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IGUANA  •  VOLUME 14, NUMBER 4  •  DECEMBER 2007 261CONSERVATION RESEARCH REPORTS

Traditional Maori Knowledge 
of Tuatara

Traditional ecological knowledge can be
highly informative and integrated with
complementary scientific knowledge to
improve species management. This is
especially true for abundant species with
which indigenous peoples have frequent
interactions (e.g., through harvest), but
has been studied less frequently in iso-
lated or declining species. RAMSTAD ET

AL. (2007. Conservation Biology 21:
455–464) examined Maori traditional
ecological knowledge of Tuatara
(Sphenodon spp., reptiles that resemble
lizards, but are the last living representa-
tives of the order Sphenodontia) through
semi-directed interviews of elders of Te
Atiawa, Ngati Koata, and Ngati Wai Iwi
(similar to tribes), the guardians of several
islands currently inhabited by Tuatara.
Maori are indigenous to New Zealand,
having settled 800–1,000 years ago.
Tuatara are endemic to New Zealand,
have declined in numbers since human
settlement, and are now restricted to 37
offshore islands. The detail and volume
of Tuatara traditional ecological knowl-
edge were less than that recorded in stud-
ies of more abundant or accessible
species. In addition, traditional knowl-
edge of the cultural significance of
Tuatara was more common and detailed
among the elders than traditional knowl-
edge of Tuatara biology or ecology. The
traditional knowledge collected, however,
provided the first evidence of seven for-
mer sites of Tuatara occupation, sug-
gested five additional sites Tuatara may
currently occupy, contained novel
hypotheses for scientific testing, and

described Tuatara cultural roles that have
not been reported previously. The
authors concluded that, in at least some
cases, traditional ecological knowledge
may persist as species decline and may
serve as a valuable source of ecological
information for conservation.

Changes in Tropical Forests 
Affect the Herpetofauna

Plantation forests and second-growth
forests are becoming dominant compo-
nents of many tropical forest landscapes,
but little information is available con-
cerning the consequences of different
forestry options for biodiversity conser-
vation in the tropics. GARDNER ET AL.
(2007. Conservation Biology 21: 775–
787) sampled the leaf-litter herpetofauna
of primary, secondary, and Eucalyptus
plantation forests in the Jari River area of
northeastern Brazilian Amazonia. They
used four complementary sampling tech-
niques, combined samples from two con-
secutive years, and collected 1,739 leaf-
litter amphibians (23 species) and 1,937
lizards (30 species). They analyzed the
data for differences among forest types
regarding patterns of alpha and beta
diversity, species-abundance distribu-
tions, and community structure. Primary
rainforest harbored significantly more
species, but supported a similar abun-
dance of amphibians and lizards com-
pared to adjacent areas of second-growth
forest or plantations. Plantation forests
were dominated by wide-ranging habitat
generalists. Secondary forest faunas con-
tained a number of species characteristic
of primary forest habitat. Amphibian
communities in secondary forests and
Eucalyptus plantations formed a nested
subset of primary forest species, whereas
the species composition of the lizard
community in plantations was distinct,
and was dominated by open-area species.
Although plantation forests are relatively
impoverished, naturally regenerating
forests can help mitigate some negative
effects of deforestation for at least some
herpetofaunal species. Nevertheless, sec-
ondary forest does not provide a substi-
tute for primary forest. In the absence of
further evidence from older successional
stands, we caution against the optimistic

claim that natural forest regeneration in
abandoned lands will provide refuges for
the many species that are currently
threatened by deforestation.

Invasive Green Iguana Roadkills
SMITH ET AL. (2007. Journal of Kansas
Herpetology 22: 14–16) examined 11
years of reptilian roadkill data from Cape
Florida State Park (CFSP), a vegetatively
restored, urban state park in southern
Florida that was largely destroyed by
Hurricane Andrew in 1992. The survey
recorded 135 individuals of eight reptil-
ian species, of which three were exotics.
Native Southern Black Racers (Coluber

C O N S E R V A T I O N  R E S E A R C H  R E P O R T S

Although traditional Maori ecological knowl-
edge of Tuatara (Sphenodon spp.) was less
than that recorded in studies of more abun-
dant or accessible species with which the
Maori were more familiar, interviews with
elders revealed new information about areas
formerly inhabited by Tuataras and cultural
roles not previously reported.

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A mid-level view through a Costa Rican rain-
forest. Recent studies in Belize revealed that
primary rainforest harbored significantly
more species, but supported a similar abun-
dance of amphibians and lizards compared to
adjacent areas of second-growth forest or
plantations.

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Invasive Green Iguanas (Iguana iguana) often
cross roads and even pause to bask on them,
and consequently comprised 30.4% of the
total number of roadkills in Cape Florida
State Park.

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constrictor priapus) and invasive Green
Iguanas (Iguana iguana) each comprised
30.4% (N = 41) of the total number of
roadkills. The other exotics were Giant
Ameivas (Ameiva ameiva; N = 7) and a
Red-eared Slider (Trachemys scripta ele-
gans). The three exotic species collectively
accounted for 36.3% of records.
Roadkilled iguanas were first recorded in
2001 and peaked in frequency in 2003
(N = 13) and 2004 (N = 12), which
coincided with periods of greatest density
recorded at CFSP. Results underscore the
threat of exotic species faced by protected
areas and the need for data necessary for
making sound management decisions.

Unintended Consequences: 
Racoon Removal Helps 
Invasive Green Iguanas

MESHAKA ET AL. (2007. Herpetological
Conservation and Biology 2: 149–156)
examined the demographic responses of
Green Iguanas (Iguana iguana) to the
removal of Raccoons in an urban mar-
itime state park in southern Florida. The
rapid growth of iguanas to sexual matu-
rity in an underexploited, if not vacant,
niche contributed to rapid recruitment
during the 4.5 years since removal of the
limiting predator. The authors propose
that at sites where Green Iguanas and
high-density Raccoons are syntopic,
Raccoon removal programs should be
concurrent with equally concerted efforts
to remove Green Iguanas. By replacing
one limiting predator with another, a
population explosion can be prevented.

American Crocodile 
(Crocodylus acutus) in Florida

When the American Crocodile
(Crocodylus acutus) was classified as
endangered in 1975, few data were avail-

able upon which to base informed man-
agement decisions. Monitoring programs
focusing on nesting ecology, growth, and
survival show that crocodiles have
responded positively to protection. The
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is now
considering downgrading the species
from endangered to threatened.

Despite the progress, crocodiles are
facing new problems, such as the contin-
uing degradation of ecosystems in
Florida and Biscayne bays. MAZZOTTI ET

AL. (2007. Journal of Herpetology
41:122–132) reviewed results of research
and monitoring programs that have been
used as a basis for reclassifying C. acutus.
They found that, despite greater num-
bers of crocodiles and a broader range in
which reproduction is occurring, croco-
diles are still threatened by land and
water use modifications to adjacent habi-
tat. To enhance habitat conditions and
prey production and availability for croc-
odiles, freshwater flows to estuaries need
to be restored to a natural pattern. A final
concern is that, as crocodiles continue to
recover and expand their habitat in coastal
areas, interactions with humans will
increase in frequency, posing additional
challenges to the recovering population.

Investigating Natural Population
Dynamics of New Zealand’s 

Cryptic Diurnal Geckos
Habitat losses resulting from human set-
tlement and introduction of mammalian
predators have had a significant impact
on New Zealand’s threatened diurnal
geckos. Approximately one-third of New
Zealand’s reptiles are restricted to mam-
mal-free offshore islands, three species of
lizards are extinct, and many others have
dramatically reduced ranges. Clearly, New

Zealand’s terrestrial vertebrates are in need
of effective conservation management.

The endemic Marlborough Green
Gecko (Naultinus manukanus) is con-
fined to the Marlborough Sounds region
of New Zealand. Naultinus manukanus is
arboreal and diurnal. Potential threats
include habitat fragmentation, loss of
successional shrubland habitat, and com-
petition with introduced species for habi-
tat and food. Unfortunately, the behavior
of these diurnal geckos makes conserva-
tion of this species a challenge. Few stud-
ies have been conducted on their repro-
ductive biology, ecology, and behavior,
because they are cryptic and difficult to
detect. Accurate biological information
about this species is vital for proper con-
servation management.

HARE ET AL. (2007. Journal of
Herpetology 41:81–93) analyzed the pop-
ulation dynamics of N. manukanus as a
model for understanding the ecology of
other threatened diurnal geckos of New
Zealand and to generate data necessary
for the conservation of these species.
Studies spanned 25 years, providing
essential information about natural pop-
ulation dynamics, habitat use, and daily
movement patterns. By analyzing sex
ratios and reproductive rates, the authors
found that the low reproductive output
of N. manukanus renders them vulnera-
ble to predation by invasive mammals.
Although long-term prospects for N.
manukanus appear good on Stephens
Island, populations on the mainland are
at high risk of declines because of habitat
destruction, predation, and competition
with exotic species. The K-selected life-
history strategies of these unusual geckos
require intensive management of com-
petitors and predators to allow popula-
tion trajectories on the mainland to
become more stable.

An adult male Green Iguana (Iguana iguana)
fends off a Raccoon (Procyon lotor) attack at
Hugh Taylor Birch State Park in southern
Florida. 

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Despite greater numbers of American
Crocodiles (Crocodylus acutus) in Florida and
a broader range in which reproduction is
occurring, crocodiles are still threatened by
land and water use modifications to adjacent
habitat.

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Mainland populations of the New Zealand
endemic Marlborough Green Gecko
(Naultinus manukanus) are at high risk of
population declines because of habitat
destruction, predation, and competition with
exotic species. 

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262 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 14, NUMBER 4  •  DECEMBER 2007 CONSERVATION RESEARCH REPORTS



IGUANA  •  VOLUME 14, NUMBER 4  •  DECEMBER 2007 263CONSERVATION RESEARCH REPORTS

Frog-Human Interactions
From human popular culture to drug
development and biological research,
frogs have been model organisms to
which most people readily relate. TYLER

ET AL. (2007. Applied Herpetology
4:1–18) explored interactions between
frogs and humans. They focused on the
major declines in frog populations and
the increasing evidence for the role of
humans in habitat destruction and intro-
ductions of invasive species. Human uses
of anurans are discussed, including the
wide range of chemical compounds
found in anuran skin, some of which
have led to the development of drugs for
human and veterinary use. Cultural uses
of anurans (e.g., food and entertainment)
also are described.

Some human modifications to envi-
ronments, such as run-off aggravated by
development, may provide breeding sites
for certain species and could be seen as a
benefit. Overall, however, the effects are
negative. Although human use for scien-
tific purposes may have had some nega-
tive impact on anurans, these are scant in
comparison to numbers lost from habi-
tat destruction and large-scale environ-
mental degradation. Better enforcement
of regulations in the food and pet trade
could improve the status and chances of
long-term survival of frog populations.

Introduced Boa Constrictors
Threaten the Native Biota 

of Cozumel Island
Invasive species can upset the delicate
balance in island ecosystems.
Understanding the biological effects of
exotics on a native biota is important. In
1971, Boa Contrictors (Boa constrictor)

were introduced to Cozumel Island,
México, and they have negatively
affected native (some endemic) prey
species. In order to develop strategies to
reduce boa pressure on the native biota,
ROMERO ET AL. (2007. Biodiversity
Conservation 16:1183–1195) studied
changes in boa abundance over time. In
addition, they used nocturnal road tran-
sect sampling and data from boa encoun-
ters during fieldwork to estimate distri-
bution, abundance, and habitat use.

The study found that boas are
widely distributed across Cozumel and
occupy all vegetation types. However,
snakes were most abundant in areas
uninhabited by humans, and boa mortal-
ity was relatively common in human-
inhabited areas. Boas are habitat general-
ists, and control or eradication will pose
challenges. Public education on the con-
trol of boas and the negative effects on
native species is very important for a
well-planned management program on
Cozumel. Prevention of similar introduc-
tions elsewhere is also imperative.

Herpetofauna of a National
Superfund Site

GRAY (2007. Bulletin of the Maryland
Herpetological Society 43: 129–133) sur-
veyed the herpetofauna of the Harper
Drive Hazardous Waste Area, a National
Superfund Site in Erie County,
Pennsylvania, between 1995–1999. He
observed two salamander, six frog and
toad, three turtle, and four snake species,
including the Spotted Turtle (Clemmys
guttata), a species of special concern in
Pennsylvania. The base-line data pre-
sented in this report, along with any
future surveys at the site, may be useful
in evaluating the effects of remedial
action on the area herpetofauna.

Roads Threaten 
Galápagos Lava Lizards

Galápagos Lava Lizards (Microlophus albe-
marlensis) are heavily impacted by roads.
TANNER ET AL. (2007. Bulletin of the
Chicago Herpetological Society 42:125–132)
measured mortality on Santa Cruz Island
and found that fatalities averaged 0.4
mature males and 1.8 juveniles per
km/day. Lizard population models that
considered but were not limited to impact
from roads suggested that the lizard popu-
lation is on the path to local extirpation.

Boa Contrictors (Boa constrictor) introduced
to Cozumel Island, México, have negatively
affected native (some endemic) prey species.

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The Spotted Turtle (Clemmys guttata), a species of special concern in Pennsylvania, was among
15 herpetofaunal species observed at a National Superfund Site in Erie County. 

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Galápagos Lava Lizards (Microlophus albe-
marlensis) are heavily impacted by roads.

Frog-human interactions are almost
inevitably detrimental to frog populations.
Better enforcement of regulations in the food
(this is a frog/fish market in Myanmar) and
pet trade could improve the chances of long-
term survival of frog populations. 




