53 PARADOX OF DEVELOPMENT: AFTERMATH CRISIS OF COVID-19 EXPERIENCE IN NIGERIA Uzodigwe Nnamdi Adolphus Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka Nnamdi.uzodigwe@unn.edu.ng & Agbo Chukwuebuka Emmanuel Aston University Brimingham, United Kingdom 240253141@aston.ac.uk DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.33952.39688 Abstract Despite the axiom “giant of Africa” is a phrase that has not reflected in Nigeria's development. The study explains the multiple variants of challenges ranging from deficit in infrastructural development to widespread corruption among public servants in aftermath of Covid-19 experience in Nigeria. Amidst of these challenges comes the global pandemic outbreak called the corona virus (Covid-19). The African continent especially Nigeria has been on lockdown since March 2020 to this very day. This lockdown is one of the measures put in place by the federal government to halt the spread of this deadly virus in Nigeria. The lockdown has resulted in social dislocation, a great loss in capital formation, increased poverty rate, stunted economic growth, increased external debt, and loss of human life. This study analyzes the impact of COVID-19 amidst the development challenges of Nigeria. The study adopted the theory of social production of material wealth which implicated the state of Nigeria's production process and development strategy. The study employs a documentary method of data collection and data are analyzed based on a content analysis procedure. The paper concludes that the COVID-19 experience in Nigeria has coincided with the character of production process and development in Nigeria. State production has become industrialized in face of this deadly virus attack in Nigeria. Keywords: Covid-19, Development, Nigeria, Production Process, Crisis, Political class Introduction Economists have argued strongly that development, infrastructures and growth can be subsumed to mean building definite economic and military sector towards world class base. The development of Nigeria has been one of the challenging factors setting the country backward since independence in 1960. The decay witnessed in Nigerian economy can be strongly linked to misappropriation of wealth of the state by few powerful individuals, political class. The political class has remain in power despite several attempt oust it from power either as military coup or constitutional means, impeachment. The political class has taken different shapes and forms in administration and regimes since the birth of Nigeria. Nigeria is blessed with different mineral resources and crude oil production yet with all this available the country has not witnessed geometrical progression in capital human development. Infrastructural development in Nigeria has decayed totally. Absence of good drinkable water, inadequate constant power supply, inadequate health facilities, increase in food pricing, dearth of GDP and increase in mortality rate, etc. infrastructural deficit has lead to increase in the suffering of the poor masses. It is a clear estimation today that over 85 percent of Nigeria, mostly in northern part of the country. In Nigeria today hunger and starvation kills faster than diseases and internal terrorist operations. The National Bureau of Statistics in Nigeria has warned that by 2025 that most Nigerians will face worst than global pandemic disease, malnutrition and hunger. IGWEBUIKE: An African Journal of Arts and Humanities. Vol. 10. No. 5, (2024) ISSN: 2488- 9210 (Print) 2504-9038 (Online) Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Tansian University, Umunya 54 Nigeria remains the fifth oil producing nation globally. Her crude oil resources have turn out to be a huge course on the part of national development. Instead of Nigerians to be glad and enjoy the benefits that are accrued to oil producing nations of the world. It has become a place of hunger and death toll of insurgent and ethnic militia. Even the Niger Delta part of Nigeria that produces the large portion of the crude oil have not benefited from its proceeds. There land and sea ports, including its environs have been destroyed by the gas inflammation and oil spillage. The thrust of this study is to synthesize that despite the worsen development of Nigeria as a nation, especially in the limelight of the novel Covid-19 pandemic. The global pandemic Corona virus in Nigeria has open a fresh wound of inconsistency and incompetency that have saddled the activities of her political elites. The political elites or class are now faced with a biblical double edged sword that kills the owner if not properly handled and the enemy if well utilized. On the above stated premise lies the point of our departure in revamping the status of our Nigerians development challenges. Aftermath Of Covid-19 Explained Corona viruses are driving from a family of virus that cause illness ranging from the common cold, body pain, Middle East respiratory syndrome, and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-COV). Corona virus novel disease (nCOV) is a new strain that has not been previously witnessed in humans. Corona viruses are mainly zoonotic, meaning that they can be transmitted between animals and people. Investigations from different sources and laboratories found out that SARS-COV was originally transmitted from carrier cats to humans and MERS-COV from dromedary camels back to humans. Historically, coronavirus began in Wuhan, Hubei Province of China. People and foreigners who lived in Wuhan had some link to large seafood and live animal markets, which suggests that the mode of transmission of the virus was from animal to person. The virus has been named “SARS- CoV-2” by scientists and the disease it causes has been named "coronavirus disease 2019” (as abbreviated to mean “Covid-19”). The name was taken to avoid stigmatizing the virus's origins in terms of populations, geography, or animal associations. The first known patient of the Coronavirus started experiencing symptoms in Wuhan, China on 1 December 2019. Since then, there have been over 970,000 reported death cases around the world. Recently, there is a widespread of corona virus both in animals and in humans. There are certain signs of this disease which includes, fever, and cough, shortness of breath, respiratory syndrome, kidney failure and death. The world health organization has provided standard recommendations to prevent the spread of this novel disease which include, regular hand washing, covering mouth and nose when coughing and sneezing thoroughly cooking meat and eggs. There should be strict avoidance with anyone that is showing symptoms of respiratory illness such as coughing and sneezing. Theoretical Analysis The theory of social production of material wealth is closely associated with the dialectical materialism of Marxian scholarship. Major prominent of this theory include Lenina (1978); Nnoli (1981); Ake (1981); Ogban-Iyam (2005) and Stavrou (2011). Nnoli (1981) stated that social production and reproduction assigns a character to other aspects of human values. What is produced and reproduced over time is determined by the factor of labor-power, the object of labour, means of labour, and who decides what to be produced, when, and how. However, a change that occurs in these operations directly or indirectly influences other aspects of human life. It is the political class in Nigeria that makes this major decision of production process in alternative to the masses means of survival. At the hit of the COVID-19 pandemic in Nigeria, the IGWEBUIKE: An African Journal of Arts and Humanities. Vol. 10. No. 5, (2024) ISSN: 2488- 9210 (Print) 2504-9038 (Online) Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Tansian University, Umunya 55 political class was busy amassing the loan browed to develop different sectors of the country. Many of the stolen funds were used by the same political class in creating other values or wealth. Ogban-iyam (2005) attests to the above assertion when he clearly stated that those who did not decide on what to produce, are generally at the end of the social production system. The decisions taken are not satisfied by them which make them seek for a total change of the system. People that choose what to produce, also determines who controls political power. During the COVID-19 pandemic heat, Nigeria political leadership instead of providing a development strategy that works, they continue to strengthen the means of state production. Instead of engaging the factors of production to yield greater relief to the suffering of the masses, the leadership continues to amass public funds for their benefits. Ake (1981) opined that despite the achievements of capitalism which include the creation of wealth and development of science and technology, it has also generated disparity and inequality among classes of people. Despite the huge money that Nigerian political leadership got from the sales of oil globally, they can't boost of an adequate standard health facility. They were busy stealing from the public treasury and receiving health services out of Nigeria. They never saw the draught coming (Covid-19) that places banned on international flight and movement (lockdown). This increased the number of persons that died as a result of the novel disease in Nigeria in two months interval. Other sectors of the economy bleed deeply too. It is of great essence for us to state here that expository analysis of the African production process reveals that the state is a major means of production as the dominant political class relies on the acquisition of state power to survive and reproduce material wealth (Miliband, 1977). Political officials and politicians are pressured towards securing monetary rewards in detriment of the common survival of the masses. It is obvious that people migrate or emigrate, go to wars or make peace, become educated or illiterates, religious or to maintain or seek to change their means of survival (Ezeibe C.C, 2016). Overview Of Nigerians Development Crisis Nigeria's economic development has been a major challenge among her citizens, political leadership, and political analyst in discussion and practicality. Various issues have been detailed by groups and perspectives in this regard. Citizens and political leaders have failed to propagate th good governance and rule law over the years since independence. Nigeria's 60 independence has virtually nothing to boast in terms of improvement in per capita income and other economic growth indexes. Uzodigwe Nnamdi et.al (2023) argued that Africans development stagnation has also been affected by global unification of the world system. The further stated that Africa and Nigeria's development needs a development strategy on its own for a total self-relied growth (African Globalization). The political leadership in Nigeria has continued to accumulate state productive force and the production process has become an instrument in the hands of the ruling elites. Here are some of the issues that are common among scholars as problems facing Nigeria's economic development. 1. Rooted Corruption: corruption is of international concern. Since the independence of Nigeria, corrupt officials or politician has continued to loot the country dry. Corruption is now seen by all Nigerian to be associated with our culture and more so a trans-generational decay. The political elites have deployed the arsenal of political power into the production process of state accumulation of wealth. Politics by other means has become the means of survival by political gladiators. For many years, Nigeria has been an oil producer on the globe but the character of her IGWEBUIKE: An African Journal of Arts and Humanities. Vol. 10. No. 5, (2024) ISSN: 2488- 9210 (Print) 2504-9038 (Online) Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Tansian University, Umunya 56 state actors has continued to improvish the entire country. However, the problem is that money from oil does not flow to the people. 2. Macro Economic Adaptation: The total consistency by politicians and officeholders occasioned by greed are among the reasons for the country's mono-economy practice over the years. Every administration that comes into power lacks consistency in policy initiatives instead of working on the previous one. The over-concentration of Nigeria in oil production has greatly influenced her advancement in growth and development. However, Nigeria has many inefficient and ineffective applied public policies. This can be seen from the National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS) by President Olusegun Obasanjo in 2003 to Buhari's policy of making Nigeria the top 20 biggest global economies by 2023. 3. Inadequate Human Development: The human development index has become one of the strong ways of revamping one's economic development, Ezeibe C.C (2016). In general, human resources play a significant role in the success or failure of any state. The major challenge facing the Nigerian economy reflects the poor quality of the state economic health and human development. This is a situation that has been neglected for many years. This issue facing educational institutions today is directly associated with the quality of her human development. 4. Development of Market System: There is no productive competition in the system. There is no interaction between market forces and human development Good market governance must work hand in hand with healthy competition. Though market forces guide' actual capitalistic economics, but Nigeria's version of capitalism has not developed properly. The self-regulating character and demand and supply define the status of one's work and live, how much one earns, and what he/she can buy. However, the federal government of Nigeria often interferes with the activities of the market. Unfortunately, the federal government has a valid monopoly of setting the price of products and other goods services. In 2016, and subsequently, in 2020 the federal government randomly increased the cost of fuel without paying attention to the negative distributive effects on the Nigerian economy and citizens. 5. Increased Crime and Terrorism Rate: These two negative influences have affected the economic situation of the country badly. The Nigerian crime rate in Nigeria gives many people sleepless nights. In some places, people feel that they cannot walk around their neighborhoods freely anymore, especially towards the Northern part of the country. Public security is an essential part of every progressive state, and Nigeria has failed in this respect. As for terrorist attacks, they are now on the rise in Nigeria, which is the result of Boko Haram, banditry, and Fulani herdsmen activities over the past years. A different violent attack such as bombings, kidnappings, has made Nigeria ungovernable. Recently, Nigeria is listed as one of the three countries occasioned by death troll by terrorism. The Global Peace Index ranked Nigeria as the 5th least peaceful country in the world. Boko Haram kidnapped hundreds of children, mostly girls (about 276 Chibok schoolgirls) from villages and schools in Northern Nigeria in 2014. These girls were secondary school pupils at the Government Secondary School, Chibok, Borno State, in Nigeria. Recently, the convoy of the Borno State in the north-east part of Nigeria was attacked twice in a month leaving many security officers dead and injured. In the Northern part of Nigeria, school children cannot finish their studies due to the looming threat of murder and kidnapping. 6. Unemployment: Unemployment is one of the strongest problems in Nigeria, as many graduates are disappointed due to joblessness in the country. It seems like it has become vicious circles in Nigeria. An unemployment increase is because of the economic recession and IGWEBUIKE: An African Journal of Arts and Humanities. Vol. 10. No. 5, (2024) ISSN: 2488- 9210 (Print) 2504-9038 (Online) Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Tansian University, Umunya 57 politicizing of the job created. Nigeria needs to break out of this vicious cycle, for tangible development. According to reports by the National Bureau Statistics (NBS), Nigeria's unemployment rate has increased by 27.1% in 2020. Just in 2019, the rate of unemployment in Nigeria was 23.1%, and the underemployment rate was 16.6%. It is projected that the rate of increased unemployment in Nigeria will hit 33.5 percent by the end of 2020, especially with the current displacement and dislocation of many jobs by the COVID-19 pandemic nationwide. Nigerian graduates cannot even acquire useful skills during their education process. They were busy reading textbooks and formulating theories without having an opportunity to practice what they read. That is why they apply for some technical jobs, and they are not hired due to the lack of specialized skills and abilities. As a result, graduates usually stay in their parents' house for a long period, with mounting depression and frustration. This unemployment saga is one of the leading causes of crime and terrorism among youth in Nigeria. 7. Education System: The system has been crippled with structural imbalances and infrastructural decay for many years. The attitude of the federal government towards the improvement of the educational system in Nigeria has been politicized. The low payment of both lecturers and teachers of universities, secondary school is nothing to write home about. Corruption has spread to the Nigerian educational system also, especially in universities. Professors are used to taking money or sexual satisfaction from students in exchange for good marks. Many students do bribe university executives and administrators to have their exam results submitted and compiled for the National Youth Service Corps. This is a true reflection of the state of things in most Nigerian universities today. The higher institutions of learning in Nigeria are not in good shape. The facilities that are needed to adequately teach students from a primary, secondary, and higher institution so that they can be competent to firms after graduation are inadequately placed or missing totally. In the university curriculum in Nigeria, too much theory is emphasized and a total lack of practice is a big issue. This has affected our technological development in comparison to other developed countries. 8. Health and Environmental Sector: The health and environmental standards of Nigeria have fallen to a great measure. However, in 2015, Amnesty International announced that Nigeria experiences hundreds of oil spillage annually in the Niger Delta. This is mainly because of the sabotage of oil pipelines, erosion, and uncaring attitude by oil firms. This is also linked to the hike in oil prices and low standard of leaving. Oil spillage wilts the soil nutrients and other essential elements. This process can lead to damage in the communities who farm and fish in the Niger Delta and the general national economy. Another main problem facing the country's economy is the health issue. There is no standard hospital in Nigeria as a nation. Medical practitioners are not paid properly as at when necessary due huge corruption been witnessed in the sector. Virtually all the hospitals in Nigeria don't have the necessary equipment to handle critical issues. 9. Infrastructure: Infrastructural decay may seem simple compared to other issues such as security challenges. Nigeria's power sector is nothing to write home about. There is a hick in the price of electricity supplied and no nation has ever developed without constant power supply. The power sector is mismanaged with corrupt workers, and so many of them are incompetent. This example can be seen in other areas such as clean water supply, connecting good roads, pipe born water development in communities, etc. In general, domestic production suffers worse kinds of conditions, including production processes and foreign companies also find it hard to invest their business in Nigeria due to the constant power failures, insecurity, and good road. IGWEBUIKE: An African Journal of Arts and Humanities. Vol. 10. No. 5, (2024) ISSN: 2488- 9210 (Print) 2504-9038 (Online) Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Tansian University, Umunya 58 The Nigerian Economy after Covid-19 There are structural factors that worsen the economic crisis of Nigeria in the global pandemic. In this section of the paper, I detailed the key structural impediment that triggered or worsen the current economic crisis. These major issues are politically occasioned and others long-aged impediments that coincided with the rise of COVID-19, especially in 2020. Poor public health infrastructure The public health sector in Nigeria has inadequate infrastructure such as poor emergency services, few ambulance services systems, ineffective national health insurance systems, insufficient primary health care system, and these problems in the public health sector which are linked to the rise of mortality rates in the country. Despite the introduction of the National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) in 2004, the population protected by health insurance in 2019 was about 6 percent of the total population. The Nigerian pharmaceutical industry also has its problems. The Nigerian pharmaceutical industry is assumed the largest in West Africa and owns up to about 63% of the market share in Africa. However, pharmaceutical ingredients (API) used in Nigeria are directly imported from China, and only 8% of the drugs used in Nigeria are manufactured indigenously in the country. The industry is having many problems such as poor systematic and unreliable utilities, unskilled workers, inadequate access to finance, and lack of appropriate government incentives. This has made the industry lack robust competitiveness especially from Asian and Chinese companies were most pharmaceutical products are imported in Nigeria. Uzodigwe et.al (2020) believed that religious inclination in Nigeria political system contributes greatly to the spread of Covid virus. This brought about the spread of the dangerous virus. However, the short-fall in Nigeria's public health sector made it hard for Nigeria to adequately manage the fast-spreading Covid-19 disease during the outbreak. Lack of testing and acceptability of local drug manufacturers by the necessary bodies worsen the whole situation. The increment in the number of infected patients in Lagos alone grew worse to the extent that some parts of the stadium had to be converted to an isolation center. This defeated Nigeria's inadequate public health sector. Inefficient Digital Economy Before the inception of the Covid-19 outbreak, Nigeria already had a weak and inefficient digital economy. There was hardly any academy or school that offered a full educational curriculum online from start to finish. The banking system has not upgraded to a more digital phase. Most businesses, and companies, operated using the traditional means of the working system. The outbreak of the novel coronavirus brought various problems that have to do with the environment in Nigeria. The worst-hit remains industries and markets structurally. The mode of markets and industrial operation has been affected largely by global digital infrastructure. The services that were offered appropriately within the existing global digital infrastructure during the Covid-19 outbreak were telecommunication, digital mobile bank transfers, and internet services. A strong digital economy would have played a major role in driving recovery from the recent economic crisis in Nigeria. A well robust and developed digital economy can revamp this untold hardship in Nigeria. For instance, the Nigerian educational system is on collapse because all these years both private and government have failed to digitalize our schools and universities to meet up with the international standard of learning. Most of the shopping malls and supermarkets in Nigeria don't have E-commerce apps that enable online buying and selling can allow buyers and sellers to make purchases and sales while staying in their homes, especially during the lock down. All these are possible when there is a robust and well-functioning digital economy. IGWEBUIKE: An African Journal of Arts and Humanities. Vol. 10. No. 5, (2024) ISSN: 2488- 9210 (Print) 2504-9038 (Online) Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Tansian University, Umunya 59 Globally, well functioning digital technology helped many businesses in developed countries to mitigate the effect of the Covid-19 outbreak. Inadequate welfare program Nigeria does not have a national social welfare program that offers help to all individuals and families in need of; health care assistance, food products, unemployment compensation scheme, disaster relief stipend, and educational assistance. The effect of not establishing a national social welfare program nationwide has dealt with ordinary Nigerian, especially during the novel outbreak of the coronavirus of 2020. During the outbreak, poor masses have little to relay on. There was little or no social welfare relief or palliative to help them cope with the economic hardship at the time. Revamping Nigeria's Development after Covi-19 The government response has not metamorphosed into any increase in output towards the betterment of the masses. The economic development of Nigeria has been worsening in the COVID-19 era. The following is how the government should respond to minimize the impact of COVID-19 and to a larger extent increase the output of her economic development. This occurs in several ways; Empowerment of SMEs It is the duty of the federal government through the central bank of Nigeria to give out loans and incentives to SMEs to support the local industry for growth and development. The novel Coronavirus has suppressed the local industry. Adequate Healthcare Support System Before the inception of COVID-19, Nigeria's healthcare institutions were already saddled and struggled to cope with poor medical supplies, tools, shortage of medical workers, and poor infrastructure. The healthcare system in Nigeria cannot withstand the pressure associated with the Covid-19 experience round the globe. The challenges of this COVID-19 include adequate bed facilities, working ventilation, spacious hospital, and the availability of well equipped medical personnel's. To be able to stand the chance of fighting against COVID-19 and in treating those requiring intensive care, Nigeria's healthcare sector must be supported through adequate funding, incentives for medical workers, and healthcare subsidies for the most vulnerable people. Creation of Incentives and Safety Nets for the Masses Through certain tax incentives increase, social transfers, and regulatory guide, the Nigerian government is supposed to aid minimize the increase of COVID-19 on the most vulnerable businesses and masses. The adoption of social distancing mechanisms and lockdowns in the most affected cities states to limit the spread of the virus. In beginning, the government should partner with nongovernmental groups such as trade unions, which have a wider scope, to deliver monetary support to people in looking or searching for employment. Enable Emergence Sub-National Governments Sub-national governments or regional have improved their resilience to oil-related crises by increased internally generated revenue. But even still, many would struggle to pay wages given the crisis. Therefore, the central government and the Central Bank of Nigeria should expand loans to states in Nigeria to enable them to pay laborers and support the healthcare sector. Reduction in Administrative Cost IGWEBUIKE: An African Journal of Arts and Humanities. Vol. 10. No. 5, (2024) ISSN: 2488- 9210 (Print) 2504-9038 (Online) Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Tansian University, Umunya 60 Nigerian government should reduce the cost of governance by reducing administrative costs by listing the opportunity cost of the most effective developmental programs. This will enable more capital to be channeled into other sectors of the economy, for example, health care facilities, and power supply. The money saved from excessive governmental spending can be used for infrastructural build-up for fiscal buffers to improve the country's resilience. Accordingly, reducing the mismanagement of public finances through a commitment to transparency, opening up budgets, and strengthening anti-corruption programs should be a concern during and post COVID-19. Now more than ever, legislatures and other arms must be responsive to lessen the impacts of the impending social and economic chaos and better prepare Nigeria for the future. Through the agency of the United Nations, Economic Commission for Africa is adequately coordinating African finance ministers to mobilize US$100 billion fiscal support across Africa. This will help curb the aftermath of the COVID-19 experience in Nigerian in particular. Diversification of the Economy Economic diversification is the process of moving an economy away from a mono income source towards multiple sources from a growing range of sectors and markets. Originally, it has been witnessed as a strategy to applaud positive economic means and development. Over- concentration in crude oil production in Nigeria is not enough to save Nigeria's economic depression. Nigeria has a lot of mineral resources which if properly harnessed can lead to total overhauling her economic development, especially during the COVID-19 experience. Indeed her economy needs to be diversified totally. This will increase the GDP and other indexes of growth and economy, Agricultural development is been neglected in Nigeria. During the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, agriculture contributed so much to Nigeria's source of income. Prosecution of Corrupt Officials The fight against corrupt officials in Nigeria should be total, through the anti-corruption agencies. However, the anti-corruption agencies are more like toothless dogs that can only bark but cannot bite these officials. The level of corruption in Nigeria has reached a pandemic mode whereby it can only be curbed when these agencies braise up to the occasion to prosecute political offenders irrespective of their political affiliations or personality cult. Sometimes the works of the agencies are heard and seen in the newspapers but in reality, they are have not prosecute the offenders according to the dictates of the law. Therefore, the Nigerian Government should seriously support the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission, Independent Corrupt Practices and Other Related Offences Commission (ICPC), and other agencies through the provision of necessary authority and funds to see to convictions of offenders. These will promote a more sustainable environment and also make the economy of Nigeria to be viable. Conclusion The paper concludes that the COVID-19 experience in Nigeria has coincided with Nigerian character of state production process of development. This state production character has become industrialized in face of this deadly virus attack globally and in Nigeria. Indeed our economic development is dependent on the character of the Nigerian political leadership and the policies emanated thereof. Its economic development needs total overhaul and revamping. The following are recommended. The war against corruption should be enhanced totally, with the anti-corruption agencies on tact. The Nigerian Government should seriously support and don't interfere in the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission, Independent Corrupt Practices Commission (ICPC) and other related agencies through its authorization and financial support, so to see that judgment is rightly served. This will aid the increase of a more secured environment and also make Nigerian IGWEBUIKE: An African Journal of Arts and Humanities. Vol. 10. No. 5, (2024) ISSN: 2488- 9210 (Print) 2504-9038 (Online) Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Tansian University, Umunya 61 economy great again. Secondly, political leaders and public officials who are found guilty on the account of corrupt practice are not face the law alone. There should be a general law prohibiting the participation of such personality in active politics. Most of Nigerian politicians and leaders have once been found guilty and prosecuted for a criminal offence of accumulation and mismanagement of state fund. It was discovered that they later returned into active politics and even became leaders. This is a serious crime against Nigerians national development. References Ake, C. (1981) A Political Economy of Africa. London: Longman. Amnesty International (2014) Welcome to Hell Fire: Torture and Other Ill- Treatment in Nigeria. London: Amnesty International Limited. AmnestyInternational(2016)h�ps://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/AFR4448682016EN GLISH.PDF. Open Society Justice Initiative, supra note 5. Ezeibe, C. (2016) ABC OF POLITICAL ECONOMY_A beginner's guide to understanding the state and economy, University of Nigeria Nsukka, press LTD. Lenina, I. (1978) ABC of Dialectical and Historical Materialism. Moscow: Progress Publishers. Milliband, R. (1977) Marxism and Politics. London: Oxford University Press. Nnoli, O. (1981) Path to Nigerian Development. Dakar: CODESRIA. Ogba Iyam, O. 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No. 5, (2024) ISSN: 2488- 9210 (Print) 2504-9038 (Online) Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Tansian University, Umunya