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142 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 15, NUMBER 3  •  SEPTEMBER 2008 COTÍ AND ARIANO-SÁNCHEZ

The Guatemalan Black Iguana (Ctenosaura palearis) is one of five species of Spiny-tailed Iguanas found in Guatemala.

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The Semiarid Region of the Motagua Valley (SRMV) is one
of the few regions of Mesoamerica in which the unique

tropical dry forest and thorn scrub ecosystem still remains. One
of the principal characteristics of this region is the presence of
many endemic species (Nájera 2006), such as the Guatemalan
Black Iguana (Ctenosaura palearis). The genus Ctenosaura is rep-
resented by five species in Guatemala: C. alfredschmidti (north-
ern Guatemala), C. flavidorsalis (eastern Guatemala), C. similis

(general distribution), C. acanthura (Nentón Valley), and C.
palearis (Köhler 2003, Acevedo 2006).

Ctenosaura palearis was described by Stejneger in 1899.
Since then, few studies have addressed the species. Buckley and
Axtell (1997) studied populations of C. palearis in Guatemala
and Honduras, and described the Honduran population as
Ctenosaura melanosterna. Ctenosaura palearis is believed to have
a total distribution range of less than 100 km2. Total population
size is unknown, but may consist of fewer than 2,500 mature
individuals in the wild (Köhler 2004). The males of this species
have been reported to attain a total length of 56.5 cm, and the
females 48.5 cm (Köhler 2003).

Ctenosaura palearis is included in the IUCN Red List as
Critically Endangered (CR), but the lack of ecological informa-
tion makes developing conservation strategies difficult. To facil-
itate that process, we herein describe some ecological aspects and
traditional uses of the Guatemalan Black Iguana in the dry for-
est of the Motagua Valley.

Material and Methods
The SRMV is located in northeastern Guatemala. This region
has the lowest average rainfall in Central America (500 mm) and
comprises an area of about 200,000 ha, covering portions of the
departments of El Progreso, Zacapa, and Chiquimula.
Fieldwork was conducted in the mountains of El Arenal Village,
Cabañas, and Zacapa. Cabañas is located 150 km from
Guatemala City at the geographic coordinates 14º56'32" N and
89º48'24.9" W. The vegetation in this area is composed mainly
of Mimosaceae, Cactaceae, Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and
Burseraceae. Representative species include Zacapan Oak
(Bucida macrostachya), Quebracho (Licania hypoleuca), Palo de
Jiote (Bursera simaruba), Yaje (Leucaena sp.), Zarza Blanca
(Mimosa platycarpa), Manzanote (Pereskia autumnalis), Cactus
Cabeza de Viejo (Pilosocereus albocephalus), Stenocereus spp.,
Subín (Acacia spadicigera), Opuntia sp., Naranjillo (Jacquinia
spp.), and Piña de Coche (Hechtia guatemalensis) (Ariano-
Sánchez 2003).

Ecology and Traditional Use of the
Guatemalan Black Iguana 

(Ctenosaura palearis) in the Dry Forests 
of the Motagua Valley, Guatemala

Paola Cotí1 and Daniel Ariano-Sánchez2

1 Biology Department, Universidad del Valle de Guatemala (paoniz@gmail.com)
2 Research and Conservation Projects Direction, Zootropic Organization (dariano@zootropic.com; darianosanchez@gmail.com)

Photographs by the authors.

IGUANA  •  VOLUME 15, NUMBER 3  •  SEPTEMBER 2008 143GUATEMALAN BLACK IGUANA

�

Hatchling Ctenosaura palearis observed in June 2007.

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To determine the actual use of C. palearis by local villagers,
we visited different areas of the Motagua Valley and surveyed
inhabitants of the local communities.

We used the quadrant point method to determine if igua-
nas select any particular microhabitat. The quadrants were estab-
lished in areas with known iguana shelters and each one was
assigned a random replicate in a zone without known shelters.
The location of random replicates was determined by using a
computerized random number generator. Quadrants were 10 x
10 m in size and centered on the iguana shelter. In the random
quadrants, the largest tree in the quadrant was designated as the
center. Quadrants were oriented from north to south. We meas-
ured tree height and diameter at breast height (DBH). A
Wilcoxon test was used to evaluate differences in DBH and tree
height within areas with and without iguana shelters. We used
JMP version 5 (SAS Institute, Cary, North Carolina) for statis-
tical analyses.

The general location, exact position, and date were
recorded for each iguana captured. Each iguana also was
weighed and the following measurements were taken: snout-
vent length (SVL), tail length (TL), head length, head width,
and total length. We used a mark-recapture technique to deter-
mine the population size in the study area, using the Jolly (1965)
method. Captures took place from May 2007 to March 2008.
Iguanas were marked with bead tags (Binns and Burton 2007),
using seven different colored beads in a unique identification
code. The sequence for each iguana was recorded for the next
capture. Also, we permanently marked each individual with PIT
Tags, using AVID microchips.

To evaluate feeding habits, we collected fecal samples and
stored them in 80% propanol. Contents of the samples were clas-
sified and identified using reference collections of plants and
insects. We also considered direct observations of animals eating.

Results
Traditional Use
A large percentage (88%) of the people surveyed indicated that
they had eaten iguanas in the past, but only 38.6% of them eat
them currently. No preferred hunting season exists, but some
people hunted preferentially in February–April during the egg-
laying season. The number of iguanas killed ranged from two to
five and as high as 60, depending on whether hunting is for con-
sumption or trade. Twenty percent of people who make personal
use of iguanas use them strictly for meat, 58% use the meat and
egg yolks, and 22% use the meat, egg yolks, and skin. Locals
have a marked preference for the consumption of C. palearis
meat over that of C. similis. The Guatemalan Black Iguana is not
used for any traditional handicrafts because of its small size.

Hunting is the primary method for obtaining iguanas
(84%); some people buy iguanas (8%) or combine both meth-
ods (8%). Iguanas are hunted primarily for food for local fami-
lies; however, we detected two areas in the department of El
Progreso where C. palearis is hunted for the illegal pet trade. Local
people will collect 60 or more animals and sell them to random
buyers who then sell them to international illegal traders.

Guatemalan Black Iguanas, especially soup made from their
meat, are believed to have medicinal properties. People say it is
used to heal eye problems and cancer (especially if the meat is

consumed), and the fat is used to relieve swellings and for heal-
ing earaches.

Habitat Characterization
Using 22 quadrants and their respective replicates, we sampled a
total of 6,400 m2 (0.64 ha). Trees in quadrants with C. palearis
shelters are significantly larger (P = 0.0002) and taller (P = 0.0001)
than trees in the replicates. Mean DBH of tree in areas with C.
palearis shelters was 8.84 ± 6.68 cm, whereas those in the ran-
domly chosen areas had a mean DBH of 7.84 ± 6.37 cm. Tree
height averaged 4.96 ± 2.5 m in areas with C. palearis shelters,
whereas mean height in replicate quadrants was 4.53 ± 2.5 m.

The range of C. palearis included areas of dry forest and
thorn scrub at elevations of 350–700 m above sea level. The pre-
dominant species in areas with iguanas were tree cacti
(Stenocereus pruinosus, Ximena americana, Tecoma stans, and
Licania hypoleuca). For randomly defined replicates, predomi-
nant species were Bucida macrostachya, Mimosa zacapana,
Lonchocarpus rugosus, Psidium sp., and Stenmadenia obovata.

Population Size and Habitat Use
We captured 70 individuals (36 males and 34 females). The esti-
mated total population size for the study area was 99 individu-
als. Maximum estimated population size for the entire study site
(3,000 ha) was 651 individuals with a 95% level of confidence.
This works out to an average density of one individual every
1.69 ha. Most iguanas were found in trees, confirming that this
species is primarily arboreal. The tree cactus Stenocereus pruinosus
was the species most frequently used by C. palearis (N = 33), fol-
lowed by L. hypoleuca (N = 4), T. stans (N = 5), X. americana (N
= 3), and a few other species selected only once. Three individ-
uals used fallen logs. Actual shelters were usually hollow trunks
or branches. Iguanas in shelters used their spiny tails to block
the entrances. Lizards leave shelters as daytime temperatures rise.
During the day, they use the crowns of trees and the highest
parts of cacti for basking and displaying. They return to their
shelters at 1600–1700 h.

Individuals demonstrate fidelity to a set of shelters, which
are used as refugia. One adult male used five shelters covering
an area of 475 m2 (0.047 ha). A juvenile male used two sites

144 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 15, NUMBER 3  •  SEPTEMBER 2008 COTÍ AND ARIANO-SÁNCHEZ

The dry forests of El Arenal Village in the Motagua Valley of
Guatemala.

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IGUANA  •  VOLUME 15, NUMBER 3  •  SEPTEMBER 2008 145GUATEMALAN BLACK IGUANA

Hollow tree stumps and branches used by Ctenosaura palearis.

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within a distance of 200 m. Two females were recorded making
use of only two shelters.

Feeding Habits
We examined 19 fecal samples (9 from females and 11 from
males). The diet consists mainly of insects (47.83%) and plant
material such as flowers (15.37%), fruits (7.69%,), and leaves
(26.92%). The most frequently represented insects were ants
(19%) and crickets (15.38%). One fecal sample contained large
numbers of fly larvae that may have been ingested adventitiously
with fruit. Species recognized in the plant material were leaves
of Licania hypoleuca, flowers of Cochlospermum vitifolium, and
the fruits and seeds of Stenocereus pruinosus. We also found
stones and resin.

We frequently have seen C. palearis feeding on fruits of S.
pruinosus. Faces and forelimbs colored by the red pigment of this

cactus fruit are a common site. We captured three individuals
with evidence of residual pulp and seeds stuck to their faces.
These fruits are available from March through early May.

Food varied by season. The samples from May to September
were composed mainly of leaves, fibers, and ants. In contrast, sam-
ples from November to December had smaller quantities of fiber
and an increased number of leaf sprouts. Samples from February
to March contained flowers, beetles, crickets, and ants (and other
hymenopterans). Sample sizes were too small to determine if
observed seasonal differences were significant.

Reproduction
Female C. palearis have an annual reproductive cycle.
Copulation occurs during January and February, and gravid
females are found in February and March. Females dig sand tun-

146 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 15, NUMBER 3  •  SEPTEMBER 2008 COTÍ AND ARIANO-SÁNCHEZ

Evidence of the feeding habits of Guatemalan Beaded Lizards
(Heloderma horridum charlesbogerti). The crushed eggshell on the right
was found inside the nest of an iguana. Also found in the same nest
were skin remnants from a Guatemalan Beaded Lizard.

A male Ctenosaura palearis on the branch of a Timboque tree
(Tecoma stans) displays his dewlap.

Biologist Paola Coti with her first-ever captured Ctenosaura palearis. The
male in the photo was the first marked with PIT tags for the project.JO

H
N

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IN

N
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IGUANA  •  VOLUME 15, NUMBER 3  •  SEPTEMBER 2008 147GUATEMALAN BLACK IGUANA

nels in which they lay their eggs. Nests were in banks of dry
streams and gullies and in sandy patches within the dry forest.
Six to twelve eggs are deposited from late March to late April.
Eggs begin hatching in late May, which coincides with the
beginning of the rainy season. Both males and females lose
weight during the reproductive season. We also found evidence
that Guatemalan Beaded Lizards (Heloderma horridum charles-
bogerti) are predators of C. palearis nests.

Discussion
Traditional Use 
Local villagers use C. palearis primarily as a protein source. The
species is heavily hunted in some areas, especially during the
breeding season when the killing of gravid females has a substan-
tial impact on the survival and viability of wild populations.

Although iguanas have been eaten by humans for many
generations, the impact is exacerbated today by habitat loss, ille-
gal trade, and non-sustainable hunting practices. Habitat loss is
due primarily to the increasing amount of land used for water-
melon cultivation and the construction of new residential zones

within the valley. Local people say they have seen a dramatic
diminution in wild iguana populations compared to 20 years ago.

Hunting of gravid female iguanas is non-sustainable. Animals
are consumed or hunters make an incision to remove eggs, sew
the iguanas up and let them go free. These individuals soon die in
the wild from bacterial infections and internal hemorrhages.

Illegal trade is proving to be a much more serious threat to
the species than hunting. People who catch iguanas for meat
usually catch six a month, while illegal traders often catch 50–60
iguanas a month. Web and market surveys have shown that this
species is sold in countries such as Greece, Germany, and the
United States for an average price of $25.00 per individual. All
Ctenosaura palearis sold outside Guatemala are illegal, as govern-
mental biodiversity authorities in Guatemala have not issued any
export permit for this species (CONAP 2008).

These factors seriously affect the viability of the extant pop-
ulations of C. palearis. Subsistence hunting as currently practiced
may cause long-term depletion of this species unless we develop
a sustainable extraction plan accompanied by legislation that reg-
ulates the use of this species for such purposes. Farming iguanas
may be a way of meeting the demand for iguana meat and eggs
within the valley. The more important threat at this time is the
illegal trade of this species on the international market. This may
be diminished by incorporating C. palearis in Appendix II of the
CITES convention. This iguana species certainly meets the cri-
teria for inclusion.

Habitat Characterization
Habitat selection may be determined by the availability of food
resources or the availability of trees providing suitable refugia
and basking sites (Valenzuela 1981, Lara-Lopez and Gonzales
2002). Our results indicate that species composition, average
height, and DBH of trees are important factors in habitat selec-
tion by C. palearis.

The tallest trees provide appropriate sites for males’ territo-
rial displays (Werner 1987). They also are used for thermoregu-
lation. Trunk diameter is an important factor in shelter selection,
mainly for the adults that require larger cavities for use as refu-
gia. For example, in the cactus Stenocereus pruinosus, the species
most frequently used by C. palearis as shelters, we have found

Evidence of the feeding habits of Ctenosaura palearis (from left to right): Fruits of the cactus Stenocerus pruinosus, iguana with seeds adhering to the
throat, and fruit pulp of S. pruinosus staining the throat of another individual.

Searching for Ctenosaura palearis inside a hollow trunk using a bore
scope funded by the San Diego Zoo.

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females, subadult males, and juveniles. However, in Licania
hypoleuca, which is thicker, we have found only adult males. The
composition of the vegetation also predicts the presence of C.
palearis. In areas where iguanas occur, the more abundant species
were S. pruinosus, Ximena america, Tecoma stans, and L.
hypoleuca. The first three species provide food and the last one
offers shelters for adult males.

Feeding Habits
Ctenosaura palearis is omnivorous and this may be a function of
the species’ size. Unlike other ctenosaurs, such as C. similis or C.
pectinata, that are large enough to feed on small vertebrates
(Krysko et al. 2000, Alvarez del Toro 1960, Campbell 1998,
Suazo and Alvarado 1994, Valenzuela 1981), we have not found
any vertebrate remains in the fecal samples of C. palearis.

Fecal samples were taken only from adults, and these con-
tained an abundance of insect remains. These data suggest that
the consumption of arthropods corresponds to the dry season,
when trees shed their leaves. At this time, adults must regain
body mass lost during the breeding season, so the consumption
of insects, flowers, and fruits contributes significantly to the
rebuilding of body condition.

Evidence from fecal samples indicates that ants are the
insects most commonly ingested. Iguanas presumably take
opportunistic advantage of the abundance of social insects that
are associated with the trees in which they live, similar to other
lizards that consume large numbers of ants (e.g., Phrynosoma
spp. and Moloch horridus; Pianka and Pianka 1970, Pianka
1966). Alternately, ants may be inadvertently ingested with fruit.
However, the great frequency and quantity of ants consumed is
strongly suggestive of intentional consumption.

Ecological Role of Ctenosaura palearis
Iguanas are important pollinators and seed dispersers (Godínez
2004, Olsen and Valido 2003, Traveset and Riera 2005).
Ctenosaura similis is one of the main seed dispersers for some
plants in the deciduous forests of Costa Rica (Traveset 1990).
Ctenosaura palearis is one of the most important species that
feeds on fruits of the cactus S. pruinosus, suggesting that it could
serve as a seed disperser of this endangered cactus, and conse-

quently contribute to forest cover regeneration. Seeds of S. pru-
inosus have been found in the feces and also attached to the gular
region of iguanas.

Also significant is the fact that iguana eggs are an impor-
tant food source for Heloderma horridum charlesbogerti (Ariano-
Sánchez 2007). We have found a C. palearis nest with remnants
of shredded Heloderma skin. The latter species is in extreme dan-
ger of extinction (Ariano-Sánchez 2006, Ariano-Sánchez and
Salazar 2007). Therefore, maintaining a stable population of C.
palearis might be important for conserving wild populations of
H. horridum charlesbogerti. These data suggest that C. palearis
might be a keystone species for the dry forests of the Motagua
Valley (Mills et al. 1993). More detailed studies, especially on
the diet of the iguana, are crucial in determining the role the
species plays in seed dispersal and germination.

Conservation Status
The conservation status of C. palearis is better than previously
believed. However, threats to this endemic species are increas-
ing, making the development of conservation strategies an
imperative. The promotion of sustainable hunting practices
should become part of the existing program of environmental
education conducted in the region. Nest monitoring and further
research into the demographic status and the effectiveness of the
Guatemalan Black Iguana as a keystone species are also impor-
tant. Data from such studies will provide more information
about the ecology of C. palearis and might allow us to develop
an ecologically sustainable harvest for local villagers. Other tech-
niques, such as radio-tracking, could significantly help scientists
learn more about the activities of these ctenosaurs.

No species of Ctenosaura is included in the CITES appen-
dices. However, limited protection is provided by certain coun-
tries. For example, in Mexico, the majority of species of
Ctenosaura are cataloged as threatened or under special protec-
tion (Alvarado and Suazo 1996). In Guatemala, C. palearis is
considered a threatened species on the red list of endangered
flora and fauna of the National Council of Protected Areas
(CONAP). However, the lack of a regulatory entity for the inter-
national trade makes it difficult to control illicit commerce in
this species.

Inclusion in the CITES appendices would provide a tremen-
dous impetus for the conservation of these animals, both nation-
ally and internationally. However, if this position is not supported
by the countries with native populations of ctenosaurs, the inclu-
sion of the Guatemalan endemic Ctenosaura palearis in Appendix
II of CITES could still contribute to diminishing the threat of
commercial trade on international markets.

Acknowledgments
We thank Gilberto Salazar and Pedro Mejia for their invaluable
field assistance. Zootropic, the International Reptile
Conservation Foundation, and Zoo Atlanta provided financial
and technical support for the present study. CONAP issued per-
mits for the research. Special thanks to Luis Alvarado, John
Binns, Brad Lock, Jack Schuster, Elfriede Pöll, Cesar Castañeda,
Mario Véliz, and Doris Carbonell. The present paper is part of
the Biology degree thesis of P. Cotí at Universidad del Valle de
Guatemala.

148 IGUANA  •  VOLUME 15, NUMBER 3  •  SEPTEMBER 2008 COTÍ AND ARIANO-SÁNCHEZ

Researchers and the field vehicle (financed by the IRCF and Zoo
Atlanta) used for the research project. 

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Guatemala supports a phenomenally diverse flora and fauna, which we
will feature in an upcoming issue. The Northern Tamandua
(Tamandua mexicana) is a slow-moving anteater that inhabits the dry
and tropical forests of Guatemala. It feeds exclusively on ants and ter-
mites. The prehensile tail is well-adapted to a semi-arboreal lifestyle, as
are the claws, which also are used for defense and tearing open termite
nests.

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