




































 Humanities and Social Science Research; Vol. 6, No. 3; 2023 
ISSN 2576-3024   E-ISSN 2576-3032 

https://doi.org/10.30560/hssr.v6n3p14 

 14 Published by IDEAS SPREAD 
 

Social Housing and its Bearing on the Tenants’ Social Mobility 

Andrew Azzopardi1 & Martina Farrugia1 
1 University of Malta, Malta 

Correspondence: Martina Farrugia, Research Support Officer II, Faculty for Social Wellbeing, Ground Floor, 
Humanities B, University of Malta, Msida, MSD 2080. 

E-mail: martina.farrugia um.edu.mt, andrew.azzopardi um.edu.mt 

 
Received: October 5, 2023; Accepted: October 20, 2023; Published: October 25, 2023 

 
Abstract 

The objective of the paper is to conceptualise how social housing impacts the life of tenants and how it affects 
their social mobility. 

Firstly, the paper looks at defining social housing to help us get a better understanding of the subject matter. It 
highlights that social housing is a residential rental space provided at specific rates to be afforded by those who 
are considered vulnerable in society. It is a tool to improve the lives of those in vulnerable positions due to poverty, 
disability and mental health issues to mention just a few. Children who live and grow up in stable social housing 
will have a better chance at accessing education, their wellbeing will be more positive, increased job prospects and 
a better outlook on opportunities. 

Secondly, the paper addressed the impacts social housing has and its effects on social mobility for tenants. It 
discusses how income plays a vital role in obtaining social housing, how the wellbeing of tenants is essential in 
fostering a better self, how individuals who live in social housing can come together and form communities to 
deter crime, how living in safe social housing can have a positive impact positively effect on mental health, how 
it encourages tenants to find work and how it helps children strive for and manage to break the cycle of poverty. 
However, notwithstanding the positive, social housing is not perfect and if not taken care of and is not funded 
properly then it could be a detriment to tenants’ social mobility. 

Methodology 

Desk research was carried out to identify an in-depth understanding of the topic. Apart from this, key experts from 
the Faculty for Social Wellbeing shared their expertise through various informal discussions. 

Keywords: housing, social housing, social mobility, provision of social housing 

1. Contextualising Social Housing 

1.1 Defining Social Housing? 

Social housing, although thought to be a common concept in countries around the world, is actually not available 
in all countries (Note 1). The definition of social housing provided by the OECD explains that it is “Residential 
rental accommodation provided at sub-market prices and allocated according to specific rules” (Salvi del Pero, A. 
et al., 2016, quoted in OECD, 2019, p.1). Unfortunately, there are variables in the provision for social housing and 
who is able to have access to it. In fact, social housing provision is affected by different conditions and 
circumstances and varies from country to country (Granath Hansson & Lundgren, 2019; Kofner, 2017, OECD 
2019).  

In Europe, the aftermath of World War II left people homeless and poor, which resulted in an increase of people 
on the poverty line (Kesternich et al., 2014). In light of this, there was an increase in government-based provisions, 
specifically in terms of social housing, which allowed for a noticeable shift in directing public funds (Braga & 
Palvarini, 2013; Kofner, 2017). Before this shift, in a lot of countries, private companies, the Church and charitable 
institutions used to offer and manage social housing. The idea came about to tackle the issue of homelessness 
amongst the working poor. However, during the 1980s and 1990s, governments began to reduce their spending on 
public housing provisions, thus, public housing policies were no longer a priority. Instead, local authorities or 
private funders were left to deal with the issue (Reeves, 2014; Braga & Palvarini, 2013). Vocal political groups at 
the time claimed that the sector was “inefficient, unresponsive, monopolistic and anachronistic” (Forrest & Wu, 
2014, p. 135), as it did not aid the most vulnerable but rather the selected few. 



hssr.ideasspread.org  Humanities and Social Science Research Vol. 6, No. 3; 2023 

 15 Published by IDEAS SPREAD 
 

Social housing at present is focused on the most vulnerable within society, however, this emphasis has caused 
concern since it has led to members being excluded, discriminated against and social housing spaces being labelled 
as a ghetto (Forrest & Wu, 2014; Newman, 2008; Goodchild & Cole, 2001). Challenges and the risk of housing 
poverty are not being experienced just by the working class, however, those within the middle class have been 
prone to find themselves in difficulty as well and this is mainly due to the global economic crises and the 
transformations happening in society and its response to needs. As a result of this, the need for social housing has 
augmented, and as a consequence its waiting list (Braga & Palvarini, 2013; Best & Shimili, 2012; Feinstein et al., 
2008). 

1.2 The Objectives of Social Housing 

"The main objective of social housing is to provide low-income households or vulnerable people with a decent, 
affordable and secure housing option" (Reeves, 2014; Newman, 2008 as quoted in Azzopardi & Cuff, 2020). These 
housing options, however, usually have the rent connected to one’s income. On the other hand, tenure service 
providers and their eligibility, varies in each country (Shelter 2020; Braga & Palvarini, 2013). Nowadays, various 
other entities or private landlords, besides governments, are gradually offering more social housing services 
(Granath Hansson & Lundgren, 2019). Regardless, this shift in social housing provision, remains synched with 
national policies. Socio-economic positioning is used to influence one’s eligibility, however, when vulnerabilities 
are taken into consideration, they are then at times re-evaluated regularly (Braga & Palvarini, 2013; OECD, 2019). 
The objective and aims of social housing is to ultimately provide housing which is secure and one that has a longer-
term tenancy, ensuring stability, control over one’s home and better rights (OECD, 2019; Reeves, 2014; Shelter, 
2020). 

For children living and being raised in social housing, the intentional outcome is that it will help foster better 
access to education, wellbeing, health, jobs and the retaining of employment. However, this still remains debatable 
(Newman, 2008; Granath Hansson & Lundgren, 2019). 

1.3 The Legal Framework 

The United Nations observes that satisfactory housing provision is a right and the international law states that “it 
is the right to live somewhere in security, peace and dignity”, being a fundamental human right (UN, 2014, p.3). 
Strengthening and protecting housing rights is at the core of a number of international organisations (Tereminski, 
2011). In terms of EU law, right to housing or housing assistance was recognised in 2009 when the EU Charter of 
Fundamental Rights was incorporated into EU law (Vassallo, 2002). Despite this legal recognition of housing, past 
EU social policy identified the relevance of the right to adequate housing provision and creative housing policy 
because of the movement in the single market (Kucs et al., 2008, p. 115). Member States of the EU are free to 
implement policies and interpretate the law as they see fit, however, the Treaty of Lisbon aids as a guide for the 
understanding of what is the right to housing and that adequate housing becomes the norm (Vassallo, 2002; Braga 
& Palvarini, 2013). 

Governments are not obliged to provide housing to all, regardless if the right to adequate housing is implemented 
in law (UN, 2014). In 2020, it was estimated that globally 1.6 billion citizens were living in scant housing settings 
with the rate of homelessness rising drastically since 2010 (UN, 2020). In Europe, the rise in homelessness, 
worsening affordability, and social and housing polarisation have been a cause of concern for public policy for the 
last decade (Eurostat, 2018). An estimated 3 million citizens in Europe, lack adequate housing (Braga & Palvarini, 
2013). Regardless of the high numbers of people who are homeless, recognising the right to suitable 
accommodation has become pivotal (Kucs et al., 2008). 

Living in inadequate housing puts poor people in a position of choice, having to choose to prioritise their health, 
what to eat, what kind of shelter to choose and any further requirements (Kucs et al., 2008; Kothari, 2005). Having 
a place people call home gives one a sense of self which then impacts one’s wellbeing along with one’s integration 
into society, in terms of being socio-economically stable (Cicognani, 2011; Cutajar, 2018; Tereminski, 2011). The 
notion of suitable housing automatically ensures the preservation of communal and cultural rights including other 
rights such as those which are political and those which are basic civil rights (Kucs et al., 2008; Cicognani, 2011). 

2. Social Housing, its Impacts and How it Contributes to Social Mobility 

Social mobility is defined as “the movement in time of individuals, families, or other social units between positions 
of varying advantage in the system of social stratification of a society” (Muller, 2001, p.9918). Social mobility 
helps with new opportunities specifically for those who come from underprivileged backgrounds. In fact, education 
and employment are seen as the ideal ways to alleviate poverty, but not just, as family income also plays its role 
(Best, & Shimili, 2012; Tunstall et al., 2013; Newman, 2008). Social mobility contributes to a persons’ wellbeing 



hssr.ideasspread.org  Humanities and Social Science Research Vol. 6, No. 3; 2023 

 16 Published by IDEAS SPREAD 
 

who in turn can excel in society thus, society benefits from this too. The economy is improved, opportunities 
become more accessible and a person’s life is improved allowing them to extend their horizons (OECD, 2018; 
Muller, 2001). 

A home helps individuals find some sort of wellbeing which correlates to their experience of home and what it 
means to them (Azzopardi, 2022). As a home becomes an integral part of a person, they tend to form a bond with 
it (Cicognani, 2011, p. 86). This effects the human psyche as it reinforces the notion that when people live in 
adequate housing this affects them positively and contributes to helping them with other factors in their life, be it 
social, cultural, economic and even psychological (Mullins et al., 2001, p. 5). However, there are those scholars 
who disagree with this perspective (Ellickson, 1992; Weicher, 1980 quoted in Newman, 2008; Feinstein et al., 
2008).  

Self-development is essential to human existence and a home provides physical attributes which contribute to this, 
such as space, safety and physical sufficiency (Newman, 2008, p. 897). Regardless of whether one needs to be 
eligible to attain a place in social housing, being given the chance to live in such housing which is affordable, gives 
one the opportunity to be surrounded by people from the same or similar socio-economic background looking for 
a better life (Newman, 2008; Braga & Palvarini, 2013; Flouri et al., 2015). Well-thought-out schemes contribute 
to having social housing spill over to social cohesion, as it gives people purpose again and the will to integrate 
with others (Braga & Palvarini, 2013; Flouri et al., 2015). 

Individuals who are caught up without residence end up losing their self-worth and purpose, socially cohesive 
neighbourhoods are aids for people to show up for themselves, feel empowered and included (Holman & Walker, 
2018; Goodchild & Cole, 2001). As a matter of fact, even those neighbourhoods that are slightly more 
disadvantaged than others, even with the little resources that they have tend to foster social integrity (Mullins et 
al., 2001; Perry & Blackaby, 2007). Good planning and infrastructure in social housing will help with building a 
better community and allow for the residents to feel at home fostering a better community, an advancement in 
social mobility and sustainability in the long run (Best & Shimili, 2012; McKee, 2008). 

Social cohesion offers individuals stability and the sense of community which comes from social housing improves 
one’s health which also directly affects social mobility (Holman & Walker, 2018). When a person is mentally sane 
and their overall wellbeing is improved, they are at a greater capacity of keeping a job, unlike others who are 
categorised as being in poor health (Jones, 2017; Dahl, 1996). Poor health, many a times, has been found to exclude 
people from work, finding work or holding down a job which will continue to deter their health (Jones, 2017; Dahl, 
1996). The stability afforded to tenants who live in social housing has helped improve their health and as a result 
of this any health costs have been kept to a minimum (Taylor, 2018; Holman & Walker, 2018; Singh et al., 2019). 

Depression and poor health are known to be more present amongst those who do not live in a stable home (Kushel 
et al., 2006; Thomson et al., 2001; Bentley et al., 2018; Prentice & Scutella, 2018; Best & Shimili, 2012), whilst 
homelessness brings with it increased food insecurity, a shortened lifespan, a possible risk of premature death, 
worse health and widespread mental health challenges (Kushel et al., 2006). Tenants could also experience a delay 
in accessing healthcare, increased levels of anxiety, relationship failures, loss of friendships, and access to other 
benefits (Boston Medical Centre, 2018; Taylor 2018; Bentley et al., 2018; Tunstall et al., 2013). Therefore, when 
seeking stability and finding it, tenants’ lives will be drastically improved as the positives then come to out-way 
the negatives. 

Youngsters experience home instability differently to adults as this impacts their educational prospects and 
achievements, contributes to depression, alcoholism, risk of teenage pregnancy and drug abuse; all this upon health 
issues (Tsai, 2015; Taylor, 2018). Murky and risky housing, which means that there are issues with the structure 
of the building and hazardous problems are present, has contributed to sickness such as tension and nervousness. 
Certain health issues like the incidence of dust mites have contributed to skin and other diseases, respiratory 
problems, and stress due to overcrowding. Unkept housing can cause physical problems due to accidents such as 
slips, and falls and accessibility issues for individuals who have a physical disability (Taylor, 2018; WHO, 2018; 
U.S. Department of Energy, 2016; Gauci, 1999). 

The environment in which social housing is located in can have positive or negative associations. At times, 
negative associations such as crime levels in the area can cause social exclusion which contribute to stress and 
mental health conditions (Bentley et al., 2018; Goodchild & Cole, 2001). Social and economic inequality have a 
direct effect on one’s health and disrupts social integration (WHO, 2018, p. xv; Newman, 2008).In actual fact , the 
area is associated with negative aspects like stigma, segregation, crime and social exclusion, then there is the 
possibility of long-term and long-lasting effects on tenants’ well-being (Taylor, 2018; Tunstall et al., 2013). 



hssr.ideasspread.org  Humanities and Social Science Research Vol. 6, No. 3; 2023 

 17 Published by IDEAS SPREAD 
 

The category of tenants who live in social housing has changed over the years, seeing a shift specifically in Europe, 
going from those who were from vulnerable social groups directly contributing to the neighbourhoods’ deprivation 
and segregation (Crook et al., 2016), to social housing being taken up more by pensioners and single-parent 
families. These families are mainly ethnic minorities and immigrants (Tunstall et al., 2013). The social economic 
demographic of these families is specific, as the majority of them tend to be low-income families, who’s economic 
contribution is less than average (Scanlon et al., 2015). Due to this, they contribute to the area’s socio-spatial 
segregation which can lead to social deprivation, namely liability , crime and community sabotage (Scanlon et al., 
2015; Evans, 1998; Farrugia, 2019). Neighbourhood segregation as explained by Margery Turner (n.d) can also 
be affected by ethnicity or colour, further decreasing opportunities for low-income families, therefore, their social 
mobility and access to better opportunities which can give them access to safer amenities is not made possible. 

Unfortunately, these neighbourhoods can be the breeding ground for concentrated poverty which is an area where 
socio-economic deprivation is found at an alarming rate in an area of high poverty (aecf.org, 2019). This specific 
kind of poverty accelerates the effects of poverty which continues to lower one’s expectations and aspirations and 
it becomes increasingly difficult to leave the cycle of poverty (The Federal Reserve System, 2008; Sharkey, n.d.). 
The Cambridge Dictionary defines being poor as “having little money and/or few possessions” 
(dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/poor) which categorises someone as living on the poverty line or in 
the cycle of poverty. Therefore, when a person is living in poverty they are identified as being extremely poor 
(dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/poverty). Lumen (n.d.b) explains that the source of poverty is also in 
turn the consequences of poverty, hence why cycles of poverty are created. Social housing has a direct influence 
on what drives poverty, therefore, inhabitants of such housing find it difficult to break the cycle (Webb Memorial 
Trust, 2017). 

Some, due to this believe that social housing can deter social mobility and segregation and not essentially a factor 
that creates these (Best & Shimili, 2012, Tunstall, 2013). Since social housing is a concentration of lived spaces, 
it is directly an effect of its environment which puts tenants at a disadvantage, essentially also contributing to the 
generational impediment of social mobility (Arbaci & Rae, 2013; Forrest & Wu, 2014; Causa & Johansson, 2010). 
Due to this, social problems will continue to be sustained (Cutajar, 2018; Best & Shimili, 2012; Goodchild & Cole, 
2001). In fact, the allocation of tenants to housing is what effects the characterisation of the space, hence there 
could be high crime rates in the area because of the tenants (Mullins et al., 2001) or the tenants themselves could 
be the ones who work together to avert criminal behaviour and decrease criminal behaviour (Skubak Tillyer & 
Walter, 2018; Mullins et al., 2001). 

The management of social housing helps the housing block to function properly in terms that there is mutual 
support and respect amongst the tenants who also come together to keep the area in order and manage any 
disruptions (Mullins et al., 2001; Dibben, personal communication, 2020, July 15; Goodchild & Cole, 2001). 
Tenants are key players in keeping the social unit clean which will counteract problems such as vandalism and 
instill a sense of purpose (Best & Shimili, 2012; Goodchild & Cole, 2001). If overall support is given to tenants, 
not just socially but also through their landlord, then this will counteract any negative effects, such as dependency 
and inequalities, and foster participation in education and work (Johnson, 2001; Best & Shimili, 2012).  

Housing affordability is a fundamental pillar in determining social mobility as this usually takes up a large share 
of nonrefundable income of tenants (Cutajar, 2018; Braga & Palvarini, 2013). 30% is the typical percentage for 
housing costs (Taylor, 2018; Newman, 2008; Tunstall, 2013), and then the remaining income is distributed 
amongst other provisions which one may need. When tenants are over paying on housing, they then may divest 
themselves of other requirements (Mullins et al., 2011; Tunstall, 2013) which will lead to feelings of deprivation 
having an impact on their social status (Azzopardi, 2012).  

Purchasing a residence or renting a habitat within the commercial rental market is costly and there have been 
situations where house prices have escalated radically within a few years, making it near impossible to own a 
house (Central Bank of Malta, 2016; Xerri, 2017). Such housing becomes difficult to obtain especially for those 
low-income families, as their disposable income would not be enough to pay for it. The effects of such pressure to 
obtain this type of housing can cause health problems, emotional problems, mental health issues, increase in stress 
levels, disengagement at school for children (Newman, 2008) to name just a few. On the other hand, when tenants 
have the opportunity to access affordable housing, they have a better chance of staying there longer, specific 
problems may start to reduce and the foundation of a good home will improve their social mobility as a family 
(Galante, n.d.). One of the positive outcomes of access to good social housing is that for those people experiencing 
poverty there is a better chance of them slowly moving away from poverty as their income becomes more 
accessible for necessities which improve their self-sufficiency in society (Tunstall, 2013; Newman, 2008; Taylor, 
2018).  



hssr.ideasspread.org  Humanities and Social Science Research Vol. 6, No. 3; 2023 

 18 Published by IDEAS SPREAD 
 

Employment raises one’s standard of living and aids with helping one build themself up within a community 
(Cutajar, 2018), fostering social mobility. It helps adults especially, find their way out of poverty (Tunstall et al., 
2013). ‘Best & Shimili (2012, p. 16) state: “Employment is recognised to be the single biggest factor in determining 
not only adults’ life chances, but also those of children and grandchildren”’ (as quoted in Azzopardi & Cuff, 2020), 
aiding intergenerational change. Stable employment brings with it the provision of a secure income, however, not 
only, it allows one to preserve relationships and networks, focus on keeping a regular schedule, take on training 
opportunities, improved self-worth and the ability to assess possible future difficulty related to income (Hoare & 
Machin, 2010; Honey, 2004; Creed & Machin, 2002). Furthermore, if someone is unemployed then this will impact 
them and their families keeping them in poverty allowing for mental strain to develop. This will also affect any 
children living within the family causing a disruption to their progress, schooling and future employment 
(McClelland, 2001).  

Social housing provides stability and that stability alleviates one burden for those in positions of vulnerability and 
helps tenants find work allowing room for better success. It does not, of course guarantee employment, however, 
research has shown that the stability from housing has helped tenants look for and keep a job (Best & Shimili, 
2012; Tunstall et al., 2013). Location plays a vital role, especially if social housing is located close to potential 
employment opportunities, for example, in city centres were rent is private, but the area has opportunities for low 
paid workers. However, many low paid workers due to their financial situation usually choose housing which is 
further away from work opportunities as they would be able to meet their renting needs. However, even though 
distance does not hinder one from working, the commute to work and not having as much time for leisure are 
factors affected by this distance (Mullins et al., 2001; Sisson, 2018; Henderson, 2017). Fletcher et al (2008), 
explains that individuals who live close to family and have a social network are not willing to move away for work 
reasons (Azzopardi & Grech, 2012).  

Even though social housing and the stability that comes with it aids with helping individuals find jobs and maintain 
them, some have criticised it for encouraging tenants not to work and rely on social aids (Tunstall et al., 2013; 
Flouri et al., 2015; Feinstein et al, 2008) as many times tenants are usually unemployed (Hills, 2007). Hills (2007) 
explains that some tenants choose to remain unemployed due to the bureaucracy and difficulties they face with the 
tax and benefits system. Youths who are surrounded by adults who are jobless, are at times influenced by the 
resistance to work and this affects their future prospects of work (Fletcher et al., 2008). In fact, reports have 
concluded that it is not always about where one lives that deters one from working and remaining jobless, but it is 
usually the person’s character and their unwillingness to work (Fletcher et al., 2008; Hills, 2007; McClelland, 2001; 
CSJ, 2018). Even though many tenants experience poor job quality and low pay (Fletcher et al., 2008) apart from 
other issues, they end up being very heavily influenced by those around them and if they have a resistance for 
work then this may rub off on others. Jobseekers can also feel threatened to access the employment sector because 
of their lack of skills and experience.  

Like many consequences which are experienced by individuals living in social housing, joblessness can be 
intergenerational, since children or grandchildren of those who are unemployed could potentially be unemployed 
when they come to a working age (Hills, 2007; OECD, 2018; Feinstein et al, 2008). Children’s futures are greatly 
affected by the area social housing is located in, as if they live in a poor area, then they will continue to experience 
high levels of deprivation and or segregation which affects their prospects (Best & Shimili, 2012; OECD, 2018; 
Goodchild & Cole, 2001, Harker, 2007). Amenities around the area such as safe playgrounds, open spaces, libraries 
and good schools also affect a child’s social mobility and prospects at school (Flouri et al., 2015; Newman and 
Harkness, 2002; Newman, 2008; McCulloch, 2001). If the area experiences high rates of violence and problems 
such as addiction, children will find it challenging to interact and will become anti-social. The affects are different 
depending on age, for example, younger children can show challenging behaviour and truncated educational 
attainment whilst children who are older can show interest in violence, become emotionally detached and be at 
risk of forming or being groomed into gangs which will have problematic outcomes for their futures (Flouri et al., 
2015; Lambert et al., 2015; Harker, 2007).  

Just like adults, children are affected deeply by their surroundings and their homes and it has been shown to affect 
their development and quality of life (Harker, 2007; Mullins et al., 2001; Holman & Walker, 2018). Therefore, the 
quality of social housing and the overall environment will definitely determine the child’s development and life 
chances (Harker, 2007; Goodchild & Cole, 2001). Researchers have found out that children do have better chances 
even assuming they habitat in civic housing, as it is the stability, the quality of the housing and the security that 
make the most difference (Newman and Harkness, 2002; Haurin et al., 2002; Villanueva et al., 2019)  

Overall, there are benefits to social housing especially if the environment is a positive one as it can contribute to 
social mobility but itself alone does not cause much change (Feinstein et al, 2008). People are increasingly 



hssr.ideasspread.org  Humanities and Social Science Research Vol. 6, No. 3; 2023 

 19 Published by IDEAS SPREAD 
 

impacted by harmful environments and for children this stunts their development (Clair, 2019; Flouri et al., 2015). 
Residents within a housing unit are more likely to form supportive communities if the space they live in makes 
them feel like they belong (Cutajar, 2018; Goodchild & Cole, 2001). However, tenants with exposure to 
vulnerabilities or any social problems, having social housing will not solve these problems automatically but it 
will at least provide shelter (Prentice & Scutella, 2018). Taking an intersectional, multidisciplinary approach will 
allow tenants to benefit more from social housing and it will allow them to overcome other areas of difficulty in 
their lives such as education, and the opportunities to build new skills (McKay as cited in Carabott, 2020; Feinstein 
et al, 2008; Best, & Shimili, 2012). 

3. Concluding Comments 

Social housing supports people who many times are living in poverty, and who may have varying vulnerabilities 
such as a disability, mental health issues, illnesses, and social issues. It is rental accommodation which can be 
afforded by people who struggle with making ends meet and those who lack a stable income. Social housing if 
looked after, can not only be called a home but a tool for those tenants who have diverse needs or vulnerabilities 
as it adds to a sense of self-assurance and finding stability. Social housing will become a foundation of support 
since tenure provides stability, security and peace of mind, and allow for tenants to have a better future.  

There are negative associations to it, as well as it is often blamed for contributing to tenants remaining dependant 
on social welfare, their aversion to find work, contribution to crime and addiction and fostering a breeding ground 
for social exclusion, it has been proven that social housing is not the main cause of these negative effects. 
Residualisation is the reason why these problems exist in an area since it is defined as an area where a large number 
of households are present showcasing great need of assistance due to lack of resources and opportunities. In order 
for social housing to be effective and contribute positively its tenants, it has to truly cater for people from all walks 
of life.  

To overcome residualisation and social exclusion, best practises must be set in place such as children’s spaces and 
play areas, green spaces for all, support services which can facilitate job opportunities, training programmes, and 
guidance with finances, to name a few. When community services are provided and support to tenants is evidently 
clear, the social housing environment can foster social cohesion, creating safer spaces for tenants. Having a place 
where to come together and live positively with good amenities will allow tenants to build connections which will 
have a huge impact on their mental wellbeing which will help their social mobility and livability within a 
community. 

Being one of the most important areas in welfare, social housing cannot function in isolation. Policy makers need 
to ensure that other services are in place in order for tenants to thrive within their community. Will this be enough 
to get detached from the cycle of poverty. Overall, it is imperative that policy makers always keep the service users 
at the heart of their policy planning so that they can truly safeguard tenants’ wellbeing by ensuring that social 
housing encourages tenants’ social mobility and not hinder it.  

Acknowledgments 

Professor JosAnn Cutajar, Dr Andreana Dibben, Dr Charles Pace, Dr. Rachael Marie Scicluna and Annabel Cuff 
who abetted the study by offering knowledge proficiency and direction .  

References 
Arbaci, S., & Rae, I. (2013). Mixed-Tenure Neighbourhoods in London: Policy Myth or Effective Device to 

Alleviate Deprivation. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 37(2), 451-479. 
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2427.2012.01145.x 

Azzopardi, A. (2012). Spaces for inclusive communities: Reflections on contemporary society. In Inclusive 
Communities (pp. 41-54). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6091-849-0 

Azzopardi, A. (2022). Civil Society Should Be a Strong Political Force. In Perspectives on Wellbeing: Applications 
from the Field (pp. 169-185). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004507654_011 

Azzopardi, A., & Cuff, A. (2020). Examining the Social Impact of Social Housing. Retrieved from 
https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/handle/123456789/112476 

Azzopardi, A., & Grech, S. (Eds.). (2012). Inclusive communities: A critical reader (Vol. 16). Springer Science & 
Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6091-849-0 

Bentley, R., Baker, E., Simons, K., Simpson, J. A. & Blakely, T. (2018). The impact of social housing on mental 
health: longitudinal analyses using marginal structural models and machine learning-generated 
weights, International Journal of Epidemiology, 47(5), 1414-1422. https://doi-



hssr.ideasspread.org  Humanities and Social Science Research Vol. 6, No. 3; 2023 

 20 Published by IDEAS SPREAD 
 

org.ejournals.um.edu.mt/10.1093/ije/dyy116 

Best, R., & Shimili, L. (2012). Social mobility and social housing: Parliamentary taskforce report. Chartered 
Institute of Housing. https://www.york.ac.uk/media/chp/documents/2012/Social%20mobility%20and%20 
social%20housing.pdf 

Boston Medical Center. (2018, January 22). Housing instability negatively affects the health of children and 
caregivers: New research finds one in three low-income renters face housing instability, at greater risk of poor 
health and other hardships. ScienceDaily. Retrieved August 8, 2020 from 
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/01/80122110815.htm 

Braga, M., & Palvarini, P. (2013). Social housing in the EU. Report No. IP/A/EMPL/NT/2012-07. European 
Parliament, Directorate General for Internal Policies. 
https://housingauthority.gov.mt/en/Documents/Publications/Social%20Housing%20in%20the%20EU.pdf 

Cambridge Dictionary. https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/poor 

Cambridge Dictionary. https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/poverty?q=poverty%29 

Carabott, S. (2020, June 15). Housing is only part of the solution. Times of Malta. 
https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/housing-is-only-part-of-the-solution.798654 

Causa O., & Johansson A. (2010). Intergenerational social mobility in OECD countries. OECD Journal, Vol. 2010. 
https://doi.org/10.1787/eco_studies-2010-5km33scz5rjj 

Central Bank of Malta. (2016). An Assessment of the Maltese Housing Market. Annual Report, 53-60. 
https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar//handle/123456789/33548 

Cicognani, E. (2011). Psychological home and well-being. Rassegna di Psicologia, 2, 85-96. 

Clair, A. (2019). Housing: an Under-Explored Influence on Children’s Well-Being and Becoming. Child Ind Res 
12, 609-626 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-018-9550-7 

Creed, P. A., & Machin, M. A. (2002). Access to the Latent Benefits of Employment for Unemployed and 
Underemployed Individuals. Psychological Reports, 90(3_part_2), 1208-
1210. https://doi.org/10.1177/003329410209000325.2 

Crook, T., Bibby, P., Ferrari, E., Monk M., Tang, C., & Whitehead, C. (2016). New housing association 
development and its potential to reduce concentrations of deprivation: An English case study. Urban Studies, 
53(16), 3388-3404. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098015613044 

CSJ. (2018). Social housing and employment: Interim Report 1. Centre for Social Justice. 
https://www.centreforsocialjustice.org.uk/core/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/CSJ6364-Social-Housing-and-
Employment-Report-180706-WEB.pdf  

Cutajar, J. (2018). Tensions and relations on the use and exchange of place. Theory in Action, 13(3). 
https://doi.org/10.3798/tia.1937-0237.2036 

Dahl, E. (1996). Social mobility and health: cause or effect?. BMJ (Clinical research ed.), 313(7055), 435-436. 
https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.313.7055.435  

Ellickson, R. C. (1992). Unconditional right to shelter. Harvard Journal of Law & Public Policy, 15(1), 17-34. 
Eurostat, 2018. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Archive:Housing_ 
conditions#Main_statistical_findings 

Evans, R. (1998). POLICY REVIEW Tackling Deprivation on Social Housing Estates in England: An 
Assessmentof the Housing Plus Approach. Housing Studies, 13(5), 713-
726. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673039883182 

Farrugia, Luke. (2019). Public Housing and Crime. Unpublished Bachelor of Criminology dissertation. University 
of Malta, Malta. https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/handle/123456789/55525 

Feinstein, L., Lupton, R., Hammond, C., et al. (2008) The public value of social housing: A longitudinal analysis 
of the relationship between housing and life chances. The Smith Institute, London. 
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/41956332_The_public_value_of_social_housing_a_longitudinal_
analysis_of_the_relationship_between_housing_and_life_chances  

Fitzpatrick, S., & Watts, B. (2017). Competing visions: security of tenure and the welfarisation of English social 
housing. Housing Studies, 32(8), 1021-1038. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673037.2017.1291916 



hssr.ideasspread.org  Humanities and Social Science Research Vol. 6, No. 3; 2023 

 21 Published by IDEAS SPREAD 
 

Fletcher, D. R., Gore, T., Reeve, K., & Robinson, D., Bashir, N., Goudie, R., & O’Toole, S. (2008). Social housing 
and worklessness: Qualitative research findings. Department for Work and Pensions. Report No. 521. 
https://lx.iriss.org.uk/sites/default/files/resources/rrep521.pdf  

Flouri, E., Midouhas, E., & Tzatzaki, K. (2015). Neighbourhood and own social housing and early problem 
behaviour trajectories. Soc Psychiatry Epidemiol, 50, 203-213. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-014-0958-1 

Forrest, R., & Wu, Y. (2014). People like us? social status, social inequality and perceptions of public rental 
housing. Journal of Social Policy, 43(1), 135-151. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047279413000585 

Galante, C. (n.d.).2 Housing and economic mobility. Urban Institute policy debates. 
https://www.urban.org/debates/housing-and-economic-mobility 

Gauci, C. (1999). Dilapidated houses in Cottonera. Taking Vittoriosa as a case study. Diploma in Environmental 
Health Dissertation. Available from University of Malta. 
https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/handle/123456789/48236 

Goodchild, B., & Cole, I. (2001). Social balance and mixed neighbourhoods in Britain since 1979: A review of 
discourse and practice in social housing. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 19(1), 103-21. 
Web. https://doi.org/10.1068/d39j 

Granath Hansson, A., & Lundgren, B. (2019). Defining Social Housing: A Discussion on the Suitable 
Criteria, Housing, Theory and Society, 36(2), 149-166. https://doi.org/10.1080/14036096.2018.1459826 

Harker, L. (2007). The impact of housing on children's life chances. Journal of Children's Services, 2(3), 43-
51. https://doi.org/10.1108/17466660200700025 

Haurin, D. R., Parcel, T. L., & Haurin, R. J. (2002), Does Homeownership Affect Child Outcomes? Real Estate 
Economics, 30, 635-666. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-6229.t01-2-00053 

Henderson, T. (2017, June 5). In most states, a spike in ‘super commuters’. PEW. 
https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/blogs/stateline/2017/06/05/in-most-states-a-spike-in-
super-commuters 

Hills, J. (2007). Ends and Means: The Future Roles of Social Housing in England. CASE Report 34. CASE, 
London School of Economics. https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/5568/2/Ends_and_Means_The_future_roles_of_ 
social_housing_in_England_2.pdf 

Hoare, P. N., & Machin, M. A. (2010), The impact of reemployment on access to the latent and manifest benefits 
of employment and mental health. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83, 759-770. 
https://doi.org/10.1348/096317909X472094 

Holman, D., & Walker, A. (2018). Social Quality and Health: Examining Individual and Neighbourhood 
Contextual Effects Using a Multilevel Modelling Approach. Social Indicators Research, 138(1), 245-270. 
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-017-1640-2 

Honey, A. (2004). Benefits and Drawbacks of Employment: Perspectives of People with Mental 
Illness. Qualitative Health Research, 14(3), 381-395. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732303261867 

Johnson, M. (2001). Housing and Community Development. Wiley Encyclopedia of Operations Research and 
Management Science. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470400531.eorms0387 

Jones, H. (2017, July 13). Climbing the social mobility ladder. Where does health fit in? The Health Foundation. 
https://www.health.org.uk/blogs/climbing-the-social-mobility-ladder-where-does-health-fit-in 

Kesternich, I., Siflinger, B., Smith, J., & Winter, J. (2014). The effects of World War II on economic and health 
outcomes across Europe. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 96(1), 103-118. 
https://doi.org/10.1162/REST_a_00353 

Kofner, S. (2017). Social housing in germany: An inevitably shrinking sector? Critical Housing Analysis, 4(1), 61-
71. https://doi.org/10.13060/23362839.2017.4.1.325 

Kothari, M. (2005). Report of the Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an 
adequate standard of living. UN Commission on Human Rights. Report No. E/CN.4/2005/48. 
https://www.refworld.org/docid/42d66e8a0.html 

Kucs, A., Sedlova, Z., & Pierhurovica, L. (2008), The Right to Housing: International, European and national 
perspectives, Cuadernos Constitucionales de la Cátedra Fadrique Furió Ceriol nº 64/65, 101-123. 
https://www.corteidh.or.cr/tablas/r26740.pdf 



hssr.ideasspread.org  Humanities and Social Science Research Vol. 6, No. 3; 2023 

 22 Published by IDEAS SPREAD 
 

Kushel, M. B., Gupta, R., Gee, L., & Haas, J. S. (2006). Housing instability and food insecurity as barriers to low 
health care among low-income Americans. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 21(2), 71-77. 
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1497.2005.00278.x 

Lambert, S., Barksdale, C., & Nebbitt, V. (2015). The relationship between neighborhood risk and adolescent 
health-risk behaviors: a focus on adolescent depressive symptoms. In Nebbitt V. Adolescents in Public 
Housing: Addressing Psychological and Behavioral Health (pp. 109-122). 
https://doi.org/10.7312/columbia/9780231148580.003.0007 

Lumen (n.d.b). Social mobiity and poverty. Lumen Learning. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-
introtosociology/chapter/social-mobility-and-poverty/ 

McClelland, A. (2001). Effects of Unemployment on the Family. The Economic and Labour Relations Review, 
11(2),198-212. https://doi.org/10.1177/103530460001100204 

McCulloch, A. (2001). Teenage childbearing in Great Britain and the spatial concentration of poverty households. 
Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 55, 16-23. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.55.1.16 

McKee, K. (2008). Community ownership of social housing in Glasgow: Building more sustainable, cohesive 
communities? People, Place and Policy Online, 2(2), 101-111. https://doi.org/10.3351/ppp.0002.0002.0005 

Muller, W. (2001). Mobility: Social. In Smelser N.J. & Baltes P.B. (Eds). International Encyclopaedia of the Social 
and Behavioural Sciences. P. 9918-9924. https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-08-043076-7/01919-7 

Mullins, Western & Broadbent. (2001). The links between housing and nine key socio cultural factors: a review of 
the evidence positioning paper. (Report No. 4). Australian housing and urban research institute. 
https://www.ahuri.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/2736/AHURI_Positioning_Paper_No4_Links_betwee
n_housing_and_nine_key_socio_cultural_factors.pdf 

Newman, S. J. (2008). Does housing matter for poor families? A critical summary of research and issues still to be 
resolved. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 27(4), 895-925. https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.2038 

Newman, S., & Harkness, J. (2002). The long-term effects of public housing on self-sufficiency. Journal of Policy 
Analysis and Management, 21, 21-43. https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.1038 

OECD. (2018). A broken social elevator? How to promote social mobility. COPE Policy Brief. 
https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264301085-en 

OECD. (2019). Key characteristics of social rental housing. https://www.oecd.org/els/family/PH4-3-
Characteristics-of-social-rental-housing.pdf# 

Perry, J., & Blackaby, B. (2007) Community Cohesion and Housing: A Good Practice Guide. Coventry: Chartered 
Institute of Housing. https://lemosandcrane.co.uk/resources/CIH%20-%20Community%20cohesion% 
20and%20housing%2008.pdf 

Prentice, D., & Scutella, R. (2018). What are the impacts of living in social housing? IDEAS Working Paper Series 
from RePEc, IDEAS Working Paper Series from RePEc, 2018. 
https://ideas.repec.org/p/inv/tpaper/201801.html  

Reeves, P. (2014). Affordable and social housing: Policy and practice. Routledge. New York and London. 
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315882758 

Scanlon, K., Fernández Arrigoitia, M. & Whitehead, C. (2015) Social housing in Europe. European Policy Analysis 
(17), 1-12. http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/62938/1/Fernandez_Social%20housing%20in%20Europe_2015.pdf 

Sharkey, P. (n.d.). Housing and economic mobility. Urban Institute policy debates. 
https://www.urban.org/debates/housing-and-economic-mobility  

Shelter (2020). What is social housing? 
https://england.shelter.org.uk/support_us/campaigns/what_is_social_housing  

Singh, A., Daniel, L., Baker, E., & Bentley, R. (2019) Housing Disadvantage and Poor Mental Health: A 
Systematic Review. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 57(2), 262-272. 
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2019.03.018 

Sisson, P. (2018, March 6). High housing costs and long commutes drive more workers to sleep in cars. Property 
Lines. https://www.curbed.com/2018/3/6/17082570/affordable-housing-commute-rent-apartment 

Skubak Tillyer, M., & Walter R. J. (2018). Low-income housing and crime: The influence of housing development 
and neighborhood characteristics. Crime and Delinquency. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128718794185 



hssr.ideasspread.org  Humanities and Social Science Research Vol. 6, No. 3; 2023 

 23 Published by IDEAS SPREAD 
 

Taylor, L. A. (2018). Housing and health: An overview of the literature. Health Affairs Health Policy Brief. 
https://doi.org/10.1377/hpb20180313.396577 

Terminski, B. (2011). The right to adequate housing in international human rights law: Polish transformation 
experiences. Revista Latinoamericana de Derechos Humanos, 22(2), 219-241. 
https://www.corteidh.or.cr/tablas/r31406.pdf  

The Annie E. Casey Foundation. (2019). Poverty Talk: Basic Terms You Need To Know. 
https://www.aecf.org/blog/poverty-talk-basic-terms-you-need-to-know-now#:~:text=Areas%20of%20 
concentrated%20poverty%20%E2%80%94%20also,population%20hits%2030%25%20or%20higher 

The Federal Reserve System. (2008). The enduring challenge of concentrated poverty in America: case studies 
from communities across the U.S. https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/1024_ 
concentrated_poverty.pdf 

Thomson, H., Petticrew M., & Morrison D. (2001). British Medical Journal, 323(7306), 187-190. 
https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.323.7306.187 

Tsai, A. C. (2015). Home foreclosure, health, and mental health: a systematic review of individual, aggregate, and 
contextual associations. PloS one, 10(4), e0123182. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0123182 

Tunstall, R., Bevvan, M., Bradshaw, J., Croucher, K., Duffy, S., … Wilcox S. (2013). The links between housing 
and poverty: An evidence review. Joseph Rowntree Foundation Report. 

Turner, M. (n.d.). Housing and economic mobility. Urban Institute policy debates. 
https://www.urban.org/debates/housing-and-economic-mobility 

U.S. Department of Energy. (2016). Home RX: the health benefits of home performance − a review of the current 
evidence [internet]. https://betterbuildingssolutioncenter.energy.gov/sites/default/files/attachments 
/Home%20Rx%20The%20Health%20Benefits%20of%20Home%20Performance%20-%20A%20Review%
20of%20the%20Current%20Evidence.pdf 

United Nations (2014). The right to adequate housing. [Fact Sheet No. 21/Rev. 1]. 
https://www.ohchr.org/documents/publications/fs21_rev_1_housing_en.pdf 

United Nations. (2020). https://www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/2020/03/resolution-homelessness/ 

Vassallo, A. (2002). A comparative examination of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. 
(Unpublished Master’s thesis, University of Malta, Malta). 

Villanueva, K., Badland, H., Tanton, R., Katz, I., Brinkman, S., Lee, J. L., Woolcock, G., Giles-Corti, B., & 
Goldfeld, S. (2019). Local Housing Characteristics Associated with Early Childhood Development Outcomes 
in Australian Disadvantaged Communities. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16, 1719. 
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16101719 

Webb Memorial Trust. (2017). Housing, poverty and the good society. https://www.rethinkingpoverty.org.uk/wp-
content/uploads/2017/02/Housing-poverty-and-the-good-society-ebook-2017.pdf 

WHO Housing and health guidelines. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2018. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 
IGO. 

Xerri, K. (2017, February 10). The emerging contradiction. Times of Malta. Retrieved from 
https://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20170210/opinion/The-emerging-contradiction.639180 

 
Notes 

Note 1. A 2019 OECD report states that Chile, Costa Rica, Greece, Mexico, Sweden and Turkey, have no social 

housing provision (OECD, 2019, p. 1). 
 

Copyrights 

Copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. 

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). 


