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116 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 12, NUMBER 2  •  JUNE 2005 POWELL

Chichen Itzá
Maybe the most famous of all Mayan archaeological sites,
Chichen Itzá dates from the Late Classic period (~600–900
AD). Within the 6 km2 of the archaeological zone are two
distinct architectural styles (classified as “new” and “old”
Chichen). The glorification of the Toltec god Quetzalcoatl
in his Mayan form of Kukulcan, the Feathered Serpent, led
to the belief that the Toltecs had taken over this formerly
Mayan city. Now, however, scholars are beginning to dis-
pute the idea of a foreign invasion. Contemporary thought
is that Chichen Itzá was a cosmopolitan city inhabited by
a diverse group of peoples including the Puuc Mayans and
the Toltecs.

Ek Balam
Dating from 100 AD to its height at 700–1,200 AD, the
newly opened archaeological site at Ek Balam is unique and
well worth a visit before the word gets out and the site is
overrun by tourists. The main temple is over 500 feet long
and 200 feet wide, making it one of the largest structures
ever excavated in the Yucatán. Various sculpted works are

extremely well preserved. The site’s most striking temple is
the “monster mouth,” representing a portal to the “other
world.”

M A Y A N  S I T E S

Map of the Yucatán Peninsula showing the approximate locations of Cancún and the four major Mayan archaeological zones in the
northeastern part of the peninsula.

Tulum was the only Mayan city still thriving when the Spanish
conquistadors arrived.

Although Mayan archaeological sites extend across the Yucatán Peninsula and throughout much of Central America,
visitors to the region who land in Cancún should definitely include the following four sites in their travel agendas.

Visits early and late in the day are strongly recommended; not only are temperatures more pleasant, lighting more varied,
but the vast busloads of tourists, especially at Chichen Itzá and Tulum are thus avoided to a large degree. Adapted from
material provided at http://www.mayasites.com/.



IGUANA  •  VOLUME 12, NUMBER 2  •  JUNE 2005 117TRAVELOGUE

Tulum
Situated on a cliff facing the beautiful turquoise waters of
the Caribbean, this is among the most scenic of all the
Mayan sites. Tulum was at its peak from 1,000–1,600 AD
and is unusual in being surrounded by a high wall that
speaks to a need for defense against invaders from both land
and sea. Tulum was one of the first cities encountered by
the conquistadors and was the only Mayan city still thriv-
ing when the Europeans arrived. The Mayans eventually
abandoned the city, but not until almost a century after the
Spanish conquest.

Cobá
The Mayan ruins at Cobá are unique in that they have
been barely restored. Only a few of the estimated 6,500
structures have been uncovered. Cobá, dating from

600–900 AD, may once have had a population estimated
at 100,000 people, largest of all the ancient Mayan cities.
The site’s pyramids and buildings are situated on the shores
of several lakes and as many as fifty sacbes (ancient roads),
one of them over 62 miles long (longest in the Mayan
world), connected Cobá to cities throughout the region.
The Nohoc Mul pyramid, at over 126 feet, is the tallest
Mayan structure on the Yucatán Peninsula, and the build-
ing techniques are characteristic of the Petan region of
Guatemala.

Many sculpted works at Ek Balam are extremely well preserved.

Tulum is situated on a cliff overlooking the Caribbean and is
among the most scenic of all the Mayan sites. Waves breaking
over the barrier reef that parallels the coastline can be seen in the
background.

Climbing the pyramid at Cobá was exciting, as the uneven steps
forced one to consider how one small misstep would lead to an
unpleasant and possibly lethal experience.

The main pyramid at Cobá is the highest Mayan structure on
the Yucatán Peninsula.



Several years ago, before a visit to México after an absence of
over ten years, a friend who traveled south of the border on a
regular basis told me that I would immediately notice three
major changes that had come to pass since my last trip: (1)
There are a lot more Mexicans (villages had become towns,
towns cities, and cities major metropolitan areas). (2) One can
buy safe ice nearly everywhere (in the old days, one often had to
search diligently for the local ice plant and then, not knowing
the source of the water used, had to be extremely careful for fear
of contracting what is widely known as “Monteczuma’s
revenge”). (3) The PEMEX (Mexican national petroleum com-
pany) stations had clean restrooms (during previous visits, even
females invariably preferred the “bushes” to the often-gruesome
facilities at the filling stations). All of his observations were right
on the money.

If such dramatic changes were evident after only ten years,
you might imagine what had happened in the 25 years since I
had last visited the Yucatán Peninsula with students in 1980. I
won’t try to list them all, but some of the innovations were
impossible to ignore — and some were a bit disturbing. Mexicans are definitely more abundant. Cancún has grown

from a little town into a booming metropolis with all of the
accompanying traffic and pollution. Playa del Carmen is a city
(with a Sam’s Club!) instead of a sleepy seaside village. Much of
the population growth is attributable to immigration into the
region from other parts of México. When the government
decided to foster development for the tourist trade some 40
years ago, it began the process by constructing an international
airport. When we visited in 1980, the airport had been in oper-
ation only a few years and the terminal was an open-air affair
through which one passed in seconds. Today, the airport rivals
those in large cities anywhere in the world with jet ways, huge
customs complex, and stores and restaurants galore (even a Hard
Rock Café). In 1980, our rental vehicles had to be brought in
from Mérida (capital of the state of Yucatán); today the rental
car options equal those at any major international destination.
Growth and expansion continue.

The more popular archaeological sites at Chichen Itzá and
Tulum now have paved parking lots with attendants, extensive
visitor centers, and the free-lance vendors of largely hand-made
crafts have been replaced by row after row of shops catering to
almost any whim (local vendors still exist, but their access to the
sites is carefully controlled). Getting there is faster, since the old
two-lane roads that had only recently been paved were now
four-lane, limited-access highways. Deserted stretches of beach
have been replaced by one huge resort after another, and, instead
of nesting sea turtles, the beaches are occupied by dense crowds
of tourists covered in oil. Note, however, that many of the attrac-
tions that promote near-shore snorkeling experiences require
(and sell) biodegradable sunscreen to prevent the formation of
huge oil slicks.

Sadly, the remaining Mayan culture that we experienced so
vividly in 1980 is much less visible today. This is partly attrib-
utable to the speed of travel (one couldn’t drive fast on the old
roads even if so inclined) and partly to the displacement of

118 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 12, NUMBER 2  •  JUNE 2005 POWELL

25 Years of Change

One significant advantage of development is access to fine dining
establishments.

This juvenile Coleonyx elegans, a eublepharid gecko, was crossing the
road at night. Travel speeds that prevail today would have made see-
ing this little lizard difficult and stopping in time to catch it nearly
impossible.



Mayan villages farther into the interior to make room for prof-
itable enterprises. Mayan faces were common then; today, one
encounters them only rarely, usually in the form of maids or
laborers with whom tourists have limited contact.

Wildlife still exists, but the diversity that was so evident 25
years ago is much harder to find (during our 1980 trip, we col-
lected 25 snakes of 17 different species). Those species that adapt
well to humans and their altered habitats abound; those that
don’t have retreated farther into the remaining forests, access to

which is now more difficult. We were able to enter the forests
along numerous small dirt roads that led to little villages or
hunting and logging camps. These no longer exist. The huge
flocks of shore birds that populated the myriad inlets and bays
have moved to the protected biosphere reserves farther south and
are rarely seen along the Mayan Riviera, replaced instead by
motorboats and jet skis (an abomination and a sure sign of a
declining civilization).

Was the Cancún of 1980 more charming that what exists
now? Sure. However, I have a hard time condemning the devel-
opment. Not only has it proven to be an economic boon in a
previously depressed area (well over 90% of all local revenue in
the state of Quintana Roo is tourist-related), a large portion of
the millions of tourists who have visited the region in the past
couple of decades have been enticed to visit the archaeological
sites — and a few may well have left with a much greater appre-
ciation of pre-Columbian culture than they could have acquired
by watching the travel channel. Knowing our past speaks well of
our future, and tourism, albeit motivated largely by white-sand
beaches and crystal-clear water, has been largely responsible for
the education of many.

Robert Powell

IGUANA  •  VOLUME 12, NUMBER 2  •  JUNE 2005 119TRAVELOGUE

Mayan villages along the roads have been displaced by commercial
development along the highways.

Archaeological zones provide protection for wildlife as well as ruins.
Here a Great Egret (Casmerodius albus) waits patiently for lunch at the
lake at Cobá.

Red-eared Sliders (Trachemys scripta) are not native to the Yucatán
Peninsula, but the crocs seem to find them every bit as tasty as the
native species.

Treefrogs, like this Phrynohyas venulosa, are abundant, but inconspic-
uous — until the males call during rainy periods.



120 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 12, NUMBER 2  •  JUNE 2005 POWELL

Just north of Puerto Morelos on what has become known as the
Mayan Riviera, is a small roadside zoo called CrocoCun. As the

name implies, crocs are the featured attraction — and both
American Crocodiles (Crocodylus acutus) and Morelet’s Crocodiles
(C. moreleti) are abundantly represented. In fact, the privately sup-
ported facility has become sufficiently adept at breeding the latter
that they have run out of sites to release them (many of the devel-
opers of luxurious resorts along the Caribbean coast apparently
resist efforts to reintroduce crocs to the lagoons and beaches where
they once were plentiful).

However, this little zoo offers much more than crocodiles.
Exhibits include many species native to the forests of the
Peninsula, including several snakes, a few lizards, and mammals
that include Whitetail Deer (Odocoileus virginianus; yes, the same
species overrunning suburbs throughout the United States),
Collared Peccaries or Javelinas (Tayassu tajacu), and Spider
Monkeys (Ateles geoffryi).

Because the rather steep admission price includes the serv-
ices of a guide, visitors can interact with animals, feeding mon-
keys or deer and holding snakes or even crocs.  Even more inter-
esting, however, than some of the exhibits are the wild animals
that have learned that the zoo is an ideal place to scrounge an easy

meal. Wild Spider Monkeys readily approach humans in hopes of
a handout and the fortunate visitor might stumble across an
iguana foraging for scraps or a snake taking advantage of the
rodents attracted to the stocks of animal food kept onsite.

M U C H  M O R E  T H A N  A N
A L L I G A T O R  F A R M

Crocs start out small, but don't stay that way. The author hold-
ing a hatchling Crocodylus moreleti (left). An adult C. moreleti at
the breeding facility at CrocoCun (above).

Wild Spider Monkeys (Ateles geoffryi) had learned that the zoo
was a good place to solicit a handout.



IGUANA  •  VOLUME 12, NUMBER 2  •  JUNE 2005 121TRAVELOGUE

Nearby and also worthwhile is the Dr. Alfredo Barrera
Marín Botanical Garden, with winding paths snaking through the
various vegetative communities found on the Peninsula. In addi-
tion to the flora, the facility also is a terrific place to see birds,
occasional reptiles, and sometimes even a fleeting glance of a wild
mammal disappearing into the brush.

Also worth exploring, at least for the aquatically inclined, are
the fabulous coral reefs that parallel the coast, forming North

America’s longest barrier reef. Unfortunately for tourists (but pre-
sumably fortunate for the area’s inhabitants), core areas of the
region’s terrestrial and coastal Biosphere Reserves are off-limits to
casual visitors. Biologists, archaeologists, and other scientists must
obtain permission from the Mexican government to conduct
research in these areas.

Numerous other “natural wonders” are promoted on bill-
boards along every stretch of highway, in every brochure that
offers daily tours, and by the staff of “activity desks” at the area’s
abundant hotels and resorts. Most are pricey and some may be
worth the investment of time and money, but don’t go expecting
to see anything remotely resembling nature. What were once pris-
tine and unique habitats supporting an unbelievably diverse
wildlife have become just another tourist attraction.

With their bright blue backs, wings, and tails, Yucatan Jays
(Cissilopha yucatanica) provided atmosphere in the form of rau-
cous calls and splashes of color.

The very slender Vine Snake (Oxybelis aeneus) feeds primarily on
lizards.These snakes were abundant 25 years ago and remain that
way today.

S O M E  A D V I C E

Use sunscreen. Even during the cooler winter months, the tropical sun is fierce and will fry you much faster than anything you’ve
experienced back home.

Take insect repellent. Although I overheard one tour guide tell visitors to Cobá not to worry about bugs, reminding them that it was
winter and “mosquitoes don’t like snow,” the truth is that biting insects are abundant — and seem to enjoy the taste of tourists.

Don’t be paranoid about food and drinks. The bad old days are in the past. The tourist-oriented economy on the Peninsula has
adapted well to the reality that folks won’t come back if they spend most of their vacation worshiping at the porcelain alter. Do, however,
use common sense. Avoid food purchased from street vendors and eat fresh fruits only if served in a reputable restaurant or that you’ve
peeled yourself. Tequila is not a disinfectant that will save you from your sins if you eat something you should have avoided.

As much as possible, plan activities for early and late in the day. Midday temperatures can be brutal and no one has fun in a blast
furnace. Also, most animals are likely to be active in the morning and evening. So, eat a light lunch and take a siesta (a very civilized cus-
tom) or spend time in the pool or at the beach (but not in the sun!).

If you decide to drive, figure on paying a premium for local insurance (U.S. insurance does not apply in México). When you drive,
be patient. Even if the locals drive like they’re in a NASCAR race (go fast, turn left, …), don’t emulate them. Traffic violations involving
injuries or property damage are criminal offenses and even minor transgressions can be expensive, since you may end up paying the arrest-
ing authority a substantial amount to allow you to proceed on your way (incidentally, don’t automatically assume that a policeman is look-
ing for a bribe, that could get you into even more trouble, but follow Boy Scout guidelines and be prepared).

Above all, enjoy yourself. México is a terrific place full of mostly friendly people and with lots to offer in the way of cultural and nat-
ural history.



122 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 12, NUMBER 2  •  JUNE 2005 POWELL

References
General Guides
Numerous guidebooks address the logistics of travel to what has become one of
the Western Hemisphere’s major tourist destinations. All provide some basic
background on the archaeological sites buried among recommendations for lodg-
ing, dining, and experiencing the apparently abundant nightlife. All are totally
devoid of any meaningful discussions of the region’s natural resources (except
those that have themselves been converted to tourist destinations). Two guides
that we found particularly useful, primarily because they went farther beyond the
mundane than most of the alternatives, were: Yucatán (Lonely Planet) by Ben
Greensfelder and Hidden Cancún & the Yucatán by Richard Harris.

Reptiles and Amphibians
The Amphibians and Reptiles of the Yucatan Peninsula by Julian C. Lee.

Phenomenally comprehensive, a reference rather than a guide. Highly rec-
ommended, but expensive and not for carrying into the field.

A Field Guide to the Amphibians and Reptiles of the Maya World: The Lowlands
of Mexico, Northern Guatemala, and Belize by Julian C. Lee. A field guide
based on the more authoritative coffee table book by the same author.
Highly recommended.

Amphibians and Reptiles of Northern Guatemala, the Yucatán, and Belize by
Jonathan A. Campbell. A nice guide enlivened by tales of the author’s per-

sonal experiences in the region. Recommended.

Reptiles of Central America by Gunther Köhler. Nicely illustrated, but broader
coverage than the other books listed results in less detail than in the other
recommended guides. Recommended, but expensive.

Birds
A Guide to the Birds of Mexico and Northern Central America by Steven N. G.

Howell and Sophie Webb. The most comprehensive guide to the region,
but large and heavy. Highly recommended.

Birder’s Mexico (Louise Lindsey Merrick Natural Environment Series, 12) by
Roland H. Wauer. Not so much a traditional guide as an introduction to
birding in México; definitely nice to have and great for preparation prior
to a trip. Recommended.

A Field Guide to Mexican Birds: Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador (Peterson
Field Guides) by Roger Tory Peterson (Series Editor) and Edward L.
Chalif. Not up to the standards of the Peterson Field Guides for the U.S.
and useful only with both U.S. guides in hand. Definitely a third choice
among those listed.

Field Guide to the Birds of Mexico and Adjacent Areas: Belize, Guatemala, and El
Salvador by Ernest Preston Edwards and Edward Murrell Butler (illus-
trator). Nice pictures, but disorganized and difficult to use. Not recom-
mended.

The long slender bodies of Blunt-headed Tree Snakes (Imantodes 
cenchoa) allow them to span considerable distance as they move from
branch to branch.

S P E C I E S  P R O F I L E

Blunt-headed Tree Snake
Imantodes cenchoa

Snakes in the genus Imantodes are among several Central American
species to effectively exploit arboreal prey. Like many other species

that spend most of their lives in vegetation, these snakes are very slen-
der and elongate and have very long tails. Compressing their sides and
forming their bodies into a semblance of an I-beam, they can span
remarkable distances as they move from branch to branch. Although
they can and do occasionally venture onto the ground, most individ-
uals probably never leave the trees and bushes on which they’re usually
encountered. Active at dusk and well into the night, these snakes take
refuge during the day, occasionally hiding in bromeliads or other epi-
phytic vegetation.

As do many Neotropical snakes in the Family Colubridae (which
includes most common snakes throughout the world), Blunt-headed
Tree Snakes have enlarged, grooved teeth near the back of each upper
jaw with which they can inject venom. However, the location of the
fangs renders the delivery of venom difficult unless the prey item has
been taken well into the mouth. Also, the venom appears to be most
effective on their usual prey of lizards and frogs. They are not danger-
ous to humans and very rarely bite, even when handled.

Unlike Vine Snakes in the genus Oxybelis, which fill a compara-
ble arboreal, lizard- and frog-eating niche during the daytime,
Imantodes cenchoa has a vertically elliptical pupil that allows for con-
siderable enlargement in order to trap sparse light at night. Like most
snakes, however, Blunt-headed Tree Snakes rely primarily on chemical
cues to find lizards sleeping on branches and leaves, nocturnally active
frogs, clutches of frog eggs suspended over water, or lizard and snake
eggs hidden under bark or in nooks and crannies above the ground.
Their blunt heads allow them to consume larger prey than their slen-
der bodies would seem to be able to accommodate.




