Maquetación 1


Ibérica 36 (2018): 43-68

ISSN: 1139-7241 / e-ISSN: 2340-2784

Abstract 

Metaphor is a cognitive tool that helps create intimacy (Bowles & Katz, 2015).
Lately, big data methods have enabled text analysis on a large scale, especially
relevant for investigating language use on the Internet. Although several text
mining techniques have been used before, the use of  big data allows the
development of  new text analysis methods, especially those capable of
sentiment analysis and lemmatization. This paper explores recent changes in
cross-cultural communication with regard to metaphor use and its function in
communication on the Internet, specifically about mobile phone use. Big data
methods were employed to search for selected phrases in cross-cultural
communication, and a list of  commonly used metaphors was made. Big data
technologies used in the survey permitted the identification of  the phrases and
collocations employed by Internet users. Text mining methods were used,
including extraction of  the information from unstructured data sources. The
survey addressed the users of  social media and mobile phone technology
forums. They were profiled regarding their country and language, limiting the
detailed analysis to English and Polish examples. Results show the growing scale
of  the creation of  new metaphors in cross-cultural communication, and the
importance of  the cognitive functions of  metaphor in a culturally and
linguistically diverse environment. 

Keywords: metaphor, social cognition, cross-cultural communication,
discourse processing, information technologies.

Resumen 

C om uni c a c ió n c o n me tá f or as :  A ná l i si s  in te rc u l tu ra l  d e  f or os  te c n ol ó g i c os  

La metáfora es una herramienta cognitiva que favorece la creación de intimidad
(Bowles & Katz, 2015). Últimamente, los métodos de big data han permitido el

Communicating with metaphors: A
cross-cultural analysis of  technology
forums  

Dorota Sylwia Majewicz and Jacek Maślankowski  

University of Gdańsk (Poland) 

dorota.majewicz@ug.edu.pl & jacek.maslankowski@ug.edu.pl

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Ibérica 36 (2018): 43-68

DOROTA SYLWIA MAJEWICZ & JACEK MAŚLANKOWSKI

análisis de textos a gran escala, especialmente relevantes al investigar el uso de la
lengua en Internet. Aunque diversas técnicas de minería de datos se habían
utilizado previamente, las fuentes de big data permiten desarrollar nuevos
métodos de análisis de textos, especialmente aquellos capaces de analizar
sentimientos y lematizar. Este artículo examina los cambios recientes en la
comunicación intercultural relativos al uso de metáforas y su función para
establecer un ambiente cordial en Internet entre los que debaten sobre el uso de
teléfonos móviles. En este artículo, se emplearon métodos de big data para buscar
expresiones usadas en la comunicación intercultural y se creó una lista de
metáforas de uso común. Las tecnologías de big data permitieron identificar la
cantidad de expresiones y colocaciones léxicas empleadas por los usuarios de
Internet. Se utilizaron métodos de minería de datos incluso para la extracción de
información proveniente de fuentes de datos sin estructurar. La encuesta fue
dirigida a usuarios de las redes sociales y foros de telefonía móvil. El perfil de los
usuarios se hizo en base al país e idioma y el análisis detallado se limitó a los
casos ingleses y polacos. Los resultados del análisis muestran la escalada de la
creación de metáforas en la comunicación intercultural y la importancia de las
funciones cognitivas de las metáforas en un ambiente cultural y lingüísticamente
heterogéneo. 

Palabras clave: metáfora, cognición social, comunicación intercultural,
procesamiento del discurso, tecnologías de la información.

1. Introduction and theoretical framework analysis 

The concept of  metaphor has been broadly used in both scholarly and
scientific discourse, since metaphors reflect ideas and concepts, while they
additionally reveal thought models for language users (Lakoff  & Johnson,
1980). The constant development of  information and computer technology
(ICT) has had a huge impact on people’s communication and on the
formation of  new metaphors to describe those changes (Colvin & Bullock,
2014). Metaphors, in fact, define the way people perceive, think, act, and,
what is more, the way they learn (Tait-McCutcheon & Drake, 2016). The aim
of  this paper is to analyse metaphor use among students in order to show
the relevance of  their awareness when using conceptual metaphors in the
mobile phone era. A secondary goal is to explore the importance of
conceptual beliefs about the nature of  technology via metaphor analysis.
Despite the large body of  research into different types of  metaphor, not to
mention the variety of  classifications provided, there still appears to be a
necessity for further research, especially in developing areas, such as IS/IT,

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with respect to different types of  approach, such as project approach
(Cornelissen, Oswick, Christensen & Philips, 2008). However, little is yet
known about how language users elicit new types or classifications of
metaphors (Jackson, 2016). Therefore, this paper investigates both the
metaphors produced by language users and the level of  comprehension of
the metaphors used among participants of  mobile phone forums.

Despite the broad literature and the many studies highlighting the metaphors
present in everyday life, an unambiguous list of  such metaphors in different
fields of  our lives has not yet been proposed, although a number of
researchers have attempted to do so. The implementation of  conceptual
metaphors offers the possibility to describe and provide linguistic
representation to help structure abstract concepts and show a variety of  ways
in which the world can be understood (Turner, 1987; Gibbs, 1994; Kövecses,
2005). Some of  the most commonly used metaphors are those related to the
broad field of  technology. For example, there are several fields of  research
related to technological metaphors, such as photography (Mykytka, 2016).
Other uses of  metaphors may refer to the process of  technological innovation,
such as revolutionary or calm technology (Lindh & Nolin, 2017), which, in
some cases, can be referred to as falling within the category of  threats, e.g.,
virus (Koc, 2013), or metaphor community, which can be classified within the
area of  the study of  virtuality (Jackson, 2016). More detailed metaphors may
relate to specific devices, such as PDA – Personal Digital Assistant – which use
the metaphor of  a day planner (Yanga, Hana & Park, 2010), or may refer to
the Internet as a medium (Firat & Yurdakul, 2012; Tanasescu, 2009).
Furthermore, members of  the younger generation are called “digital natives”,
as they use new technologies in their everyday life (Smith, 2013), where
technological metaphors have been classified as those perceived in several
different dimensions, i.e., people, living organisms, machines or lifestyle
(Papadoudi, 2010). We can also find publications on the categorization of
technological metaphors that are included as the foundation layer of  CLA
–Causal Layered Analysis (Carbonella, Sánchez-Esguevillas & Carro, 2016).
Technology leads to the creation of  metaphors of  code, which include the
following examples: machine, organism, brain, flux and transformation,
culture, political system, psychic prison, instrument of  domination and
carnival (Dufva & Dufva, 2016). The examples of  the current literature just
mentioned show that although technological metaphors are not a new
phenomenon, there are still a lot of  new contributions that may be added to
this research area. This article suggests a shift from the broadly researched

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theoretical approach to metaphor to one that discusses the utility of  metaphor
as an analytic tool (Denny & Sunderland, 2005). Therefore, in this piece of
research, technological metaphors have been referred to as “utility metaphors”
(Lindh, 2016). 

An efficient way of  comprehending metaphor is to understand it as source
domain and target domain, that is, “understanding and experiencing one
kind of  thing in terms of  another” (Lakoff  & Johnson, 1980: 5). The source
represents the original concept used to reason about the target, whereas the
target is the new domain of  experience one wants to deal with. In this
respect, Cuadrado and Durán (2013) proposed a hierarchy of  metaphorical
terms based on the distance between the categories of  the source and the
target domains, in which the source domain categories come from the
human world, and the target from science and technology. According to the
authors, the distance, which appeared very high in most of  the analysed
cases, “can constitute a parameter to be taken into account when evaluating
the level of  metaphoricity of  these terms” (2013: 1-14). Furthermore, the
increasing role of  metaphors at a regional level has also been investigated in
numerous publications regarding particular countries’ specific semantics
(Shu, 2015; Shuk-ling & Foong Ha Yap, 2015; Su, Tian & Chen, 2016; Yingli,
Rezanova & Shilyaev, 2015; Nguyen, 2016; Salahshour, 2016).

Concerning metaphor, a teacher’s belief  system influences the effect of
technology integration upon his or her students, affecting them as language
participants (Ertmer, 2005). Bearing in mind the relevance of  teachers’
knowledge on their specific fields, our aim was to indicate the importance of
their linguistic awareness with regard to courses of  English for Specific
Purposes (ESP), especially in the use of  metaphors in technology. Thus, in
the first phase of  this study, we decided to test the metaphor knowledge
associated with mobile phones through an analysis of  a questionnaire given
to students of  the Institute of  English and American Studies at the
University of  Gdańsk (Poland) being trained to be English teachers. As such,
they will teach courses that focus on developing English communication
skills in a specific discipline, such as marketing, management, human
resources, finance or engineering. Accordingly, extended research has been
recently found with respect to a variety of  ESP fields, including aeronautics
(Robisco & Cuadrado, 2003), economics (Cortés de los Ríos, 2010), finance
(Hoa & Cheng, 2016), geology and Information Technologies (IT) (Durán
& Argüelles, 2016), and the Internet technological forums (Gauducheau,
2016; Wo, Ha & Chen, 2016). 

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With regard to the creation of  metaphorical expressions in the field of  IT,
Durán and Argüelles (2016) provide examples of  new electronic and
computer science terms linked to already existing earth science concepts,
such as flow as in control flow, data flow, and traffic flow. The authors claim
“context is not only important for the comprehension of  metaphor, but also
necessary to understand metaphoric usage of  a term in a new specific
domain as well as the new meaning the word acquires” (2016: 108). This
notably applies to metaphorical meaning extension, “where the convergence
of  form and content needs to be contextualized in both source and target
scientific fields in order to understand metaphoric coinages” (2016: 110), as
we shall see in section 2.1. 

The importance of  metaphors’ cognitive functions is that they are culturally
and linguistically diverse, as has been confirmed in numerous research papers
(Cohen, 1978; Lakoff  & Johnson, 1980, 1999; Lakoff, 1993; Clausner &
Croft, 1997; Grady, 1997; Colston & Katz, 2005; Cameron, 2008; Lucke,
Kostova & Roch, 2014). Moreover, metaphors help create intimacy in an
otherwise miscellaneous environment (Bowles & Katz, 2015). In this work,
the emphasis was placed on cross-cultural communication, which has been
the subject of  a more extensive study with an increasing number of  foreign
students arriving to study in Poland. This, in turn, justifies the need for an
awareness of  semantic differences that occur among native and non-native
users of  English. Therefore, we have studied whether the same English
expression may belong to different semantic fields with regard to the
language used in the process of  communication; i.e. whether the same
English metaphorical expression at a mobile-phone user forum might have
different meanings among speakers of  English from speakers of  Polish. 

This paper is divided into four sections. In the first part, we present a
theoretical framework analysis underlying the research undertaken on
technological and mobile phone metaphors. The second part is devoted to a
general overview of  the empirical study methodology in relation to the main
goal of  this paper. It starts by the first phase of  the survey, its aim being to
select metaphors related to mobile phones based on the literature and a
website review, namely, Internet forums. It is followed by a detailed
description of  the second stage of  the survey which shows the current usage
of  mobile phone-related metaphors among student young users. The third
part concentrates on an analysis of  the results. Finally, it concludes by
showing the main contributions of  this project to the research field of
mobile phone metaphor expressions. 

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2. Data and methodology 

To accomplish the main goal of  this paper, we conducted a survey divided
into two phases. Phase one focused on the use of  big data tools to determine
the popularity of  metaphors once they were identified by the Metaphor
Identification Procedure (Pragglejaz Group, 2007) described below. The
second concentrated on preparing the questionnaire based on the results
from the first phase, including all the popular metaphors identified
previously. All told, this covered 32 English metaphors and 30 metaphors in
Polish.

The main purpose of  the first phase was to use big data methods and tools
to web scrape Internet forums in which people share opinions and
knowledge on the use of  mobile phones. For web scraping, we used the
Apache Spark with Apache Hadoop engine to execute Python scripts. Text
mining methods were used to extract and process the information from
unstructured data sources. The main purpose of  text mining is to find
patterns in unstructured data (Miner, 2012). The HTML parser used to web
scrape and tokenize the text was BeautifulSoup4. We counted the number of
occurrences doing WordCount analysis supported by MapReduce
algorithms. Such methods are core components for efficient data analysis
using big data (Hashem et al., 2016). The data was stored in a HDFS
(Hadoop Distributed File System) that is a default data storage for Apache
Hadoop, the core component of  the Big Data ecosystem (Arias, Gamez &
Puerta, 2017). The main goal of  this phase was to identify which of  the
metaphors on mobile phones are most commonly used in a modern society.
The metaphors tested by big data tools were selected based on a theoretical
framework analysis underlying the research undertaken as well as their
identification by deep analysis of  Internet forums and other sources related
to the use of  mobile phones. Next, the big data tools were used to assess
their popularity. In our study, we decided to use both Polish and English
metaphors to gain a better understanding of  their cross-cultural
dependencies.

Both Polish and English metaphors identified by big data analysis were
used in the second phase of  the survey. This part was conducted
empirically using a traditional questionnaire, which included most of  the
metaphors identified in the first phase. The aim was to assess the
consciousness of  the metaphor’s meaning among students aged 19-24
studying non-technological fields. These metaphors were divided into

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Polish and English. An overview of  the framework of  the survey
consisting of  two phases is presented in Figure 1.

Although there are several research methods to identify metaphor use, such
as Wmatrix (Sun & Jiang, 2014), Q-methodology (Kendall & Kendall, 1993),
MIP (Pragglejaz Group, 2007), our two-phase survey propelled us to choose
a combined approach on Big Data (word count algorithm) and MIP, as well
as a traditional survey with a questionnaire. With this approach we aimed at
maximum omission of  the weaknesses of  particular approaches mentioned
above. For instance, in Q-methodology all of  the statements used represent
the possible domain of  opinion on a particular topic (Kendall & Kendall,
1993) while we focused our attention on the possibility of  metaphor
extension and the existence of  new ones. It helped us to construct a
sufficient framework that provides reliable data (Figure 1). 

As shown in Figure 1, Phase 1 was devoted to the use of  big data tools in
order to identify the most popular metaphors. In Phase 2 we identified the
level of  awareness of  these metaphors to ensure that they were in common
use by students of  non-technological fields, aged 19-24. It was important to
examine those metaphors shared by a group of  users, rather than those
specific to individuals. 

2.1. Phase 1–analysis of  the occurrence of  technology metaphors on

the Internet 

As already mentioned in the theoretical section, there are numerous studies
that identify and describe technological metaphors; thus, we limited the
population of  the survey to people using metaphors in technological forums
related to mobile phones. To obtain good results from the survey, we decided
to conduct a deep analysis of  technological metaphors presented in the

COMMUNICATING WITH METAPHORS

Ibérica 36 (2018): 43-68 49

DOROTA SYLWIA MAJEWICZ & JACEK MA!LANKOWSKI 

Ibérica 36 (2018): …-… 

combined approach on Big Data (word count algorithm) and MIP, as well as a 
traditional survey with a questionnaire. With this approach we aimed at 
maximum omission of the weaknesses of particular approaches mentioned 
above. For instance, in Q-methodology all of the statements used represent the 
possible domain of opinion on a particular topic (Kendall & Kendall, 1993) 
while we focused our attention on the possibility of metaphor extension and the 
existence of new ones. It helped us to construct a sufficient framework that 
provides reliable data (Figure 1).  

 

Figure 1. General overview of the framework of the survey.  

As shown in Figure 1, Phase 1 was devoted to the use of big data tools in order 
to identify the most popular metaphors. In Phase 2 we identified the level of 
awareness of these metaphors to ensure that they were in common use by 
students of non-technological fields, aged 19-24. It was important to examine 
those metaphors shared by a group of users, rather than those specific of 
individuals.  

2.1. Phase 1–analysis of the occurrence of technology metaphors on 
the Internet  
As already mentioned in the theoretical section, there are numerous studies that 
identify and describe technological metaphors; thus, we limited the population of 
the survey to people using metaphors in technological forums related to mobile 
phones. To obtain good results from the survey, we decided to conduct a deep 
analysis of technological metaphors presented in the literature as well as 
manually analyze Internet forums. The goal was to find potential metaphors that 
could be used in the second phase of the survey. 

The survey employed big data tools and methods to web scrape and analyze 
instances of metaphors on Internet forums. The general methodology of this 
survey consisted of five steps.  

1. Select Internet forums on mobile phones that have the highest number 
of posts. 

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02 IBERICA 36_Iberica 13  30/10/18  7:40  Página 49



literature as well as manually analyze Internet forums. The goal was to find
potential metaphors that could be used in the second phase of  the survey.

The survey employed big data tools and methods to web scrape and analyze
instances of  metaphors on Internet forums. The general methodology of
this survey consisted of  five steps. 

1. Select Internet forums on mobile phones that have the highest
number of  posts.

2. Analyze selected forums and research papers on technological
language to identify metaphorical expressions related to mobile
phone technology.

3. Use the selected metaphors for further big data analysis to provide
information on their frequency (word-count algorithms).

4. Compile a final list of  metaphors related to the use of  mobile
phones.

5. Find cross-cultural relations between metaphors. 

As noted above, the survey began with the selection of  Internet forums
related to mobile phone technology. We used the following criteria to
ascertain the final list of  the data sources: 

1. the number of  posts on the forum,

2. the variety of  topics,

3. topics related mostly to issues of  mobile phone use, not hardware
issues,

4. the language of  the Internet forum. 

The way these criteria were formulated enabled the identification of  the five
English-language Internet forums on mobile phone use listed in Table 1. 

DOROTA SYLWIA MAJEWICZ & JACEK MAŚLANKOWSKI

Ibérica 36 (2018): 43-6850

COMMUNICATING WITH METAPHORS 

Ibérica 36 (2018): …-… 

2. Analyze selected forums and research papers on technological language 
to identify metaphorical expressions related to mobile phone technology. 

3. Use the selected metaphors for further big data analysis to provide 
information on their frequency (word-count algorithms). 

4. Compile a final list of metaphors related to the use of mobile phones. 

5.Find cross-cultural relations between metaphors.  

As noted above, the survey began with the selection of Internet forums related to 
mobile phone technology. We used the following criteria to ascertain the final 
list of the data sources:  

1. the number of posts on the forum, 

2. the variety of topics, 

3. topics related mostly to issues of mobile phone use, not hardware issues, 

4. the language of the Internet forum.  

The way these criteria were formulated enabled the identification of the five 
English-language Internet forums on mobile phone use listed in Table 1.  

ID Website address Number of threads 
(thousands) 

EN1 https://www.avforums.com/forums/mobile-phones-forum.106/ ca. 17 
EN2 https://www.cnet.com/forums/phones/ ca. 15 
EN3 http://forums.digitalspy.co.uk/forumdisplay.php?f=1 ca. 40 
EN4 https://www.thestudentroom.co.uk/forumdisplay.php?f=187&page=157 ca. 10 
EN5 https://www.boards.ie/b/forum/411 ca. 25 

Table 1. Selected English-language forums on mobile phones (step 1).  

The number of threads on these English language forums varied from 10 to 40 
thousand topics related to the different areas of mobile phone use. We did not 
classify any forums as more or less relevant due to the number of topics 
available on the forums. Because of the necessity to find various metaphors in 
cross-cultural communication, we also included Polish forums related to the 
same issues as those given in Table 1. As a result, six Internet forums on mobile 
phones available in Polish were added to the survey. The goal of this step was to 
ensure that the same metaphors were used in these two different languages. The 
list of Polish forums is presented in Table 2.  

 

 

 

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The number of  threads on these English language forums varied from 10 to
40 thousand topics related to the different areas of  mobile phone use. We
did not classify any forums as more or less relevant due to the number of
topics available on the forums. Because of  the necessity to find various
metaphors in cross-cultural communication, we also included Polish forums
related to the same issues as those given in Table 1. As a result, six Internet
forums on mobile phones available in Polish were added to the survey. The
goal of  this step was to ensure that the same metaphors were used in these
two different languages. The list of  Polish forums is presented in Table 2. 

In phase two, we conducted a text analysis of  metaphors presented on topics
available from the forums listed in Tables 1 and 2.  An additional data source
was a theoretical framework analysis underlying the research undertaken
related to technological metaphors. We compared our results with the results
from research papers to ensure that our identified metaphors overlapped.
This was done in the first stage of  this research. To find possible metaphors,
posts from Internet forums were selected from different topics according to
the popularity of  each post. It was not possible to search through all the
posts and topics because web scrapers could be blocked by forum
administrators. Therefore, only selected items were analysed in depth to find
the popularity of  potential metaphorical expressions. This was consistent
with the strategy of  this survey, which assumed manual identification of
possible metaphors as the second step of  the research phase. The method
used to accomplish this task was consistent with the Metaphor Identification
Procedure (MIP) developed by the Pragglejaz Group (Pragglejaz Group,
2007). In accordance with MIP we decided to determine the lexical units in
the entire text (Internet forums). After that, we established the meaning of
the metaphor in contrast to basic meaning. If  the meaning was different to
the basic meaning, we identified that lexical unit as a metaphor. Examples of

COMMUNICATING WITH METAPHORS

Ibérica 36 (2018): 43-68 51

DOROTA SYLWIA MAJEWICZ & JACEK MA!LANKOWSKI 

Ibérica 36 (2018): …-… 

ID Website address Number of 
threads/posts 
(thousands) 

PL1 http://www.telepolis.pl/forum/ ca. 50 (threads) 
PL2 http://forum.benchmark.pl/forum/32-telefony-kom%C3%B3rkowe-i-smartfony/ ca. 30 (threads) 
PL3 http://www.chip.pl/forum/viewforum?fid=14 ca. 1 (threads) 
PL4 http://www.komorki.fora.pl/ ca. 4.5 (threads) 
PL5 http://forumgsm.pl/ ca. 50 (posts) 
PL6 http://forum.purepc.pl/forum/98-telefony-kom%C3%B3rkowe/ ca. 1 (threads) 

Table 2. Selected Polish language forums on mobile phones.  

In phase two, we conducted a text analysis of metaphors presented on topics 
available from the forums listed in Tables 1 and 2.  An additional data source 
was a theoretical framework analysis underlying the research undertaken related 
to technological metaphors. We compared our results with the results from 
research papers to ensure that our identified metaphors overlapped. This was 
done in the first stage of this research. To find possible metaphors, posts from 
Internet forums were selected from different topics according to the popularity of 
each post. It was not possible to search through all the posts and topics because 
web scrapers could be blocked by forum administrators. Therefore, only selected 
items were analysed in depth to find the popularity of potential metaphorical 
expressions. This was consistent with the strategy of this survey, which assumed 
manual identification of possible metaphors as the second step of the research 
phase. The method used to accomplish this task was amenable with the Metaphor 
Identification Procedure (MIP) developed by the Pragglejaz Group (Pragglejaz 
Group, 2007). In accordance with MIP we decided to determine the lexical units 
in the entire text (Internet forums). After that, we established the meaning of the 
metaphor in contrast to basic meaning. If the meaning was different to the basic 
meaning, we identified that lexical unit as a metaphor. Examples of English 
metaphors selected from English language forums are presented in Table 3.  

Table 3. Identification of possible metaphors on Internet forums.  

From the analysis of possible metaphors, we may conclude that people on 
Internet forums use a limited range of metaphors in their posts. Because 
numerous posts on Internet forums are written by users with different language 

02 IBERICA 36_Iberica 13  30/10/18  7:40  Página 51



English metaphors selected from English language forums are presented in
Table 3. 

From the analysis of  possible metaphors, we may conclude that people on
Internet forums use a limited range of  metaphors in their posts. Because
numerous posts on Internet forums are written by users with different
language levels, there appear numerous language mistakes, such as
misspellings or grammar mistakes, which also pertain to metaphorical
phrases. It is important to note that the basic set of  metaphors presented in
this study was prepared not only based upon the forum analysis but also
from the theoretical framework analysis underlying the research undertaken.
This precipitated the conclusion that some of  the mobile phone-related
metaphors are the same as those found in any technological domains. For
example, the word phishing is mostly related to the phenomenon of
information security. The pronunciation of  the word itself  is a homophone
of  the word fishing, which describes an act of  catching fish as prey;
therefore, the metaphorical “prey” are the victims whose data has been
stolen. The word shot (in the meaning of  taking a photo) is related to
photography. Even though it is used by mobile phone users, it was long-ago
adopted from the set of  photography-related metaphors.

The third step of  this phase was to conduct a word count analysis to ensure
a metaphor’s popularity among Internet users of  forums related to mobile
phone technology. To accomplish this task, a basic big data framework was
used to web scrape the web page. Then, an analysis of  word occurrence was
made using traditional MapReduce algorithms for the word count analysis.
Since the technology used is not an issue for this paper, we will not
concentrate on technological aspects of  the big data framework. The word-
count analysis resulted in a final set of  metaphors, which was prepared in the
fourth step of  this phase. The results of  this procedure are briefly described

DOROTA SYLWIA MAJEWICZ & JACEK MAŚLANKOWSKI

Ibérica 36 (2018): 43-6852

DOROTA SYLWIA MAJEWICZ & JACEK MA!LANKOWSKI 

Ibérica 36 (2018): …-… 

Table 2. Selected Polish language forums on mobile phones.  

In phase two, we conducted a text analysis of metaphors presented on topics 
available from the forums listed in Tables 1 and 2.  An additional data source 
was a theoretical framework analysis underlying the research undertaken related 
to technological metaphors. We compared our results with the results from 
research papers to ensure that our identified metaphors overlapped. This was 
done in the first stage of this research. To find possible metaphors, posts from 
Internet forums were selected from different topics according to the popularity of 
each post. It was not possible to search through all the posts and topics because 
web scrapers could be blocked by forum administrators. Therefore, only selected 
items were analysed in depth to find the popularity of potential metaphorical 
expressions. This was consistent with the strategy of this survey, which assumed 
manual identification of possible metaphors as the second step of the research 
phase. The method used to accomplish this task was amenable with the Metaphor 
Identification Procedure (MIP) developed by the Pragglejaz Group (Pragglejaz 
Group, 2007). In accordance with MIP we decided to determine the lexical units 
in the entire text (Internet forums). After that, we established the meaning of the 
metaphor in contrast to basic meaning. If the meaning was different to the basic 
meaning, we identified that lexical unit as a metaphor. Examples of English 
metaphors selected from English language forums are presented in Table 3.  

Posts Metaphor Meaning 
“it hasn’t affected the 
battery life at all” 

Battery life This means the duration of the efficient work of a battery; 
similar to Application Life (up to date application). 

“upload my files to a 
cloud” 

Cloud Remote location, Remote storage 

“tried to get some shots” Shot Take a photo with a mobile phone 
“The worst phishing 
email” 

Phishing An attempt to obtain sensitive information 

“our mobile virtual 
community” 

Virtual 
Community 

A group of people for whom a meeting place is virtual 

Table 3. Identification of possible metaphors on Internet forums.  

From the analysis of possible metaphors, we may conclude that people on 
Internet forums use a limited range of metaphors in their posts. Because 
numerous posts on Internet forums are written by users with different language 

02 IBERICA 36_Iberica 13  30/10/18  7:40  Página 52



in point 4.2. As mentioned above, this third step aimed to discover whether
the list of  metaphors selected in the previous step of  the survey was relevant
and worth including in the traditional survey to determine the overall
understanding of  the topics by students. This resulted in the preparation of
a final set of  metaphors related to mobile phones, whose final list is in
Appendix 1.

From the final list of  metaphors, we suggest the following classification of
mobile phone-related metaphors in terms of  their source area: Nature,
People, Technology, Food. The most popular way is to construct metaphors
based on phenomena related to nature, be it biological, environmental or
otherwise. For example, in application life (nature), IT specialists borrow the
term “life” from biology to name the length of  time when an application is
up to date. In fat finger (people), the metaphor refers to a situation of
accidental, inaccurate typing on a computer or smartphone keyboard. A
popular form based on people-related metaphors is community. Another
frequently used metaphor, sweet photo, related to food, has become one of  the
best-known ones when smart phones first came into common use. The final
list of  mobile phone related metaphors (see Appendix 1) correspondingly
refers to technological metaphors, which were adopted to fulfill mobile
phone users’ expectations. Such metaphors enable the creation of  a common
language with technological experts as well as computer geeks also using
mobile phone technology. The basis of  the relationship between mobile
phone metaphors and technology is that modern smart phones have the
functionality of  a computer, tablet and camera. Some of  the metaphors
relate to the specific functionality of  a mobile phone, such as access to social
media. Linguistically, it means that users of  a particular language consider all
those technology devices semantically coherent and overlapping. Therefore,
the metaphors that refer to mobile phones simultaneously apply to other
similar devices.

The next step in our research aimed at discovering whether the same
metaphors are used in different languages and different cultures. For this
reason, we decided to test the sample keywords in other Internet forums,
such as those listed in Table 2. The main conclusion we reached
demonstrates that every English metaphor from the list was adapted to
Polish. However, this process may respond to five different methods of
adaptation. 

1. by the use of  an English word (e.g. phishing)

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02 IBERICA 36_Iberica 13  30/10/18  7:40  Página 53



2) by direct translation /loan translation (e.g. cloud – chmura)

3) by translation with some minor changes (e.g. application life – czas
życia aplikacji)

4) by using a completely different word, but with the same meaning
(e.g. shoot – cykać)

5) by using a phonologically similar word (e.g. like – lajk, photo – fota) 

The final list of  English and Polish metaphors enabled the planning of  the
second phase of  the survey described in this paper. These lists became the
source for producing a questionnaire used to identify the level of  knowledge
of  metaphors among the selected population. 

2.2. Phase 2 – Survey and the analysis underlying the research 

A traditional survey was conducted in 2016 on a population cohort of  two
hundred respondents. We decided to have a population of  students ages 19-
24 whose field of  study was unrelated to technology. The method used to
select respondents was a non-probability sampling, and we considered it
especially important in the description of  social processes that occur in a
changing society due to the use of  new technologies. The decision to select
respondents ages 19-24 was made for two reasons. Firstly, young people use
mobile phones for different purposes, and contrary to more mature users,
are usually more familiar with metaphorical expressions related to various
fields of  technology. Moreover, young users are more familiar with
international forums and social media, which means that they have better
knowledge of  English metaphors. Although many English metaphors have
been adapted directly into Polish, there are still metaphors that have been
translated instead of  being used in their original English form.

The sample selected for this survey enabled the identification of  the overall
phenomenon of  familiarity with such metaphors in modern society. To sum
up, in this survey a typical sampling unit was a person aged 19-24 involved
in a non-technology related field of  study. The sample characteristics are in
Table 4. 

DOROTA SYLWIA MAJEWICZ & JACEK MAŚLANKOWSKI

Ibérica 36 (2018): 43-6854

COMMUNICATING WITH METAPHORS 

Ibérica 36 (2018): …-… 

in this survey a typical sampling unit was a person aged 19-24 involved in a non-
technology related field of study. The sample characteristics are in Table 4.  

Specification Total Completed 
Number of questionnaires with Polish metaphors 200 157 
Number of questionnaires with English metaphors 200 156 

Table 4. Characteristics of the traditional survey.  

As the table above shows, we collected one hundred and fifty-seven 
questionnaires with Polish metaphors along with one hundred and fifty-six 
questionnaires with English metaphors. The way each questionnaire was 
constructed allowed conclusions to be drawn based on their familiarity. The 
qualitative character of the survey lead to the goal of presenting how metaphors 
are perceived in a cross-cultural society. 

The traditional questionnaire was constructed upon the assumption that a student 
must complete it in less than twenty minutes. Therefore, it consisted of four 
parts:  

1. knowledge of thirty two given English metaphors 

2. the level of certainty (from 1 to 5) 

3. knowledge of thirty given Polish metaphors 

4. the level of certainty (from 1 to 5).  

In the first part, we asked respondents about their general understanding of 
selected English metaphors. They could choose their answer from the following 
options: “Yes”, “No”, or “Not sure”. In the second part of the survey, subjects 
were asked to assess their level of understanding of selected metaphors. The 
scale ranged from 1 to 5, where “5” indicated a good understanding of the 
metaphor and “1” indicated not being sure what a specific metaphor actually 
meant. In the third part, the survey was repeated with Polish metaphors. These 
were randomized, to see whether respondents were more familiar with Polish 
equivalents. As in the second step, the fourth step was to identify the level of the 
respondents’ comprehension.  

3. Discussion of results  

The survey results show that students aged 20-24 enrolled in non-technological 
fields of study have a good understanding of English metaphors. Of the thirty-
three selected metaphors, fifteen were chosen by more than 90% of the cohort as 
well-known metaphors (see Figure 2).  

02 IBERICA 36_Iberica 13  30/10/18  7:40  Página 54



As the table above shows, we collected one hundred and fifty-seven
questionnaires with Polish metaphors along with one hundred and fifty-six
questionnaires with English metaphors. The way each questionnaire was
constructed allowed conclusions to be drawn based on their familiarity. The
qualitative character of  the survey led to the goal of  presenting how
metaphors are perceived in a cross-cultural society.

The traditional questionnaire was constructed upon the assumption that a
student must complete it in less than twenty minutes. Therefore, it consisted
of  four parts: 

1. knowledge of  thirty two given English metaphors

2. the level of  certainty (from 1 to 5)

3. knowledge of  thirty given Polish metaphors

4. the level of  certainty (from 1 to 5). 

In the first part, we asked respondents about their general understanding of
selected English metaphors. They could choose their answer from the
following options: “Yes”, “No”, or “Not sure”. In the second part of  the
survey, subjects were asked to assess their level of  understanding of  selected
metaphors. The scale ranged from 1 to 5, where “5” indicated a good
understanding of  the metaphor and “1” indicated not being sure what a
specific metaphor actually meant. In the third part, the survey was repeated
with Polish metaphors. These were randomized, to see whether respondents
were more familiar with Polish equivalents. As in the second step, the fourth
step was to identify the level of  the respondents’ comprehension. 

3. Discussion of  results 

The survey results show that students aged 19-24 enrolled in non-
technological fields of  study have a good understanding of  English
metaphors. Of  the thirty-three selected metaphors, fifteen were chosen by
more than 90% of  the cohort as well-known metaphors (see Figure 2). 

COMMUNICATING WITH METAPHORS

Ibérica 36 (2018): 43-68 55

02 IBERICA 36_Iberica 13  30/10/18  7:40  Página 55



The most common and well-known metaphor is selfie stick. It is worth noting
that it is used in other languages as a loan expression. The second most well-
known metaphor is virtual reality, a basic one to describe the digital era. Cell
phone, a metaphor used to describe mobile phones within the field of  cellular
technology, was one of  the most familiar terms for Polish students. Even
though the word cloud has a different name in Polish, it is also very well-
known in its English form. Finally, we included the frequently used
expression sweet photo, which refers to a picture usually taken with the front
camera of  a mobile phone. On the other hand, the least well-known
metaphors were presented in Figure 3. 

Metaphors that proved obscure, although they are often used by more
experienced users of  Internet forums, are: Cadillac solution, rubber duck
debugging, fat finger and sentiment analysis. The first metaphor, whose meaning is
to describe something very expensive, has a self-defining nature – usually
Cadillacs are very expensive cars. Nonetheless, some students are not certain
about the meaning of  the given metaphor. The second metaphorical
expression, rubber duck debugging, evolved mostly from communication among

DOROTA SYLWIA MAJEWICZ & JACEK MAŚLANKOWSKI

Ibérica 36 (2018): 43-6856

DOROTA SYLWIA MAJEWICZ & JACEK MA!LANKOWSKI 

Ibérica 36 (2018): …-… 

Figure 2. Understanding of English metaphors.  

The most common and well-known metaphor is selfie stick. It is worth noting 
that it is used in other languages as a loan expression. The second most well-
known metaphor is virtual reality, a basic one to describe the digital era. Cell 
phone, a metaphor used to describe mobile phones within the field of cellular 
technology, was one of the most familiar terms for Polish students. Even though 
the word cloud has a different name in Polish, it is also very well-known in its 
English form. Finally, we included the frequently used expression sweet photo, 
which refers to a picture usually taken with the front camera of a mobile phone. 
On the other hand, the least well-known metaphors were presented in Figure 3.  

Figure 3. Unfamiliar English metaphors 

Metaphors that proved obscure, although they are often used by more 
experienced users of Internet forums, are: Cadillac solution, rubber duck 
debugging, fat finger and sentiment analysis. The first metaphor, whose meaning 
is to describe something very expensive, has a self-defining nature – usually 
Cadillacs are very expensive cars. Nonetheless, some students are not certain 
about the meaning of the given metaphor. The second metaphorical expression, 
rubber duck debugging, evolved mostly from communication among 

IEWAJMA IWSYLA TRODO CZ & KECJA   

  

      

          
          

          
        

          
           

          
               

          

    

           
        

      
         

           
       

      

IKSWOKNLA!AMK   

  

      

          
          

          
        

          
           

          
               

          

    

           
        

      
         

           
       

      

   

  

      

          
          

          
        

          
           

          
               

          

    

           
        

      
         

           
       

      

2e gurFi

llewdnanommoctsomeTh -

   

  

      

          
          

          
        

          
           

          
               

          

    

           
        

      
         

           
       

      

2. srohpatemhsilgEnfognidnatsredUn .

- siphoratemn know cistese

   

  

      

          
          

          
        

          
           

          
               

          

    

           
        

      
         

           
       

      

kc gtinonthrowist I. 

   

  

      

          
          

          
        

          
           

          
               

          

    

           
        

      
         

           
       

      

ugnlarethoindesuisit t ath
siphoratemn know rlautrvi

phone esurohptaema, deo td 
methfoenosaw, ygloonhcte

droweth duocl nterdiasha
cniew,yllaniF.mrhsilgEn
ausuerutcipaotsrerhciwh

wetsaeleht,dnahrehtoehtOn

   

  

      

          
          

          
        

          
           

          
               

          

    

           
        

      
         

           
       

      

hT. niosserpxenaloasasegau
ilea eibrcsedtoenoicsaba, 

n hitiwsphoneelobimbeircsde
shlisoPrsmrteriliamaft som

veo slasitih,siolPn iemnant
ehtdedulc pxedesuyltneuqfre

remactnoehthtwinekatylla
llwe - eprerewsphoratemn know

   

  

      

          
          

          
        

          
           

          
               

          

    

           
        

      
         

           
       

      

llewt somdnoceseh -
. arel itaigdethe llCe

raulllecofd lehetn 
hguothnevE. tsnedtu

llewy rve - stin in know
noissrep otohpteesw , 

.enohpelibomafoar
3eguriFn id entese . 

   

  

      

          
          

          
        

          
           

          
               

          

    

           
        

      
         

           
       

      

gurFi

   

  

      

          
          

          
        

          
           

          
               

          

    

           
        

      
         

           
       

      

3e gur . srohpatemhsilgEnrailimafUn

   

  

      

          
          

          
        

          
           

          
               

          

    

           
        

      
         

           
       

      

   

  

      

          
          

          
        

          
           

          
               

          

    

           
        

      
         

           
       

      

6 3aicréIb 810(2 ): …-…12

bodevorptahtsrohpatMe
nertnIfosersucedenierpex

ngbuggide , rfint fa dan nse
revginthemoseibrcsedtois
evisnepxeyreverascallidCa

fognieanme httuoab ivgeth
gniubkcr ebbru , 

   

  

      

          
          

          
        

          
           

          
               

          

    

           
        

      
         

           
       

      

foerayehthguohtla,erucs
e:ar,smuretn oscallCa

ssianatnemit ptaemt sehT. 
lfesasah, eivsnepxeyr - nide

dutsemos,sselehtenoN.srace
taemdnocesehT. rohptaemneiv
mocmotlysomdelvove

   

  

      

          
          

          
        

          
           

          
               

          

    

           
        

      
         

           
       

      

eromybdesune
noitulo , kcr ebbru

ginnaemesohw, rohp
eurtnang ni – y lluaus

niatrectonerastned
, niosserpxel aicrohpta

gnomantioaicnumm

DOROTA SYLWIA MAJEWICZ & JACEK MA!LANKOWSKI 

Ibérica 36 (2018): …-… 

Figure 2. Understanding of English metaphors.  

The most common and well-known metaphor is selfie stick. It is worth noting 
that it is used in other languages as a loan expression. The second most well-
known metaphor is virtual reality, a basic one to describe the digital era. Cell 
phone, a metaphor used to describe mobile phones within the field of cellular 
technology, was one of the most familiar terms for Polish students. Even though 
the word cloud has a different name in Polish, it is also very well-known in its 
English form. Finally, we included the frequently used expression sweet photo, 
which refers to a picture usually taken with the front camera of a mobile phone. 
On the other hand, the least well-known metaphors were presented in Figure 3.  

Figure 3. Unfamiliar English metaphors 

Metaphors that proved obscure, although they are often used by more 
experienced users of Internet forums, are: Cadillac solution, rubber duck 
debugging, fat finger and sentiment analysis. The first metaphor, whose meaning 
is to describe something very expensive, has a self-defining nature – usually 
Cadillacs are very expensive cars. Nonetheless, some students are not certain 
about the meaning of the given metaphor. The second metaphorical expression, 
rubber duck debugging, evolved mostly from communication among 

IEWAJMA IWSYLA TRODO CZ & KECJA   

  

      

          
          

          
        

          
           

          
               

          

    

           
        

      
         

           
       

      

IKSWOKNLA!AMK   

  

      

          
          

          
        

          
           

          
               

          

    

           
        

      
         

           
       

      

   

  

      

          
          

          
        

          
           

          
               

          

    

           
        

      
         

           
       

      

2e gurFi

llewdnanommoctsomeTh -

   

  

      

          
          

          
        

          
           

          
               

          

    

           
        

      
         

           
       

      

2. srohpatemhsilgEnfognidnatsredUn .

- siphoratemn know cistese

   

  

      

          
          

          
        

          
           

          
               

          

    

           
        

      
         

           
       

      

kc gtinonthrowist I. 

   

  

      

          
          

          
        

          
           

          
               

          

    

           
        

      
         

           
       

      

ugnlarethoindesuisit t ath
siphoratemn know rlautrvi

phone esurohptaema, deo td 
methfoenosaw, ygloonhcte

droweth duocl nterdiasha
cniew,yllaniF.mrhsilgEn
ausuerutcipaotsrerhciwh

wetsaeleht,dnahrehtoehtOn

   

  

      

          
          

          
        

          
           

          
               

          

    

           
        

      
         

           
       

      

hT. niosserpxenaloasasegau
ilea eibrcsedtoenoicsaba, 

n hitiwsphoneelobimbeircsde
shlisoPrsmrteriliamaft som

veo slasitih,siolPn iemnant
ehtdedulc pxedesuyltneuqfre

remactnoehthtwinekatylla
llwe - eprerewsphoratemn know

   

  

      

          
          

          
        

          
           

          
               

          

    

           
        

      
         

           
       

      

llewt somdnoceseh -
. arel itaigdethe llCe

raulllecofd lehetn 
hguothnevE. tsnedtu

llewy rve - stin in know
noissrep otohpteesw , 

.enohpelibomafoar
3eguriFn id entese . 

   

  

      

          
          

          
        

          
           

          
               

          

    

           
        

      
         

           
       

      

gurFi

   

  

      

          
          

          
        

          
           

          
               

          

    

           
        

      
         

           
       

      

3e gur . srohpatemhsilgEnrailimafUn

   

  

      

          
          

          
        

          
           

          
               

          

    

           
        

      
         

           
       

      

   

  

      

          
          

          
        

          
           

          
               

          

    

           
        

      
         

           
       

      

6 3aicréIb 810(2 ): …-…12

bodevorptahtsrohpatMe
nertnIfosersucedenierpex

ngbuggide , rfint fa dan nse
revginthemoseibrcsedtois
evisnepxeyreverascallidCa

fognieanme httuoab ivgeth
gniubkcr ebbru , 

   

  

      

          
          

          
        

          
           

          
               

          

    

           
        

      
         

           
       

      

foerayehthguohtla,erucs
e:ar,smuretn oscallCa

ssianatnemit ptaemt sehT. 
lfesasah, eivsnepxeyr - nide

dutsemos,sselehtenoN.srace
taemdnocesehT. rohptaemneiv
mocmotlysomdelvove

   

  

      

          
          

          
        

          
           

          
               

          

    

           
        

      
         

           
       

      

eromybdesune
noitulo , kcr ebbru

ginnaemesohw, rohp
eurtnang ni – y lluaus

niatrectonerastned
, niosserpxel aicrohpta

gnomantioaicnumm

02 IBERICA 36_Iberica 13  30/10/18  7:40  Página 56



programmers and IT experts. The meaning is to explain something very
carefully, step by step, to someone who knows very little or nothing about
computers and programming. Another one, fat finger, refers to mistakes made
on a phone while typing on the keypad. Because most mobile phones have
touchable screens now, it is quite easy to understand that a fat finger will make
mistakes on the keypad. For some people, this metaphor may appear
offensive or negative. The last one, sentiment analysis, indicates the process of
trying to understand the general meaning and tenor of  a text message. Its
meaning may sometimes be difficult to understand, especially when used
sarcastically.

To gain a better overview and reconfirm all the results mentioned above, we
decided to show metaphors that were difficult to understand (see Figure 4).
Respondents indicated five different metaphors as not easy to identify, which
shows that their general meaning may be considered somewhat ambiguous. 

The list of  metaphors that appear dubious for speakers of  Polish include
expressions such as mapping, sentiment analysis, application life, garbage in garbage
out and big day. The word mapping was well known for 40% of  the
respondents, 39% of  them did not know what mapping in mobile phone
terminology was, while 20% remained uncertain about the meaning of  this
metaphor. Even though the word life is used very often in various metaphors,
not only in the context of  technology, it was quite difficult for 15% of
students to correctly identify it. The metaphor big day, used to describe the
time of  the release of  new software or a new mobile phone, is also used in
other activities of  our life. However, about 10% of  respondents were not
able to define this metaphor correctly and more than 50% of  them did not
know the meaning of  this word.

COMMUNICATING WITH METAPHORS

Ibérica 36 (2018): 43-68 57

COMMUNICATING WITH METAPHORS 

Ibérica 36 (2018): …-… 

programmers and IT experts. The meaning is to explain something very 
carefully, step by step, to someone who knows very little or nothing about 
computers and programming. Another one, fat finger, refers to mistakes made on 
a phone while typing on the keypad. Because most mobile phones have 
touchable screens now, it is quite easy to understand that a fat finger will make 
mistakes on the keypad. For some people, this metaphor may appear offensive or 
negative. The last one, sentiment analysis, indicates the process of trying to 
understand the general meaning and tenor of a text message. Its meaning may 
sometimes be difficult to understand, especially when used sarcastically. 

To gain a better overview and reconfirm all the results mentioned above, we 
decided to show metaphors that were difficult to understand (see Figure 4). 
Respondents indicated five different metaphors as not easy to identify, which 
shows that its general meaning may be considered somewhat ambiguous.  

Figure 4. English metaphors that were difficult to identify for language users.  

The list of metaphors that appear dubious for speakers of Polish include 
expressions such as mapping, sentiment analysis, application life, garbage in 
garbage out and big day. The word mapping was well known for 40% of the 
respondents, 39% of them did not know what mapping in mobile phone 
terminology was, while 20% remained uncertain about the meaning of this 
metaphor. Even though the word life is used very often in various metaphors, not 
only in the context of technology, it was quite difficult for 15% of students to 
correctly identify it. The metaphor big day, used to describe the time of the 
release of new software or a new mobile phone, is also used in other activities of 
our life. However, about 10% of respondents were not able to define this 
metaphor correctly and more than 50% of them did not know the meaning of this 
word. 

The second part of the survey aimed at determining whether respondents were 
able to define each metaphor precisely. The question was asked as a self-
assessment concerning knowledge of the correct definition of each metaphor. 

rxpeeTInd asremmaogrpr
sot,eptsybepts,yllcar
.gnimamrgorpdansertupmco

nognipyte lihwe nohpa 
qisit , wonsneercslebahcuto

yekehtnosekatsmi sorFd.pa

  

  

     
          
          

     
           

            
           

        
        

             
        

           
         

            

            
     

            
           
         

            
           

           
            

            
              

 

            
        

        

CATUNIMMCO

xpleo tsing niaemheT.str
ttilvswonkohwe neomos

e,noerhtonA regfint fa srer, 
mtsome secauB.adpeyke ht
at athdntasrednutoysaeiteuq
amphoratemshit,eoplpeeoms

  

  

     
          
          

     
           

            
           

        
        

             
        

           
         

            

            
     

            
           
         

            
           

           
            

            
              

 

            
        

        

MH TIWNGICAT RSETAPHO

y rveng hiteomsn iaxpl
nihtonroe lt boutag 

noedamsektaismtos
e avhesnohpe libom

a rfint fa ekamllwi
orveinsrappeay a

  

  

     
          
          

     
           

            
           

        
        

             
        

           
         

            

            
     

            
           
         

            
           

           
            

            
              

 

            
        

        

,onetsalheT.veitgane tnse
niaemlarnegehetnd atsrunde
dnuottlucidebs emitemso

aweivrevorettebaniagTo
sphoratemhowso td deicde
devdetacidnistnednopsRe
ninaemlarenegs titahts wosh

  

  

     
          
          

     
           

            
           

        
        

             
        

           
         

            

            
     

            
           
         

            
           

           
            

            
              

 

            
        

        

ssianatnemit ethsteaicdin, 
assemxtetaofnoretnd ang ni

spe,dnastre sedsuenhwylaleci

mstluserehtllamrnocerdna
srundeo ttulcdierewthat
saetonsasrohpatemtnerid
ahwemsoderedsinocebyamgn

  

  

     
          
          

     
           

            
           

        
        

             
        

           
         

            

            
     

            
           
         

            
           

           
            

            
              

 

            
        

        

toginytrfossecorp
y amng niaemstI.gea

.ylcalitcasars

ew,evobadenoitnem
.4)eguriFees(nd ats

,itnediotys hciwh
gibmata .uous

  

  

     
          
          

     
           

            
           

        
        

             
        

           
         

            

            
     

            
           
         

            
           

           
            

            
              

 

            
        

        

  

  

     
          
          

     
           

            
           

        
        

             
        

           
         

            

            
     

            
           
         

            
           

           
            

            
              

 

            
        

        

  

  

     
          
          

     
           

            
           

        
        

             
        

           
         

            

            
     

            
           
         

            
           

           
            

            
              

 

            
        

        

  

  

     
          
          

     
           

            
           

        
        

             
        

           
         

            

            
     

            
           
         

            
           

           
            

            
              

 

            
        

        

4e gurFi . atemhsilgEn

tahtsrohpatemfotsileTh
aschussnoisesrpex i

outbagegar dan dayg bi hT. 
mehtf o%93,stnednopsre

%02ilehw, sawyglooinmrte
wehthguohtnevE.rohpatme

hnolcetofxteontchetn iy onl
etme hT.tiitendiylectrrco
nar oreawftoswenf oesaelre

  

  

     
          
          

     
           

            
           

        
        

             
        

           
         

            

            
     

            
           
         

            
           

           
            

            
              

 

            
        

        

ugnalrofyfitnediottluciffiderwetahtsrohpa

rekaepsrsuoibudraeppa
g, ssianatnemitnse , atciappl

droweh gni nkllweswa
tahwwonktondid ni

t uobaintarecnudeinamer%
drow life avinnoyrevdesuis

ogy,hnol lt uditeuqsawit 
rohapet dayg bi csedtodesu, 

desuoslasi,enohpelibomwen

  

  

     
          
          

     
           

            
           

        
        

             
        

           
         

            

            
     

            
           
         

            
           

           
            

            
              

 

            
        

        

sresuegau .

edulcnihsiloPfosr
lon iat , n ibagegar

htfo%04rwnon e 
gn enohpilebomin

isthfoginnaemeth
t on, srohptaemsuiora

totsnedtusfo%51r
ethfoetimetheibrc
f oseitivitcar ehtonid

  

  

     
          
          

     
           

            
           

        
        

             
        

           
         

            

            
     

            
           
         

            
           

           
            

            
              

 

            
        

        

10%bouta,rveeowH.ilour
ermodnayltcerrocrohpatme

.drwo

evrusehtfotrapdnoceseTh
hapetmeache ndote lab
wonkgnincerncotenmsessas

  

  

     
          
          

     
           

            
           

        
        

             
        

           
         

            

            
     

            
           
         

            
           

           
            

            
              

 

            
        

        

Ibér

,p
erewsntpondeserof10% not

wonktondidm ehtfo%05naht

htehwgninimretedtademiaye
wnoitesuqe hT.yelsecirproh
oitindectrrcoe htfoe gedlw

  

  

     
          
          

     
           

            
           

        
        

             
        

           
         

            

            
     

            
           
         

            
           

           
            

            
              

 

            
        

        

36ca ibér 810(2 ): …-… 13

shitnedeo tebla
sihtfogninameehtw

erewstnednopserreh
elsa asedkasasw f-

.rohapetmeachfon

02 IBERICA 36_Iberica 13  30/10/18  7:40  Página 57



The second part of  the survey aimed at determining whether respondents
were able to define each metaphor precisely. The question was asked as a
self-assessment concerning knowledge of  the correct definition of  each
metaphor. Metaphors marked with the maximum amount of  certainty by the
first and third quartile of  the population are presented in Table 5. The
column “average” is a mean of  the level of  certainty marked by respondents
on a scale of  1 to 5. The column “sum of  points” shows the total of  all
marked levels. “Number of  collected answers” shows how many people
completed this point of  the questionnaire without making a mistake. 

As presented in Table 5, respondents claimed to be certain about only four
metaphors they had identified, namely selfie stick, cell phone, sweet photo, and
spam. All those were also specified as easy to define in terms of  their meaning
(a firm positive answer to the question: “Do you clearly understand the
meaning of  the following metaphors?”). 

On the other hand, metaphors that were very hard to define and understand
correctly are presented in Table 6. 

Among the list of  metaphors, five of  them have an average level of  certainty
below 2.5: Garbage in garbage out, sentiment analysis, fat finger, rubber duck debugging
and Cadillac solution. It is consistent with the answers included in the first part
of  this survey (the answer – “not sure”).

DOROTA SYLWIA MAJEWICZ & JACEK MAŚLANKOWSKI

Ibérica 36 (2018): 43-6858

DOROTA SYLWIA MAJEWICZ & JACEK MA!LANKOWSKI 

Ibérica 36 (2018): …-… 

Metaphors marked with the maximum amount of certainty by the first and third 
quartile of the population are presented in Table 5. The column “average” is a 
mean of the level of certainty marked by respondents on a scale of 1 to 5. The 
column “sum of points” shows the total of all marked levels. “Number of 
collected answers” shows how many people completed this point of the 
questionnaire without making a mistake.  

Metaphor Average Median Sum of 
points 

Number of 
collected 
answers 

Quartile 1 Quartile 3 

Selfie stick 4.92 5 645 152 5 5 
Cell phone 4.81 5 630 152 5 5 
Sweet photo 4.70 5 588 146 5 5 
Spam 4.58 5 563 144 5 5 

Table 5. Metaphors easy to define in respondents’ opinion.  

As presented in Table 5, respondents claimed to be certain about only four 
metaphors they had identified, namely selfie stick, cell phone, sweet photo, and 
spam. All those were also specified as easy to define in terms of their meaning (a 
firm positive answer to the question: “Do you clearly understand the meaning of 
the following metaphors?”).  

On the other hand, metaphors that were very hard to define and understand 
correctly are presented in Table 6.  

Table 6. The most difficult metaphors to define by respondents.  

Among the list of metaphors, five of them have an average level of certainty 
below 2.5: Garbage in garbage out, sentiment analysis, fat finger, rubber duck 
debugging and Cadillac solution. It is compliant with the answers included in the 
first part of this survey (the answer – “not sure”). 

To gain a better understanding of cross-cultural communication and the 
adaptation of different metaphors, we decided to design a similar questionnaire, 
but include only Polish metaphors. Figure 5 shows well-known Polish 
metaphors.  

DOROTA SYLWIA MAJEWICZ & JACEK MA!LANKOWSKI 

Ibérica 36 (2018): …-… 

Metaphors marked with the maximum amount of certainty by the first and third 
quartile of the population are presented in Table 5. The column “average” is a 
mean of the level of certainty marked by respondents on a scale of 1 to 5. The 
column “sum of points” shows the total of all marked levels. “Number of 
collected answers” shows how many people completed this point of the 
questionnaire without making a mistake.  

Table 5. Metaphors easy to define in respondents’ opinion.  

As presented in Table 5, respondents claimed to be certain about only four 
metaphors they had identified, namely selfie stick, cell phone, sweet photo, and 
spam. All those were also specified as easy to define in terms of their meaning (a 
firm positive answer to the question: “Do you clearly understand the meaning of 
the following metaphors?”).  

On the other hand, metaphors that were very hard to define and understand 
correctly are presented in Table 6.  

Metaphor Average Median Sum of 
points 

Number 
of 
collected 
answers 

Quartile 1 Quartile 3 

Garbage in Garbage out 2.26 2 138 82 1 3 
Sentiment analysis 2.05 1 121 80 1 3 
Fat finger 2.03 1 124 82 1 3 
Rubber duck debugging 1.62 1 89 76 1 2 
Cadillac solution 1.30 1 73 77 1 1 

Table 6. The most difficult metaphors to define by respondents.  

Among the list of metaphors, five of them have an average level of certainty 
below 2.5: Garbage in garbage out, sentiment analysis, fat finger, rubber duck 
debugging and Cadillac solution. It is compliant with the answers included in the 
first part of this survey (the answer – “not sure”). 

To gain a better understanding of cross-cultural communication and the 
adaptation of different metaphors, we decided to design a similar questionnaire, 
but include only Polish metaphors. Figure 5 shows well-known Polish 
metaphors.  

02 IBERICA 36_Iberica 13  30/10/18  7:40  Página 58



To gain a better understanding of  cross-cultural communication and the
adaptation of  different metaphors, we decided to design a similar
questionnaire, but include only Polish metaphors. Figure 5 shows well-
known Polish metaphors. 

Compared to Figure 2, these metaphors are almost the same and include: 

1. Spam (the same in English)

2. Selfie stick (the same in English)

3. Komórka (Cell phone)

4. Sieć (Network)

5. Wirtualna rzeczywistość (Virtual reality)

6. Chmura (Cloud). 

This means that there is both a direct influence upon, and adaptation of, new
metaphors to different languages. 

COMMUNICATING WITH METAPHORS

Ibérica 36 (2018): 43-68 59

COMMUNICATING WITH METAPHORS 

Ibérica 36 (2018): …-… 

Figure 5. Understanding of Polish metaphors.  

Compared to Figure 2, these metaphors are almost the same and include:  

1. Spam (the same in English) 

2. Selfie stick (the same in English) 

3. Komórka (Cell phone) 

4. Sie" (Network) 

5. Wirtualna rzeczywisto#" (Virtual reality) 

6. Chmura (Cloud).  

This means that there is both a direct influence upon, and adaptation of, new 
metaphors to different languages.  

 

Figure 6. Unfamiliar Polish metaphors.  

Polish students did not understand the following metaphors in the Polish 
questionnaire: Phishing, analiza sentymentu (sentiment analysis), mapowanie 
(mapping) and cykl !ycia aplikacji (application life). Three additional metaphors 
were also included in the list of those which are considered as obscure, and, thus, 
difficult to identify among Polish language users (see Figure 7).  

  

  

      

          

      

       

    

   

     

    

              
    

 

     

           
   
       

               
      

CATUNIMMCO   

  

      

          

      

       

    

   

     

    

              
    

 

     

           
   
       

               
      

MH TIWNGICAT RSETAPHO  

  

      

          

      

       

    

   

     

    

              
    

 

     

           
   
       

               
      

e gurFi

meseht,2erugiFotderapmCo

1. Spam Eniemaseh(t

  

  

      

          

      

       

    

   

     

    

              
    

 

     

           
   
       

               
      

5. srohpatemhsilPofognidnatsredUn .

erasrohpatem e amse httsomal

)hsilgn

  

  

      

          

      

       

    

   

     

    

              
    

 

     

           
   
       

               
      

educlnidan : 

  

  

      

          

      

       

    

   

     

    

              
    

 

     

           
   
       

               
      

2. kcitseSe emaseh(t

3. akrómKo nohplle(C

4. "eSi )rkowte(N

5. tsiwceanlautrWi

6. mCh aur ).duol(C

tobsierehttahtsnaemsiTh
augnaltneridotsrohpatme

  

  

      

          

      

       

    

   

     

    

              
    

 

     

           
   
       

               
      

)hsilgnEnie

)e

"#ot )ytilarelaurti(V

dna,nopuecneunitceridaht
sega . 

  

  

      

          

      

       

    

   

     

    

              
    

 

     

           
   
       

               
      

wenonoitatpadad

  

  

      

          

      

       

    

   

     

    

              
    

 

     

           
   
       

               
      

  

  

      

          

      

       

    

   

     

    

              
    

 

     

           
   
       

               
      

  

  

      

          

      

       

    

   

     

    

              
    

 

     

           
   
       

               
      

  

  

      

          

      

       

    

   

     

    

              
    

 

     

           
   
       

               
      

gurFi

nutondidstnedutshsilPo
:erionnaitsque ihsiPh , anal

ni(m dan ilacykl
tsilehtnidedulcnioslaerwe
olPong maintdeio ttulcdi

  

  

      

          

      

       

    

   

     

    

              
    

 

     

           
   
       

               
      

Ibér

6.e gur .srohpatemhsilPorailimafUn

atemgniwollehtdnatsred
analnteminteu ntemesa zianal

lnoitcailicjkai eerhT. 
deredisnocerahciwhesohtfo

eguriFees(sreusgenguaalh siol

  

  

      

          

      

       

    

   

     

    

              
    

 

     

           
   
       

               
      

36ca ibér 810(2 ): …-… 15

hsilPoehtnisrohp
is , einawo

srohptaeml anitiodda
,suht,dna,erucsbosa

7)e . 

COMMUNICATING WITH METAPHORS 

Ibérica 36 (2018): …-… 

Figure 5. Understanding of Polish metaphors.  

Compared to Figure 2, these metaphors are almost the same and include:  

1. Spam (the same in English) 

2. Selfie stick (the same in English) 

3. Komórka (Cell phone) 

4. Sie" (Network) 

5. Wirtualna rzeczywisto#" (Virtual reality) 

6. Chmura (Cloud).  

This means that there is both a direct influence upon, and adaptation of, new 
metaphors to different languages.  

 

Figure 6. Unfamiliar Polish metaphors.  

Polish students did not understand the following metaphors in the Polish 
questionnaire: Phishing, analiza sentymentu (sentiment analysis), mapowanie 
(mapping) and cykl !ycia aplikacji (application life). Three additional metaphors 
were also included in the list of those which are considered as obscure, and, thus, 
difficult to identify among Polish language users (see Figure 7).  

  

  

      

          

      

       

    

   

     

    

              
    

 

     

           
   
       

               
      

CATUNIMMCO   

  

      

          

      

       

    

   

     

    

              
    

 

     

           
   
       

               
      

MH TIWNGICAT RSETAPHO  

  

      

          

      

       

    

   

     

    

              
    

 

     

           
   
       

               
      

e gurFi

meseht,2erugiFotderapmCo

1. Spam Eniemaseh(t

  

  

      

          

      

       

    

   

     

    

              
    

 

     

           
   
       

               
      

5. srohpatemhsilPofognidnatsredUn .

erasrohpatem e amse httsomal

)hsilgn

  

  

      

          

      

       

    

   

     

    

              
    

 

     

           
   
       

               
      

educlnidan : 

  

  

      

          

      

       

    

   

     

    

              
    

 

     

           
   
       

               
      

2. kcitseSe emaseh(t

3. akrómKo nohplle(C

4. "eSi )rkowte(N

5. tsiwceanlautrWi

6. mCh aur ).duol(C

tobsierehttahtsnaemsiTh
augnaltneridotsrohpatme

  

  

      

          

      

       

    

   

     

    

              
    

 

     

           
   
       

               
      

)hsilgnEnie

)e

"#ot )ytilarelaurti(V

dna,nopuecneunitceridaht
sega . 

  

  

      

          

      

       

    

   

     

    

              
    

 

     

           
   
       

               
      

wenonoitatpadad

  

  

      

          

      

       

    

   

     

    

              
    

 

     

           
   
       

               
      

  

  

      

          

      

       

    

   

     

    

              
    

 

     

           
   
       

               
      

  

  

      

          

      

       

    

   

     

    

              
    

 

     

           
   
       

               
      

  

  

      

          

      

       

    

   

     

    

              
    

 

     

           
   
       

               
      

gurFi

nutondidstnedutshsilPo
:erionnaitsque ihsiPh , anal

ni(m dan ilacykl
tsilehtnidedulcnioslaerwe
olPong maintdeio ttulcdi

  

  

      

          

      

       

    

   

     

    

              
    

 

     

           
   
       

               
      

Ibér

6.e gur .srohpatemhsilPorailimafUn

atemgniwollehtdnatsred
analnteminteu ntemesa zianal

lnoitcailicjkai eerhT. 
deredisnocerahciwhesohtfo

eguriFees(sreusgenguaalh siol

  

  

      

          

      

       

    

   

     

    

              
    

 

     

           
   
       

               
      

36ca ibér 810(2 ): …-… 15

hsilPoehtnisrohp
is , einawo

srohptaeml anitiodda
,suht,dna,erucsbosa

7)e . 

02 IBERICA 36_Iberica 13  30/10/18  7:40  Página 59



Polish students did not understand the following metaphors in the Polish
questionnaire: Phishing, analiza sentymentu (sentiment analysis), mapowanie
(mapping) and cykl życia aplikacji (application life). Three additional metaphors
were also included in the list of  those which are considered as obscure, and,
thus, difficult to identify among Polish language users (see Figure 7). 

Among the list of  Polish metaphors, four were tough to define and these
were almost the same as in English: Cykl życia aplikacji (Application Life),
Mapowanie (Mapping) as well as Analiza sentymentu (Sentiment analysis). If  we
compare Figure 4, three English metaphors were almost the same. 

4. Conclusions 

The present paper has aimed to confirm the occurrence of  a variety of
metaphors in the discourse of  mobile phone users on the Internet forums
as an extension for specialized language analysis. We have attempted to
highlight the fact that the language of  Internet forums is filled with
metaphors related to mobile phones as well as other technological devices,
e.g., cameras, which have not as yet been subject to extensive study. Our
analysis showed that the majority of  these metaphors are used cross-
culturally and in different languages, based on English-Polish adaptation.
English language forum users are both speakers of  English as a first and as
a second language. Thus, our findings have proved that the semantic fields
for particular metaphors may differ with regard to whether English is the
first or the second language for the speaker. Forum users tend to use the
same metaphors; however, when they are presented in English their meaning
may vary from their loan word in Polish.

DOROTA SYLWIA MAJEWICZ & JACEK MAŚLANKOWSKI

Ibérica 36 (2018): 43-6860

DOROTA SYLWIA MAJEWICZ & JACEK MA!LANKOWSKI 

Ibérica 36 (2018): …-… 

 

Figure 7. Polish metaphors that were difficult to identify for language users.  

Among the list of Polish metaphors, four were tough to define and these were 
almost the same as in English: Cykl !ycia aplikacji (Application Life), 
Mapowanie (Mapping) as well as Analiza sentymentu (Sentiment analysis). If we 
compare Figure 4, three English metaphors were almost the same.  

4. Conclusions  

The present paper has aimed to confirm the occurrence of a variety of metaphors 
in the discourse of mobile phone users on the Internet forums as an extension for 
specialized language analysis. We have attempted to highlight the fact that the 
language of Internet forums is filled with metaphors related to mobile phones as 
well as other technological devices, e.g., cameras, which have not as yet been 
subject to extensive study. Our analysis showed that the majority of these 
metaphors are used cross-culturally and in different languages, based on English-
Polish adaptation. English language forum users are both speakers of English as 
a first and as a second language. Thus, our findings have proved that the 
semantic fields for particular metaphors may differ with regard to whether 
English is the first or the second language for the speaker. Forum users tend to 
use the same metaphors; however, when they are presented in English their 
meaning may vary from their loan word in Polish. 

This analysis allows us to reach several conclusions related to the utility of 
metaphorical expressions concerning mobile phones. The adaptation of the 
Conceptual Metaphor Theory as well as the Metaphor Identification Procedure 
(MIP) gave an insight into the identification and categorization of novelty in the 
process of metaphor formation among mobile phone language users. Then, a 
theoretical framework analysis underlying the research undertaken has proved 
that technology metaphors can be classified into different semantic domains and 

IEWAJMA IWSYLA TRODO CZ & KECJA   

  

 

            

              
        

          
      

  

              
              

            
            

            
           

          
          
          

         
               

       
        

             
       

          
           

         
        

         

IKSWOKNLA!AMK   

  

 

            

              
        

          
      

  

              
              

            
            

            
           

          
          
          

         
               

       
        

             
       

          
           

         
        

         

   

  

 

            

              
        

          
      

  

              
              

            
            

            
           

          
          
          

         
               

       
        

             
       

          
           

         
        

         

7e gurFi . patemhsilPo

emhsiloPfotsilehtgnoAm

   

  

 

            

              
        

          
      

  

              
              

            
            

            
           

          
          
          

         
               

       
        

             
       

          
           

         
        

         

ugnalrofyffyitnediottluciffffiderwetahtsrohp

dothguoterweru,srohpate

   

  

 

            

              
        

          
      

  

              
              

            
            

            
           

          
          
          

         
               

       
        

             
       

          
           

         
        

         

sresuega .

erweesehtdnaene

   

  

 

            

              
        

          
      

  

              
              

            
            

            
           

          
          
          

         
               

       
        

             
       

          
           

         
        

         

emhsiloPfotsilehtgnoAm
Eniase amse httsomal

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:hsilgn iilaiclkCy

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i ehtstomlaerews rohpatemsh

afoecneuccoehtmrnocot
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issmurt etenIfoegaugnla
ehtosallwe dlacigolonhcetr 

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anldnecosa asdantsra 

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augn pesh boterasreusumge

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.hsiloPnidrownaol

lillh

   

  

 

            

              
        

          
      

  

              
              

            
            

            
           

          
          
          

         
               

       
        

             
       

          
           

         
        

         

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sah singlEofsrkeape
e htathtedvorpe avh
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filihd

   

  

 

            

              
        

          
      

  

              
              

            
            

            
           

          
          
          

         
               

       
        

             
       

          
           

         
        

         

6 3aicréIb 810(2 ): …-…16

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ocsnoisserpxelacirohpatme
yroehTrohpateMlautpecnCo

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itamphoratemofsseocpr
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alersnoisulcnoclareveshcaer
iecno heT.sphoneelobimng 

edIrohpateMehtsallewsay
tazriogetacdnanoitacfiitnedieh

nguaalphoneelobimong maon i
nuhcraeserethginlyrednuiss
est nerdtoindsslacebna

   

  

 

            

              
        

          
      

  

              
              

            
            

            
           

          
          
          

         
               

       
        

             
       

          
           

         
        

         

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hetofon itaptdaahe
erudecorPnoitacitn
ehtniytlevonf onoit

gengua an,heT.sreus
devorpsahnektaredn
dnasinamodticname

02 IBERICA 36_Iberica 13  30/10/18  7:40  Página 60



This analysis allows us to reach several conclusions related to the utility of
metaphorical expressions concerning mobile phones. The adaptation of  the
Conceptual Metaphor Theory as well as the Metaphor Identification
Procedure (MIP) gave an insight into the identification and categorization of
novelty in the process of  metaphor formation among mobile phone
language users. Then, a theoretical framework analysis underlying the
research undertaken showed that technology metaphors can be classified
into different semantic domains and categorized by different dimensions.
For instance, they can be used as a service description (e.g. cloud that comes
from cloud computing) or a development (e.g. revolutionary or calm technology).
Empirical studies have confirmed that metaphor meaning depends on
different levels of  understanding, namely that users of  mobile phones
classify these themselves as either well-known, completely unfamiliar or
partly identified. Well-known metaphors, such as selfie stick, are commonly
used even by inexperienced users posting on Internet forums with basic
mobile phone problems. On the other hand, less frequently used metaphors,
such as big day (the time of  release of  a particular type of  software) remain
incomprehensible, as their meaning seems hazy for most mobile phone
users.

Secondly, the literature analysis resulted in the conclusion that most mobile
phone metaphor expressions were adopted directly from other fields of
technology and other technology-related metaphors, such as camera shot or
phishing. Metaphors adapted from technology directly into the field of  mobile
phone language are related to both concepts and activities, as could be
observed in section 2.1.

Lastly, Polish native-speaking respondents proved to be more familiar with
the Polish equivalents of  the metaphors, even though the difference in their
knowledge of  Polish and English metaphors was similar. Metaphor
comprehension has proved to be culture-dependent, i.e. speakers of  Polish
understand particular metaphors differently than speakers of  English. This
could be found by our extensive study with big data tools, which have a high
potential in metaphor identification, considering previous attempts made by
researchers using, e.g., Wmatrix or word frequency approach, which have not
proven satisfactory enough. 

We hope to be able to extend our research on the use of  metaphors in
specialized discourse such as with mobile phone forum users, and offer
further analyses of  other metaphors, which have indicated significant

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Ibérica 36 (2018): 43-68 61

02 IBERICA 36_Iberica 13  30/10/18  7:40  Página 61



differences in the semantic analysis of  the corpora. The results could not be
included in this paper due to space limitations; however, such results will
probably offer a broader perspective on the issue. 

Article history: 

Received 29 January 2017 

Received in revised form 16 May 2017 

Accepted 17 May 2017 

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Dr. Dorota Sylwia Majewicz is an Assistant Professor in the Institute of
English and American Studies at the University of  Gdańsk, Poland. Her
current research includes semantic aspects of  Natural Language Processing
and discourse analysis of  conflict management in ADR (Alternative Dispute
Resolution) methods in labor and employment cases, with emphasis on
international mediation processes. Dr. Majewicz is a certified court mediator
at the Regional Court in Gdańsk and the Regional Court in Poznań. 

Dr. Jacek Maślankowski is an Assistant Professor in the Faculty of
Management at the University of  Gdańsk. His numerous research papers
relate to text analytics applying Big Data in unstructured web data analysis.
His more recent research interests focus on providing valuable
information from human generated data, including social media
communication forms. 

Appendix 1 

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Ibérica 36 (2018): 43-6864

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Social and Behavioral Sciences 200: 574-578.

COMMUNICATING WITH METAPHORS 

Ibérica 36 (2018): …-… 

Nombre Apellido(s) Dr. Jacek Ma"lankowski is an Assistant Professor in the 
Faculty of Management at the University of Gda!sk. His numerous research 
papers relate to text analytics applying Big Data in unstructured web data 
analysis. His more recent research interests focus on providing valuable 
information from human generated data, including social media communication 
forms.  

Appendix 1  
English metaphors related to mobile phones  

No. Metaphor Meaning Classification 

1.!  Rubber Duck 
Debugging 

Explaining a programming problem to someone else, possibly 
even to someone who knows nothing about programming, and 
then hitting upon the solution in the process of explaining the 
problem. In describing what the code is supposed to do and 
observing what it actually does, any incongruity between these 
two becomes apparent. (Silicon Valley Dictionary, 2017) 

Technology 

2.!  Application Life Application life cycle management (ALM) is the combined 
coordination of various development life cycle activities, 
including requirements and modeling development, built and 
tested by: 

• Proper enforcement of processes that cover these 
activities. 

• Managing relationships between development artifacts 
used or produced by these activities. 

• Creating progress reports of the complete development 
cycle. 

Application life cycle management is also known as software life 
cycle management. (Technopedia TM, 2017) 

Nature 

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Ibérica 36 (2018): 43-68 65

COMMUNICATING WITH METAPHORS 

Ibérica 36 (2018): …-… 

Nombre Apellido(s) Dr. Jacek Ma"lankowski is an Assistant Professor in the 
Faculty of Management at the University of Gda!sk. His numerous research 
papers relate to text analytics applying Big Data in unstructured web data 
analysis. His more recent research interests focus on providing valuable 
information from human generated data, including social media communication 
forms.  

Appendix 1  
English metaphors related to mobile phones  

2.!  Application Life Application life cycle management (ALM) is the combined 
coordination of various development life cycle activities, 
including requirements and modeling development, built and 
tested by: 

• Proper enforcement of processes that cover these 
activities. 

• Managing relationships between development artifacts 
used or produced by these activities. 

• Creating progress reports of the complete development 
cycle. 

Application life cycle management is also known as software life 
cycle management. (Technopedia TM, 2017) 

Nature 

3.!  Big Day The day that something important happens <Tomorrow is the big 
day.> (Merriam-Webster Dictionary and Thesaurus, 2017); the 
date of release of a new mobile phone/application 

People 

4.!  Fat Finger To accidentally press a button or key adjacent to the desired 
one. 
—a situation in which you press the wrong button by accident 
when you are using a computer keyboard (Cambridge English 
Dictionary, 2017) 
—used to refer to clumsy or inaccurate typing, typically resulting 
from one finger striking two keys at the same time: 
‘the programming problem turned out to be a case of fat finger’ 
(Oxford English Dictionary, 2017) 

Nature 

5.!  Garbage in 
Garbage out 

Bad input data produce bad output (wrong application should be 
deleted). 
—something you say that means that something produced from 
materials of low quality will also be of low quality (Cambridge 
English Dictionary, 2017) 
—garbage in, garbage out (GIGO), in the context of information 
technology, is a slang expression that means regardless of how 

Nature 
DOROTA SYLWIA MAJEWICZ & JACEK MA!LANKOWSKI 

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accurate a program's logic is, the results will be incorrect if the 
input is invalid.!
—while the term is most frequently used in the context of 
software development, GIGO can also be used to refer to any 
decision-making systems where failure to make right decisions 
with precise, accurate data could lead to wrong, nonsensical 
results. (Technopedia, 2017)  

6.!  Cadillac Solution —an application or phone which is too expensive. 
A high-priced solution to a problem that may require only 
ingenuity/diligence (Solarwinds, 2017) 

Technology 

7.!  Tweet —a post made on the Twitter online message service (Merriam-
Webster Dictionary and Thesaurus, 2017)!
—to post a message, image, etc. on Twitter; Communicate with 
(someone) on Twitter (Oxford English Dictionary, 2017) 

Nature 

8.!  Cloud A remote storage location. 
—the computers and connections that support cloud computing 
<storing files in the cloud> (Merriam-Webster Dictionary and 
Thesaurus, 2017) 
—cloud computing: the practice of using a network of remote 
servers hosted on the Internet to store, manage, and process 
data, rather than a local server or a personal computer (Oxford 
English Dictionary, 2017) 

Nature 

9.!  Spam Unwanted e-mail or Short Text Message. 
—irrelevant or unsolicited messages sent over the Internet, 
typically to a large number of users, for the purposes of 
advertising, phishing, spreading malware, etc. (Oxford English 
Dictionary, 2017) 
—unsolicited usually commercial e-mail sent to a large number 
of addresses (Merriam-Webster Dictionary and Thesaurus, 
2017) 

Food 

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DOROTA SYLWIA MAJEWICZ & JACEK MA!LANKOWSKI 

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9.!  Spam Unwanted e-mail or Short Text Message. 
—irrelevant or unsolicited messages sent over the Internet, 
typically to a large number of users, for the purposes of 
advertising, phishing, spreading malware, etc. (Oxford English 
Dictionary, 2017) 
—unsolicited usually commercial e-mail sent to a large number 
of addresses (Merriam-Webster Dictionary and Thesaurus, 
2017) 

Food 

10.!  Navigation Application Menu 
—the science of getting ships, aircraft, or spacecraft from place 
to place; the method of determining position, course, and 
distance traveled (Merriam-Webster Dictionary and Thesaurus, 
2017); the action of moving around a website, the Internet, etc. 
(Oxford English Dictionary, 2017) 

Technology 

11.!  Community A group of people sharing mobile phone knowledge. 
—a unified body of individuals: such as 
people with common interests living in a particular area; broadly :  
the area itself <the problems of a large community> 
—a group of people with a common characteristic or interest 
living together within a larger society <a community of retired 
persons> <a monastic community> (Merriam-Webster Dictionary 
and Thesaurus, 2017) 

People 

12.!  Virtual 
Community 

A group of people sharing the same virtual meeting place. 
— a community of people sharing common interests, ideas, and 
feelings over the Internet. (Oxford English Dictionary, 2017) 

People 

COMMUNICATING WITH METAPHORS 

Ibérica 36 (2018): …-… 

13.!  Virtual Reality A world which exists only in electronic form. 
—the computer-generated simulation of a three-dimensional 
image or environment that can be interacted with in a seemingly 
real or physical way by a person using special electronic 
equipment, such as a helmet with a screen inside or gloves fitted 
with sensors. (Oxford English Dictionary, 2017) 
—an artificial environment which is experienced through sensory 
stimuli (as sights and sounds) provided by a computer and in 
which one's actions partially determine what happens in the 
environment; also:  the technology used to create or access a 
virtual reality (Merriam-Webster Dictionary and Thesaurus, 2017) 

Nature 

14.!  Cell Phone —a portable usually cordless telephone for use in a cellular 
system (Merriam-Webster Dictionary and Thesaurus, 2017) 
—a telephone with access to a cellular radio system so it can be 
used over a wide area, without a physical connection to a 
network. (Oxford English Dictionary, 2017) 

 

15.!  Connecting 
People 

To establish emotional connection with a person via a mobile 
phone.  

People 

16.!  Networking A group of people. 
—the exchange of information or services among individuals, 
groups, or institutions; specifically :  the cultivation of productive 
relationships for employment or business < … networking 
remains the No. 1 cause of job attainment … — Hal Lancaster> 
—the establishment or use of a computer network <He has 
extensive experience in computer networking and information 
security.> (Merriam-Webster Dictionary and Thesaurus, 2017) 

People  

17.!  Social Networking A group of people using social media as a communication 
medium. 
—the creation and maintenance of personal and business 
relationships especially online (Merriam-Webster Dictionary and 
Thesaurus, 2017)!
The use of dedicated websites and applications to interact with 
other users, or to find people with similar interests to oneself. 
(Oxford English Dictionary, 2017) 

People 

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17.!  Social Networking A group of people using social media as a communication 
medium. 
—the creation and maintenance of personal and business 
relationships especially online (Merriam-Webster Dictionary and 
Thesaurus, 2017)!
The use of dedicated websites and applications to interact with 
other users, or to find people with similar interests to oneself. 
(Oxford English Dictionary, 2017) 

People 

18.!  Mapping To fit something into a specific pattern. 
—the activity or process of creating a picture or diagram that 
represents something. (Cambridge English Dictionary, 2017) 
—an operation that associates each element of a given set (the 
domain) with one or more elements of a second set (the range). 
(Oxford English Dictionary, 2017) 

Technology 

19.!  Cellphone Era A world in which we are using mobile phones.  
—a period of time typical for cell phone development (authors’ 
definition) 

Nature 

20.!  Network The Internet. 
—a large system consisting of many similar parts that are 
connected together to allow movement or communication 
between or along the parts, or between the parts and a control 

Nature 

DOROTA SYLWIA MAJEWICZ & JACEK MA!LANKOWSKI 

Ibérica 36 (2018): …-… 

centre, 2. a number of computers that are connected together so 
that they can share information (Cambridge English Dictionary, 
2017)!
—an interconnected or interrelated chain, group, or system <a 
network of hotels> 
—a system of computers, peripherals, terminals (see 2 terminal 
5), and databases connected by communications lines; 5: 
usually informally interconnected group or association of persons 
(as friends or professional colleagues) <a support network 
available to single mothers> <a network of bird watchers> 
(Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2017) 

21.!  Selfie Stick A stick to facilitate taking the photo of oneself, usually taken with 
the front camera of the mobile phone. 
—a long device that you can attach to your mobile phone and 
use for taking a selfie (= a photograph of yourself) from a 
distance, so you can fit more people or things into the picture 
(Cambridge English Dictionary, 2017) 

Nature 

22.!  Sweetphoto The same as selfie, with the person being photographed smiling 
(authors’ definition) 

Food 

23.!  Electronic World A world in which we communicate via mobile phones or 
computers. 
—(digital world) electronic spectrum of data creation, storage, 
retrieval and synchronization (Reverso Dictionary, 2017)!
—the use of digital media (Facebook, Twitter, Instagram) in 
order to socialize via digital technological devices, i.e. cell 
phones, computers; also the use of technology for professional 
purposes, e.g. power point presentations or more advanced 
multi-media technologies (authors’ definition) 

Nature 

24.!  Sentiment 
Analysis 

Analysis of people's opinions and emotions. 
—the process of computationally identifying and categorizing 
opinions expressed in a piece of text, especially in order to 
determine whether the writer's attitude towards a particular topic, 
product, etc. is positive, negative, or neutral: (“Companies have 
key lessons to learn about harnessing the power of social media 
and sentiment analysis” (Oxford English Dictionary, 2017) 

People 

 

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DOROTA SYLWIA MAJEWICZ & JACEK MAŚLANKOWSKI

Ibérica 36 (2018): 43-6868

DOROTA SYLWIA MAJEWICZ & JACEK MA!LANKOWSKI 

Ibérica 36 (2018): …-… 

25.!  Phishing A way sensitive data are obtained, such as user 
names/passwords, addresses etc. 
—a scam by which an e-mail user is duped into revealing 
personal or confidential information which the scammer can use 
illicitly (Merriam-Webster Dictionary and Thesaurus, 2017) 
— an attempt to trick someone into giving information over the 
internet or by email that would allow someone else to take 
money from them, for example by taking money out of their bank 
account (Cambridge English Dictionary, 2017) 

Nature 

 

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