01 Editorial.qxd


Ibérica 33 (2017): 37-70

ISSN: 1139-7241 / e-ISSN: 2340-2784

Abstract  

This article deals with the problem of  intercultural business communication

between Spaniards and Russians and aims at identifying the possible points of

misunderstanding between the representatives of  the two countries at the

moment of  introducing their companies, and designing a set of  strategies to

avoid them. It compares the Spanish and the Russian cultures through the

contrast of  the linguistic patterns used by Spaniards and Russians to introduce

business companies on their official websites. Geert Hofstede’s (2001/1980) five

value dimension model has been taken as a basis for the analysis, and the two

cultures have been compared in five aspects: individualism index, power distance

index, masculinity index, uncertainty avoidance index, and long-term orientation

index. For the purposes of  the study two corpora were created which consisted

of  30 web presentations of  Spanish and Russian companies respectively: 10

belonged to travel agencies, 10 to real estate agencies, and 10 to food companies.

The analysis was done with the help of  the concordance programme AntConc

3.2.4w and SPSS Statistics Software Package version 20.0.0.  

Keywords: intercultural business communication, value dimensions, cultural

orientations. 

Resumen 

I nf l u e nc i a d e  l a  c ul tu ra  e n e l  l e n g ua j e  d e  l as  au to -p re s e n ta c io ne s  de  l a s

c omp a ñí as  de  ne g oc i o e n l a s  p ág in as  we b  e s pa ño l as  y  r us a s   

Este artículo trata del problema de la comunicación intercultural de los negocios

entre los españoles y los rusos, intenta identificar posibles puntos de

The influence of  culture on the language

of  business companies’ self-presentations

on Spanish and Russian websites 

Kseniia Belova  

University of Alicante (Spain)  
ksbelova@yandex.ru

37



Ibérica 33 (2017): 37-70

KSEnIIA BELovA

malentendido entre los representantes de los dos países a la hora de presentar sus

compañías, y diseñar un conjunto de estrategias para evitarlos. Las culturas

española y rusa se comparan a través del contraste de los patrones lingüísticos

utilizados por los españoles y los rusos para presentar las compañías en sus

páginas web oficiales. El modelo de las cinco dimensiones de Geert Hofstede

(2001/1980) ha sido la base del análisis, y las dos culturas han sido comparadas

en cinco aspectos: índice de individualismo, índice de distancia del poder, índice

de masculinidad, índice de evasión de la incertidumbre e índice de orientación a

largo plazo. Para los propósitos del estudio se confeccionaron dos corpus que

consistían en 30 presentaciones web de las compañías españolas y rusas

respectivamente: 10 pertenecían a las agencias de viaje, 10 a las inmobiliarias, y

10 a las empresas de alimentación. El análisis ha sido realizado con la ayuda del

programa de concordancias AntConc 3.2.4w y el software estadístico SPSS

Statistics Software Package versión 20.0.0.  

Palabras clave: comunicación intercultural de los negocios, dimensiones de

valor, orientaciones culturales. 

1. Introduction  

The concept of  international communication is not new. From the

beginning of  times, primeval tribes and nations from different cultural

backgrounds met and had contact. However, their communicative

encounters were rather limited, few and simple in comparison with

nowadays. The selection of  topics and signals was adapted to the immediate

necessities of  life: hunting, defence, attack, hiding, looking for food and

shelter, reproduction. But the nature of  intercultural encounters has changed

significantly since that time. At present, people travel much more than before

thanks to the development of  the means of  transport, and interact with

people from all over the world thanks to the appearance of  the Internet and

electronic forms of  communication that make possible instant messaging

and even real time communication with the remotest areas of  the planet. In

the recent decades, changes in government legislation on civil rights

promoted contact between people from different racial and ethnic

background, making them co-workers, neighbours or even part of  the same

family. Multiculturalism has spread all over the world, thus creating the

concept of  “global village” in which we live at present. The best example of

it can be the United States of  America, the “melting pot”, where “African

American, Hispanic and other ethnic groups are actively defending the

validity of  their identities while the Anglo population has begun to sense an

urgency for understanding these perceptions” (Singer, 1998: 104). 

38



People’s goal in intercultural communication may be different: tourism,

studies, business or relationship, and the time they spend interacting with

other cultures can be measured distinctly: by minutes or by years, but one

thing is common: they will have to face certain problems of

misunderstanding. The question of  having the correct intercultural

communication competence has become a burning issue, as nowadays all the

nations and cultures prove to be interdependent. The diversity of  interests

and expectations presents great opportunities for mutual cooperation,

creating a global community where people from different cultures live in

respect and understanding. However, it also presents the possibility of

turning this dream into a nightmare in which there are “clusters of  strangers

living in ghettos and united only in their antipathies for others” (Barnlund,

1998: 36). People that come from distinct cultural backgrounds are aware of

the differences that exist between them, and these differences tend to

become very important, sometimes even exaggerated or distorted, which

creates a negative stereotype. In this case, mutual respect and cooperation are

difficult to obtain, however rivalry and tension are easily provoked, and that

results in an intercultural conflict. To prevent this from happening, we have

to be aware of  the differences that separate nations and cultures, and be

ready to accept them and reach compromise solutions. For this reason,

research in the field of  intercultural communication is of  paramount

importance nowadays and has to be conducted on a large scale.

The globalization process which has been taking place actively over the last

decades, has promoted opportunities for international business and trading,

which have been used by entrepreneurs all over the world. Big companies

look for business partners in new locations. Due to the economic crises in

Europe, the European countries have to search for solution and very often

they find it in the countries with emerging economies, like china, Russia,

Brazil and India. 

In this paper we are going to look closely at the example of  the negotiations

between Spain and Russia. In the latest press it is easy to find evidence that

Spain and Russia have been developing solid business connection. The most

popular areas of  interaction are:  

1. Tourism:  

According to the statistic data, the number of  the Russian tourists

that travel to Spain has almost doubled in the past two years and

forecasts indicate that this tendency will be maintained in 20131.

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Ibérica 33 (2017): 37-70 39



2. Real estate sector:  

Low house prices caused by the burst of  the Spanish real estate

bubble in addition to the possible adoption of  the law which will

grant the residence permit to those who buy a house for a price

over 160,000 Euros, have triggered much interest in the potential

buyers and investors from Russia.2

3. Export, expansion of  trade and investment:

For Spain, Russia may be one of  the key markets in the field of

technology, food and agriculture, textiles, as well as in the

automotive sector, transport infrastructure, renewable energy and

environment.3

In general, the commercial interchange between Russia and Spain has grown

in the past few years, and the future seems promising. A short summary for

the year 2011 can be seen in Figure 1 taken from Rusia HOY, a digital

newspaper about Russia4:  

In the area of  international business, to be competent in intercultural

communication is extremely significant for achieving success in negotiations

and reaching mutual agreement. As the commerce between Spain and Russia

KSEnIIA BELovA

Ibérica 33 (2017): 37-7040

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Ibérica 32 (2016): …-… 

 

Figure 1. Pablo León. “España y Rusia potencian sus relaciones económicas”. Rusia HOY,                                    
28 de mayo de 2012.  

In the area of international business, to be competent in intercultural 
communication is extremely significant for achieving success in negotiations and 
reaching mutual agreement. As the commerce between Spain and Russia seems 
to be a topical issue today, in this paper we will analyse, through intercultural 
perspective, possible problems that may arise in business communication 
between the Spanish and the Russians, and give their respective solutions.   

2. Statement of the problem   

Since the second half of the 20th century the question of intercultural 
communication, and especially in the business context, has been dealt with 
much, and a lot of research has been carried out on this topic (Hall, 1959 & 
1966; Hofstede, 1980; Gudykunst, 1988; Samovar & Porter, 1991; Bennett, 
1998; Guillén-Nieto, Marimón-Llorca & Vargas-Sierra, 2009; Kecskes & 
Romero-Trillo, 2013). 

However, in the process of looking for the material for the present paper 
(analysing the works of the authors mentioned before and searching on the 
Internet and in the library), we have noticed that research on intercultural 
business communication between native Spanish and Russian speakers is very 
scarce. Probably, it can be explained by the fact that the English language has 
become the main medium for business communication between people from 

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seems to be a topical issue today, in this paper we will analyse, through

intercultural perspective, possible problems that may arise in business

communication between the Spanish and the Russians, and give their

respective solutions.  

2. Statement of  the problem  

Since the second half  of  the 20th century the question of  intercultural

communication, and especially in the business context, has been dealt with

much, and a lot of  research has been carried out on this topic (Hall, 1959 &

1966; Hofstede, 1980; Gudykunst, 1988; Samovar & Porter, 1991; Bennett,

1998; Guillén-nieto, Marimón-Llorca & vargas-Sierra, 2009; Kecskes &

Romero-Trillo, 2013).

However, in the process of  looking for the material for the present paper

(analysing the works of  the authors mentioned before and searching on the

Internet and in the library), we have noticed that research on intercultural

business communication between native Spanish and Russian speakers is

very scarce. Probably, it can be explained by the fact that the English

language has become the main medium for business communication

between people from different countries who speak different languages. For

that reason the principal research is being conducted on English and its role

in intercultural communication throughout the world (Guillén-nieto, 2009;

Mateo Martínez, 2010; Kecskes & Romero-Trillo, 2013). 

Another reason may consist in rather recent beginning of  active business

relations between Spain and Russia. A few years ago, it was a very rare case

to see a Spanish businessman making deal with a Russian one. This situation

has changed. The necessity to carry out research on cross-cultural

communication between these two nations becomes a burning issue. It will

help us discover probable sources for future misunderstanding and

problems, and develop some strategies to avoid them and make business

relations successful.  

3. Purpose of  the study  

Following the idea expressed in the previous section, our main objectives for

this research paper can be formulated as follows: 

THE InFLUEncE oF cULTURE

Ibérica 33 (2017): 37-70 41



1. To explore, describe and explain the possible influence of  cultural

dimensions on the way Spanish and Russian business companies

introduce themselves on their official websites.  

2. To compare the presentations of  Spanish and Russian companies

on their official websites in order to find cultural and linguistic

similarities and differences. 

3. To identify possible problems of  misunderstanding between the

representatives of  the two countries at the moment of  introducing

their companies, and to design a set of  strategies to avoid them.  

The following chapters will explain in more detail the initial hypotheses of

the research and the model of  analysis that will be used.  

4. Hypotheses  

culture, as well as language, is a social system acquired and shared by the

individuals that belong to the same community. cultural background is

always present in the life of  a person and has great influence on everything

he or she does and says. no form of  human communication can develop

without cultural influence because communication is implemented through

language, and language is connected to the mind of  the people who use it.

It develops together with people in certain social and cultural circumstances,

so inevitably it will have their influence. Language describes and defines the

world that people live in, so if  there are differences in cultures and

mentalities, there will be differences in languages. So languages, and thus

communication, will be always influenced by culture, as the interlocutors’

cultural background is impossible to forget or ignore (Mateo Martínez,

2010).

Identification of  cultural norms and orientations makes it possible to explain

the preference of  community members for certain linguistic and non-

linguistic behaviour. Hence, the general working hypothesis of  this project is

that culture influences the way Spanish and Russian business companies

introduce themselves on their official websites, which has been selected as

the object of  study for this research. More specifically, different cultural

values can be traced in Spanish and Russian linguistic patterns, and these

differences will enable the language researcher to predict possible points of

misunderstanding between the two cultures.

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For the purpose of  this research we will use Hofstede’s (2001/1980) value

dimensions model which is based on statistics and presents quantified scores,

so the comparative analysis can be easily carried out. Hofstede offers five

value dimensions: individualism index, power distance index, masculinity

index, uncertainty avoidance index, and long-term orientation index (a

recently added dimension of  indulgence index has not been analysed as it

appeared after the present work had been written).  

(i) Individualism versus Collectivism (IDV): this dimension deals with the

concept of  identity and integration of  the individuals within

social groups or organizations. on the one extreme there is

individualistic culture whose members are only expected to take

care of  themselves and their close family, and on the other

extreme we find collectivist cultures whose members are

expected to take care of  their relatives or other members of  a

certain group. 

(ii) Power Distance (PDI): this dimension refers to the degree of  power

that the individuals have in social groups or organizations, and

the social distance that exists among them.  

(iii) Masculinity versus Femininity (MAS): this value dimension deals with

the characteristics traditionally assigned to the masculinity and

femininity. A masculine culture is more competitive and its

members will prefer assertiveness, heroism, achievement and

material reward for success. on the contrary, a feminine culture

is more consensus-oriented and its members will prefer

cooperation, caring for the weak, modesty and quality of  life.  

(iv) Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI): this dimension deals with the degree

of  tolerance that a culture has towards the unknown. on the one

extreme of  the continuum there are cultures that tend to reject

the changes of  the status quo to avoid the uncertainty that they

may provoke. on the other extreme there are cultures that are

not so rigid in their attitude towards the changes and feel

comfortable with the fact that the future can never be known. 

(v) Long-term versus Short-term Orientation (LTO): this value dimension

deals with the search for virtue in a society. on the one hand,

there are short-term oriented cultures whose members are not

likely to save for the future, as they focus on achieving quick

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Ibérica 33 (2017): 37-70 43



results. They are centred on the present. on the other hand, long-

term oriented cultures are thrifty; they show tendency to save and

invest, and perseverance in achieving results. They are oriented

towards the future.  

The scores on The Hofstede centre website5 (provided in chapter 8) suggest

that there can be serious differences between Russia and Spain if  we talk

about power distance. However, there is no significant distinction as far as

the rest of  the value dimensions are concerned. As no information is

available on Russia for the long-term orientation dimension, we will suppose

that there may be a significant difference. 

In this research we will concentrate both on possible differences and

similarities between the two cultures, which are likely to manifest themselves

through the language. So, the hypotheses of  this paper are:  

1. Hofstede’s value dimensions of  individualism index, power

distance index, masculinity index, uncertainty avoidance index, and

long-term orientation index can be detected in the linguistic traits

used in the presentations of  Spanish and Russian companies on

the websites.  

2. The dimensions of  individualism index, masculinity index, and

uncertainty avoidance index will be expressed through similar

language patterns in Spanish and Russian web presentations,

namely through: (a) the same quantitative use of  the 1st person

plural and the 1st person singular forms (for the individualism

index), (b) the same use of  expressive and instrumental languages

(for the masculinity index), (c) the same degree of  accessibility of

information, length of  texts and position of  the purpose

statement (for the uncertainty avoidance index).  

3. The dimension of  power distance will be expressed through distinct

language patterns in Spanish and Russian web presentations, namely

through the different quantitative and qualitative use of  the personal

pronouns that denote v/T forms of  address.  

4. The dimension of  long-term orientation may be assumed to be

expressed through distinct language patterns in Spanish and

Russian web presentations, namely through the different use of

references to the future and to the present. 

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5. Corpora  

In order to implement the idea of  our research and to analyse the influence

of  Hofstede’s value dimensions on the way Spanish and Russian companies

introduce themselves on their websites, it is necessary to have samples of

texts used in web presentations. These samples allow us to create two

corpora, the Spanish and the Russian, and later, to conduct a contrastive

analysis. 

First of  all, a preliminary choice of  companies was made. To be able to

decide the presentations of  which companies will be of  our interest, we used

the information about the current state of  business affairs between Spain

and Russia. As we have already mentioned in the introduction, the most

popular areas of  negotiations between these countries are tourism, real

estate sector and export. So, for the purpose of  our research, we selected

Spanish and Russian companies from these business sectors.

To choose the most representative Spanish companies from the tourist

sector, we used the list of  the travel agencies with the biggest annual sales

volume published in Hosteltur.com on the 5th June, 2012.6 The Russian

travel agencies were chosen from the best travel agencies in Russia with the

biggest turnover, according to the information provided by the Russian

Travel Agency Association in March, 2012.7 The list of  the companies can

be found in the Appendix.

As there are so many real estate agencies in Spain today, and each of  them

performs almost the same functions, the real estate agencies for our analysis

were chosen only from Madrid, because we suppose that the most

representative agencies would be concentrated in the capital of  a country.

The selection was carried out through the search made on Spanish Yellow Pages

of  Madrid8 sorted by reviews. The first ten results of  big real estate agencies

were chosen. In Russia the best and the biggest real estate agencies are

situated in Moscow, the capital of  the country, so we used the same

procedure as described before but with Russian Yellow Pages of  Moscow region9,

to find the top ten real estate agencies. All the companies are mentioned in

the Appendix.

Finally, we decided to represent the export sector with the food industry

companies, since, according to the last year report in EL PAIS10, the export

of  food and drinks has become one of  the principal export sectors in Spain,

leaving behind the automobile one. In Russia, the export of  food does not

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have such a relevant value in economy as it does in Spain. However, the

Russian food industry companies have ambitious projects of  expanding the

exportation of  food and beverages to the Western consumers, as Rusia HOY

stated a year ago in its report11. It may be thus presumed that Spain and

Russia are likely to start fruitful negotiations in this sector in the nearest

future. 

The Spanish companies from the food and drink sector were selected from

the ranking list of  the food industry companies in Spain with the biggest

annual sales volume, provided by Marketing4food.com on the 5th March,

2012.12 The Russian companies of  the food and drink sector were chosen

from the similar ranking list, provided by the Russian economic newspaper

Коммерсантъ on the 7th February, 2012.13 The names of  the selected
firms are given in the Appendix.

As a contrastive analysis of  the cultural influence must be based on

representative corpora, only the original texts written in Spanish and in

Russian as the respective first language were chosen. In consequence, we

obtained the first corpus formed by the web presentations of  the companies

created by and for Spanish people. The second corpus consists of  the texts

written by and for Russian people respectively.

The texts were taken from the official websites of  the companies, from the

sectors called “¿Quiénes somos?”, “nuestro Grupo”, “Acerca de”, “carta de

Presentación”, “Qué es…?”, “conócenos”, “nosotros”, etc. and their

counterparts on the Russian webpages, including the messages from the

general managers, if  there were any. We decided to leave out the sections

dedicated to the history of  the company and its economic data, as well as the

detailed paragraphs about the ethical values, social responsibility, etc. because

we considered that this information is not relevant for the purpose of  our

study. We chose the most visible sectors - the presentations of  the

companies - which constitute the first message that a person sees when he

or she looks for the information about a company. As the first impression

proves to be the strongest and, often, the decisive one, we considered this

section of  the webpage the most relevant.  

The characteristics of  the obtained corpora are summarized in Table 1:  

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6. Model of  analysis  

The comparative analysis of  the way Spanish and Russian companies

introduce themselves on their websites means that the object of  study has a

double perspective - linguistic and intercultural. For this reason, a complex

model of  analysis is required.  

The present work borrows its model of  analysis from the previous studies in

the field of  intercultural communication. The source of  inspiration was a

cross-disciplinary model for the analysis of  intercultural business

communication between Spaniards and Britons, introduced by victoria

Guillén-nieto (2009: 37). According to the author, it “consists of  four levels,

moving from the inner, invisible, face of  a culture (Levels 1 and 2) to the

outer, visible, face of  a culture (Levels 3 and 4)”, and it is summarized in

Table 2:  

A cross-disciplinary model for the analysis of  intercultural business

communicat

ion between Spaniards and Britons

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Ibérica 32 (2016): …-… 

Characteristics Corpora 
1. Topics of the texts Travel agencies  

Real estate agencies 
Food and drink companies 

2. Number of texts 10 for each topic, 30 in total  
3. Length of texts Spanish corpus: minimum length 66 words / maximum 

length 483 words 
Russian corpus: minimum length 76 words / maximum 
length 834 words 

4. Total length of the corpus Spanish corpus: 7248 words 
Russian corpus: 8342 words 

5. Genre Presentation of a company 
6. Setting Official webpage of the company, the introductory sector 

(“Quiénes somos” or the like) 
7. Channel Written 
8. Mode Written language 
9. Language Spanish corpus: Spanish (standard) 

Russian corpus: Russian (standard) 
10. Authors Representatives of the company 
11. Readers Potential consumers/clients or business partners 
12. Objectivity Partial: some data are objective, but the description of the 

company is subjective – it is always presented as the 
best in its category 

13. Communicative purpose To address potential clients/consumers or business 
partners, introduce the company and inform about its 
benefits, convince them to choose this company and its 
services, prompt purchases or collaboration. Often these 
communicative purposes take the form of providing 
enjoyment, help, taking care of health, etc. 

Table 1. The characteristics of the corpora.   

6. Model of analysis   

The comparative analysis of the way Spanish and Russian companies introduce 
themselves on their websites means that the object of study has a double 
perspective - linguistic and intercultural. For this reason, a complex model of 
analysis is required.   

The present work borrows its model of analysis from the previous studies in the 
field of intercultural communication. The source of inspiration was a cross-
disciplinary model for the analysis of intercultural business communication 
between Spaniards and Britons, introduced by Victoria Guillén-Nieto (2009: 37). 
According to the author, it “consists of four levels, moving from the inner, 
invisible, face of a culture (Levels 1 and 2) to the outer, visible, face of a culture 
(Levels 3 and 4)”, and it is summarized in the following Table 2:   

 

 



In the case of  our research, the model of  analysis presented above was

applied to intercultural business communication between Spaniards and

Russians.  

7. Procedure  

our research was organised in four stages, according to the model of

analysis.

At the first stage, we selected relevant value dimensions for the analysis of

intercultural business communication between Spaniards and Russians. We

used Hofstede’s (2001/1980) value dimensions, which are based on

exhaustive empirical research supported by sophisticated statistics, including

the five cultural indexes previously mentioned in the article. 

At the second stage, we defined culture-specific value orientations in Spanish

and Russian cultures. The value dimensions taken from Hofstede’s model

were analysed and compared between the two countries, with the help of  the

statistic data provided on The Hofstede centre website, and then, the

relevant dimensions were kept for the purposes of  analysis.  

Hofstede’s scores on value dimensions for Spain and Russia taken from The

Hofstede centre website, are shown in Figure 2.  

KSEnIIA BELovA

Ibérica 33 (2017): 37-7048

THE INFLUENCE OF CULTURE 

Ibérica 32 (2016): …-… 

A cross-disciplinary model for the analysis of intercultural 
business communication between Spaniards and Britons 
Level 1 Selecting relevant value dimensions for the analysis of 

intercultural business communication between Spaniards 
and Britons. 

Level 2 Defining culture-specific value orientations in Spanish and 
British cultures. 

Level 3 Analysing how culture-specific value orientations have 
been negotiated into culture-specific ritualistic behaviour, 
namely protocol and social etiquette. 

Level 4 Examining how culture-specific value orientations have 
been negotiated into culture-specific language use, namely 
rules of interaction, socio-pragmatic conventions, and 
pragmalinguistic behaviour. 

Table 2. Levels of analysis (Guillén-Nieto, 2009: 37). 

In the case of our research, the model of analysis presented above was applied to 
intercultural business communication between Spaniards and Russians.   

7. Procedure   

Our research was organised in four stages, according to the model of analysis. 

At the first stage, we selected relevant value dimensions for the analysis of 
intercultural business communication between Spaniards and Russians. We used 
Hofstede’s (2001/1980) value dimensions, which are based on exhaustive 
empirical research supported by sophisticated statistics, including the five 
cultural indexes previously mentioned in the article.  

At the second stage, we defined culture-specific value orientations in Spanish 
and Russian cultures. The value dimensions taken from Hofstede’s model were 
analysed and compared between the two countries, with the help of the statistic 
data provided on The Hofstede Centre website, and then, the relevant dimensions 
were kept for the purposes of analysis.   

Hofstede’s scores on value dimensions for Spain and Russia taken from The 
Hofstede Centre website, are shown in Figure 2.   



These data confirm that there are some strong cultural differences between

Spain and Russia, namely when we speak about power distance. Whereas

Spain’s power distance index is medium, Russia’s is particularly high. The

value dimensions of  individualism, masculinity and uncertainty avoidance

show around 10-score difference between the two cultures, which does not

represent a serious distinction. The last value dimension of  long-term

orientation has a lack of  data for Russia, which means that this aspect must

be further analysed. 

The readers can observe that the value dimension that is most likely to cause

problems of  misunderstanding and friction between the Spanish and the

Russians is power distance, and they can suppose the same about long-term

orientation, as the data is not fully provided. In the rest of  the dimensions

the scores do not differ much, which means that the two cultures are likely

to be similar in these aspects. For the purposes of  our research we kept and

analysed all five cultural dimensions in order to confirm or refute these

suppositions. 

The third stage related to the analysis of  how culture-specific value

orientations have been negotiated into culture-specific ritualistic behaviour,

was omitted in this research, as the principal interest of  this work consists in

the linguistic analysis.

THE InFLUEncE oF cULTURE

Ibérica 33 (2017): 37-70 49

KSENIIA BELOVA 

Ibérica 32 (2016): …-… 

 
 PDI IDV MAS UAI LTO 

Spain 57 51 42 86 19 

Russia 93 39 36 95 unknown 

Figure 2. Hofstede’s scores on value dimensions for Spain and Russia.   

These data confirm that there are some strong cultural differences between Spain 
and Russia, namely when we speak about power distance. Whereas Spain’s 
power distance index is medium, Russia’s is particularly high. The value 
dimensions of individualism, masculinity and uncertainty avoidance show 
around 10-score difference between the two cultures, which does not represent a 
serious distinction. The last value dimension of long-term orientation has a lack 
of data for Russia, which means that this aspect must be further analysed.  

The readers can observe that the value dimension that is most likely to cause 
problems of misunderstanding and friction between the Spanish and the Russians 
is power distance, and they can suppose the same about long-term orientation, as 
the data is not fully provided. In the rest of the dimensions the scores do not 
differ much, which means that the two cultures are likely to be similar in these 
aspects. For the purposes of our research we kept and analysed all five cultural 
dimensions in order to confirm or refute these suppositions.  

The third stage related to the analysis of how culture-specific value orientations 
have been negotiated into culture-specific ritualistic behaviour, was omitted in 
this research, as the principal interest of this work consists in the linguistic 
analysis. 

VAOBELA IKSENI  

 

 
      

      

      

         

            
          

         
     

           
           

    

              
     

           
            

          
           

        

           
      

 
 

 

 

 
      

      

      

         

            
          

         
     

           
           

    

              
     

           
            

          
           

        

           
      

 
 

 

 

 
      

      

      

         

            
          

         
     

           
           

    

              
     

           
            

          
           

        

           
      

 
 

 

 

 
      

      

      

         

            
          

         
     

           
           

    

              
     

           
            

          
           

        

           
      

 
 

 

 

 
      

      

      

         

            
          

         
     

           
           

    

              
     

           
            

          
           

        

           
      

 
 

 

 

 
      

      

      

         

            
          

         
     

           
           

    

              
     

           
            

          
           

        

           
      

 
 

 

 

 
      

      

      

         

            
          

         
     

           
           

    

              
     

           
            

          
           

        

           
      

 
 

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Finally, at the fourth stage, we examined how culture-specific value

orientations have been negotiated into culture-specific language use, using

created corpora as the basis for the study. on this stage two types of  analyses

were conducted: qualitative and quantitative. In the former we looked at

different linguistic levels to compare the texts and find language variables

that are worth analysing.  

Guillén-nieto (2009: 49-50) in her analysis of  intercultural business

communication between Spaniards and Britons summarized the hypothetical

correlation between cultural dimensions and oral and written linguistic

patterns in Table 3:  

KSEnIIA BELovA

Ibérica 33 (2017): 37-7050

KSENIIA BELOVA 

Ibérica 32 (2016): …-… 

Value 
dimension 

National 
culture 

Culture-
specific values 

Language-specific behaviour 

Time Spanish Polychronic Multifocus 
High tolerance for interruptions 
High tolerance for simultaneous speech 

 British Monochronic Single focus 
Low tolerance for interruptions 
Low tolerance for simultaneous speech 

Personal space British Non-contact 
culture 

Promotes the use of independence strategies 
(negative politeness) 

 Spanish Contact culture Promotes the use of involvement strategies 
(positive politeness) 

Context Spanish Fairly high context Promotes implicitness 
Relies on contextual cues and non verbal codes 

 British Low context Relies on symbolic language and the verbal 
code 

Individualism index British Very high (89) Form of reference to self as an individual 
Uses independence strategies (negative 
politeness) 

 Spanish Average (51) Form of reference to self as a group 
Uses involvement strategies (positive politeness) 

Power distance Spanish Average (57) Honorifics, Terms of address 
V/T forms 

 British Moderately small 
(35) 

Honorifics, Terms of address 
Ø V/T forms 

Masculinity index British Moderately high 
(66) 

Task-oriented 
Instrumental 

 Spanish Average (42) People-oriented 
Expressive 

Uncertainty 
avoidance index 

Spanish Strong (86) Turn-taking system is asymmetrical 
Long turns 
Low tolerance of silence 
Shows preference for digressiveness, 
circumlocutions, long explanations, long texts, 
and long sentences 
Needs to provide background information and 
context 
Purpose statement is postponed 
Thesis/purpose statement is delayed 
Indirectness in purpose statement 
Requires confirmation 

 British Moderately weak 
(35) 

Turn-taking is symmetrical 
Short-turns 
More tolerance of silence 
Shows preference for linearity, short 
explanations, short texts, and short sentences 
Purpose statement is anticipated 
Directness in purpose statement 

Table 3. Hypothetical correlation of culture-specific values with language-specific behaviour (Guillén-Nieto, 
2009: 49-50).  



The above mentioned Table 3 was used as a source of  inspiration for our

own research. Having analysed the corpora, we selected the linguistic

variables that were used for further investigation and that are summarized

in Table 4:

When the linguistic variables were defined, we proceeded with the

quantitative part of  the analysis, which included: 

(i) Use of  the concordance program AntConc 3.2.4w to carry out the

analysis of  the selected linguistic variables; 

(ii) chi square test or T-test of  SPSS Statistics Software Package version

20.0.0 to determine whether or not the differences observed in

the frequencies of  the linguistic variables selected in both

corpora are statistically significant.  

The results obtained helped us compare the corpora of  Spanish and Russian

texts, and thus, compare the respective cultures through contrastive analysis.

THE InFLUEncE oF cULTURE

Ibérica 33 (2017): 37-70 51

THE INFLUENCE OF CULTURE 

Ibérica 32 (2016): …-… 

The above mentioned Table 3 was as a source of inspiration for our own 
research. Having analysed the corpora, we selected the linguistic variables that 
were used for further investigation and that are summarized in the following 
Table 4: 

Value dimension National culture Culture-specific 
values 

Analysed linguistic 
variables 

Spanish Average (51) Personal pronouns “we” and “I” 
Possessive pronouns “our” and 
“my” Individualism index 

Russian Average (39) Verbs in the 1st person singular 
and the 1st person plural forms 
(present tense) 

Russian Very high (93) Personal pronouns “tú/!"” and 
“Usted(es)/#" ($")” that 
express V/T forms of address Power distance index 

Spanish Average (57)  
Spanish Average (42) Expressive language Masculinity index 
Russian Moderately low (36) Instrumental language 
Russian Very high (95) Accessibility of the information 

Length of texts, paragraphs and 
sentences 

Uncertainty avoidance 
index Spanish Very high (86) 

Position of the purpose 
statement 

Spanish Low (19) Presence of the references to 
the future Long-term orientation 

Russian No data available 
Presence of the references to 
the present 

Table 4. Correlation of linguistic variables with Hofstede’s five cultural dimensions in the Spanish and the 
Russian corpora.   

When the linguistic variables were defined, we proceeded with the quantitative 
part of the analysis, which included:  

(i) Use of the concordance program AntConc 3.2.4w to carry out the 
analysis of the selected linguistic variables;  

(ii) Chi square test or T-test of SPSS Statistics Software Package version 
20.0.0 to determine whether or not the differences observed in the 
frequencies of the linguistic variables selected in both corpora are 
statistically significant.   

The results obtained helped us compare the corpora of Spanish and Russian 
texts, and thus, compare the respective cultures through contrastive analysis.   

8. Findings and discussion   



8. Findings and discussion  

8.1. Individualism index  

The cultural dimension of  individualism versus collectivism deals with the

concept of  identity that the individuals have in their society. There are

cultures with collectivist mentality, where the self-image is defined in terms

of  “we”, and with individualistic mentality, where the self-image is presented

as “I”. 

After the previous qualitative analysis of  the corpora we have selected

linguistic variables which, in our opinion, reflect the cultural values described

by Hofstede. We have noticed that the most popular way among all the

companies is self-presentation from the first person plural: “we”, “our

company”, “our agents”, etc. Logically, the most used verb form in this case

is the first person plural (“somos”, “hemos logrado”, “trabajamos”,

“esperamos”, “поможем” [we will help], etc.). Frequent use of  personal and
possessive pronouns of  the first person plural is also common for these

presentations (“nosotros”, “esa es nuestra esencia, nuestra misión y nuestro

destino”, “nuestro nuevo cliente”, “мы” [we], “наши клиенты” [our
clients], etc.). The use of  “we”, referring to self  as a group, speaks about

individualism index. Both cultures have average score for this value

dimension. However, Russia has a lower score and tends to present a more

collectivist mentality than Spain.

So, we have decided to analyse the use of  the personal pronoun “we”,

possessive pronoun “our” and verbs in the first person plural form (present

tense) in the Spanish language and the Russian language to see if  there may

be significant difference. We have also checked the opposite linguistic

characteristic: the presence of  the personal pronoun “I”, possessive pronoun

“my” and verbs in the first person singular form (present tense) in both

corpora, to see if  there are any cases of  them and if  their presence can be

meaningful. We present the results of  the quantitative analysis of  the

corpora in the comparative Figure 3:

KSEnIIA BELovA

Ibérica 33 (2017): 37-7052



We can notice that the results for the Spanish and the Russian corpora are

very similar, however, the number of  instances the 1st person plural personal

pronoun appears is different: in the Russian texts it was found 94 times,

while in the Spanish texts only 27, almost 3.5 times less.

According to Hofstede’s scale, both Spanish and Russian cultures have

average scores for this value dimension: Spain 51 and Russia 39. The Pearson

chi-square test of  SPSS Statistics proved that there is no significant difference

between the Spanish and the Russian corpora (which proved our initial

hypothesis), so the two cultures are similar in this aspect and are unlikely to

have difficulties in communication based on this value dimension. But, the

research with AntConc showed that in the Russian corpus the 1st person

plural personal pronoun was used almost 3.5 times more than in the Spanish

corpus, which proves the idea that Russia has a little more collectivist

mentality than Spain. 

8.2. Power distance index

Power distance index demonstrates the degree of  power and social distance

that exists among the individuals in a society. There are cultures that prefer

a strict hierarchical order where each person occupies a certain place, and

there are cultures whose members opt for equality in the distribution of

power.

In the Spanish language and the Russian language there is a distinction

between T/v forms. In Spanish, the T form is expressed by the 2nd person

THE InFLUEncE oF cULTURE

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KSENIIA BELOVA 

Ibérica 32 (2016): …-… 

8.1. Individualism index   
The cultural dimension of individualism versus collectivism deals with the 
concept of identity that the individuals have in their society. There are cultures 
with collectivist mentality, where the self-image is defined in terms of “we”, and 
with individualistic mentality, where the self-image is presented as “I”.  

After the previous qualitative analysis of the corpora we have selected linguistic 
variables which, in our opinion, reflect the cultural values described by Hofstede. 
We have noticed that the most popular way among all the companies is self-
presentation from the first person plural: “we”, “our company”, “our agents”, etc. 
Logically, the most used verb form in this case is the first person plural 
(“somos”, “hemos logrado”, “trabajamos”, “esperamos”, “%&'&()'” [we will 
help], etc.). Frequent use of personal and possessive pronouns of the first person 
plural is also common for these presentations (“nosotros”, “esa es nuestra 
esencia, nuestra misión y nuestro destino”, “nuestro nuevo cliente”, “'"” [we], 
“*+,- ./-)*!"” [our clients], etc.). The use of “we”, referring to self as a 
group, speaks about individualism index. Both cultures have average score for 
this value dimension. However, Russia has a lower score and tends to present a 
more collectivist mentality than Spain. 

So, we have decided to analyse the use of the personal pronoun “we”, possessive 
pronoun “our” and verbs in the first person plural form (present tense) in the 
Spanish language and the Russian language to see if there may be significant 
difference. We have also checked the opposite linguistic characteristic: the 
presence of the personal pronoun “I”, possessive pronoun “my” and verbs in the 
first person singular form (present tense) in both corpora, to see if there are any 
cases of them and if their presence can be meaningful. We present the results of 
the quantitative analysis of the corpora in the comparative Figure 3: 

 

Figure 3. Results of the quantitative analysis of the corpora for the individualism index dimension.  



singular personal pronoun “tú” and the v form - by the 3rd person singular

or plural pronoun “Usted” and “Ustedes”. In Russian, the T form is

presented by the 2nd person singular personal pronoun “ты” and the v
form - by the 2nd person plural pronoun “Вы” or “вы”, as in contemporary
Russian these two forms of  writing of  the same pronoun, with a capital or

with a small letter, are interchangeable. “Вы (вы)” can be used for both the
singular and the plural v forms.

one of  the significant moments that we have observed while performing

qualitative analysis is the preference for the use of  “tú”/“ты” or
“Usted”/“Вы/вы” when addressing the reader. The second person singular
pronoun “tú”/“ты” which creates the atmosphere of  familiarity and
equality, was more frequent in the Spanish texts. With the help of  this form

of  address, the authors of  the presentation have shortened the social

distance between the company and the reader. In the Russian corpus the

most common way of  address was with the pronoun “Usted”/“Вы/вы”,
which is rather formal and reserved, and creates the feeling of  respect and

aloofness. 

Preference for a certain form of  address reveals the difference in power

distance index between Russia and Spain. Russian culture has a very high

score (93) which is reflected in a more formal and distant form of  address

“Вы/вы”, while Spain has an average score (57) and opts for using a more
informal form “tú”.

Later we have used the software package SPSS Statistics and its chi-squared

test to see if  the frequencies previously observed in the categorical variables

vary significantly. In our case we analysed the frequencies of  the appearance

of  T and v forms in both corpora. We made a hypothesis that the difference

in the appearance of  these characteristics is significant between the two

corpora. If  it is so, the value of  the chi-squared should be less than 0.05

(according to the convention, if  the value of  the statistical significance is less

than 0.05, then there is a significant difference between the groups; if  it is

less than 0.01 - the difference is very significant). If  the value is more than

0.05, there is no significant difference between the corpora, so the cultures

are alike in terms of  this cultural value and should not experience problems

in communication. 

For the T-forms we obtained the following result (Table 5):

KSEnIIA BELovA

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As the value of  statistical significance is less than 0.01, the difference

between the corpora has proved to be very significant, so our hypothesis is

correct.

And the results for the v-forms can be seen in Table 6: 

THE InFLUEncE oF cULTURE

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KSENIIA BELOVA 

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significantly. In our case we analysed the frequencies of the appearance of T and 
V forms in both corpora. We made a hypothesis that the difference in the 
appearance of these characteristics is significant between the two corpora. If it is 
so, the value of the chi-squared should be less than 0.05 (according to the 
convention, if the value of the statistical significance is less than 0.05, then there 
is a significant difference between the groups; if it is less than 0.01 - the 
difference is very significant). If the value is more than 0.05, there is no 
significant difference between the corpora, so the cultures are alike in terms of 
this cultural value and should not experience problems in communication.  

For the T-forms we obtained the following result (Table 5): 

Crosstab 

Count 

T-forms  
does not appear appears 

Total 

Spanish corpus 23 7 30 Corpus Russian corpus 30 0 30 
Total 53 7 60 
 

Chi-Square 
Tests 

Value df Asymp. Sig. 
(2-sided) 

Exact Sig. (2-
sided) 

Exact Sig. (1-
sided) 

Pearson Chi-
Square 

7.925a 1 .005   

Continuity 
Correctionb 

5.822 1 .016   

Likelihood Ratio 10.631 1 .001   
Fisher's Exact 
Test 

   .011 .005 

Linear-by-Linear 
Association 

7.792 1 .005   

N of Valid Cases 60     

Table 5. The results of the Pearson chi-square test for the T-forms of address. 

As the value of statistical significance is less than 0.01, the difference between 
the corpora has proved to be very significant, so our hypothesis is correct. 

And the results for the V-forms can be seen in the following Table 6:  

 

 

KSENIIA BELOVA 

Ibérica 32 (2016): …-… 

significantly. In our case we analysed the frequencies of the appearance of T and 
V forms in both corpora. We made a hypothesis that the difference in the 
appearance of these characteristics is significant between the two corpora. If it is 
so, the value of the chi-squared should be less than 0.05 (according to the 
convention, if the value of the statistical significance is less than 0.05, then there 
is a significant difference between the groups; if it is less than 0.01 - the 
difference is very significant). If the value is more than 0.05, there is no 
significant difference between the corpora, so the cultures are alike in terms of 
this cultural value and should not experience problems in communication.  

For the T-forms we obtained the following result (Table 5): 

Crosstab 

Count 

T-forms  
does not appear appears 

Total 

Spanish corpus 23 7 30 Corpus Russian corpus 30 0 30 
Total 53 7 60 
 

Chi-Square 
Tests 

Value df Asymp. Sig. 
(2-sided) 

Exact Sig. (2-
sided) 

Exact Sig. (1-
sided) 

Pearson Chi-
Square 

7.925a 1 .005   

Continuity 
Correctionb 

5.822 1 .016   

Likelihood Ratio 10.631 1 .001   
Fisher's Exact 
Test 

   .011 .005 

Linear-by-Linear 
Association 

7.792 1 .005   

N of Valid Cases 60     

Table 5. The results of the Pearson chi-square test for the T-forms of address. 

As the value of statistical significance is less than 0.01, the difference between 
the corpora has proved to be very significant, so our hypothesis is correct. 

And the results for the V-forms can be seen in the following Table 6:  

 

 THE INFLUENCE OF CULTURE 

Ibérica 32 (2016): …-… 

Crosstab 

Count 

V-forms  
does not appear appears 

Total 

Spanish corpus 25 5 30 Corpus Russian corpus 17 13 30 
Total 42 18 60 

 

Chi-Square 
Tests 

Value df Asymp. Sig. 
(2-sided) 

Exact Sig. (2-
sided) 

Exact Sig. (1-
sided) 

Pearson Chi-
Square 

5.079a 1 .024   

Continuity 
Correctionb 

3.889 1 .049   

Likelihood Ratio 5.216 1 .022   
Fisher's Exact 
Test 

   .047 .024 

Linear-by-Linear 
Association 

4.995 1 .025   

N of Valid Cases 60     

Table 6. The results of the Pearson chi-square test for the V-forms of address.  

Again, our hypothesis is correct, as the value of statistical significance is less 
than 0.05, and the difference in the appearance of V-forms in the two corpora is 
significant. 

As we can see from the results of the chi-squared test, the difference between the 
Spanish and the Russian corpora in terms of the use of T and V forms proved to 
be significant (even very significant in the case of T forms). It means that the 
cultural dimension of power distance is likely to present an obstacle in 
communication between these two cultures as they are very dissimilar in this 
aspect. Again these results prove our supposition based on Hofstede’s score for 
this value dimension: Russia has a very high position on the scale (93), so it is a 
high power country, and Spain has an average score (57) and it is a medium 
power culture.  

8.3. Masculinity index  
Masculinity index shows if a culture has masculine values, like assertiveness, 
competitiveness and achievements, or feminine values, like caring, consensus 
and cooperation. 

One of the characteristics that attracted our attention was a slight difference in 
lexis used in both corpora. While the choice of words is nearly the same, the 



Again, our hypothesis is correct, as the value of  statistical significance is less

than 0.05, and the difference in the appearance of  v-forms in the two

corpora is significant.

As we can see from the results of  the chi-squared test, the difference

between the Spanish and the Russian corpora in terms of  the use of  T and

v forms proved to be significant (even very significant in the case of  T

forms). It means that the cultural dimension of  power distance is likely to

present an obstacle in communication between these two cultures as they are

very dissimilar in this aspect. Again these results prove our supposition based

on Hofstede’s score for this value dimension: Russia has a very high position

on the scale (93), so it is a high power country, and Spain has an average

score (57) and it is a medium power culture. 

8.3. Masculinity index 

Masculinity index shows if  a culture has masculine values, like assertiveness,

competitiveness and achievements, or feminine values, like caring, consensus

and cooperation.

one of  the characteristics that attracted our attention was a slight difference

in lexis used in both corpora. While the choice of  words is nearly the same,

the Russian corpus seems to have a little more vocabulary of  feelings, taking

care of  others. Almost every Russian company mentions taking care of  the

clients as its main objective: “забота о потребителях” [concern for the
consumers], “«Вимм-Билль-Данн» помогает людям, радуя их каждый
день вкусными и полезными для здоровья всей семьи продуктами
питания” [“Wimm-Bill-Dann” helps people, making them happy every day
with tasty and health-giving foodstuffs for the whole family], “стремится к
100%-му удовлетворению запросов всех своих клиентов” [strives for
100% satisfaction of  all its clients’ demands], etc. This aspect may be

explained by a lower score on masculinity index that Russia has in

comparison with Spain. However, this difference is very small. 

For the purpose of  our research, we have decided to look at the presence of

the lexis of  feelings and taking care of  others in the two corpora. Russia and

Spain have very similar scores on this cultural value, still Russia has a lower

index, so we wanted to check if  there is a significant difference through the

analysis of  this specific vocabulary. We have also analysed the presence of

the opposite lexis: vocabulary of  achievements, action and results, typical of

the cultures with higher masculinity index (words like “venta”, “líder”,

KSEnIIA BELovA

Ibérica 33 (2017): 37-7056



“negocio”, “продажа” [sale], “cделки” [deals], etc.) to see if  there is any
meaningful difference between the two corpora in this aspect as well. 

With the help of  the analysis with AntConc we can see that in the Spanish

corpus the vocabulary of  feelings and taking care of  the others can be

found: 

The vocabulary of  achievements and results is also present and can be

demonstrated by the following examples:

We have chosen only 10 words with the highest frequency ranking for each

group, but even with this selection it is possible to notice a difference: 71

words of  feelings versus 87 words of  achievements.

If  we take a look at the Russian corpus, we will see the following picture for

the lexis of  emotions and care: 

THE InFLUEncE oF cULTURE

Ibérica 33 (2017): 37-70 57

THE INFLUENCE OF CULTURE 

Ibérica 32 (2016): …-… 

 

Word Frequency 
venta 15 
líder 14 
consumidores 10 
negocio 9 
alcanzar 7 
profesional 7 
tecnología 7 
crecimiento 6 
liderazgo 6 
misión 6 

Table 8. The frequency of the masculine lexis in the Spanish corpus. 

We have chosen only 10 words with the highest frequency ranking for each 
group, but even with this selection it is possible to notice a difference: 71 words 
of feelings versus 87 words of achievements. 

If we take a look at the Russian corpus, we will see the following picture for the 
lexis of emotions and care:  

Word Frequency 
>=/;8- (services) 17 
#&0'&(*&=!6 (opportunity) 9 
?+@)=!$& (quality) 8 
A&%2&$&(:)*-) (accompaniment) 8 
B!:"4 (rest) 7 
C2):/+8+)! (offers) 7 
C&'&()' (we will help) 6 
5)0&%+=*&=!6 (security) 4 
B1)=%)@-$+)! (he/she/it provides) 4 
D:&2&$6e (health) 3 

Table 9. The frequency of the feminine lexis in the Russian corpus. 

And for the vocabulary of achievements and results: 

 

 

 

 

 

KSENIIA BELOVA 

Ibérica 32 (2016): …-… 

Russian corpus seems to have a little more vocabulary of feelings, taking care of 
others. Almost every Russian company mentions taking care of the clients as its 
main objective: “0+1&!+ & %&!2)1-!)/34” [concern for the consumers], 
“«#-''-5-//6-7+**» %&'&8+)! /9:3', 2+:;3 -4 .+(:"< :)*6 $.;=*"'- - 
%&/)0*"'- :/3 0:&2&$63 $=)< =)'6- %2&:;.!+'- %-!+*-3 [“Wimm-Bill-
Dann” helps people, making them happy every day with tasty and health-giving 
foodstuffs for the whole family], “=!2)'-!=3 . 100%-'; ;:&$/)!$&2)*-9 
0+%2&=&$ $=)4 =$&-4 ./-)*!&$” [strives for 100% satisfaction of all its clients’ 
demands], etc. This aspect may be explained by a lower score on masculinity 
index that Russia has in comparison with Spain. However, this difference is very 
small.  

For the purpose of our research, we have decided to look at the presence of the 
lexis of feelings and taking care of others in the two corpora. Russia and Spain 
have very similar scores on this cultural value, still Russia has a lower index, so 
we wanted to check if there is a significant difference through the analysis of this 
specific vocabulary. We have also analysed the presence of the opposite lexis: 
vocabulary of achievements, action and results, typical of the cultures with 
higher masculinity index (words like “venta”, “líder”, “negocio”, “%2&:+(+” 
[sale], “c:)/.-” [deals], etc.) to see if there is any meaningful difference 
between the two corpora in this aspect as well.  

With the help of the analysis with AntConc we can see that in the Spanish corpus 
the vocabulary of feelings and taking care of the others can be found:  

Word Frequency 
necesidades 15 
ofrecer 11 
confianza 9 
atención 6 
relaciones 6 
seguridad 6 
bienestar 5 
compromiso 5 
salud 5 
ayudan 3 

Table 7. The frequency of the feminine lexis in the Spanish corpus. 

The vocabulary of achievements and results is also present and can be 
demonstrated by the following examples: 

 

 

 



And for the vocabulary of  achievements and results:

In the case of  the Russian corpus, 10 words with the highest frequency

ranking in each group have been selected as well, and we have noticed 73

words of  the lexis of  feelings and 81 words - of  achievements. The

difference is as obvious as in the Spanish corpus: the “masculine” vocabulary

predominates. 

Hofstede’s scale shows that Spain has an average score of  42 and Russia a

moderately lower score of  36 in this value dimension. our initial hypothesis

about the same quantitative use of  expressive and instrumental languages in

Russian and Spanish was proved by the results of  the quantitative analysis.

The difference between the corpora in the cultural dimension of  masculinity

versus femininity is not significant. The cultures are alike in this aspect, so

the cultural value of  masculinity should not give rise to problems of

communication between the Spanish and the Russians. Interestingly enough,

both corpora have presented more “masculine” lexis than “feminine” (the

texts are more oriented towards informing the reader about the

achievements, results and success of  the company, rather than about the way

they care about the customers), though both cultures are considered to be

KSEnIIA BELovA

Ibérica 33 (2017): 37-7058

THE INFLUENCE OF CULTURE 

Ibérica 32 (2016): …-… 

 

Word Frequency 
venta 15 
líder 14 
consumidores 10 
negocio 9 
alcanzar 7 
profesional 7 
tecnología 7 
crecimiento 6 
liderazgo 6 
misión 6 

Table 8. The frequency of the masculine lexis in the Spanish corpus. 

We have chosen only 10 words with the highest frequency ranking for each 
group, but even with this selection it is possible to notice a difference: 71 words 
of feelings versus 87 words of achievements. 

If we take a look at the Russian corpus, we will see the following picture for the 
lexis of emotions and care:  

Word Frequency 
>=/;8- (services) 17 
#&0'&(*&=!6 (opportunity) 9 
?+@)=!$& (quality) 8 
A&%2&$&(:)*-) (accompaniment) 8 
B!:"4 (rest) 7 
C2):/+8+)! (offers) 7 
C&'&()' (we will help) 6 
5)0&%+=*&=!6 (security) 4 
B1)=%)@-$+)! (he/she/it provides) 4 
D:&2&$6e (health) 3 

Table 9. The frequency of the feminine lexis in the Russian corpus. 

And for the vocabulary of achievements and results: 

 

 

 

 

 

KSENIIA BELOVA 

Ibérica 32 (2016): …-… 

Word Frequency 
C2&-0$&:=!$& (production) 12 
C2&:+(+ (sale) 11 
A:)/.- (deals) 10 
7)3!)/6*&=!6 (activity) 9 
?&'')2@)=.-< (commercial) 9 
5-0*)= (business) 7 
E-==-3 (mission) 7 
F+0$-!-e (development) 6 
G-:)2 (leader) 5 
A!2+!)8-3 (strategy) 5 

Table 10. The frequency of the masculine lexis in the Russian corpus. 

In the case of the Russian corpus, 10 words with the highest frequency ranking in 
each group have been selected as well, and we have noticed 73 words of the lexis 
of feelings and 81 words - of achievements. The difference is as obvious as in 
the Spanish corpus: the “masculine” vocabulary predominates.  

Hofstede’s scale shows that Spain has an average score of 42 and Russia a 
moderately lower score of 36 in this value dimension. Our initial hypothesis 
about the same quantitative use of expressive and instrumental languages in 
Russian and Spanish was proved by the results of the quantitative analysis. The 
difference between the corpora in the cultural dimension of masculinity versus 
femininity is not significant. The cultures are alike in this aspect, so the cultural 
value of masculinity should not give rise to problems of communication between 
the Spanish and the Russians. Interestingly enough, both corpora have presented 
more “masculine” lexis than “feminine” (the texts are more oriented towards 
informing the reader about the achievements, results and success of the 
company, rather than about the way they care about the customers), though both 
cultures are considered to be feminine, according to Hofstede’s scale. This fact 
can probably be explained by the genre of the texts that have been examined, 
which requires the extensive use of “masculine” vocabulary: when a business 
company introduces itself, it will most likely speak about its achievements rather 
than feelings and emotions.  

8.4. Uncertainty avoidance index  
The cultural dimension of uncertainty avoidance index defines the degree of 
tolerance that a culture has towards the unknown. There are societies whose 
members try to avoid changes as the uncertainty of the outcome inconveniences 
them, and there are countries that like to take risks and that feel comfortable with 
the uncertainty of the future. 

Previous qualitative analysis demonstrated that both Spanish and Russian 
companies take the question of self-presentation to the public seriously and opt 
for formal format. The only slight difference between the two corpora may be 
the fact that the presentations of the Spanish firms were not always easy to find. 



feminine, according to Hofstede’s scale. This fact can probably be explained

by the genre of  the texts that have been examined, which requires the

extensive use of  “masculine” vocabulary: when a business company

introduces itself, it will most likely speak about its achievements rather than

feelings and emotions. 

8.4. Uncertainty avoidance index 

The cultural dimension of  uncertainty avoidance index defines the degree of

tolerance that a culture has towards the unknown. There are societies whose

members try to avoid changes as the uncertainty of  the outcome

inconveniences them, and there are countries that like to take risks and that

feel comfortable with the uncertainty of  the future.

Previous qualitative analysis demonstrated that both Spanish and Russian

companies take the question of  self-presentation to the public seriously and

opt for formal format. The only slight difference between the two corpora

may be the fact that the presentations of  the Spanish firms were not always

easy to find. While on the Russian webpages the information about the

company was always present and visible, on some Spanish websites it was

necessary to spend some time and look for this information on the whole

webpage (Halcón viajes, eDreams, Rumbo Agencias, Logitravel, Atrápalo,

corporación Peñasanta, Gallina Blanca, Martínez Loriente and Puleva). The

question of  the easy access to the information about a firm may reflect the

uncertainty avoidance dimension. Russia has a slightly higher score on

Hofstede’s scale (95), which means that it is not tolerant of  ambiguity and

needs more background information and context. That is why the

presentations of  the Russian companies are complete, detailed and not

difficult to find. For the same reason, the texts which compose the Russian

corpus are a little longer than those of  the Spanish one: they provide more

information and detail.

Another difference that we have noticed is the position of  the purpose

statement (by purpose statements in the case of  self-presentations we

understand the phrases in which the company explains what it offers to the

clients and what the purpose of  its work is). In the Spanish texts there seem

to be more anticipated purpose statements than in the Russian discourses. It

can be explained by a difference that both cultures have in uncertainty

avoidance index. Russia has a higher score (95), which means that the

Russian companies are likely to provide more background information and

THE InFLUEncE oF cULTURE

Ibérica 33 (2017): 37-70 59



context before telling the reader the purpose of  the writing. Sometimes the

purpose statements are indirect. Spain also has a high score (86), however, in

the Spanish corpus there are more instances of  anticipated purpose

statement. The Spanish companies can state from the beginning the reason

for addressing the reader, and only then give more details.

So, in the analysis of  this cultural dimension we have concentrated on three

aspects. First of  all, we have checked if  it is easy to find the information

about the company on its website. Later we have seen how long the texts,

paragraphs and sentences within the texts are. And, finally, we have analysed

if  there are more anticipated or postponed purpose statements in the

corpora. As Russia has a higher score in this dimension, we have expected

the Russian corpus to show more proofs of  high uncertainty avoidance

index than the Spanish one.

After having done the quantitative analysis of  the uncertainty avoidance

cultural dimension in the Spanish and the Russian corpora, we can see that

the results are inconclusive. on the one hand, two out of  three analysed

aspects (lengths of  texts/paragraphs/sentences and position of  the purpose

statement) have not shown any significant difference between the corpora. 

on the other hand, one aspect (accessibility of  the information about the

company) has demonstrated a very important difference. However, the point

of  accessibility of  information on the websites may be also connected to the

principles of  web design used in both countries. The Russian web designers

follow the rules established by the American specialists in this field. After a

small research on the basic principles of  web design in the USA and Russia,

we have discovered that Russians always cite the translated versions of

American articles on the topic or use the same idea and complete it with

more information. For example, the Russian web pages

<http://www.w3school.ru/blog> (a web journal for web masters and

bloggers [19/05/2013]), <http://www.trud.ts6.ru> (a website about web

design [19/05/2013]), <http://www.webfocus.ru> (a virtual school of  web

design [19/05/2013]) and many others (<http://www.galleo.ru>,

<http://www.diogenes.ru>, <http://www.designonstop.com> [last access

to all pages on 19/05/2013], etc.) use the term “usability” and its principles

to explain how to create a good website14. The main rules of  web usability

are explained in the articles published on the national Education

Association page (http://www.nea.org/home/10-Principles-of-Basic-Web-

Design.html [19/05/2013]) and on the Eighteenth century England website

KSEnIIA BELovA

Ibérica 33 (2017): 37-7060



at the University of  Michigan (http://www.umich.edu/~ece/

resources/design.html [19/05/2013]). The principles of  web design

described on both Russian and American websites are the same, and a special

emphasis is made on accessibility of  information: “Don’t hide important

information. Users don’t like to click too many times to find the information

they want — if  information is particularly important, make it accessible up

front”15. Although the Spanish web designers also cited the basic rules of  the

website creation in terms of  usability, it is obvious that in practice they prefer

to invest in the attractive visual layout more than in the accessibility of

information. 

It leads us to the conclusion that though in general, the cultural value of

uncertainty avoidance should not present any serious problems of

communication between the Spanish and the Russians, there is still a

possibility of  having certain obstacles as the cultures have proved to have

some differences in this aspect. As Hofstede suggested, Russia has a higher

score on uncertainty avoidance index (95) than Spain (86), so easy access to

the detailed information about a company on its website may be a reflection

of  that fact. 

8.5. Long-term orientation index 

This cultural dimension has to do with the search for virtue in a society. on

the one hand, there are short-term oriented cultures that are concentrated on

the present and quick results. on the other hand, there are societies that are

long-term oriented and that are interested in saving and investing for the

future.

For the purposes of  our research an interesting moment is the use of  the

future tense and other syntactic structures that make reference to the future,

as “que siga(n)” + gerund or “esperar” + infinitive in Spanish or the like, as

well as certain words related to the future, like “tomorrow”, “future”, etc.

These are common for the Spanish corpus, which may mean a higher degree

of  long-term orientation for Spanish culture in comparison with Russian. So,

we have decided to analyse and see if  the texts from both corpora have

references to the future. 

To check the opposite idea, we have also looked at the references to the

present and short-term results (the use of  the present tenses, words and

phrases related to the present, like “every day”, “today”, etc.). 

THE InFLUEncE oF cULTURE

Ibérica 33 (2017): 37-70 61



With the help of  AntConc we have found out that the Spanish corpus has 5

instances of  the word “futuro” versus 7 instances of  “cada día”, and 6 of

“hoy”, while the Russian corpus contains only 1 instance of  the use of

“будущее” (future) versus 1 instance of  “каждый день” (every day), 1 of
“сегодняшний день” (today), and 6 instances of  “сегодня” (today).
These results can be presented in the form of  the comparative Figure 4: 

We can see that the Russian corpus has fewer references to the future, which

may mean that Russian culture is less long-term oriented that Spanish.

The verb tenses and syntactical structures that denote reference to the future

or the present were taken into account at the moment of  conducting analysis

with SPSS Statistics. Their presence or absence in each text of  both corpora

was registered and considered at the time of  carrying out the chi-squared

test.

According to Hofstede’s scale, Spain has a low score for this cultural

dimension (19) and no data is available for Russia. The quantitative analysis

refuted our initial hypothesis that the dimension of  long-term orientation

may be assumed to be expressed through distinct language patterns in

Spanish and Russian web presentations, namely through the different use of

references to the future and to the present. The linguistic characteristics that

express the value dimension of  long-term orientation do not present any

significant difference between the corpora, so it is unlikely to provoke any

communication difficulties between the Spanish and the Russians, as the

cultures proved to be similar in this aspect. It also leads us to the conclusion

KSEnIIA BELovA

Ibérica 33 (2017): 37-7062

THE INFLUENCE OF CULTURE 

Ibérica 32 (2016): …-… 

With the help of AntConc we have found out that the Spanish corpus has 5 
instances of the word “futuro” versus 7 instances of “cada día”, and 6 of “hoy”, 
while the Russian corpus contains only 1 instance of the use of “1;:;H))” 
(future) versus 1 instance of “.+(:"< :)*6” (every day), 1 of “=)8&:*3,*-< 
:)*6” (today), and 6 instances of “=)8&:*3” (today). These results can be 
presented in the form of the comparative Figure 4:  

 

Figure 4. Results of the quantitative analysis of the corpora for the references to the future and the present.  

We can see that the Russian corpus has fewer references to the future, which 
may mean that Russian culture is less long-term oriented that Spanish. 

The verb tenses and syntactical structures that denote reference to the future or 
the present were taken into account at the moment of conducting analysis with 
SPSS Statistics. Their presence or absence in each text of both corpora was 
registered and considered at the time of carrying out the chi-squared test. 

According to Hofstede’s scale, Spain has a low score for this cultural dimension 
(19) and no data is available for Russia. The quantitative analysis refuted our 
initial hypothesis that the dimension of long-term orientation may be assumed to 
be expressed through distinct language patterns in Spanish and Russian web 
presentations, namely through the different use of references to the future and to 
the present. The linguistic characteristics that express the value dimension of 
long-term orientation do not present any significant difference between the 
corpora, so it is unlikely to provoke any communication difficulties between the 
Spanish and the Russians, as the cultures proved to be similar in this aspect. It 
also leads us to the conclusion that though there is no data available, Russia 
tends to demonstrate the traits of a short-term oriented society, like Spain.  

9. Conclusion and practical application of the results  

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that though there is no data available, Russia tends to demonstrate the traits

of  a short-term oriented society, like Spain. 

9. Conclusion and practical application of  the results 

The analysis described above proved the majority of  our initial hypotheses.

However, some of  them were refuted: 

1. Hofstede’s value dimensions of  individualism index, power

distance index, masculinity index, uncertainty avoidance index, and

long-term orientation index were traced in the linguistic features

used in the presentations of  Spanish and Russian companies on

their websites. 

2. The dimensions of  individualism index, masculinity index, and

uncertainty avoidance index are expressed through similar language

patterns in Spanish and Russian web presentations, namely through:

(a) the same use of  the 1st person plural and the 1st person singular

forms (for the individualism index), (b) the same use of  expressive

and instrumental languages (for the masculinity index), and (c) the

similar length of  texts and position of  the purpose statement (for

the uncertainty avoidance index). However, the hypothesis about the

same degree of  accessibility of  information (for the uncertainty

avoidance index) was proved to be incorrect. 

3. The dimension of  power distance appears to be expressed through

distinct language patterns in Spanish and Russian web

presentations, namely through the different use of  the personal

pronouns that denote v/T forms of  address. 

4. The dimension of  long-term orientation does not present any

significant differences and appears to be expressed through similar

language patterns in Spanish and Russian web presentations,

namely through the same use of  the references to the future and

to the present. 

We have analysed the Spanish and the Russian corpora which consisted of

the self-presentations of  the different companies on their official websites,

and we have discovered the proofs of  similarities and differences between

THE InFLUEncE oF cULTURE

Ibérica 33 (2017): 37-70 63



the two cultures. But how can these findings help to improve the

negotiations between the Spanish and the Russians?

First of  all, let us look at the similarities. We have found out that Hofstede’s

cultural dimension of  individualism index does not present any significant

difference between the corpora. According to the score on Hofstede’s official

website, both Spain and Russia belong to the countries with collectivist

mentality (Spain has 51 points and Russia 39), thus the representatives of  these

cultures will tend to refer to themselves as a group, using a “we” concept.

Russia has a little lower score, which means that it is a more collectivist country

out of  the two, that is why during the negotiations (both oral and written) it is

important for the Spanish to reinforce the idea of  “community” because the

traits of  individualism can be seen as negative in Russian culture. For this

purpose the 1st person plural personal and possessive pronouns and the verbs

in the 1st person plural forms should be given preference over the 1st person

singular forms, which transmit the idea of  individualism. 

The cultural dimension of  masculinity index does not present any significant

difference between the two corpora either. Both countries are quite feminine

according to Hofstede’s score (42 for Spain and 36 for Russia), and that

means that they are both interested in cooperation and caring for others.

However, during the analysis we have also seen that both Spain and Russia

have a masculine tendency which can be seen in concern in results and

material reward for success. These data lead us to the conclusion that during

the process of  negotiation between the Spanish and the Russians it is

important to mention the achievements of  the company to gain more status

in the eyes of  the partners, use linguistically assertive language, and show

interest in the financial outcome of  the business activity they are going to

carry out together. But at the same time it is necessary to express care both

for the business partners and potential clients, because “femininity”

constitutes a part of  both cultures. 

Long-term orientation cultural dimension has proved to be expressed in the

same way in the Spanish and the Russian corpora, which indicates the

similarity between the countries in this aspect (on Hofstede’s scale Spain has

19 points and no data is available for Russia). We have come to the

conclusion that both Spain and Russia present characteristics of  short-term

oriented cultures and that means that during the negotiations it is important

to reinforce the idea of  the interest in the current situation, use more

references to the present than to the future. 

KSEnIIA BELovA

Ibérica 33 (2017): 37-7064



As for uncertainty avoidance value dimension, after our analysis we have

obtained such results that, on the one hand, indicate the similarity that

Spanish and Russian cultures have in this aspect, but on the other hand,

demonstrate that Russia has more tendency to avoid uncertainty (which

seems to be quite logical, as Hofstede’s score for Russia is 95, while for Spain

it is 86). It means that in the process of  negotiations between the Spanish

and the Russians special attention should be paid to this point. As the

representatives of  the Russian culture may feel uncomfortable with

uncertainty, it is necessary to make things as clear as possible by giving long

and substantial introduction to the topic, providing detailed, easy-to-

understand and easy-to-access information about the company and the

project. It would be also useful to establish effective communication

between the Russians and the Spanish, by responding letters, e-mails or

phone calls in a fast and exhaustive manner, so that any question or doubt

that may arise on the Russian part can be resolved quickly. In this way many

possible problems provoked by the Russian strong tendency to avoid

uncertainty may be prevented.

The last cultural dimension, that of  power distance, has proved to be a

source of  great difference between the corpora, and thus between the

cultures. In this aspect Spain and Russia seem to be extremely unlike, and this

idea is supported by the date on Hofstede’s webpage: Russia has 93 points

on the score for power distance index, while Spain - 57. It means that during

the negotiations, the Spanish should try to show more formality and keep

the hierarchical order established in the Russian society, by addressing

themselves to their Russian colleagues by honorific terms and using v-forms.

It is especially important when dealing with the team leaders or other

superiors, people with high social status, and elderly people, as these have

particular respect in the Russian culture. on the other hand, in a certain

period of  time and after having created strong business bonds, the Russians

should try to become more informal with their Spanish partners by using T-

forms of  address to minimize aloofness in business relations. 

10. Contribution to the field of  languages for specific

purposes 

With the present research we pretended to make a contribution to the field

of  languages for specific purposes, by making an initial approach to the

THE InFLUEncE oF cULTURE

Ibérica 33 (2017): 37-70 65



broad topic of  business communication between the Spanish and the

Russian cultures, which has not been studied much so far. Hopefully, it will

be of  some help to both Spanish and Russian businessmen and to the future

scholars who will continue the research in this field.

This work can be seen as the first step in further study of  the question, and

the possible future lines of  research may be the following:

(i) Analysis of  intercultural business communication between the

Spanish and the Russians based on Hall’s three value dimensions

of  time, space and context (Hall, 1959 & 1966); 

(ii) Analysis of  other genres of  written business communication

between the Spanish and the Russians (contracts, business

correspondence, emails, etc.); 

(iii) Analysis of  oral business communication between the Spanish

and the Russians (negotiations, self-presentations, argumentation,

etc.); 

(iv) Selection of  different linguistic variables for each value

dimension for the analysis of  intercultural business

communication between the Spanish and the Russians (for

example, as suggested in the Table 3, Guillén-nieto, 2009: 49-50); 

(v) Analysis of  the use of  politeness strategies in business

communication between the Spanish and the Russians.

Article history:
Received 3 January 2016

Received in revised form 9 August 2016
Accepted 10 August 2016

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Websites:

EL PAIS – the leader of the Spanish daily press.
URL: http://elpais.com/ [14/04/2013].

Hosteltur.com – Spanish leader webpage about

tourism. URL: http://www.hosteltur.com/ [14/04/2013].

IMEX Impulso Exterior 2012 - International
Bisiness Fair. URL: http://imex.impulsoexterior.net/
[14/04/2013].

Marketing4food.com – an online observatory
specialised in the areas of marketing, sales and
promotion in the sector of food industry and
agriculture. URL: http://www.marketing4food.com/
[14/04/2013].

PISOS.COM - Spanish real estate webpage. News
report. URL: http://noticias.pisos.com/ [14/04/
2013].

Rusia HOY - source of political, business and
cultural news and analysis about Russia. URL:
http://rusiahoy.com/ [14/04/2013].

Russian Yellow Pages. URL: http://www.yp.ru/
[17/06/2013].

Spanish Yellow Pages. URL: http://www.
paginasamarillas.es/ [17/06/2013]. 

The Hofstede Centre official website. URL:
http://geert-hofstede.com/index.php [17/06/2013].

Коммерсантъ – daily Russian economic
newspaper. URL: http://www.kommersant.ru/
[14/04/2013].

РИАНОВОСТИ – Russian digital news agency.

URL: http://www.ria.ru/ [14/04/2013]

THE InFLUEncE oF cULTURE

Ibérica 33 (2017): 37-70 67

Kseniia Belova holds two university degrees: one in Theory and

Methodology of  Teaching Foreign Languages and cultures (the English

language being the area of  specialization), obtained in her native city in

Russia in the State Linguistic University of  nizhny novgorod in 2008. In

2011 she graduated in English Studies from the University of  valencia in

Spain, and later took a master´s programme in English and Spanish for

Specific Purposes in the University of  Alicante, which she finished in 2013. 

NoteS

1 Hosteltur.com - Spanish leader webpage about tourism <http://www.hosteltur.com/125170_turismo-

ruso-crecera-30-espana-2013.html> [last access on 14/04/2013]. 

2 news report from PISoS.coM - Spanish real estate webpage <http://noticias.pisos.com/reportajes/el-

mercado-ruso-una-demanda-inmobiliaria-creciente/> [last access on 14/04/2013].

3 IMEX Impulso Exterior 2012 - International Bisiness Fair. Products and Services to improve the

competitiveness of  the SME <http://imex.impulsoexterior.net/mesas-redondas-imex-2012/176-imex-



2012-mr-el-gran-mercado-ruso-en-2012.html> [last access on 14/04/2013]. 

4 Rusia HoY - source of  political, business and cultural news and analysis about Russia

<http://rusiahoy.com/articles/2012/05/28/espana_y_rusia_potencian_sus_relaciones_economicas_17

286.html> [last access on 14/04/2013].

5 The official website of  The Hofstede centre <http://geert-hofstede.com/index.php> [last access on

14/04/2013].

6 <http://www.hosteltur.com/188310_grandes-agencias-mercado-espanol-facturaron-8000-m.html>

[last access on 14/04/2013]. 

7 <http://ria.ru/society/20120313/593609854.html> [last access on 14/04/2013].

8 <http://www.paginasamarillas.es/search/agencias-inmobiliarias/all-ma/madrid/all-is/all-ci/all-ba/all-

pu/all-nc/1?od=comentarios > [last access on 17/03/2013].

9 <http://www.yp.ru/msk/search/text/агентства+недвижимости > [last access on 17/03/2013].

10<http://economia.elpais.com/economia/2012/05/27/actualidad/1338143695_863379.html> [last

access on 14/04/2013].

11<http://rusiahoy.com/articles/2012/03/27/los_alimentos_rusos_buscan_salidas_16654.html> [last

access on 14/04/2013].

12<http://www.marketing4food.com/Ranking_empresas_Espana_alimentacion_alimentario> [last

access on 14/04/2013].

13 <http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/1867662 > [last access on 14/04/2013].

14 Usability is a quality attribute that assesses how easy user interfaces are to use. (Definition taken from

nielsen norman Group website <http://www.nngroup.com/articles/usability-101-introduction-to-

usability/> [last access on 19/05/2013].

15 “Basic Web Design Principles” published on Eighteenth century England website at the University of

Michigan <http://www.umich.edu/~ece/resources/design.html> [last access on 19/05/2013].

Appendix 

KSEnIIA BELovA

Ibérica 33 (2017): 37-7068

THE INFLUENCE OF CULTURE 

Ibérica 32 (2016): …-… 

15 “Basic Web Design Principles” published on Eighteenth Century England website at 
the University of Michigan <http://www.umich.edu/~ece/resources/design.html> [last 
access on 19/05/2013]. 

Appendix  
1. Spanish websites used for the analysis 
 
Travel agencies: 
Viajes el Corte Inglés URL: http://www.viajeselcorteingles.es [17/03/2013] 
Viajes Halcón-Ecuador URL: http://www.halconviajes.com/ [17/03/2013] 
eDreams URL: http://www.edreams.es/ [17/03/2013] 
Vibo Viajes URL: http://www.orizonia.com/es/ [17/03/2013] 
Carlson Wagonlit Travel URL: http://www.carlsonwagonlit.es [17/03/2013] 
Rumbo URL: http://agencias.rumbo.es/ [17/03/2013] 
Barceló Viajes URL: http://www.barceloviajes.com/ [17/03/2013] 
Logitravel URL: http://www.logitravel.com/ [17/03/2013] 
Atrapalo URL: http://www.atrapalo.com/ [17/03/2013] 
Viajes Eroski URL: http://www.viajeseroski.es/ [17/03/2013] 
 
Real estate agencies: 
Don Piso URL: http://www.donpiso.com/ [24/03/2013] 
Navacasa, Servicios Inmobiliarios URL: http://www.navacasa.es [24/03/2013] 
Tecnocasa URL: http://www.tecnocasa.es [24/03/2013] 
Madrid Gestión URL: http://www.madridgestion.es/ [24/03/2013] 
Fincas Villalón URL: http://www.fincasvillalon.com/ [24/03/2013] 
Agencia Astorga URL: http://agenciastorga.com [24/03/2013] 
Prausa Consultores Inmobiliarios URL: http://www.prausa.es [24/03/2013] 
Consulting Inmobiliario Gilmar URL: http://www.gilmar.es [24/03/2013] 
Fincas Tonimar URL: http://www.fincastonimar.com [24/03/2013] 
Urbe 102 URL: http://www.urbe102.com [24/03/2013] 
 
Food industry companies: 
Nestlé España URL: http://www.empresa.nestle.es [17/03/2013] 
Campofrío URL: www.campofrio.es [17/03/2013] 
Corporación Peñasanta URL: www.centrallecheraasturiana.es [17/03/2013] 
Preparados Alimenticios URL: www.gallinablanca.com [17/03/2013] 
Panrico URL: www.panrico.com [17/03/2013] 
El Pozo Alimentación URL: www.elpozo.com [17/03/2013] 
Miguel Gallego URL: www.migasa.com [17/03/2013] 
Martínez Loriente URL: www.martinezloriente.com [17/03/2013] 
Puleva Food URL: www.puleva.es [17/03/2013] 
Bimbo URL: www.bimbo.es [17/03/20] 
 
2. Russian websites used for the analysis 
 
Travel agencies: 
Coral Travel URL: http://www.coral.ru/ [17/03/2013] 
Sunmar Tour URL: http://www.sunmar.ru/ [17/03/2013] 
5-1/-& N/&1;= URL: http://www.bgoperator.ru/ [17/03/2013] 
TUI Russia & CIS URL: http://www.tui.ru/ [17/03/2013] 
#=)2&==-<=.+3 =)!6 “5-/)!;2” URL: http://www.airagency.ru/ [17/03/2013] 
M2+*=+O2& !;2 URL: http://www.transaerotour.com/ [17/03/2013] 
P(*"< .2)=! URL: http://www.ukrest.ru/ [17/03/2013] 
K.+:)'=)2$-= URL: http://www.acase.ru/ [17/03/2013] 
Pac Group URL: http://www.pac.ru/ [17/03/2013] 



THE InFLUEncE oF cULTURE

Ibérica 33 (2017): 37-70 69

THE INFLUENCE OF CULTURE 

Ibérica 32 (2016): …-… 

15 “Basic Web Design Principles” published on Eighteenth Century England website at 
the University of Michigan <http://www.umich.edu/~ece/resources/design.html> [last 
access on 19/05/2013]. 

Appendix  
1. Spanish websites used for the analysis 
 
Travel agencies: 
Viajes el Corte Inglés URL: http://www.viajeselcorteingles.es [17/03/2013] 
Viajes Halcón-Ecuador URL: http://www.halconviajes.com/ [17/03/2013] 
eDreams URL: http://www.edreams.es/ [17/03/2013] 
Vibo Viajes URL: http://www.orizonia.com/es/ [17/03/2013] 
Carlson Wagonlit Travel URL: http://www.carlsonwagonlit.es [17/03/2013] 
Rumbo URL: http://agencias.rumbo.es/ [17/03/2013] 
Barceló Viajes URL: http://www.barceloviajes.com/ [17/03/2013] 
Logitravel URL: http://www.logitravel.com/ [17/03/2013] 
Atrapalo URL: http://www.atrapalo.com/ [17/03/2013] 
Viajes Eroski URL: http://www.viajeseroski.es/ [17/03/2013] 
 
Real estate agencies: 
Don Piso URL: http://www.donpiso.com/ [24/03/2013] 
Navacasa, Servicios Inmobiliarios URL: http://www.navacasa.es [24/03/2013] 
Tecnocasa URL: http://www.tecnocasa.es [24/03/2013] 
Madrid Gestión URL: http://www.madridgestion.es/ [24/03/2013] 
Fincas Villalón URL: http://www.fincasvillalon.com/ [24/03/2013] 
Agencia Astorga URL: http://agenciastorga.com [24/03/2013] 
Prausa Consultores Inmobiliarios URL: http://www.prausa.es [24/03/2013] 
Consulting Inmobiliario Gilmar URL: http://www.gilmar.es [24/03/2013] 
Fincas Tonimar URL: http://www.fincastonimar.com [24/03/2013] 
Urbe 102 URL: http://www.urbe102.com [24/03/2013] 
 
Food industry companies: 
Nestlé España URL: http://www.empresa.nestle.es [17/03/2013] 
Campofrío URL: www.campofrio.es [17/03/2013] 
Corporación Peñasanta URL: www.centrallecheraasturiana.es [17/03/2013] 
Preparados Alimenticios URL: www.gallinablanca.com [17/03/2013] 
Panrico URL: www.panrico.com [17/03/2013] 
El Pozo Alimentación URL: www.elpozo.com [17/03/2013] 
Miguel Gallego URL: www.migasa.com [17/03/2013] 
Martínez Loriente URL: www.martinezloriente.com [17/03/2013] 
Puleva Food URL: www.puleva.es [17/03/2013] 
Bimbo URL: www.bimbo.es [17/03/20] 
 
2. Russian websites used for the analysis 
 
Travel agencies: 
Coral Travel URL: http://www.coral.ru/ [17/03/2013] 
Sunmar Tour URL: http://www.sunmar.ru/ [17/03/2013] 
5-1/-& N/&1;= URL: http://www.bgoperator.ru/ [17/03/2013] 
TUI Russia & CIS URL: http://www.tui.ru/ [17/03/2013] 
#=)2&==-<=.+3 =)!6 “5-/)!;2” URL: http://www.airagency.ru/ [17/03/2013] 
M2+*=+O2& !;2 URL: http://www.transaerotour.com/ [17/03/2013] 
P(*"< .2)=! URL: http://www.ukrest.ru/ [17/03/2013] 
K.+:)'=)2$-= URL: http://www.acase.ru/ [17/03/2013] 
Pac Group URL: http://www.pac.ru/ [17/03/2013] 

KSENIIA BELOVA 

Ibérica 32 (2016): …-… 

KMP Group URL: http://www.kmp.ru/ [17/03/2013] 
 
Real estate agencies: 
E-2 L):$-(-'&=!- URL: www.mirned.com [17/03/2013] 
A!&0)' URL: www.stozem.ru [17/03/2013] 
5-K$)*9 URL: http://5avenues.ru [17/03/2013] 
400 C/9= URL: www.400plus.ru [17/03/2013] 
911 K8)*!=!$& L):$-(-'&=!- URL: www.911rlt.ru [17/03/2013] 
A7 URL: www.a7-invest.ru [17/03/2013] 
K5QF K8)*!=!$& L):$-(-'&=!- URL: www.an-aber.ru [17/03/2013] 
K1=&/9! L):$-(-'&=!6 URL: www.absolut-realty.ru [17/03/2013] 
K$+//&* URL: www.avallon-realty.ru [17/03/2013] 
K$+*8+2: L):$-(-'&=!6 URL: http://www.avangardrent.ru [17/03/2013] 
 
Food industry companies: 
#-''-5-//6-7+** URL: http://www.wbd.ru/ [19/03/2013] 
P8 F;=- URL: http://www.goldenseed.ru/ [17/03/2013] 
B1I):-*)**") .&*:-!)2" URL: http://uniconf2.ru/ [17/03/2013] 
B1I):-*)**+3 =+4+2*+3 .&'%+*-3 (C2&:-').=) URL: http://www.prodimex.ru [17/03/2013] 
N2;%%+ “R)2.-0&$&” URL: http://www.cherkizovo-group.ru [17/03/2013] 
?&'%+*-3 “Danone-P*-'-/.” URL: http://www.danone.ru [17/03/2013] 
KCS “E-2+!&28” URL: http://www.miratorg.ru [17/03/2013] 
C2&:&-E)*):(')*! URL: http://www.prodo.ru/ [17/03/2013] 
N2;%%+ .&'%+*-< “F;=+82&” URL: http://www.rusagrogroup.ru/ [17/03/2013] 
N2;%%+ .&'%+*-< “TU.&” URL: http://www.efko.ru/ [17/03/2013]