349Balogh, Sz. and Novák, T.J. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 69 (2020) (4) 349–361.DOI: 10.15201/hungeobull.69.4.2 Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 69 2020 (4)                            349–361.

Introduction

Soils traditionally are considered a four-di-
mensional product of five natural soil-form-
ing factors, namely: substrate, climate, to-
pography, vegetation, and time (Forman, 
R.T.T. 1995). Only in the last decades, human 
society was considered to add as the sixth 
effective soil-forming factor (Dudal, R. 2005; 
Ellis, E.C. and Ramankutty, N. 2008; Ellis, 
E.C. et al. 2010). Even though, the soil-form-
ing function of anthropogenic activities can-
not be disregarded since the first spread of 
agricultural land cultivation (Kertész, Á. 

2009; Ball, B.C. et al. 2017; Baude, M. et al. 
2019). The extent of area affected by the hu-
man processes, the intensity, and the diversi-
ty of ways how the society modified natural 
soil bodies is continuously increasing. The 
contribution of the humankind to soil devel-
opment seems to be more and more relevant, 
which is indicated by occurrence and spread 
of anthropogenic, technogenic soils (Bouma, 
J. et al. 1998; Antrop, M. 2004). Parallelly, 
always were regions, where human activity 
decreased or disappeared for a while, which 
allowed regeneration, renewal of former 
disturbed or devastated soils (Ceauşu, S.  

1 University of Debrecen, Faculty of Technology and Sciences, Department of Landscape Protection and Envi-
ronmental Geography, H-4002, Debrecen, Egyetem tér 1, POB 400, Hungary. Corresponding author’s e-mail: 
novak.tibor@science.unideb.hu

Trends and hotspots in landscape transformation based on 
anthropogenic impacts on soil in Hungary, 1990–2018

Szabolcs B A L O G H 1 and Tibor József N O V ÁK 1

Abstract

The transformation of the landscapes due to the anthropogenic activities is increasing worldwide. These 
changes are also manifested in the change of soil-forming processes. The land cover (LC) changes evaluated 
according to their influence on anthropogenic features of soils allows to distinguish between LC changes result-
ing increased and decreased human impact (HI). In our study, we assess the changes of HI on landscapes and 
its spatial distribution across Hungary. The changes were evaluated by using LC data of four periods between 
1990 and 2018 reclassified based on the related anthropogenic soil features. To identify the hotspots of the 
changes 1×1 grids were applied in which the direction (increasing, neutral or decreasing HI) and frequency 
(number of landscape patches with LC changes) of changes were evaluated. In our research, the hotspots were 
identified over the studied four periods. We point out that the spatial distribution of hotspots is very differ-
ent. The hotspots of the increased human impact are 2,449 cells (643.0 km2) between 1990 and 2018, and the 
most of it localized in the Pest Plain (67), Csepel Plain (64) and Nagykálló-Nyírség (60). Most of the multiple 
hotspots are in the outskirts of Budapest to Kiskunlacháza, Bugyi, Délegyháza. As we examine the decreasing 
hotspot data we found 1,679 cells (1,524.9 km2) between 1990 and 2018. In largest number, they occur on the 
Kiskunság Sand Ridge (38), Majsa–Szabadka Sand Ridge (37) and Nagykállói-Nyírség (36). Multiple hotspots 
are located in settlements Izsák, Ásotthalom, Vatta and Nyírmihályi. Regions with numerous hotspots require 
special management to moderate its negative consequences on soils to consider both increased anthropisation, 
but also extensification of land use and their consequences.

Keywords: landscape degradation, landscape rewilding, land cover change, soil naturalness changes

Received February 2020; Accepted October 2020.



Balogh, Sz. and Novák, T.J. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 69 (2020) (4) 349–361.350

et al. 2015; Navarro, L. and Pereira, H. 
2015). Globally, less and less part of the 
surface of the Earth remains, where human 
society should not be considered as a signif-
icant factor of soil-forming. (Bouma, J. et al. 
1998; Hill, M. et al. 2002; Antrop, M. 2004;  
Klijn, J.A. 2004; Csorba, P. and Szabó, 
Sz. 2009; Dale, V.H. and Kline, K.L. 2013;  
Balogh, Sz. et al. 2018).

Spatial pattern and its changes of these 
opposite processes (like soil anthropization 
and renewal by natural succession) could 
be considered as the indicator of the actual 
land needed by the society. Otherwise, it is a 
phenomenon which should be compensated, 
regulated, managed, and planned intention-
ally by the society (Lambin, E.F. et al. 2006; 
Novák, T.J. et al. 2013; Lundberg, A. 2018). 

The study aimed to point on the changes of 
the spatial extent of areas, which are affected 
by changes in intensity of the human impacts 
between 1990 and 2018. In our consideration, 
the “Land Cover” classes (LC) and its chang-
es are related to the grade of the transforma-
tion of soils by society. Therefore, analysis 
of LC and the LC changes allows an estima-
tion of the grade of human transformation 
of landscapes (Incze, J. and Novák, T.J. 2016; 
Szilassi, P. et al. 2017; Novák, T.J. et al. 2019). 

In our research, we supposed that besides 
of well-known processes of intensification 
(e.g., soil sealing, construction, degradation 
of soils), on extent areas LC changes were 
concluded in the decreased grade of “human 
impacts” (HI). At these sites, the changes al-
low a restart of soil development towards a 
less degraded state (i.e., organic carbon se-
questration, recharge of soil nutrients, regen-
eration of aggregate structure and renewed 
horizon development). Further, we intended 
to identify the locations with the highest pos-
sible spatial accuracy, where these changes 
appear, since we consider both increasing 
and decreasing HI-s on landscapes requires 
compensatory management by local society. 
Therefore, a hotspot analysis was carried out, 
for all four study periods, where we identi-
fied single and multiple hotspots – for de-
creased and increased HI-s. 

Data sources and methods

As the main data source to our analysis, the 
CORINE Land Cover (CLC) database and the 
CORINE Land Cover Change (CHA) datasets 
were applied. 

In our study, the status datasets of CLC 
(1990, 2000, 2006, 2012 and 2018) were ap-
plied to calculate the share of re-grouped CLC 
classes according to the grade of their anthro-
pogenic transformation. The methodology of 
surveys is standardized as it is described at 
Mari, L. and Mattányi, Zs. (2002), and Mari, 
L. 2010. The datasets at a scale of 1:100,000 
were applied, on the study area (Hungary) it 
consists of 32 CLC classes (FÖMI, 2002). The 
minimum mapping unit for areal objects is 
>25 ha, and the minimum width of the linear 
objects is >100 m. Although only the area ele-
ments are identified in the CLC, there are some 
“linear elements” in it. Due to the differences 
between two time and layer, we use the CHA 
datasets. In these, they have mapped the less 
than 5 ha changes, included the motorway 
and some road changes. So, the GIS database, 
which we are created, is extended to the digital 
road changes. Furthermore, we only have these 
“linear layers” because of the mapping scale of 
the CORINE Land Cover Change dataset. The 
important road impact and the fragmentation 
are sometimes appeared in the CHA polygons.

Afterwards, the status data time series was 
complemented by change layers (CHA 1990–
2000, 2000–2006, 2006–2012 and 2012–2018). 
It allows higher accuracy to identify changes 
as a comparison of the consecutive status lay-
ers (Mari, L. and Mattányi, Zs. 2002; Mari, 
L. 2010).

As in our earlier works it was described 
(Novák, T.J. et al. 2013; Novák, T.J. and Tóth, 
Cs.A. 2016; Novák, T.J. and Incze, J. 2018; 
Balogh, Sz. et al. 2019) to the CLC classes, 
the expectable influence on the soil cover was 
assigned, and the CLC classes were reclas-
sified based on the grade of anthropogenic 
transformation of the soils, into four groups 
(Figure 1). One of these groups consists of 
CLC classes which have not been considered 
to have soils according to the definition of 
soil by WRB (World Reference Base). 



351Balogh, Sz. and Novák, T.J. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 69 (2020) (4) 349–361.

Due to repeated surveys of the CLC data, 
change layers (CHA) from five different years 
the spatial extent and share of the groups 
based on the grade of anthropogenic trans-
formation could be calculated, and therefore 
the changes in the last three decades over the 
country can be tracked.

Using this classification, the CHA poly-
gons were also evaluated. Therefore, the an-
thropogenic transformation grades (accord-
ing to the Figure 1) of the cover class before 
and after the LC conversion was considered. 
In furthermore, we ignored the polygons 
in which the anthropogenic transformation 
grade before and after the conversion was 
falling into the same group. Here the inten-
sity of human impact (HI) remained approxi-
mately at the same level in spite of the altered 
LC class, and the change was evaluated as 
neutral concerning the anthropogenic trans-
formation grade. Polygons, in which the LC 
conversion also resulted in an altered grade 
of HI, were divided into two groups: LC 
conversions with a) increasing, and b) de-
creasing HI (Figure 2). This reclassification 
of CHA polygons was done for all four in-
tervals provided by CHA dataset (1990–2000, 
2000–2006, 2006–2012, 2012–2018). The extent 
and number of polygons showing increas-

ing or decreasing HI were calculated for each 
above-mentioned time intervals. From each 
interval, the five most extent LC conversion 
types resulting increased or decreased HI 
were listed for further analysis concerning 
their consequences to soil resources. 

To identify hotspots of increasing and de-
creasing HI a grid with 1×1 km cell size was 
overlain on the LC change maps, the same 
grid for each type and period. In every 1×1 
km grid number of polygons with LC con-
versions resulting changed intensity of HI 
were counted (Figure 3). As we have seen in 
Figure 3 the number of land cover changes 
(LCC) polygons are demonstrated. The hot-
spot methodology was assorted only those 
cells, which LCC number are in the upper 
quartile of it (e.g. like in Figure 4. only those 
which are included 2–6 polygons in the cells). 
The polygons of LC conversions with un-
changed intensity (see Figure 2) of HI were 
eliminated from later analysis. Separately for 
the type of change (increasing and decreas-
ing HI) and each study period, the basic sta-
tistic data of the grid cells were calculated. 
The upper quartiles of the number of LC 
change polygons per grid cell were consid-
ered to be the lower limit to evaluate a grid 
cell as a hotspot, i.e., hotspots were consid-

Fig. 1. Reclassification of CORINE LC classes based on the expectable anthropogenic transformation of soils



Balogh, Sz. and Novák, T.J. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 69 (2020) (4) 349–361.352

Fig. 2. Evaluations of LC changes based on the expectable change in the intensity of the HI

Fig. 3. The method of assigning the LCC polygons to grid cells, for later identification of hotspots



353Balogh, Sz. and Novák, T.J. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 69 (2020) (4) 349–361.

Fi
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Balogh, Sz. and Novák, T.J. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 69 (2020) (4) 349–361.354

ered those grids, which had higher number 
of LC change polygons as the upper quartile 
of the grids for the same period and type of 
change (Figure 4). If the hotspot lies in the 
bordel, we attached to that region which is 
occupied the largest part of the cell. 

Hotspots of increasing and decreasing HI 
were calculated separately. Further, numer-
ous grids proved to be hotspots not only 
for one period but in more studied periods. 
These multiple hotspots for increased and 
decreased HI were represented with deeper 
colour intensity on maps. 

Results

Changes of HI

Distribution of LC classes among the groups 
according to the grade of HI showed slight 
changes between 1990 and 2018. Most LC 
classes belong to the group, in which the 
anthropogenic properties in the soil (dis-
turbance of soil horizons, modification of 
soil structure, and occurrence of artificial or 
transported materials) can be recognized. 
Still, the solum itself is not predominantly 
a natural product of pedogenic processes. 
They covered 68.3 per cent of the country in 
1990, and their share decreased by 3.2 per 
cent to 64.9 per cent for 2018 (Table 1). 

LC classes, which are related to soils pro-
duced completely by the anthropogenic 
accumulation of transported, relocated or 
industrially produced materials (‘anthropo-
genic soils’ – Table 1) occupied 5.5 per cent 
in 1990 and their share increased by 0.8 per 

cent up to 6.3 per cent until 2018. LC classes, 
in which soil development and horizona-
tion are driven by meanly natural processes 
(succession of vegetation, topography, and 
climate) was 24.3 per cent and increased by 
2.5 per cent in 2018 up to 26.8 per cent. These 
changes indicate that share of moderately an-
thropized soils is only decreasing, and both 
extreme: anthropization and renaturation of 
soils affect an increased area. Anyway, an-
thropization (LC changes with increased HI) 
affected smaller part of the surface between 
1990 and 2018, than LC changes with a de-
crease of HI. 

We also considered the total extent (area, 
km2) and the number of polygons with 
changed LC class related to increased and 
decreased human influence separated for the 
four study periods (Table 2). 

Generally, LC change polygons with in-
creased HI had a smaller total area and a 
higher number in every period. The averaged 
area of these polygons varied between 0.24 
km2 (2012–2018) and 0.29 km2 (2000–2006). 

Table 1. Distribution of CORINE land cover classes among anthropogenic transformation groups (%)  
between 1990 and 2018 in Hungary based on anthropogenic WRB diagnostics of soils

Year No soils (0)
Natural or close to 

natural soils (1)
Soils with anthropogenic 

features (2)
Anthropogenic  

soils (3)
1990
2000
2006
2012
2018

1.9
2.0
2.1
2.1
2.0

24.3
24.7
25.5
26.0
26.8

68.3
67.6
66.5
65.9
64.9

5.5
5.7
5.9
6.0
6.3

Table 2. Extent and number of land cover change 
polygons with decreased and increased human 
influence between 1990 and 2018 in Hungary

Period

Land cover changes with

decreased human 
influence

increased human 
influence

Total
area, 
km2 number

area, 
km2 number

1990–2000
2000–2006
2006–2012
2012–2018

401.1
483.7
532.7
107.4

593
447
398
238

185.9
189.6
136.4
131.2

677
651
570
551



355Balogh, Sz. and Novák, T.J. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 69 (2020) (4) 349–361.

LC polygons with decreased HI had in op-
posite larger area, but a smaller number. 
Therefore, averaged extent of polygons with 
these types of conversion varied between 0.45 
km2 (2012–2018) and 1.34 km2 (2006–2012). To 
have an overview about the substantial LC 
changes of the conversions, we ranked the 
conversion types (coded by their CORINE 
code before and after the LC change) accord-
ing to their frequency based on their area 
and number we found, separately for each 
period. LC conversions with decreased HI 
proved to be less diverse than with increased 
HI. Namely, 77 per cent per cent (2012–2018) 
to 93 per cent (2006–2012) of the area affected 
by LC changes with decreased HI belonged 
into the five most frequent types (Table 3), 
and the polygons in most frequent five types 
are 63–66 per cent respectively of the total 
number of polygons with LC changes with 
decreased HI. In case of LC conversions with 
decreased HI the initial LC was in most of the 
cases arable land, mineral extraction sites, 
complex cultivation patterns and vineyards. 
The conversions resulted transitional wood-
lands, shrubs, pastures and broad-leaved 
forests (see Table 3). It does not mean that at 
the moment of the conversion, the quality of 
landscape units suddenly changes, but this 
type of changes results inherently reduced 
level of disturbance and gives chances for 
the regeneration of the ecosystems and soils.

LC conversions with increased HI, there-
fore, show higher diversity, since the most 
frequent five types cover only 41 per cent 
(1990–2000), and 61 per cent (2000–2006) of 
the total area of them, and they mean only 
25–37 per cent respectively of the total num-
ber of polygons with increased HI. When LC 
changes resulted increase in HI mostly arable 
lands, grasslands and pastures were turned 
into construction sites, mineral extraction 
sites, railways, and roads, industrial or com-
mercial units (see Table 3). Also, when inland 
marshes were converted into water bodies, 
soils were devastated submerging under con-
stant and higher water cover, even cancelled, 
according to definition of WRB, if submerged 
in more than 2 metre deep water.

For each period, both types of LC conver-
sions (increased and decreased HI) the most 
frequent five conversion types are listed in 
Table 3. Also, the summarized data show, that 
the number of polygons with LC changes af-
fecting decreased HI are smaller (1,676 and 
2,449), but the extent larger (1,524.9 km2 
and 643 km2) as that of LC changes with in-
creased HI. 

Hotspots of changed HI

As we mentioned in the data source and 
methods section, 1×1 km2 grids were creat-
ed. Using the grids, we prepared the hotspot 
analysis, based on the mentioned methodol-
ogy earlier.

Hotspots were identified over the studied 
four periods. As before, we also highlighted 
the areas that contained the largest number 
in both the four periods and the total. To fa-
cilitate the research, these were summarized 
within the micro-regional boundaries and 
then we created the sequent table.

The spatial distribution of hotspots with 
increased HI is shown on Figure 5. Numerous 
hotspots proved to be hotspots not only in 
one studied period, but for more. Totally 
2,449 between 1990 and 2018, in highest num-
ber on the Pest Plain (67), Csepel Plain (64) 
and Nagykállói-Nyírség (60) (Table 4). Most 
likely, the non-irrigated arable lands (211) 
are converted into construction sites (133) 
and industrial or commercial units (121), or 
road and railway network and associated 
lands (122). Furthermore, many pastures 
(231) are converted into construction sites 
(133) to. In the case of 1,012 hotspots num-
ber of LC change polygons with increased HI 
was in two periods higher than the respective 
threshold value of the hotspots. These are 
twofold hotspots, illustrated on Figure 5 with 
more intense colour. Triple hotspots were 
found in 223 grids and fourfold hotspot in 
45. These multiple hotspots are shown with 
darker colour intensity in Figure 5. On the 
map, several aggregations of triple or four-
fold hotsopts can be identified. The top 5 are 



Balogh, Sz. and Novák, T.J. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 69 (2020) (4) 349–361.356
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357Balogh, Sz. and Novák, T.J. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 69 (2020) (4) 349–361.

in the outskirts of Budapest highlighted by 
Kiskunlacháza, Bugyi, Délegyháza, besides 
in Győr and Bükkábrány. 

In case of the LC changes with decreased 
HI the upper quartile of the number of poly-
gons was 1 in all periods. This means, that all 
grids having at least two polygons with LC 
change showing decreased HI are regarded 
as a hotspot. The number of them is 593, 447, 
401, and 238 in the above order. Totally 1,679 
cells are regarded as a hotspot in any of the 
four-study periods between 1990 and 2018 
(see Table 4). In largest number they occur 
on the Kiskunság Sand Ridge (38), Majsa–
Szabadka Sand Ridge (37) and Nagykállói-
Nyírség (36). Figure 6 shows the location of 
further hotspots of decreased HI. Number of 
one-fold hotspots was found 2,379, two-fold 
hotspots were found in 135 grid cells and tri-
ple hotspots in 15, and no fourfold hotspot 
was found. The colour intensity also shows 

hotspot multiplicity in Figure 6. The most af-
fected areas are in Izsák, Ásotthalom, Vatta 
and Nyírmihálydi. Usually, the non-irrigated 
arable lands (211) and pastures (231) and 
sometimes the agricultural types (213, 221, 
222, 242, 243) are converted into transitional 
woodlands or shrubs (324). Some of the hot-
spots are the mineral extraction sites (131) 
conversation into pastures (231).

Discussion – Considerable effects of land 
cover conversions to soils

Numerous studies analysed the CORINE data-
sets based on the changes in LC (Feranec, J. 
et al. 2007; Verburg, P.H. and Overmars, K.P. 
2009; Stürck, J. et al. 2015; Kuemmerle, T. et al. 
2016; Plieninger, T. et al. 2016; Foški, M. and 
Zavodnik Lamovšek, A. 2019), but the high 
number, small individual extent and high vari-

Fig. 5. Hotspots of increased human impact in Hungary based on LC changes 1990–2018



Balogh, Sz. and Novák, T.J. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 69 (2020) (4) 349–361.358

ability of conversion types make the overview 
difficult and the evaluation of them compli-
cated. We classified the conversions into three 
types based on the change of degree in HI, and 
evaluated their spatial extent considering their 
spatial frequency, using an auxiliary 1×1 km 
grid to identify the hotspots of changes.

Also, in our earlier studies (Novák, T.J. 
and Incze, J. 2018; Novák, T.J. et al. 2019) 
we pointed on to the regional differences of 
landscape changes in Hungary on micro-and 
meso-region level. Considering these spatial 
units, quite frequently changes with in-
creased and decreased HI were possible to 
observe within the same micro- or meso-re-
gions, on the other hand, the exact identi-
fication of the changes was not possible. 
Therefore, this different approach: applying 
a grid and identification of hotspots proved 
to be more useful. It allowed the more pre-
cise delineation of areas with increased and 

decreased HI, and hotspots diversity among 
the four study periods highlighted the loca-
tion of ongoing LC changes.

Our finding, that on the expense of the ex-
tent of LC classes with moderate HI both: the 
extent of LC classes with increased and the 
decreased HI impact was growing proved 
useful to point on increasing differentiation 
of LC. Regions with numerous hotspots of 
increased HI requires special management to 
moderate its negative consequences on soils, 
such as accelerated erosion, soil compaction, 
loss of organic carbon, mixing of soil hori-
zons, soil sealing, soil loss appear concentrat-
ed, and affect urbanized areas. Highway con-
structions, industrial areas, and areas with 
intense peri-urban residential sprawl are typ-
ical places, where the LC conversions affects 
intense soil anthropization (Falkenberg, J.A. 
et al. 2003; Ebels, L.J. et al. 2004; Csorba, P. 
2005; Almajmaie, A. et al. 2017), so far that 

Fig. 6. Hotspots of decreased human impact in Hungary based on LC changes 1990–2018



359Balogh, Sz. and Novák, T.J. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 69 (2020) (4) 349–361.

natural soils are no more possible to identify 
and even the substrate of soils are either ar-
tificial (construction waste composited from 
brick, slag, concrete, asphalt) or transported 
by humans (gravel, sand, rock). Besides their 
environmental risks, it makes these regions 
vulnerable against climate change, limiting 
the potential for resilient responses. Multiple 
hotspots of LC changes with increased HI 
warns to the ongoing degradation of soils in 
these areas. In contrast, regions with hotspots 
of decreased HI can count with organic ma-
terial accumulation, carbon sequestration, 
regeneration of structure, increase of thick-
ness of fertile soil layer (Van Etvelde, V. 
and Antrop, M. 2009; Sándor, G. et al. 2013; 
Horváth, A. et al. 2015). 

That is true that these soil processes 
can compensate the unfavourable ones of 
hotspots of increased HI, but in many cases 
decreasing human impact on landscapes also 
requires special management and control, 
that must be considered. In case of decreasing 
HI on former industrial, mining, military and 
constructed areas a rewilding or renaturation 
can be related to the long-lasting release of 
pollutants into the groundwater or to the at-
mosphere, and therefore mean environmental 
risks besides of their regeneration processes. 

Acknowledgements: The research was financed 
by the Higher Education Institutional Excellence 
Programme (NKFIH-1150-6/2019) of the Ministry 
of Innovation and Technology in Hungary, within 
the framework of the 4th thematic programme of 
the University of Debrecen. Research work of Tibor 
József Novák was supported by the János Bolyai 
Research Scholarship of the Hungarian Academy of 
Sciences (BO/00448/17/10), by the ÚNKP-19-4-DE-129 
(Tibor József Novák) and ÚNKP-19-3-I-DE-221 
(Szabolcs Balogh) new national excellence program 
of the Ministry for Innovation and Technology. 

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