Past and present of large housing estates in Visegrad countries and Armenia
77
Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 62 (1) (2013) 77–82.
Past and present of large housing estates in Visegrad
countries and Armenia
Ágnes ERŐSS1
Abstract
In all Visegrad countries (the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia), as well
as in Armenia, a large proportion of the housing stock consists of blocks of fl ats erected
during the Communist era. Those quarters have become an identical part of the cityscape
inducing intense scientifi c discussion in the fi eld of social sciences including human geog-
raphy addressing such topics as architectural and spatial planning of housing estates, the
analysis of society sett led in those blocks of fl ats or even the psychological eff ects of the
uniform environment on individuals. Following the systemic transformation the possible
rehabilitation of the gradually deteriorating housing stock and environment meant a further
challenge. Although examples from the West European countries provide signifi cant help
and information regarding housing estate rehabilitation, nevertheless due to the diff erent
scale of the problem, the altering history and the embeddedness of the topic, discussion
on regional level is not only promising but necessary at the same time. This paper focuses
on the important questions of large housing estates (LHEs) with special att ention to the
Visegrad countries and Armenia.
Keywords: large housing estates, Visegrad countries, rehabilitation, social environment
Introduction
“Concrete jungle”, “rabbit hatches”, “concrete deserts”, “vertical slums” – only a few
examples of the numerous, not too fl att ering phrases referring to housing estates all
around in the former state-socialist countries. The idea to improve the living condi-
tions of working class by building modern housing estates emerged in the early 20th
century but primarily the severe shortage of dwellings aft er World War II together
with the rapid growth of population and the increasing pace of urbanization made
housing estates a viable and widespread solution off ering home for a great amount
of people in need for a relatively cheap price (Van Kempen, R. et al. eds. 2005, p. 2).
1 Geographical Institute, Research Centre for Astronomy and Earth Sciences, Hungarian
Academy of Sciences. H-1112 Budapest, Budaörsi út 45. E-mail: eross.agnes@csfk .mta.hu
78
Projects like Million Programme in Sweden (Borgegård, L. and Kemeny, J. 2004, p.
37) or state fi nanced house building projects in suburban areas in France were initi-
ated for the similar reason as any other long term housing development plans in the
state-socialist countries.
As a result of those programmes ten thousands of fl ats were constructed
all around in Europe, both sides of the Iron Curtain. As Murie, A. et al. (2005, p. 85)
points out those blocks of fl ats share some common features, namely representing
the most recent, up-to-date notions on residential construction of the era when they
were built, additionally they were fi nanced everywhere by the state, local govern-
ments or non-profi t organizations. Besides the similarities, substantial diff erences
also need to be highlighted.
First of all, in the former state socialist countries the ratio of population
living in large housing estates reaches 40% of urban population. Furthermore, in
certain newly established socialist towns or industrial centres housing estates can
concentrate 60–80% of the population while in the Western European countries typi-
cally less than 10% of the population lives in such blocks of fl ats (Van Kempen, R.
et al. eds. 2005, p. 2).
Secondly, in socialist countries housing estates were att ractive not only to
blue collar workers, but also to middle class families or even representatives of the
socialist elite (Szelényi, I. and Konrád, Gy. 1969). Soon aft er the appearance of pre-
fabricated housing, similar tendency was observed for instance in France (Blanc, M.
and Stébé, J.-M. 2004, p. 105). Decades later the large housing estates built to solve
housing problems of families with low income and other vulnerable groups turned to
be the symbols of the social problems. The spatial concentration of poverty in housing
estates resulted in growing risk of social (in many cases ethnic) segregation (Kemper,
F.-J. 1998) and the decreasing prestige of those quarters (Hastings, A. 2004).
Thirdly, there is a fundamental diff erence between the most Western and
Nordic countries and the former state-socialist states: while the majority of hous-
ing estates are owned by public authorities or cooperatives in the former group of
countries, in the CEE countries the great majority of these dwellings were sold dur-
ing the privatization process on discount price and now they are owned by private
households. As a consequence, the local governments can only implement limited
and rather indirect tools to improve the living conditions of housing estates, while
the condominiums made up by the private owners/tenants usually lack the fund to
carry out signifi cant rehabilitation (Kovács, Z. and Douglas, M. 2004, pp. 243–244;
Wassenberg, F. et al. eds. 2004, p. 24).
Recent developments of housing estate rehabilitation
In the last decade the future perspectives of large housing estates have att ract-
ed growing att ention in the international literature. In the frame of RESTATE
79
EU FP5 project, substantial research was carried out in ten European countries
in order to clarify processes, and identify problems att ached to the decline of
housing estates. As research reports of RESTATE project (Węcławowicz, G.
et al. 2005, etc.) show, the concerns and actual problems demanding research
and policy interventions are similar on both sides of the former Iron Curtain.
Nevertheless, taking into consideration the aforementioned diff erences in so-
cial composition or ownership, the former state-socialist countries in Central
and Eastern Europe face specifi c problems of their owns. In Western Europe
complex rehabilitation programmes have been designed including the mod-
ernization of blocks of fl ats in terms of energy consumption (e.g. insulation),
safety (additional gates), and even, the improvement of connectivity and ac-
cessibility of public services are part of these programmes (Helleman, G.
and Wassenberg, F. 2004). Learning from the failures of earlier rehabilitation
projects where interventions had exclusively either physical or social objec-
tives, nowadays complex projects are implemented addressing both dimen-
sions (Dekker, K. and Rowlands, R. 2005).
In CEE countries housing estates, more or less, managed to maintain
their positions on the housing market and they still represent a fair option for
lower middle-class households and young families with children (Kovács,
Z. and Herfert, G. 2012). Unlike in Western Europe, neither infl ux of immi-
grants (Bonvalet, Ch. et al. 1995) nor massive depopulation aff ected them.
Notwithstanding, following the transformation, housing estates suff ered
from a decline in terms of their market position and reputation while signs
of growing socio-spatial segregation also appeared. One of the most trouble-
some tendencies is the relatively high and growing proportion of trapped and
unsatisfi ed households in comparison to the western examples (Kovács, Z.
and Herfert, G. 2012). Tensions may emerge upon this situation on the hous-
ing market and within the local society. In those cases complex rehabilitation
procedures aimed to infl uence living conditions in blocks of fl ats might help
to mitigate the situation and decrease the tension.
As housing estates compose relatively massive part of local housing
stocks and they bear specifi c characteristics in CEE countries, including the
Visegrad states, a comparative analysis is needed which may off er relevant
data similar to the Western European results. It is worth taking a closer look
at the present situation and the living conditions in LHEs besides evaluating
locally the eff ects of rehabilitation projects carried out in the region. There
have been numerous (mainly state fi nanced) housing estate rehabilitation
programmes completed during the last twenty years, though most of them
focused on the reduction of energy consumption of buildings with central
heating (Bierzyński, A. et al.).
Since the permanent growth of maintenance costs has been perceived
as the biggest downgrading factor, the renewal of insulation, the change of
80
windows and doors, the removal of poisoning asbestos and the external paint-
ing have been the most commonly applied renovation works. If one would like
to evaluate the eff ects of such kind of projects, s/he will fi nd many diffi culties
as even the technical terms applied in the literature and the renovation work
they include shows a great variety. The terms like “revitalization”, “renova-
tion”, “humanization”, “rehabilitation”, “reconstruction” are all commonly
used in policy documents or public discourses but in most cases the actual
meaning of them are dissimilar or overlapping from country to country. The
main question is whether the renovation programmes could improve the
prestige of housing estates (or their positions on the housing market)?
Conclusion
The future of large housing estates remains a challenge both in Western and
Eastern Europe in spite of the changing socio-spatial context and problems.
Due to the fact that one of the most obvious shared legacies of the former
state-socialist countries are the large housing estates that shape the urban
landscapes from Berlin to the Caucasus (and beyond), it is worth taking a
snapshot about current situation of those estates.
With the support of the International Visegrad Fund, in the frame of
HEAS project (Residential Environment in Housing Estates in V4 countries
and Armenia), a group of young researchers made an att empt to evaluate the
present state of selected housing estates with special att ention to the rehabili-
tation of pre-fabricated houses and the residential environment in Budapest,
Bratislava, Katowice, Brno and Yerevan.
The fi rst article writt en by Pavel Šuška and Linda Stasíková off ers a
brief overview about the history of Petržalka in Bratislava, one of the largest
housing estates in the region which manifests some typical problems of LHEs.
From Bratislava we move on to Brno to familiarize with three housing estates
and how they are perceived by local inhabitants. The research conducted by
Ivan Andráško, Pavlína Lesová, Josef Kunc and Petr Tonev point out how dif-
ferent imaginations and opinions can coexist about housing estates: residents
tend to be more satisfi ed with their own neighborhoods which may indicate
the existence of “local patriotism” in housing estates. Additionally, the role
of media in infl uencing peoples’ opinions about residential quarters is also
important to mention.
The three following papers report about the present state of housing
estates taking into account the eff ect of implemented and planned rehabilita-
tions as well. Three housing estates in Katowice are analyzed shortly in Agata
Warchalska-Troll’s paper highlighting, among others, the relation between
the social status of residents and their willingness to take part in rehabilita-
81
tion investments. Balázs Szabó introduces the spatial peculiarities of the re-
habilitation of large housing estates in Budapest, highlighting the tendency
how residents of low status estates perceive rehabilitation as a possible tool
to preserve their position on the real estate market.
In the former Soviet socialist republic, Armenia, due to the immense
political and economic diffi culties of the 1990s, both on the evaluation of the
housing stock and the rehabilitation of large housing estates were delayed.
The author, Tigran Sargsyan calls att ention to one of the interesting fi ndings
of a survey carried out in the framework of HEAS project in Yerevan LHEs:
although the housing estates in Yerevan are in relatively bad conditions, both
in terms of internal (e.g. lack of safety) and external features (e.g. poor con-
dition of greenery) their residents are quite satisfi ed with the blocks of fl ats
they live in.
We do hope that this colorful imaginary journey may contribute to
the bett er understanding of recent issues and processes of housing estates in
Visegrad countries and Armenia.
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/HRV (Za stvaranje Adobe PDF dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. Stvoreni PDF dokumenti mogu se otvoriti Acrobat i Adobe Reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.)
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/NLD (Gebruik deze instellingen om Adobe PDF-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit. De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 5.0 en hoger.)
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/ENU (Use these settings to create Adobe PDF documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing. Created PDF documents can be opened with Acrobat and Adobe Reader 5.0 and later.)
/HUN <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>
>>
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(Common)
(1.0)
]
/OtherNamespaces [
<<
/AsReaderSpreads false
/CropImagesToFrames true
/ErrorControl /WarnAndContinue
/FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false
/IncludeGuidesGrids false
/IncludeNonPrinting false
/IncludeSlug false
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(InDesign)
(4.0)
]
/OmitPlacedBitmaps false
/OmitPlacedEPS false
/OmitPlacedPDF false
/SimulateOverprint /Legacy
>>
<<
/AddBleedMarks false
/AddColorBars false
/AddCropMarks false
/AddPageInfo false
/AddRegMarks false
/ConvertColors /ConvertToCMYK
/DestinationProfileName ()
/DestinationProfileSelector /DocumentCMYK
/Downsample16BitImages true
/FlattenerPreset <<
/PresetSelector /MediumResolution
>>
/FormElements false
/GenerateStructure false
/IncludeBookmarks false
/IncludeHyperlinks false
/IncludeInteractive false
/IncludeLayers false
/IncludeProfiles false
/MultimediaHandling /UseObjectSettings
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(CreativeSuite)
(2.0)
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector /DocumentCMYK
/PreserveEditing true
/UntaggedCMYKHandling /LeaveUntagged
/UntaggedRGBHandling /UseDocumentProfile
/UseDocumentBleed false
>>
]
>> setdistillerparams
<<
/HWResolution [2400 2400]
/PageSize [612.000 792.000]
>> setpagedevice