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224 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 11, NUMBER 4  •  DECEMBER 2004 WILSON, ROBINSON, AND VOGEL

Adult female Jamaican Iguana (Cyclura collei) covered with red dirt acquired while digging a nesting burrow. Photograph
by John Binns.



Introduction

Thought extinct for much of the last century, the Jamaican
Iguana (Cyclura collei) was rediscovered by a pig hunter in

the remote interior of the Hellshire Hills in 1990 (Vogel et al.
1996). Field surveys in the latter half of 1990 revealed a rem-
nant iguana population persisting in the central portion of the

Hellshire range, and also resulted in the identification of two
active nesting sites (Vogel 1994). The adult population was esti-
mated at 50–200 individuals, and low recruitment potential was
inferred from the virtual absence of observations of young igua-
nas and the rarity of new females appearing at the known nest-
ing sites (Vogel 1992, 2000). Considered at the time to be the

Status of the Jamaican Iguana 
(Cyclura collei): Assessing 15 Years 

of Conservation Effort
Byron S. Wilson1,2, Orlando F. Robinson1,3, and Peter Vogel1,2

1Jamaican Iguana Research and Conservation Group, 2Department of Life Sciences, University of the West Indies, Mona Kingston 7, Jamaica, 
3Hope Zoo, Hope Gardens, Kingston 6, Jamaica (byron.wilson@uwimona.edu.jm)

Abstract.—Following its rediscovery in 1990 in the remote Hellshire Hills, the Jamaican Iguana (Cyclura collei)
has been the focus of a sustained conservation effort aimed at securing the species’ short- and long-term survival.
Major threats to the iguana’s persistence include habitat destruction by humans and predation by introduced
mammals such as dogs, cats, and the Indian Mongoose.

Beginning in 1990 with field surveys of the remnant C. collei population and the formation of the Jamaican
Iguana Research and Conservation Group (JIRCG), a variety of conservation measures have been implemented.
Protection and monitoring of known nesting areas have facilitated the collection of founder stock for captive
breeding and “headstart” programs, and have resulted in the collection, mark, and release of hundreds of C. collei
hatchlings. As hedges against extinction in the wild, breeding nuclei of C. collei have been established at the Hope
Zoo in Kingston and also at six U. S. zoos (Central Florida, Fort Worth, Gladys Porter in Brownsville, Texas,
Indianapolis, San Diego, and Sedgwick County in Wichita, Kansas). The first captive-bred hatchlings were pro-
duced in September 2004 at the Hope Zoo. Adult-sized, headstarted C. collei reared at the Hope Zoo have been
successfully repatriated into the Hellshire Hills, and we have now verified post-release survival of up to eight years.
Egg-laying has been observed in repatriated females, suggesting that this zoo-based augmentation effort is hav-
ing a positive effect on the remaining wild population.

Ongoing exotic predator removal efforts seek to maintain a conservation zone that is largely devoid of non-
native mammalian predators such as cats and mongooses. To date, hundreds of these invasive predators have been
trapped and removed from the core C. collei area, and preliminary data suggest that the iguana may be benefit-
ing from this predator control program. More recently (2003–2004), efforts to control feral dog and pig popu-
lations have been intensified.

Overall, the biological interventions directed at C. collei appear to have been highly successful. Unfortunately,
C. collei’s dry forest habitat is at risk of ecological destruction. The remaining primary forest in Hellshire is under
constant assault from the activities of illegal tree cutters, primarily charcoal burners. The JIRCG has protected a
small portion of the forest in the vicinity of the known nesting areas and major iguana concentration, and attempts
to discourage charcoal burners from penetrating farther into the undisturbed forest. If implemented, tabled gov-
ernment plans from the 1960s for large-scale commercial and residential development would likely cause the
extinction of C. collei. Encouragingly, increased national and international appreciation of Hellshire’s stature as
one of the finest remaining examples of Caribbean dry forest, together with considerable interest in the iguana’s
plight, give hope that this unique ecosystem and its endangered occupants will receive adequate protection.
Indeed, the Jamaican government’s declaration of the Portland Bight Protected Area (PBPA) in 1999 (including
the Hellshire Hills and the Goat Islands) and the recent (2004) delegation of management authority to the Urban
Development Corporation (UDC) is a positive step in that direction.

Key Words: Cyclura collei, Dry Forest Herpetofauna, Endangered Species, Headstarting, Jamaica, Predator
Control, Conservation

IGUANA  •  VOLUME 11, NUMBER 4  •  DECEMBER 2004 225THE JAMAICAN IGUANA

�



“most endangered lizard in the world,” C. collei appeared to be
at the brink of extinction (Alberts 1993).

The 1990 rediscovery of C. collei led to a sustained recov-
ery effort that began with the formation of the Jamaican Iguana
Research and Conservation Group (JIRCG), a local organiza-
tion comprising members from the University of the West
Indies, the Hope Zoo, the National Environment and Planning
Agency, and the Institute of Jamaica. Working with a variety of
international conservation and funding agencies over the last 15
years, the JIRCG has endeavored to protect the remnant C. collei
population and continues to lobby on behalf of both the iguana
and its threatened dry forest habitat.

Threats to Iguanas
Because the small iguana population was persisting in a relatively
large tract of undisturbed primary forest, predation by non-
native mammalian predators was considered to be the primary
cause for the species’ apparent low recruitment potential and low
population density (Alberts 1993, Vogel et al. 1996).
Subsequent research and field observations have validated this
early assessment. We now have definitive evidence that dogs,
cats, and mongooses prey on C. collei. Dogs pose an obvious
threat even to adult iguanas (Woodley 1980, Vogel 1992, Vogel
et al. 1996), and feral cats have recently been identified as a seri-
ous threat to young C. collei (Wilson et al. 2004). Predation on

young iguanas by the Indian Mongoose (Herpestes auropuncta-
tus) is regarded as the single most important source of mortality
(Vogel 1992, 2000; Alberts 1993, 2000; Wilson et al. 2004).

Other important threats to the C. collei population are
social rather than biological, and present the most formidable
challenges to the species’ existence. At present, degradation of
the forest by charcoal burners is reducing the remaining primary
forest habitat to the point where the Hellshire Hills could be
incapable of supporting a viable iguana population within the
next several decades. In addition, previously tabled government
plans for large-scale development in undisturbed sections of the
peninsula have not been officially abandoned.

In response to these various threats, the JIRCG instituted
an emergency conservation strategy to preserve the species. An
immediate objective sought to divert traditional forest users
away from the core iguana area and to protect the known nest-
ing sites during the reproductive season. By 1992, the JIRCG
formulated a management plan outlining a strategy both for
reducing the risk of short-term extinction and for securing the
iguana’s long-term persistence in a protected conservation zone
(Vogel 1992).

The original recovery plan outlined three general manage-
ment priorities: (1) establishment of captive breeding and satel-
lite populations as safeguards against extinction, (2) research and
conservation efforts aimed at protecting the remnant wild pop-

226 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 11, NUMBER 4  •  DECEMBER 2004 WILSON, ROBINSON, AND VOGEL

Nesting female Jamaican Iguana at one of the two known communal
nesting areas in the central Hellshire Hills. Photograph by Glenn Gerber.

Byron Wilson processing a mongoose captured in the core iguana con-
servation area. Photograph by Peter Vogel.

One of the two known communal nesting sites of the Jamaican Iguana.
Photograph by Peter Vogel.



IGUANA  •  VOLUME 11, NUMBER 4  •  DECEMBER 2004 227THE JAMAICAN IGUANA

ulation, and (3) long-term preservation of the iguana’s habitat.
Significant progress has been made; for example, we now pos-
sess a comprehensive set of biological management tools that
have proven successful in the field. Unfortunately, social and
political issues have so far prevented the implementation of a
management system for the conservation of the dry forest habi-
tat, despite the inclusion of the Hellshire Hills in the recently
(1999) declared Portland Bight Protected Area (PBPA). As a
consequence, in spite of some notable successes in recovering
and protecting the species, the status of the wild C. collei popu-
lation remains precarious. Below we summarize the progress of
the C. collei recovery effort and comment on prospects for the
species’ long-term survival.

Captive Populations
As hedges against catastrophic loss in the wild and potential reser-
voirs of genetic diversity, the maintenance of captive populations
can be a valuable tool in efforts to prevent extinctions. For C.
collei, genetically managed captive-breeding programs have now
been established at the Hope Zoo in Kingston and at six U. S.
zoos. Mating or egg-laying has been observed at several institu-
tions, and, in 2004, the first successful captive breeding of C.
collei was confirmed at the Hope Zoo. Specifically, three healthy
hatchlings were retrieved from one of the headstart enclosures.
We anticipate accelerated production from these breeding nuclei
as the captive cohorts mature into full reproductive stature and
as improvements to breeding facilities are completed.

Satellite Populations: 
The Goat Islands Iguana Reserve

Small offshore islands either lack invasive species or can be ren-
dered completely pest-free (Tolson 2000), and human
encroachment is constrained by access. Moreover, the biological
interventions necessary to rehabilitate small islets are compara-
tively simple and correspondingly cost effective. Not surpris-
ingly, such satellite islands have become valuable centers for bio-
diversity conservation in the Caribbean and elsewhere.

An important component of the original (1992) recovery
strategy for C. collei was the establishment of a satellite C. collei
population on Great Goat Island, off the western edge of the
Hellshire Peninsula. Great Goat Island contained an iguana pop-
ulation at least until the 1940s, and has long been recognized as
an ideal site for the creation of a biodiversity reserve featuring a
repatriated C. collei population. Both Great and Little Goat
Island form part of the Portland Bight Protected Area, and Great
Goat Island is posted as a no (bird) shooting reserve. However,
semi-feral goat populations overrun both islands. The goats are
owned by private individuals based on the nearby mainland,
who bring water to and occasionally harvest the animals. Other
exotic species include rats, mice, and mongooses. The mongoose
was apparently introduced to the Goat Islands by fishermen in
the 1920s, in a misguided effort to reduce the Jamaican Boa
(Epicrates subflavus) population (Lewis 1944).

A wild female Jamaican Iguana constructing a nesting chamber.
Photograph by Glenn Gerber.

Mongoose trapped in the core iguana conservation zone. Photograph
by Byron Wilson.

View of the Hellshire Hills, one of the last remaining stands of pristine
dry tropical forest in the insular Caribbean. Photograph by Peter Vogel.



Due to proximity to a major city and area of coastal com-
merce (Old Harbor and Old Harbor Bay), the Goat Islands are
readily accessible by boat, so security risks to equipment and
field personnel are significant concerns. In addition, the removal
of the goats will require the presence of a permanent and locally
well-recognized management entity. Therefore, initiation of a
conservation program for the Goat Islands will not be feasible
until permanent security and enforcement capacities are opera-
tional. Importantly, the eradication of invasive species from the

Goat Islands is a high priority objective of the Jamaican govern-
ment’s “National Strategy and Action Plan on Biological
Diversity in Jamaica” (NEPA 2003).

The Portland Ridge Peninsula to the west of the Hellshire
Hills represents another option for establishing a satellite iguana
population. Narrowly connected to the mainland, the essentially
unpopulated peninsula has retained significant stands of natu-
ral dry forest, and C. collei subfossils are known from several cave
systems. Portland Ridge has benefited from the presence of bird
shooting clubs that have actively prevented or minimized defor-
estation in various portions of the peninsula. Furthermore,
Portland Ridge forms the western section of the Portland Bight
Protected Area, so its remaining natural areas might benefit from
future management policies.

Headstarting
The Hope Zoo in Kingston is coordinating an active headstart
program, whereby hatchling iguanas collected in Hellshire are
raised at the zoo to a size at which they are less vulnerable to
introduced predators such as the mongoose. At this point, they
are reintroduced into the wild. We have now released 51 head-
started individuals back into Hellshire, and post-release moni-
toring has demonstrated that captive-reared iguanas easily adjust
to wild conditions and post-release survival rates have been
unexpectedly high (Hudson 2000, Wilson et al. 2004).

Movement patterns, behavior, and short-term survival have
been monitored with the use of radio telemetry, and long-term
survival has been assessed through live trapping and observations
of individually marked animals. We have documented survival
of up to eight years following release back into the wild. Of the
original 20 iguanas repatriated between 1996 and 1998, at least
eight (40%) are known to have survived for over two years post-
release (Wilson et al. 2004). Many of these captures were inci-
dental to our mammal trapping program, so actual survival rates
of repatriated C. collei are undoubtedly higher than these already
encouraging figures.

Perhaps more significantly, we have also observed success-
ful egg-laying among repatriated females. Together with obser-
vations of released males engaging in seemingly normal social
interactions, these results suggest that repatriated iguanas have
been successfully integrated into the reproductive population.
Given the existing low levels of natural recruitment, this aug-
mentation effort appears to be having a positive influence on the
remnant population (Alberts 2000, Vogel 2000, Wilson et al.
2004).

Control of Non-native Mammalian Predators
Aside from habitat loss, the negative impact of introduced
species is now regarded as the most significant threat to the
maintenance of global biodiversity. On islands in the Caribbean,
the impact of introduced mammalian predators has been devas-
tating to indigenous faunas (Schwartz and Henderson 1991;
Case et al. 1992). For C. collei, non-native mammalian preda-
tors are clearly the single most important factor preventing
recruitment of new iguanas into the breeding population (Vogel
et al. 1996, Vogel 2000, Wilson et al. 2004). 

We have been conducting an extensive trap and removal
program aimed at these pest species. To date, we have removed

228 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 11, NUMBER 4  •  DECEMBER 2004 WILSON, ROBINSON, AND VOGEL

View of the Hellshire forest and Caribbean Sea from a ridge in the core
iguana area. Photograph by Glenn Gerber.

Profile of wild Jamaican Iguana (Cyclura collei). Photograph by Peter
Vogel.

Great Goat Island, off the western edge of the Hellshire Hills, site of a
planned re-establishment of a satellite iguana population. Photograph
by Glenn Gerber.



IGUANA  •  VOLUME 11, NUMBER 4  •  DECEMBER 2004 229THE JAMAICAN IGUANA

over 500 mongooses, several hundred introduced rodents,
approximately 40 feral cats, and a growing number of feral dogs
(three in 2004) and wild pigs (26 and counting in 2004).
Encouragingly, field observations of juvenile iguanas have
increased since initiation of this removal trapping effort, sug-
gesting that exotic predator control enhances survival of young
iguanas. Future monitoring efforts should confirm that preda-
tor control has enhanced survival and recruitment into the
breeding population. Additional research in progress seeks to
elucidate the long-term demographic responses of several other
rare reptilian species to the removal of non-native mammalian
predators such as the mongoose. These efforts use a combina-
tion of pitfall traps and mark-recapture studies to investigate
long-term trends in ground reptile abundance on predator-
infested versus predator-controlled plots.

Threats to Iguana Habitat
The biological components of the recovery effort appear to have
been demonstrably effective. The rediscovery and rapid assess-
ment of the iguana population in 1990 have led to the subse-
quent implementation of successful captive and field-based con-
servation measures (Vogel 2000, Wilson et al. 2004).
Unfortunately, the most serious threats to the iguana’s persist-
ence are social and socioeconomic, and are considerably less
tractable than the biological issues. The remnant C. collei popu-
lation and its remaining dry forest habitat are both at high risk
of extinction due to anthropogenic influences (Vogel et al. 1996,
Wilson and Vogel 2000).

The most immediate threat to the iguana’s remaining habi-
tat is illegal tree cutting, primarily for charcoal production
(Wilson and Vogel 2000). Whereas traditional charcoal burners
used machetes to fell trees, today’s charcoal burners often use

chainsaws, thereby accelerating the rate of forest destruction.
Since the iguana’s rediscovery in 1990, members of the JIRCG
have attempted to divert tree harvesting away from the core
iguana area, and these efforts have met with some significant
successes (Vogel et al. 1996, Vogel 2000). In particular, the
JIRCG’s efforts undoubtedly have resulted in protecting the core
C. collei nesting areas from otherwise likely destruction by char-
coal burners. That said, diversion of tree-cutting activities away
from the known nesting areas in no way signifies that the rate of
iguana habitat loss has lessened in the species’ remaining primary
forest habitat.

Several factors render charcoal burning an unsustainable
and damaging enterprise. Limited soil deposits and scanty rain-
fall severely limit the ability of dry forests to regenerate, and

Repatriated, “head-started” Jamaican Iguana perched on a bench at the field camp in the central Hellshire Hills. Photograph by Byron Wilson.

Free-ranging, repatriated Jamaican Iguana wearing a radio-transmitter
vest produced and donated by Nike. Photograph by Joe Wasilewski.



increased solar penetration in clear-cut areas may also inhibit
seedling germination and survival by reducing soil moisture
(McLaren 2001). As a result, severely degraded areas may never
recover to their original condition. With virtually no potential
for a sustained yield harvest, charcoal burners necessarily focus
their efforts on the remaining uncut, primary forest.

In addition to the charcoal industry, other ominous threats
to the iguana’s habitat exist. For example, government plans dat-
ing from the 1960s to develop a large residential complex across
the eastern half of the peninsula, if pursued, would surely doom
the iguana to extinction (Vogel et al. 1996). Although now
unlikely to be implemented due to the iguana’s rediscovery and
the considerable local and international interest the species’
plight has generated, these development plans have not yet been
officially abandoned. The declaration of the PBPA and the
recent delegation of management authority (see below) are pos-
itive signs that the area may ultimately receive the protection it
so desperately needs.

Lessons from a Conservation Effort: 
The Fate of Cyclura collei

After a 15-year commitment to save the iguana, can we say that
the species has been rescued from the brink of extinction? The
answer to this question is maybe. A successful captive program

has been established, and the wild population is showing some
tentative signs of recovery. However, the iguana’s imperiled habi-
tat still does not enjoy any effective protection, and is very much
at risk of ecological annihilation within the next half century.

Portions of the remaining pristine forest are disappearing
daily. Nevertheless, we must remain optimistic that the enforce-
ment necessary to halt this destruction will come before it is too
late. Clearly, the charcoal burning industry threatens the iguana’s
persistence in a very immediate and pressing fashion. Predator
control efforts and other biological interventions will be super-
fluous if the Hellshire forest ceases to exist. However, efforts to
address critical conservation issues cannot await the initiation of
optimal habitat management practices. Indeed, such efforts can
provide the necessary foundation for the growth of more com-
prehensive and enduring conservation programs aimed at secur-
ing the persistence of both the iguana and its relictual habitat.

Active management and enforcement of tree-harvesting
laws are urgently needed. One promising development was the
declaration of the Portland Bight Protected Area (PBPA) on
Earth Day 1999. This government-declared conservation zone
includes all of the Hellshire Hills and therefore appears to pro-
vide a potential mechanism for protecting the iguana’s remain-
ing habitat. Unfortunately, the government lacks the resources
to manage the PBPA. Now, fully five years after the celebrated
and much publicized declaration of this new protected area, no
tangible progress has been made toward habitat protection.
However, the government has recently (2004) delegated the
management authority for the area to the Urban Development
Corporation (UDC) — the organization that owns most of the
Hellshire Hills and all of the Goat Islands. One can only hope
that the UDC acts quickly and decisively to stem the current
wave of deforestation; otherwise, the PBPA will remain little
more than a paper park, and the Hellshire Hills will soon
become little more than a biological wasteland harboring a
highly degraded forest containing greatly diminished biological
diversity. Encouragingly, the UDC appears keen to preserve the
remaining natural habitat and to rehabilitate the Goat Islands
for the establishment of a repatriated iguana population.

Beyond Doom and Gloom: 
Does Hope Exist for the Hellshire Hills?

In large part due to the connection between environmental qual-
ity and basic living standards, conservation issues are attracting
increased attention in Jamaica. Because Jamaica has long been
recognized as a globally important biodiversity hotspot, the
impetus for environmental action is now clear at both the
national and international levels. The next two decades will be
critical. The requisite political will, coupled with the coopera-
tion of relevant conservation and funding agencies, might yet
rescue this outstanding example of West Indian dry forest and
its unique endemic fauna. The future roles of the UDC and rel-
evant government agencies will ultimately determine whether
this outstanding wild area retains its intrinsic biological value for
future generations to appreciate.

Acknowledgments
We thank the many individuals and institutions that have con-
tributed to the ongoing conservation effort directed at the

230 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 11, NUMBER 4  •  DECEMBER 2004 WILSON, ROBINSON, AND VOGEL

Byron Wilson contemplating the problem of invasive species [intro-
duced predators]; note the palm-shaded mongoose trap in the lower
right-hand corner. Photograph by Glenn Gerber.

An introduced mongoose, shortly after a crash course on invasive pred-
ator control. Photograph by Joe Wasilewski.



IGUANA  •  VOLUME 11, NUMBER 4  •  DECEMBER 2004 231THE JAMAICAN IGUANA

Jamaican Iguana and its threatened habitat. For financial support
we are especially grateful to the World Wildlife Fund, the Durrell
Wildlife Conservation Trust, the Environmental Foundation of
Jamaica, the American Zoo and Aquarium Association, and over
20 U. S. zoos. For critical funding for the 2002–2004 period, we
are grateful to the International Iguana Foundation, the
International Iguana Society, the Audubon Zoo, the Miami
Metrozoo, the Houston Zoo, and Conservation International. A
big thank you is due to Rick Hudson of the Fort Worth Zoo and
Allison Alberts of the Zoological Society of San Diego; they have
proven to be important sources of inspiration, expertise, and
funding. Edwin Duffus, who rediscovered the iguana in 1990, is
acknowledged for his indispensable assistance in the bush. Finally,
we thank the other members of the Jamaican Iguana Research
and Conservation Group, the National Environment and
Planning Agency (NEPA), and the Institute of Jamaica for their
continued support and involvement.

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Author Biography
Byron Wilson is a Lecturer in the Department of Life
Sciences, University of the West Indies, Mona, in Kingston,
Jamaica. His early research focused on the ecology and phys-
iology of desert lizards in North America; subsequent work
and research has related to the ecology and management of
endangered vertebrates. Current research includes a long-
term field experiment that seeks to document trends in fau-
nal abundance (especially ground inhabiting reptiles) asso-
ciated with an invasive predator removal program. Other
projects include the ecology and conservation implications
of introduced species in Jamaica, and various inventory
efforts aimed at characterizing the extent, habitat quality,
and biodiversity of the island’s remaining natural forests.

View of the dry tropical forest in the central Hellshire Hills.  One of
the two known nesting areas is located in the bottom of the depression;
the other major nesting area is located on the western rim of the
depression (to the right). Photograph by Peter Vogel.




