International student mobility to non-traditional destination countries: evidence from a host country 133Apsite-Berina, E. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 72 (2023) (2) 133–146.DOI: 10.15201/hungeobull.72.2.3 Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 72 2023 (2) 133–146. Introduction Since the early 1990s, Latvia has experienced high levels of emigration. At the same time, the most recent dynamics reveal net migra- tion close to zero and an increasing propor- tion of the emergent immigrant populations originating from non-European countries. The globalisation and internationalisation of higher education and international student mobility are key drivers for a significant portion of recent immigration. Internation- al student mobility (ISM) has raised public awareness of various topics in recent decades, such as the export of higher education, high- skilled migration, global talent. Attracting po- tential residents is crucial from the perspec- tive of the receiving nations. This is especially appealing to nations experiencing negative demographic changes. The degree to which a migrant can integrate into the different local systems will also determine how much of an impact they have on their local community. A significant portion of migration research is influenced by the neoclassical viewpoint, which posits that push and pull factors are crucial in shaping student decisions regard- ing international student mobility (ISM) (Raghuram, P. 2013). The neoclassical per- spective suggests that students are driven to International student mobility to non-traditional destination countries: evidence from a host country Elina APSITE-BERINA1, Liga Daniela ROBATE1, Maris BERZINS1, Girts BURGMANIS1 and Zaiga KRISJANE1 Abstract Since the early 1990s, Latvia has experienced high levels of emigration. Still, current dynamics show that net migration has nearly ceased and that a growing share of new immigrant populations are from non-European countries. One of the leading causes of a sizable share of recent immigration is the globalisation of higher edu- cation and the mobility of international students. However, in recent decades, international student mobility (ISM) has brought attention to various aspects of higher education, educational export, and migration trends. This has captured the interest of academics and practitioners worldwide. Receiving countries recognise the importance of attracting international students as potential residents, especially as they undergo unfavourable demographic changes. The paper aims to present empirical evidence on ISM in Latvia by assessing international student daily life and study experiences. The focus is on examining the perspective of a host country. The study utilises statistical data, survey data and a case study of the University of Latvia to analyse the link between the origin of the student and their choosing Latvia as a non-traditional destination for quality higher education. The findings indicate that Latvia is an attractive destination for young migrants from diverse geographies, including Europe and Southeast Asia and consistent flows of students from former Soviet countries. One of the main factors that draw international students to Latvia is the affordability of education offered in English, providing a “second chance” for achieving success and specific clusters of degree students from European countries studying medicine. Keywords: international student mobility, mobile students, destination choice, Latvia Received January 2023, accepted June 2023. 1 University of Latvia, Department of Human Geography. Jelgavas iela 1, Riga, Latvia, LV–1004. Corresponding authors’ e-mail: elina.apsite-berina@lu.lv Apsite-Berina, E. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 72 (2023) (2) 133–146.134 study abroad due to the push factors in their home countries, such as limited educational opportunities or economic challenges, as well as the pull factors of better educational prospects and improved living conditions in the destination country (Raghuram, P. 2013). While analysing push and pull factors has a legitimate role in understanding student mobility, it is vital to approach it cautiously. Wells, A. highlights the need to handle push and pull factors in ISM research carefully. Cultural, social, and personal aspects can also significantly influence student deci- sions, and an exclusive focus on economic and educational factors may oversimplify the complexity of student mobility choices (Wells, A. 2014). According to institutionally centred analyt- ical frameworks, university systems and oth- er institutions of higher learning have a sig- nificant role in influencing and securing stu- dent mobility. Available conceptual frame- works frequently consider how a person decides to pursue higher education abroad, their reasons for doing so, and their expe- riences as international students (Findlay, A.M. 2011; Van Mol, C. and Timmerman, C. 2013; Findlay, A. et al. 2018). Examining how universities attract international stu- dents, provide resources and support ser- vices, and offer educational programmes that appeal to international students are examples (Findlay, A.M. 2011; Van Mol, C. and Timmerman, C. 2013). Overall, student mobility abroad can give them worthwhile experiences and long-term advantages. As a result, institutions must value student mobil- ity and help individuals who want to take advantage of overseas study opportunities. All factors are the desire to go abroad, learn a new culture, and improve language abilities. The desire to receive an outstanding education, increased employment chances, and the availability of more courses are all ex- amples of pull forces. After deciding to study abroad, the student should consider the cho- sen location’s numerous aspects, including the cost of living, the ease of obtaining a visa, the standard of instruction, and safety. In the decision-making process, both student-centred and institution-centred ap- proach is vital. The decision-making pro- cess, motives, and experiences of the person as an overseas student are considered from a student-centred approach. After carefully considering these elements, the student can choose particular options, such as a univer- sity and course. Students are attracted to study abroad by external forces from their home countries (Mazzarol, T. and Soutar, G. 2002). Greater educational possibilities and quality com- pared to their home country, a better oppor- tunity to learn a foreign language, the desire to live abroad and experience a new culture, access to better work chances, and exposure to other cultures is the main draw factors for international students. The reputation and acceptance of a nation on the global stage, as well as the accessibility of social services and support for students, are other factors that drive students to a foreign country. With this experience, students may have a rare chance to explore a foreign culture, expand their worldwide network, and gain an essential global perspective while studying abroad (Lulle, A. and Buzinska, L. 2017). Studying abroad can be an excellent opportunity to gain new skills and experiences, however, it is vital to consider the financial, cultural and emotional costs of studying abroad. Global citizenship and enhanced cross-cultural un- derstanding are only two of the countless ad- vantages of international student mobility. Additionally, mobile students are exposed to many educational techniques and have access to beneficial resources and research opportunities, so they are more likely to succeed academically (Bryła, P. 2019). More student mobility can result in better person- al growth since it exposes students to other cultures, helps them establish friends, and boosts their confidence (Rye, S.A. 2014). The cost of studying abroad, which in- cludes tuition fees, housing costs, and living expenditures, must be considered by stu- dents. Exchange rates and foreign money might increase studying abroad costs (Lulle, 135Apsite-Berina, E. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 72 (2023) (2) 133–146. A. and Buzinska, L. 2017). This might be a significant barrier for students who need more resources to pay for the expenses of studying abroad. Language and cultural difficulties can also be significant obstacles for overseas students. Getting used to new languages, cultures, and surroundings can be challenging (Lulle, A. and Buzinska, L. 2017). The emotional cost of studying abroad and any stress from being so distant from home must also be considered. The paper aims to present empirical evi- dence on ISM in Latvia by assessing inter- national student daily life and study experi- ences. The paper’s first section reviews recent literature on ISM by outlining the theoretical framework, followed by current ISM dynam- ics in Latvia. The result section outlines the de- cision-making preferences of Latvia as a study destination in Europe among geographically various student groups. Finally, it exemplifies the case study of the University of Latvia. Literature review Most studies on international student mobil- ity (ISM) have predominantly used quantita- tive methods to explore its drivers and im- pacts. However, recent research has started to employ qualitative methods to uncover the complexities of student mobility, such as the lived experiences of international stu- dents and the development of transnational networks (Findlay, A.M. et al. 2012). The research on ISM has identified various push and pull factors, including personal, so- cietal, and economic influences on the deci- sion to pursue a degree overseas. Previous studies have emphasised the role of institu- tional and political policies in shaping the internationalisation of higher education and the potential effects of ISM on sending and receiving nations. Yang, P. (2022) highlights the importance of these factors. The perspec- tives of different organisations, institutions, and individuals involved in the institutional structure of ISM have made it challenging for academics and policymakers to under- stand student mobility. Wells, A. (2014) and Gümüş, S. et al. (2020) discuss the difficulties arising from these diverse perspectives. The push and pull theory help to under- stand study abroad decisions by considering socioeconomic, cultural, and political envi- ronments in both the home and destination countries. The social-demand theory em- phasises push factors like escaping poverty and violence and seeking better educational opportunities. In contrast, the supply-side theory focuses on pull factors like the quality of host institutions, research facilities, and the chance to gain international exposure and experience. Cultural considerations, such as the desire for cultural exchange and language acquisition, also influence the deci- sion to study abroad (Findlay, A.M. 2011). Regarding individual and broader societal factors, Findlay, A.M. (2011) presents a com- prehensive methodology for comprehend- ing the complexities of international student mobility. This approach has been applied in numerous empirical investigations, prov- ing valuable in understanding international students’ diverse motivations and decisions (Jiani, M.A. 2017). Li, M. and Bray, M. (2007) further explore the concept of “reverse push and pull vari- ables”, which suggests that students engaged in internationalisation may experience a form of “push” from their home countries. Examples of such variables include pressure from family or friends to return home and a lack of support while travelling abroad. Despite the attractive factors of the host country, these variables can induce feelings of homesickness and increase the likelihood of students returning to their home countries. Consequently, it is imperative to consider both push and pull factors when attempting to comprehend the motivations and experi- ences of international students (Wells, A. 2014). Pull factors predominantly revolve around the favourable aspects of a destina- tion, such as its academic prestige or quality of life. Examples of pull factors in interna- tional student migration include the oppor- tunity to pursue higher education overseas, Apsite-Berina, E. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 72 (2023) (2) 133–146.136 access to a superior educational system, em- ployment prospects, and exposure to a dif- ferent culture and language. Pull factors are associated with the desir- ability of the host country (Mazzarol, T. and Soutar, G. 2002). The primary pull factors encompass the quality of higher education, the potential for enhanced employment pros- pects, the opportunity to acquire valuable skills and knowledge, the potential for higher salaries, and the experience of residing in a novel cultural setting. Studying abroad af- fords individuals access to esteemed univer- sities and advanced research facilities, a more diverse student population, and other oppor- tunities unavailable to those who remain in their home country. Furthermore, it allows students to develop a global perspective, ac- quire proficiency in a second language, and immerse themselves in a new culture (Reddy, J.K. et al. 2017). On the other hand, push factors entail lim- ited employment opportunities, insufficient access to education, inadequate infrastruc- ture, and political instability. Other push fac- tors may encompass the aspiration to evade oppressive social and political systems or to seek economic prospects abroad. In recent years, scholarly investigations concerning in- ternational student migration have advanced to encompass a more nuanced comprehen- sion of the phenomenon, acknowledging the intricate interplay between push and pull factors. Research has revealed that migra- tion motivations often originate from mul- tiple sources and are influenced by various individual, social, and economic factors. The choice of destination is a complex decision involving multiple considerations, including potential educational opportuni- ties, economic and social considerations, cost of living, social connections, and geograph- ic proximity (Findlay, A.M. 2011; Hu, C. et al. 2016; Jiani, M.A. 2017; Findlay, A. et al. 2018). Access to quality education, economic security, and availability of social networks are among the key factors influencing desti- nation choice (Hu, C. et al. 2016). Cost of liv- ing, language proficiency, and cultural famil- iarity are essential considerations (Findlay, A.M. 2011). Geographic proximity may also play a role in destination choice, as individu- als may be more likely to select destinations close to home or that share similar cultural backgrounds (Jiani, M.A. 2017). Ultimately, the choice of destination is a highly individu- alised decision based on various factors and considerations. When looking at internation- al student destinations, it is also important to consider how this migration affects local urban change. With the increasing number of international students, the ongoing mod- ernization of higher education infrastructure, and the expansion of university campuses, additional research should focus on phenom- ena such as studentification. The manifesta- tions and spatial patterns of studentification in Central and Eastern European cities have not been extensively studied (see, for exam- ple, Fabula, Sz. et al. 2017). Furthermore, the desired lifestyle and cultural environment also play a significant role in decision-making. Other factors, such as cultural and language barriers, immigra- tion policies, and safety considerations, also influence the choice of destination. Finally, the decision to migrate is often influenced by personal and family networks. For exam- ple, family members or friends who have al- ready migrated to a particular country may provide helpful information and assistance in the decision-making process. A migrant network in a foreign country can also act as an incentive to migrate, providing a sense of social support and familiarity in the new environment (Lu, Z. et al. 2019). Studying abroad can be a rewarding expe- rience, but it is vital to consider the financial, practical, and emotional implications before deciding to study abroad. Studying abroad can also be expensive and difficult to manage financially (Lulle, A. and Buzinska, L. 2017). While financial support from family and per- sonal savings is a primary source of fund- ing for study abroad, students are increas- ingly opting for scholarships, student loans and work placements to fund their studies (Findlay, A.M. et al. 2012; Riaño, Y. et al. 2018). 137Apsite-Berina, E. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 72 (2023) (2) 133–146. In addition to the economic and social bene- fits, youth mobility also has a positive effect on the development of individuals, as it provides them with the opportunity to learn new skills, develop their knowledge and gain new per- spectives (Baird, S. et al. 2021). Another ben- efit of studying abroad is the opportunity to experience different cultures, which can ben- efit the student personally and professionally. Studying abroad also allows students to learn from different educational systems, which can lead to better academic success. Additionally, it allows students to gain a global perspective, learn a second language, and experience a new culture (Reddy, J.K. et al. 2017). Furthermore, it allows young adults to make international friends, discover new cultures, and develop a global outlook (Kanungo, S. 2015). As a result, youth mo- bility can be beneficial in terms of personal development and social and cultural enrich- ment (Baird, S. et al. 2021). International students are also attracted to universities abroad because of the cultural diversity, the opportunity to learn a new language, and the chance to experience a different culture and way of life. This is especially true for students from non-Western countries who are eager to explore different cultures and lifestyles (Doerr, N.M. 2013). One of the primary motivations for youth mobility is the pursuit of economic growth, career opportunities and better education abroad (Baird, S. et al. 2021). The competi- tion in the job market has also driven stu- dents to pursue higher education abroad to get better job opportunities (Brown, P. 2013). Additionally, studying abroad can help students become more independent, resourceful and confident in their abilities, which can benefit their future career pros- pects (Holloway, S.L. et al. 2012). In addi- tion, young adults are more likely to take risks and explore the world beyond the borders of their homelands (Kanungo, S. 2015). Moreover, young adults often study abroad to gain new experiences. However, abroad students may experience homesick- ness, loneliness, and culture shock (Reddy, J.K. et al. 2017) even before external shocks such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, the main drivers of youth mobility are the desire for better job opportunities, the desire to explore different cultures and the need for self-development (Kanungo, S. 2015). During the COVID-19 pandemic, inter- national students were heavily affected in terms of mental state, social situation, finan- cial situation, academic achievement, and learning (Gallagher, H.L. 2020; Yang, P. 2022). Students were forced to switch to dis- tance learning when schools and institutions closed, and many took a gap year or their ex- aminations online. The added hardship of re- turning home, frequently with little assurance of being able to do so, was encountered by international students (Elmer, T. et al. 2020). The pandemic has impacted international students’ mobility and access to education in ways that are still developing and will persist for some time. Nevertheless, higher educa- tion institutions have met the challenge by developing strategies and programs to aid international students in adjusting to the new reality (Sahu, P. 2020). In order to give in- ternational students a forum to interact with peers, obtain resources and assistance, and share their experiences, several universities have developed online communities for them. Additionally, several universities have es- tablished academic and non-academic sup- port services for international students, in- cluding online counselling, language lessons, and workshops on anything from cultural acculturation to job-hunting tactics. These programs show how higher education in- stitutions are dedicated to helping overseas students and actively assisting in their adap- tation and integration. To aid international students in maintaining connections with one another and their host countries while receiving practical support, several universi- ties have also planned virtual activities, in- cluding cultural celebrations, music perfor- mances, and debating groups. Universities will continue to be essential to effectively integrate international students as the globe slowly recovers from the pandemic. Apsite-Berina, E. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 72 (2023) (2) 133–146.138 Few studies have examined the internation- alisation of higher education and the mobility of international students to Latvia (Rivza, B. and Teichler, U. 2007; Auers, D. and Gubins, S. 2016; Lulle, A. and Buzinska, L. 2017; Prazeres, L. et al. 2017; Chankseliani, M. and Wells, A. 2019; Apsite-Berina, E. et al. 2023). Interestingly, research investigating network perspectives concludes that ISM patterns are shifting, and the study also recognises Latvia as a new independent non-traditional desti- nation (Hou, C. and Du, D. 2022). In a study published by Chankseliani, M. and Wells, A. (2019), it was found that in the small coun- try of Latvia, the movement of international students is seen as an industry that gener- ates substantial sums of foreign revenue. In addition, several universities worry that the inflow of international students poses a dan- ger to their culture (Chankseliani, M. and Wells, A. 2019). In addition, several ancillary factors can influence international students’ decisions to study in a foreign country. These include the availability of housing and ac- commodation, a good social and cultural en- vironment, strong safety and security, access to public transportation, and access to quality health care (Auers, D. and Gubins, S. 2016). Finally, a strong alum network in the host country can also be a pull factor for interna- tional students. This can include the avail- ability of alum events, job opportunities, and mentoring programs. These activities can help students build relationships with other international students, alums, and faculty members, which can provide support and guidance during their study abroad experi- ence (Auers, D. and Gubins, S. 2016). Further research is needed to assess the potential impact of international students and ensure their well-being in the host country. Methodology The Report on Higher Education in Latvia, released in 2018 by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Latvia (IZM, 2018), is a valuable source of information on data regarding international students in Lat- via. The examination of survey and official statistics data served as the foundation for this mixed-methods study. The first stage of the mixed methods approach uses statistical information from the statistics office and the Ministry of Education and Science to show the actual situation in Latvia regarding the total number of local and international or mobile students (international students are referred to as such in national statistics). The Central Statistical Bureau (CSB) of the Re- public of Latvia’s database, which shows the number of international students enrolled in Latvian higher education institutions at the beginning of each academic year from 2004 to 2018, also reveals general trends on changes in the number of foreign and overall students in Latvia. Part of the second step of the mixed-methods approach was a sur- vey of international students in Latvia. The survey’s primary objective was to find out why international students choose to study in Latvia full-time. The survey utilised 521 questionnaires from various Latvian higher education institutions and was conducted throughout the spring and fall semesters 2019. A data template was prepared in Excel to construct the analysis. The sample consists of 521 full-time inter- national students in Latvia who represent 52 different countries geographically. Most re- spondents (37%) came from the private institu- tion – Turiba University studying business and management and tourism; around one-third represent students from the University of Latvia majoring in business and management and medicine, and around 20 percent from Riga Stradins University. The remaining respond- ents represent students from regional insti- tutions and engineering students from Riga Technical University. Geographically one-third of respondents are from India, 16 percent are from Germany, 9 percent are from Uzbekistan, 7 percent are from Finland, and 4 percent are from Russia. For data analysis, the study identified four primary geographic profiles: 1. European countries (n = 188); 2. South Asian coun- 139Apsite-Berina, E. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 72 (2023) (2) 133–146. tries, including India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka (n = 177); 3. Post-Soviet countries (n = 97); 4. Other countries such as Canada and the USA. PASW Statistics 18 software was employed for survey data array analysis in this research. Data analysis involved using two econometric methods: 1. Pearson chi- square test; and 2. Analysis of variance (one- way ANOVA). The final stage of the data used in this study was case study data at the institutional level – the case study from the University of Latvia. In the fall of 2021, the University of Latvia Academic Department (LU) surveyed international students who started their stud- ies in 2021. The purpose of the survey was to find out the students’ motivation for choos- ing a university and study program and, in their opinion, the essential sources of obtain- ing information, as well as to receive an as- sessment of the application and registration process. The target group was full-time inter- national students in the first year of primary studies (college and bachelor’s) and higher- level studies (master’s). A total of 172 inter- national students started their studies at the University of Latvia in the autumn of 2021, of which 134 students participated in the sur- vey (78% of those studying in the first year). Dynamics of international students in Latvia The number of mobile students in Latvia has increased almost six times since 2004 – from 1,677 students in 2004 to 9,810 students in 2021 – making up almost 13 percent of the total students (CSB, 2014, 2022a) (Figure 1). The number of mobile students has been increasing since 2005, however, in 2020 and 2021, the number has decreased (IZM, 2021). In the 2021/2022 academic year, 3,800 mobile students have enrolled, which is by a quarter less than at the beginning of the 2019/2020 academic year. However, for the second consecutive year, the total number of mobile students, which had been on a significant up- ward trend before the COVID-19 pandemic, has slightly decreased (CSB, 2022b). Up until the outbreak of the pandemic, in- ternational students in Latvia were on the rise yearly (Figure 2). Most were students from Fig. 1. Dynamics of total number of students and mobile students in Latvia, 2004–2021. Source: Author’s own elaboration based on data from the Central Statistical Bureau of Latvia. Apsite-Berina, E. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 72 (2023) (2) 133–146.140 Fi g. 2 . N um be r of in te rn at io na l s tu d en ts in L at vi a by c ou nt ri es o f o ri gi n, 2 01 9– 20 21 . S ou rc e: A ut ho r’ s ow n el ab or at io n ba se d o n d at a fr om th e C en tr al S ta ti st ic al B ur ea u of L at vi a. 141Apsite-Berina, E. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 72 (2023) (2) 133–146. three parts of the world: Europe, the former Soviet Union’s republics, and Southeast Asia. The former Soviet Union republics of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and Kazakhstan are home to many international students in Latvia. They accounted for 47 percent of all inter- national students in 2020. Southeast Asian students, who comprised 28 percent of all international students in Latvia, were the second-largest group. With 25 percent of all international stu- dents in Latvia, the third-largest group was from Europe. According to data from the Ministry of Education and Science, the num- ber of international students has climbed by 82 percent over the previous three years, reaching 10,000 at the start of last year, which was 20 percent more than in 2019 and a half as much as in 2014. Most mobile students (70.4%) have re- ceived their previous education in countries outside the European Union, and almost two-thirds are males. In recent years, it can be consistently observed that about half of the total number of mobile students are stu- dents who received their previous education in India, Uzbekistan and Germany (41.8% of the total number ). More than half (58.2%) of the students from Germany studying in Latvian higher education institutions are fe- males. In comparison, most students from India and Uzbekistan who have come to study in Latvia are males (82.7% and 81.0%, respectively). More than 2,000 mobile stu- dents who received their previous education in India are currently studying in Latvian higher education institutions. Compared to 2014, when statistics on mobile students were first collected, this number has increased more than ten times (CSB, 2022b). In 2021, 116 different nations’ citizens attend- ed higher education institutions in Latvia (CSB, 2022a). The most common fields of study for mobile students are social sciences, business, and law (41.2%), health and welfare (29.3%), and natural sciences, mathematics, and infor- mation technologies (11.6%) (Figure 3). Almost half (49.2%) of the mobile student study at the master’s level, while 45.8 percent study at the bachelor’s level. Of the mobile students with prior education in EU countries, 85.6 percent study at the master’s level. Most mobile stu- Fig. 3. Share of international students in Latvia by thematic education group, 2019–2021. Source: Author’s own elaboration based on data from the Central Statistical Bureau of Latvia. Apsite-Berina, E. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 72 (2023) (2) 133–146.142 dents with previous education in EU countries study Health and social welfare programmes (78.1%) (CSB 2022b). In terms of total numbers, most mobile students (2,500) study at Riga Stradins University, almost 80 percent of whom have completed their studies in an EU country. This compares with 52.6 percent at the University of Latvia, and only 3.2 percent at Riga Technical University of mobile students with previous education in EU countries. These three universities have 5,000 students, or 51.5 percent of the total mobile student population (CSB 2022b). Why choosing Latvia as a study destination country: Geography as a precondition for study destination choice Survey results from the year 2019 show that students from India, Germany, Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan are the countries that most frequently choose Latvia as their study- abroad location. More in-depth statistical analysis of the data presented in Table 1 in- dicates a statistically significant relationship among the four groups of students. Specifi- cally, the findings demonstrate that Latvia is more likely to be the primary choice for students from South Asian countries but less likely to be the preferred destination for stu- dents from Europe and post-Soviet countries. These results suggest that Latvia serves as a secondary option for students from countries with limited study opportunities, either due to a restricted number of students in specific study programs (e.g., medicine in Germany, France) or the overall availability of educa- tional resources in their home country (e.g., Uzbekistan). The motivations of these stu- dents vary, although they all share the same goal, obtaining a quality education in Latvia. While students from India select Latvia on purpose as a location to obtain a European certificate, students from European nations travel to Latvia to study if, for some reason, they are unable to complete the needed edu- cation in their own countries. Ta bl e 1. A na ly si s of fa ct or s si gn ifi ca nt in th e ho st c ou nt ry M ea su re /r eg io n E ur op e So ut he as t A si a P os t- So vi et O th er F( 3. 49 2) M SD M SD M SD M SD Q ua lit y of s tu d ie s B al ti c re gi on St ud ie s in E ng lis h Fr ie nd s in L at vi a Fa m ily in L at vi a E m pl oy m en t C os t o f l iv in g C ul tu re a nd tr ad it io ns C ap it al R ig a R us si an la ng ua ge 3. 69 2. 14 4. 08 1. 66 1. 34 1. 61 2. 70 2. 69 3. 15 1. 47 1. 14 1. 22 1. 09 1. 11 0. 98 1. 09 1. 16 1. 20 1. 39 1. 09 4. 02 3. 38 4. 13 2. 13 1. 62 2. 94 3. 77 3. 77 3. 57 2. 44 1. 15 1. 29 1. 18 1. 35 1. 16 1. 39 1. 25 1. 25 1. 30 1. 31 4. 16 2. 60 4. 44 1. 86 1. 48 3. 04 3. 54 3. 14 2. 96 2. 55 0. 88 1. 28 0. 93 1. 20 1. 02 1. 32 1. 07 1. 36 1. 50 1, 56 4. 04 2. 14 3. 96 1. 48 1. 28 2. 88 3. 21 2. 93 3. 00 1. 63 1. 37 1. 38 1. 48 1. 05 0. 89 1. 48 1. 40 1. 41 1. 59 1. 20 4. 72 ** 29 .7 1* * 2. 78 * 5. 04 ** 2. 29 * 42 .1 1* * 25 .2 9* * 21 .1 6* * 4. 99 ** 19 .3 8* * *p < 0 .0 5, * *p < 0 .0 01 . 143Apsite-Berina, E. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 72 (2023) (2) 133–146. Riga as a destination was rated relatively high, as studied in the Baltic region. German students had given lower ratings for these factors. The possibility of studying in English was acknowledged in Latvia as one of the most significant considerations in favour of studying this area in a recognised quality. Students from Germany primarily travel to Latvia to study medicine. The study also explained the geographical locations that international students find most concerning while relocating to Latvia. Concerns regard- ing access to social services and medical care throughout their studies are shared among international students. Geographically three sourcing regions are highlighted: Europe, former Soviet Union countries, and Southeast Asian countries. Analysis also shows different initial motives and plans among respondents. For example, European students most often study medi- cine, and Latvia is usually a low priority when choosing a destination. Students from former Soviet Union countries often come to Latvia to study technical programs like engi- neering, computer sciences, and economics. Southeast Asian students often choose Latvia to study business and finance. A detailed analysis of the decision-making process regarding studying in Latvia reveals several vital factors. Firstly, the importance of studying English and the quality of educa- tion emerged as crucial considerations. This factor received the highest overall mean rat- ing (4.44) among students from post-Soviet countries, followed by South Asian respond- ents (4.13) and European students (4.80). Conversely, the lowest factor across all groups in considering Latvia as a destina- tion choice was the level of engagement with friends and relatives from Latvia. Additionally, the desire for employment op- portunities ranked modestly, with a mean value of 3.04 among students from post-So- viet countries, 2.94 among Southeast Asian students, and the lowest among Europeans, with a mean value of 1.61. The increasing number of international students engaging in the local labour market across various economic fields raises concerns. However, it prompts the question of whether internation- al students’ knowledge and skills align with Latvia’s economic development priorities. Latvia is a popular destination for interna- tional students due to its low tuition fees and living costs compared to other European coun- tries. The quality of education is also high, and the country is politically stable. Furthermore, Latvia is part of the European Union, which allows students to easily access the labour market and travel to other EU countries. Due to its affordable tuition and gener- ally high educational standards, Latvia is one of the most alluring nations for overseas students from Southeast Asia. According to only one-third of respondents from EU na- tions, studying in Latvia was their first op- tion. Students from Southeast Asia comprise a quarter of this group. They are more likely than students from post-Soviet countries – over half of the respondents – to choose Latvia as their top study destination. The availability of high-quality education, affordable tuition, and the chance to study abroad were the critical factors in choosing. Latvia is a study-abroad location. Latvia is a popular location for students from Southeast Asia since it is one of the safest nations in Europe. In addition, Latvia provides a va- riety of scholarships, as well as cultural and other events, for overseas students. When choosing a destination country, it was cru- cial for them to study in English and to have high-calibre education, according to a thor- ough review of the decision-making process. The overall mean value rating for this indica- tor is rated highest by students from post- soviet nations (4.44), followed by respond- ents from Southeast Asia (4.13), and students from Europe (4.80) study-abroad. Furthermore, the research findings indicate that Southeast Asian students value Latvia’s af- fordable living expenses. Conversely, students from wealthier European nations, such as Finland, Sweden, France, and Germany, con- sider living expenses less significant. On the other hand, students from post-Soviet nations, including Russia, Uzbekistan, and Belarus, Apsite-Berina, E. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 72 (2023) (2) 133–146.144 prefer the higher chances of finding work in Latvia and the opportunity to socialise in the Russian language. This preference aligns with the prevailing trend of students from post-So- viet countries engaging in part-time employ- ment while pursuing their studies. A signifi- cant Russian-speaking population in Latvia, particularly in the capital city of Riga, makes it easier for students from post-Soviet nations to connect with others and explore potential career opportunities. As a result, they tend to secure employment in Latvia more readily than students from other student groups. The findings further confirm that Latvia is often regarded as a “second choice” among European students as a study destination. Their level of importance in obtaining a European diploma is relatively lower than students from other regions. This discrepancy could be attributed to the students’ geographic origin, as studying within Europe is often seen as more accessible and expected for European students. In contrast, individuals from more distant regions may perceive a European di- ploma as a significant achievement. Additionally, European students tend to rate most motivational factors lower than students from other groups, except for the desire to live in a city. This suggests that the appeal of Riga as a study location and the chosen study program hold considerable value for European students, compensating for other motivational aspects. Experience from the University of Latvia The findings of the survey conducted by the University of Latvia, encompassing a majori- ty of international students, revealed the pro- gram preferences of the participants. Out of the total 172 international students surveyed, the majority chose to pursue healthcare pro- grams (56%), followed by information tech- nology (12%), management, administration, and real estate management (10%), and lan- guage and cultural studies (9%). Among the respondents, 81 percent were studying at the undergraduate level, while 19 percent were enrolled in higher-level programs. Moreo- ver, regarding geography, 46 percent are citi- zens of the European Union (EU), including 16 percent from Finland, and 12 percent from Germany, while 54 percent are citizens of other countries, including 13 percent from India, and 7 percent from Russia. 18 percent of respondents’ mother tongue is Russian, 12 percent German, 8 percent English, and 62 percent another language. The majority (92%) of students, rated their knowledge of the English language as good or excellent. The main reasons that influenced the choice of the study program were the ambi- tion to gain knowledge about this field, the opportunity to study in English, the indus- try’s perspective in the future, and the sub- jects of this field that were good at school. The most significant differences between groups of countries can be observed: full- time job opportunities in Latvia after gradu- ation (marked by 30% of citizens of EU coun- tries and 57% of citizens of other countries). The main reasons that influenced the choice to study directly at the University of Latvia among students from EU countries were the desire to learn new knowledge or deepen existing knowledge (97%), the de- sire to obtain a university diploma to prove oneself and one’s abilities (95%), the study programs offered by the University of Latvia (92%), as well as the opportunity to obtain quality education (90%). In addition to these factors, students from other countries also highly valued the visibility of the University of Latvia (85%, of which students from the EU 72%). Students rated the opportunity to get a state scholarship the lowest. According to the University of Latvia, in- ternational students cluster in medicine from Finland and Germany, followed by degree students from Uzbekistan and India. Among those specific geographic and study field choices, studies at the University of Latvia have been a priority choice. These results contradict when considering results from all universities and study fields in Latvia. Studies in medicine are well known for their quality at the European level and elsewhere. 145Apsite-Berina, E. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 72 (2023) (2) 133–146. Conclusions This article presents evidence on trends of international student mobility to Latvia by linking the geography of the source country. It discusses the perspective of Latvia as a non- traditional destination country. The research findings highlight the student’s country of origin’s significant role in choosing Latvia as a study destination. While students from Southeast Asia prioritise Latvia over other potential destinations due to its afford- ability and availability of English-language education, students from the former Soviet Union do not consider it as their first choice. However, it remains a prominent study loca- tion for European students. The results indi- cate that factors such as low tuition fees, the attractiveness of the city, and the appeal of the chosen study program play a crucial role in influencing European students to select Latvia as their destination country. The find- ings imply that the European diploma’s value is lower among European students and that the student’s place of origin heavily influences the decision-making process. Additionally, the findings imply that choosing to study in Latvia is likely influenced by the allure of the nation’s culture and way of life and the pos- sibility of obtaining a job there. However, due to language barriers and lack of job opportu- nities, most international students need to be better integrated into the local labour market. Latvian higher education institutions can use the results of this study to develop entic- ing programmes and marketing materials that emphasise the benefits of studying there. The main reasons for choosing Latvia as a desti- nation country are its low cost of living, low tuition fees, and good quality of education. International students in Latvia appreciate the multilingual environment. The findings can also guide marketing plans for student groups interested in studying in Latvia. Finally, the findings of this study may be utilised to guide national and local govern- ments in making decisions on how to promote higher education in Latvia and recruit interna- tional students effectively. 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(Suppl. 1): 20–33. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0236337 https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0236337 https://www.izm.gov.lv/lv/media/2137/download?attachment https://www.izm.gov.lv/lv/media/2137/download?attachment https://www.izm.gov.lv/lv/media/12842/download?attachment https://www.izm.gov.lv/lv/media/12842/download?attachment Hungarian Geographical Bulletin Vol 72 Issue 2 133-146 (2023) Elina Apsite-Berina, Liga Daniela Robate, Maris Berzins, Girts Burgmanis, Zaiga Krisjane: International student mobility to non-traditional destination countries: evidence from a host country