1190 © 2025 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. The influence of parenting styles and child-parent relationship on home literacy environment: empirical evidence from Malaysia Qinghua Liu1,2 Connie Shin @ Connie Cassy Ompok2+ 1Centre of Postgraduate Studies, Jesselton University College, 88300, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia. 1Email: qinghua6015@gmail.com 2Faculty of Education and Sports Studies, University Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, 88400, Sabah, Malaysia. 2Email: connieompok@ums.edu.my (+ Corresponding author) ABSTRACT Article History Received: 14 March 2025 Revised: 30 July 2025 Accepted: 27 August 2025 Published: 1 September 2025 Keywords Child-parent relationship Home literacy environment Malaysia Parenting style Preschooler. Early literacy skills develop in the home environment with parenting approaches and the relationships between parents and children serving as the main influencing factors. This study examines the impact of parenting styles and child-parent relationships on the home literacy environment (HLE) among Chinese preschoolers in Malaysia. 385 mothers of Chinese preschoolers from Kota Kinabalu participated in a survey through questionnaires whereby key variables were assessed. Descriptive statistics, Pearson's correlation and multiple regression analyses were utilized to analyze data. The descriptive findings indicated that most mothers had adopted an authoritarian parenting approach, perceived a close relationship with their child and reported a high level of HLE with their Chinese preschoolers. Furthermore, Pearson's correlation analysis revealed that there was neither a significant relationship between HLE and parenting approaches nor with the child-parent relationship. Hence, there are no substantial influences of parenting styles and child-parent relationships on HLE. These findings underscore the empirical evidence of family and community factors on early childhood home literacy environment outcomes. This study provides valuable insights for teachers, parents and policymakers to design targeted interventions. Contribution/Originality: The study provides empirical evidence on family involvement in the early childhood education environment in the context of Malaysia, considering a wider lens of factors that favour the realization of literacy-friendly environments for children. 1. INTRODUCTION A child's success in school and life requires an environment that promotes literacy and other essential skills. The concept of empowerment brings together parents, communities and teachers to work towards enhancing children's educational experience. The underlying philosophy for this concept emphasizes family and community as two of the most important knowledge areas for the holistic development of children-intellectually, emotionally and morally. Moreover, the HLE is firmly embedded in the early childhood education curriculum. Early development of literacy skills will prepare the child for school success and attendance and nurture his or her socio-emotional well- being. These early learning experiences are shaped by the practices, attitudes and interactions of parents (Guo et al., 2021; Mad & Mohamed, 2023). The HLE alludes to the activities, resources and social interactions related to literacy within the home that has a significant influence on the child's literacy outcomes (Huang et al., 2023). Activities included in the HLE comprise Humanities and Social Sciences Letters 2025 Vol. 13, No. 4, pp. 1190-1203 ISSN(e): 2312-4318 ISSN(p): 2312-5659 DOI: 10.18488/73.v13i4.4394 © 2025 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4847-6265 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2965-9234 mailto:qinghua6015@gmail.com mailto:connieompok@ums.edu.my https://www.doi.org/10.18488/73.v13i4.4394 Humanities and Social Sciences Letters, 2025, 13(4): 1190-1203 1191 © 2025 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. shared reading, storytelling and teaching letters or words. Literacy resources include books for children, educational toys and writing materials available in the home (Zhang, Inoue, Shu, & Georgiou, 2020). The HLE plays a crucial role in fostering literacy skills among pre-schoolers. It contributes significantly to enhance children's verbal and cognitive abilities before entering formal schooling (Hamzah, Mat Radi, & Mansor, 2022) in word recognition, language acquisition and reading comprehension (Korucu, Litkowski, & Schmitt, 2020; Nuswantara, Savitri, Hermanto, Suarmini, & Bhawika, 2022). Research conducted globally has consistently highlighted the positive impact of HLE on children's literacy outcomes. A supportive HLE is often shaped by parental involvement, available literacy resources and the quality of parent-child interactions (Dong, Wu, Dong, & Tang, 2020; Tamis-LeMonda, Luo, McFadden, Bandel, & Vallotton, 2019). Lehrl, Ebert, Blaurock, Rossbach, and Weinert (2020) suggested the sustained influence of HLE on children's academic outcomes while Ebert, Lehrl, and Weinert (2020) in Germany showed the importance of verbal interaction and book exposure in developing language and cognition growth. In China, Guo et al. (2021) found that HLE can predict children’s future writing proficiency. Li, Lam, Zhang, and Bao (2024) highlighted its significant contribution to the development of children's social- emotional skills. Furthermore, cross-cultural studies have revealed that the HLE is significantly influenced by sociocultural and economic factors. A previous study by Kong and Yong (2023) identified a high level of HLE among pre-schoolers in northwest Malaysia. Key factors influencing the HLE include learning materials, parental responsiveness and active involvement in literacy activities in the Malaysian context (Murtaza, Gan, Sulaiman, Mohd Shariff, & Ismail, 2019; Rathakrishnan, Bikar Singh, & Yahaya, 2023; Reddy, 2018). According to Sainain, Omar, Ismail, Mamat, and Abdullah (2020), parents in Malacca actively participate in parent-child interactions, demonstrating their extensive knowledge of their children's development, particularly in the areas of literacy and communication. However, Galián, Hernández-Prados, and Álvarez-Muñoz (2023) found that many parents delay reading instruction until they believe their children are developmentally ready. Research concerning how parenting style and the relationship between parents and children influence family involvement in HLE is limited. The study was based on the following research questions in the context of Kota Kinabalu: i) What are the current statuses of parenting style, child-parent relationship and home literacy environment among mothers of Chinese pre-schoolers in Kota Kinabalu? ii) Does a significant relationship exist between parenting styles and home literacy environment among Chinese pre-schoolers in Kota Kinabalu? iii) Does a significant relationship exist between child-parent relationship and home literacy environment among Chinese pre-schoolers in Kota Kinabalu? iv) Do parenting style and child-parent relationship have a significant impact on HLE among Chinese pre- schoolers in Kota Kinabalu? 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Parenting Style and Home Literacy Environment Early literacy development which begins in infancy rather than formal schooling is essential to young children's whole development. Research indicates that infants start acquiring the foundations of language even before birth. Infants recognize their mothers’ voices and associate them with warmth and security (Rand & Morrow, 2021). Participating in activities like singing, reading and conversing with a baby supports growth while also strengthening the relationship between the mother, baby and others (Vukelich, Enz, Roskos, & Kristie, 2019). Adult involvement is crucial in fostering children’s language and literacy development from the very beginning of life. The benefits of family involvement in early literacy are not limited to language development but there are also broader social and emotional benefits. The more engagement families impart in children's education, the more Humanities and Social Sciences Letters, 2025, 13(4): 1190-1203 1192 © 2025 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. certain children will develop resilience, self-regulation, social skills, mental health, relations with others and social competencies and will also attain reduced rates of delinquent behavior (Guevara et al., 2020; Teale, Whittingham, & Hoffman, 2020). The development of reading-based interactions between parents and children at a young age will provide an effective foundation for beneficial academic accomplishment, especially in the context of education, in terms of developing social interaction, problem-solving, decision-making, and independence skills (Rand & Morrow, 2021). For example, attending home literacy activities is continuously linked to positive and stable results for the child's literacy skills (Ahmed et al., 2022; Guevara et al., 2020; Teale et al., 2020). The pandemic has shown that families are essential in the early stages of literacy-acquisition development, further stating that individuals require language-rich environments before birth. Parents lay the groundwork for literacy by providing cognitive and emotional experiences as the primary sources of education (Wang & Liu, 2021; Zhang, Lau, & Su, 2023). Research has found that informal at-home literacy and authoritative parenting approaches correlate positively (Xia, 2023). Cross-cultural research has identified parental involvement as a critical factor influencing children's literacy development (Cheung et al., 2024) . It is essential to emphasize early exposure to literacy experience. Developmental delays during early childhood can lead to reading and writing difficulties, participation in poor academic activities and higher dropout rates (Alakoç, Soydan, Ersan, & Toka, 2024; Yeo, Ong, & Ng, 2014; Zhang, Morshedi, & Jiang, 2024). This is also a key factor contributing to school dropout rates in Malaysia highlighting disparities in early literacy development (Junus, 2021). Cross-cultural research mentions that Malaysians spend significantly less time reading than their neighboring countries emphasizing the need for a focused intervention. Furthermore, the continuity in the development of these high-quality home learning environments has been reported long-term academic success and improvements in early reading skills (Guevara et al., 2020). Increased and more sustained benefits accrue to parental involvement in literacy and language development (Adamson et al., 2021; Guevara et al., 2020). Hence, families must realize the importance of early literacy in providing children with a language-rich environment as they grow during this stage of formation. The parenting style at home is one contributing factor to the literacy environment of the home, hence, it has direct and indirect consequences on children's literacy achievements. Informal literacy environments are positively associated with quality control present in both internal and external speech environments of learning with the child through authoritative parenting (warmth and responsiveness). For example, maternal emotional support was found to be associated with learning-directed behaviours of preschoolers (Huang et al., 2023). Parenting style forms a vital element in the home literacy environment that greatly determines early literacy behavior and early childhood education curriculum. 2.2. Child-Parent Relationship and Home Literacy Environment The relationship between the home literacy environment (HLE) and the bond between parents and children is crucial for children's reading and writing development. A strong parent-child bond creates a supportive backdrop for learning literacy at home (Wang, Ma, Li, Huang, & Wang, 2022). When this bond is positive, it enhances the effectiveness of the home literacy environment (Kamal, Masnan, & Hashim, 2022). Reading together is crucial to this connection when parents and children engage in literacy-related activities. During these sessions, a child's language growth and interest in reading are closely linked to how parents respond and offer emotional support (Cheung, Dulay, Yang, Mohseni, & McBride, 2021). Quality interactions during these reading times help foster not only a love for reading but also improve specific literacy skills like vocabulary building and reading comprehension (Li, Nan, Xu, & Li, 2020). The quality of the child-parent relationship plays a crucial role in shaping the HLE which has a significant influence on children's literacy development. Parents tend to facilitate literacy-rich experiences more frequently in Humanities and Social Sciences Letters, 2025, 13(4): 1190-1203 1193 © 2025 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. households where the emotional climate is positive and supportive (Cheung et al., 2021). Additionally, there is evidence that HLE and early literacy skills are positively correlated and that the quality of parent-child interactions during joint literacy experiences increases the HLE correlation (Wang et al., 2022). In a nutshell, a positive child-parent relationship greatly strengthens the efforts of HLE in boosting children's literacy development. Therefore, fostering high-quality parent-child interaction at home is a key strategy for the promotion of literacy outcomes among preschool children. 3. METHODOLOGY 3.1. Research Design The study employed a quantitative research design to examine the impact of parenting style and child-parent relationship on HLE. 3.2. Population The research study targeted mothers of Chinese preschoolers aged 4 to 6 years in Kota Kinabalu. The largest Chinese preschool in the area, Tadika Chung Hwa Likas was selected as the study site. 3.3. Sample Size 500 questionnaires were distributed online through Google Forms to the respondents. Out of these, 385 valid responses were collected with a response rate of 77% which were used for further analysis. 3.4. Research Instrument Three research instruments were employed in the study to gather data on the core variables. The Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ) was adapted to measure parenting styles. The Child-Parent Relationship Scale-Short Form (CPRS-SF) was utilized for measuring the child-parent relationship. The Home Literacy Environment Questionnaire (HLEQ) has been utilized for evaluating the home literacy environment. 3.4.1. Parenting Style Questionnaire Parenting styles were evaluated by the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire (Kimble, 2014). The PSDQ includes 32 items across four parenting dimensions: authoritarian, authoritative, permissive and uninvolved styles. Responses were rated on a 5-point Likert scale: never (1) to always (5). Subscale means were computed with higher scores reflecting more frequent use of a particular parenting style. 3.4.2. Child-Parent Relationship Questionnaire The child- parent Relationship Scale-Short Form (CPRS-SF) (Pianta, 1992) was used to measure the quality of the child-parent relationship. The CPRS-SF includes closeness and conflict two subscales. Mothers rated each item using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (definitely does not apply) to 5 (definitely applies ). Mean scores were calculated for each subscale with higher scores indicating greater levels of the respective construct measure. 3.4.3. Home Literacy Environment Questionnaire The Home Literacy Environment (HLE) was assessed using the Home Literacy Environment Questionnaire (Marjanovič Umek, Podlesek, & Fekonja, 2005). The questionnaire assesses five key aspects: language stimulation and explanation, book reading, library visits, joint activities and conversations, interactive reading and zone-of-proximal-development support. In this study, responses were rated on a 5-point scale from 1 (never) to 5 (always). Humanities and Social Sciences Letters, 2025, 13(4): 1190-1203 1194 © 2025 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 3.5. Reliability and Validity Tests Reliability and validity are important indicators for analyzing whether the tools are usable or not. In the pilot study, the researchers assessed the validity and reliability of the instrument used in this study. The analytical findings affirmed the instrument's usability. After the end of formal sampling, the researcher further analyzed the valid questionnaire data obtained, and the results of the analysis are as follows: Formal survey data reliability is analyzed in terms of overall reliability and sub-reliability, respectively. Table 1 shows the results of the reliability analysis of the formally sampled data. Therefore, the results of the analyses show that the reliability is up to the mark, which meets the research needs. Table 1. The Cronbach's alpha of the questionnaire Scales No. of items Cronbach's alpha Parenting style 32 0.787 Child-parent relationship 15 0.899 Home literacy environment 33 0.896 Overall 80 0.861 In Table 2, KMO for parenting styles, child-parent relationships and home literacy environment were 0.787, 0.899 and 0.882, respectively. According to Kaiser (1974), a KMO value above 0.6 is considered adequate. Additionally, Bartlett’s test of sphericity p<0.05 indicates strong relationships among the variables. Therefore, the data were suitable for factor analysis. In a nutshell, the results confirm the validity of the questionnaire items. Table 2. The KMO and Bartlett effectiveness of the questionnaire Variables KMO Bartlett’s test of sphericity (Sig.) Parenting style 0.787 <0.001 Child-parent relationship 0.899 <0.001 Home literacy environment 0.882 <0.001 3.6. Normality Test Testing for normality is an essential step in data analysis when using Pearson correlation and regression analysis which assume that residuals or errors are normally distributed (Field, 2009). Table 3 presents the normality test results for each subscale of the variables. Based on Field 's (2009) data, they are considered approximately normally distributed when the absolute values of skewness and kurtosis fall within ±1.96. As presented in the table, the skewness and kurtosis values for all items meet this criterion. Therefore, it can be concluded that the data for all variables in this study follow a normal distribution and normality can be assumed. Table 3. Normality test of actual study Variables Skewness Kurtosis Parenting style 0.17 -0.97 Child-parent relationship 1.45 0.10 HLE -0.91 -0.18 4. DATA ANALYSIS Data analysis was conducted using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 29. Descriptive statistics, including frequency, percentage and mean were used to summarize demographic information and key variables, such as parenting style, child-parent relationship and HLE. Descriptive analysis was applied to address the first research question while Pearson’s correlation and multiple regression analysis were used to examine the subsequent research questions. Humanities and Social Sciences Letters, 2025, 13(4): 1190-1203 1195 © 2025 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 5. RESULT 5.1. Descriptive Statistics of the Study Variable Demographic information is presented in Table 4. The majority of the children were 6 years old (50.4%) with a nearly even distribution between boys (47%) and girls (53%) participants. The percentage showed that the authoritarian parenting style was most prevalent among the mothers with 39% adopting this approach followed by permissive (27.3%) and authoritative (20.3%) styles. The uninvolved style was the least common (13.5%). Most mothers of Chinese preschoolers adopted an authoritarian parenting style. In addition, the high mean value of the closeness subscale (4.44) compared to the conflict subscale (2.39) indicates that mothers generally perceive a positive and close relationship with their preschool children. Lastly, the mean score of 3.67 out of 5 for the HLE suggests that mothers perceive the home as a supportive environment for their children's literacy development. In other words, mothers of Chinese preschoolers mostly adopted an authoritarian style, perceived a close relationship and had a high level of HLE with their preschool children in Kota Kinabalu. Table 4. Descriptive information Variables (N=385) Category Percentage Mean Child's age 4 years old 29.6 5 years old 20.0 6 years old 50.4 Child's gender Male 47 Female 53 Parenting style Authoritative style 20.3 4.19 Authoritarian style 39 2.72 Permissive style 27.3 3.36 Uninvolved style 13.5 2.48 Child-parent relationship Closeness 4.44 Conflict 2.39 HLE 3.67 5.2. The Relationship between Parenting Style and Home Literacy Environment Pearson correlation was employed to test the relationship between parenting style and HLE. Table 5 shows no significant relationship between four dimensions of parenting style and HLE. The result indicated all p-values are more than 0.05. Specifically, the p-values for the four parenting styles were as follows: authoritative (p =0.981), authoritarian (p = 0.592), permissive (p = 0.426), and uninvolved (p = 0.613). These results indicate that there was no significant relationship between parenting styles and the home literacy environment (HLE). Table 5. Pearson’s correlation between parenting styles and home literacy environment Variables Home literacy environment R Sig. (2-tailed) Authoritative -0.001 0.981 Authoritarian 0.027 0.592 Permissive -0.041 0.426 Uninvolved 0.026 0.613 5.3. The Relationship between Child- Parent Relationship and Home Literacy Environment Table 6 indicates no significant relationship between child-parent relationship subscales (closeness and conflict) and the HLE with p-values of 0.805 and 0.569, respectively. This suggests that closeness or conflict of child-parent relationship does not significantly correlate with the HLE. In other words, there was no significant relationship between child-parent relationships and HLE among Chinese preschoolers in Kota Kinabalu. Humanities and Social Sciences Letters, 2025, 13(4): 1190-1203 1196 © 2025 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. Table 6. Pearson’s correlation between child-parent relationship and home literacy environment Variables Home literacy environment R Sig. (2-tailed) Closeness -0.013 0.805 Conflict -0.029 0.569 5.4. The Influence of Parenting Styles and Child-Parent Relationships on Home Literacy Environment The multiple regression analysis in Table 7 shows that parenting styles collectively explain only 0.4% of the variance in the HLE (R² = 0.004). The p-value for the model was 0.840, indicating no significant influence of parenting approaches on the HLE. On the other hand, child-parent relationship subscales contribute only 0.3% of the variance in the HLE (R² = 0.003) with a p-value of 0.586. This indicates that neither closeness nor conflict in the child-parent relationship significantly predicts the home literacy environment. Parenting style and the child- parent relationship did not have a significant impact on the home literacy environment among Chinese preschoolers in Kota Kinabalu. Table 7. The influence of parenting style and child-parent relationship on home literacy environment Variables Home literacy environment R-square Sig. Parenting style 0.004 0.840 Authoritative 0.441 Authoritarian 0.657 Permissive 0.315 Uninvolved 0.853 Child-parent relationship 0.003 0.586 Closeness 0.388 Conflict 0.316 6. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The data showed that most mothers adopted an authoritarian parenting style, perceived a close relationship and had a high level of HLE with their Chinese preschool children. In addition, the result showed parenting style and child-parent relationship were not associated with HLE. Parenting style and child-parent relationship had no significant influence on HLE among mothers of Chinese preschoolers in Kota Kinabalu. Firstly, this study identified authoritarian parenting as the most prevalent style among Chinese mothers in Kota Kinabalu. However, an earlier study (Qinghua, Shin, & Ompok, 2022) reported a dominance of authoritative parenting styles. This discrepancy highlights potential regional cultural differences where sociocultural dynamics uniquely shape parenting behaviors and preferences. Moreover, the findings also revealed that mothers perceived the relationships with their Chinese preschool children as closeness rather than conflict. This trend may be attributed to the sociocultural context of Kota Kinabalu, which is known for its relatively lower living costs and more relaxed lifestyle. Such an environment may afford parents more time and emotional resources to cultivate closeness in child-parent relationships. Additionally, the study found that Chinese preschoolers had a high level of HLE. This reflected that many parents are actively involved in supporting the early literacy environments at home. This aligns with findings by Kong and Yong (2023) and Katrancı, Gülhan, and Sımsek (2018) who identified high levels of HLE in other Malaysian contexts. The emphasis on Chinese education in local preschools may further contribute to this trend. Secondly, this study indicated that there was no significant relationship between the four dimensions of parenting styles and HLE among Chinese preschoolers in Kota Kinabalu. The result contrasts with prior research indicating that parental beliefs may have a substantial influence on children's literacy outcomes. Xia (2023) reported a positive relationship between authoritative parenting and informal HLE among preschoolers while Yang (2021) Humanities and Social Sciences Letters, 2025, 13(4): 1190-1203 1197 © 2025 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. noted a relationship between authoritarian parenting and structured literacy practices. One possible explanation could be the variation in measured questionnaires across these studies. Thirdly, the study found no significant relationship between the two dimensions of the child-parent relationship on HLE. This contrasts with prior research which suggested that the closeness of child-parent relationship is positively associated with the quality of HLE (Kamal et al., 2022; Q. Wang et al., 2022). Research suggests that parental emotional support during shared reading fosters children’s literacy engagement. In some cultural contexts, parents may emphasize structured learning tasks rather than an interactive literacy environment. This could weaken the relationship between child-parent relationships and HLE. Lastly, the findings indicated that parenting style and the child-parent relationship had no significant influence on the HLE among Chinese preschoolers in Kota Kinabalu. This observation differs from earlier literature. For instance, Huang et al. (2023) and Cheung et al. (2024) highlighted that maternal emotional responsiveness and support encouraged proactive learning behaviors which indirectly enhanced the level of the HLE. Similarly, authoritative parenting actively promotes frequent literacy activities which directly influence children’s literacy development (Vukelich et al., 2019; Xia, 2023). Moreover, Li, Xu, and Rao (2020) consistently highlighted how positive child-parent relationships enhance both the quality and frequency of home-based literacy activities thereby fostering better literacy outcomes. This discrepancy highlights the importance of considering ecological system theory and other layered environment systems. Future research would benefit from considering these layered systems to investigate the influence of parenting styles and child-parent relationships in shaping HLE. 6.1. Implications The study provides practical guidelines for parents who want to encourage their preschoolers to participate in activities that will serve them well in their developing home literacy environment. Playing games, reading, and having stimulating conversations are all strategies to help accomplish that objective. The remaining part develops a basis for the child's academic development and success in later life while provide them loving and literacy-rich atmosphere. A method of teaching young children that incorporates the roles of the family and the community into the curriculum is required to raise the standard of education in this multicultural Malaysian setting (Rathakrishnan et al., 2023; Shin & Idang, 2025). In Early Childhood Education (ECE), the family and the community should work together to shape the early learning settings and the development of children. Another reason stated by this study is that the program will be equitable for ECE if the special needs of children from different cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds are addressed immediately. The Malaysian preschool education system still faces challenges despite the significant improvements this study has made. 6.2. Limitations and Future Directions The survey only includes Chinese preschools in Kota Kinabalu, Sabah which limits it. The results are significant to this context but may not apply to other geographical areas or educational institutions with different cultural or institutional characteristics. Future research should broaden the sample to include diverse ethnic and socioeconomic groups across Sabah to develop a deeper understanding of how cultural and contextual factors influence the home literacy environment. Additionally, longitudinal studies are recommended to observe how changes in parenting practices and child-parent relationships over time impact HLE and children’s literacy outcomes as they progress through early education. Future research can further expand upon the foundational knowledge established by this study, ultimately contributing to more effective interventions and policies that support the educational and developmental needs of young children in Malaysia by exploring these areas. Humanities and Social Sciences Letters, 2025, 13(4): 1190-1203 1198 © 2025 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. Funding: This study received no specific financial support. Institutional Review Board Statement: The Ethical Committee of the Center of Postgraduate Studies, Jesselton University College, Malaysia approved this study on 16 January 2024 (Ref. No. JUC2024011601). Transparency: The authors state that the manuscript is honest, truthful, and transparent, that no key aspects of the investigation have been omitted, and that any differences from the study as planned have been clarified. This study followed all writing ethics. Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests. 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Early Education and Development, 34(1), 274-305. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2021.1981065 https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2017.1345634 https://doi.org/10.1177/1468798418754939 https://collected.jcu.edu/fac_bib_2019/4 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2021.04.002 https://doi.org/10.1080/10573569.2021.1923099 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1089386 https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2014.862147 https://doi.org/10.1080/1350293X.2024.2446920 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-019-09991-2 https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2021.1981065 Humanities and Social Sciences Letters, 2025, 13(4): 1190-1203 1201 © 2025 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. APPENDIX Appendix 1 presents the questionnaires used to assess the key variables in this study. Sections A, B, C, and D contain the instruments for collecting data on demographic information, parenting style, child-parent relationship, and HLE, respectively. Appendix 1. The influence of parenting styles and child-parent relationship on home literacy environment questionnaire. Dear parents: Thank you for consenting to answer this survey. The purpose of this survey is to investigate the influence of parenting style and child-parent relationship on home literacy environment. This questionnaire contains four parts with a total of 82 items. There is no right or wrong of the answers, you only need to answer the questions according to your own ideas, thoughts and opinions. Your answers will be kept confidential, and the data of the survey are only used for this study. Your reply for the questions is of great importance to our research. Thank you for your support. Section A (Demographic information) Child’s Age :__________ Child’s Gender: M F Section B (Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire) Listed below are statements that represent possible attitudes you might have toward parenting. Kindly please select the number 1=Never, 2=Rarely, 3=Sometimes, 4=Often, 5=Always in the space provided to best indicate how you feel about each of the following aspects. No. Items N R S O A 1 I am responsive to my child's feelings or needs. 1 2 3 4 5 2 I use physical punishment as a way of disciplining my child. 1 2 3 4 5 3 I take my child's desires into account before asking the child to do something. 1 2 3 4 5 4 When my child asks why he/She has to conform, I state: because I said so or I am your parent and I want you to. 1 2 3 4 5 5 I explain to my child how we feel about the child's good and bad behavior. 1 2 3 4 5 6 I spank when my child is disobedient. 1 2 3 4 5 7 I encourage my child to talk about the child's troubles. 1 2 3 4 5 8 I find it difficult to discipline my child. 1 2 3 4 5 9 I encourage my child to freely express himself/Herself even when disagreeing with parents. 1 2 3 4 5 10 I punish by taking privileges away from my child with little if any explanations. 1 2 3 4 5 11 I emphasize the reasons for the rules. 1 2 3 4 5 12 I give comfort and understanding when my child is upset. 1 2 3 4 5 13 l yell or shout when my child misbehaves. 1 2 3 4 5 14 I give praise when my child is good. 1 2 3 4 5 15 I give into my child when the child causes a commotion about something. 1 2 3 4 5 16 I explode in anger towards my child. 1 2 3 4 5 17 I threaten my child with punishment more often than actually giving it. 1 2 3 4 5 18 I take into account my child's preferences in making plans for the family. 1 2 3 4 5 19 I grab my child when he/She is being disobedient. 1 2 3 4 5 Humanities and Social Sciences Letters, 2025, 13(4): 1190-1203 1202 © 2025 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. No. Items N R S O A 20 I state punishments to my child and do not actually do them. 1 2 3 4 5 21 I show respect for my child's opinions by encouraging our child to express them. 1 2 3 4 5 22 I allow my child to give input into family rules. 1 2 3 4 5 23 I scold and criticize to make my child improve. 1 2 3 4 5 24 I spoil my child. 1 2 3 4 5 25 I give my child reasons why rules should be obeyed. 1 2 3 4 5 26 l use threats as punishment with little or no justification. 1 2 3 4 5 27 I have warm and intimate times together with my child. 1 2 3 4 5 28 I punish by putting my child off somewhere alone with little if any explanations. 1 2 3 4 5 29 I help my child to understand the impact of behavior by encouraging our child to talk about the consequences of his/Her own actions. 1 2 3 4 5 30 I scold or criticize when my child's behavior doesn't meet our expectations. 1 2 3 4 5 31 I explain the consequences of the child's behavior. 1 2 3 4 5 32 I slap my child when the child misbehaves. 1 2 3 4 5 Sections C (Child-Parent Relationship Scale) Please reflect on the degree to which each of the following statements currently applies to your relationship with your child. Using the scale below, circle the appropriate number for each item: 1=Definitely does not apply, 2=Not really, 3=Neutral not sure, 4=Applies somewhat, 5=Definitely applies. No Items 1 I share an affectionate, warm relationship with my child. 1 2 3 4 5 2 My child and I always seem to be struggling with each other. 1 2 3 4 5 3 If upset, my child will seek comfort from me. 1 2 3 4 5 4 My child is uncomfortable with physical affection or touch from me. 1 2 3 4 5 5 My child values his/Her relationship with me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 When I praise my child, he/She beams with pride. 1 2 3 4 5 7 My child spontaneously shares information about himself/Herself. 1 2 3 4 5 8 My child easily becomes angry at me. 1 2 3 4 5 9 It is easy to be in tune with what my child is feeling. 1 2 3 4 5 10 My child remains angry or is resistant after being disciplined. 1 2 3 4 5 11 Dealing with my child drains my energy. 1 2 3 4 5 12 When my child is in a bad mood, I know we're in for a long and difficult day. 1 2 3 4 5 13 My child's feelings toward me can be unpredictable or can change suddenly. 1 2 3 4 5 14 My child is sneaky or manipulative with me. 1 2 3 4 5 15 My child openly shares his/Her feelings and experiences with me. 1 2 3 4 5 Section D (Home Literacy Environment Questionnaire) Parents: Please circle the number which best corresponds to your level of agreement with the following statements using the following scale: 1=Never, 2=Rarely, 3=Sometimes, 4=Often, 5=Always. No. Items 1. I complete and expand my child’s speech (e.g., “The boy is crying.” with “Yes, the boy is crying because he hurt himself.”) 1 2 3 4 5 2. When I talk to my child, I use grammatically correct sentences. 1 2 3 4 5 3. I talk to my child about how he/She has spent his/Her day. 1 2 3 4 5 4. I answer my child’s questions and offer explanations, even if he/She repeats his/her question many times. 1 2 3 4 5 5. I try to explain things that I believe my child understands. 1 2 3 4 5 6. I praise my child when I notice progress in his/Her speech. 1 2 3 4 5 7. I encourage my child to talk to peers and adults. 1 2 3 4 5 8. If I do not understand my child, I ask him/Her to repeat or explain his/Her utterance. 1 2 3 4 5 9. I answer my child’s questions consistently. 1 2 3 4 5 10. I correct my child’s use of the plural, and encourage him/Her to use them correctly. 1 2 3 4 5 Humanities and Social Sciences Letters, 2025, 13(4): 1190-1203 1203 © 2025 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. No. Items 11. I correct my child’s use of the past and the future tenses, and encourage him/Her to use them correctly. 1 2 3 4 5 12. I read picture books with my child. 1 2 3 4 5 13. I read to my child whenever he/She wants me to. 1 2 3 4 5 14. I go to the library with my child. 1 2 3 4 5 15. At the library, my child borrows the books that he/She wants. 1 2 3 4 5 16. I go to the puppet theater or cinema with my child. 1 2 3 4 5 17. I talk to my child about the puppet show or the movie that he/She has seen. 1 2 3 4 5 18. I buy my child books or picture books as gifts. 1 2 3 4 5 19. I read books to my child. 1 2 3 4 5 20. I encourage my child to narrate when looking at pictures. 1 2 3 4 5 21. When I play with my child, I name and describe different objects and toys. 1 2 3 4 5 22. I play with my child at least half an hour a day. 1 2 3 4 5 23. I watch TV with my child. 1 2 3 4 5 24. I talk to my child about what he/She has seen on TV. 1 2 3 4 5 25. I talk to my child about what he/She would like to do. 1 2 3 4 5 26. I allow my child to interrupt me and ask questions when I’m reading to him/Her. 1 2 3 4 5 27. I allow my child to create his/Her own stories while I’m reading to him/her. 1 2 3 4 5 28. When reading to my child, I talk to him/Her about the content of the book. 1 2 3 4 5 29. I teach my child to count. 1 2 3 4 5 30. I encourage my child to learn to read a few words (e.g. his/Her name). 1 2 3 4 5 31. I encourage my child to learn letters (e.g. I show his/Her letters in books, I teach him/her the letters in his/Her name). 1 2 3 4 5 32. When talking to my child, I use long sentences (e.g. complete sentences and/Or compound sentences). 1 2 3 4 5 33. When talking to my child, I try to speak in a manner similar to his/Hers (e.g. I call objects as he/She does, I use child-like speech). 1 2 3 4 5 Views and opinions expressed in this article are the views and opinions of the author(s), Humanities and Social Sciences Letters shall not be responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content.