The Capacity and Potentials of Budapest to Attract Creative Economy


281

Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 58 (4) (2009) pp. 281–294

The capacity and potentials of Budapest to att ract creative 
economy

Egedy, Tamás1–Kovács, Zoltán1

Abstract

The triggering factors of urban development have changed continuously over the past 
decades, always adapting themselves to the processes of globalisation and to the related 
trends. As a consequence of the shift  from the Fordist production system to the post-Fordist 
economic structures the metropolitan regions have acquired an ever growing importance 
and became the centres of economic and social development of countries and regions. 
International experience shows that in economic competition an increasing role is played 
by creativity (and particularly by culture), invention and innovation. Concerning further 
development of the European metropolitan regions it might be decisive how these city-
regions will be able to att ract and integrate fi rms in the sphere of the creative knowledge 
sector and their manpower. Regarding to the new economic development tendencies drawn 
above this paper highlights the capacity and potentials of the Budapest Metropolitan 
Region based on statistical analyses and results of empirical questionnaire surveys and 
in-depth interviews carried out amongst employees, managers and transnational migrants 
working in the creative knowledge sector.

Keywords: creative knowledge sector, innovation, ACRE project, Budapest Metropolitan 
Region, soft  and hard factors, decision on sett lement

Introduction

Creativity, knowledge and innovation are broadly recognised as the essential 
ingredients of economic success in the advanced capitalist world. Naturally, 
they have always been important to economic progress, but their importance 
has never seemed as crucial as in the early 21st century. Creative and knowl-
edge-intensive industries are increasingly seen as the most important eco-
nomic activities for international competitiveness in the advanced capitalist 
world. Still, what exactly makes some city-regions more att ractive locations for 
these industries and their workers is not entirely clear (Scott , A. 2003; Florida, 
R.–Tinagli, 2004; Musterd, S. et al. 2007). 
1 Geographical Research Institute, Hungarian Academy of Sciences. H-1112 Budapest, 

Budaörsi út 45. E-mail: ege6727@mail.iif.hu, zkovacs@helka.iif.hu



282

In October 2006 the ACRE project (Accommodating Creative Knowledge 
– Competitiveness of European Metropolitan Regions within the Enlarged Union) 
fi nanced by FP6 of the European Union was started to improve the empirical 
evidence base of urban regional conditions for creative knowledge. In this 
project the international consortium aims to assess the impact of the emerging 
‘creative class’ and the rise of the ‘creative industries’ on the competitiveness 
of EU metropolitan regions. The project compares the recent socio-economic 
development trends and economic development strategies in 13 metropolitan 
regions across Europe to get more insight in the extent to which creativity, 
knowledge and innovation are indeed the keys to a successful long-term eco-
nomic development (Fig. 1). 

The central research questions that the project wants to address are: 
What are the conditions for creating or stimulating ‘creative knowledge re-
gions’ in the context of the extended European Union? More particularly, 
what is the role of so-called ‘soft ’ factors in creating and stimulating ‘creative 
knowledge regions’? The most important topic to consider is which metropoli-
tan regions might develop as ‘creative knowledge regions’, and which regions 
might not (Chapain, C. et al. 2009). 

Figure 1. Participants of ACRE project



283

The project is based on empirical research carried out in the partner 
cities. These empirical studies in the framework of ACRE project could be 
subdivided into three stages. In the fi rst stage a quantitative questionnaire 
survey (200 questionnaires in each metropolitan region) was carried out to 
investigate the opinion of highly skilled graduates and workers in creative and 
knowledge-intensive industries about their living and working conditions and 
to explore the role that both ‘hard’ and ‘soft ’ location factors play in decisions 
taken by workers and graduates to live in a particular location in the region. 
In the second stage qualitative in-depth interviews (25 interviews in each city) 
were conducted with leaders, managers of fi rms to understand the drivers 
behind the decisions of the managers of selected knowledge-intensive and 
creative sub-sectors to sett le at a certain location in the metropolitan region and 
to estimate the relative importance of the location factors that played a role in 
their decision making process. The third stage also comprises in-depth inter-
viewing of international migrants actively working in the creative knowledge 
sector (25 interviews in each city). The object of this phase of the survey was to 
recognise and to investigate the drivers behind the decisions of expats to sett le 
at a certain location and at the same time to estimate the relative importance 
of the location factors that played a role in their decision. 

Based on the empirical survey and interviews comparative analyses 
will be provided on the metropolitan level of Europe. The present paper sum-
marises the most relevant results of local analyses carried out in the Budapest 
Metropolitan Region (BMR).

The role of creative economy in Budapest

The economic output of the Budapest Metropolitan Region has always been 
dominant within Hungary. Nowadays the BMR is the economically most 
advanced region of the country. In 2004 44.5% of the GDP was produced in 
the Central Hungarian Region and 35% in Budapest itself. In terms of output 
and employment the top fi ve branches are: chemical industry, machinery, food 
processing, woodworking and publishing. Within services the fi nancial sector 
has been developing most intensely, other innovative economic branches in 
Budapest are info-communication technologies, life sciences (medicine pro-
duction, biotechnology and nanotechnology), creative industries and cultural 
economy (Egedy, Z.–Kovács, Z. 2008). 

According to the defi nition of ACRE consortium on creative economy 
at the end of 2004 there were 264 thousand active economic organisations in 
Hungary operating in the fi eld of creative industries and knowledge-intensive in-
dustries, which made up 36.4% of the active economic organisations registered 
in the country. Within the creative knowledge sector the proportion of creative 



284

industries was 57% with 150,331 organisations, whereas the knowledge-inten-
sive industries represented 43%. Within the knowledge-intensive industries 
the weight of law and other business services was outstanding with 70,115 
active economic organisations (62% of the fi rms within the sector).

It is also important to analyse the relative weight of economic organisa-
tions of the creative knowledge sector within the local economy. Firms in the 
creative knowledge sector make up 44% of the active economic organisations 
registered in the BMR and 46.1% in Budapest proper. Within the creative 
knowledge sector the weight of BMR is outstanding in the fi elds of ICT (53.6%), 
R&D and higher education (52.4%). According to Table 1. BMR and Budapest 
play an outstanding role in Hungary both with respect to employment and 
revenues; with 39.1% of all employees working and 53.2% of the revenues 
realised here in 2004. As a general trend it can be stated that the weight of 
BMR in the creative knowledge sector is even higher. The greatest extremes 
could be found in fi nances, only 27.4% of fi rms in this branch are located in 
the BMR, nevertheless 66.5% of employees are working here, and 91% of total 
revenues are realised here. 

Examining the agglomeration zone we can also discover signifi cant 
diff erences as far as the distribution of creative fi rms is concerned. Within the 
agglomeration the relative weight of fi rms operating in the creative knowledge 
sector is the highest in the north-western sector of Buda (41.8%), and the lowest 
in the south-eastern sector of Pest (30.2%). The highest proportions of creative 
fi rms are registered in the sett lements of the north-western sector (Csobánka 
52.1%, Nagykovácsi 49.9%, Telki 48.1% and Budakeszi 47.9%), on the other 
hand the lowest fi gures can be found in the south and south-east (Alsónémedi 
23.3%, Ócsa 23.4%).

Also essential geographical differences can be detected within 
Budapest. Districts of the Buda side show up higher proportions with re-
gards to the relative share of creative fi rms (12th District 55.3%, 1st District 
54.2%, 2nd District 54.0% whereas the number and share of creative knowl-
edge sector is generally lower in the south-eastern districts of the Pest side 
(Fig. 2). 

Table 1. The importance of BMR in the creative knowledge sector in Hungary (%)
Industries Enterprises Employees Revenues

Creative industries
ICT
Finances
Law and business
R&D, higher education
Creative knowledge sector
Total

43.3
53.6
27.4
41.9
52.4
42.3
35.0

44.8
46.7
66.5
53.0
48.7
49.0
39.1

62.3
43.1
91.2
66.6
77.5
58.4
53.2



285

Budapest as a living space for creative employees

Data of the 2001 national census reveal the main features of spatial distribu-
tion of labour force in the creative knowledge sector in Hungary and in the 
Budapest Metropolitan Region. To the most important group of occupations, 
where the role of BMR is outstanding, belongs the category ‘market research, 
advertising and marketing’. Two-thirds of the 14 thousand employees working 
in this fi eld in Hungary live in the BMR and 73% of them work here (Fig. 3). 

BMR has equally high shares in art (9,000 employees) and performing 
arts (6,000 employees), 72% and 68% of people working in these sectors in 
Hungary live and work in the BMR (Figs 5 and 6). There were 3,000 journalists 
and editors in the publishing sector in Hungary in 2001, 74% of them lived in 
the BMR. In addition to these occupations the share of BMR is also high in the 
electronic media (Radio and TV). We should also note that in all sectors of the 
creative industries a major part (from 57% to 68%) of the high rank managers 
and professionals live and work in the BMR.

Figure 2. The ratio of creative and knowledge-intensive enterprises in the BMR. Source: 
                                                              CSO Hungary, 2004



286

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Budapest in view of creative professionals

Aft er our results became evaluated it had become clearly established that in 
the course of the analyses of the hard, soft  and personal factors distinction has 
to be made between the macro (global) and micro (local) levels. Macro level 
is meant to be the general motivations of the interviewee to come and stay in 
Budapest and/or BMR whereas micro level encompass factors having been 
decisive for the choice of the place of residence and site selection within the 
metropolitan region.

Motivations to come to Budapest

Our investigations have shown that the resett lement of creatives as interna-
tional migrants from abroad to Hungary and Budapest had been primarily 
determined by hard factors: the main trigger was the intention either to un-
dertake work or to pursue studies in higher education. In this respect no particu-
lar diff erence could be identifi ed between the members of the creative and 
knowledge-intensive groups.

Similar to the international migrants, Hungarian employees predomi-
nantly came to Budapest in order to undertake jobs. As a motivation factor of 
a nearly similar importance, another goal was to pursue studies in higher edu-
cation (in colleges or universities). When founding a fi rm market conditions 
was the foremost consideration: Budapest represents an enormous economic 
potential relative to that of the whole country and this exert a great att raction 
upon the economic units. Creative fi rms sett led in the BMR are primarily due 
to the size of the market and of labour market. A high number of entrepreneurships 
and a well trained manpower is not a negligible factor of site selection either. 
The moving in of the creative fi rms and sett ling down of the managers are 
mainly determined by hard factors as well. Another motivation factor already 
belongs to the soft  ones: according to the unanimous opinion of the managers, 
informal links play a decisive part in Hungarian economy therefore enterprises 
might profi t a lot from their presence in the capital. Moreover here they have 
an access to legal, fi nancial, commercial, logistic services of high standard.

Summing up our achievements of the analyses performed on the 
macro level it can be stated that workers and graduates employed in creative 
economy, managers and enterprises, and transnational migrants arriving in 
Hungary and Budapest are att racted by the economic advantages off ered by 
the BMR: employees favour job opportunities of broad range and undertake 
diff erent kinds of labour as employers do for the same reason, notably by the 
favourable labour market conditions. For the latt er the large market (enterprises, 
clients) is part of the strongest att ractions. The second greatest att raction is the 



288

use of education and training, being important because 
sett ling down is a general trend, so higher education of 
prominent quality raises the economic potential of the 
BMR. The third is the personal and soft  factors chang-
ing by target groups when transnational migrants take 
decisions on an emotional basis (they followed their 
partner, or the metropolis appealed to them), while the 
managers tend to consider economic factors (e.g. infor-
mal links, availability of services). It can be stated that 
motivation and att raction factors on the macro level for 
the creative and knowledge-intensive professionals do 
not diff er from those for the people employed in the 
other sectors of the economy.

Why to stay and sett le down in Budapest?

Based on the micro level analyses no diff erences could 
be recognised as to the factors decisive for the sett ling 
down of professionals working in creative vs knowl-
edge-intensive sectors. The most important motivation 
factors are the cost of dwelling, the size of the residence 
and proximity to public transport as hard factors (Table 2). 
They are not only att racting but also retaining factors 
i.e. they are determinant for moving of the creatives 
to a certain neighbourhood but also for their staying 
there longer.

Following the above determinant hard factors 
several soft  factors are to be considered before deci-
sion is made. Of them the quality and atmosphere of the 
neighbourhood is to be mentioned in the fi rst place. In the 
scale of values this was mentioned by the employees as 
a factor examined just aft er dwelling and public trans-
port. Proximity to the place of work was referred to as 
a pull factor by the creatives, whereas high traffi  c and 
noise pollution evaluated as a push factor. For a longer 
perspective personal safety and public security, access to 
commercial facilities and the quality of life off ered by 
the neighbourhood that are primary retaining factors. 

From the analyses of cross-tables on the choice 
of residence the conclusion can be drawn that young 
people tend to make their choice along the hard factors 

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289

(in pursuit of studies in Budapest, seeking for job), whereas soft  factors (e.g. 
proximity to natural environment) appear as preference for the middle-age 
and older generations.

The employers and managers primarily consider hard factors in the 
course of site selection. The leading aspects are the price of offi  ce, the size and 
infrastructure of offi  ce, further the accessibility i.e. connection both to traffi  c lines 
and public transport. For certain creative fi rms the presence in Budapest is im-
portant because it is a prerequisite to applying for subsidies and allowances. 
An accentuated importance has the place of residence of the managerial strata 
(in inverse ratio to the size of the fi rm) which also emerges in the process of 
choosing the site of the fi rm’s headquarters. Soft  factors come to the fore in 
the second round, especially the offi  ce’s neighbourhood: the managers of 
creative fi rms favour prestige aspects, whereas those of knowledge-intensive 
enterprises prefer the quiet and calm surroundings. Among the soft  factors 
informal links and good services are equally att racting factors (macro level) and 
retaining factors (micro level) for the creative fi rms. There is no doubt that 
personal trajectories have some part to play in the decision making process 
concerning sett lement: family and friends can play both of these roles.

Strengths and weaknesses of the Budapest Metropolitan Region

Summarising the results on the strengths of Budapest three groups of location 
factors were judged equally and very positively in each of the three target 
groups: a) Job off ers and career opportunities; b) Cultural life and leisure, 
sport and entertainment opportunities; c) Services, retailing and shopping 
networks and gastronomy. The fi rst group belongs to the hard factors, whereas 
the second and third categories can be evaluated as soft  factors. 

Apart from the above mentioned groups there are factors that have 
less importance but strengthen the position of Budapest. The capital is an 
undisputed leader in the country’s higher education, and the level of training 
is highly appreciated among specialists from Hungary and abroad.

Job and career opportunities are strong att ractions of the BMR. They 
are supported with favourable working conditions: by the Hungarian and 
foreign employees the enterprises and institutions as a rule provide more 
sophisticated working facilities than their counterparts in the countryside.

The issue of subsidies and allowances belong to the hard factors. It 
is well known that there exists an extensive social network in Hungary, i.e. a 
system of state subsidies and social allowances, involving high expenditures 
thus imposing a heavy burden upon the economic performance of the coun-
try, which extend beyond its capability. It is not accidental that the respond-
ents (chiefl y transnational migrants and managerial strata) based on fi nancial 



290

considerations of their own, highly appreciated this system of subsidies and 
allowances (Egedy, T. et al. 2009).

Residential environment is also to be mentioned among the soft  fac-
tors; it means that most diverse quarters of high standards and quality are 
evaluated as the strong points of Budapest. This great variety of the neighbour-
hoods is ready to meet the demands of all social strata. Of the soft  factors there 
are two advantages of the BMR: a fi ne geographical sett ing which is praised 
especially by the transnational migrants and managers and the cultural milieu 
typical of the city. The latt er is closely related with a rich choice of cultural 
programmes (Table 3).

There are few hard and soft  factors that should be mentioned among 
the weaknesses of Budapest. The former is the Hungarian system of taxation 
judged very negatively both by the employers and transnational migrants. 
Although there were att empts to reform the system in the recent years, these 
have proven to be unsuccessful or ineffi  cient. Therefore Budapest is in a loser 
position in the economic competition because tax bands and high tax payments 
appear as push factors: they curb the infl ow and sett lement of professionals 
and fi rms. There are four further factors that weaken Budapest’s position in 
the domestic and international competition of cities even though to a lesser 
extent than those two mentioned above. Of the hard factors high living costs 
should be referred to. All the three target groups expressed their view that 
price of living and especially everyday expenses are very high in comparison 
with the level of income. Other weak points of Budapest are the lack of toler-
ance and acceptance of diversity and the missing openness. A surprisingly 
high level of intolerance (contrary to all expectations) in most places of the 
BMR was one of the fi ndings of previous surveys. In relation with this issue 
employees hold that solidarity, social cohesion and equity are problematic, 
not only in the BMR but all over Hungary. A closely related question is that in 
the opinion of the respondents there is a very low level of the political culture 
in Hungary, and the situation is further corroborated by an overwhelming 
over-administration and bureaucracy. 

Among the negative soft  factors the indicators typical of big cities: 
pollution, uncleanness and noise are oft en referred to. High traffi  c and the 
noise generated add to the deterioration of quality of life. The uncleanness and 
neglected state of the districts, quarters and streets complained about by the re-
spondents can be att ributed to an inferior level of environmental consciousness 
among the local population. It is not surprising in this sense that almost half of 
the respondents from both investigated sectors voiced their stance about the 
deteriorating quality of life in Budapest over the past years (Fig. 4). 

A bulk of hard and soft  factors can be observed which exert a negative 
impact upon the quality of life and satisfaction of people in the BMR being 
also decisive for the further development of the Hungarian capital and its 



291

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292

international competitiveness in the long run (Table 4). If proper measures 
are taken for the amelioration of the environmental factors, Budapest and the 
BMR could be successful in att racting fi rms and experts of the creative and 
knowledge-based sector to sett le here. In the opposite case the city region 
might become a loser in the competition between the big cities and its place 
would occupy other metropolises with similar potentials from the region 
(Egedy, T.–Kovács, Z. 2009).

Table 4. Limiting factors within the BMR based on the opinion of creative professionals

Factors Type of factor
Costs of living (prices, level of wages and salaries)
Traffi  c and public transport
Cleanness of the city and living environment
Air and noise pollution
Intolerance, aggressiveness
Homelessness, poverty, social polarization
Politics, political culture
Quantity and quality of green space
Living standards, quality of life
Public security
State of building stock and public places

hard
hard
soft 
soft 
soft 
soft 
soft 
hard
soft 
soft 
hard

Figure 4. Perception of improvement or decline in the quality of life 



293

Conclusions

Aft er 2000 the Budapest Metropolitan Region managed to keep its leading 
position in the economic development and modernisation of the country in 
most respects. It serves as gateway for innovation and modern technologies, 
and national centre of most creative activities. The BMR has an outstanding 
role in the creative knowledge sector of Hungary and in all the branches of 
the sector the role of Budapest is predominant. BMR is over-represented in 
terms of the number and ratio of these fi rms, as well as the employees in fi rms 
of creative and knowledge-intensive industries and the revenues generated 
by this sector. The development of these industries in provincial cities now 
is somewhat lagging behind that of the capital but their gradual close up is 
indicative of positive shift s and promising for the future.

Summarising the results on location factors it can be stated, that highly 
qualifi ed people employed in the creative knowledge sector in the Budapest 
Metropolitan Region in the course of decisions about their place of residence 
tend to take into account both hard and soft  factors, but in general the hard 
ones are more infl uential. According to the opinions expressed by managers 
no rules of general validity can be established concerning site selection of the 
enterprises within the area of the BMR, because there are signifi cant diff er-
ences between the creative and knowledge-intensive sub-sectors and branches, 
depending on the size and age of the studied fi rms. As a general conclusion it 
can be stated that the sett lement and site selection of the fi rms is aff ected by 
hard factors predominantly and soft  factors currently play only a marginal 
role in att racting enterprises and managers towards Budapest. Based on our 
interviews it became clear that hard factors play an important role rather in 
att racting creative transnational migrants to the city, while soft  factors are deci-
sive in the decision about staying in the metropolitan region in the long run.

Since workers and highly qualifi ed representatives of the creative 
knowledge sector as it was revealed by our survey were more satisfi ed with 
the soft  factors of the city than with the hard ones, in Budapest it would be 
essential to improve the hard location factors in the near future.



294

REFERENCES

Chapain, C.–Collinge, C.–Lee, P.–Musterd, S. (eds) 2009. Can we plan the creative knowl-
edge city? – Built Environment, 35. 2. 292 p.

Egedy, T.–Földi, Zs.–Balogi, A.–Kovács, Z. 2009 Budapest in the eyes of creative 
foreigners – The view of transnational migrants. – ACRE Report 7.4, AMIDSt, 
University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, 132 p.

Egedy, T.–Kovács, Z. 2008. The creative knowledge sector in the Budapest Metropolitan 
Region – In: Kertész, Á.–Kovács, Z. (eds): Dimensions and trends in Hungarian 
Geography. Studies in Geography in Hungary 33. Geographical Research Institute, 
Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest. pp. 149-167.

Egedy, T.–Kovács, Z. 2009. The potentials of Budapest to att ract creativity – The views of 
high-skilled employees, managers and transnational migrants. – ACRE Report 7.4, 
AMIDSt, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, 57 p.

Florida, R.–Tinagli, I. 2004. Europe in the creative age. – Demos, London.
Musterd, S.–Bontje, M.–Chapain, C.–Kovács, Z.–Murie, A. 2007. Accommodating crea-

tive knowledge – A literature review from a European perspective. ACRE Report 1, 
AMIDSt, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, 42 p.

Scott, A. 2001. Global City-Regions: Trends, Theory, Policy. – Oxford University Press, 
Oxford.

















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    /NLD (Gebruik deze instellingen om Adobe PDF-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit. De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 5.0 en hoger.)
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    /ENU (Use these settings to create Adobe PDF documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing.  Created PDF documents can be opened with Acrobat and Adobe Reader 5.0 and later.)
  >>
  /Namespace [
    (Adobe)
    (Common)
    (1.0)
  ]
  /OtherNamespaces [
    <<
      /AsReaderSpreads false
      /CropImagesToFrames true
      /ErrorControl /WarnAndContinue
      /FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false
      /IncludeGuidesGrids false
      /IncludeNonPrinting false
      /IncludeSlug false
      /Namespace [
        (Adobe)
        (InDesign)
        (4.0)
      ]
      /OmitPlacedBitmaps false
      /OmitPlacedEPS false
      /OmitPlacedPDF false
      /SimulateOverprint /Legacy
    >>
    <<
      /AddBleedMarks false
      /AddColorBars false
      /AddCropMarks false
      /AddPageInfo false
      /AddRegMarks false
      /ConvertColors /ConvertToCMYK
      /DestinationProfileName ()
      /DestinationProfileSelector /DocumentCMYK
      /Downsample16BitImages true
      /FlattenerPreset <<
        /PresetSelector /MediumResolution
      >>
      /FormElements false
      /GenerateStructure false
      /IncludeBookmarks false
      /IncludeHyperlinks false
      /IncludeInteractive false
      /IncludeLayers false
      /IncludeProfiles false
      /MultimediaHandling /UseObjectSettings
      /Namespace [
        (Adobe)
        (CreativeSuite)
        (2.0)
      ]
      /PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector /DocumentCMYK
      /PreserveEditing true
      /UntaggedCMYKHandling /LeaveUntagged
      /UntaggedRGBHandling /UseDocumentProfile
      /UseDocumentBleed false
    >>
  ]
>> setdistillerparams
<<
  /HWResolution [2400 2400]
  /PageSize [612.000 792.000]
>> setpagedevice