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8 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 15, NUMBER 1  •  MARCH 2008 POWELL AND HENDERSON

Many West Indian birds not normally associated with predation on vertebrates will eat lizards when the opportunity for a high-energy
meal presents itself. This Hispaniolan Trogon (Priotelus roseigaster) has captured a Hispaniolan Twig Anole (Anolis singularis).

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On continents, birds that regularly prey on vertebrates are
usually raptors (birds of prey) that exploit abundant and

prolific rodent populations. Although other mammals, birds,
reptiles, amphibians, and even fish are taken, they rarely com-
prise the focus of a predator’s attention, and are instead taken
opportunistically or when seasonally abundant, such as during
migration periods. On tropical islands, however, reptiles — espe-
cially lizards — often are the most abundant and visible verte-
brates, and constitute the principal quarry of raptors and many
other birds not usually associated with hunting vertebrates.

In our forthcoming compilation of data pertaining to the
natural history of West Indian amphibians and reptiles, we cited
36 references that recorded avian predation on reptiles. These
constitute 37 species of birds and 58 species of reptilian prey. In
addition, many published accounts speak of avian predation
affecting population sizes of lizards, especially on very small
islands with minimal cover, or of birds taking anoles (Anolis spp.),
for example, but without identifying the species of lizard. Others
note that a number of large, insectivorous birds were observed
eating anoles, but do not identify the predators. Those accounts

are not included in the totals above or in the accompanying table,
which lists only records of known predators and prey. Particularly
in light of the reality that recorded observations are mostly anec-
dotal (except for a few studies of raptor diets that are included),
those listed must reflect but a small percentage of actual preda-
tion events. Nevertheless, the number of such records testifies elo-
quently to both the ability of predatory birds (obligate or facul-
tative) to exploit an abundant and prolific resource and the
ability of their prey to maintain population numbers in the face
of substantial but obviously sustainable losses.

Acknowledgments
We thank Michael J. Morel (whose photographs also grace the
inside front and back covers of this issue), Eladio Fernández, and
Brenda S. and R. Duncan Kirby for the use of photographs.
That by Eladio Fernández previously appeared in Hispaniola. A
Photographic Journey through Island Biodiversity. Bioversidad a
Través de un Recorrido Fotográfico (2007; reviewed in Iguana
14(4): 260), and those by Brenda S. and R. Duncan Kirby in
The Reptiles and Amphibians of the Dutch Caribbean: St.
Eustatius, Saba, and St. Maarten (2005; reviewed in Iguana
12(4): 273–274).

Avian Predators of West Indian Reptiles
Robert Powell1 and Robert W. Henderson2

1Avila University, Kansas City, Missouri
2Milwaukee Public Museum, Milwaukee, Wisconsin

IGUANA  •  VOLUME 15, NUMBER 1  •  MARCH 2008 9AVIAN PREDATORS OF WEST INDIAN REPTILES

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American Kestrels (Falco sparvarius) are small raptors that frequently take insects, especially when abundant and concentrated, as well as small
vertebrates. They have been documented as predators of 12 different species of West Indian lizards (ten of them species of anoles). The Puerto
Rican Kestrel illustrated on the inside front and back covers is eating a Puerto Rican Ameiva (Ameiva exsul). These birds are eating a Statia Bank
Tree Anole (Anolis bimaculatus; left) and a Statia Bank Bush Anole (A. schwartzi; right).

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Table. Avian predators on West Indian reptiles. Predators are listed alphabetically by scientific name in four categories: (1) Raptors
(birds of prey that regularly or exclusively take vertebrate prey); (2) Seabirds (primarily marine birds that feed mostly on fish, but may
opportunistically take terrestrial vertebrates); (3) Egrets and herons (wading birds that regularly take aquatic and terrestrial vertebrates);
and (4) Birds not usually considered to be predators on vertebrates, although several species in this list are known to forage opportunis-
tically for lizards and small snakes, and reptiles may constitute a major component of their diets.

Avian Predator Prey

Raptors

Red-tailed Hawk (Buteo jamaicensis)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Lesser Antillean Iguana (Iguana delicatissima)
Common Iguana (Iguana iguana)
Puerto Rican Crested Anole (Anolis cristatellus)
Puerto Rican Giant Anole (Anolis cuvieri)
Puerto Rican Emerald Anole (Anolis evermanni)
Yellow-chinned Anole (Anolis gundlachi)
Puerto Rican Spotted Anole (Anolis stratulus)
Puerto Rican Racer (Alsophis portoricensis)

Broad-winged Hawk (Buteo platypterus)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Lesser Antillean Iguana (Iguana delicatissima)
Puerto Rican Giant Anole (Anolis cuvieri)
Grenada Tree Anole (Anolis richardii)
Leeward Groundsnake (Liophis juliae)

Ridgway’s Hawk (Buteo ridgwayi)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dominican Giant Anole (Anolis baleatus)
Northern Green Anole (Anolis chlorocyanus)
W-headed Racer (Ialtris dorsalis)
Hispaniolan Lesser Racer (Antillophis parvifrons)
Sharp-nosed Treesnake (Uromacer oxyrhynchus)
Hispaniolan Trope (Tropidophis haitianus)

American Kestrel (Falco sparvarius)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Stout Iguana (Cyclura pinguis) juveniles
Lesser Antillean Iguana (Iguana delicatissima) juveniles
Common Iguana (Iguana iguana) juveniles
Statia Bank Tree Anole (Anolis bimaculatus)
Cuban Giant Anole (Anolis equestris)
Anguilla Bank Tree Anole (Anolis gingivinus)
Anguilla Bank Bush Anole (Anolis pogus)
Cuban Green Anole (Anolis porcatus)
Saba Anole (Anolis sabanus)
Cuban Brown Anole (Anolis sagrei)
Statia Bank Bush Anole (Anolis schwartzi)
Les Saintes Anole (Anolis terraealtae)
Cuban Ameiva (Ameiva auberi)
Hispaniolan Giant Ameiva (Ameiva chrysolaema)
Puerto Rican Giant Ameiva (Ameiva exsul)
Dominica Ameiva (Ameiva fuscata)
Anguilla Bank Ameiva (Ameiva plei)

Cuban Pygmy Owl (Glaucidium siju vittatum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Cuban Ameiva (Ameiva auberi)
Puerto Rican Screech Owl (Otus nudipes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Puerto Rican Gracile Boa (Epicrates monensis)
Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Central Bahamas Rock Iguana (Cyclura rileyi)
Barn Owl (Tyto alba)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jamaican Giant Anole (Anolis garmani)

Slender Cliff Anole (Anolis lucius)
Haitian Giant Anole (Anolis ricordii)
Jamaican Croaking Gecko (Aristelliger praesignis)
Hispaniolan Giant Ameiva (Ameiva chrysolaema)

Seabirds

Magnificent Frigatebird (Fregata magnificens) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Anguilla Black Ameiva (Ameiva corax)
Laughing Gull (Larus atricilla) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Cuban Iguana (Cyclura nubila) eggs and hatchlings

Anguilla Black Ameiva (Ameiva corax)
Royal Tern (Sterna maxima) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Cuban Iguana (Cyclura nubila) eggs and hatchlings
Brown Booby (Sula leucogaster)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Anguilla Black Ameiva (Ameiva corax)

Egrets and Herons

Cattle Egrets (Bubulcus ibis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .St. Croix Anole (Anolis acutus)
Grenada Bush Anole (Anolis aeneus)
Puerto Rican Eyespot Sphaero (Sphaerodactylus macrolepis)

Snowy Egret (Egretta thula)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Mona Blindsnake (Typhlops monensis)
Yellow-crowned Night Heron (Nyctanassa violacea)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Anguilla Bank Ameiva (Ameiva plei)

Puerto Rican Gracile Boa (Epicrates monensis)
American Crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) hatchlings

10 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 15, NUMBER 1  •  MARCH 2008 POWELL AND HENDERSON

American Kestrel with
a Crested Anole (Anolis
cristatellus) on Puerto
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Red-tailed Hawks are large
raptors capable of taking
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Although primarily nocturnal,
Barn Owls occasionally take
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IGUANA  •  VOLUME 15, NUMBER 1  •  MARCH 2008 11AVIAN PREDATORS OF WEST INDIAN REPTILES

Birds not usually considered predators of vertebrates

Puerto Rican Parrot (Amazona vittata)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Puerto Rican Giant Anole (Anolis cuvieri)
West Indian Woodpecker (Centurus superciliaris)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Cayman Islands Sphaero (Sphaerodactylus argivus)
Brown Trembler (Cinclocerthia ruficauda)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dominica Anole (Anolis oculatus)
Mangrove Cuckoo (Coccyzus minor)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dominica Anole (Anolis oculatus)
Bananaquit (Coereba flaveola)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Caymans Blue-fanned Anole (Anolis conspersus)
Smooth-billed Ani (Crotophaga ani) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Caymans Blue-fanned Anole (Anolis conspersus)

Jamaican Giant Anole (Anolis garmani)
Les Saintes Anole (Anolis terraealtae)

Cuban Blackbird (Dives atroviolaceus)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Cuban Brown Anole (Anolis sagrei)
Zapata Wren (Ferminia cerverai)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Cuban Brown Anole (Anolis sagrei)
Domestic Chicken (Gallus gallus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Smooth-scaled Worm Lizard (Gymnophthalmus underwoodi)

Southern Green Anole (Anolis coelestinus)
Hispaniolan Stout Anole (Anolis cybotes)
Jamaican Gray Anole (Anolis lineatopus)

Pearly-eyed Thrasher (Margarops fuscatus)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Common House Gecko (Hemidactylus mabouia)
Statia Bank Tree Anole (Anolis bimaculatus)
Puerto Rican Giant Anole (Anolis cuvieri)
Puerto Rican Emerald Anole (Anolis evermanni)
Anguilla Bank Tree Anole (Anolis gingivinus)
Yellow-chinned Anole (Anolis gundlachi)
Dominica Anole (Anolis oculatus)
Anguilla Bank Bush Anole (Anolis pogus)
Saba Anole (Anolis sabanus)
Statia Bank Bush Anole (Anolis schwartzi)
Puerto Rican Spotted Anole (Anolis stratulus)
Anguilla Bank Ameiva (Ameiva plei)

Guadeloupe Woodpecker (Melanerpes herminieri)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Guadeloupe Anole (Anolis marmoratus)
La Sagra’s Flycatcher (Myiarchus sagrae)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Caymans Blue-fanned Anole (Anolis conspersus)
House Sparrow (Passer domesticus)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Cuban Green Anole (Anolis porcatus)

Neotropical Clawed Gecko (Gonatodes albogularis)
Hispaniolan Trogon (Priotelus roseigaster)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Hispaniolan Twig Anole (Anolis singularis)
Carib Grackle (Quiscalus lugubris)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Grenada Bush Anole (Anolis aeneus)
Greater Antillean Grackle (Quiscalus niger) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Cuban Iguana (Cyclura nubila) eggs and hatchlings

Caymans Blue-fanned Anole (Anolis conspersus)
Cuban Brown Anole (Anolis sagrei)

Puerto Rican Lizard Cuckoo (Saurothera vieilloti) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Puerto Rican Giant Anole (Anolis cuvieri)
Puerto Rican Emerald Anole (Anolis evermanni)
Yellow-chinned Anole (Anolis gundlachi)
Puerto Rican Spotted Anole (Anolis stratulus)

Cuban Lizard Cuckoo (Saurothera merlini)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Cuban Giant Anole (Anolis equestris)
Cuban White-fanned Anole (Anolis homolechis)
Western Giant Anole (Anolis luteogularis)
Spotted Brown Trope (Tropidophis pardalis)

Jamaican Lizard Cuckoo (Saurothera vetula) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jamaican Giant Anole (Anolis garmani)
Red-legged Thrush (Turdus plumbeus)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Cuban Giant Anole (Anolis equestris)
Loggerhead Kingbird (Tyrannus caudifasciatus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Caymans Blue-fanned Anole (Anolis conspersus)

Jamaican Giant Anole (Anolis garmani)
Gray Kingbird (Tyrannus dominicensis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dominica Anole (Anolis oculatus)

Pearly-eyed Thrashers are
effective, albeit opportunistic
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Cuckoos are opportunists, feeding on a variety of arthropods, some
surprisingly small for such relatively large birds. They often concen-
trate on seasonally abundant prey, such as caterpillars, for which they
frequently function as biological controls. On West Indian islands,
however, many cuckoos selectively forage for small reptiles, especially
anoles, and may run along the ground “chasing” lizards as well as pick-
ing them off arboreal perches. Although species such as this Yellow-
billed Cuckoo (Coccyzus americanus) may occasionally take small rep-
tiles, a focus on reptilian prey has led to many island forms with the
common name of “Lizard Cuckoo.”R

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