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IHiS (Indonesian Historical Studies) 9 (1), 43-58 © 2025 | E-ISSN: 2579-4213  

 
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Heritage Preservation of the Pulau Sawah Temple Complex in Dharmasraya Regency, Indonesia | 

 
Received:  
May 28, 2024 
 
Revised:  
August 21, 2024 
 
Accepted:  
June 21, 2025 

 Heritage Preservation of the Pulau Sawah Temple Complex in 
Dharmasraya Regency, Indonesia  

 
Merlina Agustina Orllanda1, Herwandi1, Nopriyasman1 

1Department of History, Faculty of Humanities,  
Andalas University, Padang, West Sumatra – Indonesia 

 
*Corresponding Author: pradana.bk@gmail.com 

DOI: https://doi.org/10.14710/ihis.v9i1.22960 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Introduction 
The temple complex in the Pulau Sawah area was officially recognised by the Regent of 
Dharmasraya, Sutan Riska, on 8 March 2019, as a regency-level Cultural Heritage Site. This 
action is a form of appreciation by the Dharmasraya Regional Government through Regent's 
Decree No. 188.45/KPTS-/BUD/2019 for the historical value of the red brick configuration 
hidden among the rubber plantations and Siguntur grass. The sense of ownership towards this 
historical heritage reflects a commitment to fulfilling the government's mandate No. 38 issued 
in 2007, which focuses on cultural preservation. This aligns with the government's role in 
shaping a nation's cultural landscape and serving to preserve, promote, and regulate cultural 
heritage (Saputra, 2024, p. 25). Moreover, Sumatra Island boasts numerous cultural heritage 
sites with similar cultural and historical backgrounds, such as in Medan, Bukittinggi, and Siak. 
Additionally, various archaeological remnants are scattered across West Sumatra, including 
Dharmasraya Regency (Ginting, Rahman, Nasution, 2020). The Minangkabau cultural 

Abstract 
 

The study focused on the preservation of the Pulau Sawah Temple complex 
under the management of Batusangkar Historical and Archaeological Heritage 
Conservation Agency (SPSP) Batusangkar to the Cultural Preservation Centre 
(BPK) III Region West Sumatra. The temple site had previously received 
inadequate attention, both from the community and the local government, even 
though it marked the heritage of the Buddhist Malay Kingdom. The situation 
improved when the SPSP was established and began operations, leading to 
increased attention and conservation efforts for the Pulau Sawah temple 
complex through various stages. Through primary and secondary source 
research, the study found that the conservation of the Pulau Sawah temple 
complex has involved numerous stakeholders. Various local stakeholders, 
supported by the Batusangkar SPSP as the precursor to the BPK III, have played 
a crucial role in the preservation process. Preservation efforts are not limited to 
collection management but are also supported by the management of the 
organisational structure of the institution responsible for the site complex. 
Therefore, the preservation of the temple structures on Pulau Sawah, which, 
when examined closely, can evoke the identity of Dharmasraya, is of great value 
and should be passed on to future generations. 
 
Keywords:  Pulau Sawah Temple Site; Historical and Archaeological Heritage 
Site; Preservation; Collaboration. 



 
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Heritage Preservation of the Pulau Sawah Temple Complex in Dharmasraya Regency, Indonesia | 

heritage, as described by Mardatillah (2020), is shaped by various elements, including history, 
and is an element that should be appreciated by policymakers aiming to develop cities (Rashid, 
2015, pp. 10-17). 

One of the cultural heritage sites in Dharmasraya Regency that is quite important to 
preserve due to the vulnerability of its structure caused by natural factors is the Pulau Sawah 
Candra and Rahman Site (2023, p. 17). The Pulau Sawah Temple area is indicated as one of the 
relics of the Melau Dharmasraya Kingdom, specifically as a strategic administrative centre 
around the end of the 12th century. At that time, there was a connection between Java and 
Sumatra related to Pamalayu, the gift of the Amoghapasa Statue (1208 S/1286 CE) by King 
Kertanegara of the Singasari Kingdom to Sri Maharaja Srimat Tribhuwanaraja 
Mauliwarmmadewa (Istiawan, 2023, p. 46). The emergence of the Wangsa Mauli Dharmasraya 
Dynasty revealed that the Dharmasraya Malay Kingdom was not a continuation of Sriwijaya. 
Based on this, it is known that the story buried in the brick fragments in the Pulau Sawah area 
highlights Dharmasraya as a royal land (Marzali, 2023, p. 66-67). 

It can be stated that several archaeological potentials at the Pulau Sawah Temple 
Complex have been influenced by Buddhist elements. At the Pulau Sawah II Site, a Buddha 
statue with the head and hands missing (1), a Buddha Gautama statue, another Buddha statue 
in a standing tribangga position on a base (missing), and other remnants were found (Taim, 
2022, pp. 100-101). Considering the relatively young age of the temples, some indicate that the 
area was formerly used as a place of worship. That is evident from the presence of dormitories 
or learning spaces and areas for congregants. It is estimated that the designation of Pulau 
Sawah as a place of worship was supported by its environmental factors (R. W. Oetomo, 
Personal Communication, 14 May 2024). 

The location of Sawah Island, not far from the riverbank on the north side of the 
Batanghari River, also contributes to the Buddhist atmosphere of the area. That location 
indicates that Pulau Sawah was previously a religious site, as described in the Mānasāra 
Śilpaprakāsa text (Taim, 2022, p. 100). Additionally, the Batanghari River basin in 
Dharmasraya Regency, which is indicated as a transportation route for the Pamalayu trade, 
was also utilised for religious activities such as worship, complete with supporting facilities. 
Therefore, the Pulau Sawah Temple Complex is significantly important to be preserved, 
particularly its architectural structures, to ensure that its knowledge, historical, educational, 
religious, and cultural values are not lost over time and can be passed down to future 
generations (Istiawan and Utomo, 2014, p. 28). 

Various traces of Hindu-Buddhist relics at the Pulau Sawah Temple Complex 
demonstrate the uniqueness of the archaeological remains in Dharmasraya Regency, 
prompting numerous experts to conduct various studies on the site. L. C. Westenenk visited 
the Pulau Sawah complex in 1909 and discovered brick ruins on Pulau Sawah. He documented 
his observations in 1921, titled ‘Memorie van overgave van den aftredenden resident van 
Benkoelen L.C Westenenk.’ This initial research then attracted the attention of other 
researchers such as Schnitger, leading to further studies up until the post-independence period 
of Indonesia (Candra and Rahman, 2023, pp. 39–40). 

Through the time, the Pulau Sawah Temple Complex in Dharmasraya Regency began to 
be treated like other heritage sites in the region. The complex was then specifically managed 
under the New Order government, specifically under the management of the Director of 
Protection and Preservation of Ancient Heritage. Since then, the Pulau Sawah complex has 
been managed by the Museum of Prehistoric History (Muskala) of the West Sumatra Regional 



 
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Office of the Ministry of Education and Culture since 1989 and has also been managed by the 
Batusangkar Archaeological Service (SPSP) since 1990 (Sugiharta, 2013, p. 60). 

Based on the Decree of the Minister of Education and Culture No.0767/O/1989 dated 7 
December 1989, SPSP Batusangkar was established to carry out the tasks of protecting, 
developing and realising the utilisation and facilitating the preservation of past heritage in the 
working area. In its implementation, SPSP Batusangkar collaborates with other agencies 
within the Ministry of Education and Culture, local governments, and the local community. 
Therefore, in order to extend the lifespan of the brick structures at the Pulau Sawah Temple 
Complex, SPSP Batusangkar involved the role of the Dharmasraya Regency Government 
before it separated from the Sawahlunto-Sijunjung Regency and the Siguntur community (T. 
Hidayat, Personal Communication, 14 March 2024). However, the community residing within 
the temple complex has not yet developed a sense of ownership towards the heritage site, as 
they are perceived to lack sufficient awareness. As a result, cases of vandalism, theft, and the 
relocation of collections have occurred at the Pulau Sawah temple structures, indirectly 
threatening their preservation (T. A. P. Marhasinda, Personal Communication, 19 April 2024). 

The preservation of the Pulau Sawah Temple site had not previously been a priority for 
the government due to a lack of coordination between the central and regional governments. 
Therefore, the involvement of SPSP Batusangkar has encouraged cooperation with various 
stakeholders. These consistent efforts were evident in the transformation of SPSP Batusangkar 
into the Centre for the Preservation of Historical and Archaeological Heritage (BP3), which 
later became the Cultural Heritage Preservation Office (BPCB) of West Sumatra, and is now 
known as the Cultural Heritage Preservation Office of Region III (BPK III) of West Sumatra 
Province, based on Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology Regulation 
Number 33 of 2022. 

Based on the above description, this study focuses on the dynamics of SPSP Batusangkar 
as the forerunner of BPK III West Sumatra Province, which has played an important role in 
the preservation of the Candi Pulau Sawah site in Jorong Siguntur Ranah, Kenagarian 
Siguntur, Sitiung District, Dharmasraya Regency, West Sumatra Province.  

 
Method 
The arguments presented in this paper are based on findings and selection of facts from 
qualitative historical research. This research is descriptive and analytical in nature, using 
primary sources such as laws, archives, photographs and reports obtained from archival 
studies, literature studies and field studies. In addition to literature studies and field research, 
this study also uses interviews as part of its oral sources. 

The sources obtained were critically reviewed, both internally and externally, to 
minimise subjectivity and ensure the authenticity and credibility of the sources (Herlina, 2008, 
pp. 25-55). This study also employs the Cultural Resource Management (CRM) and 
Sustainable Resource Management approaches to conduct a critical-empirical analysis of the 
effective and sustainable management of the Pulau Sawah Temple Complex, involving local 
stakeholders in Dharmasraya Regency (Smith and Clarke, 2004, pp. 10-15). 

 
Batusangkar Historical and Archaeological Heritage Site (SPSP): Safeguarding West 
Sumatra’s Cultural Legacy 

Cultural resource management in Indonesia is generally better known among 
archaeologists and is always associated with the conservation of cultural heritage in the form 



 
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of archaeological remains, such as artefacts, monuments, structures, sites and areas. On the 
other hand, the arrangement of a site area also faces various challenges in the conservation 
process at sites and monuments, as well as cultural heritage areas. This is because management 
is not only limited to determining the area to be protected, but also determining the boundaries 
of the area, which is not easy to do (Putranto et al., 2024, pp. 2-3). 

Looking at the history of cultural preservation in Indonesia, preservation efforts began 
with the establishment of the Oudheidkundige Dienst in Nederlandsch-Indie in 1913. This 
archaeological institution was tasked with researching and preserving historical relics in the 
Dutch East Indies as an effort to protect historical and archaeological artefacts. Following the 
proclamation of Indonesian independence, the Oudheidkundige Dienst in Nederlandsch-
Indie was nationalised as the National Archaeological and Heritage Agency (LPPN). Over 
time, the LPPN evolved into the Centre for Archaeological and Heritage Research in 1974, and 
the Directorate of History and Archaeology was renamed the Directorate of Protection and 
Development of Historical and Archaeological Heritage (Ditlinbinjarah). In accordance with 
the Decree of the People's Consultative Assembly No. IV/MPR/1978, the institution is tasked 
with the restoration, maintenance, preservation, and protection of the nation's cultural 
heritage. This legal foundation also established the development and promotion of cultural 
values contained in historical and archaeological heritage to preserve the nation's identity, 
strengthen national pride and self-esteem, and reinforce the spirit of national unity. 
Additionally, the Directorate of Historical Heritage Utilisation (Ditlinbinjarah) uses Article 32 
of the 1945 Constitution as its constitutional basis for rescuing, protecting, nurturing, and 
maintaining all heritage sites throughout the entire territory of the country (T. Hidayat, 
Personal Communication, 14 March 2024). 

Ditlinbinjarah was officially established in 1980 and began with four Technical 
Implementation Units (UPT) of the Directorate of History and Antiquities located in 
Yogyakarta, Trowulan, Gianyar, and Makassar. However, the institution faced various 
challenges following Indonesia's independence, prompting the Minister of Education and 
Culture at the time, Fuad Hasan, to issue a decision regarding the organisation and operational 
procedures for historical and archaeological heritage sites on 7 December 1989. This was 
related to the protection of the nation's cultural heritage, which had been hindered during the 
Japanese occupation of Indonesia. The establishment of the four UPTs was followed by the 
establishment of five UPT branches, including SPSP Aceh, SPSP Batusangkar, SPSP Jambi, 
SPSP West Java, and SPSP Central Java. Based on the Minister of Education and Culture's 
Decision on 7 December 1989, the Borobudur Study and Conservation Centre in Magelang, 
along with the West Sumatra SPSP, was established to establish these institutions. 

After being established in 1989, SPSP Batusangkar began operations in 1990. The choice 
of location for the office in Batusangkar was related to the location of the Pagaruyung 
Kingdom, which has many classical relics, such as those of King Adityawarman, Islam, the 
colonial era, and the independence era. Like other SPSP branches established across various 
regions, SPSP Batusangkar is tasked with maintaining, protecting, restoring, documenting, 
guiding, and educating the public about historical and archaeological sites within its area of 
operation. The Batusangkar SPSP was initially located in the guardhouse of the Adityawarman 
Inscription before moving to the Balai Adat, which is situated directly in front of the regent's 
official residence. After receiving a land grant in 1994, the Batusangkar SPSP office was 
officially relocated to Jalan Sultan Alam Bagagarsyah, Nagari Pagaruyung, Tanjung Emas 
District. However, the SPSP Batusangkar office was officially established in 1996, as shown in 



 
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Figures 1 to 3 (T. Hidayat, Personal Communication, 14 March 2024). 

 
 

Figure 1. Portrait of the SPSP’s Office in the 1990s 
(Source: Dokumentasi SPSP) 

 

 
 

Figure 2. Portrait of SPSP's second office in the 2000s 
(Source: Dokumentasi SPSP) 

 

 
 

Figure 3. The location of the BPK III office on Jalan Sultan Alam Bagagarsyah, Nagari 
Pagaruyung, has been the same since the 2000s until now.  

(Source: Dokumentasi SPSP) 
 

The inauguration of SPSP Batusangkar ultimately supported the existence of the 
Museum of History and Archaeology (Muskala) under the management of the West Sumatra 
Regional Office of the Ministry of Education and Culture (Candra and Rahman, 2023). SPSP 



 
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Batusangkar faces various challenges in managing its archaeological collections, such as 
limited data. This is because, although the number of objects in West Sumatra-Riau is quite 
significant, they must align with local traditions and the vast geographical area with limited 
transportation infrastructure during the data collection process. Additionally, SPSP 
Batusangkar still needs to convince local governments and communities about the role and 
functions of the institution in preserving the collection (A. T. Mulyono, Personal 
Communication, 28 February 2024). 

In its development, Presidential Decree No. 117 was issued to establish the Department 
of Tourism and Culture. Although this policy was temporary because after Megawati became 
President of the Republic of Indonesia, the status of the Department of Culture and Tourism 
was changed to the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. In this context, SPSP Batusangkar played 
a role in supporting the government, particularly in preserving culture by nurturing, 
developing, protecting, and utilising culture not only for tourism purposes. To carry out its 
role within the government structure, in 2002 SPSP Batusangkar changed its name to BP3. At 
the same time, its territory was expanded to include the Riau Islands (R. Rusli, Personal 
Communication, 19 December 2023).  

In carrying out its duties, BP3 is responsible to the Directorate General of History and 
Archaeology, with implementation managed by the Director of Archaeological Heritage in 
accordance with Permenbudpar 37 of 2006. Essentially, there was a vertical bureaucratic 
restructuring, though this did not significantly impact the tasks and functions of SPSP/BP3. 
This is because the institution's focus remained on the preservation of historical and 
archaeological heritage. 

Over time, the institution was once again placed under the management of the Ministry 
of Education and Culture in 2011, resulting in the issuance of Ministry of Education and 
Culture Regulation No. 52/2012 on the Organisation and Operational Procedures of the 
Cultural Heritage Preservation Centre (BPCB). In this context, the term BP3 was changed to 
BPCB. With the issuance of Ministry of Education and Culture Regulation No. 30/2015, the 
Batusangkar Cultural Heritage Preservation Centre was renamed the West Sumatra Cultural 
Heritage Preservation Centre (BPCB Sumbar). The organisational structure of BPCB Sumbar 
consists of a Head who oversees Section Heads and Sub-Section Heads. Section Heads are 
responsible for coordinating the Maintenance Working Group, the Rescue-Security-Zoning 
Working Group, the Documentation-Publication Working Group, the Development-
Utilisation Working Group, and the Restoration Working Group (Nurmatias, Personal 
Communication, 2 April 2024). 

The regulation was later amended based on Regulation of the Minister of Education, 
Culture, Research, and Technology No. 33/2022 concerning the Organisation and Work 
Procedures of Cultural Preservation Centres. Therefore, BPK III employees were reorganised 
by merging staff from the Cultural Values Preservation Centre in Padang and the West 
Sumatra Cultural Heritage Preservation Centre in Batusangkar. In its efforts to preserve and 
promote cultural heritage and intangible cultural heritage, BPK III West Sumatra focuses 
solely on the West Sumatra region. This agency was officially established on 2 June 2022, and 
its inauguration took place on 22 December 2022. Undri serves as the head of BPK Region III 
West Sumatra Province, with Fauzan Amril as the Head of the General Affairs Section. The 
agency, located in Padang and Tanah Datar, has 88 staff members and 113 cultural heritage 
custodians (Staff Placement Decision 2022: 1-5; Staff Reorganisation Decision for BPK Region 
III, 14 April 2023: 1-6; Cultural Heritage Custodian Decision for BPCB West Sumatra, 17 



 
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February 2022). 
In the field of conservation, from the SPSP to the BPK Region III West Sumatra, the 

commitment to preserving the nation's cultural assets remains steadfast. However, since 2022, 
these efforts have been realised through collaboration between the Cultural Heritage Law No. 
11 of 2010 and the Cultural Advancement Law No. 5 of 2017 to preserve and promote cultural 
heritage that reflects the nation's identity. As one of the nation's cultural treasures, the Pulau 
Sawah Temple Complex is always prioritised to ensure that this distinctive heritage of 
Dharmasraya Regency continues to provide benefits in terms of economy, knowledge, 
religion, and history. 

Tracing the Melayu Legacy: From Sriwijaya’s Dominion to Dharmasraya’s Rise  
The location of Malay is quite a puzzle because there are various versions of its location. In 
1993, Basyarsyah II and his colleagues stated that ‘Malay’ was located precisely on the coast of 
the Malacca Strait, starting from southern Thailand, the Malay Peninsula, the east coast of 
Sumatra, to the South China Sea, such as Brunei, Sabah, and Serawak. Winstedt (1984) had a 
broader perspective, linking the Malay people to all indigenous groups inhabiting the entire 
Nusantara archipelago, the Philippines, parts of Indochina, and Formosa (Taiwan) (Hakim, 
2017, pp. 101-112). Both views do not deny that one of the locations of the Malay people is in 
Indonesia (Soedewo, 2007, pp. 19-20). Regarding the Malay people in their homeland, it is 
interesting to trace the story of the Malay people of Sumatra. 

 There is a view that the Malay people were located in the Jambi region at that time, but 
it was assumed afterward that they were in the Malay Peninsula (Soedewo, 2007, p. 20). In 
Malay mythology, their ancestors are believed to have come from the sky and descended to 
Bukit Seguntang Maha Meru in the upper reaches of Palembang. Based on a classical 
perspective, the village at the upper reaches of the Merangin River (Karang Brahi) is estimated 
to be the original centre of the Malay Kingdom, with its port at Muara Jambi (Marzali, 2023, p. 
76). The fact that this aligns with I-tsing's records, which mention that the Malay port served 
as a stopover point between India and China, is significant. It is stated that from this port, one 
could sail northward to Kwang-tung in approximately fifteen days. Based on the above 
information from the Buddhist monk, Slametmuljana identified the mouth of the Batanghari 
River (Kota Jambi) in the 7th century as the location of the Malay Kingdom. Another 
perspective comes from Boechari, who places the Malay people on the eastern coast of Sumatra 
(the Batang Kuantan region or on the western coast of Malaysia near Port Swettenham) 
(Hassan et al., 2021, pp. 45–46). 

Based on I-Tsing's expedition reports on the spread of Buddhism in the Malay region, it 
can be concluded that the Malay Kingdom was not actually the Sriwijava (Sriwijaya) Kingdom, 
but rather a conquered region. According to Suzuki, the capital of the Sriwijava Kingdom was 
located in Chaiya (in Ban Don Bay, Southern Thailand) (Razzaq, 2017, pp. 39-50). Sriwijava 
was never located in Palembang, but Palembang was one of the territories under Sriwijava's 
control (around 650 CE). In addition to Palembang, Muara Jambi was also under the control 
of Sriwijaya (around 672-687). Information indicates that I-Tsing was once escorted by the king 
of Sriwijaya to Muara Jambi in 672, and later in 687 he found that the Malay had been 
conquered by Sriwijaya. I-Tsing's testimony shows that around 685, Sriwijaya had conquered 
the Malay, although not under strict control. Therefore, the Malay continued to send envoys 
to China. This was considered by Sriwijaya as a form of resistance, so that around 683-686 a 
warning was issued as stated in the Karang Brahi Inscription (Marzali, 2023, pp. 66-67). 



 
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The inscription on the Karang Brahi Inscription confirms that Merangin was the original 
location of the Malay Kingdom. Although the kingdom had the Muara Jambi Bay, its location 
was deep inland along the Batanghari River, situated on a hill. It is believed that this Malay 
Kingdom established trade relations with China and India, which angered the Sriwijaya 
Kingdom (Hakim, 2017). Field evidence indicates the presence of rectangular brick structures 
located 200 metres from the banks of the Batang Merangin River, which are believed to be the 
site of the kingdom. However, J.L.A. Brandes firmly identified Dharmasraya (West Sumatra) 
as the centre of the Malay Kingdom of Sumatra. The emergence of Dharmasraya coincided 
with the decline of the Sriwijaya Kingdom due to the invasion of Rajendracola I (1025), 
marking the end of the Sailendra Dynasty's rule in Sumatra. Shortly thereafter, the Mauli 
Dynasty emerged in Dharmasraya as the rulers of the Malacca Strait. These facts indicate that 
the Malay Kingdom of Dharmasraya was not a continuation of Sriwijaya, as suggested in 
Figures 4 and 5. 

 
 

Figure 4. A portrait of the Batanghari River in the area controlled by the Malay Kingdom of 
Sumatra, believed to be the route of the Pamalayu incident.  

(Source: https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11840/22931) 
 

 
 

Figure 5. The Dharmasraya region, which was once the domain of the Malay Kingdom 
(Source: https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11840/2786) 

 
The Malay Kingdom of Dharmasraya can be considered the successor to the Malay 

Kingdom in Sumatra, given that kingdoms in Sumatra often moved to avoid attacks from 
enemies such as Srivijaya. Hasan Djafar divides Malay history into three phases: the early 
period (around the mid-7th century CE), the period of occupation by Srivijaya (around 680-
mid-11th century CE), and the late period (around the 11th to 14th centuries CE) (Bahar, 2014, 
p. 18). The emergence of the Malay Kingdom in Karang Brahi Hulu Sungai Merangin, which 
was later moved to Muara Jambi for strategic reasons, falls within the early phase. 



 
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Subsequently, the expansion period of Sriwijaya, which included the control of the Malay 
Kingdom of Jambi, falls within the occupation phase. The final phase is marked by the 
disappearance of the name Sriwijaya in 1365 and the emergence of discussions about the 
Malay Kingdom of Dharmasraya (Marzali, 2023, p. 76). Discussions about the Malay people 
highlight the existence of Dharmasraya Regency as the legacy of the kingdom. This regency, 
located in the southeastern tip of West Sumatra Province, was inaugurated on 7 January 2004. 
Dharmasraya is strategically located on the Trans-Sumatra Highway and is directly bordered 
by Bungo Regency, Jambi Province. In addition to land, Dharmasraya and Jambi Province are 
connected by the Batanghari River, which is approximately 1,740 km long (Widiatmoko, 2009, 
p. 1). Upon examination, Dharmasraya is located precisely at the upstream of the Batanghari 
River, with its downstream reaching Muara Jambi (access to the Malacca Strait). In the past, 
the Batanghari River Basin in Dharmasraya District was used as a means of transportation, 
supporting agriculture, and producing gold. When linked to Dharmasraya as a royal land, the 
Batanghari River Sub-Basin in Dharmasraya was once used as a Malay Royal Port (Candra 
and Rahman, 2023, pp. 15-16). 

Regarding the Malay Kingdom and its relationship with the Batanghari River Basin, it's 
a story of affiliation between the Kingdom of Java and the Kingdom of Sumatra. Such 
knowledge cannot be mere speculation because it was inscribed on the Dharmasraya 
Inscription, which uses Old Javanese script and a mixture of Sanskrit and Old Malay. 
Additionally, in the Pararaton manuscript and the Negarakertagama manuscript (stanza 
XLI,5), there is information equivalent to the Malay account, namely Pamalayu, which was 
centred in Dharmasraya (Sadzali, Resiyani, and Fitrah, 2021). The Pararaton mentions that in 
1275, the last king of Singasari (Prabu Kertanagara) sent envoys from Java to Sumatra led by 
Mahisa Anabrang or Kebo Anabrang. Then in 1286 AD (1208 S), another force led by four 
officials from Java was sent to deliver the Amoghapasa Lokeswara statue and 14 
accompanying statues to the Malay king Sri Maharaja Tribhuwanaraja Mauliwarmadewa to 
be erected in Dharmasraya (Istiawan, 2023, p. 45). Apparently, it is reported that the expedition 
of the Singasari Kingdom (led by Rakyan Adwyabrahma) to the Malay Kingdom occurred 
after the centre of the Malay Kingdom was moved from Tebo to Dharmasraya (1286), so it is 
estimated that the arrival of the Javanese troops in 1275 took place in Tebo (Marzali, 2023, p. 
76). 

Some versions state that the Pamalayu Incident had a political objective to maintain 
political stability in the Nusantara region and Southeast Asia (Champa) from the threat of 
Kublai Khan (Mongol), who had almost conquered the entire Asian continent. The statue sent 
was considered a symbol of alliance between the Malay and Singasari kingdoms. That is 
understandable given that the political constellation of Singasari is reported to have influenced 
the Malay Kingdom of Dharmasraya. In fact, Amoghapasa is a replica of the statue of 
Wisnuwardhana at Candi Djago, Malang (1284–1269). Such a 2.15-metre-tall statue depicts 
Hayagriwa, Suddhanakumara, Syamatara, and Bhrkuti, while the statue in the main temple 
courtyard is a statue of Bhairawa depicted with a skull and a knife in his hand, and Aksobhya 
on his hair ornament (Proborini, 2017). These similarities serve as evidence strengthening the 
political ties between East Java and Sumatra during the 12th to 14th centuries CE. The 
relationship between Java and Sumatra regarding the existence of the Malay Kingdom of 
Dharmasraya is quite contrasting in one of the contents of the Kakanwin Negarakertagama 
manuscript written in 1365, in stanza XIII verse 1, which states that Dharmasraya was part of 
the Majapahit Empire. That information is further reinforced by reports that Adityawarman 



 
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was brought to Sumatra in 1339 as an envoy or subordinate king of Majapahit, undertaking 
various expansions, beginning with the conquest of Palembang. Regarding this, Prof. C.C. 
Berg interprets Arya Damar (in Kidung Pamancangah and Babad Arya 16 Tabanan) as the 
regent of Palembang who assisted Gajah Mada in conquering Bali in 1343, and his identity is 
identical to Adityawarman (Mardiyono, 2023, pp. 154-155). Adityawarman was the ruler of 
the Malay Kingdom of Dharmasraya who moved the centre of power to the interior of Saruaso. 
That origin indicates that the position of the Malay Kingdom was not fixed but moved 
according to circumstances. Initially, the kingdom was located in Karang Brahi (Merangin) 
with Muara Jambi as its port. Later, the kingdom was moved to Tebo (to avoid attacks from 
Javanese rulers, Chinese forces, and the Islamic Samudera Pasai in the 13th century), due to 
the arrival of Javanese forces in 1275, the centre of power was transferred to Dharmasraya 
(Padangroco) until it was finally moved to Saruaso around 1340 (Marzali, 2023, pp. 75-76). 

Based on the history that has been revealed previously, Dharmasraya is believed to be 
one of the important centres in the story of the Malay Kingdom in Sumatra. That belief is 
supported by various historical discoveries around the Batanghari River Basin, such as in the 
Pulau Sawah Site Area, Padangroco Site, Awang Maombiak Site, and Padang Lawas Site. 
These sites are confirmed to have connections with the existence of the Malay Kingdom of 
Dharmasraya, which is believed to have been influenced by Buddhism from the Sriwijaya 
Kingdom as well as from kingdoms in Java such as Singasari and Majapahit (Marzali, 2023, 
pp. 66-67). The existence of the aforementioned historical relics indicates that Dharmasraya 
was once influenced by Hindu-Buddhist culture. De Casparis (1927) stated that Hinduism was 
actually less dominant in Sumatra because the kings on the island generally embraced 
Buddhism. One of the famous Malay kings of Dharmasraya was Adityawarman. The king 
adhered to Tantra (Buddhism) and considered himself to be the incarnation of Lokeswara 
(Buddha referring to Bodhisattva). That interpretation is difficult to refute due to the 
abundance of Buddhist-related evidence found at the Pulau Sawah Temple Complex in Nagari 
Siguntur, such as profane and sacred stoneware structures indicating that the complex was 
once extensively used as a place of worship for deities (Sadzali, 2022, p. 82). Buddhist elements 
at Pulau Sawah are prominent in the temple structures and various artefacts such as the bronze 
statue of Durga-mahesasuramardini, half-body deity statues, bronze statues resembling 
people sitting on a raft, bronze artefacts, ceramics, and the Amitabha Buddha artefact at Site 
Pulau Sawah VIIa, a standing Buddha statue in the tribangga posture on a pedestal, a Buddha 
Gautama statue and a Garuda statue known as the vehicle of Buddha Amoghasidi, fragments 
of a Buddha statue's crown, a pot containing an inscription on gold foil (suwarna-pattra) 
containing a Buddha mantra, a pot containing needles related to the construction of a stupa to 
house the relics of a Buddhist figure, sacred texts, or objects emitting sacred power, and so on 
(Taim, 2021, p. 17). 

 
Institutional Roles and Community Engagement in the Preservation of Pulau Sawah temple 
Site, Dharmasraya 
The preservation of the Pulau Sawah Temple Complex has been carried out in accordance with 
applicable laws and regulations. During the New Order era, Law No. 5 of 1992 on Cultural 
Heritage was the reference. Under the leadership of President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, 
the Cultural Heritage Law No. 11 of 2010 was enacted. Currently, the Cultural Heritage 
Preservation Office of Region III, West Sumatra Province, is actively involved in preserving 
cultural heritage and promoting cultural objects in accordance with the Ministry of Education, 



 
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Culture, Research, and Technology Regulation No. 33 of 2022. The 1992 Cultural Heritage Law 
is considered centralised because various aspects such as control, ownership, discovery, 
search, protection, maintenance, management, utilisation, and supervision are carried out by 
central government officials, namely the minister responsible for culture and his staff at the 
central level, as well as the Archaeological Heritage Agency, the Regional Office of the 
Ministry of Education and Culture, and the District/City Education and Culture Office at the 
regional level (Sugiharta, 2013, p. 65). In this case, the preservation of the Pulau Sawah Site is 
ultimately dominated by the central government, so that the manager (institution) acts as an 
intermediary for the authorities. The indifference of the Siguntur community and the 
inadequate interest of the local government may be due to the principles of the era. On the 
other hand, archaeologists often employ advanced methods when assessing archaeological 
heritage. However, they rarely apply the same level of precision in developing methods to 
understand the meaning of a place, a country, or even the heritage itself for the relevant 
community (McNaughton, Morrison, and Schill, 2016). Therefore, it can be said that there is a 
lack of coordination among the relevant parties in managing the Pulau Sawah Temple Site 
Complex. 

SPSP Batusangkar is one of the entities responsible for the preservation of integrated 
cultural heritage in the context of government policy, so its presence plays an important role 
in determining cultural identity claims based on material culture. Its presence in the early 
1990s made the Siguntur community aware of the importance of Pulau Sawah as an ancestral 
heritage that must be preserved. SPSP actively seeks to protect, maintain, and develop Pulau 
Sawah. Data inventory and excavation activities are carried out periodically to enrich the data 
supporting all forms of preservation efforts (A. T. Mulyono, Personal Communication, 28 
February 2024). In the practice of preserving the Pulau Sawah Temple Complex, SPSP 
Batusangkar has established relationships with relevant stakeholders, such as policy makers 
and decision makers in the field of cultural preservation, including local and central 
governments, traditional leaders, and the local community. In this context, the district 
government and the community have claims over the cultural heritage of their region. To 
ensure that SPSP Batusangkar's conservation efforts receive positive support, an approach 
prioritising ethics is adopted, such as the practice of ‘ngemong,’ which is likened to the proverb 
‘a person carried on one's lap will surely die’ (T. Hidayat, Personal Communication, 14 March 
2024). The information above aligns with the stance of the community and the Dharmasraya 
District Government, which are ready to collaborate with SPSP Batusangkar (now BPK III 
Sumbar) to preserve and develop the heritage of the Pulau Sawah Site. The Dharmasraya 
District Tourism and Culture Office has been a loyal partner of BPK III since the initial 
activities. As a regency established through administrative restructuring, Dharmasraya has 
definitively maintained its diversity and regional identity, one of its key potentials being the 
Pulau Sawah Site. To realise this vision, the Dharmasraya Government has cultivated 
relationships with all stakeholders. Regarding the inventory of cultural heritage assets, as well 
as the maintenance and preservation of regional cultural assets, the Dharmasraya Regency 
Government requires intensive coordination with the West Sumatra Cultural Heritage 
Preservation Agency (BPCB Sumbar) (referred to as BPK III) (Riska, 2023, pp. 53-55). 

SPSP Batusangkar serves as one of the main entities in the preservation of integrated 
cultural heritage, in accordance with government policy. Its role is crucial in determining 
cultural identity claims based on material culture. Since the early 1990s, the presence of SPSP 
has raised awareness among the people of Siguntur about the importance of Pulau Sawah as 



 
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an ancestral heritage that must be preserved. SPSP is actively involved in the protection, 
maintenance, and development of Pulau Sawah. Data inventory and excavation activities are 
conducted regularly to enrich the data supporting various conservation efforts (M. Zoehdi, 
Personal Communication, 19 April 2024). In preserving the Pulau Sawah Temple Complex 
(Figure 6), SPSP Batusangkar collaborates with relevant stakeholders, including public 
policymakers in cultural preservation, such as local and central governments, traditional 
leaders, and local communities. In this context, the district government and the community 
have claims to the region's cultural heritage. To ensure positive support for SPSP 
Batusangkar's preservation efforts, ethical approaches such as the ngemong practice, which is 
likened to the proverb “orang bila dipangku pasti mati” (if you hold someone in your lap, they 
will die), are applied (Smith & Clarke, 2004: 10; Interview with Teguh Hidayat, 14 March 2024 
in Padang). This information aligns with the stance of the community and the Dharmasraya 
District Government, which are ready to collaborate with SPSP Batusangkar (now BPK III 
Sumbar) in maintaining and developing the Pulau Sawah Site. The Dharmasraya District 
Tourism and Culture Office has been a loyal partner of BPK III since the inception of the 
activities. As a newly established regency, Dharmasraya is committed to preserving its 
diversity and regional identity, with the Pulau Sawah Site as one of its potentials. To achieve 
this goal, the Dharmasraya Government has established relationships with various 
stakeholders. In terms of inventory, maintenance, and preservation of regional cultural assets, 
the Dharmasraya Regency Government requires intensive coordination with the West 
Sumatra Cultural Heritage Preservation Agency (BPCB Sumbar) (referred to as BPK III) (Riska, 
2023, pp. 53-55). 
 

 
 

Figure 6.  Results of the 1996 Excavation 
(Source: Documentation of SPSP Batusangkar) 

 
In 2003, BP3 carried out the restoration of the Pulau Sawah I and II Temple Sites. In 

addition to BP3 activities, the Arkenas Research Centre also conducted further research. In 
2004 and 2005, the restoration of the Pulau Sawah Temple Site phase III was continued. In 
2007, BP3 actively conducted excavations at the Pulau Sawah Site, including site cleaning, 
excavation of the Pulau Sawah II Temple Site, and the discovery of artefacts at the Pulau Sawah 
I and II sites. At that time, ancient remains in the form of pottery shards, ceramics, knife blades, 
and coins were found near the fence structure on the southeast side. To enrich preservation 
references, in 2008, BP3 preservation personnel conducted a spatial study to regulate the 
boundaries and environment of the Pulau Sawah Temple Complex. In 2008 and 2009, BP3 



 
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together with the Medan Archaeological Centre researched sites in Hulu Das Batanghari. The 
results of these activities uncovered ceramic bowls dating back to the Northern Song Dynasty 
(960–1127 CE). Through inter-institutional collaboration, it was speculated that Pulau Sawah 
was indeed influenced by Hindu-Buddhist culture and existed for a brief period, between the 
12th and 14th centuries (Candra and Rahman, 2023, pp. 54–60). Interest in the Pulau Sawah 
Temple Site Complex has become more regular during the BPCB Sumbar period. In 2012, 
excavation of the Pulau Sawah Temple Site XI structure was conducted. From this activity, 
fragments of yellowish-brown pottery shaped like a bottle mouth were found (in box U3-B10, 
spit 7). The excavation results revealed the discovery of a single brick building structure 
consisting of 25 layers of bricks. Additionally, there was a floor structure estimated to consist 
of two units, each comprising three layers of bricks on the eastern side and two layers on the 
southern side. This massive preservation effort also uncovered a brick wall structure 
consisting of two rectangular corners extending from north to south (Compilation Team, 2012, 
p. 51). Still during the BPCB West Sumatra period, in 2014, excavation of the Pulau Sawah II 
structure was carried out (Continuation of Excavation at the Pulau Sawah XI Temple Site). 
Scattered brick fragments indicate that the cultural heritage site is an organic object, thus 
classified as a non-renewable resource vulnerable to natural factors, necessitating the 
preservation of its structural integrity. In 2015, a planning study for the conservation and 
zoning of the excavation area at Munggu IX, VI, and V was conducted. Following this, in 2016, 
rescue excavations were carried out at Munggu IV, III, VII, VIII, X, and XII. Then, in 2018, 
BPCB Sumbar again conducted a rescue excavation at Munggu XI. The findings included a 
three-layer brick structure, a gravel arrangement, and a layer of crushed bricks, as well as 
several decorated bricks and a few ceramic fragments (Sugiharta, 2013, p. 15). 

The importance of the Pulau Sawah Site prompted the West Sumatra Cultural Heritage 
Preservation Agency (BPCB Sumbar) to conduct a rescue excavation of the Pulau Sawah 
Temple Site in the Munggu XI area in 2019. The results of this activity revealed the presence 
of brick structures (in boxes S1-T6) and several pottery fragments. In boxes B1-U17, scattered 
bricks and pottery fragments were found, along with white and blue glazed ceramics. 
Additionally, pottery shards shaped like decorated bowls were found on the northern side of 
the Munggu XI fence. The abundance of findings at the site prompted the implementation of 
the Rescue Excavation of the Pulau Sawah Temple Site in 2021, which yielded features (Temple 
Brick Structures) and artefacts (Pottery Fragments). In 2022, which marked the end of the West 
Sumatra BPCB's management and the beginning of the BPK III period, a series of activities 
were carried out in the Pulau Sawah Temple Site area, including the Munggu XI Rescue 
Excavation, which uncovered the ruins of a fence structure and fragmentary pottery artefacts 
(pots, bowls, kettles, jugs) and porcelain and stoneware ceramics (estimated to be from the 
Ming Dynasty XV-XVII AD) (Compilation Team, 2019, p. 26; p. 34). This activity also included 
the identification of findings and environmental conditions around the site, mapping of the 
Pulau Sawah Temple Site using LiDar (Directorate General of Culture), and the organisation 
of a Field School and Exhibition (during the Pamalayu Festival and Kenduri event). This final 
activity was a collaboration between the BPCB, the Directorate General of Culture, the 
Dharmasraya Government, and the community (Candra and Rahman, 2023, pp. 131-147). 

The facts presented above describe the history of the preservation of the Pulau Sawah 
Temple Complex carried out by preservation actors. Since its establishment, the institution has 
made significant efforts to preserve Pulau Sawah. Despite facing complex challenges in the 
early stages, activities began with the collection of data. The rugged geographical conditions 



 
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and the local community's resistance to outsiders made it impossible for the UPT Kemdikbud 
to carry out activities without the support of the local government and the local community. 
Therefore, efforts to build relationships were made by prioritising a friendly attitude as 
outsiders (T. Hidayat, Personal Communication, 14 March 2024). SPSP's partners during this 
period were the community and cultural observers in the sub-district under the supervision 
of the Culture Office. Based on community complaints regarding the discovery of large brick 
structures around the Batanghari River, SPSP finally conducted intensive surveys and 
research. That activity ran smoothly thanks to cooperation with the Arkenas Research Centre 
(1991-1994) and was supported by positive community response to the findings, as well as 
government assistance. From SPSP to BPK III, the preservation activities of the Pulau Sawah 
Temple Complex were routinely coordinated with the Dharmasraya Regency Culture, 
Tourism, Youth, and Sports Office. In addition to coordination, assistance was also frequently 
provided, such as during the Cultural Canal Exhibition via the Pamalayu Festival in 
Dharmasraya Regency on 18–24 August 2022. The collaborative working relationship 
continues to this day. The Dharmasraya Regency Government acknowledges that by 
advancing its local cultural heritage collaboratively with BPK III, specifically the Pulau Sawah 
Site, it has brought positive benefits such as an increase in the number of tourists and improved 
income for local residents. BPK III's conservation activities, which involve the community as 
local labour, have provided employment that supports well-being. Additionally, various 
activities such as excavations and the Pamalayu Festival are examples of local tourism 
development that have social benefits, enhancing social integrity and identity. It is a source of 
pride for the community, especially the heirs of cultural heritage who feel that their ancestors' 
identity is valued. Therefore, it can be considered a landmark for Dharmasraya District (from 
the SPSP era to BPK III in West Sumatra) (T. Hidayat, Personal Communication, 14 March 
2024). 

SPSP Batusangkar in executing its duties of protection, development, and utilization, as 
well as facilitating the preservation of cultural heritage within its jurisdiction, cannot 
independently realize cultural heritage preservation due to adherence to a set of legal norms. 
In the preservation of the Pulau Sawah Temple Complex, SPSP and subsequently BPK III have 
established cooperation with central/regional government entities and the community to 
support the preservation of cultural heritage, which upholds the inculcation of noble values 
and the strengthening of identity amidst global challenges. The Dharmasraya Regency 
Government and the community are enthusiastic about BPK III's preservation activities as they 
contribute to promoting tourism based on local wisdom (Pulau Sawah Temple). In this context, 
the preservation efforts of SPSP/BPK III receive support from the Dharmasraya Regional 
Government, which recognizes that cultural affairs are one of the responsibilities delegated by 
the central government to regional governments. This highlights the contrast between the 
implementation of Law No. 11/2010 and Government Regulation No. 38/2007 (Riska, 2023, pp. 
6-7). According to the Siguntur community, represented by the Siguntur Royal Family, the 
transition from SPSP Batusangkar to BPK III Sumbar has significantly aided the preservation 
of historical relics in Dharmasraya (particularly the Pulau Sawah Temple, which is a heritage 
for the royal descendants) (T. A. P. Marhasnida, Personal Communication, April 19, 2024). 
Prior to the establishment of this UPT, the preservation of the Pulau Sawah temple complex 
was considerably threatened due to looting that resulted in vandalism by individuals crossing 
the Batanghari River in search of treasure within the brick structures. This fact illustrates an 
unfriendly attitude towards appreciating past heritage (M. Zoehdi, Personal Communication, 



 
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April 19, 2024).   
Upon the establishment of SPSP, socialization efforts were undertaken to instill a sense 

of ownership among the community towards Pulau Sawah. These activities have led to an 
understanding of the temple's value, fostering a sense of responsibility to protect it. Since 1995, 
regular excavations have been conducted to refine historical data and uncover Dharmasraya's 
identity as a Buddhist-influenced Malay Kingdom heritage. In every physical activity at the 
Pulau Sawah site, SPSP Batusangkar and subsequently BPK III Sumbar consistently involve 
community participation. These activities broaden the community's horizons regarding 
history while providing employment opportunities, thus it is unsurprising that each activity 
receives a positive response (Interview with Tuan Acik Putri Marhasnida, April 19, 2024, in 
Siguntur). Based on its preservation history, several artifacts obtained from the Pulau Sawah 
site are stored in the collection room of BPK Region III, West Sumatra Province. These 
treasures are not only secured but also maintained and publicized for historical, scientific, 
educational, religious, and cultural purposes. The array of preservation data presented in the 
table underscores that SPSP Batusangkar (now BPK III) consistently appreciates the Pulau 
Sawah Site Complex as a cultural asset that embodies the identity of the Dharmasraya Malay 
Kingdom. 

 
Simpulan 
The preservation of the Pulau Sawah Temple Complex from SPSP Batusangkar to BPK III 
Sumbar has had a significant impact on the existence of this cultural heritage site as a legacy 
of the Buddhist-influenced Malay Kingdom. This site serves as an egalitarian source of history, 
providing knowledge and education. Concretely, the Pulau Sawah Temple Complex is 
frequently used as a research subject and serves as a symbol reflecting the identity and 
promoting tourism in Dharmasraya Regency within the context of local wisdom. This reality 
is closely tied to the role of local stakeholders, particularly SPSP Batusangkar (now BPK III), 
in preserving and promoting Pulau Sawah as a cultural asset of the nation from Dharmasraya 
Regency. In efforts to realise this, since the SPSP era until BPK III, support has been obtained 
from central government agencies, local governments, and the community. To this day, every 
agenda for the preservation of the Pulau Sawah Temple Complex has been successfully 
implemented thanks to harmonious collaboration with the relevant stakeholders mentioned 
earlier. 
 
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