Drainage network development in the Pannonian Basin 101Schweitzer, F. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 64 (2015) (2) 101–119. Drainage network development in the Pannonian Basin Ferenc SCHWEITZER1 Abstract The evolution and development of the greatest rivers in the Pannonian Basin have been investigated for almost 150 years. At the end of the Late Miocene Sub-Epoch (7.5–5.3 Ma BP) and at the beginning of Pliocene Epoch (5.3–4.5 Ma BP) Lake Pannon shrank dramatically, fi lled up with sediments and completely dried up as a result of global climate change (Bérbaltavárian /Messinian/ Stage). In the basin dominated by dry climate conditions, torrents bordered with riparian forests appeared. During the Lower Pannonian Stage (Eppelsheimium in the Hungarian terminology) the tropic rainforests which previously had covered even regions at higher latitudes contracted to a smaller area around the Equator due to the global climate change. Then under the warm and humid climate of the Middle and Late Pliocene (Csarnotanian and Ruscinian Stages, 4–3 Ma BP) tropic rain- forests expanded again and the drainage network development of the Pannonian Basin continuing even today started. During our research, climate-indicating travertine layers covering the terraces, travertine stratigraphy and fauna fi ndings were investigated. Keywords: travertine stratigraphy, plate movements, global climate change, fl uvial and abrasive terraces, pediments, evolution of River Danube 1 Professor emeritus, Geographical Institute RCAES HAS, H-1112 Budapest, Budaörsi út. 45. E-mail: schweitzer.ferenc@csfk .mta.hu River and history According to the archives, the word Danube was already known as early as in the 7th century BC. The Greek called its lower river section situated between the Iron Gates and the Black Sea Ister. After occupying Illyria in 168 BC, the Romans called the riv- er Danubius and they established that Ister and Danubius were the same river. Julius Caesar used the name Danube for the fi rst time. The river was worshipped as a deity during the Roman Empire (Kádár, L. 1980). The word Danube is of Celtic origin and it means “water”, “river”. It was transmitt ed into the Hungarian language by the northern Slavic nations. Its foreign versions (Danube, Donau, Danubio, Dunaj, Dunarea, Dunav, etc.) are of ancient origin as well. The headspring of the river Danube has not been known for so long as it would be ex- pected. Herodotus (484–408 BC) believed that the source of the Danube was in the Pyrenees. During the Second Punic War (218–201 BC) the Romans realized while they were crossing the lower section of Rhone that Herodotus had been wrong. Later, they suspected that the Danube originated in the mountains of Bretagne away from the Pyrenees. However, that presumption was proved to be mistaken, too. The false assumption was clarifi ed dur- ing the Gallic Wars (58–51 BC) waged by the Roman proconsul Julius Caesar who, how- ever, did not manage to fi nd the spring of the Danube and assumed that the river origi- nated in the Southern Alps. In the end, the source of the river, namely the Black Forest was discovered only in 14–16 AD. DOI: 10.15201/hungeobull.64.2.2 Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 64 2015 (2) 101–119. Schweitzer, F. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 64 (2015) (2) 101–119.102 The Danube has been involved in sev- eral significant events of world history, just to mention some of them: Attila the Hun, the leader of the Hunnic Empire rushed along the Danube (406–453 AD) as far as the Catalaunian Plains to fi ght with the Western world. Charlemagne and his troops also marched along the river to put down the reign of the Avars. The Danube is the second longest river in Europe (aft er the Volga). The total length of the river is 2,860 km, including the Hungarian section as long as 417 km. The 140-km-long river sec- tion between Oroszvár and the Ipoly estuary (Szob) marks the border between Hungary and Slovakia. The Danube reaches Hungary as a large river. The Hungarian section of the Danube As a result of river regulations, the Hungar- ian section of the Danube is not entirely navi- gable. The river regulations carried out at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century converted the natural river into an artifi cial channel. The Danube enters the Litt le Hungarian Plain at the meeting point of the Alps and the White Carpathians at 130 m a.s.l. Aft er fl ow- ing through the so called “Porta Hungarica” at Devin (today a district of Bratislava), the Danube reaches the Litt le Hungarian Plain transporting an immense amount of alluvial sediments (pebbles, sand, silt). The sediment transport mainly results from fl oods, the fre- quency of which has decreased signifi cantly since the construction of the Austrian and Slovakian dams (Gabčíkovo Dams). The largest European island can be found in the Litt le Hungarian Plain. It is called “Golden Garden”, involving the Szigetköz as the Hungarian part and the Zitny Ostrov (in Hungarian ‘Csallóköz’), as the Slovakian part of the alluvial fan. The vicinity of the two regions is an endless plain, the surface of which is built up of point bars. The Danube fl ows on the top of the alluvial fan where the main channel had changed its direction quite frequently before the river regulation works. River bar evolution made the Danube meander and change its fl ow resulting in the development of several alluvial fans. Thus, the Danube had no main channel even at the beginning of the 19th century. The archeological fi ndings confi rm that the navigable main channel of the Roman era is equivalent to the contemporary Moson Danube. The region also serves as one of the most sig- nifi cant drinking water supply of the northern part of the Transdanubia and the southern part of Slovakia. The gold of the “Golden Garden” is the drinking water itself. The main responsibil- ity of the authorities and the scientifi c world is to preserve that treasure. It is a fundamen- tal interest to restore the water balance prior to the construction of the Gabčíkovo Dams to maintain and protect the strategic drinking wa- ter supplies. The water regime and the water balance of the Danube are controlled mainly by the precipitation received by the catchment areas of the Austrian Alps and Prealps as well as the melt water of snow and glaciers. Fluvial land-forming processes of the Danube The immediate vicinity of the river is formed by river-bed changes. The Hungarian sec- tion of the river can be characterized by river down-cutt ing and valley fi lling. Upper courses are rare along the Hungarian section of the river. Even the Visegrád Gorge cannot be considered as a pure incising valley type as point bars can be observed in several plac- es. Valley fi lling is not very frequent either, rather a transient type of cutt ing and fi lling. There are river sections where river down- cutt ing is as frequent as valley fi lling. In that case erosion and deposition alternate each other. That’s why the valley is neither down cut nor fi lled with alluvium to a great extent. For example, between Bratislava (Slovakia) and Gönyű (Hungary) filling is the most typical river function, therefore, most of the Danube sediment reaching the country are deposited there. The (relatively fast) fl uvial deposition resulted in the development of 103Schweitzer, F. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 64 (2015) (2) 101–119. anabranches. Between Gönyű and Komárom not only deposition but also transportation can be detected since the bedload is partly transported away. The huge alluvial fan consists of two types: a younger, low-lying alluvial plain, involving Szigetköz, the Moson Plain and the Hanság Plain with the alluvial plain of River Rába. The older and higher situated deltaic and alluvial plain involves, among others, the Parndorf Plain and the Bana Hill (Figure 1). At the northern edge of the Gerecse Hills, the fl ood plain of the Danube becomes nar- rower, at Esztergom it widens again, then in the Visegrád Gorge it is only narrow strips following the river banks. Between Vác and Budapest the fl oodplain of the river is well- defi ned with clear boundaries, characterized by embayments of various size. It follows the river, especially the left riverbank as far as the southern boundary of the country with a varying width (15–25 km). In many places, both on the right and left riverbanks, ex- tensive depressions occupy the fl oodplain (Bulla, B. 1941; Erdélyi, M. 1955; Pécsi, M. 1959; Scheuer, Gy. and Schweitzer, F. 1984). Some examples: the Kalocsa and the Baja Depressions on the left riverbank; the Érd, the Adony, the Paks-Tengelic-Sárköz and the Fig. 1. The area between the Parndorf Plain and the Bana Hill (by Pécsi, M. 1959) Mohács Depressions on the right riverbank dissected by landslide-eff ected high bluff s of 40–50 m height. Lots of islands are att ached to the feet of the bluff s which are the remnants of larger landslides eroded by the Danube. The current Danube is fl owing from North to South. According to the geomorphologic investigations and radiometric data, dur- ing the last interglacial period which was warm and humid, the direction of fl ow of the Danube was NW–SE, therefore the riv- er was fl owing through the Danube–Tisza Interfl uve. The direction of fl ow followed the series of depressions gett ing younger and younger southwards. However, the Danube changed its direction over time and started to erode the high bluff s of the right Danube riverbank descending in the direc- tion of the Danube–Tisza Interfluve. The area of high bluff s was as wide as 10–15 km and it stretched as far as the western edge of the current Danube–Tisza Interfl uve 80,000– 100,000 years ago. The Solt Hill and the Tétel Hill are butt es representing the remnants of the former bluff of Mezőföld (Figure 2). The sand dunes of Illancs being an alluvial fan (172 m a.s.l) also originate from Mezőföld. The alluvial fan had evolved before the Danube changed its direction of fl ow. Schweitzer, F. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 64 (2015) (2) 101–119.104 The evolution of the Danube in brief The evolution of the “ancient” Danube as well as that of the current river have taken a long a time, the duration of which cannot be measured in decades and centuries but in geologic time. So it is not a coincidence that the history of Central Europe’s largest river has been investigated for almost 150 years (Sóbányi, Gy. 1893; Halaváts, Gy. 1898; Cvij ić, J. 1908, 1910; Lóczy, L. 1913; Strömpl, G. 1913; Cholnoky, J. 1929; Noszky, J. 1933; Prinz, Gy. 1936; Szádeczky-Kardoss, E. 1939; Bulla, B. 1941; Mottl, M. 1941; Mihálcz, I. 1953; Sümeghy, J. 1953; Fink, J. and Majdan, H. 1954; Kádár, L. 1955; Kéz, A. 1956; Pécsi, M. 1959; Scheuer, Gy. and Schweitzer, F. 1988; Gábris, Gy. 2006). During that period several theories have come into being. The aim has been to locate the gravel deposits situated above 300–330 m a.s.l. and below 100–110 m a.s.l. in time ac- cording to the relevant scientifi c disciplines. Most of the syntheses (Penck, A. 1894) are in connection with theories on climatically induced fl uvial terraces classifi ed by Alpine glacial chronology. Geomorphologists associ- ate the evolution of the fl uvial terraces of the Danube with the fl uvial system changes re- lated to the last four major Alpine glaciations. The fl oodplain is supposed to be of Holocene age, the above lying four gravel-covered ter- races are probably of Alpine glacial origin, namely the four Alpine glaciations (Kéz ,A. 1934; Bulla, B. 1941, 1956). It was fi rst in- vestigated by Cholnoky, J. (1915), later by Kéz, A. (1934), Kriván, P. (1953) and Pécsi, M. (1959). The diffi culties of the issue are well-repre- sented in the fact that due to lack of gravels, Márton Pécsi could not correlate the terrac- es located at greater height in the Visegrád Gorge (190–210 m a.s.l. and 240–270 m a.s.l.) (Pécsi, M. 1959). Several scientists dispute even the Danube origin of the pebbles locat- ed mostly at a higher level (Vadász, E. - ex verbis, Pécsi, M. 1959; Láng, S. 1955). First, it was not easy for scientists to iden- tify the period currently known as Pliocene Epoch between the end of the Pannonian Stage and the beginning of the Pleistocene Epoch extending from 5.3 million to 2.5 mil- lion years ago. The existence of the river presently known as the “Danube” during the Pliocene Epoch was not an evidence. On the basis of hypotheses by Kéz, A. (1934), Szádeczky-Kardoss, E. (1939), Bulla, B. (1941), Küpper, H. (1953), Kádár, L. (1955), Pécsi, M. (1959), Fink, J. (1961) and Thenius, E. (1978) associated the development of the Fig. 2. The terrain and geologic cross-section of the Solt Plain. Based on the data by Erdélyi, M. and Sümeghy, J. (Ed. by Pécsi, M. 1959) 105Schweitzer, F. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 64 (2015) (2) 101–119. river in the Vienna Basin with the beginning of the Pleistocene Epoch including Early, Middle and Late Pleistocene sub-epochs and extending from Günz till Würm accord- ing to the Alpine glacial chronology. The lower boundary of the Pleistocene Epoch was identifi ed as the boundary between the Matuyama and Brunhes Chronozones. Only a few scientists suspected that some of the highest-lying terraces covered with gravels could be older and might have developed during the Late Pliocene Epoch, however, their development was not explained by cli- mate change but plate tectonics (Bulla, B. 1941, 1956; Pécsi, M. 1959). In the 1930’s and 1940’s defi ning the bound- ary between the Pliocene and the Pleistocene Epochs was a controversial issue. Some sci- entists suggested that the so called Upper Levantine strata should be reclassified as Lower Pleistocene strata therefore the inci- sion of the Danube at Visegrád could be clas- sifi ed as an Upper Pliocene event. According to the current nomenclature, the Pliocene Epoch started 5.3 million years ago when the Strait of Gibraltar opened. At that time the vast ice sheet which had developed around the South Pole during a glacial period pri- or to the quaternary glaciation started to melt which resulted in global sea level rise and the opening of the Strait of Gibraltar (Haq, B.U. et al. 1987; Schweitzer, F. 2004) (Figure 3). That geological event took place under a warm and humid subtropical climate during the Csarnotanian and Ruscinian Stages (4.3–4 Ma BP) (Figure 4). Owing to the signifi cant amount of precipi- tation, the fl uvial erosion became dominant in the Carpathian Basin. Besides weathering, red clay deposition, valley formation, the dissec- tion of pediments and landslides were typical. The karst systems were fi lled up with water, the karst groundwater levels rose which resulted in the resurgence of karst springs depositing travertine at the base level. According to Pécsi, M. (1980), the oldest Danube terraces located at 230–240 m a.s.l, 280–300 m a.s.l. and 300–330 m a.s.l. were formed during the mentioned period (terraces No. VIII, VII, VI). The Ruscinian-Csarnotanian Stages were followed by the so called Late Villafranchian (Villanyian) Stage (3.0–1.8 Ma BP), the fauna and climatic conditions of which suggest similar ecological conditions to those of the Bérbaltavárian Stage (Kretzoi, M. 1983; Kordos, L. 1991, 1992). The disappearance of the subtropical fauna of the warm and humid Csarnotanian Stage and the quick intrusion of the heat and dry tolerant steppe fauna re- fers to the dominance of continental climate with litt le precipitation. During Villanyian Stage lasting for 1.2 mil- lion years, fl uvial erosion was not signifi cant because of lack of water. Fluvial terraces did not evolve, only debris cones, “meridionalis pebbles” (Kisláng), wide and shallow wadis developed owing to the low amount of sea- sonal precipitation. In the Gerecse Hills fl uvial gravels can- not be detected in the substrata of traver- tine (the lower pediment) situated, accord- ing to Pécsi, on the terraces No. VI–VII. at 200–220 m a.s.l. and 230–240 m a.s.l. due to the warm and dry climate (Figure 5, Photo 1). The sporadic pebbles involve pebbles which eroded from upper levels and redeposited on the lower-lying Villanyian pediment, and fl esh-colored, varnish coated, sporadic peb- bles which redeposited in the tetarata basin containing the Kisláng fauna. The paleomagnetic analyses confi rmed that the travertine covering the Danube terrace No. V. at 180 m a.s.l. and the underlying ter- race material had been developed at the be- ginning of Matuyama paleomagnetic era and during the Jaramillo geomagnetic events. The relative chronological age of the fossil fauna found in travertine deposits also reinforced the results above (Jánossy, D. 1979; Scheuer, Gy. and Schweitzer, F. 1988) (Figure 6). The Mediterranean Sea started to cool about 2.0–2.2 million years ago (Funder, S. et al. 1985). The most obvious fi rst sign of global cli- mate cooling was the appearance of North Sea fauna species in the Mediterranean Sea. The cooling was enhanced by the ice sheet becom- ing permanent and ever growing around the Schweitzer, F. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 64 (2015) (2) 101–119.106 Fig. 3. The possibility of ice ages in the Late Cenozoic (eustatic sea-level changes by Schweitzer, F. 2004, based on Haq, B.U. et al. 1987). – 1 = The Antarctica fl oated to the South Pole and it started to glaciate (32–30 million Ma BP); 2 = According to Haq, B.U. et al. (1987) the average global temperature rose by 3–6 °C; 3 = During the Badenian Stage (17.2 Ma BP, by Steiniger, F.F. 1999) a signifi cant marine regression and the further glacia- tion of the Antarctica were likely to take place. Thanks to the continental link between Eurasia and America, Anchitherium species (pre-historic horse) migrated into Eurasia from Alaska and aft er the withdrawal of the Paratethys, Miomastodon-Zigolophodon species (mastodon) moved from Africa to Europe; 4 = Further probable glaciation of the Antarctica during the Sarmatian Stage; Hipparion invasion from North America across the Bering Strait due to marine regression (“Hipparion Datum”); 5 = Miocene/Pliocene boundary; shift ing from brackish-water sedimentation (Congeria) to freshwater sedimentation (Unio); Lake Pannon was accumulated and it dried up; the re-glaciation of the Antarctica (7–6 Ma BP) referring to global climate change, e.g. the desertifi cation of North China (6.2–5 million Ma BP); 6 = During the Csarnotanian-Ruscinian Stages (4.4–3 Ma BP) the Antarctic and the Greenland ice sheets completely melted; the coastal water temperature rose by 8–10 °C; the global sea level was 80–100 m higher than today; 7 = Pleistocene glaciations; the global sea level decreased again; a continental link was re-exposed between North America and Eurasia (2.5–0.01 Ma BP); the development of terrestrial ice sheets (“Equus Datum”) North Pole. The climax of the process started 1.0–1.2 million years ago (Zubakov, V.A. and Borzenkova, I.I. 1990) also representing the boundary between the Upper and Lower Biharian stages introduced by Kretzoi and the starting point of a significant climate cooling in the Carpathian Basin resulting in the development of further Danube terraces (terrace No. IV. /350,000 Th-U years/, No. III. /190,000 Th-U years/, No. II/b /120–90,000 Th-U years/, No. II/a /30–12,000 C14 years/, No. I. /11,000 C14 years /). In 2006 Gábris, Gy. among others, make an att empt to give a new explanation for the evolution and the chrono- logical order of the Hungarian fl uvial terrac- es, including, of course, the Danube terraces for the period starting with the Jaramillo subchron. 107Schweitzer, F. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 64 (2015) (2) 101–119. Fig. 4. Late Cenozoic biostratigraphic correlation between Asia and Europe (based on the works of Kretzoi, M.) Schweitzer, F. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 64 (2015) (2) 101–119.108 Photo 1. The Kisláng fauna having developed during the Olduvai event was embedded in travertine at Dunaalmás) – 1 = Old loess deposited during Olduvai geomagnetic polarity event; 2 = Kisláng fauna site; 3 = Travertine layers (Photo by Schweitzer, F.) Fig. 5. Geomorphologic levels of Western Gerecse Hills along the section between Dunaalmás and Dunaszentmiklós. Based on fi gure by Pécsi, M. et al. 1985 (re-edited by Schweitzer, F. 2013) – 1 = Fluvial ter- race gravels and sand. The gravels of the presumed terrace No. VIII (numbered by Pécsi, M.) deposited on the Upper Pannonian deltaic gravels by eroding the Upper Pannonian sandy deposits consisting of sand and pea gravels represent erosive discordance; 2 = Quicksand; 3 = Remnants of Pleistocene cryoturbation; 4 = Loess, slope loess; 5 = Fossil soils in loess; 6 = Travertine levels (T1–T10); 7 = Upper Pannonian cross-bedded sand (?), Bérbaltavarian Stage; 8 = Upper Pannonian clay; 9 = Miocene terrestrial gravels; 10 = Late Triassic limestone; H1 = Remnants of Late Pliocene pediment; at the edge of the pediment. The Upper Pannonian abrasion ter- race No. 2 is superimposed; Mt1 = Upper Pannonian abrasion terrace; P = Pre-Tertiary and Tertiary planation surface with Miocene terrestrial gravel patches (?); a = fauna site; b = carbonized tree trunk remnant; c = fun- nel-shaped traces in travertine and gravels created by thermal spas; d = paleomagnetic polarity; e = sporadic gravels on the lower-lying pediments 109Schweitzer, F. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 64 (2015) (2) 101–119. Fig. 6. Travertine level No. V, the exposure of a tetarata basin. The travertine deposited on the Danube terrace No. V. (by Schweitzer, F.) – 1 = Upper Pannonian yellow medium sand; 2 = sandy gravels deposited on Danube terrace No. V.; 3 = sand with gravel; 4 = sand; 5 = light yellow clay with embedded travertine and quartz pebbles and travertine layers of 1–5 cm width; 6 = yellowish grey silt with embedded travertine and quartz pebbles; 7 = yellowish grey calcareous, sandy silt; 8 = calcareous sand; 9 = tetarata dams; 10 = fl uvial sand, calcareous silt; 11 = travertine bed; 12 = sandy loess; 13 = recent soil; A = Clemmys méhelyi Kormos (= Emys orbicularis L.), Megaloceros sp.; B = Archidiskodon meridionaris (planifrons) fi nding, reversed polarity (Jaramillo?) The ancient Visegrád Gorge The ancient Danube in the Late Miocene The Pannonian Sea (later only a lake) having been the last sea in the Carpathian Basin was withdrawing rapidly and it was completely accumulated (Figure 7). As a result of the Pan- nonian transgression, thick layers of pebbles (Hollabrunn-Mistelbach Formation) originat- ing from the deltaic sediments of rivers fl ow- ing into the Pannonian Sea were deposited NEE of Krems (Schlesinger, G. 1912; Fink, J. 1961, 1967; Thenius, E. 1978). The gravel deposits can be found from the Vienna Basin along the northern edge of the Dunazug Hills as far as the Pest Plain (Mogyoród). The geomorphological situation of gravel deposits in the Vienna Basin is similar to that of abrasion pebbles, deltaic gravels and tra- vertine (Új Hill, Sütt ő Hill /Tapirus Arvernensis, Anancus Arvernensis, Archidiscodon Meridionalis/, Kőpite Hill /Anancus Arvernensis/, Muzsla Hill /Derissena Auricularis/, Poc-kő Hill) situ- ated at 300–330 m a.s.l. in Gerecse Hills and deltaic gravels in Mogyoród cemented with travertine containing the fossils of Hipparion, Melanopsis aquensis GRAT, Viviparius sadleri PARTSCH, Bithinia proxima FUSCH and cov- ered with bentonite deposits of 1–2 m width in some places (Scheuer, Gy. and Schweitzer, F. 1984; Schweitzer, F. 1993) (Photos 2–6). Presumably, the deltaic gravels were not deposited by the ancient Danube but dur- ing the accumulation of Paratethys. There were probably flat or low-situated pied- mont plains formed and dissected by the anabranching consequent streams of the Schweitzer, F. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 64 (2015) (2) 101–119.110 Fig. 7. The greatest extension of Lake Pannon in the Carpathian Basin (by Jámbor, Á. et al. 1987) Alps and the Northern Carpathians which deposited deltaic gravels of several meters width (Photo 7). Besides the Vienna Basin (Papp, A. 1950), gravel deposits can be found at the NNE mar- gin of the Pest Plain, at the northern rim of the Gerecse Hills at Dunaalmás, Sütt ő, Lábatlan, etc. The deltaic gravel layers deposited at the former base level of erosion are covered or dissected by Upper Pannonian travertine deposits at Öreg Hill in Dunaalmás (330 m a.s.l.), in Dunaszentmiklós (325 m a.s.l.), in Alsóvadács (335 m a.s.l.) or in the Vienna Basin at 360 m a.s.l. and below, for example at Trautmannsdorf where deltaic gravels de- posited over Congeria neum layers. Simultaneously, with the basaltic volcanism as old as 7–8 million years, the ridge of the Transdanubian Mountains – Gleichenberg Ridge was raised. As a result of that, Rába changed its direction to the NE, the Danube and its tributaries changed their directions to the E, fl owing along the northern edge of the Gerecse Hills, all together towards the “Visegrád Gorge” which presumably existed 12–13 million years ago. Later, the Danube broke through the strait towards the Hungarian Great Plain and fl ooded the lowlands (Salamon, F. 1878; Pécsi, M. 1985). There are two evidences for the existence of the strait: the remnants of geysers evolved on the geomorphological surface situated at the height of 260–270 m a.s.l., in the vi- cinity of Szokolya and Magyarkút, and the quartz pebbles located on the right rim of the Szokolya Basin at the height of 310–350 m a.s.l., E-SE of Királyrét. Increasing the dis- tance from Szokolya-Királyrét in the direc- tion of Vác, South of Kismaros, the pebble deposits are gett ing thinner (Figure 8). A great interfluve ridge seems to have evolved between Visegrád and Verőce cre- 111Schweitzer, F. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 64 (2015) (2) 101–119. Photo 3. Deltaic deposit (2) covered with thick bentonite layers (1) in the old gravel mine in Kerepestarcsa (Photo by Schweitzer, F.) Ph ot o 2. D el ta ic d ep os it on U pp er P an no ni an lo am y sa nd a t 2 98 m a .s .l. o n th e ea st er n si de o f K őp ite H ill , S ou th o f D un aa lm ás (P ho to b y Sc hw ei tz er , F .) Photo 4. Deltaic gravel deposit with Hipparion fauna cement- ed with travertine (298 m a.s.l.) (Photo by Schweitzer, F.) Schweitzer, F. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 64 (2015) (2) 101–119.112 Photo 6. Gravel deposit of 2–3 m thickness made up of mainly rolled quartz pebbles in Királyrét-Nógrád (Photo by Szeberényi, J.) Photo 5. Remnants of geyser cones in Magyarkút at 230 m a.s.l. Their evolution is related to post-volcanic activities of andesitic volcanism (Photo by Szeberényi, J.) 113Schweitzer, F. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 64 (2015) (2) 101–119. Photo 7. Large, rolled, dreikanter-like quartz boulder of 50–60 cm diameter at 290–300 m a.s.l. (Photo by Szeberényi, J.) ating a natural barrier hindering the south- ward opening of “Visegrád Gorge”. Thus, thinking of the strait as a link towards Nógrád through the Szokolya Basin is only a hypothesis (Figure 9, Photo 8). The interfl uve ridge between Visegrád and Verőce was also formed by headward erosion as it was previously referred to by Kádár, L. (1955) as well. Furthermore, it is remarkable that sporadically occurring pebbles and strath terraces can be observed on the geomorpho- logical surfaces of the Danube Bend at the height of 230–330 m a.s.l. (the northern rim of Gerecse Hills) and at the height of 350–370 m a.s.l. between Dunaalmás and Nagymaros- Visegrád, however, the pebble deposits are completely missing and only young terraces evolved below the height of 180–200 m a.s.l., along the section of Verőce–Dunabogdány– Budapest. The latt er ones, nevertheless, can be detected on both sides of the Danube between Dunaalmás and Budafok and they can also be detected in the cores sampled in the Great Hungarian Plain (Noszky, J. 1933; Láng, S. 1953; Kéz, A. 1956; Pécsi, M. 1959; Rónai, A. 1972) (Figure 9). There are further evidences for the ex- istence of the ancient “Visegrád Gorge” in Zebegény at the height of 180–190 m a.s.l. where the patches of coarse sand depos- ited on andesite in several places are good examples for the fact that the shallow coral bays which evolved during the Badenien Stage (13–14 Ma BP) later were covered and temporarily buried either by fl uvial sand or under arid, semi-arid climate by fl uvial and eolic sand, namely, in the Sarmatian Stage (12–13 Ma BP) and in the upper stages of Late Miocene (7–5 Ma BP). That’s how the ancient Danube and its trib- utaries having fi lled up with sediments the the system of shallow lakes which became brackish and later fresh water lakes during the Late Miocene. Schweitzer, F. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 64 (2015) (2) 101–119.114 Fig. 8. Locations of gravel deposits of Királyrét-Nógrád, the geyser cones of Magyarkút in the vicinity of Szokolya Basin (based on Schweitzer’s hypothesis) Photo 8. Ancient erosional valley between Nagymaros and Verőce (240–250 m a.s.l.) and 140–150 m relative height above the Danube. It can be followed all along the Morgó Stream in the direction of Szokolya-Királyrét. On the left and right side of the photo the younger Danube terraces can be seen at 180 m a.s.l. and below (Photo by Schweitzer, F.) 115Schweitzer, F. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 64 (2015) (2) 101–119. Fig. 9. The locations of Danube terraces along the Hungarian section of the Danube (based on the works of Pécsi, M.) Drainage system development in the Carpathian Basin At the end of the Late Miocene Sub-Epoch (7–8 Ma BP) and at the beginning of Pliocene Epoch signifi cant changes took place in the Carpathian Basin. As a result of a dynamic global climate change, the previous warm and humid subtropical climate turned into drier, warmer and more extreme resulting in the dramatic shrinkage, gradual accumula- tion and dry-up of Lake Pannon. The climax of that period was the so called Bérbaltavári- an Stage (Kretzoi, M. 1969; Kordos, L. 1991, 1992; Kretzoi, M. and Pécsi, M. 1979) which is equivalent to the Messinian salinity crisis considering the international nomenclature of geological timescale (Schweitzer, F. 1993, 2004). The fauna fi ndings (jirds /Meriones/, Giraffi dae, Hipparion and Anthilope species) of the Carpathian Basin (Kormos, T. 1911; Kret- zoi, M. 1962; Kordos, L. 1992) (Figure 10) and Schweitzer, F. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 64 (2015) (2) 101–119.116 Fig. 11. The evolution and the development of drainage network in the Carpathian Basin based on travertine stratigraphy (by Schweitzer, F. 1993–2013). – a = travertine levels (by Scheuer, Gy. and Schweitzer, F. 1984); b = the most important levels of travertine deposition; c = travertine deposition on valley sides; d = the tectonic elevation of János Hill and Sváb Hill; e = the level of resurgence of recent karst springs and torrents with riparian forests appeared (Mottl, M. 1941). Arid and semi-arid areas characterized by sedimentary rock forma- tions with limestone, dolomite and gypsum were dominant in the basin (Schweitzer, F. 1993; Schweitzer, F. and Szöőr, Gy. 1997). Under the hot and dry climate the fragmen- tation of rocks resulted in the accumulation of huge amount of sand deposited over the mudrocks of Lake Pannon in varying thick- ness (50–200 m). The investigations point- ed out that the torrents crossing the Litt le Hungarian Plain had been fl owing south- wards in the direction of Slavonic Basin, then they accumulated the whole Little Hungarian Plain (Szádeczky-Kardoss, E. 1939; Sümeghy, J. 1953). The siliceous crust is an evidence for the arid climate charac- terized by an annual mean precipitation of only 150–250 mm conducive to the evolution of torrents but not to that of fl uvial terraces (Schweitzer, F. and Szöőr, Gy. 1997). During the Lower Pannonian Stage (Eppelsheimium in the Hungarian termi- nology) the tropic rainforests which previ- ously had covered even regions at higher latitudes contracted to a smaller area around Fig. 10. Epimeriones (gerbils) molars found in cross- bedded sand in Egyházasdengeleg (by Hir, J. and Mészáros, L.Gy. 1995) its environment provide an evidence for the hot and dry semi-arid climate evolved as a consequence of global climate change. During the Bérbaltavárian stage a hot and dry semi-arid climate evolved in the Carpathian Basin where large sand dunes 117Schweitzer, F. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 64 (2015) (2) 101–119. the Equator due to the global climate change. Then under the warm and humid climate of the Late Pliocene (Csarnotanian Stage, 4–3 Ma BP) favouring red clay development, tropic rainforests expanded again. The devel- opment of the drainage system of the Danube and the whole Carpathian Basin lasting until the present time (Kretzoi, M. and Pécsi, M. 1979; Scheuer, Gy. and Schweitzer, F. 1988; Schweitzer, F. 1993) (Figure 11) also started and the rivers dissected the pediments which evolved during the warm and dry period of Bérbaltavárian (Messinian) Stage. REFERENCES Bulla, B. 1941. A Magyar medence pliocén és pleisz- tocén teraszai (The Pliocene and Pleistocene ter- races in the Hungarian Basin). Földrajzi Közlemények 69. (4): 199–230. Bulla, B. 1956. 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Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 64 (2015) (2) 101–119.120 This is a collection of maps that visually introduces the changing ethnic patt erns of the eth- nically, religiously, culturally unique and diverse Carpathian Basin and its neighbourhood, the Carpatho-Pannonian area. The Hungarian and English volume consist of three structural units. On the main map, pie charts depict the ethnic structure of the sett lements in proportion to the population based on census data et the millennium. In the supplementary maps, changes of the ethnic structure can be seen at nine dates (in 1495, 1784, 1880, 1910, 1930, 1941, 1960, 1990 and 2001). The third unit of the work is the accompanying text, which outlines the ethnic trends of the past fi ve hundred years in the studied area. The antecedent of this publication is the „series of ethnic maps” published by the Geographical Research Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences from the middle of the 1990’s, which displayed each of the regions of the Carpathian Basin (in order of publication: Transylvania, Slovakia, Transcarpathia, Pannonian Croatia, Vojvodina, Transmura Region, Burgenland, Hungary). This work represents, on the one hand, the updated and revised version of these areas, and, on the other hand, regions beyond the Carpathian Basin not included on previous maps. Thus, the reader can browse ethnic data of some thirty thousand sett le- ments in diff erent maps. Changing Ethnic Patt erns of the Carpatho–Pannonian Area from the Late 15th until the Early 21st Century Edited by: Károly KOCSIS and Patrik TÁTRAI Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Research Centre for Astronomy and Earth Sciences Budapest, 2013. ----------------------------------- Price: EUR 12.00 Order: Geographical Institute RCAES HAS Library H-1112 Budapest, Budaörsi út 45. E-mail: magyar.arpad@csfk .mta.hu << /ASCII85EncodePages false /AllowTransparency false /AutoPositionEPSFiles true /AutoRotatePages /None /Binding /Left /CalGrayProfile (Dot Gain 20%) /CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2) /sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Error /CompatibilityLevel 1.3 /CompressObjects /Tags /CompressPages true /ConvertImagesToIndexed true /PassThroughJPEGImages true /CreateJobTicket false /DefaultRenderingIntent /Default /DetectBlends true /DetectCurves 0.0000 /ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged /DoThumbnails false /EmbedAllFonts true /EmbedOpenType false /ParseICCProfilesInComments true /EmbedJobOptions true /DSCReportingLevel 0 /EmitDSCWarnings false /EndPage -1 /ImageMemory 1048576 /LockDistillerParams false /MaxSubsetPct 100 /Optimize false /OPM 1 /ParseDSCComments true /ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true /PreserveCopyPage true /PreserveDICMYKValues true /PreserveEPSInfo true /PreserveFlatness true /PreserveHalftoneInfo false /PreserveOPIComments true /PreserveOverprintSettings true /StartPage 1 /SubsetFonts true /TransferFunctionInfo /Apply /UCRandBGInfo /Preserve /UsePrologue false /ColorSettingsFile () /AlwaysEmbed [ true ] /NeverEmbed [ true ] /AntiAliasColorImages false /CropColorImages true /ColorImageMinResolution 300 /ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK /DownsampleColorImages true /ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic /ColorImageResolution 300 /ColorImageDepth -1 /ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1 /ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000 /EncodeColorImages true /ColorImageFilter /DCTEncode /AutoFilterColorImages true /ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG /ColorACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >> /ColorImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >> /JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >> /JPEG2000ColorImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >> /AntiAliasGrayImages false /CropGrayImages true /GrayImageMinResolution 300 /GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK /DownsampleGrayImages true /GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic /GrayImageResolution 300 /GrayImageDepth -1 /GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2 /GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000 /EncodeGrayImages true /GrayImageFilter /DCTEncode /AutoFilterGrayImages true /GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG /GrayACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >> /GrayImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >> /JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >> /JPEG2000GrayImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >> /AntiAliasMonoImages false /CropMonoImages true /MonoImageMinResolution 1200 /MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK /DownsampleMonoImages true /MonoImageDownsampleType /Bicubic /MonoImageResolution 1200 /MonoImageDepth -1 /MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000 /EncodeMonoImages true /MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode /MonoImageDict << /K -1 >> /AllowPSXObjects false /CheckCompliance [ /None ] /PDFX1aCheck false /PDFX3Check false /PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false /PDFXNoTrimBoxError true /PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [ 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 ] /PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true /PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [ 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 ] /PDFXOutputIntentProfile (None) /PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier () /PDFXOutputCondition () /PDFXRegistryName () /PDFXTrapped /False /CreateJDFFile false /Description << /ARA /BGR /CHS /CHT /CZE /DAN /DEU /ESP /ETI /FRA /GRE /HEB /HRV (Za stvaranje Adobe PDF dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. Stvoreni PDF dokumenti mogu se otvoriti Acrobat i Adobe Reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /ITA /JPN /KOR /LTH /LVI /NLD (Gebruik deze instellingen om Adobe PDF-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit. De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 5.0 en hoger.) /NOR /POL /PTB /RUM /RUS /SKY /SLV /SUO /SVE /TUR /UKR /ENU (Use these settings to create Adobe PDF documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing. Created PDF documents can be opened with Acrobat and Adobe Reader 5.0 and later.) /HUN >> /Namespace [ (Adobe) (Common) (1.0) ] /OtherNamespaces [ << /AsReaderSpreads false /CropImagesToFrames true /ErrorControl /WarnAndContinue /FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false /IncludeGuidesGrids false /IncludeNonPrinting false /IncludeSlug false /Namespace [ (Adobe) (InDesign) (4.0) ] /OmitPlacedBitmaps false /OmitPlacedEPS false /OmitPlacedPDF false /SimulateOverprint /Legacy >> << /AddBleedMarks false /AddColorBars false /AddCropMarks false /AddPageInfo false /AddRegMarks false /ConvertColors /ConvertToCMYK /DestinationProfileName () /DestinationProfileSelector /DocumentCMYK /Downsample16BitImages true /FlattenerPreset << /PresetSelector /MediumResolution >> /FormElements false /GenerateStructure false /IncludeBookmarks false /IncludeHyperlinks false /IncludeInteractive false /IncludeLayers false /IncludeProfiles false /MultimediaHandling /UseObjectSettings /Namespace [ (Adobe) (CreativeSuite) (2.0) ] /PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector /DocumentCMYK /PreserveEditing true /UntaggedCMYKHandling /LeaveUntagged /UntaggedRGBHandling /UseDocumentProfile /UseDocumentBleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /HWResolution [2400 2400] /PageSize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice