The particular dialect or language that a person chooses to use on any occasion is called a code Copyright © 2021 The Author IDEAS is licensed under CC-BY-SA 4.0 License Issued by English study program of IAIN Palopo 413 IDEAS Journal of Language Teaching and Learning, Linguistics and Literature ISSN 2338-4778 (Print) ISSN 2548-4192 (Online) Volume 9, Number 2, December 2021 pp.413 - 425 Grammatical Cohesions in Inaugural Speeches of Barrack Obama and Donald Trump Good Sumbayak Sitopu Lingga1, Nurlela2, Alemina Br. Perangin-angin3 goodsumbayak@gmail.com, nurlelamajrul@usu.ac.id,alemina@usu.ac.id. 1Universitas Sumatera Utara, Medan, Indonesia 2Universitas Sumatera Utara, Medan, Indonesia 3Universitas Sumatera Utara, Medan, Indonesia Received: 01 December 2021 Accepted: 14 December 2021 DOI: 10.24256/ideas.v912.2329 ABSTRACT The purpose of this thesis is to look at the different forms of grammatical cohesions and why they were used in Barack Obama's and Donald Trump's inaugural addresses. This thesis employs a descriptive qualitative technique to describe the study's issues in Barrack Obama's and Donald Trump's inaugural addresses. Based on Halliday and Hasan's theory, the data are collected using library research techniques and grouped into the categories of grammatical cohesions as well as the reasons for employing them. After examining both Barrack Obama's and Donald Trump's inaugural speeches, it can be determined that Barrack Obama's inaugural speech has three types of grammatical cohesions while Donald Trump's inaugural speech has four types of grammatical cohesions. In both speeches, such categories are used to connect two things' meanings, to replace one item with another, to delete an item, and to relate the previous or following material. Keywords: grammatical cohesions, inaugural speeches, Barrack Obama, Donald Trumps Introduction The study of a sentence or speech in its linguistic context is referred to as discourse analysis. Texture may be obtained both inside and between sentences by using coherence or a set of linguistic strategies (Simensen, 2007:60). What matters in discourse analysis, according to Hillier (2004:16), is that "readers interpret particular meanings and situations in light of their own previous knowledge and social relationships." Cohesion is often characterized in terms of two main kinds, according to http://u.lipi.go.id/1457703302 mailto:goodsumbayak@gmail.com mailto:nurlelamajrul@usu.ac.id mailto:alemina@usu.ac.id Good Sumbayak Sitopu Lingga, Nurlela, Alemina Br. Perangin-angin Grammatical Cohesions In Inaugural Speeches Of Barrack Obama And Donald Trump 414 Flowerdew and Mahlberg (2009:103). These are 'grammatical cohesion' and 'lexical cohesion.' These categories represent a linguistic perspective that separates grammar and lexis. Readers and writers need to be aware of the ties that hold chunks of text together and contribute to the construction of a text as a unit of meaning, hence cohesion should be emphasized in English language education (ELT). Klimova&Hubackova (2013:664), on the other hand, claim that cohesiveness is communicated in part via vocabulary and in part through grammar. That is, the grammatical and lexical link inside a text or phrase is cohesiveness. The linkages that keep a text together and give it meaning are known as cohesion. There are two forms of cohesion: grammatical and lexical. Grammatical cohesion refers to the structure content of the item; lexical cohesion refers to the language content of the work. Text creation is the most important function of cohesiveness. It connects structurally unrelated items by relying on the interpretation of one on the other. The semantic system cannot be engaged efficiently without cohesiveness. Grammatical cohesions are cohesions that are achieved using grammar. This device refers to the underlying structure of ties or devices that connect words, phrases, and sentences in a text. It is a type of formal connection used to connect linguistic parts that refers to the conformance of grammatical rules between later-existing things and previously-existing items (Halliday and Hasan in Musdiawardhani, 2016:14) While Harmer (2004:22) claims that numerous grammatical strategies are utilized at all times to assist the reader comprehend what is being referred to, even when words are omitted or pronouns are substituted for nouns. There are also four other forms of grammatical cohesions or grammatical devices, such as reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction, as well as their various roles and styles. According to Listiyanto's study, "The Analysis of Grammatical Cohesion of Sentences Used in Campus English Magazine" (2015:14), references are the most commonly used cohesive devices, with 305 (31.77 percent) conjunctions, 71 (7.39 percent) ellipsis, and 8 (0.83 percent) substitutions following closely behind.. Communication is critical, according to Listiyanto (2015:1), for conveying people's messages to others. When it comes to conveying intentions, the meaning of communication becomes crucial. People usually employ a variety of methods to deliver their message. People frequently utilize pronouns, conjunctions, and occasionally substitutes to explain their meaning. If the listener is unfamiliar with the functions of pronoun, conjunction, and replacement, understanding the message will be difficult. Meanwhile, cohesiveness, particularly grammatical cohesion, is examined using pronouns, conjunctions, and replacement. As a result, studying cohesiveness becomes critical in order to better grasp people's messages or intentions. Grammatical cohesions are utilized to connect words, phrases, and sentences in a text, and they are commonly employed to communicate meanings. IDEAS, Vol. 9, No. 2, December 2021 ISSN 2338-4778 (Print) ISSN 2548-4192 (Online) 415 To comprehend the signals transmitted by others, it is necessary to recognize and grasp the forms and functions of grammatical cohesions. Furthermore, knowledge of the numerous forms of grammatical cohesions can be improved thanks to Halliday and Hasan's theory, which divides grammatical cohesions into four categories: reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction. Based on the foregoing, the author is interested in completing a research named "Grammatical Cohesions in Inaugural Speeches of Barrack Obama and Donald Trump" that examines the types and motivations for employing grammatical cohesions in speeches. Literarure Review The Nature Of Discourse Discourse is a linguistic term for a unit of language that is longer than a single phrase. Discourse, in a broader sense, is the use of spoken or written words in a social setting (Nordquist, 2018). According to Alwi (2003:419), discourse is "the discipline devoted to the investigation of the relationship between form and function in verbal communication," while Renkema in Nordquist (2018) defines discourse studies as "the discipline devoted to the investigation of the relationship between form and function in verbal communication." Furthermore, according to Fromkin (2003:209), discourse analysis is concerned with how speakers integrate sentences into border speech units. The discourse has shape and meaning in addition to the words. Cohesion and coherence are two factors that combine to generate the unity of meaning in a set of phrases (Alwi, 2003:41). Cohesion discerns the relationship or bond speech, whereas coherence discerns the entire meaning communicated by a discourse, according to Chaer (2007:267). Coherency is generated when a discourse is cohesive, and it indicates that the discourse's substance is correct. Discourse may be divided into two types based on the media used: written conversation and spoken discourse. A written discourse is one that is conveyed through the written medium. To be able to receive and comprehend written communication, the receiver must first read. Indirect communication happens between the writer and the reader in written speech. Oral discourse, on the other hand, is communication conveyed via the use of spoken language or other verbal means. The receiver must first listen in order to hear and understand the spoken discourse; occurrence in the spoken discourse is direct communication between speaker and listener (Sumarlam, 2010:16). According to Arifin and Rani (2000:22), there are several differences between the written discourse and spoken discourse such as: 1. Sentences in spoken discourse tend to be less structured than the written discourse. Spoken language contains some incomplete sentences, often just a sequence of words that make up phrases. Good Sumbayak Sitopu Lingga, Nurlela, Alemina Br. Perangin-angin Grammatical Cohesions In Inaugural Speeches Of Barrack Obama And Donald Trump 416 2. The arrangement of subordinate language in spoken discourse is less than the written language. In spoken discourse tends not to use complex sentences subordinate. 3. Language in spoken discourse rarely uses conjunction because it is supported by the context. Language in written discourse often uses conjunction to indicate a relationship of ideas. 4. Language in spoken discourse tends not to use the phrase long objects, while the use of the written discourse does. 5. Sentences in written language tend to object-predicate structure, while the spoken language using topic-comment structure. 6. In spoken language support, the speaker can change or refine the structure of the lack of proper expression at that time, whereas the written language cannot be happened. 7. In particular spoken language in everyday conversation, speakers tend to use a common vocabulary. In contrast, the written language is often used special technical terms. 8. In the spoken language is often repeated the same syntactic form and used some filler. For examples: I think, you know, if you know what I mean, and so on. The Previous Researches Previously, the study in Afrianto (2017) about “Grammatical Cohesion in Students’ Writing” found 124 grammatical cohesions, which has 76 references (61.29%), 45 conjunctions (36.29%), 2 substitutions (1.61%) and 1 ellipsis (0.80%). To sum up, the students used references more than the other types of grammatical cohesions in their writing. The other study in Listiyanto (2015) entitled “The Analysis of Grammatical Cohesion of Sentences Used in Campus English Magazine” found 960 grammatical cohesions, which has 576 references (60%), 305 conjunctions (31.77%), 71 ellipsis (7.39%) and 8 substitutions (0.83%). To sum up, there are more references than the other types of grammatical cohesions that were used in the campus English magazine. Research Methodology In this study, the writer used the descriptive qualitative method in analyzing the data of grammatical cohesions in the inaugural speeches. Miles, Huberman and Saldana (2014:9) state that qualitative research is conducted through intense and/or prolonged contact with participants in a naturalistic setting to investigate the everyday and/or exceptional lives of individuals, groups, societies, and organizations. Gordon (2007:3) defines data as the facts, events, transactions and similar that have been recorded. In this study, the data were the utterances containing grammatical cohesions from the transcriptions of the inaugural speeches by IDEAS, Vol. 9, No. 2, December 2021 ISSN 2338-4778 (Print) ISSN 2548-4192 (Online) 417 Barrack Obama (January 20th, 2009) and Donald Trump (January 20th, 2017). This study was done by using the documentation analysis technique. In documentation data, the writer collects the data such as: book, magazine, document, etc. (Arikunto, 2006:158). The data in this study were analyzed based on Miles, Huberman and Saldana (2014:12) data analysis technique as follows: (1) Data Condensation, (2) Data Display, (3) Conclusion Drawing and Verification. The Research Findings And Discussions Grammatical Cohesions Halliday and Hasan (1976:6) classify grammatical cohesions into four types, they are: reference, substitution, ellipsis and conjunction. Types of Grammatical Cohesions 1. Reference 1. Personal Reference 2. Demonstrative Reference 3. Comparative Reference 2. Substitution 1. Nominal Substitution 2. Verbal Substitution 3. Clausal Substitution 3. Ellipsis 1. Nominal Ellipsis 2. Verbal Ellipsis 3. Clausal Ellipsis 4. Conjunction 1. Additive Conjunction 2. Adversative Conjunction 3. Causal Conjunction 4. Temporal Conjunction Reference According to Halliday and Hasan (1976:37), there are three types of reference: personal reference, demonstrative reference and comparative reference. Types of Reference 1. Personal Reference 1. Personal Pronouns 2. Possessive Determiners 3. Possessive Pronouns 2. Demonstrativ e Reference 1. Circumstantial (Adverbial) Demonstrative 2. Remaining (Nominal) Demonstrative 3. Comparative Reference 1. General Comparison (Deictic) 2. Particular Comparison (Non-deictic) Good Sumbayak Sitopu Lingga, Nurlela, Alemina Br. Perangin-angin Grammatical Cohesions In Inaugural Speeches Of Barrack Obama And Donald Trump 418 Personal Reference Personal reference is reference by means of function in the speech situation, through the category of person. The category of personals includes the three classes of personal pronouns, possessive determiners (usually called ‘possessive adjectives’) and possessive pronouns. For example: “My husband andI are leaving. We have seen quite enough of unpleasantness.” Pronoun weindicates ‘personal pronoun (subject)’ which refers to my husband and I. Demonstrative Reference Demonstrative reference is reference by means of location, on a scale of proximity. There are two types of demonstrative reference: circumstantial (adverbial) demonstrative and remaining (nominal) demonstrative. The circumstantial (adverbial) demonstratives here, there, now and then refer to the location of a process in space or time. For example: “Leave that there and come here!” The remaining (nominal) demonstratives this, these, that, those andthe refer to the location of something. For example: “Do you want to know the woman who designed it? That was Mary Smith.” Comparative Reference Comparative reference is indirect reference by means of identity or similarity. Comparative reference is classified into two types: general comparison (deictic) and particular comparison (non-deictic). General comparison expresses likeness between things while particular comparison expresses comparability between things in respect of a particular property. For examples: 1. “All parties showed an identical reaction to the news.” (General Comparison) 2. “They asked me three equally difficult questions.” (Particular Comparison) Substitution Substitution is divided into three different types, such as: nominal substitution, verbal substitution and clausal substitution. Types of Substitution 1. Nominal Substitution One (Singular form), Ones (Plural form) IDEAS, Vol. 9, No. 2, December 2021 ISSN 2338-4778 (Print) ISSN 2548-4192 (Online) 419 Same 2. Verbal Substitution Do/Does Did Done 3. Clausal Substitution So (Positive form) Not (Negative form) Nominal Substitution The substitute one/ones always functions as Head of a nominal group, and can substitute only for an item which is itself Head of a nominal group. Unlike one, which presupposes only the noun Head, the same presupposes an entire nominal group including any modifying elements, except such as are explicitly repudiated. For examples: 1. “My axe is too blunt. I must get a sharper one.” One substitutes for axe; the substitute is ‘singular’. 2. A: “I’ll have two poached eggs on toast, please.” B: “I’ll have the same.” Verbal Substitution The verbal substitute in English is do. This operates as Head of a verbal group, in the place that is occupied by the lexical verb; and its position is always final in the group. For example: “You think Joan already knows? I think everybody does.” Does substitutes for knows. Clausal Substitution The words used as substitutes are so and not. Clausal substitution is the only context in which so has a corresponding negative, namely not. For examples: 1. “Has Barbara left? I think so.” (I think that Barbara has left) The substitute so shows the ‘positive form’. 2. “Has everyone gone home? I hope not.” (I hope that everyone has not gone home) The substitute not shows the ‘negative form’. Ellipsis Ellipsis itself can be divided into three types, they are: nominal ellipsis, verbal ellipsis and clausal ellipsis. Good Sumbayak Sitopu Lingga, Nurlela, Alemina Br. Perangin-angin Grammatical Cohesions In Inaugural Speeches Of Barrack Obama And Donald Trump 420 Types of Ellipsis 1. Nominal Ellipsis The omission of a Noun 2. Verbal Ellipsis The omission of a Verb 3. Clausal Ellipsis The omission of a Clause Nominal Ellipsis Nominal ellipsis means ellipsis within the nominal group. The function of Head, which is always filled, is normally served by the common noun, proper noun or pronoun expressing the Thing. For example: “Take these pills three times daily. And you’d better have some more of those too.” Those are elliptical for those pills. Verbal Ellipsis Verbal ellipsis means ellipsis within the verbal group. An elliptical verbal group presupposes one or more words from a previous verbal group. For example: “He’s always being teased about it. I don’t think he likes being.” (I don’t think he likes being‘teased’) Clausal Ellipsis The clause in English, considered as the expression of the various speech functions, such as statement, question, response and so on, has a two-part structure consisting of modal element plus propositional element. For example: “How did they break in? I’ll show you how.” (I’ll show you how ‘they broke in’) Conjunction According to Halliday and Hasan (1976:238), there are four different types of conjunction, such as: additive conjunction, adversative conjunction, causal conjunction and temporal conjunction. Additive Conjunction The words and, or and nor are all used cohesively, as conjunctions; and all of them are classified as additive. The correlative pairs both...and, either…or and neither…nor do not in general occur with cohesive function; they are restricted to structural coordination within the text. For example: ‘I said you looked like an egg, sir,’ Alice gently explained. ‘And some eggs are IDEAS, Vol. 9, No. 2, December 2021 ISSN 2338-4778 (Print) ISSN 2548-4192 (Online) 421 very pretty, you know,’ she added. Adversative Conjunction The basic meaning of the adversative relation is ‘contrary to expectation’. The expectation may be derived from the content of what is being said, or from the communication process, the speaker-hearer situation. For example: “The total came out wrong. Yet all the figures were correct; they’d been checked.” (The total came out wrong, ‘although’ all the figures were correct) Causal Conjunction The simple form of causal relation is expressed by so, thus, hence, therefore, consequently, accordingly, and a number of expressions like as a result (of that), in consequence (of that), because of that. All this regularly combine with initial ‘and’. For example: “You aren’t leaving, are you? BecauseI’ve got something to say to you.” Where the conjunction because means ‘this is why I’m asking’. Temporal Conjunction This temporal relation is expressed in its simplest form by ‘then’. In this sequential sense we have not only then and and then but also next, afterwards, after that, subsequently and a number of other expressions. For example: “Finally we should record that the influence of the humanists contributed a good deal towards the final decay of the plainsong tradition.” The expression finally indicates ‘the culmination of the discussion’. The Reasons Of Using Grammatical Cohesions 1. Reference Reference links two items meaning that one item refers to another item mentioned previously or after the first item discussed. 2. Substitution Substitution connects between items of a text by replacing an item with another item in the same grammatical class. 3. Ellipsis Ellipsis omits a word or sentence which has similar meaning with the preceding word or sentence. 4. Conjunction By using specific conjunction, it can relate to the preceding or following text which is semantically connected to what has gone before. Good Sumbayak Sitopu Lingga, Nurlela, Alemina Br. Perangin-angin Grammatical Cohesions In Inaugural Speeches Of Barrack Obama And Donald Trump 422 Speech Speech is a formal talk that a person gives to an audience: to give/make/deliver a speech on human rights. A speech can be given on a public or private occasion (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, 2010:1431). According to Slagell (2009:1), there are several examples of speech such as graduation speech, leadership speech, oration and president official speech. The goals of speech are influencing, encouraging, educating, giving explanation and providing information to people in certain places. The Types of Speech Brown (2017:1) classifies speech into four basic types, namely: 1. Ceremonial Speech These speeches mark special occasions. They are common at weddings, graduations and funerals – as well as large birthday celebrations and office holiday parties. 2. Demonstrative Speech Science demonstrations and role playing are types of demonstrative speech. This type of speech requires being able to speak clearly and concisely to describe actions and to perform those actions while speaking. 3. Informative Speech With informative speech, the speaker is trying simply to explain a concept to the audience members. In this type of speech, the information is what is important. 4. Persuasive Speech Persuasive speech tends to be the most glitzy. This type of speech requires practicing voice inflections and nuances of language that will convince the audience members of a certain viewpoint. The writer discovered 87 references, 41 conjunctions, and 8 ellipsis after analyzing the forms of grammatical cohesions employed in Barrack Obama's inauguration speech (2009). The speech, on the other hand, did not contain any substitutions. Reference is the most common form of grammatical cohesion utilized by the speaker (Barack Obama) in his inauguration address out of all the grammatical cohesions. The writer detected 66 references, 19 conjunctions, 3 ellipsis, and 1 substitution in Donald Trump's inauguration speech (2017). Reference is the most common form of grammatical cohesion utilized by the speaker (Donald Trump) in his inaugural speech out of all the grammatical cohesions.. According to Halliday and Hasan in Afrianto (2017:100), both speakers (Barack Obama and Donald Trump) employed reference to connect two items, which means one item relates to another item spoken before or after the first item IDEAS, Vol. 9, No. 2, December 2021 ISSN 2338-4778 (Print) ISSN 2548-4192 (Online) 423 addressed. For example, substitution and ellipsis can be used to avoid repeating a word because substitution can be used to replace one item with another while ellipsis can be used to omit an item; and conjunction can be used to connect the preceding or following text that is semantically connected to the previous text. This study is related to some previous researches, one of them is the study of Listiyanto (2015) entitled “The Analysis of Grammatical Cohesion of Sentences Used in Campus English Magazine” found 960 grammatical cohesions, which has 576 references (60%), 305 conjunctions (31.77%), 71 ellipsis (7.39%) and 8 substitutions (0.83%). To sum up, there are more references than the other types of grammatical cohesions that were used in the campus English magazine. Both of this study and the previous study discuss about the types of grammatical cohesions but the writer on the previous study did not discuss about the reasons of using the types of grammatical cohesions in his study. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS The Conclusions Based on the findings of the study, the conclusions can be drawn as follows: 1. There are 136 grammatical cohesions found in the inaugural speech of Barrack Obama (2009) which consist of 87 references that are divided into 60 personal references, 17 demonstrative references and 10 comparative references; 41 conjunctions that are divided into 20 adversative conjunctions, 11 causal conjunctions, 8 additive conjunctions and 2 temporal conjunctions; and 8 ellipsis that are divided into 7 nominal ellipsis and 1 verbal ellipsis. While there are 89 grammatical cohesions found in the inaugural speech of Donald Trump (2017) which consist of 66 references that are divided into 50 personal references, 9 demonstrative references and 7 comparative references; 19 conjunctions that are divided into 11 adversative conjunctions, 4 additive conjunctions, 2 causal conjunctions and 2 temporal conjunctions; 3 nominal ellipsis; and 1 nominal substitution. 2. The reasons of using those types of grammatical cohesions in the two inaugural speeches are: a. Reference for linking two items meaning that one item refers to another item mentioned previously or after the first item discussed. b. Substitution for replacing one item with another. c. Ellipsis for omitting an item. d. Conjunction for relating the preceding or following text which is semantically connected to what has gone before. The Suggestions The writer would like to give some suggestions upon reviewing this study: 1. It is suggested for the students of English literature to use this study as the material of studying further about the types of grammatical cohesions and the Good Sumbayak Sitopu Lingga, Nurlela, Alemina Br. Perangin-angin Grammatical Cohesions In Inaugural Speeches Of Barrack Obama And Donald Trump 424 reasons of using them. 2. It is suggested for the lecturers of English literature to use this study as the material of teaching about grammatical cohesions to the students. 3. It is suggested for the further researchers to use this study to do a further research about the types and the reasons of using grammatical cohesions. REFERENCES Afrianto. 2017. Grammatical Cohesion in Students’ Writing: A Case at Technocrat Indonesia University. Thesis. Lampung: Technocrat Indonesia University. Alwi, H dkk. 2003. Tata Bahasa Baku dalam Bahasa Indonesia. Jakarta: Balai Pustaka. Arifindan Rani. 2000. Analisis Wacana. Malang: Bayamedia. Arikunto, S. 2006. 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