




































Iguana 10.3 color covers (Page C1)


A
bundant remains of sea turtles, tortoises,
iguanas, and even snakes in archaeolog-
ical excavations throughout the West
Indies testify eloquently to the fact that

Amerindians frequently and successfully exploited
reptiles. At least some biogeographers have sug-
gested that the first human inhabitants of the
region carried with them favored species, such as
Red-footed Tortoises (Geochelone carbonaria),
establishing populations on islands as they
migrated north from South America to serve as a
ready source of food during subsequent visits1.
Aboriginal inhabitants have been implicated in the
introduction of iguanas on islands in the Gulf of
California (see Iguana Times, June 2002) and also
may have established some West Indian popula-
tions. Furthermore, the earliest Americans have
been blamed for the extinction or extirpation of

Exploitation of Reptiles in the
West Indies: A Long History

Robert Powell
Department of Biology, Avila University, Kansas City, Missouri

67IGUANASeptember 2003

A mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) from Savane-à-Mulets,
Soufrière, Guadeloupe. These efficient predators have been
implicated in the extirpation of populations and even the
extinction of diurnally active snakes and ground-dwelling
lizards (photograph by Alain Fossé).

Today, the American
Crocodile (Crocodylus
acutus) is endangered, but
in the early 20th Century,
exploiting the species for
hides and meat was
widespread and “officically”
sanctioned. Here, convicts
skin a crocodile in the
Dominican Republic in 1922
(photograph by G. K. Noble;
courtesy of the Department
of Library Services, American
Museum of Natural History).

1 Some authorities, noting the abundance of tortoises on
oceanic islands, their ability to float, and their resistance to
exposure to salt water, disagree and argue that Red-footed
Tortoises arrived naturally in the islands by means of
overwater dispersal from South America.



native tortoises and some populations of iguanas
(along with a number of large, endemic mammals)
that are known only from fossil or archaeological
evidence. If true, exploitation of at least some
species was not sustainable — and the popular
image of Native Americans living in harmony with
nature clashes with reality.

The West Indies have been exposed continu-
ously to Europeans longer than any other region of
the Western Hemisphere. Columbus spoke of
abundant turtles and iguanas, and, beyond any
doubt, he, his men, and those that followed con-
sidered them resplendent table fare. With the
advent of the slave trade, Africans, most of whom
were products of cultures that exploited wildlife in
their native lands, continued to do so in the New
World. Like the Amerindians before them, West
Indians of European and African descent are
blamed for translocations, extirpations, and extinc-
tions. Although many of the latter are attributable
to habitat alteration and destruction or competition
with and predation by feral mammals, exploitation
levels were undoubtedly high — and often have
exceeded sustainable levels into recent decades.

Food undoubtedly has been the primary moti-
vating factor. Most large reptiles, especially those
that evolved on islands in the absence of large
predators, were at least initially abundant — and
are easy to catch, nutritious, and tasty (note the
obvious reference in the name Iguana deli-

catissima, for example). Even easier to acquire are
the eggs of turtles, iguanas, and crocodilians. In
addition, however, turtle shells and bones of many
large species were used as tools. Shells and hides
were used for the construction of shelters or for
decorative purposes, and some animals or their
parts became important in ceremonial functions.
Snakes still play a significant role, for example, in
voodoo rituals. Crocodilian penises and some

68 IGUANA Volume 10, Number 3

In 1922, Iguana hunters
on Isla Beata, Dominican
Republic, used dogs 
to catch Hispaniolan
Rhinoceros Iguanas
(Cyclura cornuta) (photo-
graphs by G. K. Noble;
courtesy of the
Department of Library
Services, American
Museum of Natural
History).



internal organs were thought to possess aphrodisi-
acal properties.

Exacerbating the impact of exploitation for
useful purposes were efforts at extirpation moti-
vated by fear or dislike. On Martinique and St.
Lucia, the only West Indian islands with native
populations of pitvipers, these are hunted actively,
and bounties have been offered intermittently by
the authorities until recent years. On many islands
where no species are dangerous to humans, snakes
nevertheless are killed whenever encountered.
Crocodilians are widely feared and killed, often
without any effort to salvage the meat or other use-
ful parts. Even on the few islands on which humans
have not traditionally eaten iguanas, they (and
other species of large lizards) are frequently perse-
cuted solely because they are perceived as being
ugly and strange.

Although presented in a historical context,
many of these practices continue largely unabated
today, despite the protected status of many species.
Shells of sea turtles are piled high in many ports,
and freshwater turtles and iguanas show up regu-
larly in small towns or even city markets. Especially
people living in rural areas routinely supplement
their diets with reptilian meat and eggs. Fear of
snakes, large lizards, and crocodilians remains
responsible for the deaths of many reptiles
throughout the region.

However, in addition to the traditional reasons
for exploiting reptiles, one of the most pervasive
causes of local extirpations today is unregulated
collection for the burgeoning pet trade.
Authorities in essentially every island nation can
cite example after example of unscrupulous collec-

tors catching, buying, and smuggling enormous
numbers of reptiles of all sizes and species — and
these commercial collectors are, of course, only
those that have been caught. Strangely enough,
scientific collectors in the 19th and early 20th cen-
turies initially developed a common practice
employed today by these criminals2. Offering
bounties to locals eager to supplement their mea-
ger incomes and often very familiar with the habits
of the local species, scientists historically and, now,
suppliers to the pet trade harvest huge numbers of
animals. The fact that rarities demand the highest
prices imposes particularly intense pressure on
populations of threatened or endangered species.
To their credit, today’s scientists have largely aban-
doned this practice.

What, if anything, is being done? Legislation
now protects many of the most vulnerable species
and some habitats, but enforcement is lax or
nonexistent in many cases. Educational efforts on
many islands have had some positive impact, par-

69IGUANASeptember 2003

2 Scientific collecting has not been implicated in any
extirpations or extinctions of West Indian reptiles and the
knowledge acquired by scientists who take specimens for
academic purposes often has been invaluable in develop-
ing conservation strategies for specific species or entire
biotic communities.

A Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas) awaits slaughter on the
beach of Isla Saona, Dominican Republic (photograph by
Robert W. Henderson).

This snake hunter was photographed on St. Lucia in 1888.
The snake is Bothrops caribbaeus and it may have been
killed for a bounty, or merely because it was a snake and
potentially dangerous (photograph courtesy of Philip
Walwyn).



ticularly when coupled with successful efforts at
developing ecotourism. Animals become more
valuable as means of attracting free-spending
tourists than they would be
in the market. Unfortu-
nately, education takes
time and, in many cases, is
directed at children. By the
time they are in a position
to develop, implement,
and enforce enlightened
policies, many additional
populations and even
species of reptiles will have
disappeared. Even eco-
tourism has its drawbacks,
since many travelers sup-
posedly enamoured with
wildlife buy curios made
from exploited reptiles and
demand accommodations
and amenities that are
incompatible with sustain-
ing viable natural habitats.

What can any one indi-
vidual do? One should
abide by all legislated efforts to conserve nature,
avoid all actions that might in any way encourage
the exploitation of wildlife, support educational
efforts by governmental agencies and non-govern-
mental organizations, if a pet reptile is to be pur-
chased, select only captive-bred animals from
known sources, and travel lightly on the land when
in the islands. 

Acknowledgements
Robert Henderson’s comments on an early

draft improved this article immensely.

References
Note that the references listed below are surveys that, in turn,
provide citations to many additional pertinent resources, as do the
volumes in which they appear.

Hedges, S.B. 1999. Distribution patterns of amphibians in the
West Indies, pp. 211–254. In: W.E. Duellman (ed.), Patterns
of Distributions of Amphibians: A Global Perspective. Johns
Hopkins Univ. Press, Baltimore, Maryland.

Hedges, S.B. and R. Thomas. 1991. The importance of systematic
research in the conservation of amphibian and reptile
populations, pp. 56–61. In: J.A. Moreno (ed.), Status y
Distribución de los Reptiles y Anfibios de la Región de Puerto
Rico. Depto. Recursos Naturales de Puerto Rico, Publ. Cient.
Misc. 1:1–67.

Henderson, R.W. and R. Powell. In press. Thomas Barbour and
the Utowana expeditions (1929–1934) in the West Indies.
Bonner Zool. Beiträge.

Powell, R. and R.W. Henderson. 1996. A brief history of West
Indian herpetology, pp. 29–50. In: R. Powell and R.W.
Henderson (eds.), Contributions to West Indian Herpetology:
A Tribute to Albert Schwartz. Soc. Study Amphib. Rept.
Contrib. Herpetol., vol. 12. Ithaca, New York.

Powell, R. and R.W. Henderson. 2003. Some historical perspec-
tives, pp. 9–20. In: R.W. Henderson and R. Powell (eds.),
Islands and the Sea: Essays on Herpetological Exploration in
the West Indies. Soc. Study Amphib. Rept. Contrib. Herpetol.,
vol. 20. Ithaca, New York.

Williams, E.E. 1999. Over 300 years of collecting in the
Caribbean, pp. 1–30. In: B.I. Crother (ed.), Caribbean
Amphibians and Reptiles. Academic Press, San Diego,
California.

Wing, E.S. 1989. Human exploitation of animal resources in the
Caribbean, pp. 137–152. In: C.A. Woods (ed.), Biogeography
of the West Indies: Past, Present, and Future. Sandhill Crane
Press, Gainesville, Florida.

Wing, E.S. 2001. Native American use of animals in the
Caribbean, pp. 481–518. In: C.A. Woods and F.E. Sergile
(eds.), Biogeography of the West Indies: Patterns and
Perspectives. 2nd ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.

Woods, C.A. 2001. Introduction and historical overview of
patterns in West Indian biogeography, pp. 1–14. In: C.A.
Woods and F.E. Sergile (eds.), Biogeography of the West
Indies: Patterns and Perspectives. 2nd ed. CRC Press, Boca
Raton, Florida.

70 IGUANA Volume 10, Number 3

A roadside vendor selling “Jicotecas”
(Trachemys stejnegeri) collected in the
Laguna de Saladillo, Parque Nacional
Montecristi, Dominican Republic
(photograph by Robert Powell).

Hatchling American Crocodiles
(Crocodylus acutus) offered for sale to
tourists in a shop in Santo Domingo,
Dominican Republic (photograph by
Donald D. Smith).


