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62 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 12, NUMBER 2  •  JUNE 2005 POWELL AND HENDERSON

A Red-bellied Racer (Alsophis rufiventris) basking on the rim of The Quill, a dormant volcano on St. Eustatius. These snakes are abun-
dant here, but have been extirpated elsewhere on the St. Christopher Bank, where the mongoose has become established. 

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Insular populations of terrestrial animals often suffer as a con-
sequence of alterations to their habitats by human agency

(e.g., Fosberg 1983, Case et al. 1992). Habitat specialists and
endemic species that have evolved in the absence of efficient
mainland predators and competitors are particularly vulnerable
(e.g., Case et al. 1992). Faunas of isolated oceanic islands are re-
presented disproportionately on lists of threatened or endan-
gered species (e.g., 327 of 1264 or over 25% of species included
on the list of U.S. endangered species are from Hawaii
(http://ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/TESSUsmap?status=listed).

Declines in amphibian populations throughout the world
have been documented in recent years (e.g., IUCN et al. 2004),
but comparable surveys of reptilian species have yet to be imple-
mented. Although a few species and even some genera (e.g.,
West Indian Rock Iguanas in the genus Cyclura; e.g., Alberts
2000, Alberts et al. 2004) have been the focus of intensive con-
servation efforts, populations of many more species, a large pro-
portion of them found only on small islands, are in various
stages of decline, and some are in imminent danger of extinc-
tion, often with little recognition by the public or even profes-
sional conservation biologists.

Herein we address these concerns for reptiles inhabiting the
Lesser Antilles, an archipelago of oceanic islands on which rep-
tiles are frequently the most abundant and obvious naturally
occurring vertebrates. General surveys of the herpetofauna
include Schwartz and Thomas (1975), Schwartz and Henderson
(1988, 1991), and Censky and Kaiser (1999), but the only pre-
vious systematic overview of conservation needs is that of Corke
(1992), and that was restricted to the Windward Islands.
Although many Lesser Antillean species are ecological general-
ists and some thrive in altered habitats (e.g., Henderson and
Powell 1999, 2001), populations of many others are declining
at alarming rates. Some recent extirpations and even some
extinctions have been documented, with a majority of both

attributable to human agency. Based on our own work in the
region and surveys of the literature, we contend that at least 37
of 81 (45.7%) presumably native terrestrial reptilian species

Conservation Status 
of Lesser Antillean Reptiles

Robert Powell1 and Robert W. Henderson2

1Department of Biology, Avila University, Kansas City, MO 64145, USA
2Section of Vertebrate Zoology, Milwaukee Public Museum, Milwaukee, WI 53233, USA

Abstract.—Island populations of terrestrial animals often are vulnerable to human-mediated changes to their environments. Many insu-
lar endemics have become extinct, had populations extirpated, or are in various stages of decline. Herein we address the conservation sta-
tus of terrestrial reptiles in the Lesser Antilles. Although many species in the region are ecological generalists and have adapted to the
presence of humans, nearly half of the reptilian species native to the archipelago have suffered as a consequence of human alterations of
their habitats or introductions of alien predators and competitors, often aggravated by catastrophic natural events such as hurricanes.
Particularly vulnerable are species that are terrestrial and diurnally active. Although many of the listed factors have contributed to the
decline or elimination of particular species from individual islands, we contend that the introduction of the mongoose is the single event
most responsible for the extirpations and declines of many Lesser Antillean reptiles.

Key Words: Conservation, Reptiles, Lesser Antilles

IGUANA  •  VOLUME 12, NUMBER 2  •  JUNE 2005 63LESSER ANTILLEAN REPTILES

�

St. St. 

N
Sombrero Bank

Anguilla
BankAnguilla

St. Martin/St. Maarten

St. Barthélemy
Saba
Bank

St. Eustatius
St. Christopher

NevisSt.
Christopher

Bank
Redonda

Bank
Montserrat Bank

Barbuda

Antigua

Antigua Bank

Guadeloupe Bank
Grande-Terre

La Desirade
Basse-Terre

Île des Saintes Bank Marie-Galante Bank

Dominica Bank

Martinique Bank

St. Lucia Bank

Grenadines

Grenada

100 km12°

14°

18°

60°62°

16°

Lesser
Antilles

St. Vincent Bank

Grenada Bank

Barbados
Bank

Map of the Lesser Antilles, showing major islands and island banks. 



inhabiting these islands have been affected negatively in some
substantive way by human activities (Table 1). These include
species that have become extinct since European arrival and
species (e.g., lizards in the genera Ameiva or Iguana and snakes
in the genus Alsophis) with at least some populations that have
been extirpated or drastically reduced in numbers.

Below is a summary of the terrestrial reptilian species found
in the region, with particular emphasis on those that we believe
warrant further attention by governmental and non-govern-
mental, local and international conservation agencies. For those
species that are most severely threatened, we provide an overview
of the distribution, note any protective measures that currently
exist, and provide tentative identification of the principal
causative agents responsible for declining population numbers
and preliminary recommendations for protection.

Turtles (Testudines)
Tortoises (Testudinidae) in the Lesser Antilles are represented by
an amalgam of populations that are apparently natural (e.g., fos-
sil remains of Geochelone sombrerensis from Sombrero and G. car-
bonaria from Anguilla; Auffenberg 1967, Lazell 1993, respec-
tively) and populations of G. carbonaria on several islands (e.g.,
Schwartz and Henderson 1991) or G. denticulata on
Guadeloupe (Breuil 2002) that may be natural, introduced by
Amerindians, established recently as a consequence of escaped
pets, or combinations thereof (e.g., Censky 1988). Red-footed
Tortoise (Geochelone carbonaria) populations occur on many
islands ranging from Grenada north to Anguilla, but popula-
tions often are small and many are undoubtedly declining. To
see tortoises on these islands, one frequently must find the per-
son or persons who have taken an interest in them and who will
accept donations of any individuals, often keeping them in
enclosures on their property. At least some of these animals date
to before the advent of the pet trade in the region and are
descendants of either naturally dispersed ancestors or animals
carried to the islands by Amerindians in pre-Columbian times
or early European settlers. In either case, tortoise populations

were likely intended to serve as food resources on future visits or
during hard times. Subsequent exploitation for food, efforts at
extirpation of competitors for laboriously grown vegetable crops,
collection for the pet trade, and habitat alteration and destruc-
tion have depleted essentially all populations. Protection is dif-
ficult to justify when the origins of the constituent animals is
uncertain. Until genetic markers can be established to distin-
guish long-term residents and recently escaped or released pets,
protective measures aimed at specific island populations are
unrealistic expectations. However, efforts to develop the neces-
sary tools and to monitor existing populations are undoubtedly
warranted on at least those islands where individuals with ances-
tors that arrived there by natural means are suspected to occur.
Both G. carbonaria and G. denticulata (known in the region
only from Guadeloupe; Breuil 2002) are listed as CITES

64 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 12, NUMBER 2  •  JUNE 2005 POWELL AND HENDERSON

Red-footed Tortoise (Geochelone carbonaria) populations in the Lesser
Antilles represent an amalgam of individuals that may have descended
from ancestors that arrived naturally in the islands by over-water dis-
persal, been introduced by Amerindians or colonial Europeans (pre-
sumably as food stocks), or are recently released/escaped pets.

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Table 1. Reptilian species of special concern in the Lesser Antilles. The following list includes those species that have already been
recognized by CITES or the IUCN as being in need of some level of international protection. Additional annotations, many based
on our observations, are listed in the last column.

Species Island/Bank CITES IUCN Annotation
Appendix1 Category2

Geochelone carbonaria Lesser Antilles II Systematic study
denticulata Guadeloupe II Vulnerable3

Cnemidophorus vanzoi Maria Major Vulnerable4

Kentropyx borckiana Barbados Monitor

Ameiva ameiva St. Vincent Bank Monitor
Grenada Bank Monitor

cineracea Guadeloupe Bank Extinct5

corax Little Scrub (Anguilla) Monitor
corvina Sombrero Bank Monitor
erythrocephala St. Christopher Bank
griswoldi Antigua Bank Monitor
major Îles de la Petite Terre Extinct6

plei Anguilla Bank Monitor on St.-Martin/St. Maarten

Diploglossus montiserrati Montserrat Critically Endangered7

Mabuya spp. Lesser Antilles Monitor, systematic study

Iguana delicatissima Lesser Antilles II Vulnerable8 Upgrade status to “endangered”
iguana Lesser Antilles II Monitor, systematic study

Leiocephalus cuneus Anguilla, Barbuda, Extinct9

Antigua, Guadeloupe
herminieri Martinique Extinct10

Gonatodes sp. Union (Grenadines) Monitor

Sphaerodactylus kirbyi Bequia (Grenadines) Monitor

Alsophis antiguae Antigua Bank Critically Endangered11

antillensis Montserrat Monitor
Guadeloupe Possibly extirpated
Marie-Galante Possibly extirpated

rijgersmaei Anguilla Bank Endangered12 Especially on St.-Martin/St. Maarten
rufiventris Saba, St. Christopher Bank Endangered13 Extirpated on St. Kitts and Nevis
sanctonum Les Saintes (Guadeloupe) Monitor

Clelia clelia Grenada II Possibly extirpated
errabunda St. Lucia Extinct14

Chironius vincenti St. Vincent Critically Endangered15

Liophis cursor Martinique Bank Critically Endangered16 Probably extirpated on Martinique
juliae Guadeloupe, Dominica Possibly extirpated on Guadeloupe, 

monitor on Dominica
ornatus Maria Major Endangered17 Extirpated on St. Lucia
perfuscus Barbados Endangered18 Probably extinct

Mastigodryas bruesi St. Vincent, Grenada Bank Monitor

Boa constrictor Dominica, St. Lucia II Monitor

Corallus cookii St. Vincent II Monitor
grenadensis Grenada Bank II Monitor

Typhlops annae St.-Barthélemy Monitor

tasymicris Grenada Monitor

1For criteria, see http://www.cites.org/, 2For IUCN Red List criteria, see http://www.redlist.org/info/categories_criteria.html, 3Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist
Group 1996, 4Gibson 1996a, 5World Conservation Monitoring Centre 1996a, 6World Conservation Monitoring Centre 1996b, 7Day 1996d, 8Breuil and Day
1996, 9Breuil 2002, 10World Conservation Monitoring Centre 1996c, 11Day 1996a, 12Day 1996b, 13Day 1996c, 14Underwood 1995, 15Henderson 1996, 16Breuil
1996, 17Gibson 1996b, 18Carrington et al. 1996



Appendix II (criteria for listing are given at: http://
www.cites.org/), and G. denticulata is “vulnerable” according to
IUCN Red List criteria (Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist
Group 1996; for IUCN Red List criteria, see http://
www.redlist.org/info/categories_criteria.html).

All other non-marine turtles found in the region are intro-
duced semi-aquatic species in the genera Trachemys (Emydidae)
and Pelusios (Pelomedusidae). The Common Slider (T. scripta),
native to the American mainland from the southeastern United
States at least into México and possibly into Central and South
America, is established on St.-Martin/St. Maarten (RP, pers.
obs.) and on Guadeloupe, Marie-Galante, and Martinique
(Breuil 2002). The Central Antillean Slider (T. stejnegeri), native
to Puerto Rico, parts of Hispaniola, and some Bahamian islands,
has been introduced on Guadeloupe, Marie-Galante, and Les
Saintes (Breuil 2002). Populations of both species are recent
arrivals in the Lesser Antilles and probably originated as escaped
or released pets or are descended from animals imported as food.
Both have been evaluated according to IUCN Red List criteria
and are considered to be at “lower risk” of becoming threatened
or endangered. Schweigger’s Terrapin (P. castaneus) is native to
West Africa and the origin of the West Indian populations on
Guadeloupe and les Saintes is uncertain. Breuil (2002) noted
that records of these turtles on Guadeloupe date to the early
19th Century. Consequently, since they are edible, they may
have originally been introduced in association with the African
slave trade. This species is listed as CITES Appendix III, based
on exploitation of African turtles and with little or no consider-
ation of the introduced West Indian populations.

Teiid and Microteiid Lizards
(Squamata: Teiidae and Gymnophthalmidae)

The St. Lucia Whiptail (Cnemidophorus vanzoi) is the only
member of its genus in the Antilles (Presch 1971, Schwartz and
Henderson 1991). Apparently endemic to two small islets,
Maria Major and Maria Minor, off the coast of St. Lucia (Corke
1987), the entire population is estimated at fewer than 1000
individuals (Rowe et al. 2002). A third population has been
established recently through translocation on nearby Praslin
Island, from which exotic mammals (e.g., goats and rats) had

been eradicated (Dickinson et al. 2001, John 1999). Gibson
(1996a) listed the species as “vulnerable.” The relevant IUCN
Red List criteria still apply, but the species is receiving the nec-
essary attention that should keep its status from deteriorating.

Kentropyx borckiana is a unisexual species of hybrid origin
that originated on the Guyana Shield and became established on
Barbados following dispersal and colonization (Cole et al. 1995).
Whether colonization was human-mediated is not known, nor
have studies been implemented to evaluate the relationship
between the Barbadian population and those on the South
American mainland. The population on Barbados was once
thought to be extinct (http://users.sunbeach.net/rhhinds/), but
is being encountered more frequently in recent years (Fraser et
al. 1990), albeit in a very small portion of its historic range.
Considering the extensive development of Barbados for agricul-
tural purposes and, more recently, to accommodate the tourist
trade, efforts to monitor this population should be encouraged.

Two Lesser Antillean species in the genus Ameiva are con-
sidered extinct (World Conservation Monitoring Centre
1996a,b). Ameiva cineracea apparently was restricted in recent
times to Grand Îlet off Petit-Bourg on the eastern coast of Basse-
Terre (Guadeloupe)(Schwartz and Henderson 1991), although
fossil records suggest that it formerly ranged across Guadeloupe,
La Désirade, Marie-Galante, and Les Saintes (Breuil 2002).
Ameiva major was thought to occur on Martinique, but Breuil
(2002) indicated instead that it was endemic to Les Îles de la Petite
Terre near Guadeloupe. Breuil (2002) suggested that introduced
predators and consumption by Amerindians played roles in the
extinction of most populations, whereas a hurricane might have
been largely responsible for the extinction of A. major.

The three melanistic populations of Ameiva from Redonda
(A. atrata), Little Scrub Island off Anguilla (A. corax), and
Sombrero (A. corvina) appear to be thriving in their respective
island habitats. A documented capacity to survive potentially
catastrophic natural events (e.g., hurricanes) and isolation on
islands that discourage human access while offering little in the
way of attractions seem to have served them well (e.g., Censky
and Paulson 1992, Censky and Powell 2001). However, the very
small size of these islands (Little Scrub 1.2 ha, Sombrero 38.4
ha, Redonda 130 ha) and the seasonal abundance and scarcity
of food resources renders all three of these populations vulnera-

66 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 12, NUMBER 2  •  JUNE 2005 POWELL AND HENDERSON

The entire population of the St. Lucia Whiptail (Cnemidophorus 
vanzoi) is estimated at fewer than 1000 individuals.

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Ameiva erythrocephala appears to be doing well on mongoose-free St.
Eustatius, but is essentially restricted to heavily trafficked “urban” areas
on St. Christopher and Nevis.

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IGUANA  •  VOLUME 12, NUMBER 2  •  JUNE 2005 67LESSER ANTILLEAN REPTILES

ble to unforeseen stochastic events. IUCN Red List criteria
would qualify all three species for listing, although none are cur-
rently offered any formal protective status and all should be
closely monitored.

Populations of other species of Ameiva also have declined
dramatically, but they remain common in at least some portion
of their historic range. Ameiva plei is common on Anguilla and
some of its satellites (e.g., Hodge et al. 2003) and on St.-
Barthélemy (Breuil 2002), but populations on mongoose-
infested St.-Martin/St. Maarten are localized, and the species is
absent from many areas that apparently provide suitable habitat
and adequate resources (Breuil 2002). Similarly, A. erythro-
cephala appears to be doing quite well on mongoose-free St.
Eustatius (Kerr et al. 2005, Rojer 1997a), but is essentially
restricted to heavily trafficked “urban” areas on St. Christopher
and Nevis (Barbour 1930a, Malhotra and Thorpe 1999,
Westermann 1953). Ameiva griswoldi is rarely encountered on
Antigua (RP, pers. obs.), but remains abundant on several off-
shore islets and is common on Barbuda, despite the potential for
extensive predation by feral cats (RWH, pers. obs.). Populations
of A. ameiva on Grenada and The Grenadines also appear to be
largely restricted to areas where high levels of human activity
may moderate mongoose predation (Germano et al. 2003,
Simmons et al. 2005), but many populations on St. Vincent are
extirpated (Corke 1992). No recent surveys have addressed the
status of A. pluvianotata on Montserrat. However, because of its
largely lowland distribution (Schwartz and Henderson 1991),
most populations probably were not affected dramatically by the
ongoing eruptions of the Soufrière Volcano.

Lesser Antillean microteiids (Family Gymnophthalmidae)
are comprised of insular populations of species with broad South
American distributions (e.g., Williamson and Powell 2004).
Bachia heteropa is a burrowing/litter-dwelling form that appears
to be holding its own on Grenada (Germano et al. 2003) and
The Grenadines. Parthenogenic populations of cryptozoic
species in the genus Gymnophthalmus are either expanding their
ranges to new islands or are merely being discovered on islands
where these small, inconspicuous lizards may have been present
for some time. No populations appear to be threatened by cur-
rent levels of human activity.

Lizards: Galliwasps and Skinks 
(Squamata: Anguidae and Scincidae)

In his description of the Montserrat Galliwasp, Diploglossus mon-
tiserrati, Underwood (1964) quoted the collector of the holo-

type as saying that he had seen this lizard only once before, and
that was twenty-five years previously. Stevens and Waldman
(2001) listed several more recent sightings (through 2001), but
no successful efforts at collecting additional animals. Day (1996)
considered the species to be “critically endangered.” Although
recent records suggest that the population is extant, the rarity of
encounters and the unknown effects of recent volcanic activity
on moist woodland habitats seemingly preferred by these lizards
warrant extensive efforts to determine the current population
size and distribution of this species, which may very well be one
of the most endangered lizards in the world.

Although D. montisserrati is the only anguid native to the
region, skinks in the genus Mabuya occupy similar niches on
many islands (Breuil 2002, Schwartz and Henderson 1991).
Although widespread, they are nowhere abundant, and popula-
tions on St.-Martin/St. Maarten, Basse-Terre (Guadeloupe),
Marie-Galante, and Martinique have apparently been extirpated
(Breuil 2002). Predation by mongooses, cats, and other exotic
predators and deforestation with a resultant loss of surface litter
on which these animals depend appear to be primarily responsi-
ble for these lizards’ extirpations, rarity, and possible population
declines. Much of the lack of concern may be attributable to the
assumption that these are relatively recent introductions of one
or two species that are widely distributed on the American main-
land. However, no detailed systematic studies exist and, since
potentially threatened endemic taxa could be hidden among pop-
ulations currently assigned to M. mabouya or M. sloanii, estab-
lishing the identity and relationships of Antillean populations and
those in South America (see comments in Mayer and Lazell
2000, Miralles 2005, and Powell and Henderson 2003) should
be high priorities for researchers in the region.

Iguanian Lizards
(Squamata: Iguanidae, Leiocephalidae, Polychrotidae)

Unlike its more familiar relative, the Common or Green Iguana
(Iguana iguana; see below), which has an extensive range
throughout much of the Neotropics, the Lesser Antillean Iguana
(I. delicatissima) is endemic to this region. The species’ original
range extended from Martinique in the south to Anguilla in the
north. However, populations have been extirpated on Barbuda,
Saint Kitts, Nevis, Antigua, Les Îles des Saintes, Marie-Galante,
and St.-Martin/St. Maarten (Fogarty et al. 2004, Powell 2004).

The critically endangered Montserrat Galliwasp (Diploglossus montis-
serrati) is known only from a single specimen and very few sightings.
This drawing of the holotype is from Underwood (1964).

Skinks in the genus Mabuya are widely distributed in the Lesser
Antilles, but are nowhere abundant, and several populations have
apparently been extirpated.

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Breuil (2002) recently listed the populations on Dominica, Îles
de la Petite Terre, and La Désirade as vulnerable. Apparently
only that on Petite Terre is stable and only that on Dominica is
of even moderate size (Anonymous 2004). However, even the
“stable” population on Petite Terre suffered greatly during a pro-
longed drought in 2001 (Breuil 2002 and references therein).
Breuil (2002) listed populations on Basse-Terre, Îlet Chancel
(Martinique), and St.-Barthélemy as endangered, and those on
Antigua, Anguilla, Barbuda, Île Fourchue and satellites (St.-
Barthélemy), Grande-Terre, Martinique, St.-Martin/St.
Maarten, and St. Eustatius as critically endangered — and those
on Antigua, Barbuda, and St.-Martin/St. Maarten have already
disappeared (Fogarty et al. 2004, Powell 2004), along with pop-
ulations on St. Christopher, Nevis, and Marie-Galante. Along
with all iguanas, the species is listed in CITES Appendix II and
as “vulnerable” in the most current IUCN Red List (Breuil and
Day 1996). All populations are protected by local regulations
from hunting, although enforcement ranges from non-existent
to sporadic. 

Two additional, separate threats face populations of I. deli-
catissima on St. Eustatius and on Martinique, Guadeloupe, and
possibly Anguilla. Mexican Creeper (Antigonon sp.) was intro-

duced onto St. Eustatius as an ornamental garden plant, but has
escaped and covers entire regions of the island, where it actively
threatens native vegetation (Fogarty et al. 2004). No effective
means of control has been identified. Even goats find the
Creeper unpalatable and will eat it only in the absence of alter-
natives. The impact on plants consumed by iguanas has not
been assessed, but the danger is obvious.

The threat facing populations of I. delicatissima on
Martinique and Guadeloupe is the possibility of hybridization
with introduced populations of I. iguana. The possibility of pre-
vious, “natural” contact between the two species on various
Lesser Antillean islands cannot be disregarded, despite the fact
that the natural distribution of the two species appears to be
allopatric. Fossil remains of I. iguana are known from Grande-
Terre (Guadeloupe), where I. delicatissima presumably occurs
naturally. Also, Breuil (2002) noted that the one figure in Seba
(1734) that was not an illustration of I. iguana and on which
Laurenti (1768) largely based his description of I. delicatissima
was probably a hybrid, indicating that contact between the two
species is not a recent phenomenon (see Pasachnik et al. 2005
for a complete list of pertinent references and an extensive dis-
cussion of the species’ nomenclatural history). Intermittent con-

68 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 12, NUMBER 2  •  JUNE 2005 POWELL AND HENDERSON

The Red List status of Lesser Antillean Iguanas (Iguana delicatissima) should be reevaluated and almost certainly upgraded to “endangered.” This
male was foraging in the Boven Hills of St. Eustatius.

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IGUANA  •  VOLUME 12, NUMBER 2  •  JUNE 2005 69LESSER ANTILLEAN REPTILES

tact, with the possibility of introgression into native populations
of either species, quite possibly occurred on several islands
(although the statement in Anonymous 2004 that “Dominica,
La Désirade and La Petite Terre are the only islands where just
Iguana delicatissima is thought to live” is not warranted or accu-
rate, as no reason exists to doubt the “purity” of populations on
Anguilla or St. Eustatius). Regardless, in recent years, human-
mediated introductions of I. iguana onto islands inhabited by I.
delicatissima and reductions in the extent of suitable habitat
caused by human encroachment have dramatically magnified
the frequencies of contact between the two species on
Martinique and Guadeloupe, where populations of “pure” I. del-
icatissima have essentially disappeared.

In light of documented declines in many populations,
ongoing habitat destruction and alterations, continuing compe-
tition with introduced mammalian herbivores, predation by

alien predators on many islands, and possible contamination of
the gene pool as a consequence of interbreeding with introduced
populations of Green Iguanas (Pasachnik et al. 2005), the Red
List status of the species should be reevaluated and almost cer-
tainly upgraded to “endangered.” Only the fact that populations
remain on multiple islands precludes assignment of “critically
endangered” status.

Like Lesser Antillean populations of tortoises (see above),
those of Green Iguanas (Iguana iguana) may be descendants of
ancestors that arrived in the islands by natural (non-human-
mediated) overwater dispersal, have been introduced by
Amerindians (probably for food), established recently as a con-
sequence of escaped pets, or combinations thereof (Powell
2004). Presumably native populations occur on Grenada, St.
Vincent, The Grenadines, St. Lucia, Saba, and Montserrat.
Populations of unknown or mixed origin are on Martinique,

Priority should be given to better understanding the unique populations of Iguana iguana on Saba, Montserrat, and St. Lucia. This individual is
from Saba.

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Guadeloupe, Les Îles des Saintes, and Marie-Galante; and pop-
ulations presumed or known to be introduced occur on Antigua,
Barbuda, St.-Martin/St. Maarten, and Anguilla. A presumably
natural population on Barbados is extirpated (Breuil 2002).

Because of the species’ broad continental range, which
extends from México through Central America and much of
northern South America, and a general lack of recognition of
genetic variability among populations, protective measures are
considerably less stringent than for I. delicatissima. Iguana iguana
is listed in CITES Appendix II, but export quotas exist for many
countries, primarily for live animals (pet trade) or products
(leather goods and meat). No distinction is made for native ver-
sus introduced or for continental versus insular populations.
Hunting is usually prohibited, but enforcement of laws is lax at
best. In Grenada, Green Iguanas are considered game animals
(Powell 2004), with a “regulated” hunting season and bag lim-
its. Both are routinely ignored by local hunters.

Basic surveys are necessary on Montserrat, where the status
of the I. iguana population is unknown and on islands, such as
St. Vincent, The Grenadines, and Grenada, from which we have
no current data on the populations. Field research on the basic
biology of populations are needed for all populations, but pri-
ority should be given to better understanding the genetically
unique populations of I. iguana on Saba, Montserrat, and St.
Lucia (Malone et al. 2004, Morton 2004), all of which might
warrant recognition as distinct species (Powell 2004).

Other iguanian lizards in the region include the ubiquitous
and scansorial anoles (Anolis), which are found on essentially
every island capable of supporting any vegetation. These lizards
appear to adapt well to alterations of their habitats, functioning
as human commensals in many instances (Henderson and
Powell 1999, 2001). However, we cannot predict the effects on
native species by introduced anoles. Documented instances in
the Lesser Antilles (A. carolinensis on Anguilla, Eaton et al. 2001;

70 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 12, NUMBER 2  •  JUNE 2005 POWELL AND HENDERSON

Anoles, such as this Anolis sabanus from Saba, are found on essentially every island capable of supporting any vegetation and appear to adapt well
to alterations of their habitats, functioning as human commensals in many instances.

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This woodcut of a “roquet” in Rochefort (1658) undoubtedly repre-
sents Leiocephalus cuneus and provides convincing evidence that the
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IGUANA  •  VOLUME 12, NUMBER 2  •  JUNE 2005 71LESSER ANTILLEAN REPTILES

A. sagrei on Grenada, Greene et al. 2002; A. cristatellus on
Dominica, Powell and Henderson 2003; and the apparently
unsuccessful colony of A. bimaculatus on St.-Martin/St.
Maarten, Powell et al. 1992) suggest that the introduced species
are limited to areas of dramatically altered habitats, where they
presumably pose little threat to native congeners. These are all
relatively recent introductions, however, and longer-term effects
are unknown.

In stark contrast to the anoles and more comparable to the
fate of many populations of Ameiva is the apparent status of ter-
restrial Curly-tailed Lizards (Leiocephalus). Two species occurred
in the Lesser Antilles, and both appear to have become extinct
in historical times, albeit prior to the introduction of the mon-
goose (Breuil 2002, World Conservation Monitoring Centre
1996c). Leiocephalus cuneus may once have been widespread
(fossil remains assigned to L. cf. cuneus are known from

Anguilla, Barbuda, Antigua, and Guadeloupe; Breuil 2002,
Schwartz and Henderson 1988), whereas L. herminieri is known
only from Martinique. No specimens of the latter have been
taken since the 1830s (World Conservation Monitoring Centre
1996c). The association of remains with archaeological sites sug-
gests that pre-Columbian human activities may have con-
tributed to these species’ declines, although populations of both
were apparently extant after European colonization.

Geckos
(Squamata: Gekkonidae)

Phyllodactylus pulcher is the only Leaf-toed Gecko known to
occur in the Lesser Antilles. The species is endemic to Barbados,
where it presumably is “nocturnal, arboreal, and insectivorous”
(Dixon 1962, Schwartz and Henderson 1991). Although some
references to edificarian habits exist (e.g., http://users.sun-
beach.net/rhhinds/), known localities for the species are limited
and its range has not been systematically investigated
(Government of Barbados 2002). The species is considered rare
(Ministry of Physical Development and Environment, Barbados
2001). Surveys seeking to establish the distribution and abun-
dance of this Barbadian endemic should be encouraged, espe-
cially since insular populations of Leaf-toed Geckos elsewhere
appear to be vulnerable to population declines when faced with
competition from House Geckos in the genus Hemidactylus (G.
Köhler, pers. comm.).

Other geckos known to occur on Lesser Antillean islands
include two species of House Geckos (Hemidactylus), the
Turnip-tailed Gecko (Thecadactylus rapicauda), various species
of Dwarf Geckos (Sphaerodactylus), an undescribed species of
Clawed Gecko (Gonatodes), and the introduced Tokay Gecko

The Barbadian Leaf-toed Gecko (Phyllodactylus pulcher) is the only
known member of its genus to occur in the Lesser Antilles. Essentially
nothing is known about its natural history, distribution, or abundance
(http://users.sunbeach.net/rhhinds/Leaf%20Toed%20Gecko.html).

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Alsophis rufiventris remains abundant on mongoose-free Saba and St. Eustatius, but has been extirpated on mongoose-infested St. Christopher and Nevis.

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(Gekko gecko). House geckos are human commensals and are
abundant nearly everywhere. Turnip-tailed Geckos are widely
distributed, but appear to be less common than House Geckos,
although that might be attributable largely to habitat preferences
for forested areas rather than buildings (e.g., Howard et al.
2001). Many Dwarf Geckos are phenomenally abundant (e.g.,
S. parvus and S. sputator on Anguilla or S. sabanus and S. sputa-
tor on St. Eustatius; Nava et al. 2001, Hensley et al. 2004), but
others, such as S. elegantulus on Antigua are rarely encountered,
even in apparently suitable habitat (RP, pers. obs.). The first
Dwarf Gecko to be found on the Grenada Bank, S. kirbyi, was
described from six specimens in the mid-1990s (Lazell 1994). It
has so far been recorded only from Bequia, one of the north-
ernmost of The Grenadines. The population on Bequia should
be monitored and other islands in The Grenadines should be
surveyed for Dwarf Geckos, as should Grenada, the only major
landmass in the Windward Islands that does not harbor a species
of Sphaerodactylus. The undescribed Clawed Gecko (Gonatodes

sp.) appears to be restricted to leaf litter in mature upland dry
forest on Union Island in the Grenadines. Nothing is known
about the distribution or natural history of this species, the habi-
tat of which should be monitored closely.

Common Snakes
(Squamata: Colubridae)

The ranks of the Colubridae, like the ground-dwelling Ameiva
lizards, have suffered the greatest number of extirpations, extinc-
tions, and/or dramatic reductions in geographic ranges in the
West Indies in general and the Lesser Antilles in particular. West
Indian Racers (Alsophis) are, essentially, snake counterparts of
Ameiva. They are ground-dwelling, diurnal, fast-moving,
oviparous, and apparently susceptible to predation by ground-
dwelling, diurnal, fast-moving mongooses. Although some
species on some islands harbor healthy racer populations (e.g.,
Alsophis antillensis on Dominica and Montserrat, A. rijgersmaei
on Anguilla and St.-Barthélemy, and A. rufiventris on Saba and
St. Eustatius; Breuil 2002, Heinz et al. 2004, Henderson 2004,
Hodge et al. 2003, Maley et al. 2005, Malhotra and Thorpe
1999, Rojer 1997a,b, Savit et al. 2005, RWH and RP, pers.
observ.), populations of the same species are restricted to small,
isolated enclaves on St.-Martin/St. Maarten (A. rijgersmaei;
Powell et al. 1992, Rojer 1997c, Breuil 2002) and extirpated on
Antigua (A. antiguae), Marie-Galante (A. antillensis), St.
Christopher and Nevis (A. rufiventris), and possibly Guadeloupe
(A. antillensis)(Barbour 1930a, Henderson 1992, 2004, Maley
et al. 2005, Sajdak and Henderson 1991, Sajdak 2004). In each
instance, the mongoose appears to be primarily responsible.

If mongooses are present on an island, racers have usually
been extirpated; if the mongoose is absent, racer populations are
healthy (Table 2). A textbook example is illustrated by the situa-
tion on Antigua and one of its satellite islands. Mongooses were
introduced onto Antigua in the late nineteenth century
(Henderson 1989), and, in 1936, Parker declared A. antiguae
extinct. Apparently unknown to Parker, however, a population of
A. antiguae survived on the small (9.9 ha) mongoose-free satellite
known as Great Bird Island, situated 2.5 km off the northeastern
coast of Antigua. Valiant efforts are being made to insure that the
Great Bird Island population of A. antiguae does not go the way of
the main island populations (Daltry et al. 2001).

72 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 12, NUMBER 2  •  JUNE 2005 POWELL AND HENDERSON

Table 2. Presence or absence of species of Ameiva, Alsophis, Liophis, and
the mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) on Lesser Antillean islands. A “+”
indicates presence and a “–” indicates absence of the mongoose or
absence of a species of Ameiva, Alsophis, and/or Liophis from an island
where that species once occurred. An asterisk (*) indicates that, if the
species still occurs on the island, it is very rare or restricted to isolated
enclaves. The absence of either a “+” or a “–” denotes that no record
of that taxon occurring on that island exists. Many small islands and
cays not listed here may support Ameiva populations and have no
mongooses. Alsophis also is known from Barbuda, but only as a fossil.

Island Mongoose Ameiva Alsophis Liophis

Sombrero – +
Anguilla – + +
Scrub – + +
Little Scrub – +
St.-Martin/

St. Maarten + + +*
St.-Barthélemy – + +
Saba – +
St. Eustatius – + +
St. Christopher + +* –
Nevis + +* –
Antigua + +* –
Great Bird – + +
Barbuda – +
Redonda – +
Montserrat – + +
Guadeloupe + +* +*
Terre-de-Haut – + +
Terre-de-Bas – +
Marie-Galante + – +*
Dominica – + + +
Martinique + –
Rocher de 

Diamant – +
St. Lucia + –
Maria Major – +
Barbados + –
St. Vincent + +*
Grenada + +*

Like populations of other diurnal, terrestrial reptiles, Liophis, like this
L. juliae from Dominica, is extremely vulnerable to predation by intro-
duced mongooses.

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Grove Snakes (Liophis) are, like racers, ground-dwelling,
diurnal, oviparous, and have been extirpated on islands where
mongooses have been introduced (Table 2). For the most part,
they occur on islands south of the range of Alsophis, although
Guadeloupe, Marie-Galante, and Dominica have or had repre-
sentatives of both genera. Grove Snakes have been eliminated
from Martinique (L. cursor), St. Lucia (L. ornatus), and Barbados
(L. perfuscus). A satellite population of L. cursor occurs on
Rocher de Diamant (0.06 km2) and, similarly, a satellite popu-
lation of L. ornatus occurs on Maria Major (0.09 km2) off the
coast of St. Lucia. The status of both of these populations is, at
best, precarious. Liophis juliae occurs on Guadeloupe and
Dominica. It is rare to possibly extirpated on mongoose-infested
Guadeloupe and, conversely, it is widespread and common on
mongoose-free Dominica.

Two species of Clelia, often called “cribo” in the West Indies,
are somewhat of an enigma. Clelia clelia (CITES Appendix II) may
reach 2.0 m and is a powerful snake that is capable of constriction
and injecting venom via fangs situated in the rear of the upper jaws.
The venom is effective for subduing vertebrate prey (mostly snakes
and small mammals). Because it shares characteristics with Alsophis
and Liophis (ground-dwelling, sometimes diurnal), it may be or
may have been vulnerable to mongoose predation. It may never
have been common in the West Indies (Henderson 2004). During
fieldwork spanning 15 years on Grenada, RWH has never encoun-
tered this species, and Grenadians concur that it is a very rare snake.
Most adults have not seen one since they were children. Although
the species warrants protection on Grenada, we are uncertain how
to effectively establish protection for a species that most people have
never seen and therefore would not know it if they did see it. Clelia
errabunda was endemic to St. Lucia. It is now extinct, and
Underwood (1995) attributed its disappearance to human activity.

A single species of Mastigodryas (M. bruesi) occurs on St.
Vincent and the Grenada Bank. It has been introduced to
Barbados, possibly via banana shipments that originated in St.
Vincent (Underwood et al. 1999). This slender, diurnal snake
was often encountered sleeping in trees on St. Vincent in the late
1980s, but surveys in the early 1990s failed to produce any
sightings. Barbour (1914) described this species as “… appar-
ently, the most abundant ophidian on the island [of Grenada].”
Whether or not that was an accurate statement in 1914 is
impossible to say (see comments in Henderson and Powell 2005
regarding the accuracy of Barbour’s assessments of herpetofau-
nal abundance), but it doesn’t apply today. Barbour (1930a,
1930b, 1935, 1937) declared the species extinct on St. Vincent
and “very rare” on Grenada. Corke (1992) noted that the species
was “relatively common,” but might have been referring solely
to St. Vincent. The species apparently is rare in Grenada (Greene
et al. 2003). RWH has not observed a live individual over a 15-
year span, but two field associates saw individuals at two differ-
ent sites in 2003. The species may be more common on at least
some of The Grenadines, but it has been over a decade since
active fieldwork has been conducted there. Although its arboreal
tendencies (Schwartz and Henderson 1991) might provide some
protection from predation by terrestrial mongooses (Sajdak and
Henderson 1991), the species’ uncertain status throughout its
known range certainly calls for survey work and possible moni-
toring.

The largely arboreal habits of Mastigodryas bruesi appear to render this
species somewhat less vulnerable to mongoose predation than more
terrestrial colubrid snakes in the region.

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Whether the apparent recent decline in the numbers of treeboas
(Corallus grenadensis) is a natural phenomenon or not is uncertain.

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Boa Constrictors (Boa constrictor), such as this individual from
Dominica, are subject to persecution on the Lesser Antillean islands
where they occur; although not in imminent danger of eradication,
populations should be monitored.

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Chironius, a geographically and ecologically widespread
genus on the Neotropical mainland, is represented by a single
species in the West Indies. Chironius vincenti is endemic to St.
Vincent. Henderson et al. (1988) described the first specimen
to reach a museum in over 100 years. This may be the most
habitat-dependent snake species in the Lesser Antilles. Snakes
are restricted to primary and secondary forests at elevations from
275–600 m, where they are active by day on the ground and in
trees and where they feed on anurans (Henderson and Haas
1993). Radical modification of primary and secondary forests
on St. Vincent would have serious consequences for C. vincenti;
it is considered “critically endangered” on the IUCN Red List
(Henderson 1996).

Boas
(Squamata: Boidae)

The Boa Constrictor (Boa constrictor) is restricted to Dominica
and St. Lucia in the Lesser Antilles, and each island supports an
endemic subspecies (B. c. nebulosus and B. c. orophias, respec-
tively). On Dominica, the species is exploited for its fat, which is
rendered and the resultant oil is used to treat arthritis and other
joint ailments (Malhotra and Thorpe 1999; M. Day, in litt.). Boa
Constrictors are subject to persecution merely because they are
snakes, and also because they may represent a potential danger to
humans as a consequence of their size. To the best of our knowl-
edge, B. constrictor populations in the Lesser Antilles are not in
imminent danger of eradication, but they should be monitored.

The treeboas Corallus cookii and C. grenadensis are Lesser
Antillean endemics on St. Vincent and the Grenada Bank, respec-
tively. Corallus cookii was moderately common when last surveyed
in the late 1980s and early 1990s (Henderson 2002). Corallus
grenadensis occurs on ten islands (Grenada plus nine of The
Grenadines). We have not surveyed populations on The
Grenadines for over a decade, but we assume all populations are
still extant. Population declines have been observed on Grenada
(Henderson 2002, Henderson and Berg 2005), but we are unable
to state with any certainty why they have occurred. We have seen
declines at sites where treeboas were being captured, marked, and
released; we have also witnessed them where no handling
occurred. Although Henderson (2002) did not agree with

Grenadians that C. grenadensis was not as common as they once
were, he now concurs that, certainly at some sites, numbers have
dwindled (Henderson 2003, Henderson and Berg 2005). The
depression in numbers we are now seeing may be a natural phe-
nomenon, and numbers might eventually increase again.
Regardless, the situation on Grenada warrants monitoring.

Pit-vipers
(Squamata: Viperidae)

Two species of Pit-vipers occur in the Lesser Antilles: Bothrops
caribbaeus on St. Lucia and B. lanceolatus on Martinique. Both
species survived years of having bounties on their heads.
Although bounties are no longer offered, over a seven-year
period in the 1960s, bounties on more than 50,000 B. lanceola-
tus were collected on Martinique (Pinchon 1967). These snakes
undoubtedly are routinely killed when encountered by humans.
Nevertheless, we are led to believe that both species remain com-
mon on their respective islands (Lazell 1964, Powell and
Wittenberg 1998). Lazell (1964) even suggested that, unlike so
many other West Indian endemic snakes and lizards, Bothrops
may have benefited from the introduction of the mongoose, as
larger individuals readily consume mongooses.

Blind Snakes and Thread Snakes
(Squamata: Leptotyphlopidae and Typhlopidae)

Because of the secretive habits of these small ant- and termite-
eating snakes, assessments of their status are difficult.
Leptotyphlops bilineatus (Martinique, St. Lucia, Barbados) and
Typhlops geotomus (St. Christopher Bank, Antigua Bank) have
multi-island distributions and likely have healthy populations.
Conversely, T. annae (St.-Barthélemy), T. monastus (Montserrat),
T. guadeloupensis (Guadeloupe), T. dominicanus (Dominica), and
T. tasymicris (Grenada) have single-island distributions and some
species may deserve legislated protection. Typhlops domincanus
is widespread on Dominica (Malhotra and Thorpe 1999), and
we have had no trouble finding T. guadeloupensis. Typhlops annae
was only recently described (Breuil 1999) and it occurs on a
small (22 km2) island; its status should be monitored. Typhlops
tasymicris was discovered in 1968 (Thomas 1974) and, since
then, only one additional specimen has been deposited in a sci-
entific collection (Wallach 2000). We have made unsuccessful
efforts to collect it (or even to find someone on Grenada who is

74 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 12, NUMBER 2  •  JUNE 2005 POWELL AND HENDERSON

Pit-viper populations may have benefited from the introduction of the
mongoose, as larger snakes readily consume them. This Bothrops lance-
olatus is from Martinique.

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Because of the secretive habits of snakes in the genus Typhlops, assess-
ing the status of these small ant- and termite-eating snakes can be dif-
ficult. This is T. geotomus from Nevis.

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IGUANA  •  VOLUME 12, NUMBER 2  •  JUNE 2005 75LESSER ANTILLEAN REPTILES

familiar with the species). We are unaware of the status of T.
monastus. Its relatively extensive distribution on Montserrat
(Schwartz and Henderson 1991) would suggest that the species
is secure despite recent volcanic activity on that island. Possible
effects resulting from the introduction of Ramphotyphlops brami-
nus on Anguilla, St.-Martin/St. Maarten, and St.-Barthélemy
(Breuil 2002, Censky and Hodge 1997) are unknown.

Summary
Many Lesser Antillean reptiles are habitat generalists, descen-
dants of effective colonizers, and often adapt well to human-
mediated alterations of their environments. The most obvious
examples are the many anoles that probably were arboreal his-
torically, but adapt readily to almost any vertical structure.
Furthermore, they are heliothermic to varying degrees and seem
to thrive in situations in which human activity has created habi-
tat edges. Also apparently doing well are some of the nocturnally
active species (e.g., Hemidactylus and Thecadactylus), those that
are small and inconspicuous (e.g., Gymnophthalmus and some
Sphaerodactylus), and species that spend most of their lives
underground (e.g., Bachia and most Typhlops).

In sharp contrast, many other reptiles have seen popula-
tions decline precipitously and even disappear altogether.
Particularly vulnerable are species that are associated primarily
or solely with pristine habitats that no longer exist on most
islands, are large and can serve as an economic commodity,
inspire fear, or are diurnally active and terrestrial. Undoubtedly
the most widely applicable effects on the majority of species are
associated with habitat destruction or change. Species, such as
Diploglossus montisserrati or Chironius vincenti, for example, that
are adapted to either dry lowland forests or lush rainforests, usu-
ally at higher elevations, often suffer as trees are cleared to make
way for agriculture, human housing and associated infrastruc-
ture, or the demands of the tourist industry. Iguanas often suf-
fer when forced to compete for food with introduced mam-
malian herbivores, and Treeboas (Corallus) require a contiguous

canopy that exists in increasingly fewer localities within their
ranges. Some, such as the tortoises, the iguanas, and even Boa
constrictor, are exploited directly for food or other marketable
products. Others, such as nearly all of the snakes, are persecuted
by residents who consider them all dangerous.

Factors that may contribute to declining populations (and,
potentially, extirpation or extinction) are listed in Table 3. With
the exception of natural catastrophes, the one variable that the
rest of these factors have in common is the human element. The
first four categories all require human involvement. With so
many factors that are capable of contributing to the extinction,
extirpation, or obvious decrease in population numbers or con-
stricted geographic ranges, singling-out one factor to explain a
geographically broad pattern of extirpations may seem irrespon-
sible. However, the geographically broad scope of the extirpations
points to a single factor and, more importantly, to a single species:
Herpestes javanicus. The almost complete correlation between the
presence of mongooses and the decline or absence of terrestrial
lizards (e.g., Ameiva, possibly Mabuya) and snakes (e.g., Alsophis,
Liophis)(Table 2) clearly indicates that this introduced predator
has, in fact, directly contributed to the decline, extirpation, and
even extinction of Lesser Antillean reptiles. This assertion differs
with Corke (1992), who suggested that no conclusive evidence
existed for the widely reported role of introduced mongooses in
the decline of the islands’ reptiles. Likewise, Baskin and Williams
(1966) were, at best, ambivalent regarding the impact of Herpestes
on Ameiva. Although we concede that other factors (e.g., overde-
velopment; cats, dogs, and rats) have contributed to the decline
or elimination of a particular species from an island, we contend
that, in the absence of mongoose introductions, extirpations
would be far less common in the Lesser Antilles.

Acknowledgments
Recent fieldwork in the Lesser Antilles by Henderson has been
funded by the Windway Foundation and the Zoological Society
of Milwaukee County. Work in the region by both Henderson
and Powell has been funded by grants from the National Science
Foundation (DBI-9732257 and DBI-0242589 to R. Powell).

Table 3. Factors that may contribute to extinctions, extirpations, range
constrictions, and/or declining populations in Lesser Antillean reptiles.

Factor Examples

Introduced predators cats, dogs, mongooses, rats

Introduced competitors Gekko gecko, Elaphe gutatta, 
herbivorous mammals

Habitat modification housing for growing human 
due to development population; hotels and golf 

courses for tourism

Habitat modification deforestation to create pastures 
to sustain human or livestock; fields for crop
population production, charcoal production

Habitat modification cropping of vegetation to dirt 
due to free-ranging level by goats, sheep, burros, 
livestock pigs, and cattle

Natural catastrophes hurricanes

In the absence of mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) introductions, extir-
pations of terrestrial reptiles in the Lesser Antilles would be far less
common.

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