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8 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 13, NUMBER 1  •  MARCH 2006 ALBERTS

Adult Cuban Iguana, Cyclura nubila, and an example of the very dry habitats at Guantánamo Bay.

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When looking for a suitable place to study some of the
world’s rarest reptiles, a relatively isolated military base

might at first seem like a surprising choice. However, the United
States Naval Base at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, like many military
installations worldwide, supports large areas of undisturbed nat-
ural habitat and is home to an impressive abundance of wildlife.
Guantánamo Bay lies in Oriente Province in the southeastern
corner of Cuba. It is the oldest overseas United States military
base, originally acquired as a coaling station in 1903, but reaf-
firmed by treaty in 1934 after the American fleet aided Cuba
during the Spanish-American war. Because only 11% of the 20-
square-mile base is actively used by the military, large areas of
near-pristine cactus and thorn scrub, buttonwood and
Phyllostylon forest, and mangrove tidal thickets remain.

Guantánamo lies in the rain shadow of the looming Sierra
Maestra. Consequently, this starkly beautiful region is very dry,
receiving only 40–75 cm of rain each year. With air tempera-
tures averaging 28–30 °C throughout the year, it’s no wonder
that as many as 30 terrestrial species of amphibians and reptiles,
21 of which live nowhere outside of Cuba, make Guantánamo
their home. Among these, the Cuban Iguana (Cyclura nubila) is
one of the largest, undoubtedly the most visible, and certainly
the most charismatic. No one completes a tour of duty at
“Gitmo” without getting to know these inquisitive, prehistoric-
looking giants.

Giant Iguanas
Remarkably, these robust lizards have somehow managed to sur-
vive millennia of hurricanes and hunting by native peoples.
Unfortunately, outside the fenceline, iguana populations are now
declining because their habitat is being eliminated by develop-

Conserving the Remarkable Reptiles of
Guantánamo Bay1

Allison C. Alberts

Photographs by the author except where indicated.

IGUANA  •  VOLUME 13, NUMBER 1  •  MARCH 2006 9REPTILES OF GUANTÁNAMO BAY

�

Endemic Cuban Todies (Todus multicolor) take advantage of large areas
of near-pristine habitats at the United States Naval Base, Guantánamo
Bay, Cuba.

1 Reprinted with permission from: A. C. Alberts. 2003. Conserving
the remarkable reptiles of Guantánamo Bay, pp. 67–73. In R. W.
Henderson and R. Powell (eds.), Islands and the Sea: Essays on
Herpetological Exploration in the West Indies. Contributions to
Herpetology, Volume 20. Society for the Study of Amphibians and
Reptiles, Ithaca, New York.

Typical undisturbed coastal habitat at the United States Naval Base,
Guantánamo Bay, Cuba.

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ment or degraded by invasive species. A host of exotics, includ-
ing mongooses, dogs, feral cats, and black rats, prey heavily on
juvenile iguanas, and, in many areas, domestic ungulates are
consuming the native vegetation on which iguanas critically
depend. Since the early 1990s, my colleagues and I at the San
Diego Zoo have had the privilege of visiting Guantánamo Bay
many times, working to design conservation strategies for
Cuban Iguanas and other threatened reptiles.

Getting to Guantánamo is no easy undertaking, but thanks
to the United States Navy, we’re able to fly in style aboard the
base commander’s C-12 aircraft, with a pleasant layover in
Jamaica that allows us to spend time with friends and colleagues
at the tiny yet fascinating Hope Zoo in Kingston. Since the
rediscovery of the Jamaican Iguana (thought to be extinct since
1940) in a rugged limestone-floored forest outside Kingston,
aptly named the Hellshire Hills, the Hope Zoo has been work-
ing to establish a headstarting program for young iguanas. A
dedicated facility was built on zoo grounds, which currently
houses 100 baby iguanas — all being raised in a safe environ-
ment until they are old enough to survive on their own in the
wild. To date, 26 iguanas sporting radiotransmitters have been
returned to Hellshire, all have established stable home ranges,
and at least some released females appear to be nesting success-
fully. Education is a major part of the mission of the Hope Zoo,
and they have recently completed a new learning center on zoo
grounds that attracts thousands of school children each year. The
brightly painted sign at the zoo’s iguana exhibit sends a simple
message that says it all: “Nuff Respect Due.”

After a short plane flight out of Kingston, Cuba’s rugged
coastline comes into view, and one can begin to appreciate the
strategic and economic importance of the many deep and shel-

tered harbors afforded by Guantánamo Bay. With the hazy
mountains and bustling Guantánamo City in the distance, we
board a military ferry to cross the bay, a journey that begins in
calm waters favored by West Indian manatees, but becomes
increasingly choppy as the crossing progresses. After about 45
minutes, we arrive on the windward side of the naval base, piled
high with gear, and ready to begin our research.

Lizards and Howitzers
We initially began our field studies of Cuban Iguanas in 1993
along a windswept section of rocky coast called Firing Point,
with the hope of gaining an understanding of the basic biology
of these lizards, as well as developing practical strategies for their
recovery. We quickly came to appreciate the origin of the site’s
name when we first experienced the thunderous testing of
nearby howitzers, an event to which the local iguanas appear
amazingly and blithely oblivious. Although frustrating trial and
error characterized our early attempts to capture these often
feisty five-foot-long lizards, the process was ultimately made eas-
ier by our fortuitous discovery that red grapes, like red flowers,
were a favored food item and could easily be used to lure unsus-
pecting iguanas into hand nets. Over the course of a year, we
captured each adult iguana at Firing Point once a month, and
recorded its body length, weight, head size, and the diameter of
the femoral scent glands lining the thighs, all of which seem to
be important for successful defense of territories. After placing
the animals in canvas bags to quiet them, we also collected a
blood sample from the tail for hormone analysis.

For the iguanas, the daily routine varies little, consisting of
a vigorous burst of social activity after morning emergence, fol-
lowed by relatively peaceful migration to nearby areas of vegeta-

10 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 13, NUMBER 1  •  MARCH 2006 ALBERTS

Adult Cuban Iguana, Cyclura nubila, at Guantánamo Bay. 

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tion for midday feeding, and ending with a second bout of social
interaction late in the afternoon prior to entering nighttime
refuges. Most adult males regularly engage in aggressive interac-
tions with other males. These usually consist of a lumbering
chase, but occasionally prolonged pushing, hissing, and biting
matches ensue. Almost without exception, the most dominant
males have the highest testosterone levels, are larger in body and
head size, and possess more active scent glands than lower-rank-
ing males. These despots defend small but superior territories
that each overlap the ranges of several females. Lower-ranking
males do not defend territories, instead moving between the ter-
ritories of dominant males, from which they are continually
evicted. Headbobbing, chases, and mouth-gaping, the typical

weaponry of iguana territoriality, are used almost exclusively by
dominant males. These males also spend more time close to
females during the breeding season, courting them with gentle
nudges and headnods. Although dominant males appear to have
better access to mates than subordinate males, they comprised
no more than a third of all adult males at Firing Point.

The following year, we conducted an experiment to deter-
mine if temporary relocation of dominant males would increase
the chances that sexually mature but genetically underrepre-
sented subordinate male iguanas would have the opportunity to
mate. This strategy represented a unique approach to lizard con-
servation, and has the potential to serve as an important man-
agement tool for critically small populations. For the duration
of the breeding season, we moved the five most dominant males
from Firing Point to a large outdoor holding enclosure at the
base Army Veterinary Clinic. Within a few days, the five largest
previously subordinate males began defending territories that
were nearly spatially identical to those vacated by the relocated
individuals. In the absence of the dominant males, subordinate
males courted females vigorously and their testosterone levels
rose dramatically. At the close of the breeding season, the previ-
ously dominant males regained their previous territories within
two days, although the battles required were among the longest
and most intense that we had ever observed. Temporary removal
of dominant males may represent a valuable management tool
for small or otherwise genetically compromised populations by
potentially increasing the number of males contributing to the
gene pool.

IGUANA  •  VOLUME 13, NUMBER 1  •  MARCH 2006 11REPTILES OF GUANTÁNAMO BAY

Study site at Firing Point, Guantánamo Bay, prior to 1995. About 60
adult iguanas inhabited the area shown here.

The most unfortunate iguana/human encounters, which iguanas invariably lose, involve motor vehicles.

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The World Intrudes
When you work at the same site year after year, you begin to
take for granted that it will never change. Such had been the case
for Firing Point and its enviably observable iguanas until the
fateful Spring of 1995, when over 50,000 Cuban and Haitian
migrants arrived unexpectedly at Guantánamo Bay, aboard lit-
erally anything that could float. In response to the crisis, exten-
sive areas of forested habitat were graded along the coastline in
order to construct temporary tented housing. Although military
officials did an admirable job of keeping people and wildlife at
a safe distance, Operation Sea Signal nevertheless resulted in a
noticeable reduction in the local iguana population. At the
height of the refugee crisis, the dry tropical forest surrounding
Firing Point was reduced to less than 5% of its former extent,
and we could only find a single forlorn adult male iguana inhab-
iting the area.

Our deep dismay at seeing the destruction of Firing Point’s
ancient cactus forest was slightly tempered by the realization that
we now had the unique opportunity to study if and how rapidly
iguanas would recolonize the area. Our aim was to document
the extent to which this dry tropical forest ecosystem was suffi-
ciently resilient to recover from severe disturbance, and to study
the ecological role that iguanas might play in this process. By
mid-1999, we were heartened to find that over 25 adult iguanas
had resettled the area, and all appeared to be growing well and
in good health. For both males and females, the relationship
between body mass and body length had improved to the point
where it was comparable to that of healthy undisturbed iguanas,
indicating that despite the loss of significant habitat, iguanas
were able to forage effectively following disturbance. At the same

time, vegetation at the site showed definite signs of regeneration
and a number of new seedlings emerged.

Given that iguanas relish the fruits and flowers of many
plants, we believed that they might play an important role in the
recovery of native vegetation. Past research by us and others has
shown that seeds that have passed through the digestive tracts of
iguanas tend to sprout sooner and produce seedlings that grow
faster than seeds that have not. In addition, repetitive cropping
by iguanas, evidenced by an abundance of oddly-shaped flat-
topped bushes along Guantánamo’s limestone coastline, is likely
to stimulate the development of new foliage. By aiding germi-
nation, providing nutrients to developing seedlings, promoting
plant growth, and dispersing seeds into new areas, iguanas play
a key role in keeping forest ecosystems healthy. As so often hap-
pens with scientific endeavors, one study leads to a host of new
avenues for research. Seeing the recovery process first hand at
Firing Point, a site that was so intimately familiar to us, led to a
new line of inquiry into the relationship between local iguana
populations throughout the base and the vegetation on which
they depend. As unglamorous as it may seem, surveying differ-
ent habitats to determine the density of local iguana populations
is an important first step in assessing their ecological relationship
with local plant communities.

After identifying eight key habitat types on the base, we
returned to Guantánamo in 2000 to carry out a series of morn-
ing and afternoon walking surveys using a technique called dis-
tance sampling. This involved a team of three slogging through
varying densities of thorn scrub (one must stay on an absolute
straight-line course to meet the strict assumptions of this survey
methodology — meaning that, as much as we wanted to, we

12 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 13, NUMBER 1  •  MARCH 2006 ALBERTS

Giant Anoles (Anolis smallwoodi) are relatively common at the Guantánamo Bay Naval Base.

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IGUANA  •  VOLUME 13, NUMBER 1  •  MARCH 2006 13REPTILES OF GUANTÁNAMO BAY

could never cheat and go around those nasty-looking cactus
patches), for a half-mile or so per transect. Whenever an iguana
was sighted, we paused our sweaty march to cheer, note the size
and sex of the animal, and measure its perpendicular distance
from the transect line. We used a Global Positioning System
(GPS), which communicates with a series of navigational satel-
lites orbiting the earth, to record the latitude and longitude of
the start and finish of each transect line. The morning breeze,
which blessedly and predictably picked up around 1100 each
day, was a welcome break from the stifling heat. Additional
delights included the occasional delicate pink orchid suspended
in midair amid impenetrable thorn scrub, or the bright green,
yellow, and azure hues of a sleeping giant anole, or “chipojo,” in
a Capparis tree.

Despite hazardously steep terrain, we successfully com-
pleted 24 transect lines, and determined that iguanas are approx-
imately four times as abundant along the coastline as inland.
Most likely, this is due to the many holes and crevices in the
crumbling limestone that characterize the shoreline. These pro-
vide a host of hiding places and refuges from the heat, particu-
larly for young iguanas. Not surprisingly, iguanas are three to ten
times as abundant in natural areas as in those that have been
impacted by people. Perhaps because suitable refuges are fewer
and farther between, habitat disturbance in the form of con-
struction and replacement of native vegetation by introduced

grasses appears to have twice the negative impact on inland
iguana populations as on those along the coast. During one of
our transects, we did come across an unusual and unexpected
sight — an adult male iguana with the telltale remains of a
diminutive yellow juvenile Cuban Grassquit (a small passerine
bird) in his mouth, testament to the fact that iguanas are not
always vegetarian in their food choices.

Snakes, Turtles, and Banana Rats
With financial support from the United States Department of
Defense, we have recently been able to expand our work to
include population surveys not only for iguanas, but also for
two other ecologically important reptiles on the base, boas and
sea turtles. Taking on this additional task meant no rest for the
weary — to make the most of our limited time on the base,
each full day of iguana surveys was followed by an evening of
searching for Cuban Boas and monitoring sea turtle nesting
beaches.

The most efficient way to search for Cuban Boas (Epicrates
angulifer) — a truly impressive snake, with rainbow iridescence
on its scales and a body length of up to nearly four meters — is

United States Marine with Cuban Boa, Epicrates angulifer, at Cuzco
Beach nature area, Guantánamo Bay.

Populations of large rodents called Cuban Hutias (Capromys pilorides)
or “Banana Rats” appear to be burgeoning on the base, and their
exploding population is causing significant problems by destroying veg-
etation and damaging equipment. Cuban Boas (Epicrates angulifer)
probably play a key role in naturally regulating hutia populations.

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to slowly drive roads just after sundown. Nevertheless, one of our
most intriguing boa encounters occurred when we were on foot.
Researcher Glenn Gerber’s practiced eye spotted a Lignumvitae
“Tree of Life” which had been hollowed out by lightening — the
perfect hiding place for a young male boa. We marked the snake
with a microchip just under the skin for permanent identifica-
tion, and collected a small blood sample for genetic analysis. On
future trips, our goal is to use surgically implanted radiotrans-
mitters to track the movements of these elusive and little-known
snakes in order to better understand their home range dynamics
and habitat requirements. We are especially interested in docu-
menting the effects of an ongoing relocation program, in which
boas are removed from urban areas by base personnel and
released into more natural surroundings.

In recent years, populations of large rodents appear to be
burgeoning on the base. These animals are known to science as
hutias, but to most base residents as “banana rats,” owing to the
distinctive curvature of their scat. Although one can’t help but
smile at the ubiquitous hutias, which traipse around the base in
ungainly family groups that communicate constantly with chirps
and whistles, their exploding population is causing significant
problems by destroying vegetation, chewing through radiator
hoses, and perpetrating other undesirable antics. Cuban Boas
probably play a key role in naturally regulating hutia popula-
tions, so we are keen to further investigate the ecological rela-
tionship between these two species.

After about 2100 hours, when nightly boa catching
became significantly less likely, we headed out to investigate a
series of beaches on the base that are potentially used by sea tur-
tles for nesting. Because they are relatively undisturbed and pro-
tected from hunting, Guantánamo’s scenic beaches are of
regional importance for sea turtle conservation. Fortunately, it’s
fairly easy to distinguish which species of turtles are using these
beaches simply by examining their tracks. The nesting crawl of
all sea turtles generally resembles the path of a miniature bull-
dozer, with Hawksbill tracks showing an alternating flipper pat-
tern and Green Turtles a more symmetrical, opposite pattern.
Because Leatherbacks are one of the largest living reptiles, sur-
passed in size only by some crocodilians, their tracks are impos-
sible to miss.

To date, we have mapped ten beaches on the base using
GPS and surveyed them for evidence of sea turtle nesting activ-
ity. Eight of the ten beaches are used by Hawksbill Turtles, one
by Green Turtles, and one by Leatherback Turtles, information
that will help guide the Navy in successfully managing these
beaches for both people and turtles. Two of the beaches have evi-
dence of more than 100 nesting pits each, and appear to be espe-
cially important for Hawksbills. Given that Hawksbill popula-
tions are under intense hunting pressure throughout much of
the Caribbean, it is crucial that these beaches be carefully man-
aged to minimize human impacts. Together with natural
resources personnel on the base, we are committed to evaluat-
ing alternative management strategies and raising public aware-
ness about sea turtles and their nesting habits.

Without a doubt, the highlight of our sea turtle work at
Guantánamo Bay was a particularly warm and humid night at
Pebble Beach in June. This is a small, rocky beach, but one
favored by turtles nonetheless. We hadn’t dared hope that we
would actually encounter a living turtle, but to our delight, as
we approached the beach we heard the rasping sound of a female
Hawksbill’s plastron scraping over the rocks as she lurched onto
land. With a special flashlight that emitted only a dim red beam,
we were able to scrunch forward on our bellies close enough to
observe the nesting process. She selected a site under an aged Sea
Grape Tree that, judging from soil erosion that revealed old
eggshells encrusted many layers deep, has probably been used
for this purpose for decades. Oblivious to the eggs of previous

14 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 13, NUMBER 1  •  MARCH 2006 ALBERTS

Eight of ten beaches at the United States Naval Base, Guantánamo Bay,
Cuba, are used for nesting by endangered Hawksbill Turtles
(Eretmochelys imbricata).

Iguana crossing signs installed at key locations throughout the naval
base have helped reduce road casualties.

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IGUANA  •  VOLUME 13, NUMBER 1  •  MARCH 2006 15REPTILES OF GUANTÁNAMO BAY

nesters, which she dug up and flipped out of the nest cavity with
impunity, this particular female took about an hour to dig her
nest. With remarkable dexterity, she used her rear flippers to
reach down, scoop out flipperfulls of sand, and carefully deposit
them nearby. When the nest cavity was deep enough to suit her,
she proceeded to lay over a hundred glistening spherical eggs,
and then gently backfilled the nest cavity. Her task complete, she
never paused to rest, instead making a direct line to the water
and disappearing into the moonlit waves.

Reptile Outreach
Public education is key to the success of any conservation pro-
gram. Over the years, we have attempted to educate both mili-
tary servicemen and civilians through open lectures at our field
sites, classroom presentations to elementary and secondary stu-
dents, endangered species pamphlets, and newspaper and radio
interviews. In response to a rash of unfortunate incidents in the
mid-1990s, we designed a set of “Iguana Crossing” signs for
high traffic areas where collisions had occurred. We have been
thrilled to see that over 20 of these signs have been erected at
critical locations, and to learn from our local collaborators that
iguana road casualties are now a rare occurrence. In fact, the only
“problem” with the signs has been their unanticipated popular-
ity as impromptu souvenirs — an issue subsequently addressed
by offering scaled-down versions for sale in a local giftshop.

With the help of the base TV station, which advertises reg-
ularly for us on the event scroller, we have had excellent turnouts
for our semi-annual iguana demonstrations. These presentations
are held in the evenings at Iguana House, a relatively remote
building near the coast that always seems to have an iguana or
two hanging around. Usually about 80 or so people attend,
some of them getting their first-ever close up view of an iguana,
with a chance to touch one if they wish. While we try to spread
the message that iguanas should be neither harassed nor fed (an
ever-present problem), we also spend a significant amount of
time answering questions. These range from why iguanas bob
their heads to how the large population of feral cats on the base
is impacting them. Interest and curiosity among base residents

about iguanas and other native reptiles continues to be intense,
and past interviews and surveys have shown that most people’s
feelings about them are positive, boding well for the continuing
successful co-existence of humans and wildlife on the base.

Public interest in Guantánamo’s extraordinary wildlife con-
tinues to be high, as evidenced by the more than 75 dedicated
volunteers who have helped us with our work over the years.
Part of the message we hope to send is that protecting wildlife
need not conflict with the military mission. In fact, healthy nat-
ural systems are often those best suited to supporting the secu-
rity and training functions central to military operations. For
such a small piece of land, Guantánamo Bay has experienced an
unusually tumultuous history. Despite its drastic transformation
from the early days of open commerce to its more recent role as
a safe haven for Cuban and Haitian refugees, the extraordinary
biodiversity of Guantánamo has managed to survive intact.
Whatever the future may hold, we can only hope that with
awareness and dedicated stewardship, the distinctive reptiles,
other native wildlife, and the natural habitats of Guantánamo
Bay will continue to flourish.

Suggested Reading
Alberts, A. C. (ed.). 2000. West Indian Iguanas: Status Survey and Conservation

Action Plan. IUCN—the World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland.

Alberts, A. C., T. D. Grant, G. P. Gerber, K. E. Comer, P. J. Tolson, J. M.
Lemm, and D. Boyer. 2001. Critical reptile species management on the
U.S. Naval Base, Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. Report to the United States
Navy for Project No. 62470-00-M-5219.

Alberts, A. C., J. M. Lemm, A. M. Perry, L. A. Morici, and J. A. Phillips. 2002.
Temporary alteration of local social structure in a threatened population
of Cuban Iguanas (Cyclura nubila). Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 51:324–335.

Berovides, V. A. 1980. Notas sobre la ecologia de la iguana (Cyclura nubila) en
Cayo Rosario. Cien. Biol. 5:112–115.

Bjorndal, K. A. (ed.). 1995. Biology and Conservation of Sea Turtles. Smithsonian
Institution Press, Washington, D.C.

Eckert, K. L., K. A. Bjorndal, F. Alberto Abreu-Grobois, and M. Donnelly.
1999. Research and Management Techniques for the Conservation of Sea
Turtles. IUCN/SSC Marine Turtle Specialist Group Publication No. 4.
Gland, Switzerland.

Estrada, A. R. and R. Ruibal. 1999. A review of Cuban herpetology, pp. 31–62.
In B. I. Crother (ed.), Caribbean Amphibians and Reptiles. Academic
Press, San Diego, California.

Hartley, L. M., R. E. Glor, A. L. Sproston, R. Powell, and J. S. Parmerlee, Jr.
2000. Germination rates of seeds consumed by two species of Rock
Iguanas (Cyclura spp.) in the Dominican Republic. Carib. J. Sci.
36:149–151.

Lando, R. V. and E. E. Williams. 1969. Notes on the herpetology of the U.S.
Naval Base at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. Stud. Fauna Curaçao Other Carib.
Isl. 31:159–201.

Lemm, J. M. and A. C. Alberts. 2000. Reptiles and amphibians of
Guantánamo Bay. Reptiles 8:10–25.

Perera, A. 1985a. Datos sobre la dieta de Cyclura nubila (Sauria: Iguanidae) en
los alrededores de Cayo Largo del Sur, Cuba. Poeyana 291:1–12.

Perera, A. 1985b. Datos sobre abundancia y actividad de Cyclura nubila (Sauria:
Iguanidae) en los alrededores de Cayo Largo del Sur, Cuba. Poeyana
288:1–17.

Rodríguez Schettino, L. (ed.). 1999. The Iguanid Lizards of Cuba. Univ. Florida
Press, Gainesville, Florida.

Sedaghatkish, G. and E. Roca. 1999. Rapid Ecological Assessment: U.S. Naval
Station, Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. The Nature Conservancy, Washington,
D.C.

Silva Lee, A. 1996. Cuba Natural. Pangaea, Saint Paul, Minnesota.

Tolson, P. J. and R. W. Henderson. 1993. The Natural History of West Indian
Boas. R & A Publishing Ltd., Taunton, Somerset, England.

Annual iguana demonstrations are held for military and civilian per-
sonnel and their families.

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