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 ( ISSN: 2814-2098 )                                                                                                  Volume 08 || Issue 05 || May, 2025 || 

Peter Archibong Essoh,   Okoro Sunday Asangausung,   Rosemary Cletus Effiong,    2025                                                                                               

“A POST-MORTEM ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PUBLIC ORDER IN NIGERIA." 

 

 

A POST-MORTEM ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC ON SOCIO-
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PUBLIC ORDER IN NIGERIA 

Peter Archibong Essoh 
Department of Sociology and Anthropology 

University of Uyo, Nigeria 

 
Okoro Sunday Asangausung 

Department of Sociology and Anthropology 
Akwa Ibom State University, Nigeria 

 

Rosemary Cletus Effiong 
Directorate of Public Order and Information Management 

University of Uyo, Nigeria 

Abstract 
Nigeria was seriously affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, which had far-reaching consequences 
across its economic, social and institutional spheres. The crisis exposed and deepened longstanding 
structural weaknesses, including an underfunded healthcare system, an oil-dependent and fragile 
economy, widespread poverty and inadequate social protection mechanisms. These vulnerabilities 
were further compounded by the government's limited capacity to respond effectively. Public order 
deteriorated amid rising public frustration, enforcement challenges and mistrust in state institutions. 
This paper presented a post-mortem analysis of the impact of COVID-19 pandemic on socio-
economic development and public order in Nigeria. It was guided by the assumption of Martha 
Albertson Fineman’s Vulnerability Theory developed in 2019. The paper relied on qualitative 
methods using documentary evidence (analysis of secondary data from textbooks, journals, 
periodicals, government publications and internet sources) and content analysis was used to analyse 
the secondary data. The results showed that COVID-19 disrupted the economy, educational system, 
healthcare system and public order in Nigeria. It was recommended, among others, that the 
government should focus on reviving the economy through stimulus packages, support for small 
businesses and job creation initiatives. Policies that could put strains on Nigerians and surviving 
businesses should be avoided to avoid economic hardship. Investments should also be made into 
strengthening healthcare infrastructure while ensuring that essential healthcare services continue 
unhindered during crises. Medical personnel should be encouraged to work in Nigeria. This 
research contributed to a better understanding of how pandemics can exacerbate existing social 
challenges within a developing country context. Moreover, analysis into the impact of COVID-19 
on public order in Nigeria provides valuable insights into how disruptions such as lockdowns and 
restrictions can strain law enforcement capabilities, exacerbate tensions within communities, affect 
crime rates and compromise social stability. 
 
 
Keywords: Post-Mortem Analysis, COVID-19Pandemic, Socio-Economic Development, Public 
       Order 
 

 

 

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IJO - INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HEALTH SCIENCES AND NURSING  

 ( ISSN: 2814-2098 )                                                                                                  Volume 08 || Issue 05 || May, 2025 || 

Peter Archibong Essoh,   Okoro Sunday Asangausung,   Rosemary Cletus Effiong,    2025                                                                                               

“A POST-MORTEM ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PUBLIC ORDER IN NIGERIA." 

 

 

Introduction 
The Coronavirus Disease, otherwise called COVID-19, originated in Wuhan City, Hubei Province 
of China, in December 2019. Following its rapid global spread, the World Health Organisation 
(WHO) declared it a pandemic on March 11, 2020 (Usman et al., 2024; Okorie et al., 2022; 
Inegbedion, 2021). Asangausung et al. (2022) noted that the pandemic caught the world 
unprepared, resulting in widespread mortality, economic paralysis and the closure of numerous 
businesses, with severe ripple effects, including a rise in crime. The crisis laid bare the fragility of 
healthcare systems across Africa, Nigeria included, highlighting critical gaps in healthcare 
infrastructure, medical research, access to essential services and public health preparedness. 
Ironically, contrary to Western projections that Africa would be most devastated by the pandemic, 
the continent, including Nigeria, proved relatively resilient in terms of infection and mortality rates, 
though the socioeconomic consequences were extensive. 

Economically, the pandemic inflicted unprecedented disruption. Usman et al. (2024), Inegbedion 
(2021), Agbeyo (2020) and Joan et al. (2022) submitted that a significant proportion of businesses 
in Nigeria experienced closures, reduced operating hours, rising operational costs and workforce 
downsizing. Inegbedion (2021) emphasised that approximately 40 million small and medium-scale 
enterprises (SMEs), which are critical to youth employment in Nigeria, were severely affected by 
restrictions and economic slowdown. The consequences were evident in the labour market. 
Adebimpe et al. (2021) noted that unemployment among youths aged 15–34 surged to 30.1% in the 
fourth quarter of 2020, up from 26.7% in the previous quarter, primarily due to the shutdown of 
economic activities. This aligns with the findings of Alex and Obinachiwori (2020), who observed 
that the economic fallout forced many businesses to shut down or place employees on unpaid 
standby, thus deepening financial distress for families and dependents. 

Beyond the economic implications, the pandemic also had serious repercussions for public safety 
and the rule of law. The United Nations (2020) warned of a potentially massive impact on crime, 
security and justice systems. Supporting this claim, Asangausung et al. (2022) and Okorie et al. 
(2022) documented a notable increase in organised crime during the pandemic, underscoring how 
crisis conditions can fuel insecurity and erode public order. In sum, the COVID-19 pandemic was 
not merely a health emergency—it was a complex, multidimensional crisis that reshaped Nigeria’s 
socioeconomic and institutional landscape. Against this background, the paper presented a post-
mortem analysis of the impact of COVID-19 pandemic on socio-economic development and public 
order in Nigeria. 

Statement of the Problem 

The COVID-19 pandemic was one of the most disruptive global crises in recent history, generating 
widespread effects on public health, economic stability, education and social order. In Nigeria, the 
pandemic exacerbated existing structural weaknesses, including a fragile healthcare system, high 
unemployment, entrenched poverty, underfunded educational infrastructure and limited institutional 
resilience. Lockdowns and movement restrictions significantly disrupted economic activity, 
especially among small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), while millions of Nigerians—
particularly those in the informal sector—lost their jobs or suffered salary reductions. The education 
sector faced severe setbacks due to prolonged school closures and limited access to digital learning 
technologies, which exposed a deep digital divide. The healthcare system became overwhelmed, 
plagued by shortages in infrastructure, medical personnel and essential supplies, while frontline 
workers endured both physical and psychological stress. Public safety and order also deteriorated,   

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IJO - INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HEALTH SCIENCES AND NURSING  

 ( ISSN: 2814-2098 )                                                                                                  Volume 08 || Issue 05 || May, 2025 || 

Peter Archibong Essoh,   Okoro Sunday Asangausung,   Rosemary Cletus Effiong,    2025                                                                                               

“A POST-MORTEM ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PUBLIC ORDER IN NIGERIA." 

 

 

as incidents of civil unrest, police abuses, rising criminality and cyber-related offences became 
more pronounced during and after the lockdowns. 

Although numerous studies examined the sector-specific consequences of the pandemic, such as its 
impact on healthcare (Akinyemi et al., 2021), the economy (Usman et al., 2024) and education 
(Okagbue et al., 2023), few provided a comprehensive, interdisciplinary evaluation of how the 
pandemic simultaneously affected multiple sectors of Nigeria’s development and public order. Even 
more limited was the application of Martha Albertson Fineman’s Vulnerability Theory as an 
analytical lens. This theory, which frames vulnerability as a universal yet unequally distributed 
condition, offered critical insight into the preparedness and responsiveness of institutions. Yet, its 
potential to illuminate how structural inequalities shaped pandemic outcomes in Nigeria remained 
largely unexplored in academic literature. 

Most of the existing literature treated the pandemic's effects in isolation—focusing on economic 
decline, health system overload or educational disruption, without linking these to broader questions 
of social inequality, institutional fragility, or the uneven distribution of resilience. There was also 
insufficient analysis of how the crisis deepened structural vulnerabilities in a country already 
grappling with governance challenges, weak public health systems and a lack of effective social 
protection mechanisms. Furthermore, the experiences of the most affected populationssuch as low-
income households, informal workers, women and youth—were rarely examined through the 
vulnerability framework, which could have better explained the disproportionate impact and varied 
coping capacities. 

This study therefore conducted a post-mortem, multidisciplinary analysis of the socio-economic and 
public order impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic in Nigeria, using Vulnerability Theory as its 
theoretical guide. It critically examined the interconnected disruptions in the economy, healthcare, 
education and security sectors to assess how institutional weaknesses and unequal access to 
resilience-shaping resources influenced Nigeria’s pandemic experience. The aim was to uncover the 
underlying drivers of the crisis’s impact and to offer recommendations for building more inclusive 
and resilient systems capable of withstanding future shocks. 

 

Objectives of the Study 
The main objective of the study was to present apost-mortem analysis of the impact of COVID-19 
pandemic on socio-economic development and public order in Nigeria. The specific objectives were 
to: 

i. investigate the extent to which COVID-19 pandemic disrupted Nigeria’s economic 
activities; 

ii. assess the impact of the pandemic on the country’s healthcare system; 
iii. analyse how COVID-19 pandemic intensified existing challenges in Nigeria’s educational 

sector; and 
iv. examine the influence of the pandemic on public order and social stability in Nigeria. 

 

 

 

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IJO - INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HEALTH SCIENCES AND NURSING  

 ( ISSN: 2814-2098 )                                                                                                  Volume 08 || Issue 05 || May, 2025 || 

Peter Archibong Essoh,   Okoro Sunday Asangausung,   Rosemary Cletus Effiong,    2025                                                                                               

“A POST-MORTEM ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PUBLIC ORDER IN NIGERIA." 

 

 

Research Questions 
The study was guided by the following questions: 

i. In what ways did COVID-19 pandemic disrupt Nigeria’s economy? 
ii. What impact did the pandemic have on the Nigerian healthcare system? 

iii. How did COVID-19 pandemic aggravate educational difficulties in Nigeria? 
iv. In what ways did the pandemic affect public order in Nigeria? 

Conceptualisation and Literature Review 

Concept of COVID-19Pandemic 
COVID-19, also known as the coronavirus disease 2019, is a highly contagious respiratory illness 
caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. It was first identified in December 2019 in Wuhan, 
China and has since spread globally, leading to a pandemic. COVID-19 can cause symptoms 
ranging from mild to severe and can lead to complications such as pneumonia and respiratory 
failure. Common symptoms include fever, cough and difficulty breathing. The virus spreads 
primarily through respiratory droplets when an infected person coughs or sneezes and can also be 
transmitted by touching surfaces contaminated with the virus. The word post-mortem, refers to a 
review or analysis conducted after the occurrence of COVID-19 pandemic in order to evaluate its 
outcomes and identify lessons learned for future improvement. 

 
Concept of Public Order 
In the context of criminal justice, public order is the preservation of social harmony and peace 
(McKee, 2023). It is an all-encompassing term that covers a wide range of social stability-related 
topics, such as crime prevention, public protest management, law enforcement and property 
protection. The idea of social contract theory, which maintains that people in society give up some 
liberties and freedoms in return for the safety and security that the government provides, is closely 
related to the idea of public order. Since it guarantees that people can live their lives without fear of 
violence, chaos, or disorder, public order is an essential part of the social contract in this context. 

Public order is maintained in the criminal justice system through a number of strategies, including 
the application of law enforcement organisations like the police, the courts and the prison system. 
The police are in charge of preventing and identifying crime, catching criminals and upholding law 
and order on the streets. The penal system is in charge of punishing those who break the law, while 
the judiciary is in charge of interpreting and applying it. Preventing crime is one of the most 
important parts of upholding public order. This includes a variety of tasks, such as intelligence 
collection, community policing and proactive law enforcement tactics like stop-and-search authority 
and surveillance camera use. Effective crime prevention measures are critical to ensuring that 
citizens feel safe and secure in their communities. 

Another crucial element of maintaining public order in the context of criminal justice is the control 

of public protests. Although they are a necessary component of democracy, demonstrations can also 

lead to stress and conflict. In order to keep protests peaceful and prevent them from upsetting the 

peace, the police are essential. Upholding public order also depends on the enforcement of the law. 

Laws are made to make sure that people and institutions act in ways that are in line with social 

norms and values. By looking into, prosecuting and punishing those who violate these laws, the 

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IJO - INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HEALTH SCIENCES AND NURSING  

 ( ISSN: 2814-2098 )                                                                                                  Volume 08 || Issue 05 || May, 2025 || 

Peter Archibong Essoh,   Okoro Sunday Asangausung,   Rosemary Cletus Effiong,    2025                                                                                               

“A POST-MORTEM ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PUBLIC ORDER IN NIGERIA." 

 

 

criminal justice system is in charge of upholding them. Lastly, the protection of public order 

depends on the protection of public property. Buildings, infrastructure and other assets owned by 

the public or the government are considered public property. The criminal justice system is in 

charge of making sure that these resources are shielded from harm or devastation. 

 

COVID-19 Pandemic and Economic Disruption 
Usman et al. (2024) interrogated the political economy of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) on 
socio-economic development in Nigeria between 2019 and 2022. The paper relied on qualitative 
methods using documentary research methods (analysis of secondary data from Nigeria’s Bureau of 
Statistics, the Central Bank of Nigeria, the NCDC report, the World Bank/IMF post-COVID-19 
report, ECOWAS, the AU, WHO reports and reputable journals). Findings revealed, among others, 
that Nigeria, being a revenue economy, suffered greatly from COVID-19 because it affected the 
economy’s development, diaspora remittance and the health status of the nation due to the fall in oil 
prices, the shutdown of businesses and the inflation of goods and services. On the positive side, the 
coronavirus-induced public health crisis provided a chance for many state governments to 
implement long-term public health reforms. 
 
Joan et al. (2022) examined the implication of COVID-19 pandemic on the sustainability of small 
and micro entrepreneur business in the informal sector in Nigeria with specific focus on Ose market 
in Onitsha, Anambra State. The study specifically analysed the effect of COVID-19 on informal 
SME, extent of risk and vulnerability and how small and micro businesses were sustained within 
the period of pandemic. Multi-stage, purposive and random sampling techniques were used in 
selecting 150 small and micro businesses in the informal sector in Onitsha from which data used for 
the study were collected. Primary data were collected using questionnaire. The study revealed 
thatCOVID-19 exerted significant effect on small and medium scale entrepreneurs in the informal 
sector and that small and medium scale businesses were vulnerable to risk orchestrated by COVID-
19 pandemic. 
 
Inegbedion (2021) examined the impact of COVID-19 on economic growth in Nigeria: Opinions 
and attitudes. The purpose was to ascertain respondents' perception of the effect of the COVID-19 
pandemic on economic growth in Nigeria. The cross-sectional survey research design was 
employed and a mix-method was used in collecting the research data. Content validity index and 
face validity served to validate the research instrument while Cronbach alpha was used to assure its 
reliability. The secondary data were analysed using percentage changes while the primary data were 
analysed using a one-sample t-test and least-squares method. Results indicated that the COVID-19-
induced lockdown has significantly constrained economic activities and the circular flow of income. 
Lastly, the perceived reduction in the circular flow of income in the wake of the COVID-19 
lockdown has negatively impacted economic growth in Nigeria. 
 
COVID-19 Pandemic and Healthcare System 
Akinyemi et al. (201) appraised the readiness and resilience of the Nigerian health system to the 
COVID-19 pandemic, using Oyo State in southwest Nigeria, as a case study. This study was a 
cross-sectional qualitative study involving key informant and in-depth interviews. Purposive 
sampling was used in recruiting participants who were members of the Task Force on COVID-19 in 
the state and Emergency Operations Centre (EOC) members (physicians, nurses, labouratory 

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https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/qualitative-research


IJO - INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HEALTH SCIENCES AND NURSING  

 ( ISSN: 2814-2098 )                                                                                                  Volume 08 || Issue 05 || May, 2025 || 

Peter Archibong Essoh,   Okoro Sunday Asangausung,   Rosemary Cletus Effiong,    2025                                                                                               

“A POST-MORTEM ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PUBLIC ORDER IN NIGERIA." 

 

 

scientists, “contact tracers”, logistic managers) and other partners. The state’s health system 
response to COVID 19 was assessed using the WHO health systems framework. Audio 
recordings of the interviews done in English were transcribed and thematic analysis of these 
transcripts was carried out using NVIVO software. Results showed that the state government 
responded promptly by putting in place measures to address the COVID-19 pandemic. However, 
the response was not adequate owing to the fact that the health system has already been weakened 
by various challenges like poor funding of the health system, shortage of human resources and 
inadequate infrastructure. These contributed to the health system's sub-optimal response to the 
pandemic. 
 
Momoh and Amaha (22021) examined the implications of poor management of health systems in 
Nigeria on the fight against the COVID-19 pandemic. This study relied on secondary data obtained 
from books, journals and internet sources. Besides, content analysis was used to analyse the data 
collected. The study argued that health facilities in Nigeria have been put under intense pressure due 
to the increasing demand for health assistance by Nigerians during the COVID-19, thereby limiting 
the performance of the limited numbers of health facilities that were hitherto inadequate. Moreover, 
poor infrastructural development in the health sector and corruption had been identified as causes of 
the poor performance of the Nigeria health sector. 
 
Ayeni and Aborisade (2021) assessed the scourge of COVID-19 in the context of Nigeria’s 
orthodox healthcare facilities and professionals, the challenges and lessons for the future using the 
International-Health-Regulations (IHR) Preparedness-framework. He assessment involved gauging 
the performance of selected indexes namely detect, report, respond, enabling-function and 
operational-readiness of Lagos-State healthcare facilities. The IHR for State Party self-assessment 
annual reporting (IHR-SPAR) tool was adapted into a questionnaire via Google-form and the link 
generated was shared on the WhatsApp-platform of the healthcare-workers of randomly selected 
healthcare facilities in the three Senatorial-Districts of the State. A total of 210 respondents were 
targeted for COVID-19 related information but only 157 responded. The data obtained were 
processed using arithmetic-mean as suggested by the adopted methodology. Findings showed that 
Lagos-State has a level-3 capacity across the five-indexes which include detect-capacity (41.94%), 
report-capacity (45.41%), respond-capacity (45.77%), enabling-function (45.99%) and operational-
readiness (44.78%). Findings also revealed that some of the challenges encountered in managing 
COVID-19 are perennial. 
 
COVID-19 Pandemic and Education 
Okagbue et al. (2023) explored the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on Nigeria's education 
system and in the process provided a distinctive solution to the challenges facing the sustainability 
of education in the country. A cross-sectional approach was applied through an online survey to 
obtain data from n = 82 learners across the three levels of institutions. SPSS was used to analyse the 
demographic data, while SMART PLS was used for structural equation modeling (SEM). The 
results showed that the closure of schools for over six months at the onset of the COVID-19 
pandemic and the inability of schools to engage learners in educational activities while at home also 
revealed the poor state of the education system in the country, which led to the discovery of the 
unavailability of distance online education, web-based learning system and ICT infrastructure in the 
Nigerian education environment. The incidence of COVID-19 also impacted the stability of the 
academic calendar, caused teachers attrition, increased the rate of student dropout and lack of 
interest in digital education. These outcomes resulted in the exploration of students’ and teachers’ 
perceptions, attitudes, literacy, competency and willingness to engage in distance online education. 

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https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/covid-19
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/nursing-and-health-professions/audio-recording
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/nursing-and-health-professions/audio-recording
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/nursing-and-health-professions/audio-recording


IJO - INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HEALTH SCIENCES AND NURSING  

 ( ISSN: 2814-2098 )                                                                                                  Volume 08 || Issue 05 || May, 2025 || 

Peter Archibong Essoh,   Okoro Sunday Asangausung,   Rosemary Cletus Effiong,    2025                                                                                               

“A POST-MORTEM ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PUBLIC ORDER IN NIGERIA." 

 

 

The study outcome satisfied the objectives of the study that the lack of student-teacher digital 
competencies influences their perception and acceptability of web-based learning approach and use 
of smart learning and teaching devices. 
 
Ndejjo et al. (2023) examined the consequences of school closures due to COVID-19 across four 
Sub-Saharan African countries: The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Nigeria, Senegal and 
Uganda. As a qualitative study, the key informants included policymakers, school heads, students, 
parents, civil society representatives and local leaders. Interview transcripts were thematically 
analysed. Across the four countries, schools were totally closed for 120 weeks and partially closed 
for 48 weeks. School closures led to: (i) Desirable and anticipated consequences: enhanced adoption 
of online platforms and mass media for learning and increased involvement of parents in their 
children’s education. (ii) Desirable and unanticipated consequences: improvement in information, 
communication and technology (ICT) infrastructure in schools, development and improvement of 
computer skills and created an opportunity to take leave from hectic schedules. (iii) Undesirable 
anticipated consequences: inadequate education continuity among students, an adjustment in 
academic schedules and programmes and disrupted student progress and grades. (iv) Undesirable 
and unanticipated: increase in sexual violence including engaging in transactional sex, a rise in 
teenage pregnancy and school dropouts, demotivation of teachers due to reduced incomes and 
reduced school revenues. (v) Neutral consequences: engagement in revenue-generating activities, 
increased access to phones and computers among learners and promoted less structured learning. 
The consequences of school closures for COVID-19 control were largely negative with the potential 
for both short-term and far-reaching longer-term consequences. In future pandemics, careful 
consideration of the type and duration of education closure measures and examination of their 
potential consequences in the short and long term is important before deploying them. 
 
Dessy et al. (2021) analysed the impact of COVID-19’s lockdown measures on children’s school 
resilience. Using an individual fixed-effect linear probability model on Nigeria data, the quasi-
randomness of these measures was used to estimate their effect on school attendance after the 
lockdown was lifted. Results showed that COVID-19 lockdown measures reduced children’s school 
attendance probabilities after the school system’s reopening. Importantly, the negative impact 
increases with children’s age, reaching its peak among those whose education is no longer 
compulsory. For schoolchildren in that age group, the negative effect of COVID-19 lockdown 
measures were likely to be permanent, which, if not reversed, may undermine the quality of the 
economy-wide future labour force. It was also found that COVID-19 pandemic increased child 
marriage and gender inequality in education among children aged 12 and 18 years in North-Western 
part of Nigeria. 
 
COVID-19 Pandemic and Public Order 
Akanmu et al. (2021) examined COVID-19 pandemic and insecurity in Nigeria. Convenience 
accidental sampling was used to administer 1671 copies of questionnaire on residents through an 
online/electronic survey. Data collected were analysed descriptively and inferentially. Findings 
revealed that the spike in crime during the COVID-19 lockdown period is relatively higher than 
usual with disruption of public peace, theft and rape accounting for the most prominent crime. 
Meanwhile, most respondents experienced crime incidence between 6 pm and 12 midnight. 
Ironically, idleness, poor spatial arrangement/planning, poor governance and poverty were the 
major catalysts for the crime spike during the lockdown, while fear-of-fear (phobophobia) and 
declined socio-economic capacity were predominant effects of crime experienced. The Fisher’s 
exact test results revealed a significant relationship between the surge in crime and COVID-19-

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IJO - INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HEALTH SCIENCES AND NURSING  

 ( ISSN: 2814-2098 )                                                                                                  Volume 08 || Issue 05 || May, 2025 || 

Peter Archibong Essoh,   Okoro Sunday Asangausung,   Rosemary Cletus Effiong,    2025                                                                                               

“A POST-MORTEM ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PUBLIC ORDER IN NIGERIA." 

 

 

restrictive measures. The study concluded that the insecurity during lockdown periods caused both 
temporary and permanent physical and psychological havoc. 
 
Asangausung et al. (2022) examined the activities of cybercriminals during the COVID-19 
pandemic in Nigeria. Secondary and primary data were collected through an online poll from 
internet users. Extensive explanations and content analysis were conducted. The results 
demonstrated that during the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, internet fraudsters took advantage 
of the public via phishing schemes, malicious websites, malicious apps, malware, hacking, spam, 
false information and counterfeit items. Also, many social media users were victims of cybercrime 
as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, particularly those who were frantic to register online in 
order to receive government palliatives and other relief materials. 
 
Shodunke (2022) explored citizens' compliance with the order and how its enforcement occasioned 
illegal police practices in Nigeria. With a qualitative approach, this study recruited 90 participants 
using varieties of sampling methods to understand public behaviour and police conduct in the 
enforcement of the order. From the insights gathered with a semi-structured interview and analysed 
with the thematic analysis method, the study observed that economic hardship, unavoidable matters 
from the citizens’ end and mistrust of authorities, fueled non-compliance. Such mistrust amplified 
misinformation during the pandemic. Although there was a reasonable level of compliance, the pre-
existing police illegalities (extortion and bribery) facilitated the cases of non-compliance in Nigeria. 
Also, hostility ensued between police personnel and citizens during the enforcement of the 
lockdown. 
 
Theoretical Framework 
This paper was anchored on Martha Albertson Fineman’s Vulnerability Theory, developed in 2019 
as a critical response to traditional liberal legal frameworks that overemphasise individual 
autonomy and self-sufficiency. Originating from the field of law, Fineman’s theory has since 
evolved into a broad socio-legal and policy-oriented framework, offering insight into how 
inequality, marginalisation and institutional failure exacerbate human suffering in times of crisis. 
Central to this theory is the recognition that vulnerability is a universal, constant and inevitable 
feature of the human condition—affecting everyone at different life stages or under varying 
circumstances such as illness, aging, or economic hardship. However, while vulnerability itself is 
universal, the degree to which individuals experience or withstand it is uneven and shaped by the 
strength or weakness of societal institutions such as healthcare, education, social protection and the 
legal system. 

 
Fineman argues that resilience to vulnerability is not a purely personal attribute but a function of the 
support systems individuals can access. Those with better access to institutional resources are more 
likely to be protected from the worst effects of crises, while others remain exposed and at risk. This 
inequality of resilience underscores the theory’s core critique of liberal individualism by 
emphasising that the burden of overcoming vulnerability should not fall solely on individuals. 
Instead, Vulnerability Theory asserts that the state has a fundamental responsibility to design and 
maintain institutions that protect all citizens and foster collective resilience. In this way, the theory 
shifts the focus from autonomy to shared responsibility, insisting that societies must be structured in 
ways that recognise and respond to the inevitable vulnerabilities of human life. This theoretical lens 
is particularly relevant in analysing the COVID-19 pandemic's effects, as it highlights the 
disparities in access to institutional support and the role of government in mitigating or exacerbating 
public hardship. 

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IJO - INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HEALTH SCIENCES AND NURSING  

 ( ISSN: 2814-2098 )                                                                                                  Volume 08 || Issue 05 || May, 2025 || 

Peter Archibong Essoh,   Okoro Sunday Asangausung,   Rosemary Cletus Effiong,    2025                                                                                               

“A POST-MORTEM ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PUBLIC ORDER IN NIGERIA." 

 

 

 
Vulnerability Theory provides a compelling framework for understanding how the COVID-19 
pandemic disproportionately affected various segments of society and disrupted socio-economic 
development and public order, particularly in Nigeria. The pandemic exposed deep structural 
inequalities, demonstrating that certain social groups—such as low-income earners, informal sector 
workers, women and children—were far more susceptible to the economic and health shocks it 
triggered. These populations lacked access to adequate healthcare, social safety nets and financial 
buffers, making them more vulnerable to job losses, food insecurity and illness. While more 
privileged individuals could rely on savings, private healthcare and remote work, the less privileged 
bore the brunt of lockdowns and economic stagnation. 
 
The pandemic also underscored the critical role of healthcare and social institutions in cushioning 
populations from systemic shocks. However, the Nigerian healthcare system's limited capacity and 
the often-inefficient distribution of government palliatives and cash transfers highlighted the state’s 
inability to adequately protect its citizens. Vulnerability Theory posits that resilient institutions are 
essential for mitigating the effects of crises and where such structures are weak or poorly managed, 
vulnerability is exacerbated. 
 
Inequalities in access to technology and education became more pronounced during lockdowns, 
with wealthier families able to sustain educational continuity and work productivity, while poorer 
households faced educational disruption, unemployment and elevated health risks. This divergence 
reflects the theory’s emphasis on pre-existing social and economic disparities that shape people’s 
ability to withstand crises. 
 
Furthermore, the Nigerian state’s response to the pandemic, marked by inefficiencies, lack of 
transparency and perceived neglect of vulnerable populations, heightened social frustration. The 
outbreak of the #End SARS protests, although rooted in broader issues of police brutality and 
governance failure, was also fuelled by widespread disillusionment over the state’s management of 
pandemic-induced hardships. This civil unrest illustrates how increased vulnerability, when left 
unaddressed, can escalate into public disorder. As criminality rose alongside unemployment and 
economic desperation, the link between socio-economic vulnerability and declining public order 
became more evident. Vulnerability Theory helps explain this pattern by showing how unmet basic 
needs can lead to increased social tensions, instability and a breakdown of lawful behaviour. 
 
In the long term, the pandemic has reversed gains in poverty reduction, employment and inequality, 
underscoring the fragile nature of Nigeria’s socio-economic development. According to 
Vulnerability Theory, these outcomes are not merely consequences of the virus but of systemic 
failures to build inclusive, protective and resilient social structures capable of withstanding shocks. 
Thus, the theory reinforces the urgent need for proactive policy measures aimed at reducing 
structural vulnerabilities and strengthening institutions to better manage future crises and support 
sustainable development. 

 
The application of Vulnerability Theory to explain the impact of COVID-19 on socio-economic 
development and public order in Nigeria is both insightful and contextually appropriate, yet not 
without limitations. A key strength of the theory lies in its emphasis on structural inequalities and 
the differentiated capacity of individuals and communities to absorb shocks. This makes it 
particularly effective in analysing why certain populations—such as informal workers, low-income 
households and marginalised groups—were disproportionately affected by the pandemic’s 

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 ( ISSN: 2814-2098 )                                                                                                  Volume 08 || Issue 05 || May, 2025 || 

Peter Archibong Essoh,   Okoro Sunday Asangausung,   Rosemary Cletus Effiong,    2025                                                                                               

“A POST-MORTEM ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PUBLIC ORDER IN NIGERIA." 

 

 

economic, health and social disruptions. By foregrounding the role of weak institutions and 
inadequate safety nets, the theory offers a compelling explanation for the widespread hardships, 
rising crime rates and civil unrest observed during and after the lockdown periods. 
 
However, a critique of this approach is that while Vulnerability Theory adeptly identifies disparities 
in exposure and resilience, it often underplays the role of individual agency, cultural context and 
informal support networks, all of which shaped survival strategies during the crisis in Nigeria. 
Additionally, the theory tends to frame vulnerability in somewhat deterministic terms, assuming 
that structural disadvantage always leads to worse outcomes, whereas in some cases, community-
based solidarity and adaptive behaviors helped mitigate the impact of the pandemic in ways not 
fully captured by the theory. Furthermore, the theory may fall short in accounting for political 
dynamics, such as elite manipulation of palliative distribution and public disillusionment with 
governance, which also contributed to public disorder and social discontent. 
 
Despite these limitations, the justification for adopting Vulnerability Theory in this context remains 
strong. It provides a valuable analytical lens for understanding the uneven impact of the pandemic, 
highlighting how structural weaknesses and policy failures intensified public suffering and 
destabilised social order. Its focus on institutional responsibility and social protection aligns with 
the pressing need to reform governance and build resilience in vulnerable populations. By directing 
attention to the systemic roots of crisis-induced inequality and unrest, the theory serves as a 
powerful tool for advocating policy interventions aimed at social justice, inclusive development and 
stronger institutional responses in the face of future public health emergencies. 
 
Materials and Methods 
This paper employed a qualitative research method, which is most suitable for exploring complex 
social phenomena such as the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on socio-economic development 
and public order. The study relied primarily on documentary evidence, utilising a wide range of 
secondary data sources to gather relevant and reliable information. These sources included 
academic textbooks, peer-reviewed articles, scholarly periodicals, official government reports and 
publications, policy documents and credible internet-based materials such as organisational reports 
and online databases. 

The rationale for choosing secondary data was based on the availability of extensive existing 
literature and documentation on the COVID-19 pandemic, its socio-economic implications, public 
policy responses and the application of social theories in analysing vulnerability. The data collected 
provided historical, conceptual and empirical insights necessary to support a thorough theoretical 
analysis. 

To interpret the collected data, the study adopted content analysis as the main analytical technique. 
Content analysis involves the systematic examination and interpretation of textual data to identify 
patterns, themes and meanings relevant to the research objectives. This approach enabled the 
researcher to critically evaluate how different populations were affected by the pandemic, assess the 
performance of institutions and link observed social dynamics to the explanatory framework of 
Vulnerability Theory. By organising data around central concepts such as inequality, institutional 
response, resilience and public disorder, the content analysis provided a coherent structure for 
drawing conclusions and offering informed recommendations. Overall, the combination of 
documentary analysis and content analysis ensured that the study was grounded in existing 

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 ( ISSN: 2814-2098 )                                                                                                  Volume 08 || Issue 05 || May, 2025 || 

Peter Archibong Essoh,   Okoro Sunday Asangausung,   Rosemary Cletus Effiong,    2025                                                                                               

“A POST-MORTEM ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PUBLIC ORDER IN NIGERIA." 

 

 

knowledge while allowing for a reflective and theory-driven interpretation of the pandemic's 
multifaceted impacts in the Nigerian context. 

Results 
Findings from this study affirm that the COVID-19 pandemic was not only a global public health 
crisis but also a profound disruptor of socio-economic development and public order in Nigeria. 
Empirical evidence gathered from secondary data sources reveals that the pandemic significantly 
exacerbated Nigeria’s pre-existing structural vulnerabilities. These include an already fragile 
healthcare system, high levels of unemployment, systemic poverty, limited digital and educational 
infrastructure and weak public institutions. Lockdown measures, though necessary to control the 
virus, had severe economic implications, particularly for small and medium-sized enterprises 
(SMEs)leading to widespread business closures, job losses and income insecurity, especially in the 
informal sector which employs a large portion of the population. 

The education sector suffered considerably, as the abrupt shift to remote learning exposed a 
pronounced digital divide. Many students, particularly in rural and low-income urban areas, lacked 
the tools and internet access needed to continue their education. Similarly, the healthcare system 
was overwhelmed, with shortages in beds, medical equipment and personal protective equipment 
(PPE), while frontline health workers reported burnout, anxiety and inadequate institutional support. 

Social and public order also deteriorated during the crisis. Findings reveal an uptick in cybercrime, 
domestic violence and opportunistic criminal behaviour during lockdowns. Civil unrest, such as the 
#End SARS protests, gained momentum as public frustration with poor governance, inequality and 
policing practices intensified. Law enforcement responses to lockdowns were at times marked by 
brutality and extortion, undermining public trust in institutions. 

Discussion of Findings 
 
COVID-19 Pandemic and Economic Disruption 
The findings of this study reveal that the economic disruption caused by the COVID-19 pandemic 
in Nigeria was both severe and multidimensional, affecting small and medium enterprises (SMEs), 
increasing unemployment, destabilising supply chains and testing the capacity of government 
interventions. These findings are consistent with the conclusions of Usman et al. (2024), Joan et al. 
(2022) and Inegbedion (2021), who emphasised that the pandemic compounded Nigeria’s pre-
existing structural economic weaknesses. When analysed through the lens of Structural Theory and 
Vulnerability Theory, the disruption is better understood not merely as the outcome of an 
unforeseen health crisis but as a consequence of deeper systemic fragilities that rendered Nigeria’s 
economy particularly susceptible to shocks. 
 
Small businesses, which form the backbone of Nigeria’s informal economy and contribute 
significantly to employment, were among the most severely affected. Due to prolonged lockdowns, 
reduced consumer demand and limited access to financial relief, many SMEs shut down or 
drastically scaled back operations. This led to widespread job losses and income insecurity. 
Vulnerability Theory explains that informal sector workers, who make up a significant portion of 
Nigeria’s labour force, lacked adequate social protection and access to credit, making them 
disproportionately vulnerable to economic shocks. Unlike formal workers, those in the informal 
economy could not rely on unemployment benefits or health insurance, compounding their 
precarity. 

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 ( ISSN: 2814-2098 )                                                                                                  Volume 08 || Issue 05 || May, 2025 || 

Peter Archibong Essoh,   Okoro Sunday Asangausung,   Rosemary Cletus Effiong,    2025                                                                                               

“A POST-MORTEM ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PUBLIC ORDER IN NIGERIA." 

 

 

 
The research also indicates a surge in unemployment, particularly among youth and unskilled 
labour, which intensified economic hardship. According to Structural Theory, this outcome reflects 
Nigeria’s labour market rigidities and under-diversification. Even before the pandemic, the 
economy was heavily reliant on oil exports and plagued by underemployment, particularly in rural 
areas. COVID-19 merely amplified these structural imbalances. The closure of businesses in the 
hospitality, education, transport and service sectors, along with reductions in foreign investment and 
remittances, caused significant economic contraction. As observed globally by the ILO (2020), 
workers in lower-tier occupations without job security or the ability to work remotely were the first 
to lose income—a pattern mirrored in Nigeria. 
 
Supply chain disruptions further complicated economic recovery. Nigeria’s dependency on 
imported raw materials, machinery and finished goods made the economy highly susceptible to 
international trade shocks. Factory closures, port delays and currency fluctuations affected the 
availability and pricing of goods. Food supply chains were especially impacted due to mobility 
restrictions and reduced agricultural labour, leading to inflation in food prices and increased 
household food insecurity. Structural Theory suggests that such disruptions are the result of 
inadequate domestic production capacities and overreliance on external markets—symptoms of a 
weak industrial base. 
 
Government responses to the economic crisis included cash transfers, payroll support for SMEs and 
credit facilities through the Central Bank of Nigeria. However, these efforts were limited in reach, 
often criticised for delays, lack of transparency and inadequate targeting. Vulnerability Theory 
underscores that policy inefficiencies during crises disproportionately affect marginalised 
populations, especially when public institutions lack the capacity or will to implement inclusive and 
accountable economic relief programs. Additionally, Nigeria’s rising public debt and declining 
revenues from oil exports further constrained its ability to sustain robust stimulus programs 
compared to developed economies. 
 
While digitalisation and remote work emerged globally as adaptive strategies during the pandemic, 
in Nigeria, this shift only accentuated existing socio-economic inequalities. Digital platforms 
became vital for education, commerce and communication, yet the digital divide—characterised by 
poor internet infrastructure, limited access to devices and low digital literacy—meant that many 
Nigerians, especially in rural areas, were excluded from the benefits of the digital economy. The 
accelerated global shift to online services thus created both opportunities and exclusions, revealing 
structural weaknesses in Nigeria’s technological readiness. 
 
The pandemic also contributed to broader financial instability, exposing vulnerabilities in Nigeria’s 
macroeconomic environment. Oil price volatility led to foreign exchange instability, inflation and 
reduced fiscal buffers. This reinforced Nigeria’s dependence on volatile external revenue sources, 
as articulated in the Structuralist development literature, which critiques mono-economies for their 
susceptibility to global market swings. As unemployment rose and consumer demand weakened, 
poverty levels also climbed, reversing gains in social development indicators. 
 
The economic inequalities exacerbated by the pandemic also deepened the class divide. While 
wealthier individuals and businesses were better positioned to absorb the shocks or pivot to online 
services, low-income households were left without sufficient safety nets. These disparities reflect 

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 ( ISSN: 2814-2098 )                                                                                                  Volume 08 || Issue 05 || May, 2025 || 

Peter Archibong Essoh,   Okoro Sunday Asangausung,   Rosemary Cletus Effiong,    2025                                                                                               

“A POST-MORTEM ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PUBLIC ORDER IN NIGERIA." 

 

 

what Vulnerability Theory identifies as uneven resilience capacities—where one's socioeconomic 
position determines exposure to harm and the ability to recover. 
 
In conclusion, the economic disruption caused by COVID-19 in Nigeria cannot be viewed in 
isolation from the structural and institutional vulnerabilities that predated the crisis. The pandemic 
exposed deep-rooted fragilities in Nigeria’s economic model, labour market and governance 
systems. Using Vulnerability Theory as interpretive frameworks, this study affirms that the groups 
most affected by the crisis were those already living with precarity and the capacity of the state to 
mitigate these effects was constrained by institutional inefficiencies and limited fiscal space. The 
findings call for a long-term rethinking of economic resilience in Nigeria, one that involves 
diversifying the economy, expanding the social safety net, strengthening local production systems 
and addressing digital inequality to foster inclusive recovery and future shock resistance. 
 

COVID-19 Pandemic and Healthcare System 
The COVID-19 pandemic exerted immense pressure on Nigeria’s already fragile healthcare system, 
laying bare systemic weaknesses in infrastructure, access and workforce capacity. From a 
Vulnerability Theory perspective, the pandemic did not merely create new problems—it illuminated 
and intensified the existing structural inequities that shaped Nigerians’ uneven exposure to risk and 
limited their capacity for resilience. Vulnerability Theory, which emphasises how pre-existing 
social, economic and institutional factors compound harm during crises, provides a compelling lens 
for understanding the multifaceted health system failures experienced during the pandemic. These 
findings are consistent with the works of Akinyemi et al. (2021), Momoh and Amaha (2021) and 
Ayeni and Aborisade (2021), all of whom identified the pandemic as a magnifying glass for 
Nigeria’s longstanding healthcare deficiencies. 
 
One of the most critical outcomes of the pandemic was the overwhelming of healthcare facilities. 
Hospitals across Nigeria, particularly those in urban centers, were inundated with COVID-19 
patients during peak periods, despite already contending with limited capacity and inadequate 
equipment. Intensive Care Units (ICUs) were few and under-resourced and many patients could not 
access ventilators or oxygen. This strain was worsened by chronic shortages of medical supplies, 
including personal protective equipment (PPE), diagnostic tools and pharmaceuticals. These deficits 
stemmed not only from global supply chain disruptions but also from years of underinvestment in 
local health manufacturing and procurement systems. In line with Vulnerability Theory, these 
systemic shortcomings rendered the healthcare system incapable of absorbing the shock of the 
pandemic, disproportionately affecting poorer communities that relied exclusively on public health 
services. 
 
Access to healthcare became more inequitable during the pandemic. Lockdowns, curfews and fear 
of infection reduced patient visits for routine and chronic health issues. Non-COVID services—
such as maternal health, immunizations and treatment for diseases like malaria, tuberculosis and 
HIV/AIDS—were disrupted, with serious implications for public health. As the theory suggests, 
populations already on the margins of healthcare access became even more vulnerable, particularly 
rural dwellers, the elderly and those with pre-existing conditions. These disruptions have long-term 
consequences, including increased morbidity from preventable diseases and a backlog in critical 
treatments. 
 

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 ( ISSN: 2814-2098 )                                                                                                  Volume 08 || Issue 05 || May, 2025 || 

Peter Archibong Essoh,   Okoro Sunday Asangausung,   Rosemary Cletus Effiong,    2025                                                                                               

“A POST-MORTEM ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PUBLIC ORDER IN NIGERIA." 

 

 

The pandemic also exposed the dire conditions under which healthcare workers operated. Doctors, 
nurses and support staff were at the frontline of the response, often working without adequate 
protection, support, or hazard pay. Long hours, emotional exhaustion and the trauma of witnessing 
widespread illness and death took a serious toll on their mental health. Reports of burnout, anxiety, 
depression and even PTSD among healthcare workers were widespread. Yet institutional responses 
to their plight were limited and poorly coordinated. In many cases, infected workers lacked access 
to quality treatment or financial support and some even resorted to industrial actions to demand 
basic entitlements. Vulnerability Theory underscores how the absence of institutional safeguards for 
frontline workers diminishes the resilience of the system as a whole. 
 
Further, the pandemic highlighted persistent inequalities in health infrastructure across different 
regions in Nigeria. Urban centers like Lagos and Abuja, while strained, had relatively better 
resources to manage COVID-19 cases. In contrast, many rural areas lacked basic facilities such as 
testing centers, isolation wards and reliable electricity. These disparities reflect structural 
vulnerability at the geographic and socio-economic levels, leading to stark differences in infection 
rates, mortality and recovery. Ayeni and Aborisade (2021) observed that these inequities are not 
incidental but rooted in historical neglect and policy failure. 
 
The response to the pandemic, though marked by efforts such as the establishment of emergency 
response teams, mobile testing units and public health campaigns, was hampered by governance 
challenges. Issues of mismanaged funds, lack of transparency in palliative distribution and limited 
coordination between federal and state health authorities undermined the overall effectiveness of 
interventions. Vulnerability Theory posits that such institutional dysfunction exacerbates risk 
exposure by limiting the efficacy of response mechanisms during emergencies. 
 
Despite these challenges, the pandemic also prompted innovations, notably in the use of digital 
health platforms and telemedicine. These technologies helped sustain some level of healthcare 
delivery during lockdowns. However, as with online education, access to digital health solutions 
remained uneven, with rural and low-income populations largely excluded due to poor internet 
access, low digital literacy and the absence of supportive infrastructure. Consequently, these 
innovations, while promising, also reflected and reinforced existing inequalities. 
 
Vaccine distribution was another domain where vulnerability was pronounced. Although Nigeria 
eventually began vaccination campaigns, the rollout was slow and uneven. Logistical issues, 
vaccine hesitancy and lack of cold chain infrastructure in remote areas hindered progress. Wealthier 
and urban populations were vaccinated at a much higher rate than their rural and poor counterparts. 
This inequity not only endangered vulnerable populations but also posed broader public health risks 
by delaying the achievement of herd immunity. In sum, the COVID-19 pandemic revealed how 
structural vulnerabilities—ranging from inadequate infrastructure and funding to regional inequality 
and workforce neglect—undermined the resilience of Nigeria’s healthcare system. Through the lens 
of Vulnerability Theory, these impacts are understood not merely as failures of response but as the 
predictable outcomes of long-standing institutional and social neglect. 
 

COVID-19 Pandemic and Education  
The COVID-19 pandemic caused unprecedented disruption to Nigeria’s education system, 
revealing and intensifying longstanding vulnerabilities within the sector. Drawing on Vulnerability 
Theory, which emphasises the structural disadvantages that leave individuals and groups more 

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 ( ISSN: 2814-2098 )                                                                                                  Volume 08 || Issue 05 || May, 2025 || 

Peter Archibong Essoh,   Okoro Sunday Asangausung,   Rosemary Cletus Effiong,    2025                                                                                               

“A POST-MORTEM ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PUBLIC ORDER IN NIGERIA." 

 

 

susceptible to harm during crises, this analysis reveals how the pandemic disproportionately 
affected marginalised students and exposed systemic weaknesses in educational access, delivery 
and equity. Consistent with the findings of Okagbue et al. (2023), Ndejjo et al. (2023) and Dessy et 
al. (2021), the impact of the pandemic on education in Nigeria extends beyond temporary school 
closures to deeper socio-economic and institutional consequences. 
 
One of the most immediate and visible effects of the pandemic was the prolonged closure of 
schools, colleges and universities. The disruption of the academic calendar brought learning to a 
standstill for millions of students, especially those in public institutions with limited digital 
infrastructure. The abrupt shift to remote learning highlighted the entrenched digital divide in 
Nigeria, where access to internet connectivity, digital devices and reliable electricity remains 
uneven. Vulnerability Theory explains that such structural disadvantages disproportionately affect 
students from low-income, rural and underserved communities, leaving them excluded from virtual 
learning opportunities and compounding existing educational inequities. 
 
The lack of digital literacy and preparedness among teachers further weakened the effectiveness of 
remote education. Many educators lacked the necessary training, technological tools and 
institutional support to transition smoothly to online instruction. This situation significantly 
undermined the quality of education and contributed to learning loss, particularly among younger 
students and those requiring more personalised instruction. Vulnerable students—those living in 
poverty, those with disabilities and girls—faced additional barriers to learning. In several 
communities, economic pressures led to increased dropout rates, child labour and early marriages, 
especially among girls, reversing progress made in gender equity in education. 
 
Social development and mental health were also adversely affected by school closures. Schools are 
not only spaces for academic instruction but also for socialisation, emotional support and access to 
essential services such as school meals and health programs. The absence of these supports during 
lockdowns contributed to rising cases of emotional distress, anxiety and feelings of isolation among 
students. According to Vulnerability Theory, the lack of institutional safeguards during the crisis 
exacerbated these non-academic harms, demonstrating the broader role that education systems play 
in student well-being. 
 
Higher education institutions were not spared. Universities faced massive disruptions as campus 
closures forced a hurried shift to online platforms. Many students, particularly those from low-
income backgrounds, lacked the resources to participate meaningfully in online courses. The 
economic implications of the pandemic also placed a strain on university operations, with reduced 
revenue from tuition, international student enrolment and campus-based services. As a result, some 
institutions implemented austerity measures, reducing staff, suspending academic programs, or 
halting infrastructural projects. Graduating students faced uncertain job markets, with delayed or 
cancelled recruitment processes, compounding their vulnerability in an already unstable economy. 
 
Importantly, the pandemic’s educational fallout is not limited to short-term disruptions. Studies 
suggest that prolonged learning loss, especially in foundational subjects like literacy and numeracy, 
may lead to long-term knowledge gaps and declining educational outcomes. The risk of a widening 
rural-urban educational divide, as well as the possibility of a "lost generation" of students unable to 
return to school, is consistent with theoretical assertions that crises deepen pre-existing inequalities 
unless deliberately addressed through systemic intervention. 
 

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 ( ISSN: 2814-2098 )                                                                                                  Volume 08 || Issue 05 || May, 2025 || 

Peter Archibong Essoh,   Okoro Sunday Asangausung,   Rosemary Cletus Effiong,    2025                                                                                               

“A POST-MORTEM ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PUBLIC ORDER IN NIGERIA." 

 

 

Yet, the pandemic also revealed areas for transformation. In response to the crisis, various 
stakeholders—including governments, NGOs and private sector actors—introduced innovative 
approaches to sustain learning. The rapid adoption of digital tools, the promotion of radio and 
television-based learning and the introduction of blended learning models signaled a shift in 
pedagogical strategies. Vulnerability Theory encourages such institutional adaptability, stressing the 
importance of resilience-building measures that protect the most at-risk populations in the face of 
future shocks. In summary, the COVID-19 pandemic served as both a disruptor and a diagnostic 
tool, exposing the fragility of Nigeria’s education system while simultaneously opening a window 
for reform. The lens of Vulnerability Theory underscores that the educational challenges witnessed 
during the pandemic were not merely incidental but rooted in structural deficiencies that predated 
the crisis.  
 

COVID-19 Pandemic and Public Order 
The COVID-19 pandemic posed a major disruption to public order in Nigeria, exposing the fragility 
of governance structures, law enforcement mechanisms and socio-economic systems. Grounded in 
the framework of Vulnerability Theory, the analysis of this disruption reveals that the pandemic did 
not merely create new challenges but rather amplified pre-existing structural vulnerabilities that had 
long been overlooked. The pandemic served as a stress test for Nigeria’s capacity to manage 
collective risk and ensure social stability under pressure and the results highlighted significant 
deficiencies. 
 
Public order in Nigeria was strained by multiple interconnected factors that emerged as the virus 
spread and government-imposed restrictions took effect. Economic dislocations caused by 
lockdowns and movement restrictions resulted in widespread job losses, particularly among the 
urban poor and those in the informal sector, which constitutes a large portion of Nigeria’s 
workforce. These disruptions contributed directly to civil unrest, including protests, street 
demonstrations and increased incidences of theft, looting and localised violence. According to 
Akanmu et al. (2021) and further supported by Asangausung et al. (2022), the inadequacy and 
inconsistent distribution of government palliatives exacerbated public frustration, weakening the 
legitimacy of state responses and increasing citizens’ willingness to defy restrictions. 
 
Law enforcement agencies, already operating under capacity constraints, were stretched thin as they 
sought to enforce lockdowns, curfews and public health mandates. This overextension, coupled 
with a history of mistrust between police and communities, led to violent clashes and, in some 
instances, police brutality. The heightened police presence and militarised enforcement, rather than 
assuring the public, often intensified tensions, creating pockets of resistance and further eroding 
public trust. Okorie et al. (2022) observed that in such contexts, law enforcement became a source 
of disorder rather than a guarantor of peace, reflecting Vulnerability Theory’s emphasis on 
institutional weaknesses as amplifiers of societal risk. 
 
Furthermore, crime patterns shifted in response to the pandemic. While some street crimes declined 
due to movement restrictions, other forms of violence surged, including domestic violence, 
cybercrime and opportunistic crimes linked to economic desperation. These shifts were not random 
but reflected the adaptive responses of vulnerable populations struggling to survive under rapidly 
changing conditions. Vulnerability Theory helps explain how structural inequalities, lack of social 
safety nets and inadequate institutional responses heightened people’s exposure to harm while 
limiting their capacity for resilience. 

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 ( ISSN: 2814-2098 )                                                                                                  Volume 08 || Issue 05 || May, 2025 || 

Peter Archibong Essoh,   Okoro Sunday Asangausung,   Rosemary Cletus Effiong,    2025                                                                                               

“A POST-MORTEM ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PUBLIC ORDER IN NIGERIA." 

 

 

 
The deterioration in public order during the pandemic was also political. The #End SARS protests 
that erupted in October 2020 were not solely reactions to police brutality but were also shaped by 
accumulated frustration with government failures during the COVID-19 crisis. Shodunke (2022) 
notes that the protests symbolised a broader reckoning with institutional neglect, unresponsive 
leadership and socio-economic exclusion. These protests, though not directly caused by the 
pandemic, were fueled by the socio-political discontent exacerbated by the pandemic environment, 
aligning with the theory's assertion that vulnerability is both a cause and consequence of poor 
governance. 
 
Globally, similar patterns emerged, as seen in Latin America, parts of Europe and the United States, 
where prolonged restrictions, economic hardship and perceived governmental overreach led to 
waves of civil disobedience and mistrust. However, the Nigerian experience was distinct in its 
intensity due to the country’s weaker public health infrastructure, minimal welfare support and 
entrenched governance challenges. Unlike more resilient nations that mitigated disorder through 
strong social safety nets and coordinated public health communication, Nigeria’s fragmented and 
reactive approach revealed the dangers of institutional fragility during times of crisis. 
 
In essence, the COVID-19 pandemic illuminated the complex interrelationship between socio-
economic vulnerability, institutional performance and public order. While the virus itself posed a 
biological threat, the social and political fallout in Nigeria was a product of long-standing systemic 
weaknesses. Vulnerability Theory offers a fitting lens to interpret these dynamics, emphasising that 
public disorder in times of crisis is not merely a function of individual defiance or economic 
downturn, but a reflection of deeper societal inequities and institutional failures. The Nigerian case 
demonstrates that sustaining public order in emergencies requires more than policing—it demands 
resilient governance, equitable policy responses and robust social infrastructures that protect the 
most exposed. The lesson is clear: without addressing underlying vulnerabilities, future crises will 
continue to produce similar, if not more severe, disruptions to public order. 
 
Conclusion 

The aim of this study was to present a post-mortem analysis of the impact of COVID-19 pandemic 
on socio-economic development and public order in Nigeria. The findings revealed that the 
pandemic exposed and intensified pre-existing structural weaknesses in critical sectors such as 
health, education, the economy and security. Small businesses collapsed, unemployment surged, 
public health infrastructure was overwhelmed and educational disruptions widened the urban-rural 
divide in learning outcomes. Furthermore, the inability of state institutions to adequately mitigate 
the impact of the crisis contributed to public unrest, heightened crime rates and a decline in trust in 
government institutions. 

These findings have significant implications. First, they demonstrate how vulnerability is not 
merely a result of individual exposure to risk but is embedded in broader systemic and institutional 
inequalities. The pandemic disproportionately affected Nigeria’s informal sector, low-income 
earners, women and children—groups that lacked adequate social protection and access to essential 
services. Second, the fragility of Nigeria’s public order under stress highlighted the critical need for 
resilient governance structures and equitable public policies. The inability to enforce health 
regulations fairly, combined with inadequate palliatives, contributed to civil unrest, most notably 
evidenced during the #EndSARS protests. 

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IJO - INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HEALTH SCIENCES AND NURSING  

 ( ISSN: 2814-2098 )                                                                                                  Volume 08 || Issue 05 || May, 2025 || 

Peter Archibong Essoh,   Okoro Sunday Asangausung,   Rosemary Cletus Effiong,    2025                                                                                               

“A POST-MORTEM ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PUBLIC ORDER IN NIGERIA." 

 

 

The thesis statement that COVID-19 intensified Nigeria’s structural vulnerabilities, leading to wide-
ranging implications on socioeconomic development and public order due to systemic inequality 
and institutional incapacityis supported throughout the analysis. By employing Vulnerability 
Theory, the study advances understanding of how crises impact marginalised populations 
differently and underscores the necessity of inclusive, pre-emptive policy frame works. This 
research contributes to the growing body of literature on the socioeconomic consequences of the 
pandemic in developing contexts. Unlike generalised global studies, it provides a localised, theory-
driven analysis of how a pandemic intersects with systemic fragility in Nigeria. It also bridges 
empirical findings with theoretical perspectives, offering a robust interpretive framework for 
understanding the nexus between crisis and inequality 

Future studies should investigate the long-term effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on 
intergenerational poverty and educational attainment in Nigeria, particularly in rural and 
underprivileged communities. Comparative research across sub-Saharan African countries could 
provide deeper insights into how differing policy responses influenced outcomes. Moreover, 
interdisciplinary research combining public health, economics and governance could be undertaken 
to propose integrated crisis-response frameworks suited to fragile states. 

In conclusion, the COVID-19 pandemic was not only a health crisis but also a mirror reflecting the 
deep-seated inequalities and institutional frailties in Nigeria. Addressing these challenges requires 
reimagining governance, investing in resilient infrastructure and embedding social equity in public 
policy to protect vulnerable populations in the face of future global crises. 

Recommendations 

Based on the findings of this study, the following four strong recommendations are proposed: 

1. Strengthen Social Protection Systems: The Nigerian government should prioritise the 
development of inclusive and responsive social safety nets that protect vulnerable groups such as 
informal sector workers, women and low-income households during national emergencies. This 
includes expanding access to unemployment benefits, targeted cash transfers, food support and 
health insurance, especially in rural and underserved communities. 

2. Invest in Public Health Infrastructure and Emergency Preparedness: To prevent the collapse of 
the healthcare system in future health crises, substantial investments must be made in strengthening 
public health infrastructure, improving disease surveillance, training healthcare personnel and 
ensuring the availability of critical supplies such as PPE, ventilators and essential drugs. A national 
pandemic preparedness framework should also be institutionalised. 

3. Bridge the Digital Divide in Education and the Economy: To reduce the educational and 
economic inequalities exposed during the pandemic, government and private stakeholders should 
expand access to digital tools and reliable internet connectivity in rural and low-income areas. This 
includes subsidising devices for students and supporting teachers with digital literacy training to 
improve remote learning outcomes and economic participation. 

4. Enhance Institutional Accountability and Crisis Governance: Effective crisis response requires 
transparent, efficient and accountable institutions. The Nigerian government should reform its 
public administration systems to ensure equitable distribution of relief resources, timely 
implementation of emergency interventions and active engagement with civil society. Strengthening 

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IJO - INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HEALTH SCIENCES AND NURSING  

 ( ISSN: 2814-2098 )                                                                                                  Volume 08 || Issue 05 || May, 2025 || 

Peter Archibong Essoh,   Okoro Sunday Asangausung,   Rosemary Cletus Effiong,    2025                                                                                               

“A POST-MORTEM ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PUBLIC ORDER IN NIGERIA." 

 

 

public trust through accountability and transparency is essential for maintaining public order during 
future crises. 

 

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IJO - INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HEALTH SCIENCES AND NURSING  

 ( ISSN: 2814-2098 )                                                                                                  Volume 08 || Issue 05 || May, 2025 || 

Peter Archibong Essoh,   Okoro Sunday Asangausung,   Rosemary Cletus Effiong,    2025                                                                                               

“A POST-MORTEM ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PUBLIC ORDER IN NIGERIA." 

 

 

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https://docmckee.com/cj/docs-criminal-justice-glossary/public-order-definition/

