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IHiS (Indonesian Historical Studies) 8 (1), 144-154 © 2024 | E-ISSN: 2579-4213  

Mohammad Sjafei: A Nationalist Educator in West Sumatra      | 144 

 

Received:  
July 27, 2023 
 
Revised:  
August 27, 2024 
 
Accepted:  
August 28, 2024 

Mohammad Sjafei: A Nationalist Educator in West Sumatra 
 

Listia Anita Wati*, Yety Rochwulaningsih, Dhanang Respati Puguh 
Master Program of History, Faculty of Humanities, Universitas Diponegoro 

Jl. dr. Antonius Suroyo, Tembalang, Semarang, Central Java, Indonesia, 50275 
 

*Corresponding Author: listia.anitawati@gmail.com 
DOI: https://doi.org/10.14710/ihis.v8i2.19692 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Introduction 
This study examines the educational and political thought of Mohammad Sjafei, a 
prominent nationalist figure in Indonesian history. To provide a theoretical 
framework, the research first delineates the concepts of educational history and 
biography. Educational history, emerging in the 19th century, is primarily employed 
to foster national consciousness, promote professional development in education, and 
instill institutional pride. Its scope encompasses a wide range of topics, including 
educational traditions, influential leaders, diverse systems, and critical challenges 
within the field (Shklar, 1998). 

The context of the Indonesian national movement, a period marked by colonial 
domination. To provide a theoretical framework, it is essential to define 
colonialism. Colonialism refers to the systematic subjugation of one nation by 
another, involving political dominance, economic exploitation, and cultural 

Abstract 
 

This article discusses Mohammad Sjafei's nationalist thoughts in the fields of 
politics and education from 1914 to 1958. This research uses historical methods. 
The article contains a description of how the educational system under the Ethical 
Policy program provided opportunities for the rise of nationalism among the 
indigenous people. The expansion of education encouraged openness of mind and 
knowledge among the indigenous population. This process of nationalist 
awakening stimulated the emergence of national thinkers who played a role in the 
struggle during the movement era. The role and contribution of these national 
thinkers are important to study in order to enhance understanding and knowledge 
in the field of intellectual history. One such national thinker examined in this 
article is Mohammad Sjafei. He was a national education figure who had 
nationalist thoughts in the fields of politics and education. His nationalist thoughts 
in politics encompassed values of unity, national loyalty, and love for the nation. 
His nationalist thoughts in education emphasized the importance of forming the 
nation’s identity and promoting education that is Indonesia-centric. Sjafei 
implemented these two nationalist thoughts in his educational practices 
at Indonesisch Nederlandsche School Kayutanam. The school was used as a medium 
to disseminate nationalistic awareness, sharpen intellectual intelligence, and 
develop skills. 
 
Keywords:  Nationalism; Indonesiacentric; Intellectual; INS Kayutanam; Education. 



 
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Mohammad Sjafei: A Nationalist Educator in West Sumatra      | 145 

penetration. Colonial rule often resulted in significant negative consequences for the 
colonized people, including the loss of independence, political freedom, and economic 
autonomy. Colonial societies were typically characterized by stark divisions between 
the colonizer and the colonized, with limited social interaction and pervasive 
discrimination. 

In the early 20th century, the Dutch colonial administration in Indonesia 
introduced a policy known as Ethical Policy. This policy, which had a profound impact 
on the national movement, was essentially a concept of "moral obligation." As 
articulated by C. Th. Van Deventer in his 1899 article, Een Eereschuld [A Debt of 
Honor], the Dutch owed a moral debt to the Indonesian people for exploiting their 
resources to benefit the Netherlands. Van Deventer argued that the Dutch government 
should prioritize the interests of the Indonesian people through colonial policies. The 
three primary pillars of the Ethical Policy were education, irrigation, and migration. 

Education not only serves as a catalyst for consciousness and the pursuit of 
freedom but also nurtures critical thinking about one's surroundings. This critical 
mindset manifests in ideas, concepts, and creative works. Individual thoughts and 
ideas can act as agents of change, significantly impacting various aspects of life. This 
study falls within the realm of intellectual history and thus necessitates a clear 
understanding of the concept. As Gilbert (1971) asserts in his work, Intellectual History: 
Its Aims and Methods, intellectual history is a recognized field within the broader 
discipline of history. It stands alongside other historical subfields such as 
political, economic, and social history. Intellectual history, as a specialized area of 
historical inquiry, has its unique methods and scope. Its primary focus lies in 
examining the influential ideas, ideologies, values, beliefs, and intellectual 
movements of a particular period. In addition, according to Gilbert, intellectual history 
demonstrates how this reinterpretation of Niccolo Machiavelli was shaped by the 
historical context of the 1930s, the development of security studies, and the 
philanthropic support that fostered the growth of international relations theory 
(Guilhot, 2015, p. 681). Within the context of colonization, education plays a pivotal 
role in fostering awareness and catalyzing social change. Paulo Freire, in his seminal 
work Pedagogy of the Oppressed, emphasizes the transformative power of education in 
liberating oppressed populations (Freire, 2001, p. 22).  

Colonial education played a pivotal role in fostering nationalist thought among 
the colonized. By providing indigenous people with access to knowledge and 
nationalist ideologies, colonial education inadvertently created agents of change. The 
ideas and philosophies of these intellectuals influenced society at large, leading to 
significant transformations. One such nationalist thinker, shaped by Western 
education, was Mohammad Sjafei. His nationalist sentiments were cultivated in part 
by his adoptive father, who regularly sent him readings on nationalist ideas. While 
studying in Bukittinggi from 1908 to 1914, Sjafei was exposed to these 
materials. Sjafei's nationalist convictions were further strengthened through his 
involvement in political organizations during the Indonesian nationalist 
movement. Upon completing his teacher training in 1914, he moved to Jakarta to 



 
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Mohammad Sjafei: A Nationalist Educator in West Sumatra      | 146 

deepen his knowledge and gain political experience by joining Budi Utomo in 1914 
and the Indische Partij in 1916. 

A figure's thoughts are shaped by a complex interplay of influences, often rooted 
in their personal experiences. These formative factors guide their ideas and 
perspectives. To effectively analyze a character's mindset, it is crucial to delve into their 
life story. Understanding their background offers valuable insights for writers. A 
person's life experiences significantly influence the development of their thoughts and 
beliefs. These influences are often intangible, as there is no universal standard to 
measure their exact impact. Based on this understanding, this paper explores several 
factors that shaped Mohammad Sjafei's nationalist ideology. These factors include his 
genealogy, education, parental influences, and the impact of political figures, 
collectively providing the context for the formation of his nationalist thought. 

Sjafei, recognizing the emancipatory potential of education, established 
institutions aimed at cultivating nationalist consciousness among Indonesians. A 
biography, in essence, is a narrative account of an individual's life. Beyond mere 
chronological facts, biographies delve into personal experiences, motivations, and the 
impact of life events. The primary purpose of biography is to share the life story of a 
particular individual with a wider audience (Sari, 2021, p. 54).  

While several studies have explored the educational thought of Mohammad 
Sjafei, his contributions have often been overshadowed by the more prominent figure 
of Ki Hadjar Dewantara. Zed (2012) highlights Sjafei's significance as a foundational 
figure in Indonesian education. This study employs a historical-sociological lens to 
compare the contemporary Indonesian education system, post-reform era, with the 
system initiated by Mohammad Sjafei. Zed (2012) argues that the government's 
educational policies have leaned heavily towards Western models, often misaligned 
with the unique identity of the Indonesian nation. In contrast, Sjafei's educational 
philosophy is characterized by its emphasis on "liberating education," which he 
believed was crucial for fostering national self-esteem and aligning education with the 
needs of the Indonesian people. 

In addition, study from Afdhal et al. (2022) asserts that Sjafei's thought remains 
relevant to current educational problems, namely the decline in moral, mental, and 
intellectual values. Syafei has offered a solution through a holistic developmental 
approach, encompassing cognitive, affective, psychomotor, and extracurricular 
aspects. This approach shares similarities with Howard Gardner's concept of multiple 
intelligences. Therefore, M. Sjafei’s educational thought, particularly his concept of 
developmentalism, is still relevant and can be a solution to current educational 
problems. 

This study explores the nationalist thought of Mohammad Sjafei within the 
context of Indonesian politics and education from 1914 to 1958. Employing historical 
methodology, the research examines how the Ethical Policy era facilitated the 
emergence of nationalism among indigenous Indonesians. The expansion of education 
during this period fostered intellectual growth and a sense of national identity.  

 



 
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Mohammad Sjafei: A Nationalist Educator in West Sumatra      | 147 

Method 
This research is a historical study, meaning it reconstructs past events systematically, 
accurately, and objectively using an interpretative approach. Historical researchers 
reconstruct the past by collecting, verifying, and analyzing evidence or facts 
meticulously, allowing for an accurate depiction of the past, providing context for the 
present, and offering perspectives for the future (Muri, 2013, p. 351). 

This research uses the historical method, which consists of four stages. The first 
stage is heuristics, which involves searching for and finding data and historical sources 
(Hartatik & Wasino, 2018, pp. 11-12) relevant to studying Mohammad Sjafei’s 
nationalist thought from 1914 to 1968. This research utilizes literature consisting of 
primary and secondary sources. Primary sources include documents and archives 
obtained from the West Sumatra Provincial Archives Office and the Indonesisch 
Nederlandsche School (INS) Kayutanam educational institution. Secondary sources 
include books, journal articles, research results, and other scholarly works. These 
secondary sources are obtained from the National Library of the Republic of Indonesia 
in Jakarta, the library of Padang State University in Padang, the INS Kayutanam 
Library in Padang Pariaman, and the Minangkabau Cultural Documentation and 
Information Center in Padang Panjang. 

The second stage of the research involved source criticism (Hartatik & 
Wasino, 2018, pp. 11-12). This stage is divided into external criticism (evaluating the 
authenticity of sources) and internal criticism (assessing the credibility of sources). 
Given that all sources used in this research were published written 
documents, external criticism was not necessary. The internal criticism process 
involved selecting relevant supporting sources and comparing them to draw 
conclusions that would be analyzed further. 

The third stage of the research involved interpretation (Hartatik & 
Wasino, 2018, pp. 11-12). At this stage, the author synthesized the collected facts and 
concepts into a coherent narrative. This process required careful interpretation and 
analysis, guided by a social science approach. By connecting the dots, the author was 
able to develop a comprehensive analysis that aligned with the research objectives and 
laid the groundwork for the historiography stage. Historiography, the final 
step, involved expressing the research findings in well-structured sentences that 
adhered to standard writing conventions. 
 
The Process of Forming Nationalist Thought 1914-1925 
Educational Background 
M. Sjafei attended Volkschool (People’s School) in Pontianak from 1905 to 1908 and 
continued his education at the teacher training school, Kweekschool Bukittinggi, from 
1908 to 1914 (Yayasan Ruang Pendidik Indonesisch Nederlandsche School 
Kayutanam, n.d., p. 1). At Kweekschool Bukittinggi, Sjafei's artistic talents began to grow 
and develop; he learned to play the violin and paint under the guidance of a young 
teacher named Wakidi. Sjafei also developed an interest in handicrafts, and at this 
school, he was taught various handicraft skills and agricultural techniques. This 



 
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Mohammad Sjafei: A Nationalist Educator in West Sumatra      | 148 

prepared future teachers to provide better agricultural education if they were to teach 
in rural areas (Afdhal et al., 2022). After six years of teacher training at Kweekschool 
Bukittinggi, Sjafei completed his education in 1914, obtaining his diploma (Navis, 1996, 
pp. 17-18). 

In addition to formal education, Sjafei also pursued non-formal education to 
support his personal potential. After graduating from teacher training in 1914, he 
taught at Kartini School in Jakarta. While teaching, Sjafei took a painting course under 
de Gaaf, a drawing teacher at Hoogere Burgerschool (HBS). After 18 months, he received 
a certificate of completion and the right to teach in secondary schools. He became the 
first Indonesian to obtain such a certificate. Additionally, he improved his Dutch skills 
by taking a language course and earned a completed course certificate with excellent 
grades. He took the Dutch language course with the aim of mastering science and 
technology (Navis, 1996, p. 18). 
 
Interaction with Several Figures 
A significant influence on Sjafei’s thinking came from his parents. His interaction with 
his mother, who consistently provided moral and material support, shaped Sjafei into 
a gentle yet resilient child who could face challenges and pursue education. His 
interaction with his father, who frequently sent writings about knowledge and 
political ideas, helped Sjafei become a young man with broad perspectives and a deep 
understanding of nationalism. His father was a nationalist educator who wanted to 
pass on his ideas to his son. This is evidenced by Marah Sutan’s determination to 
advance national education in line with the character of the Indonesian nation. From 
Marah Sutan’s interactions with political figures such as Dr. Wahidin, Tjipto 
Mangunkusumo, and Ki Hadjar Dewantara, he was convinced that only through 
education could the dignity of the nation be uplifted (Navis, 1996, p. 10). 
 
The Emergence of M. Sjafei’s Nationalist Consciousness 
From a young age, Mohammad Sjafei demonstrated artistic talent, evident from his 
interest in art subjects and his good grades in the arts at school. This talent was further 
nurtured at Kweekschool Bukittinggi, where Sjafei took music (violin) and painting 
classes. In his free time, he worked on painting projects and aspired to become a 
painter. However, this ambition did not align with his father’s expectations. Sjafei was 
not interested in becoming an educator, while his father hoped Sjafei would pursue 
teacher education to educate the nation (Navis, 1996, p. 17). In 1911, Sjafei requested 
to leave Kweekschool five times, intending to pursue painting studies in Jakarta 
(Department of Archives and Libraries of West Sumatra Province, p. 1). 

The school director, J. Lavell, advised Sjafei to complete his teacher education 
and pursue painting studies after graduating from Kweekschool. The director also 
informed Marah Sutan of Sjafei’s intentions. Marah Sutan, upon reading the director’s 
letter, remained silent. He did not want to be harsh with his child, despite their 
differing hopes and desires. Instead, Marah Sutan employed other methods to open 
Sjafei’s mind and cultivate his interest in education and his father’s ideals. Marah 



 
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Mohammad Sjafei: A Nationalist Educator in West Sumatra      | 149 

Sutan frequently sent many magazines and newspapers. Important articles were 
marked in red (Navis, 1996, p. 18), which helped broaden Sjafei’s perspectives and 
instill a sense of nationalism and the spirit of struggle. 

Sjafei began his teacher education at Kweekschool in 1908 and graduated in 1914, 
a period marking the early rise of nationalism in Indonesia. Marah Sutan wanted to 
channel his sense of struggle to his son. By 1912, Sjafei was already studying the 
writings of the “Three Companions” sent by his father. Sjafei expressed this in his work 
titled Brief Information. 

“Semendjak tahun 1912 waktu masih beladjar pada sekolah guru di Bukittinggi 
penulis telah mempeladjari tulisan-tulisan saudara dr. Cipto Mangunkusumo, 
Suwardi Suryaningrat dan Douwes Dekker, pendiri perkumpulan politik Indische 
Partij, dan tulisan-tulisan pentolan-pentolan politik lain2nja. Tulisan-tulisan itu 
dikirimkan oleh bapak Marah Sutan yang telah menetap di Djakarta, 
mentjemplungkan diri di bidang politik dan meletakkan djabatan guru kepala 
pada sekolah rakjat” (Sjafei, 1968, p. 2). 
[Since 1912, when he was still studying at a teacher's school in Bukittinggi, the 
author has studied the writings of Dr. Cipto Mangunkusumo, Suwardi 
Suryaningrat and Douwes Dekker, the founders of the political association 
Indische Partij, and the writings of other political leaders. The writings were sent 
by Mr. Marah Sutan who had settled in Jakarta, plunged himself into politics and 
held the position of head teacher at a people's school.] 
From this explanation, it can be seen that 1912 was the beginning of Mohammad 

Sjafei’s nationalist awareness. The writings of the Three Companions helped cultivate 
his sense of nationalism and spirit of struggle. Sjafei implemented this spirit by 
becoming an educator at Kartini School in Jakarta and joining the political movement.  

“Semendjak tahun 1914 setamat pada sekolah guru, penulis menjemplungkan diri 
dalam kalangan pendidikan dan politik. Dibidang pertama penulis mengadjar 
pada sekolah untuk wanita jaitu “Sekolah Kartini” di Djakarta dengan djumlah 
murid hanja 36 orang pada permulaanja. Sebabnja maka penulis memberikan 
tenaga disitu sekeluar dari sekolah guru di Bukittinggi, karena kami, keluarga 
Marah Sutan berpendapat untuk memandjukan Indonesia, kaum ibu tidak dapat 
ditinggalkan, mesti dibawa serta dalam usaha itu” (Sjafei, 1968, p. 2). 
[Since 1914 after graduating from teacher's school, the author plunged himself into 
educational and political circles. In the first field, the author taught at a school for 
women, namely "Kartini School" in Jakarta with only 36 students at the beginning. 
The reason why the author gave his energy there after leaving teacher's school in 
Bukittinggi, because we, the Marah Sutan family, believed that in order to advance 
Indonesia, mothers could not be left behind, they had to be brought along in that 
effort.] 

 
Instilling Nationalist Ideology at INS Kayutanam 1926-1958 
On October 31, 1926, Sjafei founded the INS Kayutanam in Kajoetanam, West Sumatra 
on 31 October 1926 (Sjafei, 1953, p. xviii). Sjafei's Indonesisch Nederlandsche School 
Kayutanam was a manifestation of his resistance to colonial authority. The school's 
name, boldly incorporating 'Indonesia,' was a statement of defiance. As Audrey Kahin 
noted, various educational institutions and private schools played a crucial role in 



 
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fostering nationalist sentiments among Indonesian youth. At Sjafei's 
school, nationalism was a central focus. This school is a manifestation of Sjafei's non-
cooperative attitude towards the colonial government. It is a private school that boldly 
uses the name 'Indonesia' first, followed by 'Nederlandsche'. During the colonial 
period, the name 'Indonesia' was always marginalized, and Sjafei demonstrated his 
nationalism through this act. The school became a school of struggle because its 
education system was designed as an antithesis to the Dutch education system. The 
language of instruction was Malay, and it taught nationalistic values. As a result, 
graduates of INS Kayutanam had a strong sense of nationalism and loyalty to their 
own nation rather than to the colonial power. 

Sjafei delivered inspiring speeches to ignite students' patriotic fervor, and 
teachers were encouraged to incorporate nationalist perspectives into their 
lessons. Additionally, Sjafei composed the song 'Indonesia Subur,' expressing love for 
the homeland, which students were required to sing daily. Students were asked to 
practice dance for performance (Figure 1). The school aimed to instill a sense of 
patriotism in the local community and beyond. Sjafei believed that by spreading the 
spirit of struggle and nationalism throughout Indonesia, national unity would be more 
easily achieved. He sought to raise awareness among the people of West Sumatra of 
and its potential for greatness (Sjafei, Abdulrachman & Sutan, 1925, p. 1). 

 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
Figure 1. Minang Dance Performance by INS students in 1947.  

Source: Pusat Dokumentasi dan Informasi Kebudayaan Minangkabau, 1977. 
 

Sjafei’s educational institution aimed to be a breeding ground for nationalism, 
without neglecting the formal education of its students. The school also developed 
students' talents and interests. It was a school that combined two components: 
intellectual intelligence and creative hands, making it a fun place. It was a place for 
learning and creating, encouraging students to be creative and productive. During the 
independence war of 1946-1947, Sjafei used the INS Kayutanam school as a medium 
for cultural diplomacy. It served as proof that the Indonesian nation was 
knowledgeable, civilized, and cultured (Abdillah, 2018). Every time international 
guests or peace delegation envoys from the United States, Australia, or England visited 



 
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Mohammad Sjafei: A Nationalist Educator in West Sumatra      | 151 

Bukittinggi, they were taken to the INS Kayutanam school. The guests were welcomed 
with artistic performances by INS Kayutanam students, after which they viewed 
exhibitions of student artwork and visited the school library, which housed a collection 
of 8,000 books (Wati, 2023, pp. 98-110). 

INS Kayutanam sought to establish a new educational system in Indonesia, one 
that employed the native language while maintaining the high standards of 
the Europeesche Lagere School (ELS). ELS was a primary school primarily intended for 
European children, Foreign Orientals, and priyayi (Indonesian nobility). Its curriculum 
spanned seven years and was taught exclusively in Dutch. INS 
Kayutanam's educational system was founded upon a comprehensive analysis of 
Indonesia's current conditions, future prospects, and societal needs. The school aimed 
to equip its students to fulfill their responsibilities to themselves, their 
families, society, nation, religion, and humanity. Its educational philosophy 
emphasized its national character, designed to prepare Indonesian children for the 
challenges and opportunities of the future. The curriculum of INS Kayutanam can be 
seen in Table 1.  

 
Table 1. INS Kayutanam Curriculum 1926 
Components Materials Educational Goals 
1. Brain (Intellectual 

Knowledge) 
 

1. General Knowledge 
2. Mathematics 
3. Natural Science 
4. History 
5. Life Science 
6. Culture and 

Language 

To produce individuals with high 
intellectual knowledge, optimal 
intelligence. To train the mind to think 
mathematically, logically, and 
systematically. To develop memory 
and reasoning to be more humane 
and cultured. 
 

2. Hands (Active, 
creative, and 
innovative) 

 

1. Woodworking 
2. Mechanical 

Engineering  
3. Metalworking 
4. Ceramics 
5. Weaving 
6. Handicrafts 
7. Carving 
8. Animal Husbandry 
9. Agriculture 

 

To cultivate individuals who are 
competent, productive, active, 
creative, innovative, possess a strong 
work ethic, are independent, are 
resourceful, and are capable of 
creating jobs or becoming 
entrepreneurs, thereby becoming self-
reliant individuals. 

3. Heart 
(Development of 
artistic soul and 
noble character) 

1. Arts: Music, Drama 
and theater, Dance, 
Painting, Literature 

 
 
2. Religion and noble 

character: Discipline, 
cleanliness, 

Active, creative, and appreciative of 
aesthetics, possessing a sensitive and 
critical mind. Being communicative 
and tolerant of diverse viewpoints. 
 
To nurture a generation of individuals 
with strong character, embracing a 
civilized way of life, and free from 



 
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Mohammad Sjafei: A Nationalist Educator in West Sumatra      | 152 

responsibility, mutual 
help, mutual respect, 
worship, fulfilling 
obligations, justice, 
community service, 
honesty, keeping 
promises. 

3. Sports 
 

immoral behaviors. 
 
 
 
 
 

Physically fit and robust. Courageous 
and self-assured, resilient and 
persistent, disciplined and 
cooperative, competitive yet fair. 

Sources: Sjafei, 1926, p. 7. 

Through the activities mentioned above, M. Sjafei successfully implemented his 
educational philosophy in practice. His educational practices aimed at fostering 
national awareness and achieving change towards freedom. This success is evident 
from the students who actively participated in the nation's struggle for independence. 
The students did not only study theory but also applied it directly through action. 
Below is the curriculum of INS Kayutanam School. 
 
Conclusion 
Mohammad Sjafei established an educational institution to awaken national 
consciousness. How did M. Sjafei utilize education in the national struggle? The 
answer to this question will be elaborated in the conclusion. Mohammad Sjafei used 
the educational institution known as INS Kayutanam as a vehicle for his struggle, both 
in intellectual and diplomatic endeavors. Sjafei did not only teach nationalistic theories 
to his students; he actively involved them in the struggle. The students and teachers 
participated in the cultural diplomacy efforts as part of their fight. Additionally, at his 
institution, Sjafei did not limit his teachings to national awareness and nationalism; he 
also stimulated his students to develop their skills and creativity, enabling them to be 
innovative and productive. He emphasized the importance of intellectual 
development by providing general knowledge. The education system initiated by 
Sjafei was Indonesiacentric and nationally oriented, aimed at shaping students with 
strong character and an understanding of their national identity. 

Sjafei's struggle to sow nationalism in West Sumatra took a more gentle, focused, 
and independent form. From the beginning of establishing INS Kayutanam, Sjafei and 
Marah Sutan held the principle of independence, refusing assistance from the 
government or any other interested party. This principle was to protect INS's 
objectives from being altered or influenced. After deciding to manage educational 
institutions in West Sumatra, Sjafei also withdrew from political party membership. 
This was intended to allow Sjafei to focus on building the school without obstacles and 
political party influence. As in the cases of Thawalib and Diniyyah institutions, Sjafei 
also rejected subsidies from the Dutch government to maintain the school's 
independent principles. Fearing interference from the Dutch, like Rahmah el-Junusiah, 
Sjafei refused to allow his school to be used for political activities and refused to 



 
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affiliate with any political party. 
The process of instilling nationalism in West Sumatra was initially carried out 

gently through approaches to students during or outside of class time. This was done 
through speeches at official school events or through articles in magazines. Sjafei faced 
challenges in sowing nationalism in West Sumatra, especially in the early 1930s. This 
was related to Sjafei's principle of not wanting to be involved or affiliated with any 
party. Sjafei went against the current movement in West Sumatra, which at that time 
was dominated by Islamic parties that were affiliated with religious schools. The 
nature of the youth movement did not suit Sjafei, as he was worried about increasingly 
firm government action. To ensure the continuity of his education, Sjafei has already 
tried to avoid government attention by not involving himself in any political parties. 
 
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