Depending on motorways – transport connections of Hungarian industrial parks and their enterprises 131 Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 61 (2) (2012) 131–153. Depending on motorways – transport connections of Hungarian industrial parks and their enterprises Éva KISS and Tibor TINER1 Abstract After regime change industrial parks (IPs) with diff erent transport conditions played a prominent role in the renewal and the spatial transformation of Hungarian industry. One of the main goals of this study was to reveal a relationship between the main features and the transport connections of IPs and to demonstrate the impacts of transport infra- structures on the site selection of IPs. A further goal was to study the correspondence between the transport connections of IPs and their enterprises. The research was part of OTKA (Hungarian Scientifi c Research Fund) project (ref no. K 75906) and was based on two surveys (carried out by questionnaires). The fi rst survey was made among IPs in 2010, the second one (based on the previous research) was carried out among enterprises selected considering several aspects in 2011. During the empirical research the strong dependence of IPs on motorways and the signifi cance of transport infrastructure (espe- cially road transport) in site selection of industrial investments became obvious. All those phenomena determine the new spatial patt ern of Hungarian industry and may eff ect its possible transformation in the future. Keywords: industrial parks, transport, motorways, Hungary Introduction After regime change, radical alterations took place in the Hungarian industry which came to pass in a diff erentiated way both in space and time and led to the dramatic spatial restructuring of the industry (Kiss, É. 2010). The indus- trial parks (IPs) being new places for the industrial production contributed to that realignment considerably giving sites for dozens of industrial enterprises (Kiss, É. 2001, 2003). The pace of the industrial renewal and the development of the industry and the IPs depended on many factors (e.g. geographical posi- 1 Geographical Institute, Research Centre for Astronomy and Earth Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, H-1112 Budapest, Budaörsi út 45. E-mails: kisse@helka.iif.hu, tinert@mtafk i.hu 132 tion, the quantity and the quality of labour force, the conditions of living, the development of infrastructure). Among them, the character and the technical level of transport infra- structure were emphasized in several studies (Tiner, T. 1996, 2003; Abonyi- Palotás, J. 2006; Bodor, É. 2006; Koltai, Z. 2006). There is no doubt about the close context with the geographical location of the new industrial facilities, the spatial structure of the foreign capital investments, the technical level of the transport infrastructure and the directions of the main axes of the transport network. (Eyerly, R.W., Twark, R. and Downing, R.H. 1987; Molnár, L.J. and Skultéty, L. 2000) All the factors mentioned above had positive impacts on the economic development having been investigated by several experts from diff erent aspects (Hardi, T. 2000; TÓth, G. 2002; Lakshmanan, T.R. 2011). IPs appeared in Hungary in the 1990s and started to grow in number at the end of the decade. 210 industrial parks were registered in 2010 and their area reached nearly 12,000 ha-s. The number of enterprises sett led in them reached nearly 4,000 and about 60 percent of their total income (HUF 10,000 billion) derived from export. The estimated number of their employees was about 200,000 persons. On the whole, they play a very important role both in regional and local economy. But there are considerable diff erences among them looking at their geographical position, spatial concentration, economic structure and their role in economic and regional development. Additional important factors are their positions in transportation network and the re- gional diff erences existing in the technical level of transport infrastructure. Both factors have direct infl uences on profi tability. Goals and method of the research It was a remarkable goal of the study to reveal a presumptive relationship between the selection of IPs with diff erent features (e.g. the year of their foun- dation, their area, the character and the number of their investments) and the quality of their transport connections. We also made an att emption to answer the question how the process of site selection of IPs is determined by the level of transport infrastructure of the chosen region and the direction of the main axes of transport network. We study whether the transport facilities of IPs correspond with the transport connections needed for the sett led companies and we also examine the main reasons of the possible discrepancies are. We try to answer to those questions in the frame of Hungarian Scientifi c Research Fund (OTKA) project titled “Spatial structural impacts of industrial investments and their transport connections”. Connecting to that project, several papers have been published revealing partly the theoretical and the methodological premises and partly 133 the evaluated regional structure and the transport connections of the fi rms among the top 500 Hungarian companies sett led in the IPs (Tiner, T. 2010a, b). However, the comprehensive study of the IPs is still missing. This study is based basically on the experiences of two empirical sur- veys carried out in 2010 and 2011. At fi rst we att empted to reveal the main features and the transport connections of IPs then after the typology of IPs, we made a survey among the 23 selected IPs with diff erent transport facili- ties. In 2010 questionnaires containing 19 questions were sent to all IPs. One half of the questions referred to the main characteristics of IPs (e.g. the year of the foundation, their area, the type of investments, the number of enterprises and employees). The other half of the questions referred to the transport geo- graphical positions and the transport connections of IPs. Only one third of all IPs (72 altogether) answered the questions, which can be considered a fair rate considering the fact that about 10–20 percent of the IPs have been out of opera- tion for several years (RegŐs, Zs. 2007). (Among the 72 IPs, few ones haven’t answered each question.) In the course of the empirical research carried out in 2011, question- naires containing 21 questions were fi lled out by only 70 transport intensive enterprises (12.6 percent) of the selected 23 IPs. The most important questions referred to the number of employees, the transport connections, the input-out- put freight traffi c and the role of transport conditions in site selection. Though the number of polls fi lled out seemed to be relatively few (very few question- naires were sent from the South Hungarian Plain region), we consider the polls sent to us suitable for revealing tensions and contradictions hidden in the transport conditions of the IPs and their enterprises investigated. Furthermore, the given answers may contribute to evaluating the role of transportation in site selection and may disclose the diff erences of development of IPs. Relationships between industry and transportation There is no doubt about the statement that there is a strong coherence between the economic (especially industrial) development and transportation (com- munication). It is also obvious that investing in transport infrastructure have benefi ts on the economic (industrial) development of a given region. But there is an argument about the rate of that infl uence and the way of its measurement (Banister, D. and Berechman, Y. 2001). Though att empts have been made to measure it by applying diff erent methods inland and abroad (e.g. shift and share analysis, potential models) (Hardi T. 2000; TÓth, G. 2006, 2008; Lakshmanan, T.R. 2011), there are no sure evidences demonstrating a clear correlation between the development of economy (industry) and transportation. The reason for that is the diffi culty to make diff erences among infl uences with high variety (e.g. 134 distributive and generative eff ects in case of motorways; multiplicative and ac- celerative infl uences in case of railways (ErdŐsi, F. 1991; TÓth, G. 2006). Distinct interactions existing between the varied branches of transport and the diff erent sectors of economy make it more diffi cult to evaluate the in- terdependency between communication and economic growth. For example, the traditional sectors of industry (because of their transport intensive char- acter) depend on the level of transport to a greater extent than the high-tech and knowledge intensive branches of industry. Of them, the technical level of telecommunication may be the more relevant factor. The interaction existing between transportation and economy (indus- try) can be considered as a self-strengthening, dynamic process. Consequently, changes taken place in the transport system have an infl uence on the accessibil- ity of a given region in accordance with their weights and they also determine the direction of development (ErdŐsi, F. 1991; Femald, J.G. 1999). Nevertheless, several authors emphasize that the development of transport infrastructure as well as the high standard of transport infrastructure are not enough to develop the economy (industry) or a region. An adequate presence of other factors (e.g. highly developed physical and human infrastructure, political or institutional conditions etc.) is also indispensable (Banister, D. and Berechman, Y. 2001; TÓth, G. 2002, 2006). Of course, it is diffi cult to fi gure out which factors and when will play a decisive role in the process mentioned above. It depends on several conditions and it can change from time to time. For example, in the early 2000s besides the level of skills of labour force, local motivations such as local taxes and diff erent types of allowances played an important role (Kiss, É. 2001, 2003). However, during the last years, those facilities have become less relevant mainly because of the deepening economic crisis and due to the fact that self-governments are suff ering from the high rate of defi cit of the local budget. Hence, in case of establishing IPs, the sett lement can not aff ord to provide any types of allow- ances or free areas to the investors to att ract them to the sett lement. Throughout history, transportation and its branches have taken part in economic (industrial) development, the site selection of industrial construc- tions and the shaping of the economic space in diff erent ways. It was clearly demonstrated in a historical review made by Knowles, R.D. (2006). For long centuries, water transport was the most favourable and eff ective form of trans- portation. Accordingly, the Hungarian sett lements which were located near the bigger rivers (e.g. Danube, Tisza) showed a spectacle economic prosperity. Industrial plants with high transport needs were located also along the big riv- ers. Until the appearance of railways, there had been no considerable or sharp diff erences in the conditions of road transport of landlocked countries. The construction, the spatial structure and the nodes of railway net- work had a positive impetus on economic development and the selection of 135 industrial sites which resulted in the shaping of industrialized belts developing dynamically along the main railway lines. Consequently, railway transport played a leading role in the process of industrialization, the establishment of new industrial sites and their location close to the railway lines. That process determined and diff erentiated the economic (industrial) development of the diff erent areas considerably. It means that the impact of transportation on the economic and regional development is of the same age as the development of railway transport (ErdŐsi, F. 1991). In the second half of the 19th century large-scale railway construc- tions began in Hungary resulting in the build-up of more than 6,000 km long national railway network. At the beginning of the 20th century that length of railway lines represented a very good position in the ranking of the European countries. Railways connected not just Hungary having a periphery position at that time but also its certain fringe areas to the European economic circu- lation (Berend, T.I. and Ránki, Gy. 1978). Railway construction fostered the development of heavy industries (coal and iron ore mining, metallurgy) with great needs of raw materials. Mostly the main railway lines att racted the new industrial sites and became the main axes of economic prosperity creating important economic (industrial) centres (ErdŐsi, F. 2005). In the 20th century the technical development of transportation had a revolutionary impact on overland transport. The process of turning from the railway era into the motorway age was more slowly in the Eastern part of Europe than in the Western one and that process accelerated only in the early 1990s after the political regime change. Consequently, at the beginning of the 21st century structural inequalities in the branches of transport between the Western and the post-socialist countries diminished considerably. In 2005 the rate of vans and lorries in full freight transport was higher in Eastern Europe than that in the EU-15 countries (ErdŐsi, F. 2009). Moreover, in 2010 more than 70 percent of goods were carried by road in Hungary as well. The evolvement of motorisation age and the sweeping advance of road transport were connected with the extension of public road network and its technical improvement coming from the high activity in main road construc- tion. Between 1990 and 2010 the total length of motorways and motor roads extended from 349 km to 1,272 km. It is of great importance because more and more counties managed to get main roads for rapid transit. While in 1990 eight Hungarian counties (Bács-Kiskun, Fejér, Győr-Moson-Sopron, Heves, Komárom-Esztergom, Pest and Veszprém) had a modest rapid transit network (with a few dozens of km), 20 years later only 4 counties (Békés, Jász-Nagykun- Szolnok, Nógrád, Vas) missed that type of arterial roads. In the middle of 1990s when the volume of foreign direct investments (FDIs) increased, more than 75 percent of motorways and motor roads were still concentrated in 4 counties (Győr-Moson-Sopron, Fejér, Komárom-Esztergom and Pest). Those counties 136 also enriched in several industrial investments at that time and deriving from that fact they determine the regional structure of the Hungarian industry of today as well (Kiss, É. 2002, 2010). As opposed to the developed countries, the intensity of research ac- tivities focusing on the economy stimulating eff ects of transport investments (highway constructions) increased in Hungary only in the last decades. It has two objective reasons. Firstly, the rate of expressways represented only a mod- est rate within the Hungarian main road network before 1989. Secondly, dur- ing the socialist era the transport costs had only a marginal infl uence on site selection criteria of the large industrial investments (Barta, Gy. and Enyedi, Gy. 1981). After regime change, the importance of transport and transport geographical position determining the accessibility increased spectacularly. Recent investigations have underlined the positive eff ects of highways constructions on economic and regional development. Motorway M1 is a good example for that statement because it contributed to the establishment of sev- eral industrial plants and the shaping of a new spatial structure of industry by att racting foreign capital investments. However, it was confi rmed that probably other favourable local endowments also contributed to it (MÓricz, S. and Szegedi, Zs. 2008). It seems to be proven by the fact that diff erent sec- tions of the same highway have an eff ect of a diff erent degree on the economic development. E.g. motorway M7 did not promote the development of the city of Nagykanizsa, but an area of 100 hectares of the new industrial park located at the village of Sormás was occupied by companies within a few months. The geographical closeness and the running direction of motorways were important factors in decision making, mainly for German and Austrian investors. The American investors preferred establishing large scale industrial plants in deconcentrated form all over the country. In contrast, the investors arriving from German speaking countries focused their activities mainly in the Northern part of Transdanubia (Kiss, É. 2002). It was also manifested that mo- torways had positive eff ects on tax revenues, export incomes, the employment, the living conditions and the competitiveness of sett lements (ErdŐsi, F. 2002; Hardi, T. 2000; Kálnoki Kis, S. and Molnár, A. 2003). Diff erent investigations also revealed that 1–2 years after the construction, the positive economic eff ects of motorways were limited only to a relatively narrow (10–20 km) zone, but later those impacts expanded to a far greater belt (TÓth, G. 2006). Parallel to the extension of globalisation the transportation as an im- portant branch of the Hungarian economy is being gradually transformed be- cause of the alteration of the processes of production, storage activity and the distribution of goods. On one hand, those processes are creating new demands and requirements for transportation (Berényi, J. 2006), on the other hand the needs for rapid transmission of information are growing spectacularly revalu- ing the importance of telecommunication. Furthermore, deriving from the 137 extension of our rapid transit network, its diff erentiating role in the economic (industrial) and regional development, the site selection and the shaping of industrial areas will be presumably diminished in the following years. Features of industrial parks and their transport endowments It is not a simple task to defi ne the concept of ’industrial park’. Several defi ni- tions were born to describe it. Generally, it means an area which is prepared for industrial use (Buzás, N. and Lengyel, I. eds. 2002). However, it can also be considered as a property management project with an area suitable for location of concentrated industrial activity (Benko, G. 1992; Kiss, É. 2001). The areas which have won that title can be considered to be “industrial parks” in Hungary. (Our research focuses on those IPs.) The criteria of gett ing that title has changed compared to previous conditions. Originally, an area selected to economic and/or industrial development and with industrial profi le may man- age to win the title of IP if it possessed 10 hectare area, 10 fi rms and minimum 500 employees. Nowadays the basic area of large-scale constructions operating as IP must be 10 hectares. However, when applying for a project, only 5 fi rms are needed to be sett led in an IP with only 100 employees. Later applicants must be obliged to increase the number of fi rms sett led in the IPs from 5 to 10 and the number of employees from 100 to 500 within fi ve years. Probably those less strict conditions of gett ing an IP title contributed to the IP’s modest occupation during the last years. Additionally, the long-lasting global economic crisis has unfavourable infl uences on the rate of occupation and the employment of IPs. Nearly two third of the IPs taking part in a survey made in 2010 were established before the turn of the millennium. A long time has passed since their establishment and thus there has been an opportunity to build up the in- frastructure of their communication and strengthen their connections of trans- portation. The rate of the IPs established between 2001 and 2005 and after 2005 are nearly the same. The answers given by 72 IP-respondents refl ect clearly their distribution by the years of their establishment. Nearly half of them were established in 1997 and 1998 so they belong to the group of older IPs. Among the respondents, we can discover Győr Industrial Park, the oldest one in Hungary (and in East Central Europe too), which was established in 1991. But offi cially it has been operating only since 1997 when the Industrial Park Programme was introduced at a governmental level. There is a constant increase in the number of IPs in Hungary (in 2012 their number was 217) and their regional distribution became more even. But here has to remark that even in the early 2000s, there was not a single Hungarian sett lement without an IP within its 30 km radius (Nikodémus, A. 2002) (Figure 1). 138 According to the character of investments, IPs can be categorized into three main types: greenfi eld, brownfi eld and mixed ones. a) Initially, the IPs were established as greenfi eld investments, because that type of construction was faster, cheaper and easier to locate than the brownfi eld ones (Kiss, É. 2001). Those IPs were popular among enterprises sett led mainly because their areas and the types of their uses could be changed fl exibly and they could be enlarged later. Greenfi eld IPs show greater regional density in Northern Transdanubia, in the agglomeration zone of Budapest and in the middle part of the Hungarian Great Plain (Alföld) Region. b) Brownfi eld IPs were located mainly in previous traditional industrial areas and in the sites of previous factories as the most frequent form of their recycling. A few of them were established in the territory of a former military base. In a broad sense, every non-greenfi eld IP must be considered as a type of IP which has brownfi eld character. Most brownfi eld IPs are connected to former traditional industrial belts developed in the mountainous regions rich in mineral and energy resources. c) In recent years more and more mixed IPs have been established be- cause brownfi eld ones have expanded their territories with greenfi eld areas where their local capabilities made those enlargements possible (Figure 1). Fig. 1. Regional patt ern of IPs by the time period of establishment and the character of investment, 2010. Source: Survey carried out in 2010. 139 28 of 72 investigated IPs were the result of greenfi eld investments, further 32 IPs were brownfi eld ones, the rest of them belonged to mixed type. It is very important to deal with the types of investments, because they have diff erent impacts on the transport connections of the fi rms sett led in (the area of IPs). Greenfi eld investments off er optimal logistics and fi nancial condi- tions for building up transport and other service infrastructure (e.g. places for parking) in the IPs even in the fi rst phase of their constructions. In contrast, brownfi eld IPs have to face with more limited possibilities and they have less freedom to form their already existing transport infrastructure. The fi rms sett led in the IPs must take into consideration the previously constructed transport infrastructure, the quality of which is generally far from the mod- ern and high-tech ones built up in the greenfi eld IPs. Presumably, transport possibilities and facilities available in brownfi eld IPs determine the type of enterprises sett led in (Photos 1 and 2). The areas of IPs diff er in size considerably and with their develop- ment they often change in time. Of course, those changes have an eff ect on the transport capabilities of the IPs. The majority (69 percent) of the investigated IPs have territories under 50 hectares. Probably, that value derives from their estimated optimal size which is between 30 and 50 hectares (Rakusz, L. 2000). Photo 1. Part of the Csepel brownfi eld industrial park (Photo by Kiss, É.) 140 In 2010 the size of 17 IPs exceeded 100 hectares, while in the early 2000s that number was 23. Consequently, during the last decade the number of larger IPs decreased considerably. Though a few of them are greenfi eld investments (e.g. Győr IP, Szentgott hárd IP and Nyíregyháza IP), but their majority belong to brownfi eld and mixed type ones. There may be considerable diff erences in the number of entrepreneurs sett led in and also their employees both within an IP and among the IPs. Generally, IPs with few entrepreneurs have less employees as well. In 2010 78,315 persons were employed at more than 1,800 fi rms in the 72 IPs altogether. It equals to 25 enterprises and 1,088 employees per IP as an average. Actually, the values of the latt er indicator are under the average in case of two third of IPs, so the real number of their employees is much smaller than the average. Several IPs with less than 10 enterprises operated in the Hungarian Great Plain (e.g. in Jászapáti, Törökszentmiklós, Makó and Kiskunfélegyháza IPs) and in Transdanubia (e.g. in Nagyatád, Barcs and Zirc IPs). However, more than 100 fi rms belonged to only two brownfi eld IPs (Ózd IP and Budapest District 16 IP). Most workers are employed not only in those two IPs but in fi ve additional ones (Esztergom IP – 7,750 persons; Tatabánya IP – 5,600 persons; Photo 2. Part of the greenfi eld Győr idustrial park (Photo by Kiss, É.) 141 Győr IP – 4,554 persons; Hatvan IP – 4,247 persons and Nyíregyháza IP – 4,000 persons). The smallest number of employees worked in Almásfüzitő IP (30 persons), Barcs IP and Polgár IP (40–40 persons). In 61 percent of IPs the occupation of available areas was more than 50 percent which seems to be a very favourable value. IPs with occupation rate of 25–50 percent operate mainly in the Great Plain region. It means that the major part of their area is in permanent use. Less than 25 percent ratio occurs only in case of a few newly (a few years ago) established IPs in North Transdanubia and to the North Hungary. The largest diff erences between IPs with high and low occupation rates are demonstrated along the Miskolc–Kaposvár line with NE–SW direction. The majority of IPs with high occupation rates is located North of that hypothetical line. The main part of IPs with low occupation rates is concentrated on the South of that line (especially in the Great Plain region). It must also be emphasized that the occupancy itself doesn’t refl ect neither the profi le and the profi tability of located fi rms nor the utilization rate of IPs. Starting from this statement, there should be remarkable diff erences between the IPs sett led in the Northern parts of the Transdanubian region and the ones sett led in the Southern parts in spite of the fact that the occupancy rates are high in both regions. Diff erent transport capabilities have undoubt- edly had an infl uence on it. The majority of IPs are sett led along the motorways. Nearly half of them are located closer than 10 km to those arteries. So the closeness of mo- torways is a basic condition of the existence for the operation of IPs. Several investigations have confi rmed that areas having good motorway connections were put „on the map” of foreign investors and this way they were doomed to development (Bartha, A. and Klauber, M. 2000). The need for accessibil- ity via motorway is various in the diff erent branches of economy. Transport capability is very important especially for the processing industry and mainly for machinery (automotive industry, electronics), because many of their inland factories being subsidiaries of transnational companies are in close contact with the global networks of production. A close correlation can be detected between the routes of motor- ways and the spatial distribution of IPs, mainly in the agglomeration zone of Budapest and along the motorways. E.g. along the M1 on Northern Transdanubia, M3 in Northern Hungary and Northern Hungarian Plain, M5 in Southern Hungarian Plain, M6 in Southern Transdanubia and fi nally along M7 in Central Transdanubia NUTS2 regions. Closeness of motorway is the dominant element of typisation in case of IPs by their position in transporta- tion network (Figure 2. A, B, C). The existence of IPs close to M1 motorway (e.g. Nagyigmánd, Almásfüzitő, Nyergesújfalu IP) with low rate of occupation confi rms the hy- pothesis that additional factors (e.g. favourable demographic structure, skilled 142 Fig 2. Types of IPs by their position in transportation network, 2010. A = IP in multimodal transport location connecting to superhub (Budapest); B = IP situated along main arteries near important river port and/or airport; C = IP situated along main arteries far from im- portant river port and/or airport; D = IP situated along secondary arteries near important river port and/or airport; E = IP situated along secondary arteries far from important river port and/or airport; F = IP situated along tertiary arterial position. Source: Survey carried out in 2010. labour power) are also necessary to enhance the positive eff ects of a motorway. Probably, those additional factors contributed to a relatively high occupation rate even in IPs (e.g. Videoton IP in Kaposvár, Gyula IP, Barcs IP) being more than 50 km away from the nearest motorway. Since the majority of the IPs mentioned above are brownfi eld investments, their connection to motorways is not a decisive factor for their activities, as probably only few enterprises sett led in the IPs have close connections to global economy. Only Gyula IP (Békés county) out of the surveyed 72 IPs informed us about the fact that its distance from the nearest motorway was more than 100 km. Obviously, it is not a coincidence, because transport geographical position of Békés county is very unfavourable. Even these days there are no motorways in Békés county. Their closeness to primary and secondary roads contributes to the relatively good road accessibility of IPs (Figure 2. D, E, F). 19 IPs revealed that their distance from the nearest primary or secondary roads is more than 10 km. 143 Their regional distribution generally follows the structure of periphery areas of the country, namely they can be found on the outer peripheries along the border regions (e.g. the Barcs IP, Letenye IP) and on inner peripheries along the county borders (Bélapátfalva IP, Makó IP, Szászberek IP). In other words, IPs with poor road accessibility are situated out of the North Transdanubia region which has the most developed industry. North Transdanubia is a pio- neer in the industrial innovation and its integration into the global economy is the most advanced). The connection of IPs to railway lines – except Letenye IP, Várpalota IP and Visonta IP – seems to be favourable, because the majority of them can reach railway lines in(side) their sett lement/location and within a few km distance. Mainly double- and single-track electrifi ed main railway lines are available for IPs. However, the utilization of that advantageous condition is far from the optimal, because of the lower att raction of freight and passenger rail transport. Consequently, railway connections do not play an essential role neither in site selection of IPs and their enterprises nor in their further develop- ment. Generally, Hungarian experiences are in accord with the international trends and they follow them permanently (Figure 2). Looking at the water transport, we can state that most of the IPs are in unfavourable position, because the majority of their sites are far from the ports of our navigable rivers. IPs situating in hilly regions with traditional industries are in the worst position. One sixth of the surveyed IPs announced that the nearest river ports are less than 20 km away from them and they are situated along the Danube and the Tisza River. The water transport connections are also determined by the routes of the navigable rivers. Consequently, only the IPs situated close to water routes can enjoy the benefi ts of that situation. It often occurs that water transport is not utilized by IPs despite the availability of water transportation. On the other hand, being without direct water transport accessibility doesn’t neces- sarily mean a handicapped situation, because among others, water transport connections might not be important for the companies of the IPs. Survey made among the fi rms of IPs served to confi rm or deny of that preconception (Figure 2 B, D.) Based on the accessibility of their air transport connections, IPs can be divided into two groups. The fi rst one involves the IPs situated relatively close (within 20 km) to the nearest airport, the second one consists of IPs situated farther than 50 km. Latt er ones can be found mainly in Northern Hungary region, which can be explained with the low airport density of the region ow- ing to its hilly relief. IPs with the best airborne traffi c connections are sett led in towns, especially in county seats (e.g. in Debrecen, Győr, Pécs, Szeged). The towns mentioned above have old traditions of air transport and they have had their own airports for decades. 144 From the closeness of IPs to the various elements of transportation net- works, we can conclude which elements could play a role in their site selection and in what measure. Answers given to the questions focusing on that prob- lem have also confi rmed that high quality elements (highways, primary and secondary main roads) of public road network available in diff erent measure are key transport factors for IPs in site selections. More than 40 out of 72 IPs have revealed that elements of public road and railway connections mentioned above have had the greatest infl uence on their site selection (Table 1). Mostly road transport and rarely railway transport were in dominant position in case of IPs where waterborne and airborne traffi c connections were also relevant factors in site selection. Only four IPs (Szigetszentmiklós IP, Rába IP in Győr, Kalocsa IP and Üllő IP) announced that each form of transport connections had infl uenced their site selections. All those IPs are sett led along the Danube. Ten percent of the IPs answered to the question of the inquiry/survey that not a single transport factor had infl uenced their site selections (Table 2). IPs classifi ed into various types according to the role of diff erent ele- ments of transportation network in site selection do not form special territorial groups. Essentially, the categories have not spatial specifi c appearances, they don’t favour certain regions. On the whole, the investigation among IPs revealed partly the im- portance of road transport and partly the fact that the IPs generally have a favourable transport geographical position. Motorways have played promi- nent role in site selection for IPs from the middle of 1990s and nowadays their diff erentiating function still has a great impact on the structure of the Hungarian industry. Table 1. The importance of diff erent transport elements in the site selection of industrial parks, 2010 Denomination of diff erent transport elements Indicated by industrial parks* Number % Motorways Main roads Railway lines with diff erent quality Railway terminals for freight traffi c Water transport connections (river ports) Air transport connections (airports) Other elements of transport Transport connections were not important 43 41 42 16 9 11 4 7 59.7 56.9 58.3 22.2 12.5 15.3 5.6 9.7 *An industrial park might indicate more transport elements. Source: Survey carried out in 2010 145 Ta bl e 2 . G ro up s o f i nd us tr ia l p ar ks b y di ff e re nt tr an sp or t c on ne ct io ns in th eir si te se lec tio n, 2 01 0 D en om in at io n of tr an sp or t c on ne ct io ns N am es o f i nd us tr ia l p ar ks w ith s ett le m en ts A) O ve rla nd tr an sp or t n et w or k co nn ec tio ns (5 1 IP s) Ex cl us iv el y m ot or w ay (5 IP s) Bá bo ln a, K az in cb ar ci ka (B or so dc he m IP ), M is ko lc , N ag yk őr ös , P át y M ot or w ay a nd m ai n ro ad (6 IP s) D eb re ce n, F el ső zs ol ca , G öd öl lő , M ak ó, M ór a h al om , O ro sz lá ny Ex cl us iv el y m ai n ro ad (1 0 IP s) A jk a, C eg lé d, K ap os vá r ( V id eo to n IP ), N ag ya tá d, P ak s, P áp a, R ak am az , Sa lg ót ar já n, S ze ge d (D él ép IP ), Tö rö ks ze nt m ik ló s (V id eo to n IP ) M ot or w ay , m ai n ro ad a nd ra ilw ay (9 IP s) G yő r, H aj dú bö sz ör m én y (E as te rn IP , W es te rn IP ), H at va n, M át és za lk a, N ye rg es új fa lu , N yí rb át or , S aj ób áb on y , V ár pa lo ta M ot or w ay a nd ra ilw ay (9 IP s) Bu da pe st (d is tr ic t 1 6 IP ), G yö ng yö s, K is ku nf él eg yh áz a, N ag yi gm án d, N yí re gy há za , Pé cs -K őv ág ós ző lő s, P ol gá r, Sz ék es fe hé rv ár , V is on ta M ai n ro ad a nd ra ilw ay (1 0 IP s) Ba rc s, D or og , E sz te rg om , G yu la , J ás za pá ti, K ar ca g, P ac sa , Ó zd , V ác , Z ir c Ex cl us iv el y ra ilw ay (2 IP s) ) K is ku nh al as , L en ti B) O ve rla nd a nd w at er tr an sp or t n et w or k co nn ec tio ns (4 IP s) Pu bl ic ro ad a nd w at er w ay (1 IP ) Sz ás zb er ek Pu bl ic ro ad , w at er w ay a nd ra ilw ay (3 IP s) A lm ás fü zi tő , B ud ap es t ( C se pe l I P) , S zo ln ok C) O ve rla nd a nd a ir tr an sp or t n et w or k co nn ec tio ns (5 IP s) Pu bl ic ro ad a nd a ir tr an sp or t ( 2 IP s) K az in cb ar ci ka , T at a Pu bl ic ro ad , r ai lw ay a nd a ir (3 IP s) K ap os vá r ( Ea st er n IP ), Sz en tg ott h ár d, T at ab án ya (W es te rn IP ) D ) O ve rla nd , w at er a nd a ir tr an sp or t n et w or k co nn ec tio ns (4 IP s) G yő r ( Rá ba IP ), K al oc sa , S zi ge ts ze nt m ik ló s, Ü llő E) T ra ns po rt co nn ec tio ns w er e n ot im po rt an t in si te se lec tio n (7 IP s) Bé la pá tfa lv a, D om bó vá r, H ód m ez őv ás ár he ly , M ar ca li, M is ko lc (D IG ÉP IP ), Pé cs , Sz eg ed (K ál vá ri a IP ) So ur ce : B as ed o n th e su rv ey c ar ri ed o ut in 2 01 0. 146 Few previous results of research on transport connections of companies in selected IPs In 2011 23 IPs with balanced regional structure were chosen for further inves- tigations from among IPs classifi ed into diff erent groups in 2010. 83 so-called “transport intensive” companies situated in those 23 IPs were selected in a way that each NUTS 2 region of the country was represented by 3–4 IPs. The suit- able level of transport connections is of great importance for the fi rms aiming rapid access both to domestic and international markets. The investigation of transport intensive fi rms was made by question- naires. The most important questions referred to the year of foundation, the profi le of the fi rm, the ownership structure, the number of employees, the transport position of IPs inside the transportation network, the network links and the accessibility of network nodes for IPs within the transportation sys- tem, the level and the condition of transport infrastructure inside the IPs, the reasons for sett ling in the IPs, the volume and the seasonal waves of input- output fl ow of production of the fi rms, the place of origin of the input and the destination of the output. Though the data of investigation are still under processing, the fi rst achievements of the research are displayed below. 1. Referring to their transport position, the majority (64.2 percent) of the surveyed companies revealed that they had favourable connection possibilities to motorways. 38.4 percent of them responded that they had accessibilities to main railway lines, but only few of them mentioned a neighbouring airport or a river port as important transport factors for their activities. The distribu- tion of responses above seems to verify the hypothesis that transport intensive fi rms locate their activities in IPs with favourable highway and good railway accessibilities along the East-West international transport axes of northern third of Hungary (Nyíregyháza–Miskolc–Budapest–Győr line) (Figure 3). 2. The favourable position in transportation network seemed extremely important or very important for 68.4 percent of the investigated enterprises as a factor of location. In case of enterprises with foreign interest that rate reached 77.8 percent. From among the pathways of branches of transport, 61.4 percent of the companies chose the motorways, additional 25.1 percent mentioned the main roads as essential elements of transport infrastructure needed for their operation. The closeness of railway lines as a factor of location was important only for 13.2 percent of the companies and the accessibility for a neighbouring airport was mentioned merely by 3.6 percent of the investigated fi rms while the closeness of river ports proved to be a neutral factor of location for the interviewed companies. The survey underlined that transport intensive fi rms sett led in IPs refuse to use railway transport mainly because of its organiza- tional infl exibility, the low level of its transport logistic services, furthermore, for its relatively high freight rates and missing rebates. 147 3. The regional distribution of mainly transport intensive companies demonstrates a considerable rate of concentration in Western Transdanubia (27 fi rms) and Northern Hungary (17 fi rms). Only a dozen of them can be found in Central Transdanubia and 11 of them were sett led in Central Hungary. Merely 7 fi rms represent the Northern Great Plain region and only a few of them moved into some of the IPs of Southern Transdanubia and Southern Great Plain region. This phenomenon demonstrates the industrial character of the investigated companies, their traditions in making all kinds of industrial products mainly for export and the relatively high technical level of the built- up infrastructure of IPs. 4. Considering the years of their foundation, the companies show a relatively balanced temporal distribution between 1985 and 2008. Slightly more than half of the fi rms (52 percent) were founded in the 1990s, 43 percent of them were established between 2000 and 2008 and merely 5 percent of the them started their activities before the regime change. Nearly 40 percent of the surveyed transport intensive enterprises (35 companies) are owned by international corporations or joint ventures with foreign majority. Being the largest employers, their proportion in the total volume of employees reached 78 percent out of the 83 surveyed companies. It is a general experience that Fig 3. Types of transport intensive enterprises in IPs by their connection opportunities to diff erent branches of transport, 2011. Source: Survey carried out in 2010. 148 foreign companies gave the majority of industrial productions, the incomes and profi ts of more branches of economies in Eastern European countries (Kiss, É. 2010). 5. Based on the collected data for the number of employees, it can be stated that the 83 investigated fi rms had increased the number of their employ- ees from 4,249 to 13,693 (3.2-fold increase) since their foundation. Among them foreign (transnational) companies and joint ventures with foreign majorities increased their staff number from 3,353 to 9,813 (by nearly 6,500 persons) and purely domestic companies increased the number of their employees from 896 to 3,880 (by only 3,000 persons). Generally, the size of foreign companies are much larger than the Hungarian ones, because they have enough fi nan- cial resources to wide their productivity in abroad. From their establishment the top 6 companies with the highest increase in staff number (above 500) were the Hungarian Suzuki Co, Esztergom IP (+2,100 employees), Coloplast Hungary Ltd, Tatabánya IP (+1,253), Videoton Elektro-Plast Co, Kaposvár IP (+920), Horvath Transport Ltd, Gyöngyös IP (+670) and ACC Glass Hungary Ltd, Tatabánya IP (+501). It’s an important remark that the long-term prosperity of transport- intensive enterprises essentially depends on the volumes of regular FDIs ac- cumulating in diff erent branches of the Hungarian economy. The volume and the rate of the accumulation of the national capital are far behind the desired level and serve only a few branches of the Hungarian economy (e.g. energy sector, special branches of agriculture). 6. Wholly or partly foreign owned enterprises represented in the sample appeared in Hungary after 1989 and started their economic activities in diff er- ent periods of the last decades. Austrian companies were among the fi rst ones which launched their subsidiaries in Hungary. More than 75 percent of them were established in Hungary before the year of 2000. Two third of the German owned companies and the German-Hungarian joint ventures were founded dur- ing the period of 1998–2002. American (USA) fi rms appeared in the early 1990s, but additional non-European companies (eg. from Japan, Israel, New-Zealand) started their activities in IPs only after 2001. During the early 2000s Hungary’s preparation for accession to the European Union was accelerated which contributed to an increase in the number of companies in the Hungarian IPs (Figure 4). 7. Spatial “density” of companies with foreign interests surveyed above demonstrates the dominancy of larger Hungarian towns easily accessible by motorways M1 (Győr, Tatabánya) and M3 (Gyöngyös, Nyíregyháza). Still in the fi rst years of new economic regime they have a considerable advantage in the economic competition for home and foreign markets. The huge economic att raction of Budapest and its agglomeration zone also inspired foreign compa- nies (e.g. the Israeli TEVA in Gödöllő) to choose their sites in Central Hungary off ering transport infrastructure of highest quality. Hungary as a landlocked 149 country with its relatively sparse river ports, underdeveloped river transport and airport infrastructure is rather unable to meet the high technical and lo- gistical requirements of international companies. Only Budapest and larger towns situated along the main transportation axes of road and railway trans- port are favoured by multinational companies (e.g. Audi in Győr, Coloplast in Tatabánya, Suzuki in Esztergom, Lego and Electrolux in Nyíregyháza etc.). The spatial concentration of foreign enterprises mentioned above also confi rms that (Figure 5). 8. The investigation outlined that in case of 26.3 percent of transport intensive enterprises both the place of origin of inputs and the destination of outputs were situated in Hungary. More than one fourth of the fi rms above have not entered the international market yet, moreover, 90 percent of them are wholly domestic owned. Two third of them are located in Northern Hungary, in the Southern part of Transdanubia and in the Hungarian Great Plain. 63.1 percent of the fi rms importing goods and services both from Hungary and from other mem- ber states of the European Union are foreign-owned companies or joint ven- tures with mainly foreign interest. Nearly 72 percent of them operate in IPs situated along the primary transport axis of Gyöngyös–Budapest–Győr line. Fig 4. Establishment of transport intensive enterprises with foreign interest between 1989 and 2008 (according to the nationality of majority owners). Source: Survey carried out in 2010. 150 Finally, it is also important to mention that several transport intensive companies are unsatisfi ed with the transport infrastructure near the IPs. Their problems have both quantitative and qualitative characters: Exit lanes of motorways are relatively far from the entrances of many – IPs which shows that the transport interests of fi rms were not taken into con- sideration when deciding where to build exit lanes. Public roads connecting arterial roads with IPs are often narrow and – deteriorated because of huge lorry traffi c. The bad physical condition of roads causes strong vibration, e.g. fragile commodities often get damaged. Transversal roads crossing sett lements of Budapest agglomeration – zone are permanently congested which leads to bad road accessibility condi- tions of the IPs of the agglomeration belt. The quality of inner road network of several industrial parks is insuf- – fi cient because those roads were built with low expenses. There are neither pavements nor bicycle roads in several industrial parks which has led to an increased risk of traffi c accident. It’s also a crucial problem that a lot of IPs have bad public transport – accessibilities. From among the surveyed employees only the car owners and the daily commuters carried by company buses to their workplaces were satis- fi ed with the conditions of daily travel. Fig 5. Regional patt ern of transport intensive companies with foreign interest, 2011 (according to the nationality of majority owners and the numbers of employees). Source: Survey carried out in 2010. 151 Summary Empirical studies demonstrated clearly that transport infrastructure had played an important role in site selection of IPs and their enterprises. It was also confi rmed that their main att raction factors were the good conditions for road transport, especially the routes of motorways. However, it is an unfavour- able fact that IPs don’t utilise other available modes of transport for diff erent reasons. Preliminary studies showed that the transport needs for IPs and their companies corresponded with each other, however, some problems had also emerged which predict the main directions of developments. A close correlation was found between the main indicators of IPs (the years of establishment, the areas of IPs, the characters of investments, the rates of occupation etc.) and the quality of their transport connections. In general, it can be stated that the highest occupation rate can be found in Greenfi eld IPs established before the turn of the millennium thanks to their favourable transport geographical positions. The majority of those IPs and their enter- prises are concentrated in Northern Transdanubia. 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(3 Febr.): 6. Tiner, T 1996. Nagylétesítmények telephely-kiválasztásának gazdaság- és társadalom- földrajzi feltételei (Economic and social conditions of site selection of large-scale in- vestments). In Nagyberuházások és veszélyes hulladékok telephely-kiválasztásának földrajzi feltételrendszere. Eds. Schweitzer, F. and Tiner, T. Budapest, MTA FKI, 89–125. 153 Tiner, T. 2003. The Hungarian ISPA strategy for the transport infrastructure and its eff ects on regional development. Geografi cký Časopis 3. Bratislava, SAV, 223–233. Tiner, T. 2010a. Far from the core – regions and industrial parks in economic shadow in Hungary. Part one. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 59. (2): 89–106. Tiner, T. 2010b. Far from the core – regions and industrial parks in economic shadow in Hungary. Part two. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 59. (3): 241–254. TÓth, G. 2002. Kísérlet az autópályák területfejlesztő hatásának bemutatására (An att empt to demonstrate the eff ect of motorways on regional development). Területi Statisztika 5. (6): 493–505. TÓth, G. 2006. Az autópályák területfejlesztő hatásának vizsgálata (The analysis of the impacts of motorways on regional development). Közlekedéstudományi Szemle 56. (4): 137–149. TÓth, G. 2008. A közúti elérhetőség és a társadalmi-gazdasági folyamatok alakulásának vizsgálata Magyarországon (Investigation on road accessibility and socio-economic processes). Közlekedéstudományi Szemle 58. (3): 14–29. 154 AVAILABLE! Ethnic map of Hungary 1941 + Ethnic map of present territory of Hungary 2001 Scale 1:500 000 Authors: KOCSIS, K. and BOTTLIK, ZS. Geographical Research Institute, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, 2009 The latest (eighth) piece of ethnic map series of the Carpathian Basin was an att empt to draft the changes that have taken place in the ethnic structure during the past fi ve hun- dred years as well as to display its present state with the help of ethnic maps and a chart - in our case referring to the present-day territory of Hungary. On the front pages of our work consist- ing of two sheets ethnic maps of the present-day territory of Hungary are displayed with the help of pie-charts, based on ethnic ( 2 0 0 1 ) a n d mother tongue (1941) data. Population-proportional p ie -char t s provide information on the territorial distribu- tion of the major ethnic groups and on the contemporary admin- istrative division. T h e nine supplementary maps on the re- verse show the lingual-ethnic com- position of the present-day ter- ritory of Hungary in 1495, 1715, 1784, 1880, 1910, 1930, 1941, 1990 and 2001 respectively. The chart here explores the quantitative and proportional changes of the main ethnic groups’ population between 1495 and 2001. The series of maps displays absolute or relative ethnic majorities only in the inhabited areas of the sett lements which had been mentioned in the source referred. Uninhabited areas with no permanent sett lements are shown as blank spots. Price: EUR 10.00 – For sale only in pairs! O rd e r : G eog rap h i ca l I n s t i t u t e R C A E S H A S Library. H-1112 Budapest, Budaörsi út 45. E-mail: magyar.arpad@csfk .mta.hu << /ASCII85EncodePages false /AllowTransparency false /AutoPositionEPSFiles true /AutoRotatePages /None /Binding /Left /CalGrayProfile (Dot Gain 20%) /CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2) /sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Error /CompatibilityLevel 1.4 /CompressObjects /Tags /CompressPages true /ConvertImagesToIndexed true /PassThroughJPEGImages true /CreateJobTicket false /DefaultRenderingIntent /Default /DetectBlends true /DetectCurves 0.0000 /ColorConversionStrategy /CMYK /DoThumbnails false /EmbedAllFonts true /EmbedOpenType false /ParseICCProfilesInComments true /EmbedJobOptions true /DSCReportingLevel 0 /EmitDSCWarnings false /EndPage -1 /ImageMemory 1048576 /LockDistillerParams false /MaxSubsetPct 100 /Optimize true /OPM 1 /ParseDSCComments true /ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true /PreserveCopyPage true /PreserveDICMYKValues true /PreserveEPSInfo true /PreserveFlatness true /PreserveHalftoneInfo false /PreserveOPIComments true /PreserveOverprintSettings true /StartPage 1 /SubsetFonts true /TransferFunctionInfo /Apply /UCRandBGInfo /Preserve /UsePrologue false /ColorSettingsFile () /AlwaysEmbed [ true ] /NeverEmbed [ true ] /AntiAliasColorImages false /CropColorImages true /ColorImageMinResolution 300 /ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK /DownsampleColorImages true /ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic /ColorImageResolution 300 /ColorImageDepth -1 /ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1 /ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000 /EncodeColorImages true /ColorImageFilter /DCTEncode /AutoFilterColorImages true /ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG /ColorACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >> /ColorImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >> /JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >> /JPEG2000ColorImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >> /AntiAliasGrayImages false /CropGrayImages true /GrayImageMinResolution 300 /GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK /DownsampleGrayImages true /GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic /GrayImageResolution 300 /GrayImageDepth -1 /GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2 /GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000 /EncodeGrayImages true /GrayImageFilter /DCTEncode /AutoFilterGrayImages true /GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG /GrayACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >> /GrayImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >> /JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >> /JPEG2000GrayImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >> /AntiAliasMonoImages false /CropMonoImages true /MonoImageMinResolution 1200 /MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK /DownsampleMonoImages true /MonoImageDownsampleType /Bicubic /MonoImageResolution 1200 /MonoImageDepth -1 /MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000 /EncodeMonoImages true /MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode /MonoImageDict << /K -1 >> /AllowPSXObjects false /CheckCompliance [ /None ] /PDFX1aCheck false /PDFX3Check false /PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false /PDFXNoTrimBoxError true /PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [ 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 ] /PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true /PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [ 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 ] /PDFXOutputIntentProfile () /PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier () /PDFXOutputCondition () /PDFXRegistryName () /PDFXTrapped /False /CreateJDFFile false /Description << /ARA /BGR /CHS /CHT /CZE /DAN /DEU /ESP /ETI /FRA /GRE /HEB /HRV (Za stvaranje Adobe PDF dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. 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