Effects of renewable energy resources on the landscape 5 Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 63 (1) (2014) 5–16. DOI: 10.15201/hungeobull.63.1.1 Eff ects of renewable energy resources on the landscape Mária SZABÓ1 and Ádám KISS2 Abstract One of the most important prerequisites of the sustenance of modern societies is the safe energy supply. An energy supply system, which is currently based mainly on fossil energy resources cannot be maintained even in the medium-term, at least not longer than for a few decades. Therefore, the application of renewable energy resources will play a signifi - cant role in forming our energy future. Most of them except geothermal and tide energies, use directly or indirectly solar energy. In this paper, the direct use of solar energy, wind energy, biomass and hydropower will be discussed. It will be shown that the widespread application and the broad expansion of any of the renewable energy resources and the large- scale production of renewable energies are always connected with serious environmental impacts, whichever of the resources is used. They all require a relatively large area for use in the case of producing a signifi cant amount of energy. Renewable energy production methods will be an important factor of landscape change, and will have a strong infl uence on landscape management. In this study, particularly, hydropower will be investigated. In the typical case of the Gabčikovo (Bős) Hydropower Station on the Danube the infl uences on the landscape structure and functions will be demonstrated. It will be shown that intensive human use and alteration (river engineering, the constructions of dams and hydroelectric power plants) of riverine landscapes have led to enormous degradation. Keywords: energy utilization, solar energy, wind energy, biomass, hydropower, landscape impacts Introduction – the signifi cance of the safe energy supply The continuous and reliable energy supply is perhaps the most signifi cant pre- requisite for the organization of modern societies. Everything which is neces- sary for a larger community, e.g. the food, water industry, appropriate homes, heating and lighting, traffi c, waste deposition etc. needs energy (e.g. Boeker, 1 Eötvös Loránd University, Faculty of Science, Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences, Department of Environmental and Landscape Geography. E-mail: szmarcsi@caesar.elte.hu 2 Eötvös Loránd University, Faculty of Science, Institute of Physics, Department of Atomic Physics. E-mail: kissadam@caesar.elte.hu 6 E. and van Grondelle, R. 1999). The needed energy sums up to a high amount in our complicated and interconnected world. Even a short disruption, caused by technical failures or natural catastrophes can create dangerous situations and sometimes great social tensions. By now, it is clear that the sustainability of human societies requires a safe and smooth-running energy supply. Since the fi rst energy crisis in the early 1970’s, every decision maker knew that energy supply is a vulnerable and sensitive issue and energy con- sumption should not grow. However, in spite of all the considerations, energy consumption has steadily increased from approximately by 300 EJ/year in 1980 to about 550 EJ/year today (Figure 1). The analysis showed that there was a strong correlation between popu- lation and energy consumption. In Figure 2, per capita consumptions for the period of 1980–2010 are shown. Consumption per capita is about 73 GJ/year and it reveals only a slight (~10%) increase in the last three decades. Of course, there are big diff erences among the regions of the world. The almost stationary nature of per capita energy consumption suggests that the energy consumption will grow at least proportionally with population growth. We should be prepared for an increasing need of energy in the medium term, as the world population is estimated to grow from 7.1 billion (2012) to at least 9 billion by 2050. The present energy consumption is as- sured by up to more than 80% by fossil fuels, and besides the small contribution of nuclear energy (2.7%), the share of renewable energy resources is only 16–17% (EIA, 2013). In the future, the extensive use of fossil fuels will be limited partly by the restricted resources, by unacceptable eff ects on the environment and by their contribution to climate change. The eff ectiveness of energy saving projects seems to be limited (Vajda, Gy. 2009) and the extension of nuclear energy is debated, so the introduction of renewable energy resources is inevitable in the near future. The present work assumes the ne- cessity of the widespread expansion of the most important renewable energy re- sources. We shall outline the environmental eff ects of these alternative energy produc- tion methods, with special emphasis on the Fig. 1. Yearly energy consumption of the world in the period of 1980–2010. Source: Compiled by the authors based on EIA data, 2013 Fig. 2. Per capita yearly energy con- sumption of the world in the period of 1980–2010. Source: Compiled by the authors based on EIA data, 2013 7 landscapes. Aft er some general remarks, a case study of landscape degradation caused by the Gabčikovo (Bős) Hydropower Station will be presented, and the consequences of renewable energy production will be shown, as well. Survey of environmental aspects of renewable energy production The most important renewable energy production methods are the following: solar energy, wind energy, biomass energy and hydropower3 (hereaft er the expression “renewable energy resources” will be used). It is proved that all of them are able to generate a considerable amount of energy for human use. Many illusions are connected with the widespread usage of renewable energy resources. The main reason of making them desirable is the low emission of harmful byproducts. It is true even for the application of biomass which is neutral to carbon dioxide emission in regard to the whole production cycle. The major problem of renewable energy resources is that all of them oc- cupy huge areas when the objective is to generate a great amount of energy. The facilities for solar energy, such as photovoltaic elements or mirrors cover large areas, wind turbines need many wind power stations, the production of bio- mass needs huge arable fi elds and the hydropower stations have big reservoirs. The areas with any of the above mentioned facilities for energy production can hardly be used for anything else. The use of renewable resources changes the whole surrounding environment. In the case of solar energy and wind power, there are serious diffi culties caused by the considerable fl uctuations in produc- tion rates. There are no technologies to store surplus energy. Even the power coming from a hydropower station and the production of biomass depend on the meteorological circumstances, but they can be planned for a longer period. Biomass is the only renewable energy resource which has a storage capacity. The comparison of the energy sources, from the point of view of the environmental eff ects, is a hard task. In the cases of the renewable energy re- sources, the capacity of a facility is always much bigger than the actual amount of the produced energy. The basic starting point is that the comparison must be made for the same amount of produced energy. Characteristics of renewable energy resources Renewable energy resources represent very diff erent energy production meth- ods. The scientifi c, physical and biological backgrounds are completely diff er- 3 Wave, tidal and geothermal energy are also renewable energy sources, however, their importance is less and therefore we did not analyze them. 8 ent and even the principles are not the same. Therefore, the survey of the most important characteristics of renewable energy sources should be performed individually. There are two ways to use solar energy. It is possible to produce electric energy by the irradiation of photovoltaic (PV) elements and it is feasible to use the heat which is generated by solar irradiations. PV technology is one of the most rapidly developing branches of the materials science (Wagemann, H-G. and Eschrich, H. 2007). The most in- formative parameter is radiation effi ciency. The effi ciency of the PV elements nowadays is about 7–10% in mass production (in laboratory it is up to 40%). There is a big development potential in commercial PV elements. There is about 12 GW installed capacity (2012) in the world and it is growing very fast, by 40–50% a year. However, today the contribution of the PV energy supply to the produced electric energy is very low; it is below 0.1% (EIA, 2013). The other possibility to use solar energy is to apply it as a heat source. It is feasible to build solar farms for electric energy generation. Using mirrors in order to concentrate radiation, and electric generators can be driven by the generated heat. Large areas covered by PV elements and mirrors are needed for the uti- lization of the solar energy. An estimate for the power density of the achieved average power is about 7–10 W/m2 (Szarka, L. and Ádám, J. 2009). It means that areas up to 100 km2 should be covered by a facility with a potential of 1 GWel on the average. Such a facility is a dominant element of the landscape. Wind energy (Kaldellism, J.K. and Zafirakis, D. 2011) has a signifi cant potential close to the sea. However, its ability to produce energy decreases with the distance from the seashore. In the central parts of the continents, the average wind-velocity is signifi cantly lower. Therefore, the availability of wind power stations is close to 50% at the seashore and it is diffi cult to fi nd places for about 25% availability in a continental country like Hungary. The total installed wind power capacity was well over 250 GW in 2012 and it is growing very fast, fi rst of all, in Europe, North America and China. The major diffi culty of applying wind energy is the big fl uctuations of its distribution in time. This problem can be solved by coupled hydropower systems or by spinning on gas turbines. The height of a modern wind power station is close to 100 meters and its nominal capacity is about 1.5 to 2 MW. Its average power is about 100 kW in a country without a seashore. To have an energy system which produces 1 GWel power on the average about 1,000–2,000 wind power stations are needed. According to Szarka, L. and Ádám, J. 2009, the average power density of wind energy is 1.2 W/m2. In the case of major wind power use landscape would be dominated by wind turbines. 9 There are many controversies about biomass energy. On the one hand, it is an important agricultural activity creating jobs for people. On the other hand, it can take away large areas from food production. The basic problem with biomass is energy low effi ciency photosynthesis. The areal density of biomass energy use is about 0.4 W/m2 for electric power production (Szarka, L. and Ádám, J. 2009). It means that about 4,000 km2 should be covered by appropriate energy plants for 1 GWel average electric power. The produced energy grasses or woods decrease biodiversity, creating monocultures of sublimated plants of the same age (like locus-tree, hybrid poplars, willow species etc.) leading to landscape degradation. Hydropower has been used by human society for several thousands of years. Today we have well-known, reliable and proved technologies. Hydropower has a signifi cant share in the electric energy production of the world (~17%). Hydropower has many advantages. There is no fuel cost and the work- ing costs are low. It emits no harmful materials. Dams are a good tool against fl ood and support shipping on the rivers. On the other hand, the construc- tion of a hydropower station is time-consuming and costly. In the case of big hydropower stations, big areas are generally fl ooded. The power stations are non-native landscape elements, sometimes huge constructions. Hydropower stations have an estimated average areal power density of about 14 W/m2 (Szarka, L. and Ádám, J. 2009). A reservoir of about 70 km2 area created for a hydropower station produces 1 GWel power on the aver- age. Such an artifi cial lake is a determining element of the landscape changing almost all characteristics of it. There are several serious analyses which dealing with the environmen- tal eff ects of the renewable energy sources (e.g. Community Research, 2003). The studies do not deal with the landscapes and landscape details. A thorough analysis is only possible if each individual case is discussed separately (Owen, A.D. 2004, and Hemiak, J., 2011). In the following part of the paper, as an example, a case study will be presented to show the eff ects of the Gabčikovo (Bős) Hydropower Station (GHPS). The GHPS was built on the Danube, at the border between Slovakia and Hungary (Photos 1–2). The power station is a dam-on-the-river type fa- cility. The installed electric power capacity is 749 MWel. According to offi cial data of the Slovak Republic, the average of produced electricity of GHPS in 15 years is ~259 MWel (see e.g. Bödők, Zs. 2008). 80% of the Danube water was diverted through the dammed lake at Čunovo (Dunacsún) into the artifi cial service channel for energy production. The diversion of the Danube was a fundamental turning point in the ecological functioning of the riverine wetland system. 10 Landscape eff ects: the Gabčikovo (Bős) Hydropower Station case study The complex ecosystem of large fl oodplain rivers with their enormous variety of diverse habitats in a relatively small area contributes to the natural biodi- versity of an ecoregion considerably. However, with river regulation and the increasing use of fl oodplains, a signifi cant proportion of the natural functions of the ecoregions was lost. Covering almost 36,500 hectares, Szigetköz in Hungary is the largest semi-natural fl oodplain area in the Danube Valley of Eastern Central Europe (Figure 3). Its wetland habitats are of outstanding importance. Due to the geological, geomorphological, climatic, hydrological and soil properties of the region, a great habitat diversity developed. The sites of highest natural value are protected by law as parts of the Szigetköz Landscape Protection Area (1987). The highly varied topography of the region, plains, sand dunes, bars, islands of various sizes and a peculiar hydrographical system with oxbow lakes and various types of aquatic habitats, sustains a wide range of biotopes from dry terrestrial to aquatic biotopes (Photo 3). Vegetation, fl ora and fauna are remarkably diverse, including aquatic, marsh, swamp and meadow com- munities, willow-poplar (soft wood) and oak-ash-elm (hardwood) forests, oak- woods and the forest-steppe vegetation of the sand ridges were all preserved in an almost natural state until diversion of the Danube (Simon, T. et al. 1993; Gergely, A. et al. 2001). River-fl oodplain systems have a special mosaic-like landscape struc- ture. Intensive human use and the alteration of riverine landscapes have led to enormous degradation, especially in highly industrialized countries (Dynesius, M. and Nilsson, C. 1994; Schiemer, F. 1999; Hohensinner, S. et al. 2005). The Photo 1–2. The Gabčikovo (Bős) Hydropower Station (Photos: Kiss, Á.) 11 Fig. 3. Szigetköz at the border between Hungary and Slovakia Photo 3. Dunasziget side-branch system (Photo: Szabó, M.) 12 related problems are recognized by the society and by the governments. Their interest to restore ecosystem functions of regulated and dammed rivers is very signifi cant. That recognition is also emphasized in the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD, 2000). The determining ecological factor of fl oodplains is the cycle of fl ood- ing and drying. The hydro-, morpho-, pedo- and biodynamic processes of natural fl oodplain areas determine the variety of landscape structures and their functions. Landscape changes caused by the Gabčikovo (Bős) Hydropower Station The hydrological regime and the hydro-morphological processes are the most important landscape-forming factors playing an essential role in landscape evolution in Szigetköz. The most important driving forces of river geomor- phology are the volume and the temporal distribution of water supplied from upstream, the sediment volume and character. Local climate (particularly the occurrence of a freezing in winter and an extended dry season) as well as the nature of the riparian ecosystems are also important. The fi rst signifi cant water management interventions directly forming the Szigetköz water system were water regulations in the 19th century. As a consequence of this river engineering, the area of fl oodplain habitats consider- ably decreased (Szabó, M. 2011). The second large eff ect was the construction of Gabčikovo/Bős–Nagymaros Dam in the frame of the Czechoslovakian– Hungarian joint project at the beginning of 1980's. In 1989, due to the increas- ing awareness of the environmental and ecological aspects and the protest against the dam system, the Hungarian Government suspended the project. In October 1992, the Czechoslovak government dammed the Danube at river-km 1,851.75 and diverted it into a 29 km-long canal. Thereaft er, Hungary had no infl uence on discharge into the main Danube channel. As a consequence, the water level of the river reaching Szigetköz between Čunovo (Dunacsún) and Sap (Szap) dropped by 2–3 m within a few days and several side channels of Danube dried out. In the following two years, the fl ow of water practically stopped on the active fl oodplain branches cut off from the main riverbed. At the same time, the surface of point bars emerged in the river bed (Figure 4). Groundwater level and the capillary moisture conditions are essential factors of wetland ecology, and also for agriculture. Groundwater levels mark- edly decreased aft er the diversion and remained so even aft er the construction of the underwater weir in 1995. They stayed under the mean level even aft er the subsidence of the water level of the Danube and the groundwater level by 2.5–3.0 meters in less than a week (Figure 5). The wells in the fi gure are between Dunakiliti and Dunaremete, close to the main Danube channel. 13 Fig. 4. Infrared image of the Danube branch system. 12 June 1990, before the Danube di- version (upper image); 8 September 1993, aft er the diversion (lower image). Aerial colour infrared photos taken at altitude 2,500 m a.s.l. Processed by ARGOS Studio, Budapest Fig 5. Two weekly means of surface (Dunaremete) and groundwater lev- els, wells No. 110719 and No. 110720. Blue line: gauge at Dunaremete; red and green lines: groundwater lev- els in wells No. 110719 and 110720, respectively. Source: Hungarian Hydrological Database 14 This abrupt change had a severe impact on the ecosystems in Szigetköz, especially on fi sh and other aquatic biota, as well as on alluvial forests in the ac- tive fl oodplain and on several habitats of the former fl oodplain. The area of wet- lands and the diversity of ecosystems decreased. In line with that, the area of the degraded, characterless dry grasslands and woodlands increased (Fitzmaurice, J. 1996; Gergely, A. et al. 2001; Jansky, L. et al. 2004; Szabó, M. 2007). Aquatic habitat quality deteriorated considerably at the same time. Figure 6 shows the decline of sand and gravel bars of diff erent succession stages. During the implementation of the Gabčikovo (Bős) Hydropower Station, the remaining point bars in the main channel were turned into permanent soft wood stands. Summarising the abo- ve statements, construction of Gabčikovo (Bős) Hydropower Station had the following con- sequences: Reduced or discon- nected riverine – floodplain interactions. Alteration of hydro- morphological dynamics of the Danube: reduction of bed load transport by upstream dams. Changes of landscape structure and function. Changes of biodiversity because of the extinction of aquatic and wet- land species and because of the habitat’s drying. A number of native wetland species became threatened. Spreading of several non-native invasive species in dry habitats. These are all irreversible landscape changes. Conclusions The investigation on the eff ects of the Gabčikovo (Bős) Hydropower Station was only an example for the complex infl uence of a large energy generating facility on the environment and landscape. In similar cases, the environmental eff ects of power stations should be accompanied by have similar discussions. However, the present energy supply system using fossil fuels up to 80% cannot be maintained not even for the coming decades. Renewable energy sources should have a major role in the future. The methods of renewable energy resources for the production of large amount of energy have grave eff ects on the environment. – – – – – – – Fig. 6. Change of the total area of unvegetated and vegetated sand and gravel bars in hectares. Source: Ijjas, I. et al. 2010 15 The eff ects of these types of power stations on the landscape and on the environment are signifi cant. There will be landscape structure and function changes by using renewable energies causing the degradation of habitats and ecosystems. These prospects must have a strong infl uence on general energy policy and on regional development plans. REFERENCES Boeker, E. and van Grondelle, R. 1999. Environmental Physics. 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