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IHiS (Indonesian Historical Studies) 5 (2), 115-133 © 2021 | E-ISSN: 2579-4213  

Science Technology Development in Dutch East Indies          | 115 

 
Received:  
January 21, 2022 
 
Revised:  
March 9, 2022 
 
Accepted:  
March 9, 2022 

Science and Technology Development in Dutch East Indies 
 

Maulana Akbar* & Tri Handayani 
The National Agency for Research and Innovation of The Republic of Indonesia, 

Jl. M. H. Thamrin No. 8, Jakarta - Indonesia 
 

*Corresponding Author: maulana.akbar@live.com 
DOI: https://doi.org/10.14710/ihis.v5i2.13475 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Introduction 
The development of science and technology (S&T) in Indonesia cannot be separated 
from the influence of Dutch colonialism which established the initial foundation for 
the S&T ecosystem under the administration of Dutch East Indies. During the 
governance period until 1941, S&T infrastructure was made, especially educational 
and research and development (R&D) centers that supported the affairs of the colonial 
government. The development of human resources and its policies on the 
development of educational institutions is carried out where after ethical politics that 
allows more extensive education at all levels of society, including Indonesian groups. 

The number of studies that describe the long history of the development of 
Indonesian S&T during the Dutch colonial period is still scarce. Some scholars focus 
on the development of S&T from the point of view of education, especially post-ethical 
politics. Fakhriansyah & Patoni (2019) studies the access of indigenous society to the 
dutch education system that they argue there were the barrier of indigenous society to 

Abstract 
 

This article describes the long history of the development of science and 
technology in Indonesia under Dutch East Indies Administration. This study views 
at how education and science and technology policies in together create the 
development of the contributions of researcher in research institutions. The study 
uses a convergent model triangulation which is a mixed method in which the 
qualitative use the archive to find comprehensive traces taken through written 
sources, quantitative method and bibliometric to show how research networks are 
formed in producing research from 1849 until 1940, especially on research topics. 
This study collects data from 201 scientific articles from Scopus database to obtain 
information about the trends of Dutch East Indies scientific publication. The 
findings of this study are after ethical politics in the beginning of 21 century, 
colonial government failed to provide more inclusive education system for all 
groups. Therefore, the scientist who contributed are mainly from European group 
and small contribution of Indonesian in the medical field. In the national context, 
there were an incline number of scientific publications after 1920s that is 
contributed from the established a wide range of government research and 
development institutions the decades before. After the colonial government ended 
in 1941, these advantages became the initial foundation of science and technolgy 
ecosystem in Republic of Indonesian Government. 
 
Keywords: Science and Technology; Educational Policy; Colonial System. 



 
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Science Technology Development in Dutch East Indies          | 116 

access freedomly. This is caused by the political system in Dutch East Indies that 
produce ‘elite’ education. Laely (2018) describe the elite education provides education 
with dutch as intermediate language so that there were no well education that is 
provided in indigenous language. While other opinion, Suratminto  (2013) argues that 
education policy is tend to be discriminated to indigenous society because the dutch 
government set the indigenous society to contribute in low-skilled labour in the 
country development. 

Meanwhile, some studies describe the role of researchers and their organizations 
to develop and advance knowledge under the Dutch East Indies Government. Gross 
(2011) writes how the natural researcher in Dutch East Indies was diverted  by 
colonialism interest. The researcher that should brings the advance of S&T as main 
principle changed to how S&T can contribute to colonial advantage. Even though, 
Hesselink (2019) argues that in the period after 1900s, there were the signifficant 
number of journal articles in the medical area that directly support both the advantage 
of colonial interest and the development of S&T. 

However, research that discusses the relationship between both the education 
system and its contribution to the development of S&T is still new, especially the role 
of Indonesian researchers. Therefore, this study will fill the gap through answer 
several important questions which are 1) How were the Dutch East Indies education 
policy produce an inclusive education system 2) How was the dynamics of the role of 
researchers in developing S&T under the government of Dutch East Indies 3) What 
was the role universities and R&D in creating the advance of national S&T 
development. 

At first, this research will specifically examine how the social and economic 
factors of the Dutch East Indies community influenced policies in building an 
education system for its people. This education system will produce human resources 
that can become scientists to create knowledge. This supply will meet the demands of 
S&T and become the mainstay of the government to steer national knowledge 
development. At this point, this paper will also focus on the role of Indonesian 
researchers in producing a research product. In the end, this research will answer the 
role and trend of science and technology development through the mapping of 
scientific publications from research organizations both under the government and 
independent scientific organizations. 
 
Method 
As part of historical research, a basic process is carried out to achieve an accurate point 
of view of the phenomenon from the process of collecting historical facts (heuristics), 
source of criticism, interpretation, and historiography (Alian, 2012; Garraghan, 1957; 
Sukmana, 2021; Wasino & Hartatik, 2018). The heuristic process that demands the 
construction of events in the past based on a constructivist point of view that views a 
historical event as influenced by various backgrounds allows this research to expand 
the boundaries of sources and types of data. This will minimize the bias on historical 
constructions, which often occur due to different authors' points of view, usually 



 
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coming from a different group of countries, religions, races, classes, political views, 
and belief systems (Buckley, 2016). 

This study uses a convergent model triangulation which is a mixed-method in 
which the quantitative and qualitative data processing is simultaneously conducted 
(Bandur, 2019, p. 31). The process of convergent triangulation is also a way to be able 
to juxtapose quantitative facts and qualitative interpretations as critical media and 
validate a historical event before historiography is formed because of the construction 
of the two sources. 

Qualitative sources use the archive to find comprehensive traces that can be taken 
through written sources (Gottschalk, 1975; Herlina, 2020). One of the abundant sources 
of writing is the digital archives of newspapers. For historical research, the use of 
newspaper databases is a new way to get further analysis and richer exploratory 
results to look at phenomena in a single subject and time (Bingham, 2010). In addition, 
a database that has a large number of data sources provides an opportunity for 
researchers to see a complete chronological sequence, accompanied by points of view 
and assessment of certain phenomena in the past (Bowie, 2019). Therefore, this 
research considers using retrieving newspaper content from the family planning 
database which archives various Dutch news sources, including the Dutch East Indies. 

In addition, the study will analyze with the quantitative descriptive from Scopus 
database was used to obtain information about the trends of Dutch East Indies 
scientific publications. The search for articles in the Scopus database was carried out 
on July 13, 2021, using the keyword Affilcountry (Indonesia), and we took articles only 
from 1849 until 1940. From these search results, we obtained 201 articles. The facts of 
processing the Scopus Database will also be compared with several similar studies, 
such as the Hesselink (2019) studies which uses the Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor 
Nederlandsch-Indië (GTNI) journal database. Meanwhile, the addition of numerical 
facts that were taken to explain the condition of Indonesia at that time used a national 
survey and census by the Bureau of Statistics. This data is very important to describe 
the historical context based on social, economic, and other conditions which of course 
will be different from the current context. 
 
Dutch East Indies Policy System 
In general, the monarchical countries in Europe do not give a niche to the 
democratization of society in providing two-way interaction with social and political 
problems for a country. As stated by Nugroho (2014, p. 81) that public policy in these 
countries, including the Kingdom of the Netherlands, sees public policy as a legal 
product that has centralized power on one side without any interaction between 
society and the state. Thus, a common problem that is considered important to be 
resolved by public policy is not seen from the perspective of the community 
holistically that is from all groups and layers of society, but from a small group of 
authority. 

However, it does not mean that the policy system of a monarchy is not better than 
a form of democracy that upholds the values of freedom of speech in public policy 



 
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making. What Nugroho concludes is that on the one hand, countries such as the Dutch 
East Indies could have an efficient policy system because a law which is the product 
of a more concise policy with the loss of public participation, but it required to be 
considered is the availability of a professional political elite. This needs to be a critical 
part of the policy system in the Dutch East Indies that the reality is that the policies 
issued are very strict for the benefit of the government and colonial activities without 
looking at the welfare of society for all groups which should be the main goal. 

Furthermore, the political system adopted by the Kingdom of the Netherlands is 
the trias politica system which was first introduced by the French philosopher and 
political theorist, Charles Montesquieu (1689-1755) in his publication entitled l'Esprit 
des Lois in 1748. Exactly one century Then, in 1848, during the spring revolution in 
Europe, King William II decided to change the political system in the Netherlands in 
the era of parliamentary democracy by appointing Johan Rudolph Thorbecke to revise 
the constitution. In the same year, Thorbecke wrote a new constitution based on 
Charles Montesquieu's trias politica in which the political system has three functions, 
namely (1) The legislative function is the Government (the Queen and the Ministers) 
(2) The executive function is the provincial, city, and regional government. colonies (3) 
The judicial function is in the state justice system. 

One of the hallmarks of the these states system is the existence of a policy layer 
based on macro, meso, and micro levels values (Hill & Hupe, 2002; Miller & Demir, 
2007; Nugroho, 2014). Macro, such as laws are made to make legal products in general 
that are published and are in a strategic position. The main basis for carrying out the 
activities of the Kingdom of the Netherlands is de grondwet (constitution or basic law) 
which was first made in 1814 and continues to be updated until now. In the 1922 
constitution, the concept of colonialism was abolished and replaced colonial countries 
such as the Dutch East Indies, Suriname, and Curacao as part of the kingdom. Thus, 
the political position of the region is in the legal status of the Dutch kingdom which 
functions as the executor of the constitution through technical regulations at both the 
meso and micro levels. The policy is bureaucratically implemented by the Governor 
General in a hierarchical manner down to the resident, regent, to lurah. 

Considering the role of the Dutch East Indies Government as the executive, 
implementing meso, micro levels policies would weaken the function of the 
“Volksraad” (people's council), which was created for the first time in 1918 and is the 
only institution that should be at the legislative level and have representation in certain 
groups, including Indonesian and other minority groups. This People's Council was 
only used as an adviser to the Governor- General of the Dutch East Indies without 
having the right to question the control of the government budget. Therefore, in the 
end, there are few problems and demands from non-European groups to get attention 
due to restrictions to participate in the policymaking. 
 
Educational Policy 
After ethical politics to develop a more inclusive education, the colonial government 
took a long time to create policies to realize the goal. De Angelino, 1931 (p. 1994) 



 
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assesses education as a social force in the Dutch East Indies, facing complex problems, 
especially the very different social structure, especially from the Indonesian group, the 
Chinese and Arab middle classes, and European groups, to fulfil the values of justice, 
need to adapt to the social environment in which these groups stand. In fact, the 
European education system is difficult to impose directly on the Indonesian 
community, especially in the outermost regions, which do not speak Dutch. On the 
other hand, differentiating education classes could mean that the policies of the Dutch 
East Indies Government were discriminatory and did not respect the value of 
education for all groups. This became a dilemma for the Dutch East Indies government 
to face a double-edged sword situation. 

As in Table 1, it took almost a decade for the government to provide education 
other than the Eurospeesch Lagere School (ELS) for the European community, namely 
Hollandsch Inlandsche School (HIS) which was created for the Indonesian group. 
Although in practice, HIS was created for the nobles and elite Indonesian and still 
closed learning opportunities for the marginalized Indonesians. For those who did not 
have the opportunity to receive an education at HIS, the People's School (Volkschool), 
commonly known as Sekolah Rakyat in Indonesian, was the only option for the low-
middle Indonesian group to receive elementary education in the colonial government's 
official education program. 

 
Table 1. Stratafication education system of Dutch East Indies Administration 

Education 
Level   

School Duration 
(years) 

Est. 
Years 

Prerequisite Target Students 

Elementary 
School 

Eurospeesch Lagere 
School (ELS) 

7  1817 - European   

Hollandsch 
Inlandsche School 
(HIS) 

7  1914 - Nobles and elite 
Indonesian 

Holandsch 
Chineesche School 
(HCS) 

7  1908 - Chinese 

Volkschool (People`s 
School) 

3  1906 - All Indonesian  

Schakel School/ 
Vervolgschool 

5  1915 Volkschool Gate education 
from Volkschool to 
MULO 

Junior 
High 
School 

Meer Uitgebreid 
Lager Onderwijs 
(MULO) 

3 for ELS, 
4 for 
others 

1914 HIS, HCS, 
Schakel 
School 

Non-European 

Senior 
High 
School 

Algemeene 
Middelbare School 
(AMS) 

3  1919 MULO Non-European 

Hogereburgerschool 
(HBS) 

5  1860 ELS European 

 
 



 
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Educational opportunities were still considered arbitrary for the entire 
community under the Dutch East Indies Government. This can be seen from the 
education time and the number of educations which that can be 2-3 years adrift 
between the Indonesians and the Europeans. For the European community, they can 
get an ELS (7 years) and HBS (5 years) with a total of 12 years to graduate senior high 
school level. As for the Indonesian upper class, they usually finish through HIS (7 
years), MULO (4 years), and AMS (3 years) with a total of 14 years. For the lucky 
marginalized Indonesian people, they can get education through Volkschool (3 Years), 
Schakel School (5 Years), MULO (4 Years), and AMS (3 Years) for a total of 15 years. 

In those days, completing secondary education was a high achievement, thus it 
was not a difficult effort for secondary education graduates to find a job, even in a 
government position. In addition, for those who are interested in continuing their 
education in higher and vocational education, there are several educational options 
such as medical school (STOVIA), Law School (RHS), Assistive Teacher School (HIK), 
Institute of Technology (THS), Agricultural School (Landbouw School), Trade School 
(PHS), and many other colleges and vocational schools. 

On the other hand, the provision of education for the marginalized Indonesian 
community is provided by the intellectuals of the Indonesian movement that is 
independence from government's education scheme. Several movements created their 
own educational organizations, such as the People's College or Volksuniversiteit (1928), 
Taman Siswa (1922), Ksatrian Institute (1923), and the Indonesisch Nederlandsch School 
(1926). This shows that at the beginning of the 20th century, there were more and more 
national movements that prioritized education as a means of fight for the welfare of 
the indigenous groups who had long been trapped in the circle of life without modern 
education. 

In the 1922 constitution Article 195 emphasize that education is the main duty 
of the Kingdom to provide free public education that respects every background of 
faith. The government is obliged to provide a sufficient number of public elementary 
schools for each region, all of which are borne by the government. However, the ethical 
political momentum as the basis for expanding educational opportunities for all 
groups was not in line with the economic policies of the Dutch East Indies 
administration. As in Table 2 shows that the total government spending on education 
shrank sharply from 1932-1940. One of the components that was most reduced was the 
expenditure on education funds for the People's School which in 1932 was 20 million 
Gulden, and the remaining 3.6 million Gulden in 1940. While other education 
categories, including western elementary schools (ELS and HIS), secondary schools, 
vocational, and higher education experienced a slight decline but not extreme. 

However, the expansion of government policies to provide wider education for all 
people groups and the efforts of the intellectual movement of the Indonesians to 
organize their own education have not been able to release them from the ignorance 
trap. It can be seen that the literacy level of the Dutch East Indies community, 
especially the Indonesian, is at an alarming number. From the 1930 statistics as shown 
in Table 3, it shows that the Indonesian has the lowest proportion of literacy compared 



 
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to other ethnic groups. Where only 10.8% of men and 2.2% of women can read. the gap 
was very wide when compared to European community where both men and women 
have literacy rates above 70%. 

 
Table 2. Government Expenditures on Education, 1932-1940 

Year Education Expenditures based on facilities Other 
Expend
itures 

Total 
General Education Vocational 

Education 
Higher 
Educat
ion 

Volksc
hool 

European 
Elementary 
Schools 

Secondary 
Education 

Total 

1932 20369,6 15490,1 8049,6 43909,3 7889,4 7889,4 2381,6 55623,9 
1933 19027,9 14191,9 7158,1 40377,9 6689,0 6689,0 2161,4 50197,2 
1934 14440,5 11979,7 5845,7 32262,9 4666,1 4666,1 1727,6 39467,2 
1935 11493,4 9668,7 4656,7 25817,7 4008,6 4008,6 1822,7 32373,2 
1936 10714,7 9360,0 4719,2 24793,9 3488,8 3488,8 1716,0 30717,1 
1937 4113,0 9624,7 4888,9 18626,6 3059,3 3059,3 2034,9 24467,9 
1938 4230,9 11410,4 6352,4 21983,9 3765,5 3795,5 2882,7 29527,4 
1939 3791,9 11920,1 7156,9 22838,9 4360,3 4360,3 3950,2 23125,3 
1940 3655,9 12348,2 7690,8 23649,9 5097,8 5097,8 3880,2 33728,0 

Source: Central Berau of Statistics, 1940. 
 
Table 3. Literacy Level based on Ethnic Group of Dutch East Indies in 1930 

Gender European Indonesian Chinese Other 
Asians 

Total 

Men 78,6 % 10,8 % 39,5 % 37,5 % 11,9 % 
Women 71,2 % 2,2 % 12,4 % 3,9 % 2,6 % 
Total 75,2 % 6,4 % 28,9 % 22,4 % 7,2% 

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, 1947, p. 26. 
 

The population of the Dutch East Indies in 1930 (Central Berau of Statistics, 1940), 
for instance, Indonesians had 59.138 million people or 97% of the total population of 
the Dutch East Indies. While other nations such as Europe only amounted to 240 
thousand people or 0.4% of the total population. And other Nations no more than 3% 
of the total population. This caused the number of illiteracy rates in the Dutch East 
Indies to be very large. In total in the same year, 92.8% of the population of the Dutch 
East Indies could not read and write. Whereas in that year, the age of ethical politics 
has almost entered its third decade. 

Furthermore, of those who can read and write that is 7.2% 0f total population, 
there is a only 9.3% of them can write and read in Dutch. In detail by nationality are 
Europe (95.3%), Indonesia (5%), China (11.7%), and Other Asia (3.8%). This figure also 
shows that a proportion of Indonesians group cannot have the ability to write Dutch.  
Though, in the lower education system, except for the People's School, the official 
language of instruction is Dutch. Dutch is also very commonly used in newspapers 
that are often circulated in Dutch East Indies which is one of the effective media for 



 
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the development of general knowledge, especially the latest and essential information 
from Europe and overseas. 

This shows that ethical politics vision to create prosperity for the Indonesian 
community cannot be achieved yet. Fakhriansyah & Patoni (2019) argue that the 
educational policies issued by the Dutch East Indies colonial government were in fact 
only directed at their political and economic interests. Moreover, according to Marwati 
and Doenod (2008, in Fakhriansyah & Patoni, 2019) the existence of the Indonesian 
group in universities is very minimal where in the 1920-1929 period, at most only 44 
Indonesian were in college. Even until the end of colonialism and the beginning of 
independence, Indonesia only had about 400 scholars to drive the wheels of 
government (Gross, 2011). However, another opinion from Hesselink (2019, p. 142) 
considers that in particular, the large number of investments in STOVIA by the Dutch 
East Indies Government has a positive impact on the increasing number of Indonesian 
doctors who directly increase the number of medical scientific publications. 

In short, it can be illustrated that the role of S&T is still contributed by European 
communities who can easily get exclusive opportunities to get better educational 
opportunities and easier networking positions with S&T centers in Europe. On the 
other hand, the Indonesian people are not in an ideal position to play a role in the 
development of S&T in the Dutch East Indies because even though they already have 
the opportunity to get a better education, there is still an educational stratification that 
distinguishes the natives and other classes of the nation. 

 
The Role of Researcher  
The beginning of modern research activities in the land of Indonesia was started by 
Jacob Bontius (1592-1631). He conducted research in the fields of tropical medicine, 
plants, and diseases in Batavia during the critical times of the Vereenigde Oostindische 
Compagnie (VOC) which was trying to occupy Batavia and in opposition to Sultan 
Agung, the prince of Mataram. Jacob Bontius actively published books in this field, 
and several semi-finished books were published after his death. This is considered to 
be the starting point for the development of modern S&T in Indonesia. 

However, it would be difficult to determine that this meant that prior to these 
times no scientific activity was conducted. According to Dittrich (1997) who 
considered that the Dutch painter, Phillips Angel (1616-1683) had already painted the 
Javanese rhino for the first time and spread it to Europe around 1630. This can be seen 
from Philips' painting which is identical to the illustrations in the book entitled Historia 
Naturalis et Medicae Indiae Orientalis by Jacob Bontius in 1658. In addition, Jacob's 
assumption as the first researcher in the Dutch East Indies could minimize the role of 
the development of S&T through research by the earlier Nations in the Archipelago. 
As mentioned by Boomgaard (2008)  that there is a misperception that is commonly 
considered that western nations are always the ones who transfer technology and 
knowledge to eastern nations. Whereas for a long time there has been a transfer of 
knowledge among Asian nations, even from east to west. Therefore, it is very natural 
that Gross (2014, p. 48) considers that until the end of colonialism, most of the Dutch 



 
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elite 'arrogantly' regarded the natives as those who had 'backward' knowledge and 
highly respected the high degree of European knowledge. 

However, in practice, it would be justified to assume that modern research will 
be mostly carried out by European researchers. From the results of searching the 
Scopus database, there are 133 authors who produced 201 scientific articles in 
Indonesia in 1849-1940. Dr D. R. Koolhaas is the scientist who produces the most 
scientific articles related to research in Indonesia. He produced 11 scientific articles in 
1930-1940. Koolhaas is a Dutch expert in chemistry, chemical engineering, 
biochemistry, genetics and molecular biology, pharmacology, toxicology and 
pharmaceutics. In 1930-1932 Koolhaas conducted research on essential oils at the 
Phytochemisch Laboratory within the Botanical Science Center and the R&D that was 
part of the Algemeen Proefstation voor de Landbouw [Balai Besar Agricultural Research] 
merged into the Analytisch Laboratory, and the joint group named itself the Laboratory 
of voor Scheikundig Onderzoek in 1934. Koolhaas served as Head of Laboratory voor 
Scheikundig Onderzoek in 1933 – 1939 (Ministry of Industry, 2021). Most of the research 
conducted by Koolhaas concerns the discovery of essential oils from plants such as 
Eryngium foetidum, Hydnocarpus heterophylla, Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers., and Aleurites 
trisperma. 
 
Table 4. The 10 Highest Researchers that Produce Articles in Dutch East Indies,  

1849-1950. 
Authors Subject Areas Number of 

articles 
Koolhaas, D. R. Chemistry, Chemical Engineering, Biochemistry, 

Genetics and Molecular Biology, Pharmacology, 
Toxicology and Pharmaceutics 

11 

Gorter, K. Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics, 
Chemistry, Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular 
Biology 

10 

Krijgsman, B. J. Neuroscience, Medicine, Agricultural and Biological 
Sciences, Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology, 
Immunology and Microbiology 

8 

Posthumus, K. Chemistry 7 
Bonne, C. Chemistry 6 
Meijer, Th. M. Chemistry, Chemical Engineering, Biochemistry, 

Genetics and Molecular Biology, Pharmacology, 
Toxicology and Pharmaceutics 

5 

Koumans, A. K. J. Medicine, Pharmacology, Toxicology and 
Pharmaceutics, Environmental Science, Immunology 
and Microbiology 

5 

Kreiken, E. A. Physics and Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Sciences 5 
Sitsen, A. E. Medicine, Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology 4 
van Veen, A. G. Chemistry, Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular 

Biology 
4 

Source: Scopus Database, July 2021. 



 
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In addition to the prolific researchers above, this paper assesses that the role of 

Prof. Melchior Treub became essential in the development of S&T in Indonesia, 
especially in promoting the Buitenzorg Scientific Center (BSC) or commonly known as 
Buitenzorg Botanic Gardens/Bogor Botanical Gardens, to the international arena. He 
is a Dutch botanist who graduated from the University of Leiden with a doctorate. 
Treub discovered several new types of Lycopods and cultivated them in hopes that all 
aspects of their embryology would be revealed. Treub was trusted to be the director of 
the BSC in 1880-1910 which immediately built an image as a tropical natural science 
R&D to scientists in Europe. Through his important position, he builds physical spaces 
for conducting tropical natural science research such as libraries, workspaces, grants, 
guest research residencies, and infrastructures such as microscopes, chemicals, and 
cataloguing. Before Treub, some assets owned by BSC were not managed. All 
herbarium collections prior to 1844 were brought to the Netherlands, including several 
examples of species in Java discovered and named by Carl Ledwig Blume in the early 
19th century. Through his leadership, BSC developed into a professional scientific 
institution with knowledge of tropical nature with various types of species in it. 
According to Gross (2014, p. 119) that the success of the Botanical Gardens is the envy 
of the world's botanists with institutions that are the centre of the circle of botanical 
science. But unfortunately, this achievement was never achieved again until the era of 
the Dutch East Indies government ended, even today under the government of the 
Republic of Indonesia. 

Although they were not dominant actors, several names of Indonesian scientists 
appeared in scientific articles published in 1849-1940, including Raden Soehadi 
Koesoemohadipoetro who was a medical researcher at the Niederlandisch-Indischen 
Arzteschule in Soerabaja (NIAS). The purpose of establishing NIAS is to educate 
doctors who can directly work to serve public health. NIAS then changed its name to 
Faculty of Medicine Universitas Airlangga in 1950  (UNAIR, 2018). 

 In addition, Sutomo Tjokronegoro was the first professor of pathology at the 
Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Indonesia in 1950. He is known as the Father of 
Pathology in Indonesia who researches cancer. Sutomo received his medical degree at 
the Batavia Medical School in 1935. He taught pathology, forensic medicine, and 
internal medicine. Sutomo published an article in the journal Geneeskundig Tijdschrift 
voor Nederlandsch Indië [Dutch Indies medical journal] which was the most important 
medical journal in Indonesia during the Dutch colonial period. Sutomo publishes 
articles on forensic medicine, cancer, ulcers, and tuberculosis. In 1942, he became the 
editor of the journal (Pols, 2017). Sutomo also wrote a book entitled "Are You Able to 
Build Our Unity Language?", "A Few Things About Doctor of Justice". In addition, M. 
Soewarno is an Indonesian scientist who produced a scientific article in 1930 regarding 
lead poisoning. He graduated STOVIA in 1920 then joined the NIAS. During his 
studies at STOVIA, he was active in the movement with indigenous medical school 
students and was one of the founders of the Boedi Oetomo association  (Dahlan, 2017). 



 
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The fact that Indonesian researchers are commonly contributed to the medical 
field is in line with the GTNI publication, the role of the Indonesian writer in special 
journal articles for medical problems can be seen more.  Hesselink (2019, p. 120) 
calculated that of the 4500 articles published in 80 scientific editions, there were 12% 
of the writings written by Indonesian doctors, totalling 195 authors. From the 195 
Indonesian authors, there are authors who have published more than 10 articles 
including Raden Mas Sardjito (29 articles), Mochtar (25 articles), Raden Soesilo (23 
articles), Mohamad Amir (22 articles), Mas Soetopo (11 articles). In addition, there are 
two writers of Chinese descent including Sie Boen Lian (15 articles) and Loe Ping Kian 
(14 articles). 

Most Indonesian researchers are doctors who carry out medical research. This is 
inseparable from the policies of the Dutch East Indies administration and the war effort 
against various kinds of epidemics such as Cholera, Leprosy, Hernia, Spanish Flu and 
Tropical Yaws. Investments and developments in broader educational institutions for 
Indonesian groups such as STOVIA and NIAS allow more non-European doctors to 
be produced. In addition, the urgent need for research resources cannot be met 
considering that special research and development centers for the disease are still very 
minimal in Indonesia and the mastery of medical knowledge is still limited. 

 
The Role of Research Organization 
In general, R&D institutions in Dutch East Indies that have a long history can be 
mapped from various perspectives. The initiation of R&D institutions cannot be 
separated from the enlightenment apostles who have a mission to educate the colonial 
community. As stated by Gross (2011, p. 214)  that since the mid-19th century the S&T 
community has been divided into two camps which are amateur researchers and the 
government researcher. According to this distinguished, this study divides research 
organizations into two parts, namely based on organizational ownership which can be 
seen as independent and technocratic R&D. 

Independent R&D, which usually consisted of amateur researchers, had spread 
before the government officially established R&D institutions. The quantity of 
independent R&D entities is often small and short-lived. Most of these organizations 
are non-permanent science, technology, and arts communities initiated by a handful 
of people. The initiation of an independent R&D institution for the first time was 
established by the spirit of J.M. It was Mohr who set up an observatory to observe 
Venus in 1761. Although he did not receive official approval from the VOC, his 
enthusiasm led J.C.M. Radermacher to create the first research organization called the 
Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences (Bataviaasch Genootschap voor Kunsten en 
Wetenschappen) in 1778 which was established for eleven years. In the early 20th 
century one of the largest scientific communities was established and survived, such 
as the Association for Natural History of the Dutch East Indies (Nederlandsch-indische 
natuurhistorische Vereeniging) which regularly published the Tropical Nature Journal 
(De Tropische Natuur) until the end of the Dutch East Indies era. 

 



 
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In addition, the organization of the Indonesian movement is often driven by 
intellectual groups even though its main goal is not to produce knowledge and 
technology. For example, Boedi Oetomo believes that bringing western knowledge 
and practices to Indonesian society can help their goal of escaping from the grip of 
Dutch colonialism (Gross, 2011, p. 10). This organization later grew and inspired other 
intellectual movements to contribute to introducing science and technology to the 
Indonesian community as an agent of the Indigenous enlightenment apostles, 
especially in creating educational activities and discussion groups, such as the General 
Study Club (Algemeene Studieclub), the Indonesian Study Club (Indonesische Studieclub), 
the Indonesian Women's Student Association (Indonesische Vrouwelijke Studenten 
Vereeniging), and the Indonesian Association (Indische Vereeniging). The goals of these 
organizations have in common as a medium of an intellectual struggle for the educated 
Indonesian, which cumulatively became an important position as a tool for the 
struggle for Indonesian independence. 

On the other hand, the R&D institution belonging to the Dutch East Indies 
Government began in 1820 when C.G.C Reinwardt created the Natural History 
Commission (Natuurkundige Commissie) at the behest of King Willem I to investigate 
the potential development of the agricultural sector in the colonies. At that time, the 
BSC named Lands Plantentuin te Buitenzorg was already three years old but had not 
yet carried out a research function. In the decades that followed, part of BSC's activity 
was collecting plant species and developing catalogues. In 1852, BSC initiated Cibodas 
Botanical Gardens as a laboratory and experimental center that has an influence on 
research in the development of economic plant research (Ariati & Widyatmoko, 2017, 
p. 11). In the not so distant period, several institutions related to agriculture in the 
Buitenzorg area were established such as a chemical research laboratory, a forestry test 
station, Bibliotheca Biogenesis (Library Center), and the Treub Laboratory (Kementan, 
2021). 

Meanwhile, R&D Organizations in the medical and pharmaceutical fields 
actively carry out R&D functions, in 1890 the State Vaccine Development Institute, 
Parc Vaccinogen Instituut Pasteur or better known as the Pasteur Institute, was 
established as one of the institutions belonging to the Government of the Netherlands 
Indies and in collaboration with public institutions belonging to Lois Pasteur focused 
on biological research, microorganisms, disease, and vaccine development. This 
institution and its Pasteur Institute subsidiaries in various countries have made 
hundreds of thousands of vaccines in the first world war needed to protect soldiers to 
protect against typhoid fever. In addition, in 1888, the Central Laboratory for Public 
Health Laboratory Services (Geneeskundig Laboratory) was established, changing its 
name to the Eijkman Institute which focuses on disease and medical research. 

In addition, universities and educational institutions have a research function to 
produce and develop knowledge. Universities are one of the important actors in the 
research ecosystem which can produce research through educators and students 
(Pandey & Pattnaik, 2015, p. 174). In the period after 1900s, the education institutions 
play an essential role to produce knowledge in several areas, especially medical field. 



 
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Started with Java Medical School in January 1851 in Weltevreden, now known as Gatot 
Subroto Military Hospital. The Javanese doctors at that time only hoped to overcome 
smallpox. Then, in 1901, the medical training of Javanese doctors was separated from 
the Weltevreden military hospital in Hospitaalweg, now known as Jalan Dr. Abdul 
Rahman Saleh. Finally, in 1919, the School tot Opleiding van Indische Artsen (STOVIA) 
was moved to Burgelijke Ziekeninrichting Centrale (CBZ) or now the National Center for 
Public Hospital (NCPH) Cipto Mangunkusumo. This step occurs because medical 
education in Indonesia is advanced and requires a wider space. On July 5, 1920, all 
teaching activities were transferred to Salemba 6 which was the forerunner to the 
establishment of the Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Indonesia (FMUI). FMUI is the 
oldest medical faculty in Southeast Asia (UI, 2010). The central function of educational 
institutions, especially in the field of medicine, indirectly affects the function of 
research in the field of health services. Some researchers at hospitals in Indonesia, for 
example, have an active research function, even in this field there are many Indonesian 
researchers who have contributed to the development of Indonesian S&T and still 
actively to lead the advance of medical field after independence. 

Meanwhile, the forerunner of the research organization that overshadowed 
many R&D organizations in the Dutch East Indies started with the formation of the 
Dutch East Indies Research Council (Natuurwetenschappelijk Raad voor Nederlandsch 
Indie) which was established in 1927. In a government announcement published by De 
Locomotief (1927) the reasons for the establishment of this Research Council were: 

“The government has repeatedly felt the lack of a central body in the natural 
sciences, which was broadly constituted in terms of fields of activity, so scientific in 
composition and official position that it could act as the highest representation of 
the natural scientific world in the Dutch East Indies vis--vis Holland and abroad.” 

 
The purpose of the Dutch East Indies Research Council was as a government 

advisory body in the field of natural sciences, a center for collaboration of natural 
science practitioners in the Dutch East Indies, associations between researchers in the 
Dutch East Indies and other countries, and an institution that determines the direction 
of progress in scientific investigations and endeavors that can only be achieved 
through the collaboration of natural science researchers and the government. This 
council consists of representatives of existing research organizations and covers as 
much of the natural sciences as possible as appointed by the governor general. All costs 
were borne by the Dutch East Indies Government in the amount of NLG 2,500 a year 
for office supplies, publishing and labor expenses. 

From the number of these organizations that contribute to research productivity, 
one of popular and measurable activities is through published scientific articles. In the 
Scopus database (Figure 1), publications produced by authors with affiliations to the 
Dutch East Indies show a fluctuating upward trend. In 201 articles, it shows that since 
1922, the trend of publications has tended to increase, although at some point there 
has been a decline in publications. The peak of publications produced was in 1930, and 
again rose and fell until 1940. This shows that writing publications have gained a 
popular place for scientists in the Dutch East Indies, especially since the early 20th. 



 
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Figure 1. Scientific Articles indexed by Scopus from Dutch East Indies Affiliation during 
1849-1940. 

Source: Scopus Database, July 2021. 
 

Likewise, trends based on its field are experiencing interesting dynamic 
changes. As shown in Figure 2, before 1900 almost no disciplines were dominant, only 
Industry and chemistry and medicine were slightly superior. In the period 1901-1920 
publications with pharmaceutical concentrations experienced a significant increase 
despite Industry and Chemistry remained the dominant science concentration. Until 
the period 1921-1940, the field of science in scientific publications experienced 
heterogeneity in which Biology, Industry and Chemistry, and Medicine contributed 
more than 60% of all total Dutch Indies publications in the Scopus database. In 
addition, other fields such as Social Humanities, Psychology, Astronomy, and 
Engineering Sciences experienced a significant increase in the number of publications. 

Both European and Indonesian writers have basically no striking differences 
from the resulting medical publications. Of the 195 Indonesian authors in the GTNI 
journal, it shows that almost all authors write topics on modern medical science, and 
only a few discuss traditional medicine. In a few examples, Mas Azhari wrote about 
the tools used by the circumcised dukun and S. Wiroreno wrote about the spleen case 
which came from traditional massage practices. (Hesselink, 2019, p. 123). Whereas, in 
the beginning of research activities in the Indonesian Archipelago, Jacob Bontius (1592-
1631) initiating the research in traditional medicine, especially tropical medicine. This 
may be caused by the increasing number of diseases, and advances in S&T in diagnosis 
and treatment, as well as medical education can cause the diversion of the interest of 
Dutch Indies medical scientists from medical traditional studies. 

 

0

5

10

15

20

25

1849

1876

1881

1884

1891

1896

1898

1906

1908

1910

1912

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1920

1922

1924

1926

1928

1930

1932

1934

1936

1938

1940



 
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Figure 2. The Development of Scientific Publication by the subjects in 1849-1940 
 
Meanwhile, the production of scientific publications based on R&D 

organizations has various portions. However, most of them are government-owned 
R&D institutions. As in Figure 3, the BSC is the institution that produces the most 
scientific articles with 51 articles. In addition to BSC, Pasteur institute and Eijkman 
Institute generally produce scientific articles with a total of 19 articles. Educational 
institutions such as STOVIA and NIAS, produced 26 articles. Other R&D such as 
Butenzorg Rubber Research Center, Tobacco Research Center Klaten, Pathological 
Laboratory East Coast of Sumatra, and Government Laboratory for Pest Research have 
cumulatively produced 17 articles. The number of research institutions involved in 
these articles consisted of 33 organizations. 
 

 
Figure 3. The Best Nine Institution that Produced Scientific Publication in 1849-1940 

Source: Scopus Database, July 2021. 

1 2 4 3 2 2
6

11

1
6 3

7

48
56

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59

10
4 7

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10

20

30

40

50

60

70

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Before 1900 1901-1920 1921-1940

3
3

5
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11
14

29
51

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Government Laboratory for Pest Research
Pathological Laboratory East Coast of Sumatra

Tobacco research center Klaten
Eijkman-Institute

Buitenzorg rubber research center
Surabaya Medical School/NIAS

Pasteur Institute
Batavia Medical School/STOVIA

Buitenzorg Scientific Centre



 
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In details, from the results of the analysis of titles and abstracts on scientific 

articles in this period of SCOPUS database, 315 keywords were captured regarding 
S&T research in Dutch East Indies in 1849-1940 (Figure 4). The visualization shows that 
research object in that period was still concentrated on the islands of Java and Sumatra. 
Research conducted on the island of Java focuses on the fields of biology, medical 
science, pharmacy, and social humanities. This is indicated by the existence of BSC 
which has many laboratories for botanical, plantation, agricultural, chemical and 
zoological research. Scientists at that time were very interested in conducting research 
mostly on coffee, essential oils, tea leaf, tea pests, lycophods, trypanosoma evansi, 
bloodsucking Arthropods, castilla elastica, and chlorogenic acid. 

 

 
Figure 1. Keywords on Research Publication of Dutch East Indies Association 1849-1940 

Source: SCOPUS Database, July 2021. 
 

In addition, the island of Java has a wide range of medical school such as 
STOVIA in Batavia and NIAS Surabaya, which is a medical school that does a lot of 
research in the fields of biology, chemical, medical science, and pharmacy. Some of the 
research keywords carried out in these two places include gastric cancer, lung cancer, 
stomach cancer, pathology, beriberi disease, gastric tumor, malaria, antineurotic 
vitamin, ligation of the coronary arteries, Javanese monkeys, and graves' disease. 

 
Conclusions 
This research answers the long history of the development of Indonesian S&T under 
the Dutch East Indies government. The dynamics of education policy affect the 
creation of quality science and technology resources and develop diverse research 
trends. In general, this study answered in four focusses. 

 



 
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Science Technology Development in Dutch East Indies          | 131 

First, the development of Indonesian S&T cannot be separated from the influence 
of the Dutch East Indies education policy as one of the producing the supply of human 
resources on S&T. Although there are ethical-political policies that make education 
more inclusive for allpeople, the Dutch East Indies government still has a dilemma to 
provide equal education services for all ethnic groups. As a result, the supply of 
human resources on S&T is dominated by Europeans and some parts of the nobles and 
Indonesian elites. These people will be the determinants in the development of S&T in 
Indonesia until the era of the Dutch East Indies Administration. 

Second, in accordance with an education system that is not truly inclusive, the 
most scientists are Europeans. They have a better advantage in getting better education 
and access to information on S&T sources in Europe. The most productive ranks of 
researchers at that time were Europeans, and only a few Indonesians. Indonesian 
scientists take a role in the development of S&T in the medical fields that is contributed 
by medical schools for Indonesian such as STOVIA and NIAS. 

Third, the government-owned Research Organization is the biggest force in the 
development of S&T in Dutch East Indies. S&T was stirred based on the needs and 
desires of the Dutch East Indies Government alone. Authors from government 
research organizations are the authors who produce the most scientific articles. 
Meanwhile, the independent S&T community played a smaller role in the early 20th 
century. The striking thing in this period was the emergence of Indonesian intellectual 
organizations and groups in the mission of enlightening the lives of marginalized 
communities through European knowledge to be used as tools for the approach for 
the Independence of the Republic of Indonesia. 

Fourth, Research trends are getting richer after the 1920s. In addition, the fields 
of science are increasingly diverse which previously focused on basic science, in that 
year there have been many applicable research, such as pharmacy and medicine. The 
development of S&T reached its peak in the 1920s-1940s when the S&T ecosystem in 
Indonesia began to form. Until the end of the Dutch East Indies government, at least it 
had bequeathed the institutions, research facilities, and Indonesian resources as the 
initial foundation of the S&T ecosystem for the Government of the Republic of 
Indonesia. 

However, there are some limitations that need to be riched up on other studies. 
The advantage of development of S&T is not solely answered by the results of research 
publications, some are in the form of patents, product innovations, ang other outputs. 
This research still limits a product of S&T on research results in the form of scientific 
publications. In addition, scientific publications in that period were mostly local 
publications that were not indexed in nowadays publication databases such as Scopus. 
An overview in this study is a representation with Scopus as a sample whose 
population size is difficult to measure. So, it is necessary to conduct deeper 
quantitative research to focus on measuring the population size of publications. 

 
  



 
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