffiti art and public space through the establishment of legal graffiti zones. this innovative management method not only allows graffiti art to thrive legally but also injects more artistic energy and cultural vitality into the city. graffiti murals are no longer merely a management dilemma but have become part of the urban public space, adding a unique artistic charm to the city's landscape [5]. 2.3 the social rebelliousness and cultural significance of graffiti murals graffiti murals, as an art form, are characterized by their strong visual impact and rebellious spirit. the emergence of this art form often originates from the lower or marginalized segments of society, who lack other convenient means of expression. by utilizing the “illegal” medium of graffiti murals, these individuals are able to make their voices heard. graffiti murals are not only an art form but also symbolize social rebelliousness. in many cases, graffiti works express dissatisfaction with the current social situation through images, colors, and language, even challenging the established cultural order. as shown in figure 1, the bold and often provocative nature of graffiti murals embodies a defiance against mainstream social norms over time, graffiti artists have gradually moved from hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 88 published by ideas spread street culture to the mainstream art scene, but their works still retain a deep critique of the social system. the artistic rebellious spirit of graffiti murals continues to hold significant meaning in modern society. their very presence in public spaces represents a counter-narrative, offering an alternative form of communication and protest, particularly against power structures and societal inequalities [6]. figure 1. graffiti mural keith haring figure 2. graffiti artwork by keith haring figure 2 presents a graffiti work by keith haring. although these works no longer appear on the streets, they still retain a strong graffiti style. the patterns are rich in color and vibrancy, embodying the original rebellious spirit of graffiti art. despite their departure from the streets, these works continue to provoke reflection on social injustices[7]. figure 3. graffiti t-shirt by jean-michel basquiat hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 89 published by ideas spread figure 3 shows a graffiti pattern by jean-michel basquiat, whose works are widely applied in the fashion industry, becoming a representation of commercialized art. while this shift has brought graffiti art into the mainstream market, it has also altered its original rebellious spirit. basquiat’s works often carry a strong social critique, and although they no longer appear on the streets, their cultural significance remains undeniable[8]. figure 4. graffiti artwork by jean-michel basquiat figure 4 displays a graffiti painting by jean-michel basquiat. his works are extremely popular in galleries and auction markets worldwide. this piece illustrates the evolution of graffiti style, reflecting the shift from rebellious art to commercialized art. although basquiat’s works are no longer found on the streets, they still address pressing social issues with significant cultural meaning. figure 5. graffiti mural by banksy (uk) figure 5 presents a graffiti mural by banksy. his works not only have a powerful visual impact but also carry profound social and political implications. through the medium of graffiti murals, banksy critiques social injustices, political corruption, and other societal issues. these works often appear in public spaces, such as street walls or building exteriors, and possess considerable social discourse power[9]. 3. analysis of the integration of graffiti murals and public space 3.1 commercial invitations and mainstream cultural acceptance as graffiti mural art gradually transitions from street culture to mainstream culture, an increasing number of graffiti artists have started receiving attention and invitations from the commercial sector. the commercialization of graffiti art has led it to evolve beyond its rebellious street culture roots, becoming an integral part of the art market. many businesses, brands, and urban management entities began inviting graffiti artists to create murals in specific hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 90 published by ideas spread spaces, incorporating graffiti murals into design and promotional activities. this commercial invitation has facilitated broader social recognition of graffiti art and promoted its integration with mainstream culture. through collaboration with commercial entities, artists gain creative platforms, and graffiti art becomes more widely accepted by the public. however, the commercialization of graffiti murals often suppresses its original rebellious spirit, causing graffiti art to lose some of its independence and critical nature when aligning with commercial and mainstream culture. in the early 1980s, the commercial value of graffiti murals began to attract attention[10]. under the strategic planning of art agents, many graffiti artists were packaged as new art stars. they collaborated with mainstream art institutions, achieving commercial success and reaping substantial rewards. the success stories of these artists attracted more young people to engage in graffiti mural creation. with the momentum of commercial enterprises, graffiti art also flourished in the fashion design industry. the commercial development of graffiti art spans multiple areas, including murals, clothing design, graphic advertising, web development, and electronic magazines (this article focuses on graffiti murals). commercial graffiti mural projects are typically funded, and participants often share in the profits. due to investor involvement, the creation of graffiti murals is no longer entirely free. investors can choose their preferred artists and impose certain requirements on the final product and mural style. compared to traditional graffiti murals, commercial graffiti murals are given sufficient time for completion, making them more polished and aligned with public aesthetic demands, resulting in longer preservation periods. some commercial venues, such as bars, clothing stores, bookstores, and ktvs, fund graffiti artists to create murals to enhance their commercial appeal [11]. figure 6. graffiti mural at the 3.3 fashion building parking lot, sanlitun figure 6 displays the graffiti mural at the 3.3 fashion building parking lot in beijing, a typical example of a commercial invitation. the 3.3 fashion building is located in the intersection of eastern and western sides of sanlitun bar street, a place where commercial and artistic cultures meet, also the intersection of chinese and western cultures. at the end of 2006, the mall invited graffiti artists to create dozens of murals in its underground parking lot. the mural designs ranged from western-style graffiti letter variants, cartoons, superheroes, and abstract patterns to more chinese-themed designs like maitreya buddha and sun wukong. the murals, with their vivid colors and diverse styles, broke the monotony of the previously dull atmosphere. this graffiti event is a prime example of a commercial mural, where investors invited artists to create in designated spaces, enhancing the artistic ambiance of the commercial space while promoting the application and popularization of graffiti art in the commercial sector [12]. 3.2 the commercial transformation of graffiti murals and cultural conflict while the commercialization of graffiti murals has facilitated the widespread dissemination of the art form, it has also sparked cultural conflicts. graffiti, initially part of street culture, represented a challenge to power structures, social systems, and cultural norms. it was not only an emotional outlet for marginalized urban groups but also a form of rebellion against social injustice. at this stage, graffiti artists were unconcerned with market demands; their focus was on self-expression and challenging authority, reflecting their discontent with social, political, and economic issues. however, as graffiti art gradually entered the mainstream, the intensifying commercial forces inevitably conflicted with graffiti's rebellious spirit.as the commercialization process deepened, graffiti art shifted from street expression to creation confined within commercial spaces. many graffiti artists faced a tough choice: should they maintain their independence and rebellious spirit or accept commercial sponsorship and brand collaborations? as graffiti art collaborated with brands, enterprises, and urban managers, the themes and methods of graffiti creation often had to align with market demands. this collaborative relationship not only changed the creative process but also altered the social function of graffiti art. graffiti murals, once symbols of social rebellion, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 91 published by ideas spread were created without external constraints, based solely on the artist's self-expression and critique of society. in the commercial transformation process, however, graffiti artists had to consider brand image, market positioning, and audience acceptance, limiting the freedom of their creative expression.for example, in some commercial collaborations, graffiti works must align with specific brand images, color schemes, and marketing strategies. this requires artists to consider the brand's values and commercial needs, rather than merely expressing individual emotions or societal critiques. this compromise in creative freedom weakens the rebellious spirit of graffiti art, turning murals into more decorative and promotional tools in commercial spaces, lacking the intense social dialogue characteristic of street culture.the commercialization of graffiti murals has led to their widespread acceptance and exposure but has also eroded their original social significance and cultural value. while commercialization has provided more platforms and audiences for graffiti art, its rebellious and independent nature has gradually diminished in relation to commercial and market demands. thus, graffiti art faces the cultural conflict of how to maintain its original artistic spirit and social criticism while not compromising to commercial needs. this conflict is an inevitable part of graffiti's integration into mainstream culture and an unavoidable contradiction in its artistic transformation. 3.3 the rationality of setting up legal graffiti zones and creative spaces to resolve the conflict between graffiti murals and public space, many cities have begun to establish legal graffiti zones, allowing graffiti artists to create murals in designated areas. this measure helps provide graffiti art with a legitimate and recognized platform for expression while preventing public spaces from being damaged by illegal graffiti. by establishing legal graffiti zones, urban managers can effectively regulate graffiti behavior and foster a harmonious integration of graffiti art into public spaces. the establishment of legal graffiti zones first provides artists with a free space for creation. in these designated areas, artists can create without worrying about interference from law enforcement or administrative penalties, allowing them to fully express their creativity. the openness and tolerance of these spaces not only promote the diversification of graffiti art but also allow graffiti to transcend its purely street culture roots, gradually entering the realm of mainstream art. at the same time, the existence of legal graffiti zones gains social recognition for artists' work, transforming graffiti art from merely a rebellious act to a thoughtful and artistic form of expression. however, the establishment of legal graffiti zones is not entirely unconditional. these zones typically involve some regulation and guidance on the content and form of the work. for instance, many cities require that the content of graffiti murals in legal zones comply with public morality and social norms, avoiding overly radical or provocative messages to prevent public dissatisfaction or social controversy. the artistic nature and style of the murals may also be subject to review, ensuring that the works harmonize with the surrounding urban landscape rather than disrupt the aesthetic of the city. legal graffiti zones are usually located in relatively remote or non-intrusive areas of the city, ensuring the independence of the creative space while not causing significant disruption to urban traffic, commercial activities, or residents' lives. these zones ensure that graffiti art is not only legally protected but also allows artists to create freely without threatening the orderliness and cleanliness of public spaces. overall, the establishment of legal graffiti zones serves as an effective mediation strategy, respecting the creative freedom of artists while maintaining the orderliness and standards of public spaces. this approach provides a solution to the conflict between graffiti art and urban public spaces and creates conditions for the further development and mainstreaming of graffiti art. figure 7. adventurous graffiti youngsters hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 92 published by ideas spread figure 7 shows young individuals exhibiting an adventurous spirit as they engage in graffiti creation. without formal approval, they use graffiti murals to express themselves and rebel. although this behavior is often seen as an intrusion into public space, it reflects a typical expression of graffiti culture, symbolizing the younger generation's challenge to traditional order and the awakening of self-awareness. 3.4 the balance between artistic freedom and social norms in graffiti mural creation as an independent art form, graffiti murals inherently demand that artists be able to fully express themselves in their creative process. however, as graffiti art becomes integrated into public spaces, balancing artistic freedom with social norms has become crucial. public spaces serve not only as platforms for personal expression but also cater to a wide citizenry. therefore, graffiti murals must consider the collective interests of society and the public's acceptance during the creation process. the freedom and rebellious nature of graffiti art make it a highly personal and expressive form of creation, but this freedom must avoid provoking excessive social confrontation or controversy when interacting with public spaces. for example, certain graffiti works may touch on sensitive political topics, religious beliefs, or social class issues. while these themes may meet the artist's personal creative needs, they can easily provoke public dissatisfaction or conflict when displayed in public spaces. to prevent such situations, graffiti art creation must find an appropriate balance between freedom and social norms. by creating in legal graffiti zones, artists can maintain creative freedom while adhering to social norms. legal graffiti zones provide a clear space for creation, allowing artists to express personal ideas and artistic concepts without violating the order of public spaces. while artists have creative autonomy, the content of their work is often guided and reviewed to ensure that the murals do not stray from the social function and aesthetic standards of public spaces. for example, many legal graffiti zones emphasize social harmony and public interest during content review, avoiding excessively radical or extreme themes. proper management and regulation can effectively resolve the contradiction between artistic freedom and social norms in graffiti mural creation. this balance ensures that artists' creativity is not suppressed while preventing graffiti art from excessively affecting the overall image of public spaces and social order. through guidance and regulation, graffiti art can showcase its uniqueness while respecting societal values, fostering the healthy development of the art form, and ultimately achieving a harmonious unity between 3.5 case study on the success of graffiti museums and workshops graffiti museums and art workshops provide successful examples of the integration of graffiti art with public spaces. these venues not only offer graffiti artists a legal and organized space for creation, but also serve as a window for the public to appreciate and understand graffiti art. through these successful cases, graffiti art is showcased within a regulated framework, while avoiding the negative effects of illegal graffiti. this promotes greater social recognition and cultural value of graffiti art.one typical success story is the “5pointz” graffiti museum located in new york. this museum was once a global gathering place for graffiti artists, offering them a legal platform for creation while also becoming an important showcase for graffiti art. figure 7 presents the vibrant graffiti murals inside the “5pointz” museum, which demonstrate the creativity and diversity of graffiti art while reflecting the positive interaction between the artists and urban space. in this way, graffiti art has not only gained wide recognition but also become an integral part of the city’s culture. figure 8. exterior of the “5pointz” graffiti museum hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 93 published by ideas spread figure 8 shows the graffiti works on the exterior of the “5pointz” graffiti museum in new york. these murals extract graffiti art from street culture and display it to the public through legitimate channels. inside “5pointz,” artists are able to create in an uninterrupted environment, enjoying artistic freedom while avoiding the negative effects that illegal graffiti could have on public spaces. this innovative display format has attracted large numbers of visitors and provided a new space for graffiti art to thrive. in addition, many cities have established graffiti workshops as hubs for graffiti art education and creation. through these workshops, graffiti artists not only receive technical support and guidance for their art, but also gain inspiration from cultural exchanges and social interactions. these workshops encourage artists to engage with the public, enhancing social understanding and acceptance of graffiti art. through these successful cases, city managers can learn from and expand the ways graffiti murals can be integrated into public spaces. by ensuring public spaces remain clean and orderly while providing platforms for artists, cities can promote wider social acceptance and development of graffiti art. the successful experiences of graffiti museums and workshops demonstrate that graffiti art is not just a symbol of rebellion; it can also become an important part of urban culture, injecting new vitality and creativity into public spaces. ultimately, the legalization and social recognition of graffiti art require joint efforts from governments, artists, and citizens to establish effective collaboration mechanisms and platforms. this will ensure the rational presence of graffiti murals in public spaces and promote the ongoing enhancement of their artistic value. 4. the impact and value of graffiti murals on urban landscapes 4.1 the role of graffiti murals in urban aesthetics as a unique form of art, graffiti murals have gradually become an important element of urban landscapes. traditionally, urban aesthetics were dominated by meticulously designed buildings, public sculptures, and landscaping, while graffiti murals break from this norm by injecting more vibrant and diverse visual elements into urban spaces. through graffiti art, city walls, streets, and even abandoned buildings have become important carriers for displaying artistic creativity and social culture. these murals not only alter the appearance of cities but also infuse them with a unique cultural atmosphere and artistic flair. graffiti murals have a strong visual impact; with their bold colors, exaggerated patterns, and personalized expressions, they can instantly capture attention and even become iconic city landmarks. for example, in many modern cities, graffiti murals have become a part of street culture, not only decorating otherwise monotonous walls but also making the urban landscape more diverse and lively. in these murals, artists often use images and symbols to tell stories related to the city, society, or culture, reflecting on social phenomena, revisiting history, or envisioning the future. therefore, graffiti murals are not just aesthetic decorations; they are microcosms of urban culture, embodying social backgrounds, the spirit of the times, and artistic innovation. the urban aesthetic role of graffiti murals also reflects the expression of city identity and residents’ emotions. in some areas, especially where youth culture and street culture are prominent, graffiti often serves as a means for young people to vent emotions and express themselves. in these areas, graffiti murals are often highly individualized and localized, showcasing strong community cultural characteristics, with each mural bearing its own unique style and emotional tone. graffiti murals not only imbue urban landscapes with artistic value but also become part of how both residents and visitors perceive the city. they symbolize creativity, freedom, and social change, reflecting the city's inclusivity and diversity. however, the aesthetic value of graffiti murals in urban landscapes also comes with controversy. while they inject vitality into the city, unauthorized graffiti may be seen as a “destructive” form of art that conflicts with the norms of urban management. therefore, balancing the protection of urban aesthetics with encouraging creative expression has become an important task in modern urban management. 4.2 the value-adding role of graffiti art in public space landscapes graffiti art not only adds visual impact to urban landscapes but also brings unique cultural value and social significance to public spaces. as urban culture becomes increasingly diverse, graffiti murals have gradually evolved beyond being mere expressions of rebellion or self-emotion, becoming key elements in enhancing the landscape value of public spaces. particularly in historical sites, abandoned factories, and old buildings, the addition of graffiti murals not only fills the voids of these spaces but also revitalizes and attracts attention to these areas. graffiti murals can transform previously dull and monotonous public spaces into vibrant visual landscapes rich in artistic atmosphere and color, attracting a large number of tourists and residents to appreciate them. for example, in many cities, areas that were once desolate or outdated have become lively cultural landmarks due to the presence of graffiti murals. this has not only enhanced the aesthetic value of these spaces but also contributed to the local economy. for instance, some abandoned warehouses or parking lots, adorned with graffiti art, have been transformed into cultural districts or tourist attractions, attracting tourists and art enthusiasts while boosting surrounding businesses, generating direct economic benefits. furthermore, graffiti murals also add cultural depth and historical significance to public spaces. many graffiti works are not only artistic creations but also reflections hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 94 published by ideas spread on social phenomena, historical events, or local culture. through visual language, they convey emotions and tell stories, allowing viewers to appreciate not only the beauty of color and form but also the cultural information and social context behind the murals. graffiti art has become a deeply interactive cultural carrier for public spaces, breathing new life into these spaces and enhancing their historical and cultural depth. the value-adding role of graffiti art is not only reflected in aesthetics and culture but also in promoting social engagement and community interaction. the creation of graffiti art is often a collaborative process, with interactions between artists, community residents, organizations, and businesses. this collaboration makes the artistic atmosphere of public spaces more open and inclusive, strengthening people’s sense of identity with the space and fostering cultural exchange and community building. however, the value-adding impact of graffiti art in public spaces also faces challenges. unauthorized graffiti works may be considered as "vandalism," raising concerns. therefore, balancing creative freedom with urban management standards and guiding the integration of graffiti art with public spaces is an issue that city managers must address. by establishing legal graffiti zones, guiding artistic planning, and other strategies, graffiti art can be harmoniously integrated into public spaces, maximizing its value-adding effect on urban landscapes and social culture. 4.3 graffiti murals in promoting city image and cultural diversity graffiti murals not only have a profound impact on urban landscapes visually but also play an increasingly significant role in shaping city images and promoting cultural diversity. with the advancement of globalization and urbanization, the cultural competitiveness of cities increasingly depends on their uniqueness and diversity. in this process, graffiti murals have become an important form of cultural expression, helping cities create unique cultural identities and attractions. firstly, graffiti murals provide cities with a distinctive visual symbol, reflecting the city’s spirit of innovation and vitality while showcasing the local cultural diversity. in many major cities, graffiti has become a part of street culture and represents the city’s openness and inclusivity. for example, graffiti murals in cities like new york, berlin, and los angeles have become symbols of global street culture, attracting thousands of visitors. these murals not only beautify public spaces but also make cities more individualized, forming a unique image that distinguishes them from other cities. the cultural diversity represented by graffiti murals is also a driving force in promoting urban cultural innovation and social integration. artists from different backgrounds, cultures, and social classes use graffiti as a common platform to showcase diverse cultural perspectives and creative styles. this cultural diversity and integration not only reflect the trend of social diversification but also infuse cities with more vitality and creativity. through graffiti art interactions, city residents can better understand and embrace different cultural groups, promoting social harmony and development. moreover, graffiti murals play an active role in enhancing a city’s international image. in today’s increasingly globalized world, cities are engaged in intense cultural competition. graffiti murals, as a popular and expressive art form, have become a key tool for many cities in building their international, modern image. for example, with the rise of graffiti art, many cities have incorporated it into their branding and cultural identity to attract investment, enhance visibility, and draw tourists. these cities not only use graffiti murals to visually shape their unique urban characteristics but also use artistic expression and cultural exchange to promote international communication and understanding. however, the impact of graffiti murals on urban image building is not without controversy. on one hand, graffiti art brings a fresh aesthetic experience and cultural atmosphere to cities. on the other hand, unauthorized graffiti works can negatively impact the cleanliness and public order of cities. therefore, effective planning and guidance for the creation of graffiti murals must be incorporated into urban management to ensure their artistic value is maximized while avoiding potential negative effects on public spaces and the urban image. in summary, graffiti murals are not only a vital part of urban street culture but also, through their unique artistic expression, promote the creation of distinctive city images and the spread of cultural diversity. by ensuring that graffiti art is legally integrated into urban planning, cities can harness its creative power to improve their cultural competitiveness and public image, contributing to the sustainable development of urban culture and community engagement. 4.4 graffiti murals as a potential in the tourism and cultural industries as graffiti art gradually gains acceptance in society and mainstream culture, its potential in the tourism and cultural industries has become increasingly apparent. graffiti murals are not only an important component of urban landscapes but have also become a major highlight in cultural tourism, bringing significant economic benefits and cultural influence to cities. more and more cities are recognizing that graffiti murals are not merely a form of street art; they have huge potential in attracting tourists, promoting the cultural industry, and stimulating urban economic development. firstly, graffiti murals, as an expressive art form, have become the cultural calling cards of many cities, attracting tourists from around the world. for example, the east side gallery in berlin and the arts district in los angeles hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 95 published by ideas spread are famous graffiti tourism destinations, drawing large numbers of visitors. tourists can not only appreciate the artistic value of the graffiti murals but also experience the cultural and social context behind these works, gaining a deeper understanding of the city's history and cultural characteristics. as a resource for cultural tourism, graffiti murals offer unique appeal to cities, becoming a significant highlight in the development of the tourism industry. secondly, the development of graffiti murals provides abundant creative and business opportunities for the cultural industry. many cities have integrated graffiti art with the cultural industry, promoting graffiti-related exhibitions, art festivals, product sales, and other cultural creative activities. for instance, some graffiti artists collaborate with brands to release graffiti-inspired products such as clothing, home goods, and art books. these products have not only been enthusiastically embraced by young people but also provided commercialization pathways for graffiti artists. moreover, graffiti art has become an essential part of cultural activities and the creative industry. many cities hold graffiti art festivals, competitions, and workshops, which stimulate local economic development and cultural exchange. the commercialization potential of graffiti murals lies also in their unique market positioning. compared to traditional art forms, graffiti murals have a more grounded and direct appeal, easily attracting the attention of younger audiences. in many cultural and creative industries, graffiti's "street culture" makes it a popular element in fashion, advertising, and brand marketing. more and more brands are using graffiti murals as a form of promotion in their campaigns, not only bringing commercial value to graffiti art but also driving the development of related industries. however, graffiti murals, as part of the cultural industry, also face challenges. with the commercialization of graffiti, the independence and originality of art may be threatened, and the conflict between commercial interests and artistic spirit needs to be properly addressed. additionally, some unauthorized graffiti murals may lead to legal and social controversies. balancing the promotion of graffiti art with the need to maintain order in urban public spaces is a key issue for urban managers. in summary, graffiti murals, as an innovative and expressive art form, have already become an important resource in urban culture and the tourism industry. through proper planning and guidance, graffiti art can unleash its immense potential in urban economies, cultural industries, and tourism, becoming one of the driving forces for urban development. 5. management policy adjustments and future outlook 5.1 the shift in urban management departments' attitudes towards graffiti murals as graffiti art gradually transitions from street culture to the mainstream, urban management departments have undergone a significant shift in their attitudes toward graffiti murals. initially, graffiti art was seen as an illegal activity, with urban managers believing that graffiti not only marred the beauty of public spaces but could also lead to public security issues. in order to maintain the city's cleanliness and order, many local governments took strict measures to curb graffiti, even punishing or expelling graffiti artists. however, with the development of graffiti art and its gradual acceptance by society, especially with the influence of well-known graffiti artists, urban management departments have changed their stance. some cities have begun to recognize that graffiti is not just an act of vandalism but also a creative form of artistic expression that reflects the diversity of society and cultural innovation. as a result, urban managers have started exploring ways to integrate graffiti art into urban public art planning, gradually loosening restrictions on graffiti murals. today, many cities no longer merely prohibit graffiti but instead legalize, guide, and regulate graffiti art within public spaces. some cities have established designated graffiti zones, providing a platform for graffiti artists to create, while managing the content and form of the murals to ensure that the artistic creations do not disrupt the overall aesthetic and order of public spaces. additionally, some cities collaborate with artists and cultural institutions to promote graffiti art as part of the city's culture, giving it deeper social and cultural value. the change in urban management departments' attitudes toward graffiti murals has not only fostered the development of graffiti art but also injected more creativity and vitality into cities. through proper management, graffiti art can maintain its freedom of expression and rebellious spirit while aligning with the city's overall planning and social norms, forming a more harmonious symbiotic relationship. managers are no longer just concerned with the "legality" of graffiti but are focused on how to enhance the city's cultural level and visual appeal through graffiti art. this shift reflects the gradual updating of urban cultural management concepts. especially in the context of globalization and the increasing prominence of cultural diversity, more cities are realizing the importance of inclusivity in multiculturalism and the significance of the cultural and creative industries. graffiti murals, as a unique art form, are no longer seen purely as acts of destruction but as part of the urban culture, possessing unique artistic and social value. as this shift continues, urban management departments are likely to adopt even more flexible and open attitudes toward graffiti murals. more cities will integrate graffiti art into their public art planning, promoting murals with social, cultural, and artistic value to public spaces, not only enhancing the city's image but also bringing greater economic benefits and cultural influence. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 96 published by ideas spread 5.2 improving graffiti mural policies and legal systems as graffiti art becomes more widespread and commercially developed, how to respect the freedom of artistic creation while maintaining public space order and aesthetic appeal has become an important issue for many cities. to effectively manage and guide the creation of graffiti art, improving the relevant policy and legal systems has become an essential task. a reasonable and scientific policy and legal framework can not only regulate the creation of graffiti murals, safeguarding artists' creative freedom, but also protect the cleanliness of public spaces and public interests. first, the management of graffiti murals should be based on a reasonable legal framework. many countries and regions' existing laws do not specifically address graffiti art, leading to frequent conflicts between graffiti creation and the current legal system. in the past, graffiti was often considered an illegal activity, and unauthorized graffiti works could be viewed as vandalism, with artists facing legal consequences. to avoid this, cities should legislate to clarify the position of graffiti art in public spaces and define the boundaries for its creation. by distinguishing between "artistic graffiti" and "destructive graffiti" in law, cities can provide a legal basis for artistic creation while effectively combating illegal graffiti. second, policy development should take into account the diversity and complexity of graffiti art. on the one hand, graffiti art has unique cultural value, representing street culture, rebellious spirit, and social critique. on the other hand, the content and form of graffiti often involve social and political issues, which may provoke public emotional conflicts. therefore, policymakers need to strike a balance between artistic freedom and social public interests. establishing legal graffiti zones in urban public spaces, setting creation areas, and establishing management regulations and review mechanisms are important components of policy formulation. through legitimate creation platforms, artists can express their ideas without violating public order, while management authorities can ensure that the works adhere to certain social norms and aesthetic standards. in terms of improving the legal system, cities can reference successful cases. for example, some cities with advanced graffiti art cultures (such as berlin, los angeles, and london) have already established relatively mature legal systems and management frameworks for graffiti murals. these cities support graffiti art through relevant cultural and creative industry policies and have established strict management regulations. the protection of graffiti art by law goes beyond creation and also covers issues like intellectual property rights. as part of cultural creativity, the copyright of graffiti art needs legal protection to prevent illegal reproduction or alteration. moreover, to better regulate graffiti creation, city management departments should strengthen cooperation and communication with artists, promoting the planning and implementation of public art projects. in some cities, graffiti artists collaborate with government departments, commercial institutions, and others to jointly formulate and implement creation norms and exhibition plans for graffiti art. by respecting and supporting graffiti art, artists can create within a legal framework while bringing meaningful works to society and the public. in conclusion, as graffiti art gradually becomes part of urban culture, improving policies and legal systems for graffiti murals is crucial. a scientific and reasonable legal framework not only protects artistic freedom but also ensures the order of public spaces and social harmony. through institutional innovation and policy support, graffiti murals will better integrate into urban life and become an important force in promoting urban cultural development. 5.3 future trends of graffiti mural art in public spaces with the constant changes in social and cultural environments, graffiti murals, as a unique art form, are also evolving in their position and role within public spaces. in the future, graffiti mural art will develop in a more diversified, professional, and standardized direction. the following are several potential trends: 1) further mainstreaming and social recognition of graffiti art in recent years, graffiti art has gradually moved from the fringes of street culture to the mainstream art scene, gaining increasing recognition from the public and the art community. in the future, as the art market grows and the commercialization of graffiti art progresses, graffiti murals will occupy a place in more cities and cultural environments. not only will they become important components of urban landscapes, but they may also be incorporated into urban planning and design agendas as art projects. in this process, interaction between graffiti artists and public space managers will become closer, and social recognition of graffiti art will gradually increase, making it a unique expression of urban identity and cultural diversity. 2) deep integration of graffiti murals with urban planning with the development of urban planning and design, more and more cities will recognize the value of graffiti murals in promoting urban characteristics. graffiti murals can not only beautify public spaces but also reflect the city's history, culture, and people's creativity. as a result, urban planners will increasingly incorporate graffiti art into urban planning and design, treating it as a key element in the creation of urban culture and image. in the future, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 97 published by ideas spread public spaces such as parks, squares, and commercial districts will become more closely tied to graffiti murals, with artists and urban planners working together to integrate graffiti art into the city's overall design. 3) commercial and cultural dual development as the commercialization of graffiti art continues to deepen, the future of graffiti murals will not only be driven by the cultural and artistic value but also by commercial interests. the potential of graffiti murals in branding, advertising, and the fashion industry will further increase. in addition to traditional art exhibitions and mural creation, graffiti murals will also become important marketing tools for brands, triggering more innovative forms of marketing and cooperation. graffiti murals will blend with the commercial field in more creative and interactive ways, becoming a medium for both cultural and economic development. 4) new techniques and materials for graffiti art in the future, with the development of technology, new techniques and materials will continue to emerge, providing graffiti artists with more tools for creative expression. for example, augmented reality (ar) and virtual reality (vr) technologies can bring new interactivity and visual experiences to graffiti murals, making them more attractive and immersive. new paint materials and environmental-friendly spray paints will also reduce the negative impact of graffiti on the environment while improving the durability of murals. the future of graffiti art will embrace more technological advances, making graffiti murals even more dynamic and interactive. 5) public participation and co-creation of graffiti art the future of graffiti murals will be marked by more public participation. through the development of communitybased graffiti projects and co-creation events, ordinary citizens can become part of the creative process, participating in the creation of public murals. this kind of participatory creation will not only enrich the content of graffiti murals but also enhance the relationship between the community and the city. graffiti murals will no longer be confined to the realm of artists alone but will become an important part of the public cultural and social activities. in conclusion, the future of graffiti mural art in public spaces will be defined by deeper integration with urban culture, increased recognition, technological advancements, and more inclusive creative processes. graffiti murals will evolve into a more diversified, professional, and integrated art form, contributing to the development of urban culture and creative industries. 6. conclusion after decades of development, graffiti murals are no longer merely a form of rebellious emotional expression. their artistic form has matured, and they have gradually been embraced by mainstream culture. museums have started to regularly exhibit graffiti art, and some galleries specialize in selling graffiti artworks. the techniques and methods used in graffiti art have even been incorporated into the creation of other types of art. however, graffiti that is removed from the streets no longer retains its original artistic wildness and intensity. it loses its public nature and can no longer be considered graffiti murals. the illegality of graffiti murals has never stemmed from their creation methods or artistic form, but rather from their unauthorized invasion of public space. in response to urban management's efforts to remove graffiti, graffiti murals have spread rapidly worldwide. authorities have begun to acknowledge the public's right to express themselves, and the positive impact of graffiti murals on urban landscapes is receiving more attention. for example, graffiti murals in new york attract large numbers of tourists each year, and germany is in the process of restoring the famous berlin wall graffiti murals. as a result, governments are gradually becoming more tolerant, with legal graffiti zones being established. urban management departments are also organizing graffiti artists to create murals in old districts, helping to revitalize their visual landscapes. meanwhile, commercial graffiti murals are becoming more prevalent, and graffiti artists today face a dilemma in the current commercialized world—whether to "stay true" to their art or to "compromise." the boundary between graffiti murals and mainstream public murals is becoming increasingly blurred, as graffiti art moves toward diversification and is accepted by society. however, the original, wild, and raw form of graffiti murals will continue to exist in the public spaces of cities for the long term. this is what the author, along with many graffiti mural enthusiasts, hopes to see. references [1] gombrich, e. h., & zheng, y. (2007). graffiti, transference, and the unconscious. art observation, (2), 121126. [2] shao, y. (1997). the popular artist of casual graffiti—keith haring. art observation, (11), 76. [3] gao, b. (1997). mainstream culture, subculture, counterculture, and the transformation of chinese culture. sociological studies, (1), 113-117. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 98 published by ideas spread [4] chen, y. (2004). commercial society and graffiti art as youth subculture. art observation, (4), 100. [5] liao, f., & meng, c. (2006). graffiti: city candy map. taiwan: rural city cultural business co., ltd. [6] meng, j., & fang, e. (2006). graffiti. beijing: china youth press. [7] bao, y. (2002). contemporary american art. beijing: china social sciences press. [8] gombrich, e. h. (1999). the sense of order: a psychological study of decorative art (f. jingzhong, y. siliang, & x. yiwei, trans.). changsha: hunan science and technology press. [9] wang, j. (2007). the expression of countercultural elements in contemporary graffiti art (master’s thesis). hubei academy of fine arts, wuhan. [10] li, w. (2007). graffiti art and public space (master’s thesis). central academy of fine arts, beijing. [11] wang, m. (2008). the graphic semantics of contemporary graffiti art in urban spaces (master’s thesis). jilin university, changchun. [12] lü, h. (2008). "graffiti": private expression in public space (master’s thesis). school of journalism and communication, peking university, beijing. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p229 229 published by ideas spread a systematic review of ai-driven game design and user experience research qiwen lao1 1 faculty of innovation and design, city university of macau, macau correspondence: qiwen lao, faculty of innovation and design, city university of macau, macau received: august 21, 2025; accepted: august 28, 2025; published: august 29, 2025 abstract in recent years, artificial intelligence (ai) has been increasingly integrated into game design, driving innovation that extend from development efficiency to user experience. this study systematically reviewed the research on user experience in ai-driven game design published between 2020 to april 2025, analyzing 74 studies retrieved acm digital library, ieee xplore and web of science. findings indicate that ai has been incorporated into all stages of game design, enabling collaborative development and facilitating personalized content adaptation and real-time player interaction through dynamic difficulty adjustment, affective computing, and generative technologies. the integration of multimodal technologies further enhances immersion and engagement. in crossdomain applications, ai-driven serious games demonstrate strong potential in fileds such as education and healthcare. nevertheless, challenges remain in terms of technology integration complexity and insufficient interdisciplinary validation. future research should establish standardized evaluation frameworks to advance game design from entertainment-focused application toward broader social demands including education and health care. keywords: artificial intelligence, game design, user experience, dynamic adjustment, personalization 1. introduction the digital gaming industry is undergoing rapid expansion, encompassing a broad range of sectors including game development, publishing and operations, platform services, emerging technology innovation, esports, and derivative content industries. notably, esports was officially included as a competitive event at the 19th asian games held in hangzhou in 2023(hangzhou asian games organising committee, 2022), and the first esports olympics is scheduled to take place in saudi arabia in 2027(international olympic committee, n.d.) . in the realm of game development and design, artificial intelligence (ai) is increasingly integrated into various aspects of the creative and operational process, enhancing both gameplay and user experience (kawai, 2024). for instance, the powerful language modeling and generation capabilities of gpt have proven effective in areas such as game text generation, code assistance, and player feedback or guidance (yang et al., 2025). furthermore, ai is being combined with other emerging technologies such as augmented reality (ar), virtual reality (vr), and mixed reality (mr) in innovative gaming applications, educational games, and even healthcare-related contexts (berthault et al., 2023; delgado et al., 2024; li et al., 2023; ye et al., 2023). these developments not only enhanced the efficiency of game production but are also reshaping user interaction and immersive experience paradigms. prior to the advent of ai, user experience (ux) testing and optimization relied heavily on designers’ intuition, internal testing, and post-launch player feedback, resulting in uniform content delivery to all users. however, with increasingly diverse user needs, ux has become central to game design, emphasizing systems that respond in realtime to players’ emotions, behaviors, and cognitive states (carbone et al., 2020; villareale et al., 2023). the introduction of ai has endowed games with greater adaptability and intelligence, enabling features such as personalized content adjustments, dynamic difficulty scaling, and emotion-aware interaction—thus allowing players to truly become the protagonists of their own gameplay experience and enhancing immersion (alvarez et al., 2021; cui et al., 2020; moon et al., 2022; rathnayake et al., 2020). while prior literature reviews have addressed the application of ai in game development, these studies have predominantly focused on technical analysis of ai models, content generation capabilities, and implementation frameworks (frutos-pascual & zapirain, 2017; singh et al., 2024; yang et al., 2025). less attention has been paid to how ai influences user experience across various design dimensions. this paper aims to fill that gap by constructing a review framework centered on “user experience.” it systematically analyzed literature published hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 230 published by ideas spread between 2020 and april 2025 to classify and synthesize current findings, identify emerging trends, highlight research gaps, and propose future directions. 2. literature retrieval and analysis 2.1 databases and search strategy a systematic search was conducted across three major academic databases—acm digital library, ieee xplore, and web of science—using the keywords “ai” and “game design” and “user experience” within the abstract field. the search covered the period from 2020 to april 2025. these databases are widely recognized in the fields of computer science and ai research. given the technical and data-driven nature of early ai research in games, these sources are particularly suited for identifying relevant literature (guha et al., 2013). the initial search yielded 71, 29, and 72 articles from acm, ieee, and web of science, respectively. after removing non-research materials such as posters, abstracts, tutorials, presentations, and work-in-progress papers, the remaining articles numbered 49, 29, and 72, respectively. after eliminating duplicates, 121 unique papers were identified (table 1). subsequent screening was conducted based on the following inclusion criteria: 1) explicit application of ai technologies; 2) involvement of digital or simulated game systems, including either design/development or player interaction; 3) relevance to user experience research, encompassing behavioral analysis, emotional response, feedback mechanisms, and experience evaluation. following a review of titles and abstracts, 74 articles were ultimately deemed relevant and included in this literature review. table 1. types and quantities of initially retrieved articles database conference papers research papers reviews total (excluding duplicates) acm digital library 43 4 2 121 ieee xplore 21 6 2 web of science 37 37 5 2.2 coding and classification methods to analyze the various patterns through which ai influences user experience in games, this study employed an open coding approach. the content of each selected paper was summarized and tagged, and an initial categorization was made based on three primary domains: design, education, and healthcare. given that most studies involved design-related or interdisciplinary topics, the design domain was further refined using additional dimensions such as types of ai, stage of application, and mode of interaction. ultimately, the coding results were clustered into the following six thematic categories: 1) ai collaborative design: ai assists designers in completing creative tasks such as stories and scenes in different links; 2) personalization and dynamic adjustment: real-time adjustment of content and feedback according to players' behavior and state; 3) multimodal technology integration: ai combines voice, image, vr, ar, etc., to realize multi-sensory interaction; 4) ai technical mechanisms: focusing on behavior trees, algorithm frameworks, model structures, etc., behind ai technologies; 5) healthcare application: experience optimization of ai in gamified therapy and rehabilitation training; 6) educational application: teaching guidance and feedback mechanism design of ai in learning games. each literature can correspond to multiple labels to ensure interdisciplinary research. 2.3 literature analysis due to the limited data available for 2025 (only covering the first four months), the temporal comparison in this study focused on the period from 2020 to 2024. an analysis of the 74 selected publications revealed a clear upward hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 231 published by ideas spread trend in the annual number of studies. the number of papers increased significantly from 8 in 2022 to 19 in 2023, peaking at 30 in 2024 (figure 1). this trend might indicate that research on ai-driven game design and user experience has increasingly become a focal point within the academic community. the continued growth over the past two years reflected growing scholarly enthusiasm and attention toward the role of ai in enhancing gameplay experiences. when examining trends across thematic categories, a sharp increase in publication volume was observed from 2023 onward across all major topics (figure 2). this surge can be largely attributed to the public release of gpt3 and gpt-3.5, which significantly expanded the user base of generative ai technologies and, in turn, stimulated academic interest in ai applications in game development (yang et al., 2025). a closer analysis of individual themes revealed that ai collaborative design is the most widely studied topic, with a consistently increasing number of studies each year. in 2024, the number of publications under this theme reached 12, making it the most prominent area of inquiry. these studies primarily focued on how ai can support game designers in tasks such as content generation, level design, and narrative planning, thereby enhancing development efficiency and creative diversity (barthet et al., 2022; charity et al., 2024; gao et al., 2024; lankes & stöckl, 2023). the theme of personalization and dynamic adjustment has also seen steady growth, with research concentrating on how ai dynamically adjusts gameplay elements—such as difficulty and interactivity—based on player behavior, interests, and skill levels to improve immersion (vijaya et al., 2024; wang et al., 2023; zhu & ontañón, 2020). interest in multimodal technology integration rose sharply starting in 2023, with 8 publications in 2024. these studies explore how ai can incorporate various sensory modalities—such as voice, image, gesture, and vr—to enhance the realism and expressiveness of games (berthault et al., 2023; hassan et al., 2022; hong & ge, 2022; t & thomas, 2024; woodward et al., 2021; ye et al., 2023; zhao et al., 2024). the ai technical mechanism’s theme, an early area of focus, included 4 publications as early as 2020. however, its growth has been relatively modest, stabilizing at around 4 papers in 2024. this suggests that foundational technical research in this area is reaching maturity and transitioning toward application-driven studies (ana et al., 2023; carbone et al., 2020; gupta et al., 2024; raut et al., 2024; shacklett et al., 2023). research on educational applications ranks second in volume after collaborative design, rising from just 1 paper in 2020 to 10 in 2024. these studies primarily investigate adaptive learning systems and feedback mechanisms in game-based learning environments, underscoring the strong momentum of ai-enhanced education (barmpakas & xinogalos, 2023; x. liu et al., 2023; rodríguez-rivera et al., 2025; xu et al., 2025). in contrast, the volume of research in the medical domain remains relatively low, with only 2 publications recorded in 2024. this suggests that ai applications in healthcare-oriented game design are still in an exploratory phase, with significant room for further development in both theoretical and practical dimensions. figure 1. research trends of ai-driven game design and user experience (drawn by the researcher) figure 2. overall trends of each category (drawn by the researcher) hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 232 published by ideas spread 3. design perspective: the role of ai in game experience design 3.1 ai collaborative design artificial intelligence is increasingly emerging as a transformative force in game design, enabling richer player experiences and innovative gameplay mechanisms. this section summarizes the various ways in which ai participates in collaborative game design, particularly in the domains of text generation, level design, and user experience optimization. in the area of text generation, ai is primarily involved in narrative development. it not only attends to linguistic style and worldbuilding but can also adapt its storytelling dynamically based on player input and in-game context. for example, mieschke and radicke (2023) developed a generative broadcast system using gpt-3.5, which creates news reports, stories, advertisements, and interviews in real time by combining player actions with a general in-game knowledge base (e.g., character histories and story background). in terms of level design, h. liu et al., (2023) studied how to use ai to synthesize game levels specially customized for collaborative games in a virtual environment. the researchers synthesized low, medium, and high-level collaborative game levels and recruited participant groups to play the game levels. it was verified that ai virtual agents did provide sufficient data to describe players' collaborative behaviors in each game level block, proving that artificial intelligence can significantly simplify the level creation process. game developers can consider using ai virtual agents as an alternative method to evaluate the degree of collaboration required to complete game levels, which not only speeds up the game development cycle but also ensures that players can obtain a more suitable game experience. in the visual design of game design, su and he (2024) pointed out that generative ai can be used to improve the graphic art style, enabling developers to quickly evaluate various aesthetic changes that meet players' preferences. ai not only significantly improves the efficiency of game design but also allows for innovative graphics and element design. this capability enables designers to more closely align artistic choices with the expectations of the target audience, thereby enhancing player engagement and immersion. in creating game experiences, sidji et al. (2024) explored the dynamics of human interaction with ai assistants in the cooperative game "codenames" and found that ai assistants can enhance player strategies, increase social interaction and connections between teams, and ultimately improve cognitive engagement. however, they can also interfere with the formation of team mental models and challenge many players' understanding of the "spirit of the game". their research emphasizes the impact of artificial intelligence on social dynamics, indicating that when human players collaborate with artificial intelligence-driven guides, players can obtain a higher level of understanding and enjoyment, and ai can support strategic decision-making by processing situational clues, thereby enriching players' experiences. villareale et al.'s (2023) research emphasized that based on existing ai game design processes, players' views on ai are very important, and it was believed that user feedback should be integrated into ai games. game designers can better customize design decisions according to expected experiences to adapt to players' behaviors and further increase player participation. artificial intelligence represents a transformative force in the field of game design, significantly improving the development quality and game fun of games by promoting collaborative games, supporting complex level design, optimizing player experience, and increasing game testing. integrating ai tools and strategies into game design has a profound impact on the future development of the industry and will also bring richer and more suitable game experiences. 3.2 personalization and dynamic adjustment this section discusses the impact of ai participation on game design and game experience from the aspects of personalization and dynamic adjustment, sorting out how ai improves game experience through personalized strategies and dynamic difficulty adjustment. personalization in game design is crucial for maintaining player engagement and satisfaction. zhu and ontañón (2020) proposed a new player-centered framework as a supplement to the commonly used system-centered methods. by sorting out existing research and identifying unresolved issues, they emphasized the importance of developing systems that can adapt to players' personal preferences, which can significantly improve player satisfaction. based on the "action-structure theory", they outlined a framework, laying the foundation for how ai can create player-specific experiences in game environments. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 233 published by ideas spread the research of tselepatiotis and alepis(2024) discussed the use of ai to create personalized game experiences. they designed a zombie shooting game to detect common sense problems, predicted new players' performance based on sample data, useed the k-nearest neighbor model to dynamically adjust the distribution of question types, and used fuzzy logic to real-time change zombie behaviors according to players' levels. therefore, ai can optimize knowledge distribution, dynamically balance the difficulty curve, realize the synchronization of personalized learning and immersive games, and play a role in evaluating players' performance, customizing quizzes and challenges to improve learning outcomes. dynamic difficulty adjustment (dda) is another important point where ai shows potential in improving game experience. traditional dda relies on players' proficiency to balance game difficulty, while moon et al. introduced ai opponents that can decide the next action according to players' emotional states. they integrated the player state model into the monte carlo tree search algorithm, enhancing the diversity and effectiveness of dynamic difficulty agents in different game scenarios, enabling ai opponents to automatically and self-adjust the game according to players' states, thereby enhancing the game experience (moon et al., 2022). reis et al. (2023) further explored the use of deep learning technology to balance the difficulty of the game. they developed an ai automation framework to real-time adjust the difficulty of the game in two-player games. the game master (gm) agent is allowed to learn how to use the disc game mechanism, and the reward function sends a signal to allow the leading player to retreat and the trailing player to catch up, thereby generating the desired rubber band effect, balancing the skill gap, and providing all players with a fair and pleasant game experience. ai can also build adaptive behavior systems for npcs in games. for example, cui et al. (2020) proposed a reinforced evolutionary algorithm based on relative error-aware difficulty difference (rea-dd), which effectively controls the game difficulty in the "pong" game on the ale platform and the horror game "the ghost story", demonstrating a method that continuously evolves according to players' preferences. ai has promoted the personalization and dynamic adjustment of game design and significantly improved players' overall participation and satisfaction. through self-adjustment mechanisms and player-centered methods, future game experiences will be more abundant and personalized to meet players' diverse needs. with the continuous development of games, developers must integrate the results of artificial intelligence research to create unique, personalized, and suitable game experiences for players. 3.3 multimodality and technology integration the integration of ai and multimodal technologies in game design has significantly transformed players' experiences. by leveraging multiple interaction modes such as five-sense feedback, vr, and ar, a more immersive and engaging environment is jointly created in aspects like game mechanics, player participation, and immersive experiences, thereby enriching game dynamics. among them, the application of augmented reality (ar) and virtual reality (vr) technologies can expand the ways players interact with games. kim et al. (2023) developed a basic ar pet-raising game called bubbleu, using object detection as a key interaction method to study how ar promotes ai-based uncertain interactions in game design. they found that player experience can be improved in various ways, such as reducing perception errors, explaining the system, and enabling users to control the incidence of uncertainty. delgado et al. (2024) applied vr to museum exhibitions, developing an interactive vr game that allows visitors to immerse themselves in a dynamic vr environment to tour 3d museum collections and interact with ai-agent npcs through dialogue and explanations. the observation results emphasized the importance of shared experiences among visitors. ai can also customize gameplay according to users' personal preferences, as shown in prithul et al.'s research on teleportation experiences in vr games. the study used a vr first-person shooter game, with ai agents simulating other players, and compared the significant differences in players' performance, navigation behavior, and perceived user experience between teleportation and continuous movement. players using teleportation could move farther, but in combat, they were found to be more stationary and hit more frequently. therefore, more strategies to balance gameplay need to be proposed (prithul et al., 2024). these attempts and experiments have opened up new ways of game experience, providing players with multiple participation channels and increasing the playability, interactivity, and immersion of games. in scene design, huynh et al. (2023) proposed the sketch2reality system, which combines sketching, ai assistance for 3d generation, and vr. the system can identify the sketched objects and their positions, retrieve corresponding 3d models, and fill them into ai-generated 3d scenes. users can modify the scene, arrange furniture, adjust lighting, and add or delete objects, using virtual reality technology to allow users to realistically experience and interact with the scene. at the same time, chen et al. (2024) used mr (mixed reality) and ai to facilitate symbiotic hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 234 published by ideas spread interaction between virtual and real spaces. they found that mr offered better visual comfort and higher immersion compared to vr. by leveraging generative ai-driven mr, their approach enabled real-time modification and interaction with spatial interfaces through intuitive language and gesture-based inputs. this method simplifyed the traditional design process, reducing steps such as measurement, modeling, and rendering to streamline the workflow, and also improving user participation and creativity, providing new possibilities for experiential exhibitions and architectural design, and helping to realize a future environment where virtual and real spaces coexist seamlessly. emotion recognition through multimodal systems can analyze player reactions in real-time, thereby dynamically customizing and adjusting the game experience. ganiti-roumeliotou et al. (2024) explored identifying and customizing game experiences before, during, and after the game by analyzing players' facial expressions and physiological reactions, and adjusting the level of game tasks or narrative elements according to players' emotional states to maintain players' interest and participation. this feedback loop between artificial intelligence analysis and game design enables developers to create more nuanced narratives and interactions, and better capture players' feelings and reactions. the innovative integration of ai multimodality and technology is reshaping the direction of game design. by enhancing npc behaviors, creating immersive environments, and optimizing game mechanics, artificial intelligence not only enriches players' experiences but also provides developers with feedback tools to help them build more attractive and adaptable game worlds. 3.4 ai technical mechanisms the application of artificial intelligence technology continues to enhance the richness and complexity of gaming experiences. by leveraging various ai technologies, game developers can create more diverse and personalized gaming environments. this section will explore how ai improves gaming experiences through technical means such as procedural generation agents, reinforcement learning, and affective computing. procedurally generated agents are gradually emerging and evolving in game design. these ai agents can simulate the behaviors of human players, providing more realistic interactive experiences. shacklett et al. (2023) proposed a high-performance, multi-world simulation architecture for efficiently creating new training environments (including environment generation and custom logic for generating agent observations and rewards), enabling the training of ai agents in parallel environments. this framework can effectively facilitate ai learning and performance in complex gaming environments. this kind of simulation not only supports the replication of real behaviors but also lays the foundation for creating rich storylines and task designs in dynamic environments. meanwhile, the development of game ai using reinforcement learning has significantly enhanced the playability and challenge of games. according to the research by barthet et al., generative ai agents can imitate humans to achieve specific in-game behaviors and train human-like program characters through reinforcement learning. ai agents perform in the form of rules, rewards, or human demonstrations, improving the quantity and efficiency of human and material resources required for game testing, thereby enabling the creation of more complex characters and storylines in the game world (barthet et al., 2022). a review study by singh et al. (2024) indicated that generative adversarial networks (gan) can effectively enhance ai efficiency in games and promote higher-level game design. the article discusses the architecture, training methods, applications, difficulties, and potential future directions of gan in ai games. it is expected that a game world driven by ai and capable of solving related obstacles through gan will be created in the future. through reinforcement learning, game ai can continuously adapt and adjust the game difficulty to ensure a balance between challenge and interest for players. the introduction of affective computing enables game ai to understand and respond to players' emotional states, thereby further enriching players' experiences. the research by dai et al.(2020) proposed integrating affective computing into first-person shooter (fps) games. by improving the hierarchical occ emotional model and integrating it into the original system, ai is driven to control characters' decisions and behaviors through emotional factors. actual user tests conducted in the ue engine found that this system significantly improved user experience. additionally, moon et al. (2022) pointed out that ai opponents considering players' emotional states need to be designed to balance the game difficulty. they adopted the monte carlo tree search (mcts) algorithm and referenced game feature machine learning models to enable ai to better predict and respond to players' needs, thereby enhancing the immersion of the game. therefore, through various technical means in game design, ai can not only make games more attractive but also enhance the realism of interactions through emotional communication with players, significantly improving hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 235 published by ideas spread players' gaming experiences. with the continuous advancement of technology, we can foresee that games will provide more appealing, diverse, and personalized experiences to players worldwide in the future. 4 healthcare perspective: gamified ai interventions and user experience the interdisciplinary integration of game design and medicine has witnessed gamified artificial intelligence emerging as a transformative force, demonstrating substantial potential in enhancing disease prediction, treatment efficacy, and rehabilitation outcomes. this synergy leverages core game mechanics to innovate healthcare delivery models, offering a patient-centric approach to medical services. lulle et al. (2024) developed an ai-driven application tailored to enhance cognitive functions in individuals with dementia. trained via machine learning algorithms, the application provided a comprehensive suite of services, including early dementia detection, preventive guidance, location tracking, memory training modules, digital cognitive games, and rehabilitation tools. by incorporating gamified elements such as interactive challenges and progress tracking, the technology motivates consistent user engagement while enabling real-time customization of interventions based on individual patient responses. li et al. (2023) designed a self-adaptive vr game targeting elderly populations seeking to maintain or improve their health. leveraging vr’s high interactivity, the game allowed users to engage in diverse physical activities without exposing them to physical risks. integrated ai algorithms deliver real-time guidance, dynamically adjust game content to match user capabilities, and generate personalized recommendations. through continuous optimization of content via ai-driven analytics, the game aligns more closely with users’ health goals, addressing key barriers to elderly participation in health-promoting activities and fostering sustained engagement. the inclusion of gamification strategies—such as reward systems and friendly competitions—further enhances user motivation, encouraging adherence to health-related objectives, which warrants deeper exploration in chronic disease management and rehabilitation contexts. hany et al. (2024) focused on language acquisition among children with dyslexia, introducing nexia tutor: an aipowered, personalized language learning system. this platform identified dyslexic traits, generates customized feedback reports, and delivers gamified educational interventions tailored to individual needs (e.g., visual memory enhancement and phonological awareness training). by adapting to personal learning rhythms, the system mirrored the customization required in medical protocols, highlighting its potential to provide timely, targeted interventions that address the specific linguistic challenges faced by dyslexic children. the convergence of ai technology and medicine has paved new pathways for patient-centered care. integrating gamified ai into medical game design not only improves disease prediction, treatment, and rehabilitation outcomes but also underscores a growing trend: interactive, self-adaptive technologies are increasingly being deployed to enhance health outcomes among vulnerable populations, including the elderly and individuals with cognitive impairments. these innovations demonstrate significant efficacy and hold promising implications for future healthcare applications. 5. educational perspective: enhancing learning game experiences through ai this section examines the role of artificial intelligence (ai) in supporting instruction, guiding educational processes, and designing feedback mechanisms within gamified learning environments. ai facilitates personalized learning experiences by enabling students to engage with game elements tailored to their individual needs. tselepatiotis and alepis (2024) implemented ai-driven adaptive learning approaches to deliver customized assessments, adjusting question difficulty by balancing the distribution of question categories based on predicted learner performance. this method effectively enhanced students’ knowledge retention and engagement. rodríguez-rivera et al. (2025) explored students’ perceptions of using information and communication technology (ict) tools and generative ai (genai) as learning methodologies for designing escape rooms. in their coursework, students utilized genai, genially, and heroforge to develop digital escape rooms, investigating how generative ai fosters engagement and creativity. the findings indicated that students recognized ai’s positive influence on digital literacy, creative thinking, and problem-solving capabilities, validating its practical utility in educational design. collaborative learning emerged as a key enabler in overcoming initial technical barriers, empowering students to take ownership of their learning while leveraging ai tools to enhance the overall educational experience. consequently, ai holds the potential to transform passive learners into active participants motivated by intrinsic interest. in the domain of ai-guided education, barmpakas and xinogalos (2023) proposed that ai and algorithmic concepts can be effectively introduced to students through gameplay. they developed a serious game, spai war, and collected student evaluations to facilitate understanding of ai principles and their applications throughout the hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 236 published by ideas spread gameplay process. based on assessments using the meega+ model, the study demonstrated positive outcomes in terms of player experience, game scenario design, and perceived short-term learning gains. ai’s utility in classrooms extends to teaching complex concepts such as machine learning (ml). zammit et al. (2022) created artbot, a digital game designed to teach foundational principles of ai and ml while stimulating critical discourse on the societal implications of ai applications in daily life. currently piloted as an instructional tool in primary and secondary education, this game exemplifies ai’s multifaceted role in education, as such experiences deepen students’ comprehension of ai-related issues. ai-driven feedback mechanisms are equally pivotal. as highlighted by reyes et al., public skepticism persists regarding the uncertainty inherent in ai systems. their study employed game-based experiences to measure trust in ai-generated feedback under conditions of uncertainty visualization, revealing that visualizing uncertainty in ai decision-making processes significantly enhanced user trust in ai systems and improved decision-making proficiency (reyes et al., 2025). such feedback mechanisms are not only integral to the learning process but also critical for cultivating critical thinking and real-world problem-solving skills. ai not only enables personalized learning pathways but also enhances student engagement and the development of key competencies. future research should investigate the long-term impacts of these technologies on student learning outcomes to fully harness ai’s potential in educational contexts. 6. discussion this study systematically synthesizes the applications and evolving trends of ai-driven game design in enhancing user experience from 2020 to april 2025. through integrating interdisciplinary research across design, education, and healthcare domains, three core directions are identified: 1) adaptive intelligence; 2) multimodal immersion;3) human-ai collaborative creation. ai-driven dynamic adjustment mechanisms—such as k-nearest neighbor models and fuzzy logic—exhibit distinct advantages over traditional static systems. early research prioritized technical implementation (cui et al., 2020), whereas later studies shifted focus toward emotional states, cognitive load, and the primacy of personalization (moon et al., 2022), aligning with the contemporary demand for games to deliver real-time responsiveness to player behaviors and emotional feedback. the convergence of ai and xr technologies has fostered immersive ecological environments. case studies such as bubbleu (kim et al., 2023) and sketch2reality (huynh et al., 2023) demonstrate ai’s capacity for real-time environment generation and multisensory interaction. however, technical constraints in ar and vr hardware persist as critical barriers to achieving full immersion. the proliferation of generative ai tools—including gpt-3.5 and gans—has catalyzed advancements in collaborative design. while ai-assisted design has reduced development cycles by 40% (h. liu et al., 2023), the risk of over-automation warrants caution. sidji et al.’s research highlighted that excessive ai intervention undermines player agency, underscoring the necessity of balancing human creativity with ai assistance (sidji et al., 2024). in cross-domain applications, ai-powered healthcare games showed therapeutic potential but lack long-term efficacy validation (li et al., 2023), while educational tools faced challenges in reconciling entertainment value with pedagogical rigor (rodríguez-rivera et al., 2025). these issues reflected inherent tensions between entertainment-oriented design paradigms and domain-specific functional requirements. 7. limitations despite efforts to comprehensively map research on ai-driven game design and user experience over the past five years, this study has several limitations. first, literature retrieval was confined to three major databases, potentially excluding non-english studies or research in niche application areas. second, current scholarship disproportionately focused on design mechanisms and technical implementation, with insufficient exploration of how individual player differences modulate experiences or whether ai meaningfully enhances long-term user retention. third, research on medical and educational games remains relatively scarce, while evaluation tools and standardized frameworks for ai-driven user experience are still in a nascent stage of development. 8. conclusion artificial intelligence is fundamentally reshaping the design logic and user experience frameworks of digital games. from ai-augmented creation and personalized feedback systems to multimodal immersive interactions, ai’s scope of integration and cognitive sophistication continue to expand—endowing non-player characters (npcs) with emotional intelligence and contextual awareness, and redefining the boundaries of immersion through ai-xr hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 237 published by ideas spread multimodal fusion. these advancements enable games to dynamically respond to players’ needs, emotions, and behavioral patterns. cross-domain applications further reveal ai’s potential to bridge entertainment with societal needs, though standardized evaluation frameworks for healthcare and educational contexts remain imperative. future research should explore ai’s adaptability in cross-cultural user experiences, establish standardized evaluation metrics, and strengthen empirical validation in educational and healthcare settings. the deep integration of ai and game experiences promises to unlock new frontiers for the gaming industry and human-computer interaction research. references alvarez, a., grevillius, e., olsson, e., & font, j. 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(2020). player-centered ai for automatic game personalization: open problems. in international conference on the foundations of digital games (pp. 1–8). association for computing machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/3402942.3402951 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n4p241 241 published by ideas spread research on the demand and satisfaction of the elderly in beijing for assistive devices and digital intelligent products of traditional chinese medicine under the background of the silver economy wen xiao1 1 minzu university of china, china correspondence: wen xiao, minzu university of china, biejing, china. received: august 14, 2025; accepted: august 28, 2025; published: august 29, 2025 abstract as china accelerates its aging process, the trend of deep aging poses an urgent need for smart elderly care services. the state council's "14th five-year plan for the development of national aging services" explicitly puts forward the goal of "aging in place", requiring the improvement of community elderly care service capabilities through technological innovation. in this context, this study focuses on the demand and satisfaction of the elderly population in beijing with assistive devices and digital intelligent products of traditional chinese medicine, aiming to reveal the contradiction between supply and demand in the market through a hybrid research method (online questionnaire survey and offline field investigation), and to provide basis and improvement suggestions for product optimization, industrial upgrading and publicity channels. the research team covered more than 1,000 elderly people aged 60 and above in beijing through stratified sampling, combined with questionnaire surveys and field interviews, and used descriptive statistical analysis, k-means cluster analysis, pearson chi-square test analysis, and variance test to reveal the consumption status, demand differences, product usage pain points, and consumption barriers of the elderly group. the data showed that there were significant differences in demand for the two types of products among the elderly, and preferences and usage varied among the elderly of different ages, genders and health conditions. the core demands were concentrated on functional practicality, age-friendly design and price rationality, but there were significant structural contradictions in the market supply. through pearson correlation analysis and multiple linear regression models, it was found that after-sales service is the primary driver of satisfaction with assistive devices, and quality and after-sales service jointly determine satisfaction with digital products of traditional chinese medicine. based on the findings, the report proposes market stratification optimization, consumer conversion strategies, and marketing strategies aimed at enhancing the acceptance and satisfaction of elderly people with smart health care products, providing data support for the construction of a smart elderly care ecosystem, and promoting the high-quality development of the health care industry. keywords: elderly population, assistive devices, digital products for traditional chinese medicine, demand analysis, satisfaction survey, age-friendly design 1. introduction 1.1 research background in the global aging wave, the size of the elderly population in china continues to expand at an accelerating rate. by the end of 2023, the proportion of people aged 60 and above in china had reached 21.1%. beijing, as a megacity with a deep aging population, had an even higher proportion of the elderly population at 21.3%, ranking among the top in the country. against this backdrop, the state council's "14th five-year plan for the development of national aging services" [1] explicitly put forward the goal of "aging in place" and called for enhancing the capacity of community elderly care services through technological innovation. intelligent rehabilitation assistive devices and digital products of traditional chinese medicine are emerging as technological breakthroughs in the field of smart elderly care, thanks to their unique value in health monitoring, life assistance, rehabilitation training and tcm syndrome differentiation and treatment. the current market faces multi-dimensional structural contradictions: on the supply side, online platform data shows that the growth rate of smart product categories is 34.43%, but the homogeneity rate exceeds 60%[2], there are problems of functional redundancy and lack of age-friendly design, such as ar rehabilitation training devices with motion capture technology, 78% of the products do not take into account the joint range of motion limitations hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 242 published by ideas spread of elderly users; on the demand side, community research shows that the elderly demand for basic functions such as "one-click operation" and "voice interaction" is 2.3 times stronger than that of existing products [3], and digital products of traditional chinese medicine have a community penetration rate of less than 15% due to problems such as complex operation and broken service chain. the elderly population in beijing is large and growing, and the health and wellness industry is developing rapidly. how to accurately grasp the needs of the elderly group, optimize the supply of smart health and wellness products, and improve service quality is the key issue currently faced by the development of the health and wellness industry in beijing. 1.2 study objectives and significance 1.2.1 study objectives targeting the elderly population aged 60 and above in beijing communities, focusing on the three dimensions of market supply, user demand and satisfaction of assistive devices and digital intelligent products of traditional chinese medicine, sorting out the current supply and demand situation, analyzing demand characteristics and pain points, evaluating key influencing factors of satisfaction, and proposing optimization plans to provide a basis for the development of elderly-friendly products and industrial upgrading. 1.2.2 significance of the study 1.2.2.1 theoretical implications analyze the needs and satisfaction of the elderly group from multiple dimensions such as product functions, technology applications, and service models, enrich the market demand theory and user experience research in the field of intelligent products for elderly health care, and fill the gap in this field in beijing. 1.2.2.2 practical significance help enterprises develop products that fit the market and enhance their competitiveness; provide a basis for the government to formulate policies and improve industry norms; guide social resources towards the elderly care sector, improve the quality of life for the elderly, and promote the construction of an age-friendly society. 1.3 research methods 1.3.1 definition of core concepts assistive devices: devices or tools that help the elderly make up for physical deficiencies and improve their ability to take care of themselves through technical means, including walking aids, smart wearable devices, etc. the core function is to enhance the independence of the elderly and reduce the burden of care. traditional chinese medicine digital products: refer to intelligent devices or service platforms that use technologies such as artificial intelligence to transform traditional chinese medicine diagnosis and treatment, health preservation and care methods into quantifiable and interactive ones, such as intelligent pulse diagnosis devices, digital moxibustion devices, etc. community-based elderly care model: based on the family and supported by the community, it integrates medical, housekeeping, cultural and other service resources to provide standardized and diversified elderly care services for the elderly. 1.3.2 the method of literature review china has achieved certain results in the construction of assistive device service system. however, in the face of the large number of elderly people and the rapid development of aging, the future demand will continue to grow rapidly, and higher requirements will be put forward for the coverage and service quality of the service system. since the relevant policies were proposed, a number of applications and platforms have emerged, significantly improving the efficiency of teaching, research and clinical work in traditional chinese medicine. however, there are still problems in the deep integration of technology and traditional chinese medicine theory, data quality and security. the theoretical basis of consumer satisfaction is oliver's expectancy confirmation theory proposed in 1980. satisfaction with assistive devices is influenced by various factors such as pre-sale service satisfaction and after-sale service satisfaction, and is closely related to purchase intention. in summary, the assistive device service system needs to be continuously optimized to meet the growing demand; digital products of traditional chinese medicine are developing rapidly but still have room for improvement; consumer satisfaction with assistive devices is influenced by a variety of factors, providing directions for the improvement of related products and services. future research could focus on how to further improve the assistive device service system, deepen the application of digital technology in traditional chinese medicine, enhance hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 243 published by ideas spread consumer satisfaction, and explore the interrelationships and synergistic development paths among these three aspects. 2. current situation analysis to understand the current market situation, 20 types of products (covering price ranges from 200 yuan to over 2,000 yuan), including crutches, walking aids, physiotherapy devices, etc. were surveyed on platforms such as taobao. 2.1 price range and market institution analysis table 1. price range and market organization analysis price range quantity share typical products efficiency characteristics after-sales service features under 200 yuan 19% medical position pads, folding crutches, waist guards low price, high sales volume (15 yuan products sold over 10,000 units) 37% have no after-sales service, 42% offer warranty 200-500 yuan 34% blood pressure monitor, positioning wristband, physiotherapy device mid-range products are selling well (9 models sold over 1,000 +) 90% offer "seven-day no-reason return and exchange", 60% come with additional warranty 5001000 yuan 23% smart lift mattress, transfer machine, medium frequency physiotherapy device high-price product differentiation (with some selling over 10,000 units) emphasizing "lifetime warranty" and "long trial period" 1,0002,000 yuan 16% electric nursing beds, oxygen generators, transfer machines top products explode (haier oxygen generators sold for over 50,000) lifetime warranty is the main feature, and some offer an extended return and exchange period more than 2,000 yuan 8% electric stair-climbing wheelchairs, high-end physiotherapy devices ultra-high-priced products have low sales (mostly under 1000) extended warranty (3 to 5 years) + lifetime technical support 2.1.1 the product pyramid structure is significant low-price products (under 200 yuan) : traffic entry point, mainly crutches and belts, the 15-yuan price range accounts for 42% of sales, but 37% have no after-sales service, low user trust. mid-waist (200-1000 yuan) : contributing 70% of profits, with the rise of categories such as blood pressure monitors and physiotherapy devices, accounting for more than 50% of sales. consumers pay attention to "sevenday no-reason return and exchange" and "lifetime warranty", and intelligent products are growing significantly. high-end (over 1,000 yuan) : explosive demand for essential equipment such as electric nursing beds and oxygen generators; sales of ultra-high-priced products (such as electric stair-climbing wheelchairs) are sluggish, relying on brands and extended warranties (3-5 years). 2.1.2 price sensitivity stratification table 2. price sensitivity stratification table price range decision core nps value notes less than 200 yuan price-driven 35 the lack of after-sales service significantly lowers the recommendation rate 200-1000 yuan services + features 65 "seven-day return and exchange" and "intelligentization" as growth engines > 1,000 yuan brand + aftersales 75 market education is costly and relies on word-of-mouth hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 244 published by ideas spread 2.3 category market performance and competitive landscape table 3. top5 best-selling categories and competition dynamics categories representative products market size (billion yuan) annual growth rate core competitive strategy top merchants crutches/walkers folding crutches, senior walkers 8.5 15% low price for volume + basic warranty kangpai medical, ali health pharmacy blood pressure monitor/physiotherapy device omron blood pressure monitor, medium frequency physiotherapy device 12.3 22% brand premium + long period warranty omron, yuyue, kefu medical nursing bed/transfer machine electric nursing beds, paralysis transfer machines 6.8 35% omni-channel coverage + customized services omron, yuyue, kefu medical location/anti-loss devices gps location wristbands, senior alarm devices 4.2 18% iot technology upgrade + joint insurance service newman pryor, true artisan flagship store rehabilitation trainers upper and lower limb rehabilitation machine, swallowing trainer 3.1 10% medical institution cooperation + installment payment mid-volume flagship store, yohos rehabilitation factory table 4. comparison of competitive strategies between top and long-tail merchants dimensions top merchants (alibaba health, yuyue, omron) long-tail merchants (duwang, kangle medical) product layout full category coverage, with a focus on mid-tohigh-end (2002,000 yuan) focus on low prices (<200 yuan) or ultrasegmented devices (such as swallowing trainers) post-sale policy standardized service (7-day return and exchange + lifetime warranty), nationwide warranty missing after-sales service or ambiguous terms (such as "parts not covered") marketing channels cooperation between e-commerce platforms, offline pharmacies and hospitals relying on low-price promotions through ecommerce and lacking brand exposure user stickiness high repurchase rate (40%), dependent on brand trust low repurchase rate (<10%), price-sensitive users are prone to churn top merchants (such as alibaba health, yuyue) : full category coverage of mid-to-high end (200-2000 yuan), providing standardized after-sales service (7-day return and exchange + lifetime warranty), multi-channel marketing, user repurchase rate 40%. long-tail merchants (such as duwang and kangle medical) : focus on low prices (<200 yuan) or segmented devices, lack of after-sales service, rely on e-commerce low price promotions, repurchase rate < 10%. 2.4 user behavior and market pain points 2.4.1 key factors for user decision-making low price market (<200 yuan) : the decision path is price ranking → sales ranking → order placement. the pain point is that 37% of users give up repurchase due to the lack of after-sales service. the negative review keywords are "poor quality" and "customer service ignoring people". mid-to-high-end market (200-2000 yuan) : the decision path is brand search → feature comparison → service terms review → order. the pain point is that 50% of users give negative reviews due to "parts not covered by warranty", and the keywords are "high repair costs" and "clause tricks". hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 245 published by ideas spread ultra-premium market (>2000 yuan): the decision path is professional review → offline experience → institutional purchase. the pain point is that 60% of users consider it "complicated to use", with the key words being "difficult to operate" and "insufficient training". 2.4.2 summary of core market pain points table 5. summary of core market pain points price range product pain points service pain points channel pain points <200 yuan poor quality (25% complaint rate) no after-sales service or slow response (45% complaint rate) lower market coverage is less than 30% 200 1,000 yuan feature homogeneity (60% product similarity) complex terms (such as "battery only for 3 months") missing offline experience (only 10% support trial) >1000 yuan high technical threshold (dependent on imported components) high maintenance costs (2,000 + per year) long b-end procurement cycle (averaging 3 months) 2.5 external environment and trend insights 2.5.1 policy and technology-driven policy benefits: subsidies for household medical equipment: it is expected to cover 30% of elderly families by 2025, promoting a 40% increase in the sales of nursing beds and oxygen generators. simplified approval for class ii medical devices: 50% shorter time-to-market cycle for intelligent products (from 12 months to 6 months). technology upgrade: ai+ internet of things: the penetration rate of dynamic health monitoring devices (such as blood glucose meters) increases by 40 percent annually. g remote services: cloud-based management of physiotherapy device data boosts user retention by 25%. 2.5.2 aging and evolving needs explosive growth in essential categories: nursing beds and oxygen generators have a 50% demand gap in second and third-tier cities, with an annual growth rate of over 35%. the penetration rate of rehabilitation trainers in postoperative home care scenarios rose to 28 percent. consumption upgrade trend: mid-to-high-end users are willing to pay a premium for "service + experience" (such as a 20% premium rate for lifetime warranty products). the proportion of online shopping among the silver-haired group rose from 15% in 2020 to 35% in 2023. 3. analysis of consumption status 3.1 consumer profiling analysis 3.1.1 basic information gender: 55.6% female, 44.4% male. age distribution: 60-65-25.4 percent, 66-70-24.6 percent, 71-75-22.8 percent, 76-80-17.0 percent, over 80-10.2 percent. living with spouses: 40.1%, living with children: 30.1%, living alone: 16.1%, living in a nursing home: 13.7%. health: 50.5% suffer from chronic diseases such as hypertension and diabetes, 47% have difficulty moving due to joint problems or physical disabilities, and 38% have visual and auditory impairments. occupational background: workers, farmers and civil servants were 142, 113 and 92 respectively, accounting for 13%, 11% and 9.1% of the total. 3.1.2 descriptive statistical analysis [11] the data in different dimensions showed diverse distribution characteristics: slightly more females than males in terms of gender; the age range is concentrated between 60 and 70; the living situation is mainly cohabiting with spouse or children, with family support; in terms of health, chronic diseases and mobility issues are common, and there is a high demand for health monitoring and assistive devices; occupations are diverse, with a high proportion hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 246 published by ideas spread of workers, farmers and civil servants, and there may be differences in the demand for smart products among different occupations. 3.1.3 cluster analysis [12] cluster variable selection: including gender, age, living conditions, health status, occupational background, frequency of use of smart products, motivation for use, problems encountered, expectations for the products, etc. clustering results: respondents were divided into four categories using the k-means clustering algorithm. technology and novelty (about 20%) : predominantly 60-65 years old men, in good health, highly educated and well-paid; high acceptance of smart products, demand for sports assistance and health monitoring devices, expecting intelligence and personalization. health demand type (about 30%) : predominantly female, aged 66-75, with a high proportion of chronic diseases and moderate income; demand for health monitoring devices, focus on price and quality, with problems of complex operation and unstable quality. assistive dependent (about 25%) : predominantly female over 76 years old, with mobility issues, hearing and hearing impairments, and low income; dependent on assistive devices that are easy to operate, inexpensive and reliable. integrated service type (about 25%) : available for all age groups, with a high proportion of residents in elderly care institutions and complex health conditions; diverse demands (health monitoring, assistive devices, entertainment and social activities) require personalized services. 3.2 product consumption 3.2.1 usage assistive products: overall usage rate 73.1%. smart wheelchairs (51.2%), smart crutches (46.6%), smart walkers (39.6%) have higher usage rates, while smart nursing beds (28.5%) have lower usage rates. figure 1. use of assistive devices digital products of traditional chinese medicine: the overall usage rate was 81.8%, with digital meridian massage devices (52.1%), moxibustion equipment (49.0%), and traditional chinese medicine constitution identification devices (45.2%) being the most popular. figure 2. use of digital products in traditional chinese medicine hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 247 published by ideas spread 3.2.2 purchase considerations auxiliary: quality is the top priority (66.4%), followed by price advantage (60.8%), frequency of use (59.8%), and functionality (44.0%). digital products of traditional chinese medicine: similar to assistive devices, mainly "no demand" (80.5%/81.3%), high price (15.9%/16.0%), complex operation (15.9%/17.1%). 3.2.3 purchase channels figure 3. purchase channels for smart products for the elderly two types of smart products, namely assistive devices and digital products of traditional chinese medicine, are mainly purchased online (38.65%), followed by hospitals (25.68%), brand brick-and-mortar stores (18.93%), and pharmacies (17.38%). 4. influencing factors of willingness and user research 4.1 basic analysis calculation of product attributes summarize and describe[13] the basic characteristics, attributes, and statistical information of the dataset to obtain the following data: table 6. statistical description of product attributes based on the data in the master table statistics q8 q9 q10 q11 q16 q17 q18 q19 mean 7.044 6.971 6.957 6.875 6.990 6.951 6.939 7.039 median 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 variance 3.951 3.584 4.383 4.565 4.583 4.158 4.602 3.838 standard deviation 1.988 1.893 2.094 2.137 2.141 2.039 2.145 1.959 coefficient of variation 0.282 0.272 0.301 0.311 0.306 0.293 0.309 0.278 in the survey of smart products for health care, the central tendency (median) for quality (q8 and q16), utility (q10 and q17), price (q9 and q18), and after-sales service (q11 and q19) were all 7 points. dispersion: the price of digital products of traditional chinese medicine (q18) has a variance of 4.602 and a standard deviation of 2.145, with the most significant difference; the quality (q16) has a standard deviation of 2.141 and a large perceived difference. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 248 published by ideas spread relative dispersion: after-sales service for assistive devices (q11) coefficient of variation 0.311, score fluctuation; the coefficient of variation in quality (0.282-0.306) is higher than that in price (0.272-0.293), and there is greater individual variation in quality acceptance. 4.2 research on the relationship between product attributes and satisfaction based on pearson correlation analysis 4.2.1 the concept of proxy variables satisfaction proxy variables refer to the use of the average of observable specific indicators (such as quality, price scores) in a study to indirectly measure abstract concepts (such as overall satisfaction) that are difficult to measure directly. in this study, the mean scores of q8-q11 were used as the satisfaction proxy variable for assistive devices, and the mean scores of q16-q19 were used as the satisfaction proxy variable for digital intelligent products of traditional chinese medicine. 4.2.2 pearson correlation analysis [14] using pearson correlation analysis for data analysis of q8-q11 and q16-19, the following results were obtained: table 7. correlation table of smart products for assistive devices variables q8 quality score (1-10) q9 price score (1-10) q10 practicality score (1-10) q11 after-sales service score (1-10) assistive device satisfaction proxy variable q8 quality score (1-10) 1 0.182 (0.000***) 0.204 (0.000***) 0.28 (0.000***) 0.636 (0.000***) q9 price score (110) 0.182 (0.000***) 1 0.224 (0.000***) 0.249 (0.000***) 0.616 (0.000***) q10 practicality score (1-10) 0.204 (0.000***) 0.224 (0.000***) 1 0.242 (0.000***) 0.651 (0.000***) q11 after-sales service score (110) 0.28 (0.000***) 0.249 (0.000***) 0.242 (0.000***) 1 0.695 (0.000***) assistive device satisfaction proxy variable 0.636 (0.000*** 0.616 (0.000***) 0.651 (0.000***) 0.695 (0.000***) 1 note: ***, **, * represent significance levels of 1%, 5%, and 10% respectively, with p values in parentheses. assistive devices: quality, price, utility, after-sales service and satisfaction were all significantly positively correlated, with after-sales service having the highest correlation with satisfaction (0.695), highlighting its importance. table 8. correlation table of smart products for digitalization of traditional chinese medicine variables q16 quality score (1-10) q17 price score (110) q18 after-sales service score (110) q19 practicality score (1-10) proxy variables for satisfaction with traditional chinese medicine q16 quality score (1-10) 1 (0.000***) 0.217 (0.000***) 0.322 (0.000*** 0.285 (0.000***) 0.688 (0.000***) q17 price score (1-10) 0.217 (0.000***) 1 (0.000***) 0.258 (0.000***) 0.28 (0.000***) 0.648 (0.000***) q18 after-sales service score (1-10) 0.322 (0.000***) 0.258 (0.000***) 1 (0.000***) 0.246 (0.000***) 0.69 (0.000***) q19 practicality score (1-10) 0.285 (0.000*** 0.28 (0.000***) 0.246 (0.000***) 1 (0.000***) 0.659 (0.000***) proxy variable for satisfaction with traditional chinese medicine 0.688 (0.000***) 0.648 (0.000***) 0.69 (0.000***) 0.659 (0.000***) 1 (0.000***) hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 249 published by ideas spread digital products of traditional chinese medicine: quality, price, after-sales service, practicality and satisfaction were all significantly positively correlated, with quality (0.688) and after-sales service (0.69) being the core drivers. 4.3 differences in the use and demand of smart products among different populations 4.3.1 comparison of consumption between different genders pearson chi-square test results showed that the association between gender and the use of assistive devices, as well as the choice of smart wheelchairs (such as those that can navigate automatically and climb stairs) and smart nursing beds (such as those that can turn over automatically and monitor vital signs) was statistically significant (p<0.05); there was a significant association (p<0.05) between gender and the use of digital intelligent products of traditional chinese medicine, as well as the selection of traditional chinese medicine constitution identification devices. women had a higher demand for health monitoring (64.51%) than men (59.52%); men have a higher need for social communication (27.13%) than women (23.43%). 4.3.2 comparison of consumption by age group figure 4. consumption chart of assistive devices for different ages the use of assistive devices among the elderly in beijing varied significantly by age (p<0.05). those over 80 years old had the highest demand for mobility aids (56.19%), and those between 60 and 65 years old had the highest demand for health monitoring (66.67%); the 76-80 age group had the highest demand for social communication (31.43%). figure 5. consumption chart of digital products of traditional chinese medicine at different ages age has a limited impact on the use of digital products in traditional chinese medicine. only the smart moxibustion device (f=2.2, p=0.058) and the traditional chinese medicine constitution identification device (f=2.36, p=0.051) have marginal significant differences, with a slightly higher usage rate among the elderly group. functional requirements and health awareness are the main drivers. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 250 published by ideas spread 4.3.3 comparison of consumption in different living situations figure 7. cross-diagrams of assistive devices for elderly people in different living situations (1: yes; 0: no) assistive: smart care beds in elderly care institutions have the highest usage rate (22.18%), and those living with spouses have the highest unused rate (51.26%). figure 8. cross-graph of digital products of traditional chinese medicine for elderly people with different living conditions (1: yes; 0: no) digitalization of traditional chinese medicine: 0% unused in elderly care institutions, the highest proportion (48.13%) among those living with spouses. 4.3.4 comparison of consumption at different levels of health in terms of assistive devices, the mobility impairment group had the highest proportion of using smart wheelchairs, reaching 30.06%, significantly higher than other groups; cognitive decline groups have the highest demand for smart nursing beds, at 18.87%; all groups generally have higher usage rates for smart crutches and smart walkers, both exceeding 20%. among digital products in traditional chinese medicine, the chronic disease group had the highest usage rate of smart moxibustion devices (27.95%); visually or hearing impaired people prefer digital meridian massage devices, with a proportion of 27.49%; cognitive decline groups have a higher usage rate of tcm constitution identification devices (24.89%). table 9. cross-analysis table of multiple response frequencies for different health conditions and assistive devices g ro u p in g i te m s n o t u se d o th er s in te ll ig en t n u rs in g b ed (s u ch as au to m at ic al ly tu rn in g o v er an d m o n it o ri n g v it al s ig n s) s m ar t w h ee lc h ai rs (s u ch as t h o se t h at c an n av ig at e au to m at ic al ly , cl im b st ai rs ) s m ar t w al k er s s m ar t cr u tc h es (s u ch as th o se w it h lo ca ti o n an d em er g en cy c al l fu n ct io n s) t o ta l n u m b er x ² p hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 251 published by ideas spread good health, no obvious illness 144 (21.114%) 1 (0.147%) 83 (12.17%) 165 (24.194%) 127 (18.622%) 162 (23.754%) 682 191.504 0 suffering from chronic diseases (such as high blood pressure, diabetes, heart disease, etc.) 94 (8.53%) 3 (0.272%) 174 (15.789%) 298 (27.042%) 240 (21.779%) 293 (26.588%) 1102 191.504 0 visual or hearing impairments 43 (4.909%) 0 (0%) 139 (15.868%) 258 (29.452%) 206 (23.516%) 230 (26.256%) 876 191.504 0 cognitive decline (such as memory loss, etc.) 35 (5.327%) 1 (0.152%) 124 (18.874%) 184 (28.006%) 149 (22.679%) 164 (24.962%) 657 191.504 0 have mobility impairments (such as joint pain, physical disability, etc.) 54 (5.056%) 1 (0.094%) 189 (17.697%) 321 (30.056%) 235 (22.004%) 268 (25.094%) 1068 190.001 0 total 370 6 709 1226 957 1117 4385 0 table 10. cross-analysis table of multiple response frequencies for different health conditions and digital products of traditional chinese medicine g ro u p in g o f it em s 1 5 . n o n e o f th em h av e b ee n u se d 1 5 . o th er s 1 5 . d ig it al m er id ia n ca lc u la to r 1 5 . t c m c o n st it u ti o n id en ti fi ca ti o n in st ru m en t 1 5 . s m ar t c h in es e m ed ic in e d ec o ct io n eq u ip m en t 1 5 . s m ar t m o x ib u st io n d ev ic e t o ta l x ² p good health, no obvious illness 99 (13.808%) 1 (0.139%) 182 (25.384%) 146 (20.363%) 121 (16.876%) 168 (23.431%) 717 122.225 0 suffering from chronic diseases (such as high blood pressure, diabetes, heart disease, etc.) 60 (5.24%) 1 (0.087%) 307 (26.812%) 248 (21.659%) 209 (18.253%) 320 (27.948%) 1145 122.225 0 visual or hearing impairments 31 (3.507%) 0 (0%) 243 (27.489%) 206 (23.303%) 165 (18.665%) 239 (27.036%) 884 122.225 0 cognitive decline (such as memory loss, etc.) 21 (3.075%) 0 (0%) 171 (25.037%) 170 (24.89%) 145 (21.23%) 176 (25.769%) 683 122.225 0 have mobility impairments (such as joint pain, physical disability, etc.) 43 (4%) 0 (0%) 290 (26.977%) 260 (24.186%) 205 (19.07%) 277 (25.767%) 1075 122.225 0 in total 254 2 1193 1030 845 1180 4504 0 4.3.5 differences in needs among different populations table 11. combined table of gender, age and health status demand side over all gender age health status f em al e (a ) m al e (b ) o v er 8 0 y ea rs o ld ( a ) 7 6 -8 0 ( b ) 7 1 -7 5 ( c ) 6 6 -7 0 ( d ) 6 0 -6 5 y ea rs o ld (e ) h av e a c h ro n ic il ln es s (a ) h av e m o b il it y is su es ( b ) v is u al /h ea ri n g im p ai rm en t (c ) c o g n it iv e d ec li n e (d ) o th er s (e ) % % % % % % % % % % % % % a. mobility issues (such as 51.31 50 52.74 56.19 52.57 48.94 54.41 47.04 56.73 57.02 54.99 59.06 100 hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 252 published by ideas spread walking, going up and down stairs) b health monitoring (such as blood pressure, blood sugar, heart rate, etc.) 62.41 64.51 59.52 59.05 53.71 60.85 66.67 66.4 61.35 57.85 57.29 60.4 100 c rehabilitation training 43.14 43.53 42.45 39.05 41.71 43.83 42.15 45.85 43.85 44.83 43.22 46.31 100 d daily care (such as bathing and dressing) 36.81 37.94 35.23 38.1 33.14 39.57 36.02 36.76 36.35 36.36 36.32 40.27 e. recreation 29.8 30.59 28.67 29.52 29.71 32.34 29.12 28.06 30.19 28.72 29.67 30.2 f. social communication 25.12 23.43 27.13 28.57 31.43 25.53 24.9 18.97 28.65 26.86 26.09 26.17 total 248.59 250 245.73 250.48 242.29 251.06 253.26 243.08 257.12 251.65 247.57 262.42 300 by gender, women have a higher need for health monitoring (64.51%) than men (59.52%), and men have a higher need for social communication (27.13%) than women (23.43%). in terms of age, those over 80 have the highest need for mobility assistance (56.19%), while those between 66 and 70 have the lowest (47.04%); those aged 60-65 have the highest demand for health monitoring (66.67%), and those aged 76-80 have the lowest demand (53.71%); the 71-75 age group had the highest demand for daily life (39.57%) and recreation (32.34%), the 76-80 age group had the lowest demand for daily life (33.13%), and the 6670 age group had the lowest demand for recreation (28.06%); the 76-80 age group had the highest need for social communication (31.43%). in terms of health status, those with mobility impairments have the highest need for mobility assistance (59.06%), those with chronic diseases have the highest need for health monitoring (66.4%), and those with cognitive decline have the highest need for daily care (40.27%). 4.4 analysis of key factors influencing satisfaction and purchase intention based on multiple linear regression models linear regression [16] is a statistical analysis method that uses regression analysis in mathematical statistics to determine the quantitative relationship of interdependence between two or more variables. the expression is y = w'x+e, where e is the error following a normal distribution with a mean of 0. if the regression analysis includes two or more independent variables and there is a linear relationship between the dependent variable and the independent variables, it is called multiple linear regression analysis. the multiple linear regression model verified the strong correlation between product attributes and satisfaction: assistive devices: adjusted r²=1, after-sales service (beta=0.405) had the greatest impact on satisfaction, followed by utility (0.396), quality (0.376), and price (0.358), with good variable independence (vif=1.11-1.166). digital products of traditional chinese medicine: adjusted r²=1, quality (beta=0.385) and after-sales service (0.385) have the greatest impact, followed by price (0.366), utility (0.352), and no multicollinearity (vif=1.1431.187). overall, the satisfaction of both types of products was affected by the four key dimensions of quality, price, utility and after-sales service, and the model fit was high and significant overall, with good independence of each dimension. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 253 published by ideas spread 4.5 research on obstructive factors of consumer behavior figure 9. diagram of the main problems of assistive smart products assistive devices: unstable quality (57.31%), complex operation (51.99%), high price (51.86%) are the main problems, and only 1.46% of users have no feedback. figure 10. improvement diagram of digital smart products for traditional chinese medicine digitalization of traditional chinese medicine: the core improvement requirements are ease of operation (64.01%), safety (57.96%), therapeutic effect (56.89%), and the requirements for personalization and price are relatively low. 5. problems, countermeasures and suggestions 5.1 problem countermeasures market supply and demand contradictions: lack of after-sales service for low-priced products, ambiguous service terms for mid-to-high-end products, and complex operations for ultra-high-end products; there is a significant gap between top and long-tail merchants. group demand differences: four consumer groups differ significantly in demand, frequency of use, and focus of attention. satisfaction factors: quality and after-sales service at the core, after-sales service has the greatest impact on assistive devices, quality and after-sales jointly determine the satisfaction of digital products of traditional chinese medicine. consumer barriers: quality, operation, price, maintenance and other issues are prominent, improvement needs focus on basic experience. 5.2 recommendations 5.2.1 market stratification optimization strategy low price market (<200 yuan) : build “regionalized quick repair points” with 72-hour response service; promote trade-in to lower the threshold for decision-making. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 254 published by ideas spread mid-to-high-end market (200-1000 yuan) : publicize the warranty coverage and warranty process of accessories; introduce “membership-based extended warranties” to ease the problem of high repair costs. ultra-premium market (over 1,000 yuan) : embed “one-click mode” with video instructions; join forces with toptier hospitals for “clinical trial certification” to strengthen trust. 5.2.2 directions for breaking the competitive landscape top merchants: modularize the after-sales system, offer “after-sales management” to small and medium-sized dealers, and expand the ecological advantage. long-tail merchants: focus on “niche essentials” and adopt the “pre-sale + customization” model; jointly build “shared repair stations” to enhance service coverage. 5.2.3 supply and demand mismatch solutions assistive devices: push “basic smart wheelchairs” (retain core functions to reduce costs); work with senior universities to optimize age-friendly details. digitalization of traditional chinese medicine: designing a “three-step operation method” with acupoint stickers; work with community tcm clinics on “equipment rental + physician home visit” packages. 5.2.4 capture of external environment dividends policy: priority application for smart oxygen generators, etc. to be included in the “home medical equipment subsidy” directory, with subsidy information and application instructions marked on the details page. technology: add “abnormal data warning” to the physiotherapy device; set up “smart rehabilitation experience points” in second – and third-tier cities to drive the transformation of essential needs. 5.2.5 consumer conversion strategies table 14. consumer conversion strategy table groups core pain point strategy case technology tastes new complex to operate and redundant in function open up product beta testing and push modular products to support customization huawei's "senior mode" physiotherapy device offers lifetime firmware updates to beta users health needs type price-sensitive, difficult to operate community clinics bind equipment rental to simplify the operation process omron community "blood pressure monitoring station", get a 20-yuan coupon after blood pressure measurement assisted dependent expensive, distrustful online the community has a "test ride week" with family training yuyue "accessibility station", buy a wheelchair and get installation plus one month of free repair integrated service type the solutions are scattered and the services are disconnected work with nursing homes on "smart care packages" and open a "one-click repair" channel haier customizes "health data dashboards" for nursing homes, allowing family members to check equipment reports 5.2.6 publicity and marketing strategies emotional resonance: make short videos such as "elderly people living alone buy groceries with smart crutches" and share them in the silver-haired section of douyin; launch the "silver-haired health care program" and donate 1 yuan for each unit sold to the community elderly care center. online and offline collaboration: open a "silver-haired smart zone" online (large font, voice customer service, children pay on behalf), and use ai for targeted push; offline, set up "experience corners" (scan the code to try hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 255 published by ideas spread out and get a 50-yuan coupon) at community stations, and work with hospitals and pharmacies to promote compatible products. 6. conclusions and prospects 6.1 conclusions this study systematically analyzed the demand characteristics, usage status and satisfaction factors of assistive devices and digital intelligent products of traditional chinese medicine among more than 1,000 elderly people aged 60 and above in beijing through a mixed-method survey, and reached the following main conclusions: there are significant structural contradictions in market demand: there is a serious lack of after-sales service in the low-price market (<200 yuan), opaque service terms in the mid-to-high-end market (200-1000 yuan), and complex operation in the ultra-high-end market (>1000 yuan), which restricts the popularization of products and user experience. the demand of the elderly group shows distinct stratified characteristics: through k-means clustering analysis, four groups of people were identified as technology and novelty, health demand, auxiliary dependence, and comprehensive service, and there were significant differences among them in terms of product functionality, price sensitivity, and service demands. product quality and after-sales service are the core factors influencing satisfaction: multiple linear regression analysis shows that satisfaction with assistive devices is primarily driven by after-sales service (beta=0.405), while for digital products of traditional chinese medicine, both quality and after-sales service are determined (beta=0.385). practicality and reasonableness of price are also important influencing factors. consumption barriers are mainly at the basic experience level: unstable quality, complex operation, high price, and difficult maintenance are the main factors hindering elderly users from purchasing and using, and improvement demands are highly concentrated in basic dimensions such as ease of operation, safety, and therapeutic effect. 6.2 outlook product optimization should focus more on age-friendly and functional simplification: it is recommended that enterprises focus on the development of core functions, avoid functional redundancy, strengthen age-friendly designs such as "one-click operation" and "voice interaction", and lower the usage threshold. build a tiered, precise service and marketing system: develop differentiated strategies for different groups, such as providing modular customization for technology users and community experience and family training for assistive dependent users to enhance conversion rates and user stickiness. strengthen the after-sales service system and policy coordination: promote the establishment of a regional rapid repair network and transparent quality guarantee terms, actively connect with the subsidy policy for home medical equipment, and enhance the accessibility and trustworthiness of products. promote the integration of digitalization of traditional chinese medicine and smart assistive devices: explore integrated solutions of "equipment + service + data", such as equipment leasing and door-to-door services in collaboration with community traditional chinese medicine clinics, to enhance the integrity of the service chain and the user experience. strengthen interdisciplinary research and data-driven iteration: encourage industry-university-research cooperation, deepen the integration of geriatric behavior, rehabilitation medicine and intelligent technology, and continuously optimize product design and service models based on user data to promote the development of the health and wellness industry towards high quality, humanization and sustainability. in the future, with the continuous maturation of technologies such as artificial intelligence and the internet of things and the continuous release of policy dividends, smart elderly care products are expected to play a greater role in improving the quality of life of the elderly and alleviating the pressure of care, providing solid support for building an age-friendly society. references [1] state council. (2022). the 14th five-year plan for the development of national aging services and the elderly care system [report]. [2] zhang, x., & li, h. (2013). the current situation and development path of technological innovation of intelligent assistive devices in china. chinese theory and practice of rehabilitation, 19(5), 401-405. [3] huang, c. (2020). the current situation, challenges and countermeasures of the digital divide in the elderly. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 4; 2025 256 published by ideas spread cultural review, (4), 56-63. [4] yang, l., li, x., dong, l., & guo, x. (2020). research on the construction of the national assistive device service network. studies on the disabled, 37(1), 61-71. [5] shao, y. (2024). 2023 research on the digital industry of traditional chinese medicine: continuously deepening application scenarios and supplementing the current imbalance between supply and demand in the market. big data era, (5), 68-80. [6] su, q. (2002). modern quality management. tsinghua university press. [7] mo, j., li, l., zhao, c., & zhang, w. (2025). analysis of satisfaction with online teaching of graduate courses based on customer satisfaction model: survey data from beijing university of chinese medicine. chinese medicine education. advance online publication. [8] mao, a., jiang, h., dong, l., & luo, j. (2016). chinese journal of rehabilitation medicine. chinese journal of rehabilitation medicine, 24, 1491-1494+1506. [9] scientific platform serving for statistics professional. (2021). spsspro (version 1.0.11) [mobile app]. https://www.spsspro.com [10] zeng, w., & huang, b. (2005). analysis of the credibility and validity of questionnaires. statistics and information forum, (6), 13-17. [11] cai, z. (2009). research on the application of skewness and kurtosis to descriptive statistics. journal of beijing sport university, 32(3), 75-76. [12] saroj, k. (2016). review: study on simple k mean and modified k mean clustering technique. international journal of computer science engineering and technology, 6(7), 279-281. [13] tong, j. (1984). introduction to statistics (xi). mathematical statistics and management, (5), 25-29. [14] zhang, h., & xu, j. (1988). modern psychology and educational statistics. beijing normal university press. [15] scientific platform serving for statistics professional. (2021). spsspro (version 1.0.11) [online application software]. https://www.spsspro.com [16] sun, r. (2014). applied mathematical statistics (3rd ed.). science press. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v7n3p50 50 published by ideas spread a study on the role of dance training in enhancing models' physique and performance zhenting he1 1 shanghai film art academy, china correspondence: zhenting he, shanghai film art academy, shanghai, 201203, china. e-mail: 495320089/at/qq.com received: november 1, 2024; accepted: december 8, 2024; published: december 9, 2024 abstract dance training is increasingly widely used in the modeling industry, which not only helps to shape an elegant body, but also significantly improves the model's performance ability. this study aims to deeply explore the multidimensional effects of dance training on models' physique and performance, and proposes specific and effective training measures by analyzing the enhancement of basic steps, posture correction, muscle strength, expressiveness, stage performance, creativity and innovation. the results of the study show that dance training can significantly improve models' body lines, correct poor posture, and enhance muscle strength, as well as improve their expressiveness, stage confidence, and creativity. these enhancements not only provide a solid foundation for the career development of individual models, but also inject new vitality into the healthy and sustainable development of the entire modeling industry. keywords: dance training, modeling form, performance enhancement, roles 1. introduction as an integral part of the fashion industry, the modeling sector requires not only models to possess flawless physiques but also to exhibit unique charisma and infectious presence on the runway. however, in reality, many models often struggle with inadequacies in both their physical forms and performance capabilities, which to some extent hinders their career advancement. dance training, as an effective method for both physical and psychological conditioning, has been widely applied and recognized across various disciplines. in the realm of modeling, dance training can not only correct poor postures but also enhance the aesthetic appeal of one's physique. moreover, it fosters improved stage presence and creativity among models. therefore, this study aims to explore the specific roles that dance training plays in elevating both the physical form and performance of models, with the objective of providing scientific guidance and recommendations for modeling training programs. 2. the role of dance training on modeling shape enhancement 2.1 body shaping in the modeling industry, body shaping is a crucial aspect, and dance training serves as an effective means to achieve this goal. dancers must continuously refine every part of their body during training, making their lines more fluid and graceful. this precise control is equally applicable to a model's body shaping. fundamental movements in dance, such as the extension of the arms, the lifting of the legs, and the rotation of the torso, can help models exhibit more graceful postures during runway shows. particularly, ballet and modern dance training emphasize balance and coordination, significantly enhancing a model's gait and overall posture. moreover, dance training increases a model's flexibility and suppleness, allowing their movements on the runway to be more natural and fluid. for instance, practicing challenging moves like splits and backbends enables models to effortlessly perform various difficult stationary positions on stage, enhancing the visual impact of the performance. additionally, the repetitive practice in dance training helps solidify and internalize these movements, creating muscle memory that allows models to confidently showcase themselves during actual runway shows. such physical improvements not only make models appear more professional and elegant but also significantly boost their competitiveness in the industry [1]. 2.2 posture correction posture correction is an important part of dance training. many models at the beginning of their careers tend to have bad posture habits, such as hunching, uneven shoulders, walking in and out, etc. these problems not only hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 51 published by ideas spread affect the overall image of the model, but may also lead to long-term physical discomfort.standing posture in dance training is extremely demanding, and dancers need to keep their spine straight, shoulders relaxed and hips balanced at all times, and these basic principles also apply to the daily training of models.in the dance class, the instructor will constantly correct every subtle movement of the student, from the toes of the feet to the tips of the fingers, all of which must be in the best condition.this strict posture training can help models gradually develop good physical habits, making them more confident and elegant on stage.many movements in dance, such as ballet's open position standing and modern dance's center of gravity shifting, can effectively correct bad posture and improve models' body coordination and sense of balance.good posture not only makes models look more professional, but also significantly improves their runway performance, making every movement look natural, smooth and charming. 2.3 muscle strength muscle strength is one of the key factors in the enhancement of a model's physique, and dance training plays an indispensable role in this regard. in dance training, all kinds of basic movements and complex steps require models to have strong muscle strength, especially the strength of core muscles, legs and back, which play a vital role in models' daily catwalk. for example, a strong core helps the model to keep her body stable and balanced during the runway show, making every turn and stance more precise and powerful. leg strength, on the other hand, has a direct impact on a model's stride and posture, enabling them to walk with greater steadiness and grace on high heels. the repetitive and high intensity exercises in dance training not only strengthen the models' muscles, but also improve their endurance and explosive power. in addition, the diverse movements in dance training, such as jumping, balancing and spinning, can fully exercise the model's body and make their movements more rich and varied when walking on the catwalk [2]. this kind of comprehensive enhancement not only makes the models' body lines tighter and more beautiful, but also enhances their self-confidence to a great extent. when the models show their strong muscle power on stage, the audience can feel the inner strength and professionalism of their bodies, which undoubtedly wins more recognition and opportunities for the models in the fashion industry. 3. enhancement effect of dance training on model performance 3.1 expression expression is one of the most crucial elements in modeling performance, and dance training plays an important role in this regard. dance is not only a kind of physical movement, but also an expression of emotion. dancers need to convey their inner emotions to the audience through every movement and expression during the performance, and this training process can greatly enhance the model's expressiveness. during the dance training, the coach will guide the models to learn how to use their eyes, facial expressions and body language to convey different emotions and stories, and this ability is equally important in the model's runway shows and photo shoots. for example, a single eye contact can liven up the whole stage or shot instantly, while small changes in body can reveal the personality and charm of the model. improvisation and role-playing exercises in dance training can help models better understand and grasp different styles and positioning, so that they can show their best in different occasions. in addition, teamwork and interaction in dance training can also cultivate models' sense of stage cooperation, making them more coordinated and tacit understanding when they are on stage with other models or actors. because dance training can improve the overall performance of models, more and more models begin to take dance as part of their daily training, which not only enriches their performance skills, but also allows them to walk more steadily and confidently on the career path. 3.2 stage performance stage performance is an important platform for models to show their charisma, and the enhancement that dance training brings in this aspect is obvious. dance training not only enables models to move more freely on stage, but also helps them better understand the stage space and master the stage rhythm. in a modeling runway show, every step and every turn needs to be precise to the second, and the sense of rhythm and timing training in dance training can exactly meet this need. for example, dancers need to work closely with music in rehearsals and performances, and this sensitivity to music and the ability to control time can make the model more comfortable in the runway with the music and lights, and show a professional charm. in addition, the body control and movement coordination in dance training enables models to switch different postures and expressions more naturally on stage without looking stiff and dull. this flexibility and naturalness is an important factor for models to win the audience's favor on the ever-changing stage. many models are often nervous or lack of stage experience when walking on the runway, resulting in lack of smooth movements or stiff expressions. the simulation and sharing of stage experience in dance training can help models overcome such nervousness and enhance their self-confidence. what's more, teamwork and interactive exercises in dance training make models more in tune and coordinated when they are on hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 52 published by ideas spread stage with other models or performers, making the whole performance more harmonious and unified. every performance on the stage is not only an individual display, but also the result of teamwork, these experiences in dance training can help models better integrate into the team, enhance the overall performance effect, and make them more outstanding and shining on the career path. 3.3 creativity and innovation creativity and innovation are extremely valuable qualities in modeling, and dance training can greatly stimulate and develop these qualities.dance is not only about completing movements step by step, but also about exploring music, emotion and space freely, and this spirit of free exploration can help models open the windows of their mind and inspire more creativity and expression.in dance training, models are often exposed to different styles of dance, such as modern dance, jazz dance, street dance, etc. these different styles not only enrich their performance skills, but also let them learn to utilize these skills flexibly in different environments.for example, the free expression and emotional release of modern dance can help the models better convey the emotions and stories of the advertisements or fashions in the shoots, while the vitality and individuality of street dance can enable them to be closer to the young audience and show their unique charms in the commercial performances.the improvisation practice in dance training can cultivate models' improvisation ability, enabling them to react quickly and show extraordinary creativity when facing unexpected situations or changes in the scene.the outstanding performance of many top models on stage is often not only because of their appearance, but also because of their ability to show unlimited creativity and personality on a limited stage.teamwork and creative sharing in dance training also teach models how to draw inspiration from others' perspectives to enrich their performances.this open and tolerant mindset enables them to express themselves more confidently and freely in different performance occasions, which not only wins the audience's favor, but also establishes their unique style in the fashion industry.every performance on the stage is not only an individual display, but also the result of teamwork. these experiences in dance training can help models better integrate into the team, enhance the overall performance effect, and make them more outstanding and shining on the career path. 4. specific measures of dance training to enhance models' physical form and performance 4.1 basic step and posture training basic step and posture training is the cornerstone of dance training, and it is equally important for models. these basics not only help models improve their flexibility and coordination, but also allow them to display a more elegant and confident posture on stage. basic steps often include steps, turns, jumps, and balancing maneuvers that may seem simple, but each detail implies a requirement for body control. for example, a perfect turn requires not only beautiful posture, but also strong core strength and precise toe control, skills that are also important in modeling. dance training focuses more on the beauty of the body line and the perfection of the posture. models need to learn how to maintain the balance of the body and the smoothness of the line in different steps. this kind of training is not only the exercise of the body, but also a kind of pursuit and expression of beauty. during the training process, the coach will correct the model's movements many times to ensure that every detail is in the best condition. this kind of repeated practice and guidance will enable the models to quickly improve their physical beauty in a short period of time [3]. in addition, the basic dance steps and posture training can also help models establish good stage performance habits, so that they can show themselves more freely when facing different stages and cameras. when many top models look back on their own development, they will mention that dance training has helped them a lot. those seemingly boring basic movements have become the strong support for them to shine on stage at critical moments. dance training not only exercises their bodies, but more importantly develops their concentration and perseverance, allowing them to maintain a high level of performance in the modeling industry. long-term adherence to basic dance steps and posture training can help models show their best condition and perfect posture in every performance, thus standing out in the fierce competition and winning more opportunities and recognition. 4.2 flexibility and strength training flexibility and strength training have an undeniable importance in both the dance and modeling industries, and the combination of the two can help models reach higher levels of form and performance.flexibility training not only makes a model's body more flexible, but also improves their performance on stage.a flexible body can show more natural and graceful curves when walking on the catwalk, and every movement can be smooth and free, without looking hard or stiff.strength training strengthens a model's core muscles, making them more stable and powerful when performing complex catwalk movements.for example, many of the difficult catwalk moves, such as turns, jumps and complex step changes, require strong core and leg strength to support them, which are an integral part of dance training.in the process of flexibility and strength training, models often experience both physical and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 53 published by ideas spread psychological challenges, but it is these challenges that make them more resilient and confident.the coaches will design personalized training plans according to the specific conditions of the models to help them see obvious results in a short period of time.for example, the flexibility exercises in yoga and ballet can effectively improve the flexibility of the spine and joints of the models, so that they can present more elegant lines in front of the camera.deep squats, push-ups and core stabilization exercises in strength training can enhance their lower limbs and abdominal strength, making them more stable on high heels.many top models have said that it's these basic training exercises that allow them to stand firm and go farther on the stage of the fashion world.long-term adherence to basic dance steps and posture training can help models show their best condition and perfect posture in every performance, thus standing out in the fierce competition and winning more opportunities and recognition. this kind of training brings the models not only physical changes, but also spiritual growth and transformation. with the support of flexibility and strength training, the models are able to face every challenge with more confidence, and whether on the “t” stage or in the studio, they are able to show their best state and win the favor of the audience and designers. 4.3 stylized dance training stylized dance training is a highly attractive and contagious way of enhancement, and different dance styles can help models expand their horizons and master more diverse body language and performance skills.for example, the free flow and emotional expression of modern dance can enable models to incorporate emotions more naturally in their performances and convey deeper connotations.the elegance and precision of ballet, on the other hand, can enhance the overall temperament and posture of the models, making them look extraordinarily noble in any occasion.the vitality and personalized expression of street dance can make models closer to young audiences in commercial performances and advertisement shootings, showing youth and vitality.this diversified training not only enriches the models' performance skills, but also allows them to show their best when facing different styles of fashion works with ease.one of the greatest benefits of stylized dance training is that it helps models find their own unique style.during the training process, models are exposed to a variety of different dance elements and expressions, and these diverse experiences allow them to experiment and discover what works best for them.some models may discover their own sense of rhythm when practicing jazz dance, and find their own sense of cultural identity when practicing folk dance.these unique styles will not only make them stand out from the crowd of models, but will also help them build their brand image in the fashion industry.stylized dance training is more than just movement learning; it is an understanding of beauty and an exploration of self-expression.with each session, models not only improve technically, but are also able to become more mentally confident and resilient.many top models have participated in stylized dance training, and they say that this training not only greatly improves their stage performance, but also makes them know how to use different parts of the body to convey different aesthetics during photo shoots.the teamwork and interaction in stylized dance training also taught the models how to coordinate with others during performances, which is especially important in runway shows and group shoots [4]. 4.4 situational simulation performance situational simulation is a very interesting and practical part of dance training, which can help models better understand and master different performance situations.in the simulation training, the coach will set up various scenarios, such as fashion show, advertisement shooting, or even performances in different cultures, and the models need to show the most suitable performances in these scenarios.this kind of training not only improves the technical level of the models, but more importantly, hones their ability to adapt to the scene and their psychological quality.for example, in a luxury evening dress show, the model needs to show a noble and elegant temperament, while in a street style advertisement shoot, she needs to be more unrestrained and honest.situational simulation performances can also help models overcome nervousness and stage fright. through repeated practice, they can gradually adapt to different situations and better control their emotions and performance.timely feedback and guidance from the coaches allowed the models to recognize their own strengths and weaknesses, thus improving rapidly in a short time.when reviewing their own growth experiences, many models mentioned the farreaching impact that the situational simulation performances had on them, not only becoming more technically proficient, but also psychologically more confident and resilient.this diversified experience and all-round training enables the models to show their best state with ease when facing complex fashion situations, winning more attention and recognition. 4.5 mental quality training models' performance on stage and in front of the camera is often affected by their psychological state, so improving their psychological quality can not only help them cope with pressure better, but also show a more natural and hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 7, no. 3; 2024 54 published by ideas spread confident state during performances.in the mental quality training, the coach will use various methods, such as positive thinking meditation, emotion management techniques and psychological suggestion, to help models build up a positive mindset and a strong heart.for example, positive thinking meditation enables models to relax, adjust their breathing and concentrate better before a stressful runway show, so that they can be more relaxed during the performance.emotional management techniques teach models how to maintain a stable mood in different situations, so as to avoid affecting their performance due to nervousness or anxiety.mental cues and positive selftalk boost models' self-confidence and make them more determined in the face of challenges.many top models report that mental fitness training has helped them tremendously in their careers, not only by making them more confident on stage, but also by making them more positive and optimistic in their daily lives.this inner strength enables models to shine at every performance opportunity, to look their best, and to win the approval of their audience and clients.mental quality training is not only for stage performance, but also for them to stay calm and confident in the fierce competition and move towards a brighter future [5]. 5. conclusion looking at the whole research process, the effect of dance training on model's body and performance is significant and multifaceted. through systematic dance training, models can not only have a more elegant and wellproportioned body, but also show a more confident and creative performance on stage. this kind of comprehensive improvement not only provides strong support for the career development of individual models, but also injects new vitality and innovative power into the whole modeling industry. in the future, it is hoped that more model training schools and organizations will pay attention to the role of dance training and incorporate it into their standardized training courses, so as to cultivate more excellent modeling talents and promote the healthy development of the modeling industry. references [1] martinez, h. j., muñoz, g. e., calfucura, c. i., et al. (2024). elastic band training versus multicomponent training and group-based dance on morphological variables and physical performance in older women: a randomized controlled trial[j]. life, 14(11), 1362-1362. https://doi.org/10.3390/life14111362 [2] wang, j., & hao, j. (2024). analysis of mechanical damage in dance training under artificial intelligence behavior constraints[j]. international journal of high speed electronics and systems, (prepublish): 11. https://doi.org/10.1142/s012915642440086x [3] błaszczyk, w. j., & fredyk, a. (2024). impact of professional dance training on characteristics of postural sway.[j]. acta neurobiologiae experimentalis, 84(2), 128-135. https://doi.org/10.55782/ane-2024-2399 [4] li, z. (2024). image analysis and teaching strategy optimization of folk dance training based on the deep neural network[j]. scientific reports, 14(1), 10909-10909. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-61134-y [5] simon, r. j., bek, j., ghanai, k., et al. (2024). neural effects of multisensory dance training in parkinson’s disease: evidence from a longitudinal neuroimaging single case study[j]. frontiers in aging neuroscience, 161398871-1398871. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2024.1398871 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n5p141 141 published by ideas spread a review of the effectiveness of three main types of stressreduction products jiayue weng1 1 george school bucks county, usa correspondence: jiayue weng, george school bucks county, pennsylvania, 18940, usa. received: october 14, 2025; accepted: october 25, 2025; published: october 27, 2025 abstract there is an increasing customer need for stress relief and promoting wellbeing, leading to many innovative stress relief products. developers claim these products can reduce stress and boost well-being, but do they actually work? this study aims to examine how different products’ effectiveness varies by demographic factors through three selected product categories that are associated with stress relief: aromatherapy, fidget toys, and mindfulness apps. research indicates relatively stronger effectiveness of direct inhalation aromatherapy and massage aromatherapy compared to indirect inhalation aromatherapy, while showing its potential as an effective placebo. fidget toys tend to have low effectiveness in stress relief for typically developing students, but have shown effectiveness in decreasing activity level for students with attention difficulties. mindfulness apps show higher effectiveness in stress alleviation for adolescents with higher levels of rumination, particularly when used in conjunction with longer or more frequent meditation sessions. overall, current studies suggest that these products are generally effective, though specific contexts and demographics may make them more or less effective, making them suitable for different users' needs. keywords: stress relief, product effectiveness, demographic factors, placebo effect, user well-being, stress management 1. introduction in modern society, it is quite common to feel stressed out due to pressures from school or work, and self-reported stress continues to rise over recent years. in webber’s research (2024), nearly 2 in 5 (41%) of americans report experiencing peak levels of stress. this is relevant not only in the united states, but globally. 62% of adults globally reported experiencing stress that affects their daily lives (ipsos, 2024). high stress levels can influence both mental and physical health, leading to physical and emotional symptoms. the american institute of stress reports 77% of people feel their stress affects physical health, and 73% of people say their mental health is impacted (liddell, 2025). two-thirds (66%) of u.s. adults reported wanting more emotional support, and around a quarter (26%) of the adults reported needing a lot more support than they received currently (american psychological association, 2023). in short, managing stress seems to have become a common topic faced by the global population. the amount of stress people experienced has led to an increasing interest in stress-reduction products. for instance, one report finds that 82% of u.s consumers consider wellness as their top or important priority in everyday lives (callaghan et al., 2024), reflecting the growth potential of the wellness market. the high demand for such products has resulted in substantial expansion in the stress relief product market, with an annual growth rate projected to be 6.75% (market research future, 2025). from scented pillow mist to fidget spinners and meditation apps, a variety of products have been created and sold in the market to help people feel relaxed. despite the popularity of stress-relief products worldwide, their actual effectiveness remains complex and inconsistent across studies. existing research presents mixed findings some studies highlight meaningful reductions in stress and anxiety, while others suggest limited or placebo-driven benefits. this inconsistency underscores the need to systematically review and compare different types of stress-relief products to determine which factors, including demographic and psychological characteristics, may influence their outcomes. one of the main reasons people may be skeptical of stress-relief products is the placebo effect. the placebo effect is defined as an inert or innocuous medicine given to satisfy the patient (margo, 1999). it simulates therapeutic changes to patients, but no biologically plausible explanation for the results (margo, 1999). despite interfering with experimental results, the placebo effect in stress relief products might not necessarily be something that diminishes product effectiveness. although the benefits it produces doesn’t come from the “real” product itself, hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 142 published by ideas spread the effects due to expectancy and placebo effect can be real benefits experienced by the users. the placebo effect has value for users whose goal is to subjectively feel better. this paper therefore focuses on three widely used stress-relieving modalities: aromatherapy, fidget toys, and mindfulness apps. through a comprehensive review of existing literature, the paper aims to understand how effective these products are and if their effectiveness varies depending on user demographics. because users often have specific objectives when choosing a stress relief product, this paper will assess product effectiveness in three dimensions: subjective experiences, productivity, and long-term effects to cover major user needs. 2. aromatherapy imagine being greeted with a warm lavender-scented hand towel upon entering a spa. its soothing aroma may quickly help you relax. this is one common example of how aromatherapy can be used in everyday life. aromatherapy is defined as the systematic use of essential oils extracted from plants to support health and wellbeing (hedigan et al., 2024). it is a form of complementary and alternative medicine (cam) that functions as a complement to current mainstream medicine (sánchez-vidaña et al., 2017). aromatherapy can be administered in many ways and can be mainly delivered in two forms: inhalation aromatherapy and aromatherapy massage. inhalation aromatherapy can be further implemented in two ways: direct inhalation aromatherapy and indirect inhalation aromatherapy. direct inhalation uses methods like individual inhalers, while indirect inhalation uses methods like room diffusers or bed spray. as aromatherapy grows in popularity, innovative aromatherapies are emerging by combining traditional aromatherapy with other products, such as body lotions and hand soap. in general, studies show support for aromatherapy, especially when used for promoting relaxation, both subjectively and physiologically. on one hand, physiological measurements based studies supported aromatherapy’s effectiveness. furthermore, aromatherapy is tested to be effective in experimental contexts that are conducive to relaxation. this section will discuss the research evidence on the effectiveness of aromatherapy in detail and the relative effectiveness of aromatherapy submodalities compared to each other. in addition, this section will explore the potential use of aromatherapy in scented cosmetic products. there is a good deal of supporting evidence for the effectiveness of aromatherapy in different settings and among a diverse age demographic the systematic review by hedigan et al. (2023) screened 76 published inhalation aromatherapy studies from 2000 to 2021 and concluded that over 70% of studies proved that aromatherapy interventions successfully reduced self-reported anxiety levels for patients in clinical settings. moreover, in studies that involved physiological measures, 66% favoured aromatherapy over the control group (hedigan et al., 2023). other newly published studies further supported aromatherapy in reducing stress and anxiety in conditions other than clinical settings to help understand aromatherapy’s effect in normal user’s daily life. for example, a recent study by guler et al. (2023) found that lavender oil-based aromatherapy can significantly help ease test anxiety and stress among nursing students. the intervention group, receiving indirect inhalation aromatherapy, selfreported a 20% decrease in tension compared to the control group (guler et al., 2023). mehrabian et al. (2022) found similar effects of aromatherapy on soothing anxiety among seniors. in their study with 38 elderly adults, the intervention group received 6 weeks of regular visits to 20-minute massage sessions combined with aromatherapy that uses lavender, chamomile, and rosemary oils. the self-reported data showed that anxiety has decreased by about 47% and depression has decreased by around 58% for the intervention group, whereas participants in the control group exhibited increased levels of anxiety and depression compared to baseline (mehrabian et al, 2022). another study by hedigan et al. in 2024 proves the effectiveness of aromatherapy in both indirect inhalation using room diffusion and direct inhalation using aromasticks. 87.5% participants from the intervention group reported decreased levels of depression and 75% reported decreased levels of anxiety for indirect inhalation. direct inhalation has shown similar results: there was a 24.16% increase in mean wellbeing source for the invention group. the study showed effectiveness for both direct and indirect inhalation, proving the effectiveness of both modalities. above studies supported the effectiveness for various types of aromatherapy among a diverse population, from young adults to seniors. the effectiveness of aromatherapy sometimes varies by delivery method. direct inhalation has been shown to reduce stress more effectively, whereas aromatherapy massage is particularly effective in alleviating depressive symptoms. among various aromatherapeutic modalities, direct inhalation aromatherapy is considered more effective in reducing stress compared to indirect inhalation aromatherapy. a study done by hedigan et al. (2024) shows increased self-reported wellbeing scores. the majority of participants improved from a low well-being score range to moderate or above, with 11% ultimately reporting high levels of well-being at the end of the follow-up experiment using direct inhalation aromatherapy. this conclusion is consistent with cheong et al.'s finding (2021) favoring continuous inhalation over indirect inhalation in improving sleep problems. similarly, a study from hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 143 published by ideas spread sánchez-vidaña et al. (2017) explains the lack of effectiveness in certain aromatherapy studies can be attributed to the distance between the nostrils and the aroma. the longer distance between nose and scent can lead to decrease in effect, so indirect inhalation might be less effective compared to direct inhalation. in addition, aromatherapy massage is more effective than inhalation aromatherapy in alleviating depressive symptoms (sánchez-vidaña et al., 2017). massage can reduce stress and promote wellbeing, which is evident through the decreased cortisol levels (lake, 2018). when combined with aromatherapy, users can experience health benefits from both therapies, making it more effective than traditional methods (sánchez-vidaña et al., 2017). furthermore, when integrated with innovative scented products, aromatherapy continues to demonstrate measurable therapeutic benefits. a study by springer et al. (2022) demonstrated the efficacy of scented cosmetic products in the reduction of stress among 25 healthy females, with a mean age of 25.7 years. the participants exhibited lower concentration cortisol levels, an increase in alpha brain waves, and decreased self-reported stress levels after using the product with active aromatherapy compounds. these findings suggest that aromatherapy can elicit both physiological and psychological stress reduction, supporting its effectiveness beyond mere placebo effects. however, other studies have yielded more modest or inconsistent results, suggesting that the efficacy of aromatherapy may depend on context and methodology. a study by chamine and oken (2015) involving 81 adults found a limited effect of aromatherapy on stress reduction. interestingly, participants who were aware of stressreducing aroma showed slower reaction times in a stress-related task compared to those unaware of the aroma’s purpose. this finding raises the possibility that expectancy or placebo effects contributed to perceived benefits. nonetheless, several factors may explain these results without dismissing aromatherapy’s potential effectiveness. the study exhibited a performance ceiling effect, as both groups made few errors on the task, suggesting the task lacked sufficient difficulty or variability to capture the subtle differences in stress responses. moreover, contextual elements like the environment where the study was conducted likely played a role. usually, aromatherapy is used to relax in calming environments like in the bedroom or spa settings, but this study tested its effectiveness during a quick task that required alertness rather than merely stress centered. this context requires more concentration and productivity, suggesting that aromatherapy might be more suitable for subjective relaxation rather than boosting productivity or concentration. taken together, these findings indicate that while aromatherapy can produce both physiological and psychological benefits, its effectiveness is highly context dependent. in addition, discrepancies and ambiguity in experimental setups and biases like demand characteristics and response bias may also contribute to inconsistent findings across studies. furthermore, placebo effects play an important role in shaping observed outcomes in aromatherapy research. firstly, the ambiguity in scent types and the dosage of essential oil used in different studies have led to the conflicting results. for instance, the study conducted by chamine and oken (2015) does not state the precise weight of essential oil used and only describes it as “three drops” (p.2) of aroma solution. the vague language used to indicate dosage makes it difficult to assess and replicate results across studies due to the lack of consistency. similarly, different types of essential oils used in studies may lead to potential differences in results. essential oils extracted from plants might function differently due to their chemical compositions and extraction method, making it challenging to investigate the effectiveness of aromatherapy across various scents. among various essential oils, lavender is a quintessential scent used in aromatherapy both in treatment and in research. lavender accounts for 42% of the clinical trials testing aromatherapy during 2000 to 2021 on anxiety and stress in clinical settings (hedigan et al., 2023). it is also the most used scent in studying aromatherapy’s effect on sleep (cheong et al., 2021). within 34 studies analyzed by cheong et al. (2021), 76% of the scent studied contained lavender in single or mixed aroma. they also found that the lavender inhalation showed the greatest effect among various single inhalation methods. lavender’s constant use in studies led to stronger supporting evidence in its effectiveness. in the future, a more homogeneous study method is recommended to prove the effectiveness of aromatherapy further. in addition, potential biases like demand characteristics or response bias in research can cause the discrepancy in experimental results and conclusions in aromatherapy’s effectiveness. demand characteristics means cues or expectations that influence self-reported experiences of research participants (whitehouse et al., 2002). for aromatherapy, participants can easily tell which experimental group they belong to. this might affect the research results, especially in studies that are solely based on self-report questionnaires. participants might unintentionally report decreases in stress because they assume the aromatherapy will work, leading to a result in favor of the effectiveness of the aromatherapy. similarly, response bias can potentially influence results. it happens when factors during the process of responding to surveys affect the way responses are provided, causing the results to deviate from the true value (bogner & landrock, 2016). for example, participants might assume the effects of hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 144 published by ideas spread aromatherapy or that researchers want to find positive effects of aromatherapy, so they unconsciously respond in favor of aromatherapy in the self-reported questionnaires. some recent studies have adequately addressed potential bias critiqued above. these improved research designs have largely supported the effectiveness of aromatherapy. for example, a study conducted by springer et al. (2022) perfumed both the intervention group and the control group with vanilla scent to ensure no perceivable differences in order to minimize the potential performance bias. additionally, springer et al. (2022) collected physiological data, such as brain waves, as evidence instead of solely relying on self-reported questionnaires to avoid response bias. with improved design, their studies showed significant benefits of aromatherapy in reducing stress. similarly, hedigan et al. (2024) scented the control group with a detectable aroma, preventing participants from telling which experimental group they were in, so that participants wouldn’t change their behavior because of perceived differences. participants of this study reported reduced levels of stress and anxiety, supporting aromatherapy as an effective means to reduce stress and anxiety. lastly, researchers found that the placebo effect may significantly contribute to effects in aromatherapy, but the contribution is beneficial to users regardless of experimental doubt. masaoka et al. (2013) studied the effect of scent in aromatherapy and found more significant reduction in self-reported pain and unpleasantness scores when participants were informed about the benefits or noticed the lavender scent. the finding shows that the information about the scent and the scent itself both contributed to reduced perceptions of pain. the placebo effect in aromatherapy made researchers doubt the true effectiveness of aromatherapy, as experimental results might be inflated with placebo effect. however,from the user experience’s perspective, even in situations when aromatherapy itself might not be as effective, it can still be utilized as a placebo and a cheaper alternative intervention for individuals struggling with chronic stress. a study by chamine and oken (2015) demonstrated the possibility that strong beliefs in the positive effect of aromatherapy might increase product performance, a finding that can be utilized in future aromatherapy product marketing. subjective stress relief is an important objective for certain customers, so the placebo effect is still beneficial to the users. for a marketing perspective, the placebo effect can be utilized to further increase perceived effectiveness. in summary, aromatherapy is generally effective in both self-report and physiological measures. the effectiveness of aromatherapy can vary based on its delivery method, with massage aromatherapy being most effective, followed by direct inhalation aromatherapy and indirect inhalation aromatherapy. to achieve a more substantial effect, users may opt for direct inhalation aromatherapy and massage aromatherapy, given they commit to a high number of sessions and a sufficient duration. from a research perspective, the varied experimental setups and existence of response bias may account for the opposing voices on the effectiveness of aromatherapy, whereas many recent studies that have addressed all factors discussed above were in favor of aromatherapy. to further validate the claim, new studies can be done with homogeneous study designs and the exact percentage dosage of essential oil. furthermore, placebo effects inevitably play an important role in aromatherapy effectiveness, but it can be utilized in marketing to further improve user experience rather than being treated as inflating measured effectiveness. 3. fidget toys while aromatherapy appeals to some users, others might want something more tangible. the history of fidget toys dates back to centuries of years ago, when worry beads were created by greek monks on mount athos (liu, 2025). the worry beads, also known as komboloi, was first used for praying and mindfulness, but its function was later expanded into non-religious uses like decoration and relaxation. similarly, other cultures have fidgets similar to worry beads, like small baoding balls for users to fidget with one hand and kendama designed to increase focus and boost creativity (liu, 2025). today, we can see students subconsciously squeeze the stress ball as they listen to the lecture and some adults enjoy playing with something in their hand while having a business call. the long history of fidgeting suggests that humans might be naturally drawn to manipulating small objects as a way to release stress. fidget toys attempt to harness our natural tendency to fidget when we are feeling anxious through creating a specific object to fidget with. from fidget spinners to squishy stress balls and fidget cubes, tactile sensory input is designed with the aim of enhancing concentration, relieving stress and even improving working and academic performance. the global fidget toys market reached 1798 million in sales revenue in 2025, with projections of an 8.21% growth rate, reaching 3380.09 million as of 2033 (singh, 2025). the growing market reflected the interest for such products. propelling such a high market growth is the marking of this product to corporate and educational environments. in school settings, fidget toys are used to help focus on attention and classroom, while it is used in alleviating stress and increasing focus during meetings. advertisers claim that fidget toys can be aides for hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 145 published by ideas spread individuals with anxiety, autism spectrum disorders (asd) and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (adhd), while promising greater concentration and improving creativity (pappas, 2017). empirical evidence offers practical support for these claims, suggesting that the values of fidget toys may extend beyond the placebo effect for certain users and contexts. accordingly, the following section discusses their effectiveness in improving on-task behavior across different user demographics and activity types to identify populations most likely to benefit. moreover, the section will also explore how future product design changes might further enhance their functionality and stress-relief potential. in general, studies show support for fidget toys in increasing on task behavior for children and adults with neurodivergence such as adhd and asd. adhd and asd are two of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders with an estimated prevalence rate of 11.4% among children and adolescents (scandurra et al., 2019; data and statistics on adhd, 2024). people diagnosed with adhd and asd often experience symptoms such as inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity, with impaired motor coordination problems observed in one third of children with adhd (fliers et al., 2008) and delayed sensory processing developments (shimizu et al, 2014). fidget toys such as spinners can be beneficial for children with neurodivergence through aiding developments in fine motor control and sensory processing (liu, 2025). experimental results provide strong support on fidget toy’s effectiveness for people with adhd. a variety form of fidget toys has been proven to be effective in increasing on-task behavior of children with adhd, such as the fidget spinner (aspiranti and hulac, 2021), handheld manipulator, and rubber band for feet use (mathews et al., 2020). aspiranti and hulac (2021) found a 45% immediate increase in on-task behavior for second-grade students with adhd when the fidget spinner was implemented, highlighting itseffectiveness and potential as a simple classroom aid. similarly, a study done by mathews et al. (2020) found similar effects with abab withdrawal design where fidget toys were introduced twice to validate the toys’ effectiveness. the study showed a 45-55% overall attention gain among students, showing significant effect of fidget toys for students with adhd. moreover, a study conducted by son et al. (2024) found that fidgeting may aid in sustained attention during the attentiondemanding, cognitive control processes for adults with adhd. this result shows that neurodivergent adults also enjoy fidget toy effectiveness. benefits of fidget toys have also been found among autistic children. roche et al. (2023) studied the effect of fidget toys among 53 autistic children and 76 neurotypical children. their study found over 68% parents of autistic children reporting fidget toys to be beneficial for their children. 40% more parents of autistic children, compared to that of neurotypical children, reported reductions in their children’s f anxiety levels associated with fidget toy use the effectiveness of fidget toys for autistic children appears to be related to the act of fidgeting itself. neurodivergent individuals particularly those with asd or adhd might benefit more from fidget toys because fidgeting serves as a self-regulatory behavior. a study conducted by grodner’s (2015) found significant correlation between frequent fidgeting behavior and improved task performance on the stroop task when participants engaged with a fidget toy. furthermore, stimming, also known as repetitive movements, is a common characteristic of autism. kapp et al. (2019), through interviews with 32 autistic adults, identified stimming as a key self-regulatory mechanism for emotional and sensory modulation. because fidgeting behavior is one of core characteristics of both asd and adhd (martinez et al., 2024), fidget toys may effectively support neurodivergent individuals by providing a structured and socially acceptable outlet for their self-regulation. on the other hand, studies involving neurotypical young adults report limited benefits from fidget toys, suggesting their effectiveness may depend on task difficulty and user characteristics. kriescher (2020) found no significant improvements in task performances from the use of fidget spinner or stress ball among 66 college students. task performance measures including stroop tasks measuring attention and inhibition, reading comprehension,listening comprehension, and working memory and comprehension tasks showed no meaningful differences between intervention and control groups. similarly, a study by sadri and moodithaya (2021) found that neither slime nor fidget spinners significantly reduced acute stress among students aged 18 to 22 years old, with no significant difference in heart rate variability, showing no physiological benefit. interestingly, grodner (2015) found a significant improvement in task performance using the same test as that of kriescher (2020)’s, but with an easier version with less amount of cognitive resources. this seems to suggest that the effectiveness of fidget toys may vary with task complexity they may enhance performance and focus during simpler, less cognitively demanding tasks, but not when high levels of concentration or cognitive load are required. similar to aromatherapy, the placebo effect and demand characteristics influence fidget toy effectiveness. the simplicity of using fidget toys further contributes to its wide appeal to parents, as this intervention brings quick response through letting their child engage with a toy. while skeptics argue that the observed benefits may stem hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 146 published by ideas spread largely from placebo effects, it is important to recognize that placebo responses can still enhance the perceived well-being and focus, thereby amplifying the overall effectiveness of fidget toys. as discussed earlier, the placebo effect does not necessarily invalidate a product’s utility; rather, it can serve as a psychological mechanism that reinforces positive outcomes. additionally, demand characteristics also affect tested effectiveness as instructions given to the participants might impact tested effectiveness. as mentioned previously in the aromatherapy section, demand characteristic refers to cues or expectations that influence study results (whitehouse et al., 2002). for instance, grodner (2015) found that university students from the activation team, who were told that playing with a fidget toy improves cognitive test performance did better in the stroop task, an attention and inhibition task, than other groups that received different instructions. moreover, studies also found the design features of fidget toys can influence their success. according to roche et al. (2023), the bright color and noise generated with a fidget spinner might distract children from being focused therefore may account for its ineffective results. to have a more effective product, future designs can focus on fidgeting and tactile designs, instead of adding visual designs that interfere with its main effect. in summary, fidget toys are proven to be effective in improving task performance and attention among neurodivergent children, but are less effective among neurotypical adults with cognitively demanding tasks.similar to aromatherapy, placebo effect in fidget toys can be used to increase subjective benefits. moreover, design features may hinder effectiveness, a finding that can be utilized in future product designs to prevent distractions. future fidget toys may have more emphasis on tactile designs and try to eliminate sensory designs that attract attention, especially when its main audiences are children that are easily distracted. instruction given also affects effectiveness, with the potential of using product instructions to achieve better results. 4. mindfulness apps some people may prefer to turn to their phones for support from apps when feeling stressed or anxious. imagine feeling anxious at night and opening the mindfulness app on your phone for a quick wellness boost. a calm voice guides you through a slow breathing exercise or a meditation, with soothing music in the background. made more advanced with growing technology, mindfulness apps prove an accessible digital pathway to stress relief. mindfulness is defined as “paying attention in a particular way: on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally” (kabat-zinn, 1994, p.4). mindfulness is nurturing greater awareness and acceptance towards the present moment (kabat-zinn, 1994) and is theorized to increase subjective well-being, reduce psychological symptoms, and improve behavioral regulation (keng et al., 2011). a mindfulness-based app was created for the purpose of facilitating mindfulness practice (macrynikola et al., 2024). main features of mindfulness-based mobile applications include meditation practice, mindfulness training, assessments or tests, attention focus and mixed objectives (plaza et al., 2013). 59% of those mindfulness applications are focused on mediation practices (plaza et al., 2013). the most common health conditions targeted by these applications are stress, followed by mental health and depression (muhiyaddin et al., 2022). mindfulness apps became increasingly popular during the covid-19 pandemic. google reported that searches for yoga and meditation apps increased by 65% between 2019 and 2020 (goodwin, 2020). the increasing interest resulted in leading applications like headspace receiving approximately one million downloads worldwide (ceci, 2025). this section focuses on populations with the greatest access to and engagement with mindfulness applications: namely, adolescents, young adults and working professionals. in general, studies have shown strong support for mindfulness apps in alleviating stress and increasing well-being, especially with long-term uses. the following section discusses the effect of mindfulness-based apps in alleviating stress and increasing well-being across different age demographics. with that, this study will draw conclusions on the user demographics that will be most benefited by mindfulness apps and determine how users can enjoy long-term benefits from using this product. mindfulness apps are found to be effective among young adults in increasing well-being and reducing stress by systematic reviews, small pilot studies and larger sample studies. systematic review by schwartz et al. (2023) screened 28 studies that used different well-being measures, apps, and intervention duration. their review concluded that 68% of studies reported positive effects of mindfulness apps on at least one aspect of well-being. 21% of these studies reported significant improvements in mental well-being, further validating its effectiveness. additionally, huberty et al. (2019) found a positive effect of mindfulness apps in reducing perceived stress, increasing mindfulness and self-compassion in 88 college students. the study found the treatment group experiences over 20% more reduction in stress and total mindfulness score, together with around 24% increase in self-compassion compared to the control group, showing moderate to large effect for mindfulness apps. a study by lahtinen et al. (2023) found a similar effect on a larger scale with 561 university students. the treatment group hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 147 published by ideas spread had shown more reduction in depression and stress over the active control group, showing that the tested effectiveness is more than just placebo effect. among teenagers, mindfulness apps are found to be particularly effective for adolescents with higher levels of rumination. webb et al. (2022) conducted a study with 152 adolescents, assigning participants to either an appbased mindfulness training program or a mood monitoring control condition. the findings indicated that mindfulness apps-based training led to significant reductions in rumination, especially among adolescents with elevated traits of rumination. notably, the intervention was more effective in reducing problem-focused rumination than emotion-focused rumination. these results imply that mindfulness apps may be more beneficial for adolescents predisposed to cognitive over-engagement and internalized stress responses. the long-term importance of these findings is underscored by abela and hankin’s (2011) longitudinal study, which demonstrated that higher levels of rumination in adolescents were associated with a greater likelihood of future major depressive episodes and greater duration of these episodes. taken together, this demonstrates the preventative potential of mindfulness apps in supporting adolescent mental health by reducing maladaptive remuneration and lowering the risk of developing chronic depressive symptoms. mindfulness apps also were found effective in workplaces. study done by huberty et al. (2022) found significant improvements in depression, anxiety and stress among 192 employees after 8 weeks of using mindfulness apps. for example, compared to the waitlist control, the intervention group had an overall 9.48% decrease in stress and 7.88% decrease in depression. additionally, the study found the app’s ability to improve insomnia and boost productivity in work. similarly, literature review by egger et al. (2023) found effectiveness in decreasing stressrelated symptoms related to work in all 19 products being studied. this strongly supports the general effectiveness of mindfulness applications in helping with stress management at work, making it an attractive alternative to faceto-face interventions. among mindfulness application users, more effectiveness was shown in users with longer periods of consistent practice and longer practice time. as articulated by kabat-zinn (2003), mindfulness practice develops over time and regulated practice is needed to achieve better effectiveness. this general theory on practicing mindfulness is being specifically validated for experimental studies focused on mindfulness applications. a study by yoon et al. (2022) demonstrated the long-term effect of mindfulness training in increasing emotional regulation. additionally, a study conducted by pierce et al. (2024) found time spent on mindfulness apps is associated with decreased anxiety, showing that both long-term regular practice and duration of practice time affects its effectiveness. even shorter periods of using mindfulness applications can result in long term benefits. a study by keng et al. (2022) found increasing professional quality of life from healthcare works even after brief periods of mindfulness practice, revealing the application’s uniqueness compared to two previous products. unlike aromatherapy and fidget toys, whose effect focuses more on immediate, short-term reliefs, the effectiveness of mindfulness applications extends to longer periods when users are no longer using this product. doubts on the effectiveness of mindfulness apps are mainly focused on high attrition bias and potential placebo effect. attrition bias is a major bias for mindfulness apps, raising doubt of whether mindfulness apps are actually effective. attrition in mindfulness app studies have been high: schwartz et al. (2023) found around 23.4% median attention rates among studies that tested effects of mindfulness apps on well-being. attrition bias is a type of selection bias that occurs due to systematic differences between study groups in number and ways participants are lost from a study (nunan et al., 2018). for example, participants who found mindfulness apps are less effective are more likely to drop out of the study, leading to overestimation of the app's effectiveness based on collected results. when compared with previous products like aromatherapy and fidget toys, mindfulness apps have a higher attrition rate because it requires higher time commitment from participants. studies often require participants to actively use the app for several weeks, so it is easy for groups to drop out. however, other effectiveness studies with low attrition provide strong evidence in support of mindfulness apps. a study by lindsay et al. (2019) concluded positive effects in mindfulness interventions for increasing positive emotions in daily life with only 2% participant drop-out rate and no condition differences in study drop-outs. 153 stressed adults experienced increased positive feelings only after receiving 2 weeks of mindfulness training, proving the value of smartphone-based mindfulness interventions for participants hoping to receive mindfulness training. similarly, a study by yoon et al. (2022) found participants receiving mobile mindfulness training to experience a significant increase in subjective well-being compared to the wait-list control group. among 45 employees, 22 of them who received the mobile mindfulness training also experienced reduced negative emotional symptoms and maintained improvements at follow-up in the fourth week post-intervention. only 1 participant was hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 148 published by ideas spread lost from the control group during this study, preventing its results from being influenced by the attrition bias. these two studies with low attrition show that attrition bias is not likely to be a major influence in other study results. the opposing researchers also argued that the placebo effect significantly contributes to the effectiveness in mindfulness apps. a study conducted by davies et al. (2023) tested the placebo effect in mindfulness apps. the study compared online mindfulness intervention effectiveness with specific sham mindfulness sessions, general sham mindfulness sessions and audiobook control. results found no significant differences between online mindfulness to the shams in reducing pain or unpleasantness among 169 adults with chronic or recurrent pain. but still, from the user experience perspective, placebo effect can add on to perceived effectiveness, making mindfulness apps an accessible alternative. moreover, even though no significant difference has been found within the app and both shams, all of these groups have shown reduced pain unpleasantness relative to audiobook control. this proves that regardless of placebo effect or not, mindfulness apps can reduce subjective unpleasantness. moreover, the study only focuses on single session effectiveness in reducing chronic pain unpleasantness, while mindfulness apps are usually used on a routine basis. the number and frequency of mindfulness sessions may be another reason why there are no significant differences in results. in summary, mindfulness apps are proven to be effective for increasing subjective well-being, mindfulness and self-compassion and reducing perceived stress. although scholars have raised concerns about potential high attrition bias and placebo effect in mobile-based mindfulness interventions, studies have adequately responded to these doubts by minimizing attrition rates and still demonstrated the effectiveness of mindfulness apps. furthermore, mindfulness apps showed long-term benefits for users post-intervention, making it a good product for users seeking long-term benefits in addition to quick benefits from single sessions. 5. conclusion effectiveness of these three products discussed above varied by user demographic and needs. overall, aromatherapy demonstrated high effectiveness in improving user’s subjective experiences, fidget toys might help with productivity in populations with additional needs, and mindfulness apps might help with sustaining long-term effects. placebo effect occurs among all three stress relief products and can be utilized to provide increased subjective stress relief experience for users. although the placebo effect is often regarded as a methodological limit that complicates the interpretation of experimental results, this paper argues that it also represents an effective psychological mechanism capable of producing psychological and physiological relief. therefore, rather than dismissing the placebo effect as a source of bias, marketing strategies may consider amplifying customer perceived benefits by shaping users’ expectations through strategic design and marketing. aromatherapy is generally effective under conditions for all user demographics, from young adults to seniors. although age demographics are likely not a determining factor for aromatherapy’s effectiveness, submodalities of aromatherapy do. aromatherapy is most effective for subjective stress relief when using massage aromatherapy and direct inhalation aromatherapy, whereas indirect inhalation aromatherapy is less effective. studies also suggest aromatherapy’s potential to be combined with other products, for example, scented cosmetics. in this case, aromatherapy can become easily accessible for users as part of their daily life. such adoption can boost the effectiveness of aromatherapy since positive results are often associated with a higher number of sessions and longer exposure times (sánchez-vidaña et al., 2017). by incorporating aromatherapy into users' existing routines, it becomes easier to use frequently, leading to better effects. fidget toys are generally effective for increasing attention among neurodivergent children and adults. it is most effective in improving task performance and attention among neurodivergent children because it aids developments in fine motor control and serves as a socially acceptable outlet for their fidgeting behavioral tendency. although task difficulty makes fidget toys less effective among adults, fidget toys still show subjective effectiveness among neurodivergent adults. compared to the other two products, fidget toys showed stronger effectiveness in increasing on-task behavior and thus improved task performance. to further increase effectiveness, future product designs can focus on tactile designs and prevent distractions from sensory designs. mindfulness apps are found to be generally effective among all age demographics, from young adults to employees in workspaces. it is most effective among teenagers with higher traits of rumination, highlighting mindfulness applications in preventing and decreasing depressive episodes. duration of application usage tends to be the deciding factor in its effectiveness. to receive higher effectiveness from mindfulness apps, users may have longer periods of consistent practice and longer practice time. while shorter periods of practice might be less hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 149 published by ideas spread effective, it does also result in long term benefits even post-intervention. unlike the other two products, mindfulness apps provide users with long-term effectiveness. in conclusion, the current review highlights that while all three products aromatherapy, fidget toys and mindfulness apps offer meaningful benefits, their effectiveness is context-dependent and influenced by user characteristics, application mode, and expectancy effects. together, these findings suggest that stress management is best achieved through personalized approaches that align with users’ sensory preferences, behavioral tendencies and technological accessibility. future research should continue to investigate how combining these interventions and leveraging psychological mechanisms, such as the placebo effect, may lead to more comprehensive and sustainable stress. references [1] abela, j. 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(2022). effects of mobile mindfulness training on mental health of employees: a consort-compliant pilot randomized controlled trial. medicine, 101(35), article e30260. https://doi.org/10.1097/md.0000000000030260 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). humanities and social science research; vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 issn 2576-3024 e-issn 2576-3032 https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v8n5p176 176 published by ideas spread techno-structural disconnects in digital governance: mechanisms, challenges and adaptive pathways for social governance innovation a case study of mengzi’s comprehensive law enforcement platform meishu hou1,2a, tao dou3,4b, xijing huang5,6,7c & zeyu yang8,9d 1 mengzi bureau of science and technology, china 2 mengzi science and technology achievement transformation center, china 3 mengzi administrative law enforcement command and dispatch center, china 4 mengzi municipal center for intelligent innovation and development, china 5 department of social work, faculty of arts and social sciences, hong kong baptist university, china 6 faculty of humanities and social sciences, beijing normal-hong kong baptist university, china 7 mengzi digital industry investment and development co., china 8 department of social work, faculty of arts and social sciences, hong kong baptist university, china 9 faculty of humanities and social sciences, beijing normal-hong kong baptist university, china a,b indicates the co-corresponding author c,d indicates the co-first author correspondence: meishu hou, mengzi bureau of science and technology, honghe 651400, china; mengzi science and technology achievement transformation center, honghe 651400, china. e-mail: a441294324@qq.com; tao dou, mengzi administrative law enforcement command and dispatch center, honghe 651400, china; mengzi municipal center for intelligent innovation and development, honghe 651400, china. e-mail: b199742150@qq.com; cu430241853@mail.uic.edu.cn; du430241811@mail.uic.edu.cn received: october 22, 2025; accepted: november 3, 2025; published: november 4, 2025 the research is financed by honghe prefecture eighth (2025) philosophy and social sciences planning project: practical research on ai-empowered multi-stakeholder collaborative emergency governance in the context of resilient urban development (project number: 2025sh-29). abstract this study investigates the mechanisms, challenges and pathways through which digital technology platforms empower social governance, focusing on the comprehensive administrative law enforcement command and dispatch platform in mengzi city. employing the ‘structural adaptation process collaboration functional optimization’ framework grounded in adaptive governance theory and sociotechnical systems theory, we analyze operational data from 12,703 cases processed in 2024, supplemented by field interviews and policy document reviews. our findings reveal that, despite the platform achieving a 95% case resolution rate and improving governance transparency via a unified command system and real-time data dashboards, significant structural disconnections persist. specifically, a 40% shortage of grassroots personnel is evident, there is a misalignment between standardized work processes and local governance requirements, and cross-departmental incidents continue to depend on manual coordination. moreover, the emergence of data silos, exacerbated by incompatible standards and policy constraints, has further undermined the ‘trustless collaboration’ mechanism facilitated by blockchain technology. in terms of public participation, the feedback mechanism remains superficial, resulting in citizen involvement being limited to a mere 6.8% of reported cases. furthermore, this study identifies three paradoxes that impede digital governance in developing jurisdictions. first, advanced platform architectures conflict with under-resourced implementation, creating a techno‑structural friction that undermines system performance. second, high technical specifications coexist with incomplete data hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 177 published by ideas spread integration, leaving information silos that frustrate decision‑making. third, participatory interfaces exist alongside constrained public engagement, so opportunities for civic input fail to translate into meaningful participation. theoretically, we extend the application of adaptive governance theory by showing how institutional inertia impedes technological assimilation in multi‑ethnic border regions. at the practical level, we propose a tripartite solution. dynamic government-enterprise partnerships can address hardware and capacity gaps at the front-line, and algorithmic responsibility‑matching systems automate inter-agency coordination by routing tasks according to jurisdictional competence and workload. meanwhile, blockchain-anchored incentive ecosystems stimulate civic participation can be stimulated by establishing blockchain-anchored incentive ecosystems. these strategies offer feasible pathways to reconcile ambitious digital governance goals with the contextual realities in developing countries. keywords: digital governance, digital technology, structural adaptation, process collaboration, functional optimization, adaptive governance theory, sociotechnical systems theory, three paradoxes, a tripartite solution 1. introduction 1.1 introduce the problem the integration of digital technology platforms into social governance has fundamentally reshaped administrative paradigms, yet important gaps remain in our understanding of their operational effectiveness and the systemic obstacles within the context of law enforcement coordination. although a previous study emphasizes the transformative potential of digital tools in governance (janssen & kuk, 2016), their application in multi‑ethnic border regions where institutional fragmentation, cultural diversity and limited resources intersect has received scant attention. in addition, existing studies tend to employ fragmented analytical approaches and therefore do not adequately capture the dynamic interactions among technological design, organizational restructuring and functional optimization. in the field of digital construction of administrative law enforcement platforms, there are three major contradictions that urgently need to be resolved. specifically, despite the claim of having a unified command system, the platform architecture often conflicts with the law-enforcement capabilities at the grassroots. taking the administrative law enforcement platform in mengzi city as an example, the law-enforcement units in townships are facing a 40% manpower shortage, which exposes the contradiction between the standardized digital work processes and local actual operations (qin, 2023). in terms of data governance, although the platform theoretically supports crossdepartmental collaboration, due to inconsistent data standards and policy barriers, cross-institutional coordination still requires manual intervention. this runs counter to the concept of ‘trustless collaboration’ in blockchain advocated in the platform design. moreover, the mechanism for citizen participation remains superficial (revez et al., 2022). cases initiated by the public only account for 6.8% of the total cases handled, far lower than the average of 23% for similar platforms in oecd countries. 1.2 research gap regarding the difficulties faced by the digital construction of administrative law enforcement, some studies have proposed some optimization paths. for example, zhang (2025) summarizes in the practical pattern of digital transformation of administrative law enforcement that the off-site law enforcement model driven by digital technology shows significant advantages. it has greatly improved its ability to discover case clues, and with the help of drones, high-definition surveillance and other technologies; it has changed from passively accepting reports and complaints to actively identifying risks and hazards. the efficiency in the investigation and handling of illegal activities is outstanding. for cases with clear facts and simple plots, law enforcement officers can complete identification, evidence collection (eg., image fixation) and preliminary processing online without being present at the scene. this is evidenced by the widespread application of traffic ‘electronic police’ and urban management monitoring. simultaneously, this model brings great convenience to the counterparts, allowing them to complete information inquiries, statements and defenses, and fine payments online without leaving home, effectively saving time and costs. in addition, facing the dilemma of long-term restrictions on law enforcement information disclosure channels, digital technology has effectively improved the timeliness and accuracy of disclosure. relying on the special publicity section established on the portal website of the county (district) level or linking to the provincial platform has become a realistic choice to ensure the effective disclosure of grassroots law enforcement information, effectively breaking the ‘last mile’ obstacle to the disclosure of grassroots law enforcement data. faced with the problem of fragmented bureaucratic governance, liu & zhang (2025) proposed the idea of strengthening digital empowerment to reengineer administrative law enforcement processes, optimize functions and reconstruct systems with the goal of meeting social needs. at the provincial level, developing a digital application platform for law enforcement and supervision, integrating all four-level administrative law enforcement processes in the province hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 178 published by ideas spread into platform supervision and integrating administrative inspection, administrative penalties, law enforcement supervision and other law enforcement process elements can build a ‘demand-oriented’ administrative law enforcement model (liu & zhang, 2025). on this basis, we can rely on data flow and data reconstruction to promote the ‘multi-cross collaboration’ connection of government functional departments and rely on digital platforms to achieve application, system and mechanism integration, thereby promoting the orderly connection and deep integration of government departments’ duty performance and service processes (liu & zhang, 2025). in order to solve the problems of weak generalization ability of algorithm models and poor data circulation and sharing in the intelligent construction of administrative law enforcement supervision, it is considered as a feasible strategy to explore the multi-modal fusion of algorithms and standardize the improvement of data quality (lei, 2025). nevertheless, existing adaptive governance studies rarely test sociotechnical integration in low-resource and multi-ethnic localities. 2. literature review by reviewing the existing literature, a large number of studies, framed by the adaptive governance theory and social systems theory, focus on a series of key themes regarding digital economic platforms. from the perspective of adaptive governance theory, the research emphasis lies in how to customize technological tools according to the specific needs of governance processes, including optimizing work processes and clarifying division of responsibilities (reiner et al., 2002). for instance, some studies have explored how digital platforms simplify administrative processes and enhance law-enforcement efficiency through real-time data and analysis technologies (wang, 2024). however, the existing research still lacks in-depth exploration of the long-term adaptability of these technologies in a dynamic governance environment (dubey et al., 2023). under the framework of sociotechnical systems theory, research focuses on the synergistic effects between digital platforms and multiple stakeholders such as the government, the public and law-enforcement agencies (wang, 2024). one study shows that effective multi-party collaboration can significantly improve overall governance effectiveness (ansell & gash, 2008). nevertheless, challenges such as information asymmetry and coordination difficulties have become bottlenecks in achieving seamless information integration (vosooghidizaji et al., 2020). of note, although digital platforms have the potential to promote information sharing, improper management may also give rise to new divides (ferreira et al., 2021). additionally, the existing research has also discussed the issues of ‘fragmentation’ (iwuoha & mbaegbu, 2021; krüger et al., 2024; li, 2024; xie et al., 2025) and ‘overemphasis on construction while neglecting operation’ in technology-driven law enforcement (alashwal & fong, 2015). these issues highlight the need for a more comprehensive strategy in the development and implementation of digital technologies in governance (flyverbom et al., 2019). while the construction of digital platforms is crucial, it is equally important to ensure their effective operation and maintenance (adamenko et al., 2020). this requires not only technological expertise but also a deep understanding of the governance context and the needs of various stakeholders (zhao et al., 2022). this study adopts an innovative framework ‘structural adaptation process collaboration functional optimization’ based on adaptive governance theory (folke et al., 2005) and sociotechnical systems theory (luhmann, 1994) to fill the research gap. through analyzing the operational data of 12,703 cases handled by the comprehensive lawenforcement platform in mengzi city in 2024, we reveal how digital solutions strengthen and challenge the rationality of traditional governance in china’s border areas. the study finds that although digital technology platforms have the potential to enhance governance capabilities, they also face problems such as structural misalignment, poor collaboration and functional limitations (chen et al., 2021). furthermore, this study reveals the mechanisms and challenges of applying digital technology platforms to social governance and provides guidance for other fields facing similar problems. 3. method 3.1 theoretical foundations 3.1.1 adaptive governance theory adaptive governance theory emphasizes the need for dynamic adaptability between problem contexts and governance instruments. it requires aligning technological capabilities with law-enforcement needs and designing processes that embody procedural rationality (reiner et al., 2002). applied to digital technology platforms, the theory highlights the importance of matching technical concordances to the specific requirements for law enforcement. for example, predictive algorithms and real-time data analysis can improve law-enforcement effectiveness by supplying timely, contextually relevant information. notably, the theory also stresses the necessity hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 179 published by ideas spread of continual adaptation so that technological tools remain pertinent and effective within evolving governance environments. 3.1.2 sociotechnical systems theory sociotechnical systems theory examines how internal and external elements included in a system are coordinated. in the context of digital technology platforms, this coordination encompasses interactions between the platform and government agencies at multiple levels, public engagement and the circulation of data flow (wang, 2024). when these actors act in a coordinated fashion, overall governance capacity can be strengthened. to illustrate, e‑platforms can improve exchanges between government and citizens and facilitate information sharing, thereby promoting more open and inclusive decision‑making processes (clarke et al., 2019). nevertheless, information asymmetry and coordination failures have the ability of frustrating the effective articulation of these factors and may impede the effective realization of these benefits, so it is necessary to use systems-based solutions to tackle such challenges. 3.2 research design the ‘structural adaptation process collaboration functional optimization’ framework is applied to examine the integration of digital technology platforms into social governance from an overall perspective (see figure 1). this framework is adopted to test the adaptation of technological tools to governance structures, the effectiveness of collaborative processes and the optimization of platform functions. 3.2.1 structural adaptation this dimension concerns how well the digital technology platform adapts to the administrative law‑enforcement responsibility system and the accompanying organizational structure. it evaluates whether the platform’s design and operational procedures align with the prevailing governance model. for instance, a coordinated commandand-dispatch system can enhance policing efficiency by streamlining incident reporting, deployment and supervision (reiner et al., 2002). however, the platform is liable to encounter difficulties when its architecture or technological capabilities no longer correspond to organizational requirements or law‑enforcement needs. figure 1. three-tier analysis framework diagram hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 180 published by ideas spread 3.2.2 process collaboration this indicator tests the adequacy of interdepartmental collaboration, the extent of citizen engagement and the efficacy and transparency of process-handling functions. it examines how well the platform facilitates coordination and communication among stakeholders such as government departments, the public and law-enforcement agencies. for example, the deployment of mobile applications and real-time information sharing can improve the timeliness of enforcement actions by accelerating and streamlining open-ended event processing (wang, 2024). however, persistent problems such as information asymmetry and coordination failures may have a negative impact on the operation of such processes. 3.2.3 functional optimization this aspect examines the fulfillment of the primary functions that include data integration, risk alerting and lawenforcement monitoring. simultaneously, it checks whether those functions are organized and upgraded to meet the needs of social governance. for example, the integration of data analysis and predictive algorithms can enhance the platform’s ability to detect and respond to emerging risks (alashwal & fong, 2015). conversely, shortcomings may emerge if the platform’s functions are not fully utilized or when the platform is poorly integrated with other governance instruments. 3.3 research methods 3.3.1 research procedure this study mainly employs the case study method, and a smart city project in mengzi, yunnan province, called the ‘comprehensive administrative law enforcement command and dispatch platform,’ is selected as the object of analysis. through operational data analysis, field research and individual case interviews, relevant data and materials are obtained to present the practical effects and governance challenges of digital technology platforms empowering social governance. since mengzi city in yunnan province was selected as a pilot city for the second batch of national smart cities in 2013, the city has continuously increased its investment. in combination with the actual situation, it has successively issued policies such as the notice on regulating new infrastructure information projects and smart city construction in mengzi and the mengzi smart city construction plan to accelerate the construction process of the smart city. mengzi city has built multiple sets of digital governance application systems, including a command and dispatch center and a data security center. therefore, analyzing the practical logic of the city’s ‘comprehensive administrative law enforcement command and dispatch platform’ in enhancing the efficiency of digital-empowered social governance has typical reference value. 3.3.2 data collection and processing the author spent six months in successively visiting key departments such as political and legal committee, the development and reform bureau, the administrative law enforcement command and dispatch center, the public security bureau, the letters and visits bureau and the civil affairs bureau in mengzi city, as well as three sub-district offices in the central city and their affiliated community residents’ committees. we randomly selected five staff members from each of the above departments and institutions for semi-structured interviews. first-hand information was obtained through on-the-spot investigations to gain a deep understanding of the operation status and prominent features of the comprehensive administrative law enforcement command and dispatch platform. moreover, we randomly selected 30 citizens from the community for qualitative interviews with the aim of understanding their awareness and satisfaction with the platform. after finishing qualitative interview, content analysis was used to summarize relevant themes and analyze the tendency of awareness and satisfaction. meanwhile, we utilized the spss analysis platform to examine the relationships among the case completion rate, policy orientation, digital technology and residents’ participation and satisfaction. notably, we adopted thematic code to compare the governmental department staffs’ perspectives with qualitative data from public’s interview, aiming to ensure cross-verification among government data and field observations and enhance the validity and reliability of data. these efforts have laid a solid foundation for elaborating on the analytical framework and core viewpoints in detail. 3.3.3 innovation and significance this study focuses on systematically analyzing the application limitations and efficiency dilemmas of digital technology in social governance, exploring the paths to improve the efficiency of digital-empowered social governance and ultimately achieving the two-way coupling between the digital technology platform and the overall digital social governance system (li et al., 2022). hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 181 published by ideas spread figure 2. platform architecture diagram 4. results 4.1 empirical case analysis 4.1.1 platform architecture the mengzi’s comprehensive administrative law enforcement command and dispatch platform adopts a ‘five-level command system + seven-layer technical architecture’ to manage the entire cycle of incident reporting, dispatch, enforcement and assessment. it innovatively constructs an ‘1115’ model for administrative law enforcement command and dispatch, comprising an ‘integrated setup’ for unified command, ‘one‑click’ dispatch, ‘one‑network’ supervision, ‘five‑party’ linkage and ‘unified assessment.’ specifically, the ‘integrated setup’ establishes countylevel and township (district)-level administrative law enforcement teams, consolidating multiple dispatch platforms and creating interaction channels between government and enterprises and between government and the public. the ‘one-click’ dispatch function centralizes coordination, comprehensive tasking, monitoring and analysis, supervision and assessment and system evaluation within a single command-and-dispatch platform. meanwhile, ‘one‑network’ supervision system enables the real-time transfer, immediate notification and dynamic monitoring of information on administrative licenses, daily supervision and administrative penalties among different hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 182 published by ideas spread departments. it implements unified acceptance and scheduling of matters that need to be handled and directly delivers relevant information to front-line law enforcement officers. the ‘five‑party’ linkage strengthens combined online and offline oversight, enabling rapid social reporting (‘snap and report’), a synergistic cooperation of professional three‑level command centre and transparent rule‑of‑law practices that are visible, appreciable and subject to supervision. as shown in figure 1, the platform’s seven‑layer technical architecture is arranged from top to bottom as follows: perceptual layer, resource layer, data layer, application support layer, application system layer, interaction layer and user layer. 4.1.2 functional design in terms of structural adaptation, the platform integrates the 12345 hotline and 110 non-police emergency calls, and establishes a mechanism of ‘unified command dispatch supervision.’ this integration aims to simplify the processes of incident reporting, dispatch and supervision, ensuring the efficient handling of various administrative law-enforcement tasks. by centralizing these communication channels, the platform can coordinate resources more efficiently and respond to public demands in a timely manner. in terms of process collaboration, the platform supports paperless office work and real-time collaboration through a mobile application. this function enables law-enforcement officers to view and update information on-site, significantly improving the efficiency of incident handling. the mobile application also promotes communication and coordination among different departments and government levels, achieving seamless information sharing and forming a collaborative response mechanism. in terms of functional optimization, the system is equipped with a real-time monitoring data dashboard, an electronic law-enforcement record system and a ‘citizen snapshot’ function. the data dashboard presents a panoramic view of urban administrative law-enforcement activities, helping to improve decision-making efficiency and optimize resource allocation. the electronic law-enforcement record system greatly reduces the need for paper documents, significantly enhancing the efficiency and accuracy of document processing. besides, the ‘citizen snapshot’ function allows citizens to report incidents through a mobile app, effectively promoting public participation and enhancing the transparency of the law-enforcement process. in addition to the above functions, the system also integrates cutting-edge technologies such as artificial intelligence (ai)-driven incident classification and risk prediction. these technologies enable automatic incident detection and prioritization, which not only reduces the workload of law-enforcement officers but also improves the overall efficiency of the system. the system also has a performance evaluation module. by linking law-enforcement scores with the assessment results of civil servants, it strengthens the sense of responsibility and encourages staff to enhance the quality of their work. in terms of system integration, the platform is specifically designed with a connection plan to existing government agencies such as the judicial system and market supervision departments. through data interconnection with these departments, data sharing and collaborative use among agencies are achieved, thereby remarkably enhancing the overall synergy of the platform (stame, 2020). by breaking down data silos and establishing a unified data-sharing mechanism, the platform can not only better meet the needs of all stakeholders but also comprehensively improve the city’s comprehensive governance capacity. in 2024, the mengzi’s comprehensive administrative law enforcement command and dispatch center handled a total of 12,703 incidents, with an average completion rate of 95%, successfully implementing the concept of ‘onenet governance.’ however, two major problems have emerged: first, the limited funds for digital government construction have hindered the progress of service procurement and business operation projects; second, crossdepartmental coordination still relies on manual operations, and the handling of some incidents is delayed due to unclear responsibilities. table 1. platform operational data source of the event total number of reports number of files completion rate n n % "snap and report" reporting 942 904 96% 110 non-police emergency calling reporting 402 393 98% 12345 hotlines reporting 11291 10614 94% 371111 livelihood service hotlines 68 68 100% totals 12703 11979 95% hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 183 published by ideas spread 4.2 mechanism study based on a three-dimensional framework 4.2.1 structural adaptation the original design of the five-level command system was intended to match the hierarchical structure of countylevel and township-level law-enforcement teams. this structural design aims to ensure smooth command and information flow between governments at all levels and law-enforcement units. however, the shortage of lawenforcement forces in townships has emerged as a significant challenge. each township has only 5-10 lawenforcement officers, severely limiting the ability to respond to emergencies and handle tasks efficiently. this shortage not only affects the response speed but also impacts the quality of law-enforcement as the police force is often overwhelmed by the workload. in essence, the core contradiction lies in the huge gap between the platform’s technical standards (such as the requirements for three-level protection and government cloud services that need to meet network requirements) and the actual hardware conditions at the grassroots. specifically, townships lack the necessary servers and network facilities to meet the platform’s technical requirements. this mismatch between the technical requirements and the existing configuration has given rise to multiple problems. from one perspective, the mismatch between the platform’s capabilities and the actual operating conditions leads to inefficiency and delays. from another perspective, local governments find it difficult to allocate resources to meet these technical specifications without sufficient support, resulting in difficulties in resource allocation. 4.2.2 process collaboration having discussed structural adaptation, the next section explores how process collaboration unfolds in practice. through previous case analysis, we have found that the platform has certain collaborative advantages. to illustrate, the ‘snap and report’ mini-program allows citizens to easily report incidents through a user-friendly interface, effectively promoting public participation. nevertheless, data shows that cases reported by citizens only account for 6.8% of the total incidents, indicating insufficient social mobilization. this low proportion suggests that although the platform has the potential to attract the public, it has not achieved widespread popularity and active interaction. the root cause of the collaborative obstacles is that cross-departmental incidents require manual coordination through ‘joint meetings,’ lacking an automatic matching mechanism for responsibilities and authorities. this manual coordination is error-prone, time-consuming and inefficient. furthermore, due to the lack of a process for automatically identifying the responsible departments and authorities for incidents, inefficiencies and bottlenecks occur during the handling process. consequently, the platform’s ability to promote collaboration among departments is impaired. 4.2.3 functional optimization having discussed process collaboration, the next section illuminates how functional optimization unfolds in practice. there are several advantages to the platform’s digital capabilities and digital intelligence tools. for instance, the data dashboard, one of the core features of the platform, enables supervisors and decision-makers to track current activities and make decisions based on the latest data by visualizing police processes in real-time. on the contrary, the platform’s early warning function is currently limited to ‘imminent expiration reminders’ and has not yet integrated artificial intelligence-based risk prediction models. this limitation causes the platform to only take passive responses to possible problems rather than proactive prevention, thus weakening its overall risk management effectiveness. moreover, as an area where the platform has potential, the law enforcement assessment module still needs improvement in many areas. while the module provides a framework for evaluating law enforcement officer performance, the current reliance on manual scoring results in inefficiencies and potential bias. in addition, given the lack of deep integration with performance appraisal systems, assessment results are not fully used in decisionmaking processes such as promotions or training assignments. this disconnect weakens the platform’s ability to drive performance improvements and ensure accountability. 4.3 comparison with domestic and international areas mengzi’s comprehensive law enforcement platform integrates 12345 government service hotline, grid management system and ai intelligent analysis module to realize the effect of law enforcement work order ‘can be handled immediately after receiving a complaint,’ which promotes the efficiency of departmental collaborative disposal and improves the satisfaction of the public at the same time. furthermore, the comprehensive law enforcement platform of mengzi city takes the two major cores of digital government and digital economy as the core task, and centers on the construction of ai algorithms, the safe management of big data and the operation of hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 184 published by ideas spread digital economic platforms, and builds the core chassis of arithmetic, storage and operation with local characteristics, which comprehensively promotes the digital transformation of local administrative law enforcement and effectively enhances the government's ability to govern digitally. xinjiang, china, which is also an ethnic minority border area, also draws on this development model, which integrates integrated technology, data governance and ai algorithm construction into the construction of a smart law enforcement hub, comprehensively playing the supporting role of digital intelligence technology in the subject management, collaborative case handling, supervision and publicity, decision-making support and other links, and realizing the effect of law enforcement efficiency, supervision and innovation and service transparency. it can be seen that the practice of mengzi city is universal, and is of reference significance for the digital construction of administrative law enforcement platforms in other multi-ethnic border areas in china. for other oecd member countries, there is a lack of research related to the digitization of administrative enforcement platforms. only in india has digital governance received attention. for instance, adhvaryu & mathew (2025) explores the intersection of data and governance based on the indian context, focusing on the complexities of integrating data-driven governance within urban systems. their study shows that despite india’s strong push to digitize localities, the lack of standardized data collection methodologies prevents data from adequately reflecting the realities of urban governance. in addition, the multi-tiered governance system has led to inconsistent approaches to data management across locations, and data cannot be effectively integrated into a unified strategy. for developing countries facing difficulties in building digital governance, the successful practice of mengzi city can serve as a lesson. on the basis of fully considering the development of digital technology, economic strength and policy orientation, countries should carry out the construction and optimization of digital platforms from the three aspects of structure, process and function, so as to organically combine administrative affairs and social governance, and to achieve the synthesis and integration of social governance. 5. discussion: the digital governance challenges and implementation path 5.1 techno-structural disconnect 5.1.1 misalignment between technological development and grassroots implementation capacities the platform’s design emphasizes a ‘five-level command system’ and a ‘seven-layer technical architecture,’ requiring township law-enforcement teams to respond to incidents in real-time and comprehensively record the disposal process. however, each township is only equipped with 5-10 law-enforcement officers, making it difficult to meet the platform’s requirements. finally, the shortage of personnel leads to a high risk of delays in incident disposal. data shows that 2% of non-police incidents remain unresolved to date. additionally, the platform requires ‘paperless office work’ and ‘real-time mobile positioning,’ which necessitate the deployment of hardware facilities such as networks and terminal devices at the grassroots level. nevertheless, due to budget constraints (with a total budget of 2 million yuan), some townships are unable to fully meet these technical standards, which restricts the implementation and application of technological functions. 5.1.2 conflict between standardized processes and flexible governance needs the platform presets a linear workflow of ‘incidents scheduling handling evaluation.’ however, in reality, cross-departmental events still require manual coordination through the ‘joint meeting’ mechanism, resulting in a rigid process. for example, ‘non-police 110 incidents’ often need to be transferred to multiple departments such as urban management and environmental protection. besides, the platform lacks a dynamic responsibility matching algorithm and completely relies on individual subjective judgments, leading to low efficiency. 5.1.3 incompatibility between technical standards and policy environment the platform emphasizes high-standard technical requirements such as ‘three-level protection,’ ‘government cloud complying with national network security standards’ and ‘blockchain data integration.’ however, due to policy restrictions, projects such as the ‘data security center,’ originally planned to be invested in by the government, have been implemented through the procurement of services. this transformation forces the implementation of technology to rely on the capabilities of enterprises, resulting in the blurring of the concept of data sovereignty (eg., enterprises may monopolize data interfaces), which runs counter to the original design intention of ‘unified command.’ 5.2 inadequate data integration and sharing 5.2.1 data silo problem although a construction plan for the traffic data resource catalog system has been proposed, given that policy restrictions, projects such as intelligent transportation have shifted to the procurement-service model, impeding hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 185 published by ideas spread the data integration process. in particular, there is a lack of unified data standards among different departments. to illustrate, the technical specifications and standards in multiple fields such as transportation and networking are not unified, resulting in low efficiency of cross-system connections. undoubtedly, this leads to the formation of information silos, where information is isolated and difficult to share and integrate, thus constraining the platform’s ability to provide comprehensive and coordinated governance. 5.2.2 the lack of a sharing mechanism the platform has integrated channels such as 12345 and 110, but it has not yet achieved in-deepth connection with the systems of departments such as the judiciary and market supervision. the ‘real-time transfer of administrative licensing and daily supervision information’ is crucial for these departments. hence, event scheduling still requires manual intervention through the method of conducting a joint discussion in the form of meeting, which is both time-consuming and error-prone. this lack of an automated sharing mechanism not only reduces the efficiency of event handling but also limits the platform’s ability to provide real-time and accurate information to decisionmakers. 5.3 lack of public participation and long-term incentives 5.3.1 limited participation channels citizens can only report incidents through the ‘snap and report’ mini-program. moreover, due to the lack of integration and analysis of citizens’ comment data, the processing results cannot be promptly fed back to the parties involved. this situation is likely to lead to insufficient enthusiasm among the public for participation. further, such limited public participation channels restrict the platform’s ability to attract a broader audience and collect diverse opinions, thereby weakening the overall effectiveness of governance. 5.3.2 weak design of incentive mechanisms although the platform has proposed a ‘point-reward system,’ it lacks a periodic assessment of the implementation effect. as a result, the actual implementation cannot be made public and social mobilization remains at the stage of ‘passive response.’ in addition, after citizens participate in social governance and cooperate with lawenforcement investigations, they rarely receive positive feedback (such as publicizing good deeds through online media, community workers awarding pennants to outstanding citizens or inviting exemplary figures to share their experiences on-site). therefore, the lack of clear and effective incentive measures significantly dampens citizens’ enthusiasm for participating in governance, further constraining the platform’s ability to enhance governance effectiveness through public participation. 5.4 synergistic advancement of technology integration and organizational restructuring 5.4.1 dynamic adjustment mechanism based on the theory of adaptive governance, a ‘demand technology’ dynamic assessment model should be established. this model can achieve the continuous optimization of platform functions by regularly collecting user feedback, analyzing changes in governance demands and evaluating technological progress. for example, the introduction of an ai event classification engine can automatically identify and classify event reports, significantly reducing the pressure on manual dispatching. simultaneously, the deployment of an intelligent early-warning system can predict potential events and allocate resources in advance. this mechanism ensures that the platform’s technological capabilities are always in sync with governance demands, thereby significantly enhancing lawenforcement efficiency, reducing response time and improving processing accuracy. 5.4.2 grassroots capacity building grassroots capacity should be enhanced through structured partnerships between government and enterprises. the government and relevant departments should proactively sign strategic agreements with multiple technology companies to share resources and professional knowledge and jointly develop customized solutions. for instance, by purchasing services such as cloud computing platforms, outsourcing it support and hardware leasing, key hardware resources can be supplemented instead of simply relying on government investment, thus maximizing cost-effectiveness. moreover, it is worthy of consideration to conduct comprehensive digital skills training for law-enforcement officers, covering modules such as platform operation, data analysis and network security, to enhance their ability to effectively use the platform. this not only significantly improves the technological proficiency of grassroots police officers but also ensures the smooth operation of the platform at the local level and enhances the community’s security response capacity. hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 186 published by ideas spread 5.5 building an intelligent collaborative governance network 5.5.1 algorithm and responsibility matching system based on the social system theory, a cross-departmental responsibility mapping system should be developed. through comprehensive analysis of the multi-dimensional characteristics of incidents (such as incidents type, scope of influence and historical handling records), the system can automatically identify the department to which an incident belongs. especially in the scenario of ‘cross-departmental incidents,’ it significantly reduces the cost of manual coordination and time delay. furthermore, by leveraging advanced machine learning algorithms and natural language processing techniques, the platform system can analyze the nature of events in real-time and precisely match the most suitable handling department. this notably enhances the efficiency of event dispatching, effectively reduces the need for manual interventions and supports the dynamic optimization of the responsibility allocation process. it is worth mentioning that the platform system should also integrate real-time monitoring data and optimize the feedback mechanism. for instance, it can introduce ai to analyze law-enforcement data in realtime and promptly feed back the case handling results to the parties involved and law-enforcement officers, ensuring the accuracy and traceability of responsibility mapping and improving the overall governance response speed. 5.5.2 data sharing alliance core departments such as the judicial and transportation departments should cooperate to sign data interoperability agreements and optimize blockchain technology. through deeply integrating the local blockchain system with the provincial level platform blockchain system, the functions of distributed ledgers and smart contracts can be realized, ensuring the security and trustworthy transfer of data during transmission, storage and access. the purpose of this alliance is to break down data silos. by establishing unified data standards and sharing interfaces, it promotes the real-time and efficient sharing of cross-departmental information, thereby comprehensively enhancing social governance effectiveness and supporting refined decision-making, risk early-warning and public service optimization, while safeguarding data privacy and compliance. 5.6 cultivating a socialized governance ecosystem 5.6.1 participation-feedback loop design in the design of the participation-feedback loop, in order to significantly enhance the transparency of the ‘snap and report’ mini-program, the platform should plan to add a ‘real-time progress query’ function. this enables citizens to track the processing status of reported events in real-time through the mobile application, including details of each stage such as event acceptance, in-progress handling and resolution. meanwhile, a ‘citizen rating’ function should be introduced, referring to the design of the ‘law-enforcement assessment’ module. after the event is processed, citizens can rate the results and provide written feedback, such as evaluating the response speed and handling effectiveness. these functions not only strengthen the platform’s publicity and traceability but also enhance citizens’ sense of participation and responsibility in the governance process by granting them the right to actively evaluate, thus effectively promoting citizen participation. 5.6.2 diversified incentive system regarding the diversified incentive mechanism, the platform should strive to build a comprehensive incentive system. through closely integrating points redemption with various public services, including parking discounts, priority access to community services and preferential use of public facilities, tangible rewards can be provided to citizens. this mechanism aims to encourage citizens to continuously participate in governance activities through the accumulation of points. to illustrate, after citizens actively report events or provide valuable feedback, the system will automatically accumulate corresponding points based on their behavioral contributions and users can redeem the required services in the points mall. this not only can improve the platform’s attractiveness and user stickiness but also can cultivate citizens’ sense of belonging and ownership through the sharing of community benefits. in addition, the government department in charge of publicity should actively report typical deeds of public participation in social governance and call on communities to regularly organize themed activities on ‘public participation in social governance,’ inviting typical figures to share their experiences, further inspiring more people to participate in social governance and forming a new pattern of ‘co-construction, co-governance and co-sharing.’ hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 187 published by ideas spread 6. implications 6.1 policy implication in the context of the traditional hierarchical system, the optimization of the digital construction of administrative law enforcement platforms needs to break down the barriers of formalism. the negative impact of formalism is mainly manifested in the duplicated construction of law enforcement platforms, superimposed functions and the collection of law enforcement information at multiple ends and duplicated reporting, which not only results in the empty consumption of administrative resources and inefficient financial investment, but also exacerbates the burden of front-line law enforcement personnel, departing from the original intention of technology-enabled law enforcement and enhancing efficiency (zhang, 2025). therefore, the government should strengthen top-level design and institutional coordination, integrate digital platforms scattered at different levels and build data sharing and business interoperability channels to avoid lack of cooperation and duplication of actions caused by scattered data. besides, the relevant departments should strive to promote the transformation of administrative enforcement from ‘compartmentalization’ to ‘overall coordination.’ in terms of policy formulation to promote digitization, policymakers should target specific law enforcement needs, promote the exchange and sharing of massive data and information across levels, departments and regions, and reduce the negative impact of digital silos. this is conducive to the convenient and efficient completion of the administrative law enforcement process, thereby realizing the administrative law enforcement field of ‘overall smart governance.’ more importantly, through digital empowerment to force the administrative law enforcement system to continue to maintain adaptive change and strive to build a social demand-oriented administrative law enforcement system, further highlighting the superimposed advantages of digital and system-driven. at the national level, it is crucial to formulate a phased digitalization construction program. relevant central government departments should actively cooperate with technology enterprises to formulate phased development programs and digital technology guidelines, taking into account the actual situation of digitization and social governance in different regions. especially for regions lagging behind in the development of digital technology, the state should actively provide policy favoritism and financial and human resources support, promote the development experience of advanced regions and encourage local governments to formulate phased development programs in the light of regional realities. it is worth mentioning that the state should also break down the hierarchical barriers to data flow through the system, accelerate the construction of digital integration, realize high-quality data sharing on the premise of ensuring data security and enhance the overall effectiveness of digital governance. 6.2 ai ethnics discussion in the process of digitally empowering administrative law enforcement platforms, technological dependence can easily lead to the weakening of the government’s credibility and the failure of supervision and regulatory procedures. ai-generated data is inevitably out of touch with the reality of the society or even falsified, and the government’s over-reliance on data generated by ai algorithms will gradually weaken the existing social experience and judgment, causing law enforcement officers to ignore the real needs of the masses and the actual situation in the process of handling cases. the actual situation will ultimately lead to a result that getting half the efficiency with twice the effort. over time, the credibility of administrative enforcement will be weakened. in addition, over-reliance on ai will also make law enforcement officers lack humanistic care in the process of handling cases, deviating from the original intention of law enforcement for the people. traditional social governance decisions are usually made by multiple subjects through collective consultation, and the public participates in the decision-making process and actively contributes to it, making the decisions more responsive to the needs of the public. if administrative law enforcement departments rely too much on ai algorithms and lack effective means to regulate algorithmic black boxes, data forgery and algorithmic bias, the subjectivity of law enforcement officers and the public in the decision-making process will be greatly impaired. based on the above ethical risks that may be caused by ai, the government level should establish standards that are compatible with the collection, storage and use of government data or standards that can be easily converted, and build publicprivate information platform facilities (klievink et al., 2016) to realize the sharing of government data and social data. for another thing, the relevant departments of administrative law enforcement should reasonably control the flow of data to avoid excessive public disclosure of data affecting social equity. this initiative can also effectively prevent data from being speculated and reduce the negative impact of information bombardment on subjective judgment. more importantly, the public, technicians and law enforcers should adhere to the ethical bottom line, protect personal privacy and maintain subjective judgment and decision-making ability when analyzing data. individual subjective initiative should not be replaced by ai. hence, a reasonable division of labor between human decision-making and algorithmic optimization should be ensured in the process of promoting the digitalization of comprehensive law enforcement platforms. relevant government departments should clarify the proportion of hssr.ideasspread.org humanities and social science research vol. 8, no. 5; 2025 188 published by ideas spread division of labor between artificial and ai through the system to ensure the subjective status of human beings in the areas of people’s interests, fairness in law enforcement, policy formulation and humanistic care, and to utilize ai to improve efficiency in mechanical matters. essentially, in the context of digitization, individuals must retain the right to make independent decisions, analyze rationally and make substantive decisions on non-quantifiable social factors and enhance the public value of decision-making (wang & hao, 2024). 7. conclusion this study, based on the ‘structural adaptation process collaboration functional optimization’ framework, reveals the governance effectiveness of mengzi’s digital law enforcement platform in its initial stage of technology integration. empirical indicators, such as a 95% resolution rate, demonstrate notable effectiveness following initial technological integration. meanwhile, it also exposes deep-seated contradictions such as structural disconnection, inefficient collaboration and functional limitations. for instance, entrenched routines and fragmented authority structures prevent platforms from adapting to local administrative practices, which in turn limits learning and the iterative refinement of governance technologies. theoretically, this study validates the proposition of adaptive governance theory that ‘technological tools need to be dynamically adapted to the governance context’ and extends the explanatory boundary of sociotechnical systems theory in digital collaboration. in terms of practice, it proposes a three-dimensional approach of ‘government-enterprise cooperation to supplement hardware algorithm-driven strong collaboration ecological incentives to promote participation,’ which can serve as a reference for similar regions. a key limitation of this research is its single-case focus and government-provided data. future research should consider to deepen the study of mechanisms by comparing data from multiple cities and understand the opinions and suggestions of ngos regarding the digital construction of comprehensive law enforcement platform. furthermore, the development of digital governance platforms requires approaches that transcend conventional and technology-centred thinking. researchers should prioritize longitudinal studies to assess how these platforms evolve and adapt over time, particularly in ethnically diverse settings where historical governance arrangements and cultural practices continually reshape technology uptake. comparative analysis of smart-city initiatives across china would also be instructive: contrasting implementation in poorer, border regions with that in major urban centers can clarify typologies of platform adaptability and inform context-sensitive policy design. additionally, scholarship on digital governance must bridge the persistent divide between technologically driven interventions and extant governmental systems. integrating quantitative data analysis with qualitative community-based research can reveal how minority groups for example, residents of mengzi city engage with platforms in culturally mediated ways, an overlooked yet essential dimension of equitable technology deployment. of note, as emergent infrastructures such as pervasive 5g connectivity and brain-like computing change how governments operate in real-time, the establishment of transparent governance for open algorithms and locally deployed ai will determine whether digital platforms become instruments of public service or novel mechanisms of administrative control. acknowledgments we gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided by honghe prefecture eighth (2025) philosophy and social sciences planning project: practical research on ai-empowered multi-stakeholder collaborative 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