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152 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3  •  SEPTEMBER 2005 DODD

Sunset on the west coast of Egmont Key: The box turtle was not placed in the photo, but was found naturally on the beach. 



The Eastern Box Turtle, Terrapene carolina, one of four forms
that may be found in Florida, is familiar to both residents

and visitors. Box turtles are known to occur in virtually all coun-
ties plus offshore islands in the Gulf of Mexico, where they pre-
sumably dispersed over water by floating during floods.
Although often considered to be “common,” box turtles are not

evenly distributed within the state and statements of abundance
are misleading in the absence of empirical demographic data,
and probably result from a variety of misperceptions. At the
same time, knowledge is lacking concerning the status of T. car-
olina, which may impede conservation efforts, even on so-called
“protected” lands.

Dilemma of the Common Species: 
Florida Box Turtles

C. Kenneth Dodd, Jr., Ph.D.

USGS/Florida Integrated Science Centers
7920 NW 71st Street

Gainesville, FL 32653, USA
ken_dodd@usgs.gov

Photographs by the author except where indicated.

IGUANA  •  VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3  •  SEPTEMBER 2005 153FLORIDA BOX TURTLES

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Adult Florida Box Turtle (Terrapene carolina bauri) on Egmont Key, Florida.



The large influx of people into Florida, especially in the lat-
ter half of the 20th century, has resulted in the shrinkage and iso-
lation of box turtle habitats to the point where turtle survival
may depend on the presence of public lands. This is especially
true in the southern and central parts of the state, areas that his-
torically were known to contain large populations. State, federal,
and privately held conservation-based lands may still contain siz-
able populations.

Box turtles are ecological generalists, a niche that has made
them successful for millions of years. In Florida, they are usually
terrestrial, although they like to soak in water, especially after dry
periods. They are omnivorous, eating a wide variety of both ani-
mal and vegetable matter, and Florida populations are active
throughout the year to varying degrees, depending on tempera-
ture. Home ranges are generally small and individuals frequent
the same areas from one season to the next. Box turtles are very
aware of their environments, such as the location of food
sources, hiding places, nesting sites, and retreats from cold and
drought. However, a few turtles are wanderers and never seem
to remain in one place. Although not generally considered social
animals, they are tolerant of conspecifics and may recognize
neighbors. Populations may be dense (14–16 or more turtles per
hectare) and large, given favorable habitat and environmental
conditions.

The Legal Basis for Conserving 
Box Turtles in Florida

No statutory regulations in Florida are specifically designed for
the protection of box turtles in native habitats. However, com-
mercial collecting is banned, and state law limits possession to
two individuals per person without a permit. Box turtles gain
some protection on certain federal and state lands, such as
national and state parks, since removing any fauna from such
lands is illegal without special permits.

Internationally, all Terrapene are protected by the
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of
Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Florida Box Turtles (T. carolina
bauri) are listed in Appendix II. Trade in Appendix II species
must be monitored, lest these species become threatened as a
result of commercial exploitation.

Constraints on Conservation
The biological constraints on conservation are those character-
istics of a species that relate to its behavior, physiology, popula-
tion structure, reproduction, and longevity, among others, that
are not amenable to change as a result of human management.
The life-history characteristics of a population of box turtles
reflect a fine balance resulting from natural selection over a long
period of time. Thus, the constraints imposed by the species’

154 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3  •  SEPTEMBER 2005 DODD

Plastron of a Florida Box Turtle; plastra vary from yellow to dark
brown, and many have colorful patterns.

Juvenile Florida Box Turtle: Juveniles comprise >20% of Egmont
Key’s box turtle population.

Florida Box Turtle buried under cover: Turtles seek refuge in deep leaf
litter during drought, cold, and heat.

Hatchling Florida Box Turtle: Hatchlings are found occasionally in
the leaf litter under a dense overhead canopy.



physiological, demographic, or other life-history requirements
set the biological limits within which researchers and natural
resource managers must fashion conservation programs.

As a result of many natural history studies (see Dodd
2001), box turtles are categorized as long-lived, somewhat slow-
maturing, iteroparous (i.e., with overlapping generations) rep-
tiles with a high rate of adult survivorship, high mortality among
eggs, hatchlings, and juveniles, and a relatively low reproductive
output. This suite of life history characteristics, together with
their needs for space and a proper biophysical environment,

form the boundaries within which options for long-term sur-
vival must be framed. These same traits make them vulnerable
to habitat change and exploitation because animals with such
life history traits take a long time to rebound from perturba-
tions, whether natural or as the direct result of human activity
(Seigel and Dodd 2000, Dodd 2001).

Human constraints on conservation include the need for a
legal or administrative mandate to protect or conserve a species;
the funds, equipment, and personnel (both in the short and long
term) to carry out management programs; the time and logis-
tics necessary to conduct preliminary research or other manage-
ment activity; and a determination whether public support or
opposition is present. The diverse types of public lands also have
many diverse types of management mandates. The adoption of
an “ecosystem approach” to land management by many natural
resource agencies (e.g., the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
USFWS) may even result in ignoring so-called “single species”
problems, except where legal mandate or traditional agency
focus dictates otherwise. Therefore, the designation of  “public”
does not mean that the land and its ecosystems are protected or
managed for biological diversity or for the long-term benefit of
its natural resources.

Case Study: The Box Turtles of Egmont Key
Egmont Key (27º 36’ N, 82º 45’ W) is a small (ca. 180 hectares)
continental island precariously situated at the junction between
Tampa Bay and the Gulf of Mexico. The island has a long his-
tory of human occupancy, and little was known of its flora and

IGUANA  •  VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3  •  SEPTEMBER 2005 155FLORIDA BOX TURTLES

Dense habitat formed by Brazilian Pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius):
The exotic Pepper provides cover, leaf litter, shade, and helps retain
high humidity.

An aerial view of the island looking to the southwest from the lighthouse toward Fort Dade: At one time, the island was nearly twice the size of
its present configuration.



fauna prior to extensive modifications made in connection with
lighthouse construction and military use beginning in the mid-
dle 1800s. Herpetological collections made in 1869–70 and
1904 did not mention box turtles and, indeed, not until the
early 1990s did biologists become aware of the large population
of Florida Box Turtles (Terrapene carolina bauri) on the island
(Franz et al. 1992). The origin of the population and the length
of time that box turtles have been on the island are unknown,
although box turtles are frequent residents on the barrier islands
of the southeastern Atlantic Coast and Gulf of Mexico.

Because of their large population size, their relative freedom
from overabundant human-associated predators (especially rac-
coons and other mammals), and their physical isolation from
current anthropogenic activities that threaten turtle populations
everywhere (e.g., massive habitat destruction and alteration, dis-
turbance, and collection; see Klemens 2000), the box turtles on
Egmont Key do not represent just another population, but a
unique natural resource that cannot be replicated elsewhere. The
large numbers of conspicuous individuals form a dense popula-
tion that may provide a glimpse of what box turtle populations
were like prior to human colonization. Although human activ-
ities have severely changed the environment of Egmont Key
through past land clearing and the introduction of non-indige-
nous plants, habitat conditions favorable to turtles (box turtles,
Gopher Tortoises, Gopherus polyphemus, and nesting Loggerhead
Sea Turtles, Caretta caretta) have created a unique phenomenon
in North America, “l’Île des Tortues” (the island of turtles;
Devaux 1993).

Since 1991, scientists from the U.S. Geological Survey,
Florida Integrated Science Center (USGS/FISC), have marked
more than 2400 box turtles and recorded more than 5200 indi-
vidual recaptures in a long-term USGS study of the life history
of this declining species. Project goals include: (1) Gathering
biological data that will provide immediate assistance in habitat
management; (2) monitoring box turtle population dynamics
during restoration efforts; (3) documenting effects of increased
human activity on box turtle population dynamics; (4) deter-
mining spatial and temporal aspects of habitat use by box tur-

156 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3  •  SEPTEMBER 2005 DODD

Adult Gopher Tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus): Gopher Tortoises are
common on Egmont Key, with estimates of >1500 tortoises on the
island.

Fighting Gopher Tortoises: Behavior not normally witnessed is routinely observed on Egmont Key. These were both females!



IGUANA  •  VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3  •  SEPTEMBER 2005 157FLORIDA BOX TURTLES

tles, their activity patterns, population structure and size, and
reproductive activities; and (5) determining characteristics of
life-history, such as survivorship, growth, disease, and the biol-
ogy of all age classes.

One might expect that the occurrence of large populations
of turtles seemingly unaffected and undaunted by humans on a
National Wildlife Refuge/State Park would ensure their protec-
tion — but this may not be the case for box turtles. No plan
guides resource management and the development of the island,

The author measuring a box turtle.

M
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IF

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Y

The author’s wife, Marian Griffey, removing box turtles from an aban-
doned Gopher Tortoise burrow. Florida Box Turtles sometimes use
these burrows to escape drought, heat, cold, and sudden decreases in
humidity — but never if a tortoise is present.

Mellon Battery at Fort Dade: Gopher Tortoises prefer the open areas afforded by the restoration of the buildings of the Spanish American-era fort.



although many ongoing activities have profound effects on box
turtles and other non-protected species. The northern third of
the island has had extensive amounts of vegetation removed in
order to expose historic sections of Fort Dade for visitors and to
stabilize remaining structures; a visitor center is being established
using Fort Dade’s renovated guard house; tour boats discharge
an increasing number of day visitors, and thousands of people
may visit, especially on holiday weekends.

Visitors to the island can assist endeavors to protect and
conserve all of Egmont Key’s natural resources by: (1) Avoiding
restricted areas, (2) Maintaining a NO LITTER policy, (3)
Leaving plants and wildlife alone, (4) Taking from the island
nothing but photographs and memories, and (5) Leaving
behind nothing but temporary footprints in the island’s glitter-
ing sands.

Perceptions and the Future
In effect, Florida Box Turtles have been labeled as common in
public parlance, without the benefit of supporting data. So
labeled, they face the “dilemma of the common species,” that is,
if a species is perceived as common, no incentive, legislatively or
financially, exists to promote studies and monitoring. This is
especially true when critical resources are limited by public pri-
orities that do not regard the environment or natural resources
as matters of high importance.

Threats certainly affect box turtles in Florida, as is appar-
ent from the rapid landscape changes that have occurred within
the last 60 years. With hundreds of thousands of people mov-
ing to Florida annually, native terrestrial habitats and marshy
wetlands are being converted to housing and other forms of
urban development. Between 1936 and 1995, forests in Florida
declined by 22% and herbaceous wetlands by 51%, whereas
agricultural lands increased by 60% and urban lands by 632%
(Kautz 1998). Certain Florida habitats known at one time to
contain sizeable box turtle populations have nearly disappeared
and all trends point to a continued loss of habitat diversity
within the state (Kautz et al. 1993). Increasing numbers of peo-
ple in Florida will bring more transportation corridors (leading
to mortality), isolate populations, increase contacts with people
(who will collect them) and domestic pets (that will kill them),
and increase susceptibility to disease through contact with
infected captives or other species of chelonians. Commercial col-
lecting is the only threat to box turtles that has been addressed
thus far by resource agencies in Florida.

In order to maintain an ecosystem, the functional biodi-
versity of that ecosystem, including the role of common species,

158 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3  •  SEPTEMBER 2005 DODD

This sign alerts visitors to the presence of box turtles on the island.
Visitors flock to Egmont’s beaches and to historical remnants of Fort
Dade (1898–1924).

Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus) on Egmont
Key: Although now extirpated, this was one of the last observed spec-
imens on the island. Soldiers serving at Fort Dade in the early part of
the 20th Century complained about rattlesnakes, mosquitos, and
boredom.

Black Racers (Coluber constrictor) are common on the island; they
more closely resemble specimens in the distant Florida Keys both
morphologically and in coloration than those on the nearby main-
land.



IGUANA  •  VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3  •  SEPTEMBER 2005 159FLORIDA BOX TURTLES

must be understood before the common species decline to the
point that their existence is jeopardized. Ironically, the somewhat
vague concept of ecosystem management (see Goldstein 1999),
an idea with many interpretations and practical applications
(Yaffee 1999), should be used as a basis for not taking the abun-
dance and biomass of common species into special considera-
tion during natural resource planning, and thereby perhaps even
to jeopardize the “commonness” of these species. Certain places
should be maintained where presently common species can be
appreciated and protected in their sheer numbers and diversity,
and where abundance can be left alone or managed as a national
asset, rather than be seen as a reason to do nothing (or very lit-
tle) or as an excuse for exploitation. Only on public lands is this
likely to be feasible in Florida’s future, especially for box turtles
and other reptiles and amphibians. Scientists, resource managers,

and concerned citizens must work together to ensure that sci-
entific principles and careful deliberation guide natural resource
decisions on public lands, perhaps through the development of
a formal, independent, scientific review of management options
(Meffee et al. 1998). Box turtles (particularly unique popula-
tions such as that on Egmont Key) and other perceptively com-
mon species should not be forgotten or subsumed in the deci-
sion-making process, especially when valid concerns suggest that
they too might join the ever-increasing ranks of imperiled
species in Florida.

References
Devaux, B. 1993. L’île des tortues. La Tortue 23:4–9.

Dodd, C. K. 2001. North American Box Turtles. A Natural History. University
of Oklahoma Press, Norman.

Franz, R., C. K. Dodd, Jr., and A. M. Bard. 1992. The non-marine herpeto-
fauna of Egmont Key, Hillsborough County, Florida. Florida Scientist
55:179–183.

Goldstein, P. Z. 1999. Functional ecosystems and biodiversity buzzwords.
Conservation Biology 13:247–255.

Kautz, R. S. 1998. Land use and land cover trends in Florida, 1936–1995.
Florida Scientist 61:171–187.

Kautz, R. S., D. T. Gilbert, and G .M. Mauldin. 1993. Vegetative cover in
Florida based on 1985–1987 Landsat Thematic Mapper imagery. Florida
Scientist 56:135–154.

Klemens, M. W. (ed.). 2000. Turtle Conservation. Smithsonian Institution
Press, Washington, D.C.

Meffee, G. K., P. D. Boersma, D. D. Murphy, B. R. Noon, H. R. Pulliam,
M. E. Soulé, and D. W. Waller. 1998. Independent scientific review in
natural resource management. Conservation Biology 12:268–270.

Seigel, R. and C. K. Dodd, Jr. 2000. Manipulation of turtle populations for
conservation: Halfway technologies or viable options?, pp. 218–238. In:
M. Klemens (ed.), Turtle Conservation. Smithsonian Institution Press,
Washington, D.C.

Yaffee, S. L. 1999. Three faces of ecosystem management. Conservation Biology
13:713–725.

Open forest of Sabal Palms (Sabal palmetto): This is ideal habitat for
box turtles on Egmont Key.

This is the only specimen of Mole Skink (Eumeces egregius) observed on the island; its coloration resembles none of the other described subspecies
of E. egregius.




