175Pecsmány, P. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 70 (2021) (2) 175–187.DOI: 10.15201/hungeobull.70.2.6 Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 70 2021 (2) 175–187. Introduction On the surface, faults often cause linear geo- morphological structures called lineaments (Twiss, R.J. and Moores, E.M. 1992; Jordán, Gy. and Csillag, G. 2003; Radaideh, O.M.A. et al. 2016). In the dissected zones weakened by faults, the erosion is more effective, there- fore valleys often form along with these struc- tural elements (Martz, L.W. and Garbrecht, J. 1992). Besides the valleys, lineaments can be geomorphological units like ridges, escarp- ments (Twiss, R.J. and Moores, E.M. 1992; Jordán, Gy. and Csillag, G. 2003; Radaideh, O.M.A. et al. 2016). Measuring and analys- ing the direction of lineament and drainage network is important, because we can infer the directions of the main strike of geological structural elements (Twiss, R.J. and Moores, E.M. 1992; Eyles, N. et al. 1997). Mapping line- ament and drainage network is relevant both in geomorphological and structural geological research because these are in association with the regional structural processes (Ramsay, J.G. and Huber, M.I. 1985; Twiss, R.J. and Moores, E.M. 1992; Centamore, E. et al. 1996; Eyles, N. et al. 1997; Jordán, Gy. and Csillag, G. 2003; Dombrádi, E. et al. 2007; Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger, Zs. et al. 2007, 2009; Radaideh, O.M.A. et al. 2016; Gioia, D. et al. 2018). The structural evolution of the south-eastern part of Bükk Region was directed by varied ge- 1 Institute of Geography and Geoinformatics, University of Miskolc, H-3515 Miskolc, Miskolc-Egyetemváros. E-mails: ecopeter@uni-miskolc.hu, ecoeged@uni-miskolc.hu, ecovago@uni-miskolc.hu 2 Department of Geology and Mineral Deposits, University of Miskolc, H-3515 Miskolc, Miskolc-Egyetemváros. E-mail: foldnn@uni-miskolc.hu Directional analysis of drainage network and morphotectonic features in the south-eastern part of Bükk Region Péter PECSMÁNY 1, András HEGEDŰS 1, János VÁGÓ1 and Norbert NÉMETH 2 Abstract The fracture deformations often result in linear morphological elements (lineaments, valleys) on the surface. In many cases, the direction of the lineaments and valleys can be well followed by the strike of the geological structural elements. Therefore, conclusions can be drawn from these directions for regional tectonic processes. Our work aimed to analyse the relationship between the valley and lineament network and the structural elements in the south-eastern part of Bükk Region. We prepared the theoretical drainage network map and lineament map of the area. The direction of the linear elements was examined separately on the eastern part of South-Eastern Bükk that is built up mainly by Mesozoic limestone and the eastern side of Bükkalja area covered by Neogene and Quaternary sediments. Structural geological surveys were also performed on seven sites to measure the strike of joint sets. These results were compared with the valleys’ direction in the 2 km wide area of the measurement sites. Based on our results, it can be stated that the development of the drainage network was influenced by the geological elements; however, there are local differences in the characteristics of the South-Eastern Bükk and Bükkalja. Our study confirmed that the study of linear morphological elements has great importance in the exploration of geological structural elements. Keywords: drainage, lineament, directional analysis, structurally controlled streams, tectonic preformation, morphotectonics, Bükk Mountains, Bükkalja Received: April 2021, accepted June 2021 Pecsmány, P. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 70 (2021) (2) 175–187.176 ological processes since the Eocene (Csontos, L. 1988, 1999; Márton, E. and Fodor, L. 1995; Less, Gy. et al. 2005; Németh, N. 2005; Petrik, A. et al. 2014, 2016). Some of these process- es caused the development of structurally preformed valleys. Some valley sections of Tárkány-, Eger-, Ostoros-, Kánya-, Hór-, Tard-, Kács-, Sály-, and Kulcsárvölgy stream were formed along faults (Schréter, Z. 1912, 1926, 1933; Balogh, K. 1963; Less, Gy. et al. 2005; Németh, N. 2005; Petrik, A. 2016; Pecsmány, P. et al. 2020; Pecsmány, P. and Vágó, J. 2020). In the northern part of Bükk Region and its northern foreland Szalai, K. (2004) proved the structurally preformed characteristics of the valleys by direction statistical analysis. Our hypothesis is that the structural char- acteristics directed the geomorphic evolution of the South-Eastern Bükk Region and the development of the area’s drainage network. In this paper, we proved the relationship be- tween the geological structural elements and the linear elements (lineaments and valleys) by direction statistical analysis. Research area Location Based on the official Hungar- ian landscape classification, the research area (291 km2) is situated in the south-eastern part of the Bükk Region, mi- croregion group of the North Hungarian Mountain Range region (Csorba, P. et al. 2018). The north-western part of the area (65 km2) belongs to the mountainous microre- gion of South-Eastern Bükk (Hevesi, A. 2003), the south- eastern hills (226 km2) are lo- cated on the eastern part of Bükkalja foothills microre- gion (Csorba, P. et al. 2018), while the north-eastern part is the western side of the Sajó Valley. The boundary of the microregions can be drawn along the fault lines between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic rock formations (Do- bos, A. 2002). Two sub-mountain basins can be found at this boundary with different geologi- cal features and geomorphological landscapes; the Kács Basin and the Kisgyőr Basin (Figure 1) (Hevesi, A. 2003; Pecsmány, P. 2017). Geology and geomorphology of the research area The geomorphology (Hevesi, A. 1978, 2002a,b; Hevesi, A. and Záhorszki, A. 2000) and the geological characteristics of the South-Eastern Bükk (Csontos, L. 1988; 1999; Pentelényi, L. 2002; 2005; Németh, N. 2005) and the Bük- kalja (Dobos, A. 2002; Vágó, J. and Hegedűs, A. 2010; Petrik, A. 2016; Pecsmány, P. 2017) are well known. However, the eastern side of Bükkalja has not yet been examined in details from a geomorphological and geological point of view. The average height above sea level is 250 m. The relative relief is 130 m/km2 of the whole research area, but there is a significant difference between the geology and geomor- phology of the mountainous and hilly parts. Fig. 1. Location and topography of the research area 177Pecsmány, P. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 70 (2021) (2) 175–187. South-Eastern Bükk area The average height above sea level is 472 m, with the highest point is 719 m, the lowest one is 129 m a.s.l. The relative relief is 212 m/km2. This mountainous region is mainly composed of strongly karstified Triassic limestone (Berva Limestone, Bükkfennsík Limestone) with do- lines, sinkholes, cave springs and less karsti- fied cherty limestone (Felsőtárkány Limestone) without dolines and caves (Hevesi, A. and Záhorszki, A. 2000; Less, Gy. et al. 2005). Trias- sic metavolcanic rocks (Szentistvánhegy Meta- volcanics, Szinva Metabasalt) can be found in the northern part of the area. In some places, there is saccharoidal dolomite (Belvács Dolo- mite), Jurassic shale (Lökvölgy Formation) and radiolarite (Bányahegy Radiolarite Formation) on the surface (Figure 2; Less, Gy. et al. 2005). Bükkalja area The average height above sea level is 185 m. The highest point is 505 m, the lowest one is 104 m above sea level. The relative relief is 95 m/km2. Cenozoic deposits cover these Mesozoic rocks in the area of the Bükkalja due to vertical fault displacements (Balogh, K. 1963; Less, Gy. et al. 2005; Németh, N. 2005; Petrik, A. 2016). The main rock types are Eocene limestone and calcareous marl (Szépvölgy Limestone), Oligocene clay and clayey marl silt (Buda Marl, Kiscell Clay) in the North (Less, Gy. et al. 2005); variable-sta- bility Miocene pyroclastics (sometimes ign- imbrite) produced by the periodic volcanic activity (Lukács, R. et al. 2018) (Gyulakeszi Rhyolite Tuff Formation, Tar Dacite Tuff, Harsány Rhyolite Tuff) in the middle (Less, Gy. et al. 2005); sedimentary rocks of former Lake Pannon (Egyházasgerge Formation, Sa- jóvölgy Formation, Zagyva Sand, Edelény Clay) in the South (Less, Gy. et al. 2005) (see Figure 2). Due to the differential weather- ing of volcanic tuffs, there is sandy, gravelly colluvium (grézes litées) on the gentle slopes (Pinczés, Z. et al. 1993), which was often re- Fig. 2. Geological map of the research area (Gyalog, L. and Síkhegyi, F. 2005), major faults (Less, Gy. et al. 2005; Németh, N. 2005; Petrik, A. 2016) and the sites of microtectonic measurements Pecsmány, P. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 70 (2021) (2) 175–187.178 deposited by fluvial erosion and downhill mass movements. South of the tuff outcrops, with a gradual decrease in clay content, loess, resedimented loess, sand, gravel is typical (Less, Gy. et al. 2005; see Figure 2). Materials and methods The drainage network of the research area In areas where drainage density is low (such as in Bükkalja), instead of the streams, the valleys are often used for direction statis- tical analysis in structural morphological research (Martz, L.W. and Garbrecht, J. 1992; Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger, Zs. et al. 2007, 2009). The valleys were extracted from a digital elevation model using ArcGIS “Fill”, “Flow Direction” and “Flow Accumulation” tools. The DEM (cell size: 25 × 25 m) was in- terpolated using digitized contour lines and elevation points of topographic maps scale 1:10,000. In our research, we considered only those DEM pixels as parts of valleys, which have a catchment area bigger than 150 pix- els (~0,1 km2). Then we vectorised the valley pixels, this polyline network draws the valley network. Since the orientation of the valley network was compared with the deep struc- tural elements’ direction, the smaller oscilla- tions of valley sections were smoothed by the Demeter, G. and Szabó, Sz. (2009) method, applying the ArcGIS “Generalization” tool. Using the breakpoints (vertices) of the val- leys, we split each curve to straight line seg- ments. The distances of vertices as valley length, and the coordinates of these vertices were used for the calculation of the direction of the segments, applying the RockWorks 16 software. The valley sections’ Strahler-orders (Strahler, A.N. 1957) were defined by the ArcGIS “Stream Order” tool. The directions and direction frequencies were plotted on rose diagrams with 10-degree scale interval using RockWorks 16 “Creating Rose Dia- grams from Endpoint Data” tool. The rose diagrams were analysed by traditional vis- ual interpreting methods (Ricchetti, E. and Palombella, M. 2007; Radaideh, O.M.A. et al. 2016; Petrik, A. and Jordán, Gy. 2017; Gioia, D. et al. 2018). Lineament mapping There are many methods to identify and digitize lineaments. Visual interpretation of satellite images (Leech, D.P. et al. 2003; Un- ger, Z. and Timár, G. 2005; Al-Rawashdeh, S. et al. 2006), digital elevation models and its derivatives (Radaideh, O.M.A. et al. 2016; Petrik, A. and Jordán, Gy. 2017), or both of them together (Chaabouni, R. et al. 2012) is usually applied, but subjective technique. Striving for objectivity, in our research, we used the method published by Al-Obeidat, F. et al. (2016) for mapping lineaments. This method analyses the hillshade, a DEM de- rivative as an image by a Canny edge de- tection algorithm. Hillshades were created in ArcGIS 10.1 software, and then the edge detection algorithm was run on them in Mat- Lab R2017b software. The result rasters were vectorised in ArcGIS 10.1. Then the polylines were smoothed using ArcGIS “Generaliza- tion” tool. Only lines longer than 500 m were considered lineaments (Figure 3) because these are more likely associated with fault lines than shorter ones. Directions and direc- tion frequencies of lineaments were plotted on rose diagrams. Microtectonic measurements Microtectonic observations were made dur- ing field trips. In this study, measurements of subvertical joints were used only. Dip data of 925 faults/joints were measured in 7 expo- sures (see Figure 2) by a Freiberg-type geologic compass and Field Move Clino IOS mobile application (Smith, S. et al. 2014; Lundmark, M.A. et al. 2020) (without declination correc- tion). Strike frequency was plotted on a rose diagram with a 10-degree scale interval using RockWorks 16 software. It is important to note that not only the spacing but also the exposure 179Pecsmány, P. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 70 (2021) (2) 175–187. Fig. 3. Lineament map created by the method of Al-Obeidat, F. et al. (2016). orientation of the site influences the number of measurements on joints if differently ori- ented joint sets (e.g. in the case of a with E–W oriented section, the number of detected N–S joints will be much higher than of the E–W striking ones). Therefore, in contrast with the topographic lineaments, differences of actual magnitude in local maxima on the diagrams may reflect this and not the relative abundance of the joints belonging to the joint sets charac- terized by a certain orientation. Results Strike of faults and other planar structural features We wanted to compare the directions of the morphological linear elements and the mapped (Less, Gy. et al. 2005; Németh, N. 2005; Petrik, A. 2016) and measured (Petrik, A. 2016) geological structural elements; therefore, we also examined their directional statistics. The direction frequency of the planar structures mapped so far in the area shows a bimodal distribution. The E–W and N–S directions are the most common. Even in direction frequency weighted by length, a bimodal character can be observed in the N–S and NW–SE directions (Figure 4). In the Bükkalja, Petrik, A. (2016) measured ESE– WNW and NW–SE conjugate normal faults and joints strikes, NE–SW trending dextral and NW–SE sinistral strike-slip, E–W strike reverse faults. Drainage network and lineament directions of the South-Eastern Bükk and Bükkalja area The direction and direction by length of the val- leys are E–W on the South-Eastern Bükk area. On the lineaments’ diagrams, the major direc- tion is between E–W and NW–SE (Figure 5). On the Bükkalja area direction frequency of the valleys is undirected, however, the di- rection by length-frequency shows a domi- nantly NW–SE direction. The dominant di- rections of the lineaments on the foothill area are NW–SE and N-S (see Figure 5). Direction frequency and direction frequency by the length of the valleys by their order Analysing the direction frequency (per cent of the total population) of the valleys by their order on the entire research area, it can be stated that the 1st order valley sections are undirected (Figure 6). In the case of 2nd order valleys, the primary direction is the E–W, but many of the valley sections have a NW–SE direction. Most of the 3rd order valleys have a N–S direction; how- ever, the most common direction by the valley length is NNW–SSE. In the case of 4th order valleys, the main direction is NW–SE (Figure 6). We also analysed the valley network separately on the South-Eastern Bükk and Bükkalja area. In the South-Eastern Bükk, the 1st and 2nd order valleys have E–W direc- tion, while the direction of 3rd order sections Pecsmány, P. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 70 (2021) (2) 175–187.180 is N–S. In the direction frequency by length, the 1st order valleys are undirected, the 2nd order sections have E–W direction, and the 3rd order ones have N–S direction (Figure 7). In the Bükkalja area, both the direction and direction by the length of the 1st order valleys is undirected. In case 2nd order valleys, the main direction is E–W. There is also a sec- ondary, NW–SE direction, which is the main direction on frequency by length diagram. The main direction of 3rd and 4th order val- leys is NW–SE in case of both direction, and direction by length (see Figure 7). Valley, lineament and joints strike directions of the microtectonic measurements sites Within a radius of 2 km around all structural measurements sites, we examined the direc- tions of the lineaments, valleys and joints (Figure 8). The direction and direction by the length of the valley network is NW–SE, except the neighbourhood of measurement sites No. 2 and No. 7. Site No. 2 has a NNE–SSW domi- nant and a NW–SE secondary direction. In the case of site No. 7, the main direction is E–W, however, the NW–SE direction can be seen as well on the diagram see (Figure 8). The lineaments’ direction at site No. 1 and No. 2 is NNE–SSW, NW–SE at sites No. 3-6, while E–W at site No. 7. The directions of joints at the measurement sites No. 1, 2, 3, 5 is NE–SW, NNW–SSE at site No. 4, ESE–WNW at site No. 6, and N–S at site No. 7 (see Figure 8). Discussion The principal direction of the valleys co- incides with the direction of the dominant aspect (Vágó, J. 2012), transverse faults (Pecsmány, P. 2021), and Pannonian–Pleisto- cene conjugate normal faults and joints strike (Petrik, A. 2016) (Figure 9). Relevant differences can be found in the directions of linear elements on the South- Eastern Bükk and Bükkalja area. The val- leys of the South-Eastern Bükk, running on limestone, dolomite, metavolcanics and shale are grouped around the E–W direction. The Fig. 4. Faults direction from geological map with Petrik’ s (2016) Pannonian–Pleistocene simplified fault kinematic 181Pecsmány, P. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 70 (2021) (2) 175–187. Fig. 6. Direction frequency of the valleys by their order on the entire research area. Fig. 5. Drainage network and lineament directions of the South-Eastern Bükk and Bükkalja area Pecsmány, P. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 70 (2021) (2) 175–187.182 Fig. 7. Direction frequency and direction frequency by length on the South-Eastern Bükk and the Bükkalja area direction of the foothill drainage network, running mostly on Miocene pyroclastics and Quaternary sediments, is almost “perpendic- ular” to this, N–S, NNW–SSE (see Figure 5). The difference can also be observed for lineaments. The direction of the linear ele- ments detected on the South-Eastern Bükk is between E–W and WNW–ESE direction. In the foothill area, the measured values are grouped around the NW–SE direc- tion (see Figure 5). Similar to Ricchetti, E. and Palombella, M. (2007) and Radaideh, O.M.A. et al. (2016), we found that the di- rection frequency by length provides more reliable results. Most valleys run more or less parallel to the cardinal directions, while the total length of the valleys has NW–SE direction (see Figure 6). The reason is that a large number of shorter, low-order valleys run parallel to the cardinal directions. In contrast, in the NW–SE direction less, but longer high-order valleys tend to run. The direction frequency and the direction frequency by the length of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th order valleys of the Bükkalja area are the same as the directions measured over the entire area (Figures 6 and 7). However, in the case of South-Eastern Bükk, there is a difference. Most of the 1st order valleys are oriented to the E–W direction, weighting by the valley sections’ length the dominant directions are WNW–ESE and the NNW– SSE (see Figure 7). The 2nd order valleys have 183Pecsmány, P. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 70 (2021) (2) 175–187. mostly E–W direction. The most common direction of the 3rd order valleys is N–S (see Figure 7). In the South-Eastern Bükk, the 3rd order valleys coincide with the main direction of the mapped geological structural elements. In the Bükkalja, the 2nd, 3rd, 4th order valleys follow well the secondary direction of the mapped geological structural elements (see Figure 4). The undirected characteristics of 1st order valleys on the Bükkalja can be ex- plained by the valley density. This value is higher on the Bükkalja (1.5 km/km2), than in the South-Eastern Bükk (1.3 km/km2). Fig. 8. Direction frequency and direction frequency by the length of valleys, lineaments and joints strikes at the measurement sites Pecsmány, P. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 70 (2021) (2) 175–187.184 According to Centamore, E. et al. (1996), the streams with lower order are directed by the recent tectonic activity, while the high- er-order streams are following directions of the trending geological structural elements. In our study area, the directed/undirected characteristics of the low-order valleys were strongly influenced by the rock quality. However, the directions of the higher-order valleys coincide with the characteristic geo- logical structural directions of the area. The result of the direction statistical analysis de- pends on the geological settings (rock qual- ity) and the scale of valley order mapping. The direction of joint sets strike coincides with the direction of valleys and lineaments (see Figure 8: site No. 1, 4 and 6) with a ~15° angular displacement. Most of the measured joint sets can be found in Miocene pyroclas- tic rocks, which petrographic characteristics are diverse on the Bükkalja (Less, Gy. et al. 2005; Pentelényi, L. 2005; Lukács, R. et al. 2018). The differences in rock quality may cause such angular displacements (Demeter, G. and Szabó, Sz. 2009). Conclusions Our primary hypothesis was that structural movements determine the study area’s sur- face development and drainage network formation. We analysed the directions of the valleys and lineaments and joint set strikes. We found that the directions of the valley net- work coincide with the direction of the mapped and measured structural elements; however, there may be relevant local differences. Despite the direction coincidence on the entire research area, there is a relevant dif- ference between the drainage- and the line- ament networks of the South-Eastern Bükk and the Bükkalja foothill area. Most of the lineaments and valleys are running in W–E direction on the South-Eastern Bükk, while those running on the foothill are in NW–SE direction. There is also a difference in the direction of valley order segments. In the Bükkalja area, most of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th or- der valleys run in NW–SE direction, while in the South-Eastern Bükk the direction of 2nd order valleys is E–W, while the 3rd order val- Fig. 9. Direction frequency by length of drainage and lineament network with Petrik’s (2016) Pannonian– Pleistocene simplified fault kinematic 185Pecsmány, P. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 70 (2021) (2) 175–187. leys run in N–S direction. The reason for this phenomenon requires further investigations. Based on our examinations, it can be con- cluded that the structural development of the region strongly influenced the formation of the drainage network of the research area. Acknowledgements: The described article/presenta- tion/study was carried out as part of the EFOP-3.6.1- 16-2016-00011 “Younger and Renewing University – Innovative Knowledge City – institutional de- velopment of the University of Miskolc aiming at intelligent specialization” project implemented in the framework of the Szechenyi 2020 Program. The reali- zation of this project is supported by the European Union, co-financed by the European Social Fund. REFERENCES Al-Obeidat, F., Feltrin, L. and Marir, F. 2016. Cloud-based lineament extraction of topographic lineaments from NASA shuttle radar topogra- phy mission data. Procedia Computer Science 83. 1250–1255. 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