Riverbank erosion in Hungary – with an outlook on environmental consequences 233 Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 62 (3) (2013) 233–245. Riverbank erosion in Hungary – with an outlook on environmental consequences Zoltán SZALAI1,2, János BALOGH1 and Gergely JAKAB1 Abstract In the 19th century deforestation in the Carpathians and the growing population made fl ood control and river regulation an urgent task in the Carpathian Basin. As a result of shrinking active fl oodplains and cut-off s, the natural sedimentation/erosion equilibrium have been upset over the Hungarian Plain. The modifi ed conditions have also changed the erosion patt erns on minor fl oodplains. The present paper will outline the necessity for fl ood control, its eff ects and consequences for bank erosion. The present conditions and forms of bank erosion along the Hungarian rivers are considered and an overview is pro- vided on the most important factors aff ecting bank protection with their socio-economic consequences in Hungary. Keywords: riverbank erosion, fl oodplain, fl ood control, fl ood wave, heavy metals, remo- bilisation, Danube, Tisza Introduction The Danube and Tisza rivers have always played an essential role both in natural landscape evolution and in national life in the Carpathian Basin. These rivers and their tributaries wandered across the major part of this basin dur- ing the past 500,000 years (Borsy, Z. 1991). Both rivers and their tributaries have oft en altered their channels (although the Danube less frequently), so the river meanders have a relatively short evolution from their emergence till natural cut-off (Borsy, Z. 1991; Somogyi, S. 2001). In the 19th century socio-eco- nomic development called for eff ective fl ood control. While the deforestation of Carpathians caused higher and higher fl ood waves, the growing popula- 1 Geographical Institute, Research Centre for Astronomy and Earth Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, H-1112 Budapest, Budaörsi út 45. E-mails: szalaiz@mtafk i.hu, baloghj@iif.hu, jakabg@mtafk i.hu 2 Department of Environmental and Landscape Geography, Faculty of Science, Eötvös Loránd University, H-1117 Budapest, Pázmány P. sétány 1/C. 234 tion required more and more protection for sett lements and farming. Parallel with these the industrial development also demanded waterways providing safe navigation. Flood control and water regulation measures started in the middle of the 19th century along the Tisza and Danube rivers and subsequently were extended to their tributaries. These activities have continued up to our days and can be classifi ed into three groups: 1. building of dyke system and implementing cut-off s, 2. bank protection; 3. construction of hydraulic power plant systems (Erdélyi, M. 1994; Fejér, L. 2001; Somogyi, S. 2001). The dyke system had been completed along the most important rivers by the early of 20th century parallel with cutt ing off meanders (Figure 1). Rivers have been shortened and their stream gradient increased (Table 1). Although the early phase of channel regulation protected the sett le- ments against the rising fl ood peaks and provided new (previously not cul- tivated) fi elds for agriculture, it did not reduce bank erosion (Julian, J. and Torres, R. 2006). On the contrary, bank erosion rates and meander evolution increased and undercut the existing dykes and abutments along the Tisza River and its tributaries (Károlyi, Z. 1960). The construction of new dykes continued in the late 20th century, but by now the strengthening and rising of Fig. 1. Inundated areas before fl ood control in Hungary. – l = inundated areas during fl oods; 2 = inundation period was longer than three months per year (On the basis of National Atlas of Hungary) 235 the already existing embankments had become the most important activity in the fi eld of fl ood control. In order to reduce bank erosion building of protection works have been started along the endangered bank reaches. Four methods have been used mostly: 1. groynes, 2. revetments, 3. retaining walls, 4. bluff reinforcement. The fi rst and second is of common use along all big rivers for maintaining the shipping and protecting bridges and hydraulic works. The third method is used along river sections in the cities (Bariteau, L. et al. 2013) and the fourth one is widespread along the Danubian loess bluff s (Kleb, B. and Schweitzer, F. 2001; Stancikova, A. 2001). Adequate bank protection is capable of reducing bank erosion to a considerable extent. The reduced fl oodplains and protected riverbanks have accelerated alluvial processes (e.g. sedimentation on sensitive areas) and changed the quality, amount and patt ern of riverbank erosion. Riverbank erosion: forms and processes In convex and fl at fl oodplains diff erent processes control riverbank erosion (Butzer, K.W. 1976). These variations between the processes result in various erosion forms and patt erns. A convex fl oodplain is typical of the majority of Danube sections. Under natural conditions channel shift ing is slower over convex than fl at fl oodplains. Thus the amount of the transported sediments is also lower in general. The most important erosion forms can be found on the natural levees both along riverbanks and the banks of islands. Erosion forms on natural levees depend mainly on vegetation structure and land use pat- tern. Under geomorphic conditions close to natural two kinds of bank erosion processes prevail: piping, which results in a spongyform structure in the near- surface part of natural levee and transverse crevasses across natural levees. Table 1. Properties of the most important rivers in Hungary before and aft er fl ood regulation (aft er Somogyi, S. 1974) River Length, km Average stream gradient, cm/km before aft er before aft er fl ood regulation Danube Tisza Dráva Maros Hármas-Körös Rába 494 1,419 409 191 234 132 417 966 232 121 91 84 5.0 3.7 7.5 14.0 2.0 32.0 8 6 12 28 5 47 236 Piping is typical along those natural levees where the sediment is sandy loam or fi ner sediments. Pipe formation occurs on the falling limb of the fl ood hydrograph and it is driven by water escape. When water levels are falling, the external pressure is decreasing until it is equal to atmospheric pressure, i.e. lower than the internal (groundwater) pressure. The outfl ow of groundwater on the bank face is freed from this pressure diff erence and it starts on the bank face. These fl ows mostly emerge along lines where the sandy layers are exposed on the natural levee. The outfl ow partly runs on the bank surface and partly fl ows in a pipe network near to the surface (Figure 2). The pipe network is enlarged by outfl owing groundwater and mostly formed along the root network (Hubble, T.C.T. et al. 2010) and thus parts of the bank face where the interparticle force of cohesion is less than the average. The mean diameter of these pipes is around 5–9 cm (Photo 1). The majority of pipes collapse during subsidence. The rate of collapse depends on that of drying and rewett ing. Finally, this process causes a very slow bank retreat and 100–200 m3/km/year material losses from natural levees in the Hungarian Danube sec- tions. Kiss, T. et al. (2002) reported higher bank erosion rate (9.2–44.5 cm/year) along the Tisza River (between 212 and 216 river kms), which approximately means 140–700 m3/km/year material losses from natural levees. The crevasses on the natural levee are developed during of 6–10- year fl oods. These crevasses play an essential role in the inundation of fl oodplains, stretching beyond the levees because fl ood water should not overtop the natural levee dur- ing inundation (Pizutto, J. et al. 2010). Crevasses can be att ributed to both natural and anthropogenic processes. A crevasse can form at sites where the bank face is lower than the average. Along some river sections the dredged and dumped sediments can raise natural levees. These raised banks also accentuate the crevasses. Crevasses across the natural levees have an ambivalent role in bank erosion because they contribute to accretion behind the levees during fl oods (crevasse splays) and locally intensify bank erosion (Figure 3). Fig. 2. Pipe forming in natural levee. – 1 = inun- dation of active fl oodplain, natural levee satu- rated during the fl ooding; 2 = the level of the fl oodwater on the fl oodplain is higher than the water level during falling; 3 = initial phase of pipe forming: the outfl ow starts to cave pipes in the natural levee due to the pressure of fl ood- water; 4 = aft er fl ood-wave pipe system starts to collapse; GWT = ground water table 237 During inundation a large amount of suspended load can reach the fl oodplains behind the levees where normally there is no sedimentation. During the retreat of fl oods the drop of the water level is much more rapid in the channel than over the fl oodplain and the diff erence between the water level in the channel and the fl oodplain can reach 5–10 m. The retreating water on the fl oodplain is less tur- bid than during fl ooding because the vegetation adsorbs suspended sediments. This fi ltration is accel- erated by micro-topography. The water outfl ow from the fl oodplain has high energy because the sus- pended sediment concentration is low and the relative relief is high. This temporary high-energy flow forms V-shaped crevasses (Anderson, M.G. et al. 1996). The amount of material eroded from the riverbank can be high locally, while the total amount of material loss from crevasse on riverbank remains low. The bank- derived sediment is moved into a temporary storage and thus ma- terial becomes available for trans- port during the following fl ood. In the adjacent and dead channels the crevasses incise into this bar. The dredging in adjacent channels accelerates the bank erosion proc- esses, because the temporary stor- age bars are destroyed and fi nally the bank slope angle increases. Moreover, near-bank dredging results in bluff s caving in along these sections (Photo 2). The willow groves might reduce bluff instability temporarily. Aft er three-four fl ood events undercutt ing can cause 1–2 m bank retreat and a new Photo 1. Pipe outfl ow (the Danube River, Háros Isle) (Photo by Szalai, Z.) Fig. 3. Transverse crevasses in natural levees. – 1 = crevasse; 2 = natural levee; 3 = fl oodplain; 4 = storage bar; MWL = mean water level 238 storage bar forms simultaneous- ly. During a repeated near-bank dredging the material of renewed temporary storage disposed again into the natural levee. In the Middle Danube Valley the convex floodplain and its landforms are combined with loess bluffs. Karácsonyi, S. and Scheuer, Gy. (1972) iden- tified three types of loess bluff (Figure 4) along the Hungarian sections of Danube: – The fi rst type is where the Danube washes away the debris from the foreland of bluff s during the fl oods groundwater is released from the loess without completely saturating it (Figure 4, A). The loess becomes saturated only during the flood events and this can cause landslides, but the alluvium accu- mulated in the foreland protects it against undercutt ing. This kind of bluff is relatively stable, landslides and gully incision are the most important bank erosion processes. – The second type a directly undercut bluff , where lateral erosion of the river is the main agent (Figure 4, B). Along these sections it is the caving in that can lead primarily to erosion processes and forms (Schweitzer, F. 1999). – The third type of bluff is characterised by debris slopes and, as a rule, it is situated in the foreland of a steep bank (Figure 4, C). It is typical in some river sections of the Middle Danube Valley. This debris protects the bluff against the lateral erosion of Danube as a butt ress, but it also impounds groundwater in the loess (Lóczy, D. et al. 2008). The backwater level can reach the top of the debris slope and it is one of the most important reasons of land- slides along this section of the Danube (Schweitzer, F. 2001). Human activities (e.g. infl ow of municipal and industrial wastewater in lack of a sophisticated sewerage system) cause serious problems along loess bluff s through increasing bluff instability and landslide hazard Growing population and industrial development impose a positive feedback on these processes. Visy, Zs. (1988) estimated bank retreat between 1778 and present. He reported 2.5–12.5 m/100 years retreat (Figure 5). Photo 2. Near-bank dredging caused caving bluff along the Danube (Photo by Szalai, Z.) 239 Lóczy, D. et al. (1989) de- termined erosion rates due to various agents. They have identi- fi ed three bank retreat rates: 1. an overall rate on a geological time- scale (1–2 m/100 years); 2. periods of active undercutt ing (2–10 m/100 years); 3. natural retreat enhanced by human intervention during the last hundred years (10–100 m/100 years). This means that the human activities of the last hundred years have multiplied the rate and the amount of bank retreat in compar- ison with the active undercutt ing periods (Figure 6). The amount of the removed material per landslide event has in- creased as well. Landslides along the Danubian loess bluff affect 10,000,000 m3/km sediment per on an average event during the sec- ond half of 20th century (Lóczy, D. 1997; Schweitzer, F. 1999). One of the most impor- tant man-induced impacts on riverbank evolution in convex fl oodplains is bank accretion with industrial hazardous waste. The most important embankments can be found in the river sections of the Danube near Mosonmagyaróvár and Almásfüzitő (Northwest Hungary), where red mud res- ervoirs are found behind natural levees. The riverside dykes of the reservoir have been built upon the natural levees from slag. There is virtually no vegetation cover on the red mud and the dykes of res- ervoir and when it rains (especial- ly during rainstorm events) huge Fig. 4. Loess bluff types in the Middle Danube Valley (aft er Karácsonyi, S. and Scheuer, Gy. 1972). – 1 = loess; 2 = pannonian clay; 3 = gravel bed; 4 = debris slope 240 amounts of hazardous material are eroded into the channel. Piping here is replaced by rill erosion features. During the 6–10-year fl oods the fl oodwater surrounds the reservoirs and washes hazardous materials into the channel (Viczián, I. 2004; Schweitzer, F. and Szeberényi, J. 2011). Flat fl oodplains are typical for most of the reaches of the Tisza River and for the majority of its tributaries. There are also some reaches of fl at fl oodplain along the Danube near to the southern national border as well. The most impor- tant erosion process of fl at fl oodplains is the lateral erosion of meandering rivers. The rate of meander evolution and lateral erosion has been changed fundamen- tally by cutoff s, reducing active fl oodplains and by channelization (Somogyi, S. 2001). The cut-off s with a bank protection have decelerated bank erosion dramati- cally. In some places lateral erosion has been reduced by 75% (Table 2). Recently, 1 m3 water washes out ca. 1 kg sediment from the riverbank along whole length of the Hungarian section of the Tisza (Károlyi, Z. 1960; Rátóti, B. 1964). Along the reaches of Danube fl anked by fl at fl oodplains lateral channel shift ing has removed much more material from its bank than from that Fig. 5. Bank retreat along the Dunaújváros section of the Danube River on the basis of the Roman castrum Intercisa (Dunaújváros). – 1 = recent loess bluff ; 2 = hypothetic line of the loess bluff (495 AD) 241 of Tisza. Somogyi, S. (2000) reported on 5–10 times higher values for lateral erosion than along the sections of Tisza River (Table 3). High bank erosion rates of temporary character can also result from channel regula- tion. Several cutoff s with an initial channel width around 20 m (Lászlóffy, W. 1982) have widened up to 100–200 m. Thus, aft er cutoff the sediment yield of bank erosion could reach 40,000 m3/km for the initial period. Economic and environmental consequences of riverbank erosion Although riverbank erosion has decreased, farm- ing, industrial and municipal assets are still im- periled. Aft er channel regulation and bank pro- tection more than 95% of previously endangered Table 3. Amount of riverbank erosion along the Danube (aft er Somogyi, S. 1974. and the measurements of the authors) River sections along the Danube Amount of eroded riverbank before aft er fl ood regulation, m3/km/year Sárköz Fajsz-Baja Middle Danube 138,460 82,000 – 70,000 53,330 1,200 Table 2. Bank erosion rates along the Hungarian sections of the Tisza River (aft er Károlyi, Z. 1960) River sections along the Tisza Number of shift ing meanders Amount of eroded riverbank before aft er bank protection, m3/km/year Upper Tisza Valley Middle Tisza Valley Lower Tisza Valley 109 21 12 32,590 10,633 4,785 11,500 2,450 3,090 Fig. 6. Changes in riverbanks due to the channel regulation (from the Map Series of Hidrology, 11. Danube 2. – VITUKI, 1970). – 1 = riverbank on the 1884.1829 map (by Huszár, M.); 2 = riverbank after the 1899–1904 survey by the Hydrographic Department of the National Water Construction Authority; 3 = recent riverbank; 4 = built up area; 5 = groyne 242 sett lements are still to be protected. At present the most endangered riverbank section is the Middle Danubian loess bluff . More than 10 sett lements are at risk and the highest amount of municipal and industrial infrastructure damage have been recorded there. The total amount of damaged assets and the expenditure on bank protection has not been summarized until now. In Hungary the value of dykes and other hydraulic works is around 1.932 billion EUR. The total value of hydraulic works, for bank protection directly, is estimated around 728 million EUR. Consider- ing the sett lements and areas endangered by bank erosion prior to fl ood control the value of protected assets can reach 20 billion EUR in 2001 (Láng, I. 2001). A less considered aspect of riverbank erosion is the remobilization of the deposited pollutants. Environmental consequences of this phenomenon have not been investigated yet and now it poses an immense hazard (Vonk, J.E. and Gustafsson, Ö. 2013). The rivers in the Carpathian Basin transport a huge amount of inorganic pollutants. The majority of the emitt ed non-biode- gradable inorganic pollutants (e.g. heavy metals) derive from the neighbouring countries. The main source of these pollutants is the slag and sludge reservoirs of mines, slag reservoirs of non-ferrous metal plants, and the oil refi neries (Kerényi, A. and Szabó, Gy. 2002; Kerényi, A. et al. 2003; Szabó, Gy. 2002; Szalai, Z. 1998b). These elements accumulated in well-identifi able fl oodplain sections (Szalai, Z. 1998c; Szabó, Sz. et al. 2008). The site of the accumulation mainly depends on the physical form of pollutants and on the shape of the fl oodplain (Szabó, Sz. and Posta, J. 2008). On convex fl oodplains the majority of particulate pollutants accumu- lated on natural levees, because the waves of pollution usually coincide with fl ood waves. Along Danube Zn concentration in sediments ranges between 150–250 ppm, cadmium is around 1 ppm and lead between 50–70 ppm DW (Szalai, Z. 1998a). In the Middle Danube Valley piping remobilizes around 10.5–35 kg/km/year zinc, 0.8–1.4 kg/km/year cadmium, and 3.5–10 kg/km/year lead. Most of the remobilized heavy metals move into the temporary storage and is washed into the bedload of the adjacent channels and dead arms. Since the material transport is minimal in these channels, the pollutants accumulate there, thus becoming available for the aquatic ecosystems. In the main channels (of gravel-bed rivers) the overwhelming part of remobilized heavy metals remains in suspended load. The eroded material results in 0.1 mg/litre zinc concentration increase per kilometre. The growth of lead concentration remains of the order of μg/litre. In the case of the Tisza, Gosztonyi, Gy. et al. (2011) analyzed the remobilization of zinc and iron with DW and HNO3 treatment. They found that zinc was mobilizable with distilled water in small amount (0.014±0.001 mg/kg) applying 1 week extraction, while iron was not. Furthermore, 0.001M HNO3 mobilized 2.9±1.4 mg/kg Zn; in the case of iron they experienced rebounding aft er one week. Heavy metal remo- bilization from other rivers has not been estimated yet. 243 Conclusion Channel regulation and fl ood control have changed riverbank erosion condi- tions completely. Bank erosion has been generally reduced along the rivers of the Carpathian Basin. Before fl ood regulation and bank protection it was the lateral channel shift ing that eroded the highest amount of material. Recently these river curves are protected, and, consequently, the share of erosion of natural levees has increased. 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Az almásfüzitői vörösiszap-zagytározók környezetgeomorfológiai vi- szonyai (Environmental geomorphological conditions of red mud depositories at Almásfüzitő). Hungarian Geographical Bulletin / Földrajzi Értesítő 53. (1–2): 85–92. Vissy, Zs. 1988. The Pannonian limes in Hungary. Budapest–Stutt gart, Corvina–Theiss, 149 p. Vonk, J.E. and Gustafsson, Ö. 2013. Permafrost-carbon complexities. Nature Geoscience 6. (9): 675–676. 246 Changing Ethnic Patt erns of the Carpatho–Pannonian Area from the Late 15th until the Early 21st Century Edited by Károly KOCSIS and Patrik TÁTRAI Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Research Centre for Astronomy and Earth Sciences Budapest, 2012. This is a collection of maps that visually introduces the changing ethnic patt erns of the ethnically, religiously, culturally unique and diverse Carpathian Basin and its neighbour- hood, the Carpatho-Pannonian area. The Hungarian and English volume consist of three structural units. On the main map, pie charts depict the ethnic structure of the sett lements in proportion to the population based on census data et the millennium. In the supplementary maps, changes of the ethnic structure can be seen at nine dates (in 1495, 1784, 1880, 1910, 1930, 1941, 1960, 1990 and 2001). The third unit of the work is the accompanying text, which outlines the ethnic trends of the past fi ve hundred years in the studied area. The antecedent of this publication is the „series of eth- nic maps” published by the Geographical Research Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences from the middle of the 1990’s, which displayed each of the regions of the Carpathian Basin (in order of pub- lication: Transylvania, Slovakia, Transcarpathia, Pannonian Croatica, Vojvodina, Transmura Region, Burgenland, Hungary). This work represents, on the one hand, the up- dated and revised version of these areas, and, on the other hand, re- gions beyond the Carpathian Basin not included on previous maps. Thus, the reader can browse ethnic data of some thirty thousand sett le- ments in diff erent maps. ----------------------------------- Price: EUR 12.00 Order : Geographical Institute RCAES HAS Library H-1112 Budapest, Budaörsi út 45. 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