Title


Indonesian Journal of Environmental
Management and Sustainability
e-ISSN:2598-6279 p-ISSN:2598-6260

Research Paper

Assessment of Farmer’s Tree Preferences and Their Seasonal Frost Management

Practices in Frost-Affected Highlands of Eastern Ethiopia

Goremsu Getachew1*, Daba Bogale2, Abera Tesfaye1

1Ethiopian Forestry Development, Central Ethiopia Research Center, Addis Ababa, 33042, Ethiopia
2Ethiopian Forestry Development, Dire Dawa Center, Dire Dawa, 1708, Ethiopia

*Corresponding author e-mail: goremsugetachew@gmail.com

Abstract
Deforestation, land degradation, and low survival of planted seedlings are serious problems in highland Ethiopia. To address
these problems, different land management practices such as afforestation and conservation program have been implemented;
however, the success to date limited due to environmental stress and insufficient post-planting care. Therefore, the objective
of this study was to investigate farmer’s tree needs and their traditional knowledge of seasonal frost management practices
in selected frost-affected highlands of Eastern, Ethiopia. A total of 111 households were randomly selected for interviews
on farmer’s tree species preference, frost management practices, and the causes of seedling mortality in the study area.
Furthermore, key informant interviews and focus group discussions were used to collect the data. Descriptive statistics were
used to analyze the data. The results confirm that season frost (55.6%) followed by free grazing (22.2%), inappropriate
species site match (11.1%), and inappropriate planting time (5.6%) were major causes of seedling mortality in the study area.
Organic mulch, plant cover, smoking, watering, and manuring were seasonal frost management practices applied by farmer’s to
enhance seedlings’ survival in the study areas. However, this indigenous knowledge should be encouraged by the government
through improved research, and extension services, to enhance seedlings’ survival in the study areas as well as to introduce it
in different frost-prone highlands of Ethiopia. Moreover, species such as Eucalyptus globulus’ Labill, Cupressus lusitanica
Mill., Juniperus procera Hochst. ex Endl., Hagenia abyssinica a (Bruce) J.F.Gmel, and Podocarpus falcatus (Thunb.) Mirb.
(syn. P. gracilior Pilg.), were suggested as frost-tolerant species in the study area. Therefore, it is recommended that planting
these tree species through research and campaign is essential to reduce land degradation in the frost-affected highlands area
of the country, particularly in the study area.

Keywords
Eastern Highlands, Frost Hardiness, Indigenous Knowledge, Tree Survival

Received: 15 December 2022, Accepted: 10 March 2023

https://doi.org/10.26554/ijems.2023.7.2.38-46

1. INTRODUCTION

The Ethiopian highlands are the largest mountain com-
plex in Africa and are rich in a diverse variety of flora and
fauna species and nowadays, the percentage of forest cover
is less than 4% (Hurni et al., 2010; Meshesha et al., 2014;
Nyssen et al., 2015). Rapid deforestation and degradation
are severely threatening the forest resources in the highland
parts of Ethiopia (Lemenih and Teketay, 2004). Agricultural
expansion, population pressure, free grazing, and overex-
ploitation of forests for fuel wood, fodder, and construction
materials are the main causes of deforestation and land
degradation in highland parts of Ethiopia (Tefera et al.,
2014; Tigabu et al., 2014). These deforestation and land
degradation had an economic and ecological impact at both
local and national levels. For instance, biodiversity loss is

accelerated; ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration
are also threatened, and reduced capacity of the forest to
contribute to products and food security (Taddese, 2001;
Gebre et al., 2019).

Drought, invasive species, and climate change are the
new threats to forest resources in Ethiopia (Bishaw, 2001).
Environmental factor together with deforestation and land
degradation has resulted in a shortage of wood products
such as fodder, timber, and fruits. Furthermore, environ-
mental stress (frost, low humidity, and drought) together
with insufficient post-planting care, poor-quality nursery
stock, and limiting site conditions are the main causes of the
death of transplanted tree seedlings in Ethiopia (Lemenih
and Teketay, 2004; Eshetie et al., 2020). For example, frost
is a significant climatic phenomenon that influences the

https://doi.org/10.26554/ijems.2023.7.2.38-46


Getachew et. al. Indonesian Journal of Environmental Management and Sustainability, 7 (2023) 38-46

distribution of plant species, particularly in highland areas
(Rorato et al., 2018). It hinders tree growth and reduces the
productivity of forests in the long run. Frost also causes the
formation of ice crystals in the extracellular spaces. As a
result of the difference in water potential, water in the cell
protoplasm is directed to the extracellular spaces, causing
damage because the cell loses water, resulting in dehydra-
tion (Rorato et al., 2018). However, assessment of species
selection and local management practices of frost are crucial
to enhance seedling’s survival in frost-affected areas.

To address environmental challenges, efforts have been
made to launch afforestation and conservation programs;
however, success has been limited thus far (Eshetu et al.,
2014). The lack of information on the performance of tree
species after planting and their responses to environmental
conditions has made listing potential species for restoring
frost-affected areas a difficult task. Therefore, careful species
selection is required to avoid frost-sensitive species, especially
for restoration and afforestation programs in frost-affected
areas (Rorato et al., 2018). Yet, detailed analyses of the
forest resources crises associated with the destruction and
practical solutions on how to effectively reverse the course
of destruction in the country are generally limited.

Hence, to make plantation and restoration work effective,
critical assessments of possible limitations and improving
seedling establishment and management techniques in de-
graded frost-affected highlands would be vitally essential.
With this regard, tree species selection for the restoration
and management of environmental factors are essential as
environmental stress may affect seedling survival in the
highland area differently. There have been limited studies
concerning farmer’s tree preferences and traditional knowl-
edge of seasonal frost management practices in frost-affected
degraded highlands of Eastern Ethiopia.

Thus, an investigation of farmer’s tree needs and tradi-
tional knowledge of seasonal frost management practices was
conducted to answer the following questions: (1) How and
why do local farmer’s manage the frost in the study area?
(2) Which tree species were suggested as frost tolerance in
the study area? To address these research questions, the
following specific objectives were developed. Therefore, the
objectives of this study were :(1) to describe e farmer tree
species preferences, main niches, and traditional knowledge
of seasonal frost management practices in the study area;
and (2) to identify frost tolerant tree species in the study
area. Thus, the present study provides information about
appropriate species selection for frost-affected areas, and en-
vironments and resolves land degradation problems through
afforestation/reforestation and area ex-closure strategies by
improving seedling establishment and management practices
in frost-affected highlands. The outcome of this research
serves as input for scientific studies, researchers, governmen-
tal and non-governmental organizations, policy and decision-
makers, and forestry projects in the area and at the national
level.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Description of the Study Area
The study was conducted in the Haramaya and Girawa dis-
tricts of East Hararghe zone, Oromia regional state, Ethiopia.
Haramaya district is located around 9° 0’-9° 5’ N and 42°
0’-42° 24’ E and between 1400 and 2340 m above sea level
while Girawa district is found around 8° 42’-9° 24’ N and
41° 24’-42° 24’ E and between 1215 and 3405 m above sea
level. The mean annual rainfall ranges from 769 to 1150
mm in the Haramaya (Marru et al., 2013) and 550 to 1100
mm in the Girawa district (Beyan Ahmed and Geta, 2013).
The average mean annual temperature is 18 ◦C in the Hara-
maya (Marru et al., 2013) and 20 ◦C in the Girawa district
(Beyan Ahmed and Geta, 2013).

Both Haramaya and Girawa district has three agroeco-
logical zones namely highland, midland, and lowland. These
agroecological zones vary by altitude and rainfall distribu-
tion. The two study kebeles are located in the highland
agroecological zone. The physiographic condition of the
study areas are plateaus, rugged dissected mountains, deep
valleys, gorges, and plains (Beyan Ahmed and Geta, 2013;
Marru et al., 2013). Cultivated lands, pasture lands, and
forest lands are the land use type found in the study areas
(Beyan Ahmed and Geta, 2013; Marru et al., 2013). The
dominant soil types in the study areas are nitosol, cambisols,
and vertisols (Beyan Ahmed and Geta, 2013; Marru et al.,
2013).

The total population is 271,018 in Haramaya and 240,173
in Girawa District (Authority, 2015). Rainfed agriculture
with a mixed farming system (crop production and livestock
rearing) are the primary livelihood source of the inhabitants
in both study areas (Beyan Ahmed and Geta, 2013; Marru
et al., 2013). Maize (Zea mays), Common bean (Phaseolus
vulgaris), Pulse (Haricot bean), Oilseed, Vegetables, and
Fruits are the most dominant crops in both districts (Ahmed
et al., 2017). Moreover, Khat (Catha edulis Forsk) and Buna
(Coffea arabica L.) Khat (Catha edulis) are the dominant
cash crop grown in both districts.

2.2 Sampling Techniques
In the present study, a multi-stage sampling procedure was
used to conduct a household survey. First, preliminary infor-
mation was collected at the district level through discussions
with agricultural experts and local elders who know about
degraded lands and frost-prone areas. The discussions were
focused on degraded areas, frost occurrence, and frost-prone
areas. Then, a reconnaissance survey was conducted to
characterize degraded areas and frost-prone highlands. Sec-
ondly, two districts (Haramaya and Girawa districts) where
seasonal frost is a major threat were selected purposively.
Thirdly, two kebeles (Tinike from Haramaya and Birbrsa
from Girawa district) were selected purposively with frost-
prone areas. The reasons for having the two selected kebeles
were due to the presence of degraded areas, frost occurrence,
and frost-prone areas. Moreover, the reason to have two

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Getachew et. al. Indonesian Journal of Environmental Management and Sustainability, 7 (2023) 38-46

Figure 1. Map of the Study Area

kebeles samples was for replication purposes. The lists of
households living in the kebeles were obtained from kebele
offices and crossed checked with key informants for their
inclusiveness. We identified a total of 1840 households (640
from Tinike kebele and 1200 from Birbrsa kebele). Finally, a
total of 111 households, 39 from Tinike and 72 Birbrsa kebe-
les, were randomly selected for interview. The proportional
sample size formula, which was adapted from the (Kothari,
2004) method, was used to determine the needed number of
household respondents from the two kebeles.

n =
Z2pqN

e2(N − 1) + Z2pq

Where:
p = Probability of success = 0.5 and q = 1-p (1-0.5) = 0.5
N = Total number of households in selected kebeles (1840)
Z = Confidence level at 95% which is 1.96 from Z-table
e= the margin of error considered as 9% for this study which
is 0.09

n =
1.962(0.5)(0.5)(1840)

0.092(1839) + 1.962(0.5)(0.5)
= 111

The number of households for each kebele was calculated
as shown below:

n =
n ∗ N1
N

Where,
n = Sample size in respective kebele,

N1 = Total number of the households included in the study
(111),
N = Total number of households in both kebeles (1840).

n(Tinike kebele) =
640 ∗ 111
1840

= 39

n(Birbrsa kebele) =
1200 ∗ 111

1840
= 72

2.3 Method of Data Collection
To achieve the study objectives both quantitative and qual-
itative data were used. In this study, both primary and
secondary data sources were used. The secondary data were
collected from published and unpublished documents to get
an overview of the study sites and frost. The primary data
were gathered through household surveys, key informant
interviews, and focus group discussions.

Closed and open questionnaires were developed and semi-
structured and face-to-face interviews were conducted to
collect qualitative and quantitative data from respondents.
The household questionnaires were prepared in English and
translated into Afan Oromo, the study area language. Enu-
merators who were experts and knowledgeable about the
area were involved in data collection. Before interviewing
household respondents, the objectives of the study were
explained to enumerators, and they were trained in data
collection and interview methods.

For qualitative data, both key informant interviews and
focus group discussions were conducted. In this study, key

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Getachew et. al. Indonesian Journal of Environmental Management and Sustainability, 7 (2023) 38-46

informants are defined as persons who are knowledgeable
about frost, frost occurrences, and frost management prac-
tices and who have lived for a long time in the respective
kebele. The selection of key informants was done by using
the snowball sampling method (Bernard, 2017). Twelve
key informants (six per kebele) were interviewed for the
entire study. The purpose of selecting key informants was
to identify the local name of tree species and to cross-check
the number of households living in the kebeles. The follow-
ing points were addressed during key informant interviews:
farmer’s tree species preferences, frost management prac-
tices, and major causes of seedling mortality in the study
areas.

In the focus group discussion, model farmer’s, youths,
and women households were selected from each kebele. The
focus group discussions were conducted separately with men
and women and with different wealth ranks. The purposes
of the discussions were to verify farmer tree needs and
traditional frost management practices. The information
generated here was used to validate the information obtained
from household respondents.

2.4 Data Analysis and Presentation
The data were analyzed by using both quantitative and
qualitative methods. Before data analysis, data encoding
and data management were conducted. Then, the quan-
titative data were analyzed by using descriptive statistics
(frequency, percentage, and means) with the SPSS version 25
Package Software program. On the other hand, qualitative
data interpretation was done through the description and
narration in words.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Households and Socio-Economic Characteristics
In this study, the socio-economic features of the sampled
households were assessed and presented (Table 1). About
79.3% of the respondents were men. Marital status also
showed that the majority of sampled respondents were mar-
ried (91.3%), and the remaining were divorced. The average
age of the sample households was 39.5 years. The major-
ity (39.5%) of them had ages between 30 and 45 years old.
Concerning, educational status, the majority of sample re-
spondents (57.6%) were illiterate (Table 1). The mean land
holding size of the sampled households at the study sites
were 0.58 ha and it was a major fixed asset for farmer’s in
the study area. Farmer’s in the study area pursued farming
in which livestock production was a component. Cattle,
Goats, Donkeys, Mules, and Poultry were important species
of livestock kept by farmer’s in the study area. The average
total livestock holding of the sampled respondents was 5.8
tropical livestock units. Farming was the primary occupa-
tion for all of the households, which represents about 92.4%
and 7.4% of the households were involved in other income
such as petty trading, charcoal selling, and labor work.

3.2 The Source of Seedlings, Planting Niches, and
Species Preference for Planting

About 66% of respondents stated that they got seedlings
from government nurseries, 21% of them produced seedlings
in their nurseries by broadcasting seed on prepared planta-
tion sites, while 12% and 1% of the respondents get seedlings
from other private nurseries and NGO-owned nurseries, re-
spectively (Figure 2). This was supported by the find-
ing of Dedefo et al. (2017) who reported that government
nurseries followed by individual groups, non-governmental
organizations, and projects provide seedlings for farmer’s,
afforestation, and community tree planting programs. More-
over, farmer’s can also participate in the production of tree
seedlings individually or collectively to access markets for
their consumption (Gregorio et al., 2015; Dedefo et al.,
2017).

Figure 2. The Main Source of Seedlings for Planting in the
Study Area

In this study, households retained tree species in dif-
ferent land use types for multiple products and services.
Therefore, in the present study, the most preferred niches
for planting tree species were boundary planting followed
by homegarden and scattered trees in crop filed (Table 2).
Farmer’s tree planting was limited to boundary and home-
garden could be to prevent disturbance from animals and
for better management of the tree species. Boundary plant-
ing and homegarden were preferred because browsing and
fire were easier to control, and manure and refuse could
be applied more easily than in a distant field. Women, in
particular, stated that they prefer planting trees close to
their homes so that they do not have to leave their homes
for long periods in search of fuel wood medicine and ani-
mal fodder. Furthermore, planting close to home reduces
the risk of others secretly collecting fruits from their trees.
Planting along borders is also done to mark the boundaries
and deter stray animals. The majority of tree species are
retained in boundary planting and homegarden to meet the
immediate needs of the household, such as food, medicines,
income, handcrafting materials, and ecological needs. This
conforms to the results reported by Fikir et al. (2018), that
farmer’s only planted trees in their backyards and boundary

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Table 1. Socio-Economic Characteristics of the Sampled Household Heads (N=111) Interviewed in the Study Area

Variables Categories
Number (%) of
respondents

Mean

Sex Male 88(79.3)
Female 23 (20.7)

Marital status Married 101(91.3)
Divorced 10(8.7)

Age (Years) 39.5
Educational status Illiterate 64 (57.6)

Literate 47 (42.4)
Size of land holding (ha) 0.58

Family size 5.7
Total livestock in TLU 5.8

planting due to the homeowner feeling a strong sense of own-
ership and trees directly managed by household members.
Moreover, such a tendency to maintain multipurpose species
limited to the homestead and boundary planting may be
for the sake of easing management practices, to protect the
farm from theft, and livestock grazing (Negash, 2007; Fikir
et al., 2018). In addition, farmer’s maintained scattered tree
species on their crop fields for their wood products and soil
fertility improvement.

Furthermore, the respondent stated that they match
planting niches with planting objectives. For instance, a
species that will grow in farmlands loses its leaves before it
starts to rain and easily decomposes to improve the fertility
of the soil.

Table 2. The Main Niche Where the Farmer’s Grow Tree
Species in the Study Area

Planting niches Percent

Home garden 20.9%
Scattered trees in the crop field 17.9%

Boundary planting 61.9%

From the total respondents, about 73% of the respon-
dents mentioned that they planted tree species and managed
for a different purpose in their farmland while the remaining
27% of the respondents did not plant tree species on their
farms. The major reasons farmer’s did not grow the tree on
their farms are due to the shortage of land (52%) and lack
of planting materials especially fruit trees (48%). Likewise,
previous studies have reported various constraints that could
affect the integration of tree species in farmland including
land shortage, lack of seedlings for planting, poor survival
of seedlings, and lack of sufficient material (Dedefo et al.,
2017; Fikir et al., 2018).

According to the respondent, Eucalyptus globulus (94%),
Cupressus lustinica (52%), Olea africana Mill. (36%), Ju-

Figure 3. Most Preferred Tree Species for Planting on
Farmer’s Fields in the Study Area

niperus procera (23.8%), Cordia africana Lam. (21%), and
Podocarpus falactus (19%) were tree species planted on their
farms for different products and services. Eucalyptus glob-
ulus is exotic species that was retained in farmlands for
its pole for construction, timber, source of cash, and fuel-
wood, as it is fuelwood demand is high in the highland area.
Moreover, the species are highly preferred by farmer’s in
the study area due to their easy adaptability, propagation,
and management regimes of Eucalyptus globulus. A previous
study elsewhere reported that Eucalyptus globulus was the
most performed tree species in the highland of Ethiopia
(Mekonnen et al., 2006; Tesfaye et al., 2015; Fikir et al.,
2018). Furthermore, Eucalyptus globulus species support
the livelihood of local peoples through the sale of stands,
fuelwood, and building materials (Kebede, 2022).

3.3 Farmer’s Species Selection Criteria and Prefer-
ences of Tree Products/ Services

In the study area, farming households have long relied on
tree species for different products and services. About 50.5%

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Getachew et. al. Indonesian Journal of Environmental Management and Sustainability, 7 (2023) 38-46

of the respondent’s plant tree species for the production
of fuel wood and 24.9% of the respondents’ plant trees for
the production of poles for construction (Table 3). They
also retained tree species for diverse purposes such as fruit,
fodder production, soil fertility improvement, erosion con-
trol, shade, and medicinal value. The majority of farmer’s,
used tree species for fuelwood may be due to the fuelwood
shortage is a critical problem in highland areas. Farmer’s
normally retained tree species in farmland for multiple useful
and valuable purposes to optimize the capture and use of
environmental resources (Negash, 2007). This is dependent
on the tangible that they render to the household such as
food, cash income, medicine, fodder, bee forage, shades, live
fences, improve soil fertility through mulching, animal feed
as fodder, shade reduction over integrated crops, fuelwood,
timber and construction wood (Mohammed and Asfaw, 2015;
Mamo and Asfaw, 2017). The other reasons farmer’s inte-
grate tree species in farmlands are also to regulate leaching
and improve crop yield, productivity, and sustainability of
the land (Negash, 2007).

Table 3. Tree Services and Products Most Preferred by
Respondents in the Study Area

Tree products/service Percent

Fuelwood 50.5%
Fodder 6.8%

Soil fertility and erosion control 3.5%
Fruits 8%

Medicine 1.3%
Shade 5%

Pole for construction 24.9%

According to the survey result, fast-growing (64.2%,) fol-
lowed by multiple uses (23.9%), drought resistance (7.5%),
and ease of establishment (11%) were the major criteria
for selection of tree species to plant in their farmlands (Ta-
ble 4). Fast growing was the most preferred attribute of
tree species in the study area. Similarly, fast-growing and
high biomass-producing tree species were preferred in high-
land areas (Mekonnen et al., 2006). This finding was also
supported by Negash et al. (2012) reported that farmer’s
prefer species that give multiple products and services. Fur-
thermore, fast-growing tree species are being increasingly
integrated with traditional land-use types, mainly for poles
for construction and timber. Furthermore, farmer’s employ
some characteristics, including fast growth, utility, compat-
ibility, multipurpose use value, and drought resistance to
incorporate tree species on farms (Mohammed and Asfaw,
2015).

3.4 Causes of Seedlings Mortality
About 97% of the respondents had information on tree-
planting activities and seedling survival in the study area.

Table 4. Attributes of Trees Most Valued by Respondents
in the Study Area

Attributes Percent Rank

Drought resistance 7.5% 3rd

Fast growing 64.2% 1st

Ease of establishment 4.5% 4th

Multiple uses 23.9% 2nd

The respondents noted that the major causes of seedling
mortality were frost (55.6%), free grazing (22.2%), inappro-
priate species site match (11.11%), inappropriate planting
time (5.6%), inappropriate planting material (3.3%), and
drought (2.2%) (Figure 4). Previous studies elsewhere sup-
ported that insufficient management care, species site match,
and limited site condition contributed to the death of trans-
planted trees before they can make a meaningful economic
and environmental contribution to the communities (Eshetie
et al., 2020). On other hand, many factors influence the
survival of seedlings and their importance varies accord-
ing to the species and agroecological condition (Reubens
et al., 2009). For instance, insufficient soil moisture during
the early growth stage is one of the most important causes
of high seedling mortality; hence watering during this pe-
riod can improve seedling survival (Jegora et al., 2019) and
animal grazing and termite were the two major biotic fac-
tors for survival of transplanted tree species (Eshetie et al.,
2020). Furthermore, weeds can pose a threat to the planted
seedlings, especially in the first year, due to competition for
water, nutrients, and light and weeding can have a positive
effect on seedling survival (Eshetie et al., 2020).

3.5 Seasonal Frost Occurrence and Management
Practices

The result indicated that frost was occurring once a year
(monomodal). Therefore, the majority of respondents, 84.5%
stated that seasonal frost occurs once a year (between
September- January). This line with the finding of Charrier
et al. (2015) who reported that with the current climate
condition, the risk of frost damage is greatest in the autumn
or spring. To enhance seedling survival and mitigate frost
farmer’s applied frost management techniques. Therefore,
about 64% of respondents pointed out that they used local
frost management practices while 36% of the respondents
didn’t apply any management practices. The management
practices applied for frost protection were organic mulch
(39%), plant cover (32%), smoking (23.7%), watering, and
manuring (5%). The result is in line with the finding of
Amin et al. (2018) reported organic mulch and plant cover
were the two important management practices for enhancing
the survival of transplanted seedlings.

Respondents stated that there is no prevention method
to protect seedlings and crops from frost damage. It is an

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Figure 4. Causes of Seedling Mortality in the Study Areas

Figure 5. Farmer’s Frost Management Practices in the
Study Area

emergency or natural disaster that partially or completely
damages the planted seedlings. Therefore, they apply man-
agement practices to enhance the survival of seedlings and
crops, but not for the total prevention of frost. Damage
from abiotic stresses such as frost may hinder tree growth
and affect the productivity of forest products (Figure 6).
Therefore, assessing and documenting traditional knowledge
of frost risk is critical for forestry and agriculture.

Concerning the stage when seedlings are more prone
to frost damage, 54.3% of the respondents reported that
seedlings at the first 6 months of their growth stage were
prone to frost damage. This was supported by the finding
of Eshetie et al. (2020) who reported that the seedlings were
dead in the first seven months after planting between July
to January and also a similar finding was reported that frost
damage often occurs on newly planted seedlings (Man et al.,
2009).

3.6 Tree Species Suggested as Frost-Tolerant Species
Species respond differently to frost, regardless of the size of
the container in which the seedling is produced or the ecolog-

Figure 6. The Pictures Show the Effect of Seasonal Frost
on Catha adulis (A) and Coffea arabica (B) Species in the
Study Areas

ical group. The result shows that species such as Eucalyptus
globulus(45.3%) followed by Cupressus lusitanica (23.3%),
Juniperus procera (18.9%), Haginia abyssinica (10%), and
Podocarpus flactus (2.5%) were suggested as frost-tolerant
species in the study area (Figures 5 and 7). A previous
study elsewhere reported that Eucalyptus globulus and Cu-
pressus lusitanica were the most performed tree species in
the highland of central Ethiopia (Mekonnen et al., 2006).
Therefore, planting these species play an important role
in the rehabilitation and restoration of degraded land in
highland areas.

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Getachew et. al. Indonesian Journal of Environmental Management and Sustainability, 7 (2023) 38-46

Table 5. The Main Stages of the Seedlings Susceptible to
Frost (N = 111) in the Study Area

The main stage of planted
seedlings susceptible to frost

Frequency Percent

First six months after planting 60 54.3%
The first year after planting 35 31.5%
First two years after planting 12 10.9%
First three years after planting 4 3.3%

Figure 7. Tree Species Suggested by Respondents as Frost
Tolerant in the Study Area

4. CONCLUSIONS

The present study has provided valuable information on
the assessment of farmer’s tree needs and their traditional
knowledge of seasonal frost management in the study area.
The result of this study confirms that boundary planting
and homegarden were the most preferred planting niches in
the study area. Frost is an emergency or natural disaster
that partially or completely damages the planted seedling
in the study area. Therefore, organic mulch and plant cover
were the two most important management practices for en-
hancing the survival of transplanted seedlings in the study
area. However, these management practices should be en-
couraged by the government through improved research,
and extension services, to enhance seedlings’ survival and
successful establishment of tree species in the study areas.
Species Eucalyptus globulus, Cupressus lusitanica, and Ju-
niperus procera were suggested as frost-tolerant species in
the study area. Therefore, we recommended that planting
these tree species through research and campaign is essential
to essential to reduce land degradation in the frost-affected
highlands area of the country, particularly in the study area.

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The first author acknowledges the Ethiopian Environment
and Forest Research Institute for their financial support.
We are grateful to all staff of the Haramaya and Girawa

District Agricultural and Rural Development Office for their
technical support and field guidance while collecting data.

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© 2023 The Authors. Page 46 of 46


	INTRODUCTION
	MATERIALS AND METHODS
	Description of the Study Area
	Sampling Techniques
	Method of Data Collection
	Data Analysis and Presentation

	RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
	Households and Socio-Economic Characteristics
	The Source of Seedlings, Planting Niches, and Species Preference for Planting 
	Farmer's Species Selection Criteria and Preferences of Tree Products/ Services
	Causes of Seedlings Mortality 
	Seasonal Frost Occurrence and Management Practices 
	Tree Species Suggested as Frost-Tolerant Species

	CONCLUSIONS
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENT