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HUNGARIAN JOURNAL
OF INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY
VESZPRÉM
Vol. 38(2). pp. 155-158 (2010)
ANALYSIS OF GLOBAL AND LOCAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF
BUS TRANSPORT BY LCA METHODOLOGIES
B. SIMON1,2 , L. TAMASKA2, N. KOVÁTS1
1Department of Environmental Engineering and Chemical Technologies
University of Pannonia, Egyetem u. 10., HUNGARY
E-mail: simonbalint@gmail.com
2KMProjekt LTD., Endrődi S. u. 42/C, HUNGARY
The mobility of the globalized world is supported by internal-combustion engines, which generally use fossil fuels. City
people have to move daily from place A to B. For that reason cities have public transport systems, including local bus as
an important element. As the bulk of the population is concentrated in the city, the atmospherical emissions of local buses
have a considerable impact on human health. This study analyses these impacts using the methodology of LCA and the
database of the ARTEMIS project. The whole study includes the emissions models of pre-euro and euro 1-5 buses, CNG,
biodiesel and hydrogen buses, and the fuel production. Furtermore seven scenarios for modeling traffic situations are
included, too. For the impact assessment three CML2001 indicators are used. Global warming potential (GWP) is for
assessing the global impacts, carbon footprint; human toxicity potencial (HTP) and photochemical ozone creation potential
(POCP) are used for the estimation of impacts in urban environments.
Keywords: public transport, local bus, life cycle assessment, global warming potential, human toxicity potential,
photochemical ozone creation potential
Introduction
Transportation of modern ages involves many types of
vehicles, from bicycles to trains. The present study
analyses the environmental impact of bus types used in
Hungarian cities, including the annual impact of the
number and type of buses used in Budapest. The number
of cars in the year of 2006 was approx. 650 000 on the
streets of Budapest [1], simultaneously, the BKV
(Budapest Public Transport Co.) had 1400 buses according
to data of 2007. Average daily 1.5 million passengers
are transported by these buses, amounting to 42.3 % of
the total daily passengers [2]. EURO 0 and EURO 1
motors form the biggest part of these buses (see Table 2).
60% of the travels are managed by public transport and
the rest by cars whose number is about one magnitude
higher [3]. The fact that the fleet of buses is rather old,
they have high environmental load and environmental
emissions make it clear that modernizing of public
transport and the bus fleet is a very important work.
Primary aim of this present study is to estimate
environmental impacts of air emissions caused by bus
transport and to serve as an important basis for a
decision-making process being necessary for achieving
changes. For such purpose, life cycle assessment (LCA)
was selected as the most appropriate methodology. Several
studies have been already published for estimating
emissions and environmental impact, which results have
been incorporated in this present study [4, 5, 6, 7, 8].
Materials and Methods
The goal, and scope of the study should be determined by
assessing the environmental impacts of public transport.
In this case this is bus transportation and the production
of the fuel. The study was carried out according to the
ISO 14044 standard [9]. The analysis provides information
about the environmental impact of the different usage of
different fuel types.
The analysis takes the values of Table 1 and 2 into
account, which are derived from the ARTEMIS project
database [6, 7].
The databases of fuel production and of the emissions
of alternative motor driving have been gathered from
international publications and doctoral theses [10-29].
Table 1: Emissions and fuel consumption of the bus types
E5 E4 E3
HC 0.078 0.076 1.356 g/km
Fuel cons. 641.429 622.964 637.381 g/km
CO 0.652 0.645 6.934 g/km
NOx 9.459 13.717 27.644 g/km
PMm 0.016 0.015 0.042 g/km
CO2 2020.504 1962.339 2007.748 g/km
Methane 0.001 0.001 0.027 g/km
NMHC 0.076 0.075 1.328 g/km
156
Table 2: Emissions and fuel consumption of the bus types
E2 E1 80ties
HC 1.571 2.403 7.047 g/km
Fuel cons. 605.975 664.391 843.085 g/km
CO 6.939 7.092 16.703 g/km
NOx 22.898 21.031 31.743 g/km
PMm 0.044 0.115 0.278 g/km
CO2 1908.823 2092.833 2655.721 g/km
Methane 0.031 0.048 0.141 g/km
NMHC 1.539 2.355 6.906 g/km
A scenario analysis is included in the study. These
scenarios are modelling a yearly traffic situation (in km)
according to Table 3, first using the old buses and than
they are displaced by the emission models of the seven
buses of the alternative drives.
Table 3: The “present” scenario in vehicle kilometer (vkm)
per year and number of pieces of buses
vkm/y pieces
E0 27 998 055 460
E1 34 826 840 577
E2 13 189 275 248
E3 11 120 090 151
total 87 134 260 1436
The indicators
The results of emission models are investigated by the
global warming potential (GWP), human toxicity
potential (HTP), and photochemical ozone creation
potential (POCP) of CML 2001. These are impact
oriented indicators, that is, the impact of emissions is given
with a mass equivalent value of a reference compound.
GWP puts the emphasis on the role played in the
climate change, and represents the environmental impact
in kg CO2 equivalent. This indicator can be used during
the estimation of the carbon foot print. Its value equals
to the impact posed by the same amount of CO2. As its
name indicates, it makes a global impact, and caused by
emission to the air, which have life-time from some
decades to several thousands of years.
HTP characterizes materials with human toxic
potential. The impacts of such materials are normalized to
dichloro-biphenyl equivalent (kg DCB equiv). It will be
used as a local impact, caused by heavy metals, PM10,
halide, dioxins emissions. As such, recipients are mainly
those who live nearby to emitting facilities. For example,
HTP of a waste incinerator has negligible impact on
those who live app. 100–200 kms from the facility.
POPC helps to determine the impact of materials,
which have a big role in the formation of tropospheric
ozone, wherewith help in the development of summer
smog. The unit is the kg ethane equivalent. The head
materials with POCP impact are the hydrocarbons (gas)
and NOx. [30]
Accordingly, due to the magnitude of the impact, in
case of public transport mainly HTP and POCP are
emphasized, whilst considering the total emission, the
GWP is a good component to characterizing of the whole
system.
Results
We show first the impacts of 1 vehicle kilometer, so
differences between the bus types and fuel types
addressed can be made clear.
Fig. 1 shows that by all bus types, except the hydrogen
fuelled buses, the emissions of urban traffic cause the
biggest global warming potential. The GWPs of the use
of diesel motors are on the same level, the highest CO2
equivalent emission is posed by the buses from the 80’es.
However, the average impact is around app. 2 kg CO2-
equivalent. The GWP of fuel production changes in
proportion to the fuel consumption.
In case of biodiesel an app. 3 kg CO2 equivalent minus
appears, because the system boundaries cover the CO2
assimilation of plants, too. Naturally, this does not mean
that biodiesel is the best choice, because the GWP does
not provide information about the other environmental
impacts, such as land use or eutrophication.
Figure 1: GWP of 1 vehicle kilometer
The value of HTP is mainly derived from fuel
production, which is especially remarkable in case of the
hydrogen. The high electricity demand of the hydrogen
production makes these values so high. Because the
production of the electricity is the impact holder, the
HTP is not formed like a point source of pollution, but
is dispersed between the power plants of Hungary,
similarly to the other environmental impacts.
The black column shows the important HTP impacts
(inside the city). This decreases with the increase of
EURO norm, but is rather high in the case of biodiesel, as
opposed to GWP, The HTP of CNG and diesel hybrid
are similar. Such impact of public transport is the lowest
when hydrogen is used.
Hydrogen-shovel buses provide the highest
environmental performance in this category, with the
immission of max. 0.003 kg ethylene equivalent.
157
Figure 2: HTP of 1 vehicle kilometer
Favouring smog formation is a capacity being
characteristic of old buses; the biodiesel and CNG have
better performance than the newer EURO norm buses.
Though the POCP of diesel’s whole lice cycle is worse
than that of the biodiesel and CNG, the emissions of use
are lower (for of urban traffic).The possibility of smog
formation is the lowest in case of the hydrogen buses
(see Fig. 3).
Figure 3: POCP of 1 vehicle kilometer
The scenarios
Different bus types and different fuel types have given
different impact values, and it is not possible to
determine the best bus or fuel type from environmental
aspect.
The next scenarios will simulate a real situation,
where the composition of the bus fleet and the value of
travelled kilometres are given in Table 3. This is the
“present” scenario. By the other scenarios the bus fleet
of the “present” scenario will be displaced with the
alternative bus types, like biodiesel, hybrid diesel, CNG, or
hydrogen bus (taking travelled kilometres as reference).
The emission of GHG in case of fossil fuel buses
comes mostly from the combustion of fuel. This is
20 000 ton CO2-equivalent emission in the “present”
scenario. This is decreased in case of the EURO 5 and
in case of the CNG and hybrid is less than 20 000 and
10 000 tons, respectively. In the case of hydrogen buses
the GHG emission amounts to almost 100% due to the
hydrogen production, that causes, except the “fuel cell
hydrogen” (H-FC), higher impact as the “present”
scenario. The CO2 assimilation ability of plants has a
“negative impact” on the biodiesel production, whereby
the overall GHG emission of biodiesel is negative, as
such, this process rather captures than emits CO2.
Figure 4: GWP of the scenarios
The advantage of biodiesel considering GWP
disappears when HTP is discussed. CNG has the best
overall performance although this impact of the previous
two bus types comes almost exclusively from the urban
area. On the other hand, the hydrogen buses have higher
impact, but this arises from the fuel production and
accordingly these bus types have the smaller impact on
the citizens. The EURO 5 has the smaller impact in urban
are, following the hydrogen buses.
Figure 5: HTP of the scenarios
All of the alternative buses perform better than the
“present” scenario considering smog development. The
EURO 5 and H-FC have the smaller POCP in the urban
area; these are followed by hydrogen ICE and the other
fossil fuel user bus types.
Figure 6: POCP of the scenarios
158
Conclusion
The environmental impacts of older buses are higher than
those of the alternatives. However, this tendency does not
apply to hydrogen buses, because hydrogen production
poses significant environmental impact, and/or high energy
consumption.
The GWP of old buses is between 2–3 kg CO2
equivalent per vehicle kilometres, the same impact of
alternatives is less than 2 kg CO2 equvalent. Considering
those impacts which are important in urban environments,
the EURO 4-5 have better environmental performance
than the alternatives.
It can be concluded, that in the traffic situation
(scenarios) the biodiesel, diesel hybrid, the CNG and the
H-FC have the best GWP values. Considering local
impacts (important impacts in urban area, like HTP and
POCP) the EURO 5 has better performance, but if the
fuel production is also taken into account, the EURO 5
occupies only the 4th and 6th positions out of the seven
scenarios. As such, the EURO 5 norm buses are highly
capable for the urban public transport. With the
improving of the environmental profile of the hydrogen
production (e.g. use of renewable energy, find the high
performance hydrogen storage), it can be the best
adaptable bus type for the mass transport in densely
populated areas, due to their almost negligible emission
and environmental impact.
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/NLD (Gebruik deze instellingen om Adobe PDF-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit. De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 5.0 en hoger.)
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/TUR <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>
/UKR <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>
/ENU (Use these settings to create Adobe PDF documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing. Created PDF documents can be opened with Acrobat and Adobe Reader 5.0 and later.)
>>
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(Common)
(1.0)
]
/OtherNamespaces [
<<
/AsReaderSpreads false
/CropImagesToFrames true
/ErrorControl /WarnAndContinue
/FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false
/IncludeGuidesGrids false
/IncludeNonPrinting false
/IncludeSlug false
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(InDesign)
(4.0)
]
/OmitPlacedBitmaps false
/OmitPlacedEPS false
/OmitPlacedPDF false
/SimulateOverprint /Legacy
>>
<<
/AddBleedMarks false
/AddColorBars false
/AddCropMarks false
/AddPageInfo false
/AddRegMarks false
/ConvertColors /ConvertToCMYK
/DestinationProfileName ()
/DestinationProfileSelector /DocumentCMYK
/Downsample16BitImages true
/FlattenerPreset <<
/PresetSelector /MediumResolution
>>
/FormElements false
/GenerateStructure false
/IncludeBookmarks false
/IncludeHyperlinks false
/IncludeInteractive false
/IncludeLayers false
/IncludeProfiles false
/MultimediaHandling /UseObjectSettings
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(CreativeSuite)
(2.0)
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector /DocumentCMYK
/PreserveEditing true
/UntaggedCMYKHandling /LeaveUntagged
/UntaggedRGBHandling /UseDocumentProfile
/UseDocumentBleed false
>>
]
>> setdistillerparams
<<
/HWResolution [2400 2400]
/PageSize [612.000 792.000]
>> setpagedevice