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86 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 15, NUMBER 2  •  JUNE 2008 HAMILTON AND CONRAD

Most Lampropeltis pyromelana activity occurred under cloud cover or topographic shade. For such a strikingly colored animal, L. pyrome-
lana can be surprisingly cryptic.



The Great Basin is North America’s largest desert, spanning
an area of 190,000 square miles. Located in the rain

shadow of the Sierra Nevada, the region is arid, mountainous,
and cold, with most precipitation falling as snow. Climate varies
dramatically, and higher elevations are cooler and wetter than
lower elevations. Such climactic variability produces vegetative
complexity. Plant communities from valley floor to mountain
peak include salt desert, sagebrush, piñon and juniper, moun-
tain mahogany, mixed conifer, riparian, and alpine vegetation.
As the most remote region of the contiguous United States, only
three cities in the Great Basin have populations over 100,000.
These cities, Salt Lake, Reno, and Provo are located on the
region’s eastern and western fringes. Due to the vast area, vege-
tative and topographic complexity, and extreme remoteness,
Great Basin reptilian communities have historically received lit-
tle attention (but see Linsdale 1940, Tanner 1941, Hirth et al.
1969, Parker and Brown 1974a, 1974b, Brown and Parker
1982, Setser et al. 2002).

Voucher specimens are sparsely distributed throughout the
Great Basin and entire mountain ranges and valleys lack collec-
tion data. As a consequence, reptilian distributions, natural his-
tory and ecology are poorly understood. This is especially true

of secretive species such as the Sonoran Mountain Kingsnake
(Lampropeltis pyromelana).

First documented from the central Great Basin in eastern
Nevada in 1932 (Linsdale 1940), L. pyromelana has since been
considered rare due to the low frequency of observations, iso-
lated populations, and the location of Nevada on the extreme
northwestern limit of the species’ distribution (see Stebbins 2003
and Hubbs 2004 for distribution information). Fewer than ten
museum specimens are known from Nevada, and relatively lit-
tle ecological information on its status has accrued since its first
documentation in the state.

Great Basin populations are isolated on mesic mountain
ranges separated by xeric valleys. These montane habitats are
relicts of cooler and wetter Pleistocene climates, which allowed
the expansion of woodlands and forests across Great Basin val-
leys. Populations expanded under these favorable conditions. As
climates became warmer and drier during the Holocene, suitable
habitat contracted, isolating L. pyromelana to its present moun-
tain chain distribution (Grayson 1993; Tanner and Cox 1981).

Research needs for L. pyromelana in Nevada include basic
natural history information such as distribution, abundance, and
habitat requirements. The Nevada Department of Wildlife and
Great Basin National Park surveyed cooperatively to address
these data gaps. The primary objectives of these surveys were to
document the natural history and ecology of Great Basin reptil-
ian communities, with a particular focus on L. pyromelana.

Methods
Study Site
The Snake Range is the largest mountain range in the central
Great Basin. Located in eastern Nevada, the southern portion of
the range is encompassed by Great Basin National Park
(GRBA). Elevations range from 1,585 m in Snake Valley to
3,982 m at the summit of Wheeler Peak. The park is mountain-
ous and dissected by multiple deep canyons. Snowmelt-fed
perennial streams support a diverse assemblage of plant and ani-
mal communities, resulting in ideal habitat for L. pyromelana.

Surveys
Surveys occurred in May of 2006 and 2007. Surveyors included
a diverse mix of professional biologists and volunteers, includ-

The Sonoran Mountain Kingsnake
(Lampropeltis pyromelana) 

in the Great Basin
Bryan Hamilton1 and Polly Conrad2

1Great Basin National Park, 100 Great Basin National Park, Baker NV 89311 (bryan_hamiton@nps.gov)
2Nevada Department of Wildlife, 4747 Vegas Drive, Las Vegas NV 89108

Photographs by the authors unless otherwise indicated.

IGUANA  •  VOLUME 15, NUMBER 2  •  JUNE 2008 87SONORAN MOUNTAIN KINGSNAKE

�

Reptilian distributions, natural history, and ecology are poorly under-
stood for many species in the Great Basin. This is especially true of
secretive species such as the Sonoran Mountain Kingsnake (Lampropeltis
pyromelana).



ing personnel from the National Park Service, Nevada
Department of Wildlife, Southern Nevada Water Authority,
Brigham Young University, Utah State University, Utah
Herpetological Society, and U.S. Geological Survey.

To maximize reptilian encounters and increase the proba-
bility of encountering L. pyromelana, we used nonrandom, tar-
geted surveys, which are superior to randomized methods in
documenting secretive or rare species and maximizing species
richness (Campbell and Christman 1982, Persons and Nowak
2007). Survey protocols followed the Visual Encounter Surveys
of Scott (1994), and survey sites were exhaustively searched on
the surface and under cover objects. To further maximize the
likelihood of L. pyromelana encounters, survey locations were
chosen based on historic localities, anecdotal reports, and sight
records. Habitats surveyed included canyons, riparian areas,
rocky uplands, and talus.

Reptilian Diversity
Search effort, weather conditions, survey location, and reptilian
observations were documented. To permanently document rep-
tilian diversity, a single physical voucher specimen of each rep-
tilian species per location was collected and preserved according
to Simmons (2002). For L. pyromelana, photographs and tissues
rather than physical specimens were collected. 

Lampropeltis pyromelana
Activity
To document the seasonal activity pattern of L. pyromelana in
the Great Basin, we compiled vouchers, observations, and anec-
dotal reports from the range of the subspecies L. p. infralabialis
(Tanner 1953), an area that includes Nevada, Utah, and north-
ern Arizona. Data were taken from museum searches, anecdotal
reports, and sight records from the period of 1932–2007 and
included observations from these surveys.

Natural History
Each Lampropeltis pyromelana was photographed, measured,
weighed, sexed via probing, and uniquely marked by ventral
scale clipping (Brown and Parker 1976). Location, ambient tem-
perature, and substrate temperature were recorded and a tissue
sample collected. Habitat characteristics such as geomorphology,
surface water, vegetation, elevation, and substrate were recorded
at capture sites. All L. pyromelana were subsequently released at
their exact capture site.

Results
Reptilian Diversity
We surveyed six localities during May of 2006 and 2007. Search
effort over both years totaled 424 person hours. A total of 366

88 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 15, NUMBER 2  •  JUNE 2008 HAMILTON AND CONRAD

The Great Basin, Snake Range, and Great Basin National Park. The study site encompassed the entire Snake Range and included Great Basin
National Park. The boundary of the Great Basin is defined biologically by contiguous sagebrush plant communities (Grayson 1993).



IGUANA  •  VOLUME 15, NUMBER 2  •  JUNE 2008 89SONORAN MOUNTAIN KINGSNAKE

individuals of 12 species were observed in the course of the sur-
veys and 59 voucher specimens were collected.

Lizard diversity exhibited a typical right-skewed pattern
with two abundant species (Sceloporus occidentalis and S. gracio-
sus), an intermediately abundant species (Plestiodon skiltonianus),
and three rare species (Uta stansburiana, Aspidoscelis tigris,
Crotaphytus bicinctores).

Snake diversity was more uniform. One species (Thamnophis
elegans) was abundant, four (Crotalus oreganus, Coluber taeniatus,
Lampropeltis pyromelana, Pituophis catenifer) were of intermediate
abundance, and one (Hypsiglena chlorophaea) was rare.

Lampropeltis pyromelana
Activity
Fifty-three L. pyromelana voucher specimens and observations
were tallied, which included 10 from this project. Activity
occurred from April through October, peaked during May and
June, and rose again slightly in August. These results suggest that
the optimal survey window for L. pyromelana surface activity in
the Great Basin is during May and June, a typical activity pat-
tern for reptiles in the Great Basin (Fautin 1946, Shelford 1963),
and a pattern partially explained by regional climate. In the
Great Basin, most precipitation falls during the winter as snow
(Trimble 1989). Spring snowmelt increases available soil mois-
ture and plant production peaks in the spring, concurrent with
weather conditions favorable for reptilian surface activity. As
available soil moisture is depleted in the early summer, plant
production ceases and little precipitation is available to replen-
ish soil moisture. During the summer, diurnal weather condi-
tions are also generally too hot and dry for reptilian surface activ-
ity until the arrival of monsoonal moisture, which brings cooler
temperatures in August. We suggest the August activity spike is
due to the influence of a summer monsoon rain regime.

Natural History
Ten L. pyromelana were documented during our surveys, nine
males and one female, which suggested a male-biased sex ratio;
(χ2 = 3.8, d.f. = 1, p = 0.051). Male-biased sex ratios are com-
monly observed in snake populations due to sampling bias,
detectability differences, differential sex ratios at birth, and dif-
ferential survival (Burger and Zappalorti 1988, Iverson 1990,

Most Lampropeltis pyromelana surface activity occurred at relatively low
ambient temperatures, high humidity, and under cloud cover.

JO
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 B

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Lizard diversity for Visual Encounter Surveys in the Snake Range dur-
ing 2006 and 2007.

Snake diversity for Visual Encounter Surveys in the Snake Range dur-
ing 2006 and 2007.

Monthly observations of Lampropeltis pyromelana infralabialis. Data
are from voucher specimens and sight records from Nevada, Utah, and
Northern Arizona from 1932 to 2007 and include data from the pres-
ent surveys.



Madsen and Shine 1992, Shine and Bull 1977). Male L. pyrome-
lana may be more detectable than females due to more frequent
movements and surface activity while searching for mates or due
to earlier emergence from hibernation than females. Alternatively,
survival of L. pyromelana may be higher in males than females
due to higher costs associated with reproduction in females.

Mean SVL was 64.8 cm and mean mass was 96.6 grams (N
= 10), sizes within the range reported by Stebbins (2003) and
Hubbs (2004).

Our surveys confirmed a relationship between L. pyrome-
lana surface activity and weather (Hubbs 2004). Activity was
observed at relatively low ambient temperatures (mean = 22.4
ºC, N = 10), high humidity (mean = 19.4%), and high cloud
cover (mean = 39%). Cloud cover seemed to be a key variable
associated with surface activity. Cloud cover filters direct sun-
light, lowers substrate temperatures, and is associated with
higher humidity. Although four L. pyromelana were observed
under conditions of zero cloud cover, all snakes were shielded
from direct sunlight by topographic shade. Searching for L.
pyromelana in shaded canyons in the morning or evening is a
search strategy often employed successfully in Arizona (R.
Legere, pers. comm.). Topographic shade mimics cloud cover by
lowering substrate temperature and providing favorable thermal
conditions for surface activity.

Lampropeltis pyromelana was observed at intermediate ele-
vations (mean = 6,354 ft), in the lower reaches of canyons, and
utilized three major habitat types: piñon/juniper woodland,
riparian, and mixed sagebrush shrubland. No specific plant
species or combination of species was noted that would serve as
an indicator of suitable L. pyromelana habitat.

Although not measured, the availability of cover, either in
the form of vegetation, litter, or rocks appeared to be an impor-
tant habitat component. Lampropeltis pyromelana is only occa-
sionally active on the surface due to its elongate body shape, high
surface-to-volume ratio, and thin, porous skin. High cover and
abundant refugia facilitate the semi-fossorial habits of L. pyrome-
lana and provide suitable subsurface environmental conditions.

Lampropeltis pyromelana was generally found close to peren-
nial water (mean distance =186 m) in association with riparian
vegetation. One locality lacked surface water and riparian vege-
tation, but was characterized by more mesic upland vegetation
such as Skunkbrush (Rhus trilobata) and Squaw Apple
(Peraphyllum ramosissimum). Surface water often is considered
an important component of the L. pyromelana habitat template
(Ernst and Ernst 2003). However, many ectotherms are capable
of completing their life cycle with minimal access to surface
water provided that enough cover is present to provide access to
suitable subsurface environmental conditions and food is rela-
tively high in water content (Congdon et al. 1982, Gans 1979,
Greene 1997, Karasov and Martinez del Rio 2007, Meyer 1966,
Pianka and Vitt 2003, Pough 1980, Rubio 1998, Schmidt-
Nielsen 1991). Our observations of two L. pyromelana at a loca-
tion lacking surface water suggest that, while surface water is not
a requirement for Nevada L. pyromelana, it is an important com-
ponent of their habitat, as the other eight individuals were
observed in close proximity to streams. We suggest that riparian
vegetation provides the link between L. pyromelana and water.
Lampropeltis pyromelana was generally found in close proximity
to riparian vegetation. Riparian vegetation provides cover, mod-
erates microclimate, and is more productive than uplands in
providing a greater prey base (lizards and small mammals).
Although the exact details of the relationship between L. pyrome-
lana and riparian areas remain unclear, a combination or inter-
action between factors such as surface water, prey base, cover,
and microclimate are almost certainly responsible.

Conclusion
Prior to these surveys, fewer than ten L. pyromelana were docu-
mented from Nevada. These surveys doubled that number, doc-
umented natural history and ecology of the species, and further
documented reptilian diversity through collection of voucher
specimens. Partnerships facilitated these results. The partnership
between Nevada Department of Wildlife and Great Basin
National Park was critical in this effort, as were the efforts of the
academic, professional, and amateur herpetologists who pro-
vided the bulk of the observations and data.

Although this is the largest dataset on Nevada L. pyromelana,
it is quite limited (10 observations over a two-year period).
Lampropeltis pyromelana is a sensitive species in Great Basin
National Park, a species of conservation priority in Nevada’s
Wildlife Actions Plan, and is protected from collection in

90 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 15, NUMBER 2  •  JUNE 2008 HAMILTON AND CONRAD

Lampropeltis pyromelana habitat in the Snake Range varied from open
sagebrush shrubland to piñon/juniper woodland. Habitats were gen-
erally close to perennial riparian vegetation and had high cover in the
form of rocks or vegetation.



IGUANA  •  VOLUME 15, NUMBER 2  •  JUNE 2008 91SONORAN MOUNTAIN KINGSNAKE

Nevada. Further surveys will be conducted. With continued data
and voucher collection, the resolution of our understanding of
reptilian communities in the Great Basin continues to improve.
For more information on surveying, please contact the authors.

Acknowledgements
Surveyors who provided much of the data for this work: Aaron
Ambose, Gretchen Baker, JoAnn Blalack, Rosaleen Conrad, Neal
Darby, Alan De Quieroz, Brian Eagar, Jenny Hamilton, Mandy
Harmon, Stephanie Harris, Mark Hazel, Meg Horner, John Hurst,
RayJean Layland, Neil Marchington, Nichole Marchington, Dan
Mulcahy, Erika Nowak, Ryan O’Donnell, Ben Roberts, Travis
Smith, Harry Sweet, Dave Syzdek, Shawn Thomas, Ryan Thomas,
Fran Thompson, Jen Ward, Becky Williams, and Jason Williams.

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Cooperative surveys by Great Basin National Park and NDOW
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demic and agency biologists. These cooperative efforts doubled the
available information on Lampropeltis pyromelana in Nevada.




