4_Fullen.indd 301Fullen, M.A. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 64 (2015) (4) 301–306.DOI: 10.15201/hungeobull.64.4.4 Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 64 2015 (4) 301–306. The SHASEA Project To promote sustainable agro-environmental de- velopment in the highlands of South-East Asia, an international multidisciplinary research team, funded by the European Union, exam- ined the eff ectiveness of selected agronomic and soil conservation treatments (EU Contract Number ERBIC18 CT98 0326) (Fullen, M.A. 2004). The team used both modifi ed and novel cropping practises within farmer-managed small fi elds on a natural and representative catchment (Wang Jia) in the highlands of Yun- nan Province, China (25o28’N, 102o53’E). The ‘Sustainable Highland Agriculture in South-East Asia’ (SHASEA) Project involved five co-ordinated work-packages: (i) back- ground agricultural and environmental assess- ment of Wang Jia Catchment; (ii) implemen- tation and evaluation of modifi ed and novel watershed cropping systems for wheat, maize (corn) and soybean; (iii) cost-benefi t analyses of the socio-economic impacts of cropping practice changes; (iv) comparative scientifi c evaluation of cropping techniques in the high- lands of northern Thailand at Pang Mapa, Mae Hong Son Province (19o33’N, 98o12’E) and (v) dissemination of project outcomes and estab- lishment of training programmes for best prac- tise in highland rural development. From each of these, project lessons for promoting sustainable agro-environmental Physical geography and closed loop recycling Michael A. FULLEN1 Abstract There is a growing body of research projects spanning over three decades that have provided insights into the concept of waste management, a topic standing in the focal point of environmental issues. In this paper, the ‘SHASEA Project,’ ‘BORASSUS Project,’ Yuanyang Project’ and ‘Cradle to Cradle BIZZ Project’ are summarized and integrated to present a revised philosophical view that nature has no concept of ‘waste.’The ‘Sustainable Highland Agriculture in South-East Asia’ (SHASEA) Project, funded by the European Union, was established to promote sustainable agro-environmental development in the highlands of South-East Asia. The Project ex- amined the eff ectiveness of selected agronomic and soil conservation treatments by using both modifi ed and novel cropping practices within small farmer-managed fi elds. The EU-funded BORASSUS Project evaluated the long-term eff ectiveness of biological geotextiles in controlling soil erosion and assessing their sustainability and economic viability. Biological geotextiles off er potentially novel bioengineering solutions to environmen- tal problems (e.g. soil conservation, sustainable plant production and improved ecosystem management). Biogeotextiles may provide socio-economic platforms for sustainable development. A complex and sustainable agro-environmental system of terraced rice paddy fi elds in Yuanyang developed by the Hani minority people of Yunnan Province was the basis of an illuminating project which teaches us many lessons on waste manage- ment, the ‘Agro-environmental sustainability of the Yuanyang rice terraces of Yunnan Province, China’. The Hani people have maintained this intricate and elaborate system for over 1,300 years. If we can understand how this system is sustained, we can learn lessons which hopefully can be applied more generally. The innovative approach of ‘Cradle to Cradle’ (C2C) technology promotes and develops closed loop recycling. At the end of a useful life time, C2C items are disassembled and reassembled for other uses. Lessons from the ‘C2C BIZZ’ Project (funded by the EU ‘INTERREG IVB North West Europe Programme) are also reviewed in this study. Keywords: biogeotextiles, cradle to cradle, recycling, resources, waste 1 Faculty of Science and Engineering, The University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton WV1 1LY, UK. E-mail: m.fullen@wlv.ac.uk Fullen, M.A. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 64 (2015) (4) 301–306.302 development in tropical and subtropical highlands include: (a) the importance of rec- ognizing the value of both ‘North-South’ and ‘South-South’ co-operation in development projects; (b) integrating local communities as full partners in the research programme; (c) matching the diff erent ‘time horizons’ of the various stakeholders and (d) developing multidisciplinary teams, which included both biophysical scientists and socio-economists. During 1999, based on fi eld and plot experi- ence, the team designed a composite maize crop- ping system to maximize both crop yield and soil/water conservation, known as the ‘Integrated Contour Cultivation, Plastic and Straw Mulch Treatment’ (INCOPLAST) (Figure 1). The system combines contour cultivation, straw mulch and plastic mulch (Fullen, M.A. 2004). To establish early crop growth and to maximize yield, irrigation water is applied prior to monsoon rains. The INCOPLAST system is then installed, to both maximize yield (by addition of plastic mulch) and con- serve soil, water and associated nutrients (by installation of contour cultivation and straw mulch). Ridge morphology is shaped to route water towards the maize roots beneath the plastic mulch. Experiments proved soil bulk densities beneath the plastic mulch remained low throughout the growing season, thus promoting easier root penetration, higher aeration porosity, higher infiltration and lower runoff rates (Subedi, M. et al. 2009). Plot borders were grassed, to retain soil and wa- ter within the arable fi elds. The INCOPLAST system proved eff ective for soil and water conservation and signifi cantly increased crop productivity (Wang, Shuhui 2003) (Table 1). The BORASSUS Project The three-year plus (1 July 2005--28 February 2009) EU-funded BORASSUS Project (contract no. INCO-CT-2005-510745) evalu- ated the long-term eff ectiveness of biological geotextiles in controlling soil erosion and assessing their sus- tainability and economic viability (Fullen, M.A. et al. 2011). Field and laboratory studies indicated that uti- lization of biological geotextiles con- structed from palm-leaves and other selected organic materials are an ef- Fig.1. The INCOPLAST (INtegrated COntour cultivation with PLastic And wheat STraw mulch) system used on experimental fi elds in Wang Jia Catchment Table 1. Grain weight (t/ha, corrected to 13% moisture) from Wang Jia Catchment plots over three seasons Treatments* 1999 Increasing % vs. D 2000 Increasing % vs. D 2001 Increasing % vs. D D C C + P C + P + S F p LSD 7.26a 8.08a 11.19b 10.80b 37.46 <0.01 1.39 t 0.0 11.2 54.0 48.7 – – – 7.82 8.81 9.49 9.70 1.49 0.28 – 0.0 12.7 21.4 24.0 – – – 6.21a 6.66a 8.27b 8.42b 16.17 <0.01 0.88 t 0.0 7.2 33.2 35.5 – – – *Diff erent lett ers denote signifi cant (P <0.05) diff erences. D = Downslope cultivation without mulch; C = Contour cultivation without mulch; C+P = Contour cultivation with polythene mulch; C+P+S = Contour cultivation with polythene and wheat straw mulch (INCOPLAST). Source: Wang, Shuhui 2003. 303Fullen, M.A. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 64 (2015) (4) 301–306. fective, sustainable and economically viable soil conservation technique. These studies progressed in 10 countries, both in the ‘indus- trial north’ (in Europe) and in the ‘developing south’ (Africa, South America and South East Asia). The studied countries in the ‘develop- ing south’ included Brazil, China, Gambia, South Africa, Thailand and Vietnam. The ‘in- dustrial north’ countries included Belgium, Hungary, Lithuania and the UK. Biological geotextiles off er potentially novel bioengineering solutions to environmental problems, including technologies for soil con- servation, sustainable plant production and use of indigenous plants, improved ecosystem management by decreasing deforestation, im- proving agroforestry and cost-eff ective bioge- otextile applications in diverse environments. Biogeotextiles may provide socio-economic platforms for sustainable development and the benefits for developing countries may include poverty alleviation, engagement of local people as stakeholders, employment for disadvantaged groups, small and medium enterprise (SME) development, earning hard currency, environmental education and local community involvement in land reclamation and environmental education programmes. These benefi ts are achieved through: (i) promotion of sustainable and envi- ronmentally friendly palm-agriculture to discourage deforestation, promoting both reforestation and agroforestry, (ii) construction of biogeotextiles enabling development of a rural labour-intensive in- dustry, particularly encouraging employment of socially disadvantaged groups, and (iii) export of biogeotextiles to industrial- ised countries could earn hard currency for developing economies, based on the princi- ples of fair trade. The BORASSUS Project off ers many in- sights into sustainability and waste issu- es, especially in São Luís, Maranhão State, North-East Brazil (Guerra, A.J.T. et al. 2014). This work-package assessed the eff ects of bi- ological geotextiles, constructed from the palm leaves of Mauritia fl exuosa (Buriti), in the reclamation of a large (~10 m deep) gully. Accelerated erosion in Sacavém gully (São Luís) is enhanced by intense rains, acting in combination with vegetation clearance and the erodible sandy soil texture. Intense human action, with inappropriate soil use and irregular sett lement, also plays a very important role in promoting gully erosion. The gully was stabilized using a combina- tion of land-sculpturing, planting and the application of geotextiles. Only one month aft er the rehabilitation work was completed, the area was exposed to intense erosive rains (one-month total 753.7 mm, with a recurren- ce interval of ~60 years). Vegetation resisted erosion and the Buriti geotextiles seemed to have achieved the main aim of arresting ero- sion and rehabilitating the gullied area. Integrating the results indicate positive ef- fects of using biological geotextiles, as they of- fer potential for sustainable development and soil conservation. Furthermore, they can also be used for economic development, creating jobs and reducing poverty in poor urban are- as. The higher-quality Buruti leaves are used for the handicraft manufacture of gift items for tourists (e.g. handbags, purses, wallets and hats). Coarse discarded leaves are used to construct the biogeotextiles. On decompo- sition, the leaves input nutrients into the soil, especially potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca) and sulphur (S). The leaves can also be burned and added as an ash-fertilizer to soils. The fruit is used to make fruit juice, ice cream and alcoholic be- verages. The palm oil is used for skin care and may be useful for preventing skin cancer. On the death of the palm trees, the wood can be carved into boxes, statues and other trinkets for sale to tourists. Therefore, soil conservation and economic development are compatible and the Sacavém gully may well be an ex- cellent exemplar of a zero-waste closed loop recycling system. Long-term monitoring at Sacavém will enable thorough evaluation of the eff ective- ness of an integrated soil conservation pro- gramme on both erosion rates and proces- ses and sustainable economic development. The ongoing site development can be moni- Fullen, M.A. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 64 (2015) (4) 301–306.304 tored via the ‘Laboratory of Environmental Geomorphology and Land Degradation’ of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (LAGESOLOS) web site: htt p://www.lageso- los.ufrj.br (accessed 09/11/15). The Yuanyang Project One of the most illuminating projects which teaches us many lessons on waste manage- ment is the study on the ‘Agro-environmental sustainability of the Yuanyang rice terraces of Yunnan Province, China’ (Colinet, G. et al. 2011; Fullen, M.A. 2014). The Hani minority people of Yunnan Province (South- West China) have developed a complex and sustainable agro-environmental system of terraced rice paddy fi elds in Yuanyang (22°49’–23°19’N, 102°27–103°13’E). The Hani people have maintained this intricate and elaborate system for over 1,300 years, with some 3,000 terraces covering about 11,000 hectares. Hence, during the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), an Emperor awarded the Hani people the title of “Magic Mountain Sculptors” for “building their ladders to Heaven.” How- ever, geographic isolation and proximity to the, until recently, politically-sensitive border with Vietnam, has meant the Yuanyang ter- races have att racted scant scientifi c att ention. If we can understand how this system is sus- tained, we can learn lessons which hopefully can be applied more generally. The sustainability of the system seems to be the result of complex interplays between cultural, agronomic and environmental fac- tors. These include the cultural and spiritual beliefs of the Hani people, a hydrogeological system which provides ample water resourc- es, the maintenance of genetic diversity with- in the dominant rice cropping agro-ecosys- tem and the operation of complex fertigation practises. Distilling and understanding the ‘secrets’ of the Hani people and their terraces should enable broader application and dis- semination of the principles of sustainability. Currently a joint Chinese-European team are working towards a greater understanding of these lessons. The research team postulate that these lessons will have some global ap- plicability for agro-environmental sustain- ability. Identifi ed lessons relate to resource optimization, landscape multi-functionality and cultural att itudes. Landuse within Yuanyang is zoned on the basis of ecological principles. Upland grassland progresses downslope into forest and then in a downslope sequence into tea plantations, bamboo woodland and rice ter- races. Grasslands are used for the grazing of water buff alo, while wooded areas pro- vide timber (deciduous, pine and bamboo) and food (mushrooms, wild vegetables and honey). The local Yunnan pine (Pinus yunnan- ensis) provides an excellent source of timber. Furthermore, the forest is very eff ective in conserving soil and water and releases high quality water from the upper to lower slopes. Besides providing rice, the perennially wet paddy fi elds provide food for domestic con- sumption (carp, eels, mudfi sh, ducks, frogs and snails) and weeds for pig-feed (Photo 1). Thus, there is multifunctional use of each eco- agricultural zone, which ensures optimum use of resources, eff ective recycling of materials and minimal waste. Oft en, the net waste from these subsystems is virtually zero. The Hani people have a unique cultural sys- tem that reveres the land. The Hani religion embraces polytheism and the worship of na- ture. They pay particular devotion to the ‘for- est god,’ which is perceived as the source of life-giving water. Deforestation is considered a religious violation and the Hani people active- ly teach their children to respect the forest. This concept signifi cantly contributes to forest conservation and ecosystem stability. In general, we can learn much from these positive environmental att itudes, in terms of improving public understanding and ap- preciation of land resources (land literacy) and agro-environmental education at mul- tiple levels (school, college and university). The ancient ballads (poetic songs) of the Hani people are highly instructional in terms of maintaining the sustainability of agro-envi- ronmental systems. 305Fullen, M.A. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 64 (2015) (4) 301–306. The Cradle to Cradle BIZZ Project Critical analysis of the concept of ‘waste’ is integral to ‘Cradle to Cradle’ (C2C) technol- ogy, which is an innovative approach that promotes and develops closed loop recycling. At the end of a useful life time, C2C items are disassembled and reassembled for other uses. The aim is that materials are not downgraded, but rather at least retain the same grade with the objective of upgrading materials. C2C was developed by Michael Braungart and William McDonough in the 1980s and has progressively gained increased att ention and interest (Braungart, M. and McDonough, W. 2009). There are three guiding principles: 1. ‘Waste equals food.’ In nature there is no con- cept of waste; when any material has served its purpose, it is used by something else. 2. ‘Use solar income.’ Solar energy is eff ec- tively infi nite and if we can successfully har- ness it, then we have an infi nite energy source. Solar energy indirectly powers the wind, by creating air pressure diff erences which gen- erate wind. Solar energy from the geologi- cal past is stored underground. Thus, solar energy, wind power and geothermal energy systems are interpreted as ‘solar income.’ 3. ‘Celebrate diversity.’ Ecological systems (fl ora and fauna) adapt to the complexity of their environment to survive and thrive. Therefore, if we mimic diverse ecological sys- tems, we can strengthen our social, economic and environmental sustainability. Our global resources are running out. We all know that something has to change, in order to keep our planet habitable. The C2C philosophy aims for a benefi cial future foot- print by continuing material fl ows, using renewable energy and creating ecological, social and economic diversity. The University of Wolverhampton (UoW) is a partner in the ‘C2C BIZZ’ Project. The Project involves 11 partners from six EU countries (Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, The Netherlands and the UK). Photo 1. The rice terraces of Yuanyang, Yunnan Province, P.R. China (Photo by Fullen, M.A. on 23 Oct. 2009) Fullen, M.A. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 64 (2015) (4) 301–306.306 The partners include public bodies, research institutes, private companies and universi- ties. The Project is funded by the ‘INTERREG IVB North West Europe Programme of the European Union.’ UoW is collaborating in the C2C BIZZ Project, which has the objec- tive to enhance the implementation of C2C technology on new and existing business sites in North West Europe. The aim is to mix functionalities, to promote co-operation and collaboration of on-site companies and develop an att ractive environment, by using resources in diff erent and innovative ways. By its very nature C2C is multidisciplinary and so multidisciplinary teams can eff ecti- vely work together, including engineers, sci- entists, environmentalists, economists, ecolo- gists etc. In November 2014, the team pub- lished its main output; that is the ‘Guide to Cradle to Cradle Business Sites.’ The Guide is freely available on the C2C web site: htt p:// www.c2cbizz.com/ (accessed 09/11/15). An important concept implicit in C2C tech- nology and philosophy is that, in reality, there is no such thing as ‘waste.’ ‘Waste’ from one process or material becomes a resource for other process(es) or material(s). Perhaps we should view ‘waste’ as ‘resources.’ There are several excellent examples of this changed philosophy. One is ‘AirCarbon,’ where atmos- pheric carbon in the form of methane (CH4) is used to produce plastics, especially plastic mo- bile telephone covers: htt p://newlight.com/air- carbon/ (accessed 09/11/15). Another is the use of sewage sludge solids to make light-weight building aggregates (D. Newport, University of East London, pers. comm. 2013). Conclusions It is timely that we progress to imitate ‘nature’ and recognize there is really no such thing as waste. We can develop eff ective ‘closed-loop re- cycling systems’ which minimize waste or may even generate zero waste. Indeed, as we advance to ‘cradle to cradle’ systems, we can recognize output from one system as a resource for an- other and that waste can become a resource. Acknowledgement: Thanks to Dr S. Suresh for prepar- ing Figure 1. REFERENCES Braungart, M. and McDonough, W. 2009. Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things. London, Vintage Books. Colinet, G., Koulos, K., Wu Bozhi, Li Yongmei, LaCroix, D., Su Youbo, Chapelle, J., Fullen, M.A., Hocking, T. and Bock, L. 2011. Agro-pedological assessment of the traditional Yuanyang rice terraces of Yunnan Province, China. Journal of Resources and Ecology 2. (3): 289–299. Fullen, M.A. 2004. The development of sustainable cropping systems on red soils in the highlands of South China. In The Red Soils of China: Their Nature, Management and Utilization. Eds.: Wilson, M.J., Li, Zhenli and Xiaoe, Yang. Dordrecht, Springer, 261–274. (on behalf of SHASEA). Fullen, M.A. 2014. Agro-environmental sustainability of the Yuanyang rice terraces of Yunnan Province, China. Espaço Aberto, PPGG–UFRJ 4. (1): 35–42. Fullen, M.A., Subedi, M., Booth, C.A., Sarsby, R.W., Davies, K., Bhattacharyya, R., Kugan, R., Luckhurst, D.A., Chan, K., Black, A.W., Townrow, D., James, T., Poesen, J., Smets, T., Kertész, Á., Tóth, A., Szalai, Z., Jakab, G., Jankauskas, B., Jannkauskiene, G., Büchmann, C., Paterson, G., Mulibana, E., Nell, J.P., Van der Merwe, G.M.E., Guerra, A.J.T., Mendonça, J.K.S., Guerra, T.T., Sathler, R., Bezerra, J.F.R., Peres, S.M., Zheng Yi, Li Yongmei, Tang Li, Panomtarachichigul, M., Peukrai, S., Dao Chau Thu, Tran Huu Cuong, Truong Thi Toan, Jonsyn-Ellis, F., Sylva, J.Z., Cole, A., Mulholland, B., Dearlove, M., Corkill, C. and Tomlinson, P. 2011. Utilizing biological geotextiles: introduction to the BORASSUS Project and Global perspectives. Land Degradation and Development 22. 453–462. Guerra, A.J.T.,Bezerra,J.F.R., Fullen, M.A., Mendonça, J.K.S. and Jorge, M.C.O. 2014. The eff ects of biological geotextiles on gully stabilization in São Luís, Brazil. Natural Hazards. DOI 10.107/sl 1069-014-1449-0 Subedi, M., Hocking, T.J., Fullen, M.A., McCrea, A.R. and Milne, E. 2009. Lessons from participa- tory evaluation of cropping practices in Yunnan Province, China: overview of the eff ectiveness of technologies and issues related to technology adop- tion. Sustainability 1. 628–661. Open on-line access at: (accessed 09/11/15). Wang Shuhui 2003. Cultivation practices, maize and soy- bean productivity and soil properties on fragile slopes in Yunnan Province, China. 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